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5,505,560 | High Street station (IND Eighth Avenue Line) | 1,163,410,171 | New York City Subway station in Brooklyn | [
"1933 establishments in New York City",
"Brooklyn Heights",
"IND Eighth Avenue Line stations",
"New York City Subway stations in Brooklyn",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1933"
]
| The High Street station, also signed as High Street–Brooklyn Bridge, and also referred to as Brooklyn Bridge Plaza and Cranberry Street, is a station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. It is located at Cadman Plaza East near Red Cross Place and the Brooklyn Bridge approach in Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn. Its name comes from older street names; its original location was at the intersection of High Street and Washington Street. It is served by the A train at all times and the C train at all times except late nights.
## History
The High Street station was part of a three-stop extension of the IND Eighth Avenue Line from Chambers Street in Lower Manhattan to Jay Street–Borough Hall in Downtown Brooklyn. Construction of the extension began in June 1928. Due to the station's proximity to the Cranberry Street Tunnel under the East River, instead of typical cut-and-cover (or open-cut) construction methods, the station site was constructed 70 feet (21 m) below the street (the tunnel is 90 feet (27 m) below the surface at its lowest point) using mining techniques. The station was built between the eastern ends of the cast-iron river tubes reinforced with cement, leading to its tubular design. The depth of the station meant that few buildings in the area would be disturbed or demolished, except for two structures along Cranberry Street between Henry Street and Old Fulton Street.
The extension opened to Jay Street on February 1, 1933, but the High Street station remained closed for an additional five months. The trains ran through the station without stopping, because the escalators to the street had not been completed due to lack of funding. That month, the contract for four escalators in the station was awarded to Otis Elevator Company. The station opened on June 24, 1933.
The station was located below the sites of the Sands Street terminal for BMT elevated trains, some of which traveled over the Brooklyn Bridge. The BMT station closed in 1944 and was replaced by Cadman Plaza. Old Fulton Street (now Cadman Plaza West) and Cranberry Street was also the site of the printing shop where Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass was first published in 1855. The area is now the site of the Whitman Close Apartments.
The High Street station was the site of an attempted robbery of subway revenue on June 18, 1954, in which the unarmed perpetrator was fatally shot by one of the two armed transit employees collecting fares and already-used transfer slips from token booths.
In the 1970s, the escalators at the eastern end of the station to Adams Street were replaced. New York City councilmember Lincoln Restler founded a volunteer group, the Friends of MTA Station Group, in early 2023 to advocate for improvements to the High Street station and four other subway stations in Brooklyn.
## Station layout
This underground station has two tracks and one island platform. The A train stops here at all times, while the C train stops here at all times except late nights. The station is between Fulton Street in Manhattan to the north and Jay Street–MetroTech to the south. It is the northernmost Brooklyn station on the line, which then enters the Cranberry Street Tunnel and passes under the East River into Manhattan. As a result, the station was built in a tube design, and built with escalators between the upper fare control level and the lower mezzanine level to easier traverse the 70 foot (21 m) drop below street level.
East (railroad south) of the station, the line curves south onto Jay Street and has three track switches with the IND Sixth Avenue Line. A power station for the line is located on the west side of Jay Street just north of Concord Street. A second substation is located at Red Cross Place and Cadman Plaza East.
Both trackside walls have a dark lavender trim line with an eggplant border, below which are small tile captions reading "HIGH" in white lettering on a black background. Thick I-beam columns painted dark indigo run along the platform at regular intervals, alternating ones having the standard black station name plate with white lettering.
### Exits
There are exits at both ends to the full length mezzanine along with evidence of removed center exits; since this station was built, the area now known as Cadman Plaza was completely rebuilt. Cadman Plaza East, the short one-block street outside the Red Cross Place exit, was previously called Washington Street; the Washington Street moniker still applies to the road north of Prospect Street. High Street is not directly accessible from the station, as the short one-block street is interrupted by a parking lot. However, Red Cross Place, which was once a part of High Street, is directly accessible.
The geographic western exit leads to Cadman Plaza West/Old Fulton Street (formerly Fulton Street, as indicated on wall mosaic signs) in Brooklyn Heights, a few hundred feet south of Cadman Plaza West's intersection with Middagh Street. This was the original exit to the station. The eastern exits lead to Adams Street, on the border of Brooklyn Heights, DUMBO and Downtown Brooklyn, adjacent to the central courthouse for the Federal Eastern District of New York. These exits were opened following an additional delay to complete the escalators. Adams Street was widened from 100 feet (30 m) to 160 feet (49 m) in the 1950s to accommodate new ramps to the Brooklyn Bridge, and now carries the secondary name "Brooklyn Bridge Boulevard". The current exit staircases lead to ether side of Adams Street, acting as a pedestrian underpass. There are painted-over mosaics pointing to former exits at Washington Street (now Cadman Plaza East).
## Ridership
In 2017, the station had 2,983,672 boardings, making it the 171st most used station in the 425-station system. This amounted to an average of 9,215 passengers per weekday. In 2014, the station had an average of 8,870 daily weekday boardings, up from 5,410 daily boardings in 2005; this represented a 64 percent ridership increase over nine years. The station is the 26th busiest of all stations served by the A and C trains. |
8,102 | Dysprosium | 1,170,473,221 | null | [
"Chemical elements",
"Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure",
"Dysprosium",
"Energy development",
"Ferromagnetic materials",
"Lanthanides",
"Reducing agents",
"Renewable energy technology"
]
| Dysprosium is the chemical element with the symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is a rare-earth element in the lanthanide series with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though, like other lanthanides, it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes, the most abundant of which is <sup>164</sup>Dy.
Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but it was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion-exchange techniques in the 1950s. Dysprosium has relatively few applications where it cannot be replaced by other chemical elements. It is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility (χ<sub>v</sub> ≈ 5.44×10<sup>−3</sup>) in data-storage applications, and as a component of Terfenol-D (a magnetostrictive material). Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic.
## Characteristics
### Physical properties
Dysprosium is a rare-earth element and has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is quite soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities.
Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements, especially at low temperatures. Dysprosium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below 85 K (−188.2 °C). Above 85 K (−188.2 °C), it turns into a helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a particular basal plane layer are parallel and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered (paramagnetic) state at 179 K (−94 °C).
### Chemical properties
Dysprosium metal retains its luster in dry air, however it will tarnish slowly in moist air and burns readily to form dysprosium(III) oxide:
4 Dy + 3 O<sub>2</sub> → 2 Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water (and quite quickly with hot water) to form dysprosium hydroxide:
2 Dy (s) + 6 H<sub>2</sub>O (l) → 2 Dy(OH)<sub>3</sub> (aq) + 3 H<sub>2</sub> (g)
Dysprosium hydroxide decomposes to form DyO(OH) at elevated temperatures, which then decomposes again to dysprosium(III) oxide.
Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C:
2 Dy (s) + 3 F<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyF<sub>3</sub> (s) [green]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyCl<sub>3</sub> (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Br<sub>2</sub> (l) → 2 DyBr<sub>3</sub> (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 I<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyI<sub>3</sub> (s) [green]
Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>9</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> complex:
2 Dy (s) + 3 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> (aq) → 2 Dy<sup>3+</sup> (aq) + 3 SO<sup>2−</sup>
<sub>4</sub> (aq) + 3 H<sub>2</sub> (g)
The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic.
### Compounds
Dysprosium halides, such as DyF<sub>3</sub> and DyBr<sub>3</sub>, tend to take on a yellow color. Dysprosium oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron oxide.
Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2, such as DyN, DyP, DyH<sub>2</sub> and DyH<sub>3</sub>; DyS, DyS<sub>2</sub>, Dy<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> and Dy<sub>5</sub>S<sub>7</sub>; DyB<sub>2</sub>, DyB<sub>4</sub>, DyB<sub>6</sub> and DyB<sub>12</sub>, as well as Dy<sub>3</sub>C and Dy<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>.
Dysprosium carbonate, Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, result from similar reactions. Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate (Dy<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·10H<sub>2</sub>O) are both insoluble in water. Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·2–3H<sub>2</sub>O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO<sub>3</sub>(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O. This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10–20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures.
### Isotopes
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes: <sup>156</sup>Dy, <sup>158</sup>Dy, <sup>160</sup>Dy, <sup>161</sup>Dy, <sup>162</sup>Dy, <sup>163</sup>Dy, and <sup>164</sup>Dy. These are all considered stable, although <sup>156</sup>Dy can theoretically undergo alpha decay with a half-life of over 1×10<sup>18</sup> years. Dysprosium is the heaviest element with isotopes that are not observationally stable or radioactive. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, <sup>164</sup>Dy is the most abundant at 28%, followed by <sup>162</sup>Dy at 26%. The least abundant is <sup>156</sup>Dy at 0.06%.
Twenty-nine radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173. The most stable of these is <sup>154</sup>Dy, with a half-life of approximately 3×10<sup>6</sup> years, followed by <sup>159</sup>Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days. The least stable is <sup>138</sup>Dy, with a half-life of 200 ms. As a general rule, isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β<sup>+</sup> decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β<sup>−</sup> decay. However, <sup>154</sup>Dy decays primarily by alpha decay, and <sup>152</sup>Dy and <sup>159</sup>Dy decay primarily by electron capture. Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is <sup>165m</sup>Dy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes. <sup>149</sup>Dy has two metastable isomers, the second of which, <sup>149m2</sup>Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns.
## History
In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of holmium and thulium. French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886. His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. On succeeding, he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning "hard to get". The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s.
Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.
In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional supersolid quantum gas.
## Occurrence
While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements. No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found.
In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium). The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea water 0.9 ng/L.
## Production
Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates. The metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium. In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF<sub>3</sub>, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl<sub>3</sub>. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions:
3 Ca + 2 DyF<sub>3</sub> → 2 Dy + 3 CaF<sub>2</sub>
3 Li + DyCl<sub>3</sub> → Dy + 3 LiCl
The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities.
About 100 tonnes of dysprosium are produced worldwide each year, with 99% of that total produced in China. Dysprosium prices have climbed nearly twentyfold, from \$7 per pound in 2003, to \$130 a pound in late 2010. The price increased to \$1,400/kg in 2011 but fell to \$240 in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions.
Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China. the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160 km south east of Halls Creek, Western Australia, is producing 50 tonnes (49 long tons) per annum.
According to the United States Department of Energy, the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015. As of late 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia.
## Applications
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser materials and commercial lighting. Because of dysprosium's high thermal-neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors. Dysprosium–cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions. Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data-storage applications, such as in hard disks. Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators.
Neodymium–iron–boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply. The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.
Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetostriction of any known material, which is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators, and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors.
Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation. Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium. When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected.
Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high strength and a large surface area. Therefore, they can be used to reinforce other materials and act as a catalyst. Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous solution of DyBr<sub>3</sub> and NaF to 450 °C at 450 bars for 17 hours. This material is remarkably robust, surviving over 100 hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures exceeding 400 °C without redissolving or aggregating. Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two dimensional supersolid in a laboratory environment. Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity.
Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity metal-halide lamps. These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms. The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light.
Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators.
The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy<sup>3+</sup>) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties. Dy-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:YAG) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region. This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes.
The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been laser cooled and confined in magneto-optical traps for quantum physics experiments. The first Bose and Fermi quantum degenerate gases of an open shell lanthanide were created with dysprosium. Because dysprosium is highly magnetic---indeed it is the most magnetic fermionic element and nearly tied with terbium for most magnetic bosonic atom---such gases serve as the basis for quantum simulation with strongly dipolar atoms.
## Precautions
Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water. It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas. Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water. Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable. Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is a strong oxidizing agent and readily ignites on contact with organic substances.
Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human (c.f. lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt for a 100 kilogram human). The insoluble salts are non-toxic. |
4,125,366 | Mr. India (1987 film) | 1,165,413,770 | 1987 film by Shekhar Kapur | [
"1980s Hindi-language films",
"1980s Indian superhero films",
"1980s science fiction action films",
"1987 films",
"Cultural depictions of Charlie Chaplin",
"Films about nuclear war and weapons",
"Films directed by Shekhar Kapur",
"Films scored by Laxmikant–Pyarelal",
"Films set in Mumbai",
"Films shot in Mumbai",
"Films with screenplays by Salim–Javed",
"Hindi films remade in other languages",
"Indian children's films",
"Indian science fiction action films",
"Indian science fiction adventure films",
"Indian superhero films",
"Indian vigilante films"
]
| Mr. India is a 1987 Indian Hindi-language superhero film directed by Shekhar Kapur and produced jointly by Boney Kapoor and Surinder Kapoor under the former's banner Narsimha Enterprises, with the story and screenplay written by the duo Salim–Javed in what was their last collaboration before their split. Starring Anil Kapoor, Sridevi, and Amrish Puri, the film tells the story of Arun Verma (Kapoor), a humble violinist and philanthropist who receives a cloaking device that grants him invisibility. While renting out his house to pay his debts, he meets the journalist Seema Sohni (Sridevi) and falls in love with her. Meanwhile, the criminal Mogambo (Puri) has plans to conquer India.
After watching his previous directorial venture Masoom, a 1983 family drama about children, Boney Kapoor approached Kapur to make another film with similar themes. Principal photography, handled by Baba Azmi, took place in Srinagar, Mumbai, and other locations in India, starting in July 1985, and finished after 350 days. Laxmikant–Pyarelal composed the soundtrack, while Akhtar wrote the lyrics. After filming ended, Waman Bhonsle and Gurudutt Shirali jointly edited it; Peter Pereira completed the special effects.
Mr. India was released on 25 May 1987. It emerged as a commercial success and became the second highest-grossing film of the year at the Indian box office after Hukumat, where it earned ₹100 million (US\$7.72 million) against a ₹38 million (US\$2.93 million) budget; it was also an overseas hit in China. It received widespread acclaim from contemporary and modern critics, with most of them appreciating the performances of Anil Kapoor and Sridevi. In 2013, Sridevi was awarded the Special Award at the 58th Filmfare Awards.
Mr. India was a breakthrough for its director and cast members and became a milestone in Hindi cinema for its rarely filmed superhero genre, which was followed by several Indian films in later years. It was remade in Tamil as En Rathathin Rathame (1989) and Kannada as Jai Karnataka (1989). A 3D sequel, titled Mr. India 2, was announced in 2011 but has not entered production.
## Plot
Mogambo is a criminal whose goal is to conquer India. From his hidden island, he monitors all the evil-doings perpetrated by his henchmen. His catchphrase, "Mogambo khush hua" ("Mogambo is pleased") and "Hail Mogambo!", used by his subordinates, shows his complete authority over his minions. On the other hand, Arun is a street violinist and philanthropist who rents a large, old house to take care of ten orphans with the help of his cook named "Calendar". Arun is seldom able to make ends meet and owes many debts, so he decides to rent out the room on the first floor. Seema, his first tenant, is a local journalist who eventually becomes friends with everyone. Arun falls in love with her.
He receives a mysterious letter from a family friend, Professor Sinha, which reveals that Arun's late father—who was a renowned scientist—had created a cloaking device that would make its user invisible. It still needed to be patented, and because Arun was the only son, it was his responsibility to complete the protocols and sign the paperwork for it. Arun saw this as an opportunity and immediately hatched a plan to get the device. With the directions in the letter, and accompanied by his ward, Arun enters his father's old laboratory. When the device is activated, it makes the wearer invisible unless red light is focused on the wearer. Arun decides to keep it a secret.
After a few months as a tenant, Seema is invited to a lavish party hosted by an acquaintance, and she performs a song under the guise of a famous Hawaiian dancer, who is unable to make it to the party. After the performance, she is nearly killed by criminals who think she is a spy, but Arun comes to her rescue, styling himself as an invisible person and introducing himself to them as "Mr. India". Seema subsequently falls for her rescuer, however, Arun keeps his identity as Mr. India secret for a few more months. One day, Arun uses the device to trick one of Mogambo's henchmen to foil his criminal plans; he reports the incident to his leader.
Thereafter, Mogambo has bombs disguised as toys planted in public places. Tina—one of the orphans who stays at Arun's house—finds the traps and takes them, resulting in her death. Arun, Seema, Calendar, and the other orphans are all captured by the Mogambo's henchmen as prime suspects and brought for interrogation before him. Mogambo tortures them so he can reveal Mr. India's identity and the location of the device. Arun eventually admits to this when Mogambo threatens to kill two children; but because Arun has lost the device by accidentally dropping it somewhere during the capture, he cannot become invisible to prove himself. Mogambo sends them into the dungeons temporarily.
However, they are able to escape by stealing the keys from a guard. Meanwhile, Mogambo activates four intercontinental ballistic missiles, which are poised to destroy all of India. Arun confronts him, the two fight, and Arun gains the upper hand. But as he is about to stop the missiles, Mogambo warns that everyone present will die if Arun succeeds. Nevertheless, Arun deactivates the launch, and the missiles detonate on the launch pad. Arun, Seema, Calendar, and the children escape; Mogambo's fortress is destroyed, and Mogambo dies.
## Cast
- Anil Kapoor as Arun Verma
- Sridevi as Seema Sohni
- Amrish Puri as Mogambo
- Annu Kapoor as Mr. Gaitonde, Seema's newspaper editor
- Ramesh Deo as a police inspector
- Gurbachan Singh as Captain Zorro
- Ajit Vachani as Teja (cameo appearance)
- Ashok Kumar as Prof. Sinha
- Bob Christo as Mr. Wolcott
- Harish Patel as Roopchand (cameo appearance)
- Anjan Srivastav as Baburam
- Satish Kaushik as Calendar
- Ahmed Khan as an orphan
- Aftab Shivdasani as an orphan
- Yunus Parvez as Maniklal
- Sharat Saxena as Daga
## Production
### Development
After watching Shekhar Kapur's family film Masoom (1983), producer Boney Kapoor approached him to make another film with themes related to children; Kapur immediately accepted the offer and received a ₹10,000 (US\$771.89) salary. Kapur had been a fan of comic books and always wanted to make a superhero film. He had written several comic books that received international acclaim: Devi, Snakewoman, The Warlord, The Omega Crystal, and Mantra. Salim–Javed, a duo consisting of Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar, was signed to write the story and screenplay for ₹70,000 (US\$5,403.24). Several publications claimed they took inspiration from the science fiction films Mr. X (1957) and Mr. X In Bombay (1964), but Kapur denied these reports saying that he never found copies of the films. Kapur wrote the dialogue in Hindustani, a mix of Hindi and Urdu. Boney Kapoor co-produced the film alongside his father, Surinder Kapoor, under the Narsimha Enterprises banner.
### Casting
Anil Kapoor and Sridevi were cast as the main protagonists, Amrish Puri as the principal antagonist. Anil Kapoor plays Arun, a poor street violinist and philanthropist who rents a large, old house to help ten orphans. Salim–Javed made the role specifically for Rajesh Khanna, but later they asked Amitabh Bachchan to play it when they found Khanna did not suit the role. Bachchan, however, felt that the concept of an invisible man would overshadow his performance, saying, "The real hero of the film is an invisible character. So why do you need me?". The duo took this as an "insult", and at a Holi festival held a few days later, Akhtar told him that neither he nor Khan would work with him again. In fact, Khan never said that and blamed Akhtar for this misunderstanding. This resulted in their split, making Mr. India their final collaboration. In an interview with Rediff.com, Anil Kapoor admitted he added his "own style" to the role so the audience would not realize it "was going to be done" by Bachchan.
Sridevi was given the role of Seema, a journalist who becomes a friend and then falls in love with Arun. After watching several of her Tamil-language films from the 1970s, Boney Kapoor cast his future wife in the film and went to Madras (present-day Chennai) to meet her. Kapur said he cast Sridevi solely because she "represented every Indian male's dreams" with "her baby-face" and "luscious body". Having established herself as one of the most popular actresses, she charged the producer ₹800,000 (US\$61,751.27) to ₹850,000 (US\$65,610.72), while her mother Rajeswari Yanger, who often accompanied her, asked for ₹1 million (US\$77,189.08). Kapur actually paid her a higher amount, around ₹1.1 million (US\$84,907.99). This was the first film Kapur had shot with the actress.
Satish Kaushik, who also served as an associate director alongside Raj Kanwar, portrays Calendar, Arun's assistant. When asked by The Hindu about his character's name, he explained it originated from his father's (a Delhi-based salesman) dealer who liked to insert the word calendar while talking. After hearing the story from his father, Kaushik suggested the idea to Kapur, who liked it immediately. Annu Kapoor features as Gaitonde, Sridevi's newspaper editor; he was paid ₹5,000 (US\$385.95). Amrish Puri was cast as Mogambo, a character that was inspired by Ibn-e-Safi's Jasoosi Dunya, following his meeting with Boney Kapoor and Kapur while shooting the 1987 thriller Loha in Ooty. It was reported that he received a salary of ₹10 million (US\$771,890.82), making him the highest-paid Indian villain actor of all time. The part was initially offered to Anupam Kher, however, after his screen test, the crew believed he looked "more funny than ferocious". According to Kaushik, Puri was chosen later because of his "menacing" persona. Kapur asked him to imagine he is playing a Shakespearean character to "nine-year-old kid" while portraying Mogambo.
### Filming
Baba Azmi began the principal photography of Mr. India on 6 July 1985. In later years, Kapur recalled it as "terrible days" for him and spoke the difficulties he and the film's cast and crew members faced in this period. According to Kapur, "[It] had to be shot slowly because of all the trick photography and technical innovation it entailed." Saroj Khan and Veeru Devgan were the choreographer and action director, respectively, while Bijon Dasgupta finished the production design. A big set was built at the R. K. Studio for Mogambo's sequences. The film's opening scene, featuring a group of governmental officers alighting from heavily armoured vehicles, was shot at the Sophia College for Women in Mumbai.
The sequences where Sridevi dresses up as Charlie Chaplin's on-screen character The Tramp took between 30 and 35 days to finish. In an interview in Filmfare's December 1992 issue, she called the sequences "my all-time favourite" and revealed that the film's crew loved her while she wore the costume. The song "Kate Nahin Kat Te" was shot in Srinagar. Saroj Khan found it to be the "most difficult song" of her career, and said she took fifteen minutes to do the choreography, requiring her to create "sensuous movements". Filming was finished after 350 days and Waman Bhonsle and Gurudutt Shirali edited it. Kapur asked them to cut several repeats of the line, "Mogambo khush hua", as he felt it appeared too often in the film. Akhtar disagreed with him, convincing him that the line would be popular with the audience. Peter Pereira handled the special effects. He used mechanical effects to make Anil Kapoor's character invisible and stop-motion technique for his footprints.
## Soundtrack
The duo Laxmikant–Pyarelal composed the film's soundtrack with lyrics written by Akhtar. The title of the song "Hawa Hawai"—initially "Kahate Hain Mujhko Hawa Hawai" ("They Call Me Hawa Hawai")—originated from an Urdu phrase, "Bhai kahan hawa hawai ghoom rahe ho?" ("Brother, how come you are floating about?"). Akhtar used only the words hawa hawai because he felt it was "more interesting". Anuradha Paudwal, Alisha Chinai, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Kishore Kumar, and Shabbir Kumar performed the vocals. The song "Hawa Hawai" was originally sung by another singer (sources do not mention who), but Laxmikant–Pyarelal chose Krishnamurthy months later because they believed she was the "perfect" choice.
T-Series released the album on 30 October 1986; it became a commercial success. 2.5 million cassettes were sold, according to a 24 July 1987 The Indian Express report. M. Rahman of India Today wrote it "has started a trend and film-goers will be hearing similar music over and over again in several forthcoming films". In 2018, Scroll.in praised Kapur's ability to "insert grown-up feelings into an otherwise family-friendly film without being tasteless" in "Kate Nahin Kat Te". The song, which Nikhat Kazmi labelled as the "encapsulation of the feminine nonpareil", was parodied in Rangeela (1995), Aiyyaa (2012), and Gunday (2014), and sampled in the song "O Janiya" from Force 2 (2016). "Hawa Hawai" was referenced in Salaam Bombay! (1988), inspired the title of Amole Gupte's 2014 drama film, and was remixed for Tumhari Sulu in 2018; Sridevi performed it at the Hope '86 concert in Calcutta (present-day Kolkata).
## Release
Mr. India was one of the most anticipated Indian films of 1987, and journalists expected it to be a breakthrough for Anil Kapoor's acting career. Made on a budget of ₹38 million (equivalent to ₹470 million or US\$5.9 million in 2023), a big budget for an Indian film at the time, Sujata Films distributed the film and released it on 25 May 1987. It ran at theatres for over 175 days, becoming a silver jubilee film. The Hindustan Times declared it "the talk of the town" in Bombay (present-day Mumbai), while Sunday magazine reported Kapur had become one of Bombay's "hottest directors". Trade analysts raved about Sridevi's performance, suggesting the film's title be changed to Miss India.
Several film festivals have screened Mr. India since its release. In August 2002, it was shown at the Locarno International Film Festival. On 22 April 2007, the film was selected for the Bollywood by Night section at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles. Anil Kapoor attended a special screening for the film at Indiana University on 7 October 2014. Following Sridevi's death, on 23 June 2018, the London Indian Film Festival screened it as a tribute to her. Mr. India was released on DVD in all regions as a single-disc pack in NTSC and PAL widescreen formats on 9 August 2007 and 10 February 2009, respectively.
### Box office
A commercial success, it emerged as the second highest-grossing film of the year at the Indian box office; the film-trade website Box Office India estimated the total earnings at ₹100 million (US\$7.72 million). Mr. India was also an overseas box office hit in China, upon its release there in February 1990.
Adjusted for inflation, the film grossed the equivalent of ₹Expression error: Unexpected \* operator billion (\$million) in .
### Critical reception
Mr. India garnered positive reviews, with most critics praising Anil Kapoor and Sridevi's performances. On 31 May, The Illustrated Weekly of India's editor Pritish Nandy described it as an "enjoyable potboiler", and opined Sridevi's joie de vivre uplifted the film. He praised, "Her sense of spoof: the effortless sensuality that results in collective orgasm at the rise of a single eyebrow, let alone elaborate song sequences in the rain where she flaunts her every single asset, with easy insouciance." On 30 June, India Today said that Sridevi "breathes life into every scene that she appears in", adding that she had delivered a "scintillating" performance. In his 31 July review for The Indian Express, the critic C. D. Aravind praised Anil Kapoor for giving "a reasonably good performance". He also appreciated Sridevi, writing that she was the "perfect choice" for the role of Seema; he felt the film's special effects were "commendable" and "on [a] par with any foreign film". In October 1987, a reviewer from Sunday observed she has "given the best performance" of her career, attributing the film's success to the actress. Bombay: The City Magazine—in the 1987 issue—commended the film for heralding "a new hero who does the disappearing act to turn the tables on the enemies of the nation".
Mr. India received favourable reviews in the twenty-first century; several reviewers considered it to be a "balance between novelty, technology and all the ingredients of a typically entertaining potboiler". Saibal Chatterjee summarized, "The comic-strip simplicity of narrative and the infectious exuberance of the storytelling made it extremely easy for the massed to relate to the film." K. K. Rai, writing for Stardust, found the screenplay to be "fun-filled" and complimented Kapur for directing the film with "spirit". Sukanya Verma wrote, "Shekhar Kapur's 1987 classic is a labour of love, ambition and ingenuity. Under his direction and Salim–Javed's penmanship, it celebrates compassion and human spirit with generous doses of humour, thrills, music and contrivances." She observed the special effects "don't feel dated" and likened it to the computer-generated images from nowadays' films. Planet Bollywood's Shahid Khan felt the director "deftly mixes all the elements of sci-fi, romance and comedy so well. The mixture is so irresistible that the film tempts more than one viewing." The Indian Express' Shaikh Ayaz noted that the film "features one of Sridevi's most immensely enjoyable performances".
### Accolades
In 2013, Sridevi was awarded a Special Award by the Filmfare Awards for her performances in both the film and Nagina (1986).
## Legacy
Mr. India attained cult status in Hindi cinema, and many critics have considered it one of the greatest Indian films of all time. Director and critic Raja Sen claimed the film "remains one of the most watchable of that decade, a groundbreaking piece of work with the power to create a new Bollywood genre". Rediff.com's Suparn Verma said it "belongs to every kid and teenager of the 1980s [...] It was a film that gave us hope, a film that made us believe in something extraordinary existing amongst us." It is dubbed as the first mainstream Bollywood science fiction film, and became a turning point for Kapur. In an article published in Verve, Karthik Keramalu credited the film for "[opening] the gates to the idea of a superhero" and "[inspiring] a generation of directors". According to Scottish tabloid Glasgow Times, he has built a reputation as "the Steven Spielberg of India". Kapur has said:
Following its success, people asked him to make another film with the same cast of children, and several producers offered him a chance to direct their films. Kapur said, "[...] someone told me I would make a lot of money, I realised it was a fundamental reason not to make a film, as it is the beginning of making a bad film". Kunal Kohli, who had watched the film 200 times as of 2008, elaborated that the film's "spirit and essence is just fantastic" and said he had always wanted to make the same type of film. Prawaal Raman declared it as his "all-time favourite", adding, "That's why while making Gayab [(2004)], I never even thought of comparing my film to Mr. India. It is a classic." The film was remade in Tamil as En Rathathin Rathame and Kannada as Jai Karnataka (both 1989).
Mr. India also became a landmark for Anil Kapoor and Sridevi's career, and in 1992, Sunday featured the film amongst the latter's "landmark films". The actress Vidya Balan told The Hindu that she was impressed by Sridevi's acting, and thought that "[i]f there ever was an encyclopaedia on acting, it would be called Sridevi". In 2003, the Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema noted, "Mr. India is most remembered for the outrageously exaggerated villainy of Mogambo who seems to have been inspired by the combined eccentricities of the [James] Bond villains." Filmfare, in 2013, named Mogambo the second-most iconic villain in the history of Indian cinema. Puri's dialogue, "Mogambo khush hua", became popular, and he was subsequently offered the same type of roles in later films. His son, Rajeev Puri, revealed that the actor would be asked to speak the dialogue at every award function he attended. He became the highest-paid villain actor at the time. The dialogue was included in several listings, including Film Companion's "50 Iconic Bollywood Dialogues", Filmfare's "20 Most Famous Bollywood Dialogue", and NDTV's "10 Killer Lines Made Famous by Bollywood Villains". The actor Sunny Deol's role in The Hero: Love Story of a Spy (2003) and the musician Riz Ahmed's 2018 single (from The Long Goodbye album) were modelled and named, respectively, after the character.
Several lists have featured the film. In 2005, Rachna Kanwar of The Times of India considered it to be one of "25 must-see Bollywood movies", noting, "The audiences were thrilled every time Amrish Puri glared down at them with his fiercely bulbous eyes sporting an atrocious blond wig and garish knee high silver heeled boots. They came back again and again to hear him mouth possibly the most repeated line of Hindi cinema (post 80s) [...]" The film was featured by CNN-IBN on their 2013 list of "100 Greatest Indian Films of All Time". The next year, Filmfare included it in their list "100 Filmfare Days". As part of Indian Independence Day's celebration in 2015, the Hindustan Times listed it on its "Top 10 Patriotic Bollywood Films" list. The newspaper Mint has featured the film in their listings three times: "10 Bollywood Superhero Films" and "Children's Day: 10 Memorable Bollywood Films" in 2016, and "70 Iconic Films of Indian Cinema" in 2017.
## Sequel
Boney Kapoor announced in 2011 that Mr. India will have a 3D sequel, titled Mr. India 2, and was expected for release in November 2014. While Anil Kapoor and Sridevi would reprise their roles, Salman Khan was cast for the role of Mogambo, marking his third collaboration with the producer after No Entry (2005) and Wanted (2009). Co-produced the film with Sahara Motion Pictures, Boney Kapoor chose A. R. Rahman as the music director. With a budget of ₹1.5 billion (US\$28.07 million), the filming was originally planned to start in 2012; however, as of April 2021, it has not begun production. In June 2018, at the 19th IIFA Awards, Anil Kapoor admitted that Sridevi's death four months before and the absence of Puri (who died in January 2005) affected the production, but he added: "We will try our best to follow their legacies so that we can make them proud that we made good films and they all appreciate what we have done."
## See also
- Science fiction films in India |
42,461,018 | Croatia–Serbia border dispute | 1,170,655,279 | null | [
"Croatia–Serbia border",
"Croatia–Serbia relations",
"Territorial disputes of Croatia",
"Territorial disputes of Serbia"
]
| The border between Croatia and Serbia in the area of the Danube is disputed. While Serbia holds the opinion that the thalweg of the Danube valley and the centerline of the river represents the international border between the two countries, Croatia disagrees and claims that the international border lies along the boundaries of the cadastral municipalities located along the river—departing from the course at several points along a 140-kilometre (87 mi) section. The cadastre-based boundary reflects the course of the Danube which existed in the 19th century, before anti-meandering and hydrotechnical engineering works altered its course. The area size of the territory in dispute is reported variously, up to 140 km<sup>2</sup> (54 square miles).
The dispute first arose in 1947, but was left unresolved during the existence of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It became a contentious issue after the breakup of Yugoslavia. Particular prominence was given to the dispute at the time of Croatia's accession to the European Union. As of September 2014 the dispute remains unresolved, and the line of control mostly corresponds to Serbia's claim.
## Territorial claims
### 20th century
The Croatia–Serbia border dispute entails competing claims regarding the border at several points along the Danube River valley shared by the two countries. The disputed areas are located along a 140-kilometre (87 mi) portion of the course, out of 188-kilometre (117 mi) of the river course in the area. In that area, the border is defined differently by the neighbouring countries—either as following the course of the Danube, as claimed by Serbia, or following a line tracing the borders of cadastral municipalities having seat in either of the two countries, as claimed by Croatia. The cadastre-based boundary also traces the former riverbed of the Danube, which was changed by meandering and hydraulic engineering works in the 19th century, after the cadastre was established. The border dispute involves up to 140 square kilometres (54 square miles) of territory. Other sources specify somewhat different figures, indicating a Croatian claim over 100 square kilometres (39 square miles) on the eastern bank of the river, in Bačka, while saying that the cadastre-based boundary leaves 10 to 30 square kilometres (3.9 to 11.6 square miles) of territory on the western bank of the Danube, in Baranja to Serbia. Yet another estimate cites a total area of 100 square kilometres (39 square miles) in dispute, 90% of which is located on the eastern bank of the Danube, controlled by Serbia.
The bulk of the territory in dispute is in the vicinity of the town of Apatin, while the Island of Šarengrad and the Island of Vukovar are cited as particularly contentious parts of the dispute. Further disputed areas are located near the town of Bačka Palanka, and in the municipality of Sombor, at the tripoint of Croatia, Hungary and Serbia. Croatia claims that the cadastre-based boundary was adopted by the Đilas Commission, set up in 1945 to determine the borders between federal constituents of Yugoslavia, while Serbia claims that the same commission identified the boundary as the course of the Danube in 1945. In 1991, the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia ruled that the border between federal units of Yugoslavia became inviolable international borders, without referring to locations of any specific claim or line. Prior to the ruling, Serbia asserted that the borders were subject to change following the breakup of Yugoslavia and the independence of Croatia. Since the Croatian War of Independence, the line of control coincides with the Serbian claim.
### 21st century
On 28 July 2002, warning shots were fired by a patrol boat of the Yugoslav Army at four boats carrying the prefect of Vukovar-Srijem County and the mayors of Vukovar and Bačka Palanka, as well as several other civilians to Bačka Palanka. The incident took place approximately 800 metres (2,600 feet) away from Šarengrad Island. Shots were also fired at a Croatian patrol boat after it attempted to approach the vessel carrying the prefect and the mayor. There were no casualties, but the passengers and crew of the civilian boat were arrested. Four elderly individuals and four children were released immediately, while the rest were interviewed at a Yugoslav military barracks for two hours before being set free. Yugoslav foreign minister Goran Svilanović expressed regret over the incident, but Croatian Prime Minister Ivica Račan stated that Croatia was not satisfied with the gesture. The Serbian Army withdrew from the border in October 2006, turning control over to the Serbian police.
In early 2000, Croatia and Serbia set up a commission tasked with determining the border, but in its first ten years it convened only once or twice. Since 2010, the issue has gained increasing prominence in the disputing countries. Plans for construction of a port in Apatin, on a piece of territory claimed by Croatia, added fuel to the dispute. After years of inactivity the inter-governmental commission established to identify and determine the border between Croatia and Serbia met in Zagreb in April 2010, only to conclude that there was a difference of opinions on the matter. Later that month, the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) deputies in the National Assembly proposed a resolution which would require that Serbian officials resolve the dispute in compliance with the Serbian claim. Months later, Radoslav Stojanović, a former legal representative of Serbia and Montenegro in the Bosnian Genocide Case and former ambassador to the Netherlands, likened the dispute to the Croatia–Slovenia border dispute in the Gulf of Piran. Stojanović said that the position held by Croatia in its dispute with Slovenia was favourable for Serbia and warned that Serbia might be in a disadvantageous position if Croatia joined the European Union (EU) before Serbia—which would allow it to impose its conditions to the process of accession of Serbia to the EU.
By 2011, Serbian diplomats made several requests to the EU, asking it to pressure Croatia to resolve the dispute before Croatia's accession to the union out of fear that it might follow the Slovene example and stall Serbian accession similar to the impasse between Croatia and Slovenia over their border disputes and the subsequent blockade of the Croatian EU accession negotiation process. The request was denied by the EU. Croatian President Ivo Josipović said that the dispute was the most contentious issue of Croatia–Serbia relations but added that it should not be difficult to resolve. In 2012, Josipović stated that Croatia should not block Serbia's EU accession over the issue and suggested that the dispute should be resolved through arbitration, which is considered to be an acceptable solution by both countries. In 2014, the Croatian ambassador to Serbia reiterated Josipović's stance from 2012. On the other hand, Zoran Milanović, the Prime Minister of Croatia, said that the resolution of the border dispute would be Croatia's condition placed before Serbia in its EU accession negotiations.
#### Vukovar Island Agreement
In 2006, representatives of the city of Vukovar and the municipality of Bač, located on the bank opposite Vukovar, reached an agreement on use of Vukovar Island as a recreational facility and beach. The island is accessible to organised transport by boats sailing from Vukovar. No border controls are involved in the process. By 2012, visits to the island reached 150,000 persons per year.
#### Liberland and Verdis
On 13 April 2015, Vít Jedlička from the Czech Party of Free Citizens proclaimed the micronation Liberland on what he said is land left unclaimed by both Croatia and Serbia. The Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated on 24 April 2015 that while Serbia does not consider "Liberland" to be an important matter, the "new state" does not impinge upon the Serbian border, which is delineated by the Danube River.
On 2019, pocket 3 on the western side of the Danube was also proclaimed by Australian politician Daniel Jackson as a micronation, the Free Republic of Verdis.
## Evolution of the border
### Until 1922
The evolution of the Croatia–Serbia border began in 1699 with the Treaty of Karlowitz, transferring Slavonia and a portion of Syrmia from the Ottoman Empire to the Habsburg monarchy at the conclusion of the Great Turkish War. The rest of Syrmia was transferred to the Habsburg monarchy through the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718. The transferred territories were organised within the monarchy into the Kingdom of Slavonia, with its eastern border established at the Danube, and the defensive belt of Military Frontier stretching along the Sava River, governed directly from Vienna.
Subsequent territorial changes in the region included the proclamation of the short-lived Serbian Vojvodina during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, which included Syrmia as its territory. A year later Serbian Vojvodina was abolished and replaced by the crown land of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat, which ceded Syrmia back to the Kingdom of Slavonia. In 1868, following the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, the Kingdom of Slavonia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, before the Slavonian Military Frontier was fully annexed to Croatia-Slavonia in 1881. At the end of World War I in 1918, Croatia-Slavonia became a part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, while Banat, Bačka and Baranja proclaimed direct unification to Kingdom of Serbia on 25 November 1918. They were formed after the division of Hungarian Baranya and Bács-Bodrog Counties along the "Clemenceau line" established through the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. The territory of southern Baranja was ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on the premise, claimed by the Yugoslav delegation at the conference, that it formed a natural hinterland of the city of Osijek. The territory south of the "Clemenceau line" was distributed to administrative divisions in existence before First World War, with the territory being reorganised administratively later in 1922. All this territories united under Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929.
### Interwar period
Yugoslavia was established in 1918 as a centralised monarchy under Serbian Karađorđević dynasty. In 1922, the territory was reorganised by oblasts. Baranja along Bačka was incorporated into Novi Sad oblast, Syrmium with its seat in Vukovar became a separate oblast, while Osijek became incorporated into Slavonija oblast. By Royal Proclamation of 6 January 1929, the Constitution of 1921 was abolished, the parliament dissolved, and an absolutist monarchy proclaimed. The country was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territory was reorganised into banovinas. The greatest change in regard to the region in dispute here, occurred in Syrmia, with the districts of Vukovar, Vinkovci, Šid, Županja and Sremska Mitrovica becoming part of the Drinska Banovina with its seat in Tuzla. While the northern half of the disputed territory being incorporated along all of Baranja and Bačka into Danube Banovina. Two years later, in 1931, the districts of Vukovar, Vinkovci and Županja were transferred to Savska Banovina. A further territorial reorganisation was carried in 1939 as part of an agreement reached after intensive talks between authorities in Belgrade and opposition forces in Zagreb. The agreement known as Cvetković-Maček Agreement created the Banovina of Croatia. The creation of the Banovina of Croatia was the first step towards the federalization of Yugoslavia, in which a Slovenian autonomous unit was also envisaged, while the rest of the country was to be a Serbian unit. In relation to the Croat-Serbs boundary, the 1939 delimitation of Banovina of Croatia included Šid and Ilok districts while no version of the agreement included Baranja in Croatia, meaning the northern half of the disputed area was to stay excluded from Croatia in all versions.
### After 1945
The first general outline of the post-1945 borders of Croatia was made by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia on 24 February 1945. Some issues regarding the border, such as Baranja, were left unresolved. The newly established Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, a part of the Socialist Republic of Serbia since April 1945, sought to establish its border with the Socialist Republic of Croatia along the Drava River, thus including Baranja, the Danube and along the Vukovar–Županja line. To counter the claims made by Vojvodina, Croatian authorities staked counterclaims in the areas of Vukovar, Vinkovci, Baranja and in the area of Sombor.
In order to settle the matter, the federal authorities set up a five-member commission presided over by Milovan Đilas in June 1945. The commission identified three sets of disputed territories. Those were the districts of Subotica, Sombor, Apatin and Odžaci in Bačka, districts of Batina and Darda in Baranja, and districts of Vukovar, Šid and Ilok in Syrmia. The districts in Bačka were awarded to Vojvodina, while those in Baranja were awarded to Croatia, both primarily along ethnic lines. The commission also noted that if Yugoslavia managed to acquire the region of Baja from Hungary, the decision regarding Bačka would be reviewed. The district of Vukovar was also awarded to Croatia, while Ilok and Šid were assigned to Vojvodina. In the case of Ilok, the decision was specified to be provisional until authorities are consolidated on either side of the boundary, when the issue would be reexamined.
Subsequently, the Serbian Parliament enacted a law establishing Vojvodina's borders. It referred to the boundary proposed by the Đilas commission explicitly noting that it was temporary. The law noted that the border follows the Danube from the Hungarian border to Ilok, crosses the Danube leaving Ilok, Šarengrad and Mohovo in Croatia then moves south and leaves the cadastral municipalities of Opatovac, Lovas, Tovarnik, Podgrađe, Apševci, Lipovac, Strošinci and Jamena in Croatia, and everything east of the line in Vojvodina. The awarding of Ilok to Croatia was a departure from the findings of Đilas commission and it was based on a referendum held in the town on the matter in 1945 or 1946, when its population voted to be added to Croatia.
### Start of the dispute
In 1947, Vojvodina's Ministry of Agriculture complained to Serbia's Ministry of Forestry that the authorities in Vukovar refused to hand over four river islands, and then to Croatia's Ministry of Forestry regarding the same matter, asking for assistance. After Croatia refused the request, the Serbian authorities turned to the federal government. The federal authorities advised resolving the matter through mutual agreement and said that Vojvodina's interpretation of the law on its borders—that the border runs along the thalweg of the Danube valley, i.e. along the river's midpoint—is erroneous because the law does not apply such wording. In a letter dated 18 April 1947, Yugoslav authorities said that the disputed river islands were the territory of Vukovar district and that the territory could not be transferred to Vojvodina before the border was defined otherwise.
By May 1947, authorities in Vojvodina noted that there was a dispute between them and the authorities in Croatia regarding the interpretation of the position of the border along the Danube, and that the federal authorities, who were asked to mediate in the dispute, supported the position of Croatia. At the same time, Vojvodina requested that Croatia return the territories on the right bank of the Danube that had previously been ceded to it (Varoš-Viza and Mala Siga). While in the Yugoslav framework, the issue received little further attention as its resolution was discouraged by the federal authorities, and because the area involved had limited economic value, was uninhabited and frequently flooded.
By 1948, Croatia and Serbia agreed on two modifications of the border—the village of Bapska was transferred to Croatia, while Jamena was turned over to Vojvodina. No further changes to the border were agreed upon. A map of the area issued by the Yugoslav People's Army Military-Geographic Institute in 1967 depicts the border along the cadastre-based boundary, corresponding to the Croatian claim in the dispute.
## See also
- Croatia–Slovenia border disputes
- List of territorial disputes |
34,123,061 | Brad Miller (baseball) | 1,167,141,755 | American baseball player (born 1989) | [
"1989 births",
"All-American college baseball players",
"Baseball players from Orange County, Florida",
"Baseball players from Orlando, Florida",
"Charlotte Stone Crabs players",
"Clemson Tigers baseball players",
"Cleveland Indians players",
"Clinton LumberKings players",
"Colorado Springs Sky Sox players",
"Durham Bulls players",
"Frisco RoughRiders players",
"High Desert Mavericks players",
"Jackson Generals (Southern League) players",
"Living people",
"Major League Baseball outfielders",
"Major League Baseball shortstops",
"Milwaukee Brewers players",
"People from Windermere, Florida",
"Philadelphia Phillies players",
"Round Rock Express players",
"Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders players",
"Seattle Mariners players",
"St. Louis Cardinals players",
"Tacoma Rainiers players",
"Tampa Bay Rays players",
"Texas Rangers players"
]
| Bradley Austin Miller (born October 18, 1989) is an American professional baseball utility player for the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB). He has previously played in MLB for the Seattle Mariners, Tampa Bay Rays, Milwaukee Brewers, Cleveland Indians, Philadelphia Phillies, and St. Louis Cardinals.
Miller grew up playing Little League baseball in Windermere, Florida before attending Olympia High School, where he served as the team's shortstop. Although the Texas Rangers selected him in the 2008 MLB Draft, Miller chose to play college baseball for the Clemson Tigers. As a junior in 2011, he won the Brooks Wallace Award, given annually to the best shortstop in college baseball. Miller was also named twice to the United States national collegiate baseball team, including appearances at the 2009 World Baseball Challenge and the 2010 World University Baseball Championship.
The Mariners selected Miller in the second round of the 2011 MLB Draft, and he quickly rose through the Seattle farm system, making his major league debut in 2013. Throughout the 2014 season, Miller was in competition with several other Mariners for the role of starting shortstop, and by May 2015, he was being utilized as a "super utility" player, similar to Ben Zobrist. Miller was traded to the Rays prior to the 2016 season, where he was used first as the starting shortstop, then as the starting first baseman, and finally as the starting second baseman. After a banner 2016 season in which he hit 30 home runs, a series of injuries derailed Miller's next two seasons, and he was traded to the Brewers in 2018. Miller spent only one month within the Brewers organization before he was released. He then underwent microfracture surgery to repair a torn hip labrum.
Miller spent the 2019 season with a number of teams. He opted out of a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers, and made a brief appearance with the Indians before he was designated for assignment. After Miller spent some time with the Yankees' Triple A team, the Phillies signed him to take over as their utility player after Jay Bruce became their starting left fielder. Miller spent 2020 with the Cardinals before returning to the Phillies the following year.
## Early life
Miller was born on October 18, 1989 in Orlando, Florida, and grew up in Windermere. He began playing Little League baseball with a Windermere club and was childhood friends with future Major League Baseball (MLB) second baseman Nick Franklin. Miller's father, Steve, played college baseball for the Northern Iowa Panthers and served as his son's baseball coach from Little League to the beginning of high school.
Miller attended Olympia High School in Orlando, serving as the team's shortstop. As a sophomore in high school, Miller was invited to join retired MLB player Chet Lemon's summer Amateur Athletic Union team, "Juice". As a junior, Miller had a .420 batting average for Olympia, with a .560 on base percentage, six home runs, and 31 runs batted in (RBIs), and was named the team's Most Valuable Player.
## College career
The Texas Rangers selected Miller in the 39th round of the 2008 MLB Draft, but he elected to attend Clemson University on a full college baseball scholarship. As a freshman at Clemson in 2009, Miller started all 66 games for the Tigers at shortstop. His first collegiate home run came on February 22, 2009, in a 6–5 extra innings victory over Charlotte. As a sophomore in 2010, Miller led Clemson with a .357 batting average. He also had eight home runs, a .458 on-base percentage, and nine stolen bases in 69 games. That same year, he helped take Clemson to the semifinal rounds of the 2010 College World Series, where they eventually fell to the University of South Carolina.
As a junior in the 2011 season, Miller led the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) with a .395 batting average and a .498 on-base percentage. Additionally, he recorded 11 doubles, three triples, five home runs, 50 RBIs, 53 runs, and 21 stolen bases in 56 games for Clemson, 54 of which were starts. At the end of the year, Miller received the Brooks Wallace Award, given to the best college baseball shortstop that season. Miller was also named the 2011 ACC Player of the Year and was a Louisville Slugger First-Team All-American as named by Collegiate Baseball. Clemson once again reached the college baseball postseason but was eliminated by Connecticut during the regional rounds.
In both 2009 and 2010, Miller was named to USA Baseball's Collegiate National Team. He helped lead the team to an overall 19–5 record and a World Baseball Challenge title. Starting in 15 of 23 games for Team USA in 2009, Miller collected 14 hits, 13 runs, and eight RBIs. Miller joined the Collegiate National Team again in 2010, when Team USA lost to Cuba in the gold medal match of the 2010 World University Baseball Championship.
## Professional career
### Minor league career
The Seattle Mariners selected Miller in the second round, 62nd overall, in the 2011 MLB Draft, and he signed with the team that August. He spent the 2011 season with the Clinton LumberKings, the Mariners' Class A minor league affiliate, and made a fast impression upon the team by batting .415 in his first 14 professional baseball games.
Miller started the 2012 season with the Class A-Advanced High Desert Mavericks of the California League. By July, he ranked second in hits (136) and runs (87) and fourth in doubles across all of minor league baseball. Mavericks manager Pedro Grifol said that he was most impressed by how Miller "doesn't get tired ... He's the same guy every day with the same intensity, and his work capacity is off the charts". He was also named to the California League All-Star team and was named the league Player of the Week for the week ending April 15. Miller spent the second part of the season with the Double A Jackson Generals. Between the two teams, Miller finished the 2012 season with a .334 average, 15 home runs, and 68 RBIs in 137 games. He ranked second among all Minor League Baseball players with 186 hits and led all members of the Mariners farm system with 56 multi-hit games. At the end of the season, he received the Mariners Heart and Soul Award for "exemplary play and leadership skills both on and off the field".
After playing 21 spring training games with the Mariners, Miller returned to Jackson in 2013 as MLB.com's ninth-highest Mariners prospect. He played 42 games with Jackson in 2013, batting .294 with six home runs and 25 RBIs in 153 at bats. He was quickly promoted to the Triple A Tacoma Rainiers, where he hit .356 with six home runs and 28 RBIs in his first 22 games. At the end of June, Miller and pitcher Taijuan Walker were selected to play for Team USA in the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Miller would not participate in the game itself, however, due to a call-up to the major leagues.
### Seattle Mariners
Miller was called up to the Mariners on June 28, 2013, and made his major league debut the same day against the Chicago Cubs. Although he did not record a hit, his offensive and defensive plays impressed manager Eric Wedge, who said that Miller had "a solid first game". Miller's first two major league home runs came on July 19 in a 10–7 win against the Houston Astros, making him the second Mariner rookie, behind childhood friend Franklin, to hit his first two career home runs in the same game. He was also the first player in Mariners history to play two games with at least four RBI in the first 17 games of his career. His performance in that July 19 game earned Miller his first American League (AL) Player of the Week title for the week ending July 21.
On August 14, 2013, both Miller and Tampa Bay Rays player Ben Zobrist recorded both a leadoff and an additional home run. It was the second time in MLB history that both teams' leadoff hitters accomplished such a feat, following Chuck Knoblauch of the Minnesota Twins and Tony Phillips of the Detroit Tigers in 1994. Prior to that game, neither batter had led off a major league game with a home run. Miller closed out the season with his first career grand slam, which came in the fifth inning of a 7–5 win over the Oakland Athletics on September 28. In his rookie season, Miller batted .265 with eight home runs and 36 RBIs in 76 games and 306 at bats.
Going into the 2014 season, the Mariners signed Robinson Canó to serve as their everyday second baseman. This in turn pushed Miller into competition with Franklin, who had played second base the previous season, for the starting shortstop position. Miller's performance in spring training, batting .410 with four home runs and a 1.314 on-base plus slugging (OPS), won him the starting shortstop job. He struggled both offensively and defensively in the first part of the season, striking out in nearly 30% of his plate appearances in April and committing six errors in the first 34 games of the season, most of which occurred during routine plays. After what looked like a brief resurgence in June, Miller continued to slump, and the Mariners called up Chris Taylor from Tacoma on July 25 to take over the position. Taylor and Miller split the remainder of the season half and half. Miller finished the 2014 season with a .221 average, 10 home runs, and 36 RBIs in 123 games and 367 at bats.
Miller and Taylor entered 2015 in competition for the starting shortstop role, a position which Miller won by default after Taylor broke a bone in his wrist in mid-March and was expected to be sidelined for four to six weeks. When Taylor returned in early May, he was made the team's shortstop, while Miller was told that he would play in a "super utility role", similar to that of Zobrist. He received his second career AL Player of the Week honor on May 17, following a six-game hitting streak that included three multi-hit games. His role as a utility player included a brief and unsuccessful stint in center field, which negatively impacted his overall defensive performance. Offensively, Miller batted .258 for the season, with 11 home runs and 46 RBIs in 438 at bats.
### Tampa Bay Rays
On November 5, 2015, the Mariners traded Miller, first baseman Logan Morrison, and pitcher Danny Farquhar to the Tampa Bay Rays in exchange for pitchers Nathan Karns and C. J. Riefenhauser, as well as outfield prospect Boog Powell. Serving as the Rays' shortstop in 2016, Miller struggled defensively, committing 13 errors in his first 90 games. Offensively, his performance was stronger, setting the franchise record with 17 single-season home runs as a shortstop. His record-setting 16th season home run as a shortstop came on July 31 in a game against the New York Yankees. The ball landed in the Rays Touch Tank, a hands-on aquarium exhibit in center field. He was the fifth player to notch a home run into the Touch Tank since it opened in 2006.
Despite improving in the middle infield in the month of July, with his last error coming on July 6, the Rays moved Miller to first base in August after acquiring Matt Duffy from the San Francisco Giants. At the time, regular first baseman Morrison had been on the disabled list; when he returned, Miller remained at first base while Morrison became a designated hitter. Miller capped off his breakout hitting year on September 21 in an 11–5 win against the Yankees. First, he was responsible for the second of three consecutive home runs in the third inning of the game, bookended by Evan Longoria and Corey Dickerson. In the eighth inning, Miller hit an additional solo home run to boost his season total to 30. He trailed off after that, batting only .158 in his last 27 games and ending the season with an 0-for-18 slump. In his first season with the Rays, Miller batted .243 and set career highs with 30 home runs and 81 RBIs.
Following the departure of Logan Forsythe, Rays manager Kevin Cash placed Miller at second base for the 2017 season, saying that he was "still going to play short because we know that versatility will help us. But he is all about playing second base and being a really good one." Miller scored the first walk-off RBI of his career on April 8, when Toronto Blue Jays reliever Casey Lawrence walked him with the bases loaded in the 11th inning of a 2–2 deadlock. Miller's RBI walk brought home Mallex Smith, winning the game for Tampa. A pair of injuries, first a left abdominal strain and then a right groin strain, sidelined Miller for a combined 42 games. In his absence, Tim Beckham took over at second base, a position he retained until being traded to the Baltimore Orioles on July 31, allowing Miller to return to his position. Miller's injuries negatively impacted his offensive performance in 2017; he hit a career low .201 in 110 games, and his nine home runs were the fewest since his rookie season.
Miller missed a large part of the Rays' 2018 spring training after suffering a pinky toe fracture on February 23, leaving his major league role in question. Due to his series of injuries and lukewarm performance, Miller was designated for assignment on June 7, 2018 to make room on the 25-man roster for first base prospect Jake Bauers. At the time, Miller was hitting .256 with five home runs and 21 RBIs in 48 games.
### Milwaukee Brewers
On June 10, 2018, the Rays traded Miller to the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for utility player Ji-man Choi. Miller started his Brewers tenure as the shortstop for the Triple-A Colorado Springs Sky Sox but was promoted on June 23 after right fielder Domingo Santana was optioned to the minors. On July 2, 2018, Miller recorded the second walk-off walk of his career, joining Adrian Beltre and Russell Martin as the only active MLB players at the time to have multiple walk-off walks. Miller was designated for assignment on July 28 to make room in the lineup for recently-acquired infielder Mike Moustakas. After being released from his contract shortly thereafter, Miller underwent arthroscopic surgery in late August to repair a torn hip labrum that he had suffered in 2017. The microfracture surgery was similar to one undergone by Corey Seager, and was intended to address cartilage damage from the injury. Miller played in 27 games for Milwaukee, batting .230 with two home runs, eight RBIs, and five runs.
### Cleveland Indians
Miller signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers on February 28, 2019, with the expectation that he would take over the second baseman role abdicated by Chase Utley. On March 21, however, Miller opted out of his contract and became a free agent when he learned that he would not be named to the Dodgers' opening day roster. Three days later, Miller signed a one-year, \$1 million contract with the Cleveland Indians. He began the season at second base, filling in for an injured Jason Kipnis. When Kipnis returned from the disabled list on April 15, Miller was designated for assignment. Miller was frustrated with the team's decision to remove him from the roster, telling reporters, "Obviously, they don't want the best guys up there. So I'm just trying to take it somewhere else and see what we've got." After clearing waivers, Miller elected free agency on April 17. He batted .250 in Cleveland, with one home run and four RBIs in 36 at bats.
### First stint with the Philadelphia Phillies
The New York Yankees signed Miller to a minor league deal on April 22, 2019. At the time, 13 players were on New York's injured list, including four infielders. He played in 41 games with the Triple A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders of the International League, batting .294 with 10 home runs and 29 RBIs in 136 at bats. On June 13, the Yankees traded Miller to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for cash considerations. He took over Jay Bruce's role as the Phillies' utility player, as Bruce had become the Phillies' regular left fielder after Andrew McCutchen suffered a season-ending anterior cruciate ligament injury. Miller became a much-needed left-handed batter for the Phillies' struggling offense, going 6-for-16 with two home runs and four walks in his first appearances. Although the Phillies' season was disappointing, with an 81–81 record, Miller's two home runs in the final game of the season made him the first player in franchise history to record three multi-home run games in a nine-game span. While playing a variety of roles for the season, including third base, shortstop, and outfield, Miller batted .263 for the Phillies in 2019, with 12 home runs and 21 RBIs in 118 at bats.
### St. Louis Cardinals
Miller signed a one-year, \$2 million contract with the St. Louis Cardinals on February 12, 2020. During his stints as a free agent, the Cardinals had reached out to Miller, but had never been able to make room for him on the 40-man roster. After Jordan Hicks underwent Tommy John surgery, the Cardinals were able to accommodate the extra player. On September 1, Miller hit two home runs and recorded seven RBIs, the latter a career high, in a 16–2 game against the Cincinnati Reds. The Cardinals' 23 game hits were the highest in any MLB game that season. During the 60-game season, shortened by the COVID-19 pandemic, Miller played in 48 games for the Cardinals, hitting .232 with seven home runs and 25 RBIs in 142 at-bats.
### Second stint with the Phillies
Miller signed a one-year, \$3.5 million contract to return to the Phillies on February 17, 2021. Miller hit his 100th career home run on May 25, 2021, against Shawn Morimando of the Miami Marlins. On July 8, while starting at first base and batting second against the Chicago Cubs, Miller hit three home runs and collected five RBIs in the Phillies' 8–0 victory. It was the first three-home run game of Miller's career and the first by any member of the Phillies since Jayson Werth in 2008. On July 29, Miller capped off a Phillies comeback with a walk-off grand slam against the Washington Nationals, bringing the final score to 11–8. It was the first time that Philadelphia had mounted a victory after starting a game with a deficit of seven or more runs since 2010. In 140 games and 331 at bats for the Phillies, Miller batted .227 for the season, with 20 home runs and 49 RBIs. He became a free agent at the end of the season.
### Texas Rangers
On March 17, 2022, Miller signed a two-year \$10 million contract with the Texas Rangers.
## Player profile
Although he has played in various positions throughout his major league career, Miller has always preferred playing shortstop. He told the Tampa Bay Times in 2015, "Obviously in this game you want to give yourself all the opportunities and do whatever is asked of you. But I'm a shortstop, and I know where I want to be on the field." When playing for AL teams, Miller has also seen time as a designated hitter. He told the St. Louis Post-Dispatch in 2020 that "the industry views me as more of a bat", and that his defensive abilities have come under criticism. When playing defensively, Miller uses three different baseball gloves, as well as a first baseman's mitt given to him by Paul Goldschmidt, depending on what role he is expected to play.
## Personal life
Miller is a bamboo aficionado. He keeps several bamboo plants in his Florida home, saying that the plants are low-maintenance enough to maintain with a baseball schedule. In June 2019, he purchased a "lucky bamboo plant" from a shop in Philadelphia's Chinatown, which he believed helped break the Phillies' seven-game losing streak. |
20,840,308 | Mythicomyces | 1,118,576,381 | Genus of fungi | [
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of North America",
"Monotypic Agaricales genera",
"Psathyrellaceae",
"Taxa named by Alexander H. Smith"
]
| Mythicomyces is a fungal genus in the family Mythicomycetaceae. A monotypic genus, it contains the single species Mythicomyces corneipes, first described by Elias Fries in 1861. The fungus produces fruit bodies with shiny yellowish-orange to tawny caps that are 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) in diameter. These are supported by stems measuring 2–5.7 cm (0.8–2.2 in) long and 1–2 mm thick. A rare to uncommon species, it is found in northern temperate regions of North America and Europe, where it typically fruits in groups, in wet areas of coniferous forests. There are several species with which M. corneipes might be confused due to a comparable appearance or similar range and habitat, but microscopic characteristics can be used to reliably distinguish between them.
## Taxonomy
The genus Mythicomyces was circumscribed in 1986 by mycologists Scott Redhead and Alexander H. Smith to contain the species originally named Agaricus corneipes by Elias Magnus Fries in 1861. Fries described the species from collections made in a fir forest near Alsike, Sweden; it was subsequently recorded in North America (northwestern USA) by Andrew Price Morgan in 1907, and several times by Smith. When listing the synonyms of the species, Redhead and Smith cited the publication year of Fries's work as 1863 instead of the correct 1861, which rendered their new combination invalid according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, although the generic name was valid. The binomial was subsequently published validly in 2011.
In its taxonomic history, the species has also been placed in Geophila by Lucien Quélet in 1886, and Psilocybe by Petter Karsten in 1879. Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán excluded the taxon from the latter genus in his 1983 monograph, based on its roughened spores that lacked a germ pore, pale spore print, stem texture, and the tawny basal mycelium. Guzmán, who examined Smith's US collections, suggested that the material might be more appropriately considered a Galerina, but Redhead and Smith noted that several features of Mythicomyces corneipes are inconsistent with placement in Galerina, including spore print color, presence of metuloids, stem texture, and tawny basal mycelium.
Redhead and Smith placed the genus in the Strophariaceae, as the biology of the fruit bodies and spore print color fit the broad concept of that family envisaged by Robert Kühner in 1984. They noted, however, that the genus did not fit well in a more restricted concept of the family due to its lack of a germ pore and roughened spore walls. More recently, taxonomic authorities have placed the genus in the family Psathyrellaceae; molecular analysis showed it to be most closely allied to this family where Mythicomyces and Stagnicola form a clade that is sister to the rest of the family. In 2019 the family Mythicomycetaceae was recognized for the two genera, Mythicomyces and Stagnicola.
## Description
The cap is initially somewhat conical with margins rolled inward, and expands to become bell-shaped or broadly convex in maturity, reaching a diameter of 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in). The cap sometimes has an umbo, which is rounded to conical. The color of the cap ranges from dull to bright orange when young, to yellowish-brown (tawny) in maturity. It is hygrophanous, and the color fades to yellowish-buff. The cap surface is smooth and polished, and somewhat translucent, such that the radial gill lines can be seen on the margin.
The gills are closely spaced, and have two tiers of interspersed lamellulae (short gills). Gills have an adnate to adnexed attachment to the stem, although the gills tend to secede (separate from the stem) in maturity. They are initially pallid to whitish in color before turning brownish when the spores mature.
The smooth stem measures 3–5.7 cm (1.2–2.2 in) long by 1–2 mm thick. Yellowish to pale orange near the top and dark reddish brown below, it has tawny mycelium at the base. In maturity the stem turns black from the base upward. In 1907, Morgan noted the stipe to be remarkably similar to that of Marasmius cohaerens.
The mushroom flesh has an odor that ranges from indistinct to somewhat of geraniums, while its taste is indistinct to faintly bitter. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.
The spore print is pale purplish brown. Spores are ovoid (egg-shaped) to somewhat ellipsoidal, binucleate (visible when stained with acetocarmine solution), often contain a single oil droplet, and measure 6–8.5 by 4–5.5 μm. The spore walls are roughened with small points and ridges, and have a small plage. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 24–26 by 6–8.5 μm. Cystidia on the gill face (pleurocystidia) are abundant. They are spindle-shaped with swollen middles, and thick tips that are occasionally encrusted with translucent crystals. They have dimensions of 43–86 by 10–24 μm, with walls that are pale brown to translucent, and up to 3 μm thick. Cystidia on the gill edge (cheilocystidia) are roughly the same morphologically, but shorter. The cap cuticle comprises a layer of radially arranged gelatinized hyphae measuring 1–4 μm in diameter. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae.
### Similar species
Stagnicola perplexa is similar in appearance and shares habitats and a geographical range comparable to Mythicomyces corneipes. S. perplexa generally has a more faded coloration, and produces brownish spore prints lacking purplish tones. The two species can be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics, as Stagnicola has smooth spores and cheilocystidia with thin walls. Owing to its similarly colored cap and habitat amongst mosses, Phaeocollybia attenuata might be confused with M. corneipes. Phaeocollybia attenuata can readily be differentiated in the field by the long wirelike pseudorhiza extending below the substrate, and microscopically by the much more heavily ornamented limoniform-globose spores and absence of pleurocystidia. Other morphologically similar species include Hypholoma udum and H. elongatum, but unlike M. corneipes, both of these agarics have smooth spores, yellow chrysocystidia, and lack metuloids. The lookalike Galerina sideroides is found in Washington, Michigan, and Sweden, where it fruits in groups on rotten conifer logs. It has distinct microscopic characteristics, such as a wider range of basidial widths (20–40 μm), and a lack of pleurocystidia.
## Habitat and distribution
Mythicomyces corneipes is a saprobic fungus, and uses plant debris—usually bits of wood—as a substrate. Fruit bodies appear in autumn, and grow in groups among mosses in moist habitats, such as near the edges of bogs, or under conifers or birch in soil wet from spring flooding. It has been recorded from North America, where it is most common in the Pacific Northwest region, and Europe, where it is rare, but widespread across the northern part of the continent. In 1938, Smith called the species "extremely rare".
## Etymology
The name Mythicomyces was coined to reflect that it possessed an anomalous combination of morphological and anatomical features that seemed to span several families of mushrooms, as if it were a mythical mushroom. Its morphological uniqueness and isolation from other mushroom families was later confirmed by molecular analyses resulting in the new family Mythicomycetaceae together with another anomalous agaric genus, Stagnicola. |
24,492,989 | Wong Fu Productions | 1,167,656,896 | American filmmaking group | [
"American Internet celebrities",
"American companies established in 2006",
"Companies based in Los Angeles County, California",
"Entertainment companies established in 2006",
"Film production companies of the United States",
"Place of birth missing (living people)",
"YouTube channels"
]
| Wong Fu Productions is an American filmmaking group founded by Wesley Chan (born April 27, 1984), Ted Fu (born October 26, 1981), and Philip Wang (born October 28, 1984). The trio met at the University of California, San Diego in 2004 and produced a number of music videos and short films released on their website and later YouTube before establishing a professional media company, Sketchbook Media, after their graduation. Their works have been featured at a number of national and international film festivals, including the Los Angeles Asian Pacific Film Festival and the San Diego Asian Film Festival.
As of April 2021, Wong Fu Productions' YouTube channel has over 3.27 million subscribers and over 584 million video views. Since 2011, the group has developed a reputation as a springboard for Asian American acting talent. Actors such as Randall Park (WandaVision), Justin H. Min (The Umbrella Academy), Anna Akana (Ant-Man), Brittany Ishibashi (Runaways), Victoria Park (The Flash), and Simu Liu (Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings) have all previously starred in Wong Fu films prior to their appearances on their respective superhero projects.
## History
According to Philip Wang, Wong Fu Productions was unofficially established in 2001 during his high school junior year at Northgate High School (Walnut Creek, California) in Walnut Creek, California. He mainly utilized his family's digital camcorder to film school projects in collaboration with classmates. In his first year as an undeclared freshman at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), Wang and his friends released a music video of Justin Timberlake's song "Señorita". It was the first music video he produced, although he did not actively promote it, the video was quickly circulated among other fellow college students. The video was circulated in its original computer file format because it was released prior to the advent of the video sharing platform YouTube.
In 2004, Wang met classmates Wesley Chan (who graduated from Mills High School in 2002) and Ted Fu through a school production, and the three began working on small-scale projects for class assignments and in their spare time. They did not originally consider filmmaking as a career when they entered university; Chan explored an interest in animation, Fu had been a student in electrical engineering and Wang considered a career in economics. After graduation in 2006, the three moved to the Los Angeles area and continued their venture under the professional name Sketchbook Media.
After approximately five years, Wong Fu Productions garnered one million subscribers in 2011. On June 8, 2013, Wong Fu Productions celebrated their ten year anniversary and produced a 13 minute short on June 29 featuring Christine Chen, the surrounding cast of Wong Fu, and many familiar faces, including Ryan Higa, Dominic Sandoval (D-Trix), Kevin Wu (KevJumba), Freddie Wong, Brandon Laatsch, Joe Penna (MysteryGuitarMan) and The Fung Brothers.
On July 23, 2013, Wong Fu Productions launched a second channel titled "More Wong Fu" which is described as "Home of Lunch Break, WF Recess, Failed It, FIRST, bloopers, behind the scenes, and special features. It's, just.. more Wong Fu."
Wong Fu has begun to expand their team of creators. The current team includes Taylor Chan (senior editor/writer and director), Benson Quach (producer/assistant director), Christopher Yang (director of photography), Jessica Lin (production coordinator), and Michelle Hsieh (editor).
## Notable productions
> If at the end of the day there's someone out there who has a better day because of us, then we've succeeded. — Wong Fu Productions motto
Wong Fu Productions was initially known for its independent music videos of contemporary hit songs such as Maroon 5's "Sunday Morning" and Jason Mraz's "I'm Yours". Wong Fu released its first major short film called Yellow Fever on January 25, 2006. The film, which satirized the topic of interracial dating between Asian Americans and White Americans, brought Wong Fu into recognition among many college students in the United States.
A Moment with You, the group's first feature-length film, premiered on June 3, 2006, at their alma mater. It was also screened at the San Diego Asian Film Festival on October 18, 2006. The film revolves around two neighbors who share similar romantic situations, in which one person in each relationship cannot let go of his or her past. A Moment with You was promoted through a screening tour at high schools and universities around the United States and Canada. In a review for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's student newspaper The Tech, Tina Ro wrote: "Despite its large Asian fan base, Wongfu's [sic] movie has a cast of equal numbers of Asians and Caucasians. Furthermore, all the characters were shaped by their own characteristics rather than by their race, a refreshing concept for a movie." According to The Daily Texan'''s Katherine Fan, A Moment with You featured a "more mature, introspective mood than their previous work."
Following the success of A Moment with You, Wong Fu was approached to create a second film called Sleep Shift. However, the project was abandoned after producers disagreed with casting an Asian male in the film's lead role. Since the end of its first tour, Wong Fu has created music videos for rising artists and continued producing short films. The group's merchandise line, which included original T-shirt designs, was launched in conjunction with the 2007 film Just a Nice Guy. The short film The Spare was featured at the 2008 San Francisco International Asian American Film Festival, and two additional short films—At Musing's End and A Peace of Home—were shown at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival Short Films Corner. In September 2009, Wong Fu released the short film Poser!, a mockumentary on the history of the peace sign. As of November 2009, Wong Fu Productions has created more than 130 short films and music videos. Because the group does not require a fee to view its films, it gains a salary from being a YouTube partner, draws profits from merchandise sales, public speaking on university campuses, and music video production for rising Asian American artists.
In May 2010, Wong Fu Productions and Ryan Higa opened talks about creating a major film. The movie was filmed in a one-week period during the summer, and was released to the public on November 23, while being released on YouTube a day later as Agents of Secret Stuff starring Ryan Higa and Arden Cho.
On September 7, 2011, Wong Fu Productions announced that they have been hired by Taiwanese pop singer Wang Leehom to direct his upcoming music video "Still In Love With You".
### International Secret Agents
In the addition to the group's filmmaking career, Wong Fu Productions has organized a series of multidisciplinary concerts in California. The concert series, International Secret Agents (ISA), featured musical disciplines from urban dance to deejaying with Asian American guest artists such as Far East Movement. Additional guest performances included America's Best Dance Crew champions Quest Crew and Poreotics, Ryan Higa (aka Nigahiga), Kevin Wu (aka KevJumba), Jay Park, and singers–songwriters David Choi and Kina Grannis. According to Chinese American rapper Jin, "ISA is about self-branding and viral marketing—using YouTube, MySpace, Facebook, and the Internet to promote yourself as an artist." He asserted, "We as artists are aware of this and make ourselves available [on these mediums]." Far East Movement member Virman Coquia said, "We want to give back to the community to show that Asians can have an influence today in the U.S." Additionally, Coquia believed that ISA presented the opportunity to present Asian American talent as cool and mainstream.
The first ISA concert was held in September 2008 at the San Gabriel Mission Playhouse in Los Angeles. A second concert was held in March 2009 at the Palace of Fine Arts in San Francisco, and both events were attended by a sold-out crowd. The concert returned to Los Angeles in September 2009 and was sponsored by department store J. C. Penney. In 2010, ISA was held in New York City for the first time. Wong Fu has also expressed interest in holding future ISA concerts in Washington, D.C. They also had another ISA concert in Los Angeles on September 5. Playing up the name "International Secret Agents", The LA leg of the 2010 ISA Concert was filled with surprises as secret guests like Nick Cannon showed up to join the performers on stage.
On March 30, 2013, ISA held and filmed their first game show at YouTube Space Los Angeles. The event had several famous YouTubers including Anthony Lee, Brandon Laatsch, Clara C, David Choi, Freddie Wong, Jen Chae Buescher(FrmHeadToToe), Mike Song, Ted Fu, Wesley Chan as players, Kevin Wu as the gamemaster named Yoshi, and Amy Okuda and Philip Wang as the hosts.
### Everything Before Us
Everything Before Us is the second feature film of Wong Fu Productions. Released 23 April 2015 via Vimeo, it was directed by Philip Wang and Wesley Chan. It tells the story of two couples in the near future where the Department of Emotional Integrity (D.E.I.) issues 'relationship scores', somewhat like a credit score, that affect couples' everyday choices. With a nearly all-Asian cast, some of its stars include Aaron Yoo, Brittany Ishibashi, Brandon Soo Hoo, Victoria Park, Randall Park and Ki Hong Lee. Funding for the film was crowd-sourced from Wong Fu's fans via Indiegogo, and the film's premiere release was held at the Los Angeles Asian Pacific Film Festival.
### Single By 30
On August 24, 2016, Wong Fu Productions released its first studio-funded project Single by 30, an eight-episode web series starring Harry Shum Jr. and Kina Grannis on YouTube Red. Described by NPR as an "old-fashioned romantic comedy", the series has been praised for its highly diverse cast as it reflected the diverse population of Los Angeles, where the series is set in. The series was not renewed for a second season.
### Just Another Nice Guy
On August 9, 2017, Wong Fu Productions launched a mini-series titled Just Another Nice Guy Just Another Nice Guy, or JANG for short, is a three-episode web series and sequel to Just A Nice Guy, which was released in 2007 and was one of the company's first videos. The series stars Motoki Maxted, Piper Curda, Krista Marie Yu and Will Pacarro.
### Yappie
Yappie is a five-episode video series on YouTube that addresses the modern Asian American experience and the model minority myth. Yappie is a slang term for "young Asian professional". The video series stars Philip Wang and Janine Oda, whose relationship puts them face to face with racial and social problems. Kim's Convenience star Simu Liu has a major supporting role. The series reflects Wong Fu Production's of bringing Asian American representation to the screen, while staying true to their mission of storytelling. The series is funded through the support of Patreon supporters, which is part of Wong Fu Production's new Wong Fu Forward goals to be a platform for artists and to create longer video series.
## Impact
Short films released by Wong Fu Productions have received, cumulatively, millions of views, and the group has several thousand fans. According to Wang, the group's website received 5,000 daily hits in 2009. He expected the audience size to grow "as online video becomes part of everyday life for the up-and-coming generation of movie-watchers" but believed that movie theaters will not become obsolete. University of Southern California digital media expert David Wertheimer also believed that "Wong Fu's use of new media to tell their community stories and build a business is the wave of the future." The group's success has allowed for growth in the popularity of Asian American comedians who promote themselves primarily through YouTube, such as Kevin Wu (KevJumba), Ryan Higa (Nigahiga), Christine Gambito (HappySlip), and David Choi. Although grateful for the group's success and popularity, Wang said, "Some people who go to film school, they'll make something great but it's only seen by like, two hundred people [...] It's kind of not fair."
In a feature by CNN, newscaster Ted Rowlands reported that Wong Fu's primary audience were "young Asian Americans who often can't find accurate depictions of themselves in mainstream media". Through its films, Wong Fu Productions hoped to break the different stereotypes of Asian Americans.
> While we may not bring up [Asian Pacific American] issues in our work, we are not afraid to show that we are Asian. This is an issue in itself that we believe we're tackling head on. We want to show that APAs are just normal people, and shouldn't be stereotyped in the media and should have proper representation. We don't all do martial arts or have accents. We have stories that most everyone can relate to as human beings. We really want to show that our work and voice should and can be seen colorblind. The same way African Americans can now be accepted in the mainstream without a second guess, that's what we hope will someday be the case for APAs. - Wong Fu Productions
Despite this goal, Wong Fu's films were inspired by the members' life experiences rather than racial experiences. The group also does not promote political messages through their works but, rather, raises "many APA issues that we feel would fit our brand and image." They are often considered role models for Asian Americans aspiring to enter the entertainment industry. In response to this, group member Ted Fu said, "We actually didn't set out to be the 'heroes' of Asian Americans. It just happened by accident. But now that we're given this huge responsibility, almost, I feel like it's our duty to take it seriously." Wong Fu presented "one of the most antipicated workshops" on sustaining an independent production company at the 2008 Intercollegiate Taiwanese American Students Association Midwest Conference. They were also the keynote speakers at the Intercollegiate Taiwanese American Students Association 2010 West Coast Conference, which was hosted at their alma mater, UC San Diego.
In February 2012, Wang and Chan flew from Los Angeles to Malaysia for the first leg of their Southeast Asia Tour, meeting and greeting over 1000 fans, even to a point of having a live radio appearance on the radio station HITZ fm. In July 2012, Chan gave the commencement speech at UC San Diego to the graduating class. In June 2016, Philip Wang gave the commencement speech at UCSD to its graduating class.
In 2018, to continue creating content for their fans, Wong Fu created the Patreon page, Wong Fu Forward where supporters can directly fund Wong Fu Productions. By joining Patreon, Wong Fu hopes to continue its mission in storytelling, creating longer video series for their supporters on YouTube, and acting as a platform for artists.
Fans sometimes refer to actors who have appeared in Wong Fu video as part of the "Wong Fu universe", a reference to the cinematic universe employed by superhero films and how many of their alumni have gone on to star in superhero projects. Actors such as Randall Park (WandaVision), Justin H. Min (The Umbrella Academy), Anna Akana (Ant-Man), Brittany Ishibashi (Runaways), Victoria Park (The Flash) and Simu Liu (Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings'') have all previously starred in Wong Fu films prior to their appearances on their respective superhero projects. |
67,588,790 | 2021 Jersey dispute | 1,170,972,260 | 2021 dispute over Jersey fishing licences | [
"2021 in France",
"2021 in Jersey",
"2021 in international relations",
"21st century in Normandy",
"Conflicts in 2021",
"Consequences of Brexit",
"EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement",
"Fisheries law",
"Fishing conflicts",
"Fishing in France",
"Foreign relations of Jersey",
"France–United Kingdom relations",
"May 2021 events in Europe",
"United Kingdom and the European Union"
]
| In 2021, a dispute erupted between French fishermen and the Government of Jersey about the licensing of French fishing boats to fish in Jersey's territorial waters. Jersey is a British Crown Dependency, and despite not being part of the United Kingdom, the licensing of European Union fishing boats to fish in Jersey's territorial waters has changed after the UK exit from the EU. On 6 May 2021, French fishermen held a protest in the waters off Jersey's main harbour. The UK is responsible for the defence of the Channel Islands and sent two patrol boats to Jersey in response to the fishermen's threats to blockade it. French politicians suggested that Jersey's electricity supply fed by undersea cables from France could be cut off in retaliation for Jersey placing limitations on the extent to which French boats can fish in the island's waters.
As of March 2022, 131 boats had received permanent licences. Jersey considered the dispute to remain a live issue and were awaiting any formal complaint that France may lodge with the European Commission. The Jersey government continued to hold off enforcing some of the conditions of the French fishermen's licences, but intended to revisit them.
## Background
Jersey is a Crown Dependency. Although the island was never part of the UK nor EU, in 1996 it signed a fisheries management agreement with the UK that enabled the Jersey fleet's catch to be treated 'as if from the UK' and required it to comply with the UK's EU obligations under the EU's Common Fisheries Policy for Jersey's extended territorial sea.
Two-thirds of the shellfish consumed in France comes from the Normandy fishing fleet, supporting 4,000 jobs. The fishing grounds surrounding Jersey are rich and diverse, with species including whelk, brown crab, cuttlefish, lobster, spider crab, scallop, clam, sole, ray and sea bream. French fishermen like to fish in Jersey's waters because they are wider and deeper, which often leads to catching bigger produce. Jersey boats seldom fish in French waters.
### Normal relations between Jersey and the neighbouring French coastal towns
Jersey has historically enjoyed a cordial relationship with its Norman and Breton neighbours. Jersey was part of the Duchy of Normandy until 1204. The port of Barneville-Carteret is only 24 nautical miles (28 mi; 44 km) from Jersey's capital Saint Helier, and the larger ports of Granville and Saint-Malo are 30 nautical miles (35 mi; 56 km) and 35 nautical miles (40 mi; 65 km) away respectively. There is a passenger ferry service from the Norman ports to Saint Helier, and a fast ferry carrying foot passengers and vehicles to Saint Malo. The marinas in the four ports are popular destinations for recreational boat owners. Eleven of the twelve parishes of Jersey are twinned with towns in Normandy, and the game of pétanque is played competitively between teams on the island and those of Norman towns. Jersey and Guernsey share the Bureau des Îles Anglo-Normandes – a representative office in Caen, the capital of Normandy, and the departmental council of Manche and the regional council of Normandy shares an equivalent office in Jersey – the Maison de la Normandie et de la Manche – which is also the office of the French honorary consul.
Since 1985, Jersey has imported low-cost, low-carbon electricity from Normandy through undersea cables that form the Channel Islands Electricity Grid. Jersey retains the ability to generate all its own electricity but the Jersey Electricity Company only does so in the event of a failure of the French link which provides 95% of the island's power.
Speaking in the French Senate on 5 May 2021, Sénatrice Béatrice Gosselin said "I can see Jersey chimneys from home, we all are 'anglo-normands' ... Our lives are linked to each other, it's been the case for centuries. We have to take those very particular conditions into account, the life between Jersey and the Manche coast has always existed and we need to put that at the forefront and work hard to find solutions that are fair for everyone."
### Granville Bay agreement
Historically, Jersey controlled its territorial waters up to 3 nautical miles (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from its coast and around the Minquiers and Écréhous reefs which are part of the Bailiwick of Jersey. The area between Jersey and France's coastal waters was common sea, not belonging to or controlled by anyone.
In 1839 the first treaty on fishing in waters between Jersey and France was made, limited to regulating oyster farming. Slight amendments were made in 1920 and again in 1951 when the words 'oyster fishing' were omitted to widen the scope of the agreement, effectively giving French fishermen the right to fish up to three miles off Jersey's coast without restrictions or controls. By 1981 the growth in fishing and reducing stocks meant it was inadequate for modern fishing practices. From 1992 until 2000, Jersey Senator Pierre Horsfall negotiated a new agreement with his French counterparts. The Agreement Between The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and The French Republic Concerning Fishing In The Bay of Granville was signed on 4 July 2000 by Michael Wilkes, Lieutenant Governor of Jersey on behalf of the Crown and Daniel Bernard, French ambassador on behalf of France, but its implementation would require changes to the legislation in both Jersey and France. It came into force on 1 January 2004, giving Jersey and France shared responsibility for the management of fishing in the area between 3 and 12 nautical miles (3.5 and 13.8 mi; 5.6 and 22.2 km) off Jersey's coast under terms of the agreement. As of February 2020, 392 French boats had active permits to fish under the terms of the agreement, 67 of which actively use Jersey's waters to fish.
Provisions of the agreement included:
- Vessels require a permit to fish commercially in the area
- A joint management committee composed of officials from France and Jersey would issue the permits and in doing so control the level of fishing effort in the area such as by increasing or reducing the number and size of boats, the type of fishing gear used and the level of catch allowed
- A joint advisory committee would represent the fishermen on both sides, giving them a forum to resolve disputes and enabling to engage with the government officials and scientists.
After the UK left the EU on 31 January 2020 there was a transition period of one year where EU law continued to apply to the UK. At the end of this period the Bay of Granville Agreement no longer had effect and Jersey's fishing relationship with France changed to be governed by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement. Under the new agreement Jersey must allow licensed European vessels that have historically fished in its territorial waters to continue to do so. According to newspaper Ouest-France, French fishermen were wary of the changes and were considering ways to retaliate if their fishing rights were curtailed, including "'blackmail' in landing fish, to energy – since submarine cables supply the islands from Normandy – or in freight or customs duties".
### Trade agreement
The EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) was signed by the EU and UK on 30 December 2020 after nearly ten months of trade negotiations. Three days earlier, Jersey formally agreed to be included in the deal, ensuring that it could continue to trade with Europe without tariffs. Its parliament – the States of Jersey – were given until the end of March to properly scrutinise the detail of the agreement. Once ratified, Jersey took sole responsibility for managing its territorial waters. Any restrictions it places on fishing must apply equally to Jersey and EU boats.
The TCA initially only provisionally applied until it formally came into force on 1 May 2021 after the UK and EU ratified the agreement.
## Fishing permits
When Jersey's Environment Minister John Young announced that Jersey would be taking full control of its territorial waters in December 2020, he expressed hope that a new system would better ensure the ecological conservation of fishing stocks in the Island's waters. On 14 February 2020, 100 Jersey fishermen and supporters staged a protest in St Helier for action to be taken against overfishing. The president of the Jersey Fishermen's Association stated during the protest that "It's all about the marine environment and taking care of it and looking after it for future generations."
The TCA says that "each Party shall grant vessels of the other Party access to fish in its waters reflecting the actual extent and nature of fishing activity that it can be demonstrated was carried out during the period beginning on 1 February 2017 and ending on 31 January 2020 by qualifying vessels of the other Party in the waters and under any treaty arrangements that existed on 31 January 2020."
On 25 January 2021 the Government of Jersey and EU Commissioner for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries Virginijus Sinkevičius agreed to formalise the amnesty period that Jersey had introduced, allowing French boats over 12 metres (39 ft) long to continue to fish until the end of April 2021. This was intended to enable EU fishermen to gather and submit the necessary evidence of their historic fishing activities in Jersey waters.
On 23 April 2021 Jersey implemented the provisions of the TCA in its domestic legislation through amendments to the Sea Fisheries (Jersey) Law 1994 and Sea Fisheries (Licensing of Fishing Boats) (Jersey) Regulations 2003, which defined the process for licensing of fishing boats operating in its waters.
The change means that Jersey now controls fishing activities for EU boats in Jersey waters which is of concern especially to French fishermen. According to the Normandy and Brittany fishers' federations it affects 250 of their fishing boats, about 900 families and 2,000 jobs on land.
The new permit system came into force for vessels over 12 metres (39 ft) long equipped with vessel monitoring systems (VMS) at the end of the amnesty period on 30 April 2021, and the Government of Jersey issued 41 permits, with a further 14 pending as of that date, out of 344 requests. When the fishermen received their licences via email there was surprise that they came with conditions, some of which were specific to their boat, including:
- how many days a boat may fish in Jersey waters, ranging from 7 to 170 days per year
- what species they may target
- what fishing gear can be used, and how dredging can be done
- temporary exclusion from sea bream spawning grounds to enable scientific research to take place
However, Jersey later suspended these extra conditions and also allowed for additional types of positional data to be accepted as evidence of historical fishing in addition to VMS such as AIS, logbooks, chart plotters and other written information, as well as GPS.
Young clarified that the fishing licensing scheme will allow Jersey to monitor and control an environmentally sustainable level of fishing in Jersey's territorial waters. Young further stated that; "Our fishing has been unsustainable because of overfishing in the past and I've been clear about that and there will need to be conservation measures. What we've got is a framework of licensing that creates a fair way of doing it, so both ourselves and the EU nations can have sustainable fishing."
On 29 September 2021, the Jersey government issued a total of 142 fishing permits, but stated they had rejected permits for 75 French vessel citing that they "do not meet the criteria and have either not fished in Jersey waters during the relevant period or have not been able to evidence their activity". In reciprocity, Jersey boats that have traditionally fished in French waters are expected to be given a permit to continue by the French authorities. only three Jersey fishing boats had applied for such a permit. A similar licensing regime exists for Jersey boats that wanted to continue to fish in Guernsey's territorial waters. When that was introduced, only 18 of the 165 boats in Jersey's fishing fleet were granted licences, having provided sufficient proof of a track record of fishing in the area controlled by Guernsey.
The temporary licences expired on 1 February 2022, with 130 vessels permanently licensed. Young said that the island now intended to focus on the 'nature' and 'extent' clauses which were intended to limit how many days the boats could fish in Jersey waters, the species they could catch and the equipment they could use. Around 30 boats that had been given temporary licences would no longer be able to fish in Jersey waters, having not produced the evidence required. By 9 March 2022, one more boat had received a permanent licence, bringing the total to 131.
## Dispute
In February 2021, Jersey fishermen protested over their concerns that French fishing boats were exploiting the amnesty period by overfishing in Jersey's waters. Further concerns were raised in April that French fishing trawlers were using unsustainable fishing methods such as dredging during the amnesty period. Young accused French trawlers of "breaking the spirit of the amnesty" and that due to recent dredging by French trawlers that Jersey's marine ecology "won't take this for much longer and, if it goes on, we will have to close the area off for years".
The TCA says that "each Party shall notify the other Party of new measures as referred to in paragraph 1 that are likely to affect the vessels of the other Party before those measures are applied, allowing sufficient time for the other Party to provide comments or seek clarification." The French government said that these conditions had not been discussed previously and therefore had no effect.
Jersey may not have received the information that the French fishermen provided to evidence their historic fishing activity in Jersey's waters. When a French fishing boat applies for a licence, the request is submitted by the French local authorities to the EU who forward it to the United Kingdom Single Issuing Authority (UKSIA) who forward it to Jersey. In an interview with France Bleu, Jersey politician Deputy Gregory Guida, a Frenchman by nationality, said "what we received was of very poor quality. The French administration sent us horrors: missing or duplicated documents of boats with just the minimum 10 days to issue licences without additional information to determine the importance of their annual activity in our waters." Normandy politician Sénatrice Gosselin told the fishermen that the missing documents may have been lost somewhere between the committee that checks that the information is complete, the Direction des pêches maritimes et de l'aquaculture (DPMA), the Minister of the Sea and Brussels. The Normandy Regional Fisheries Committee (CRPMEM) called her comments "irresponsible" and described the situation as "formidably complex".
French fishermen may have believed it was sufficient to produce evidence of ten days of fishing to receive a permit for the whole year, while in fact they needed to produce a minimum of ten days of evidence, plus evidence for the most number of days per year they had fished in the island's waters in the past three years.
### 6 May protest
Norman and Breton fishermen met in Granville on 3 May, with some intent on blockading the port of Saint Helier on 6 May in protest at the system.
In the evening of the 5 May, UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson said "any blockade would be completely unjustified" and announced that the Royal Navy would send two patrol vessels to monitor the waters around Jersey as a precautionary measure. He also held meetings with Senator John Le Fondré, the Chief Minister of Jersey and Senator Ian Gorst, the island's Minister of External Relations, telling them of the need for a "de-escalation in tensions".
On 6 May, HMS Severn and HMS Tamar arrived off the south coast of Jersey where they maintained a presence and monitored the situation from a distance, but did not intervene. Later two French patrol boats, Athos and Thémis began patrolling just outside of the twelve nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) limit, remaining in French waters.
Between 50 and 60 French fishing boats including trawlers and smaller craft entered the Saint Helier Harbour area, remaining outside the pierheads and for a time obstructing the freight ferry from leaving her berth. Some lit distress flares and others displayed banners. The fishermen communicated amongst themselves over marine VHF radio. They were joined by a Jersey oyster fisherman supportive of the French on his converted landing craft, the Normandy Trader. One of the French fishermen said that having just spent €3m on two new trawlers he could go bankrupt if not allowed to continue to fish in Jersey waters on the same basis as before.
A member of the Jersey Militia reenactment group was seen at Elizabeth Castle firing a musket towards the French boats. A French fishing boat was filmed appearing to ram one of the only Jersey boats in the vicinity of the protest – a speedboat driven by a local entrepreneur who is alleged to have taunted the Frenchmen. Jersey's harbourmaster later investigated the altercation, but no charges were brought.
At 11:40 am, two hours of discussions began in Saint Helier Harbour. In order to respect COVID-19 social distancing rules, Jersey officials aboard Jersey's fisheries protection vessel the Norman Le Brocq came alongside the Normandy Trader which had representatives of the French fishermen aboard. The lead representative from Jersey was its Assistant Minister for The Environment Deputy Guida a fluent French speaker. Senator Gorst said the talks were positive, however a spokesman for Normandy fishermen said the talks put them "deeper into deadlock", and warned that retaliatory measures would be taken if this did not get resolved.
The protest ended at around 2 pm. Boris Johnson said the Royal Navy vessels would remain in place, but both ships left the area that evening. The protest was front-page news on most UK national newspapers whereas there was minimal coverage in France.
On 19 May, the French trawler Alizé 3 was intercepted illegally fishing in restricted bream breeding grounds. The trawler had been told by French authorities that French fishermen were allowed to fish wherever they wanted, despite the risk of breaking Jersey law. In August, another French trawler was accused of illegally fishing 1.2 tonnes of protected bluefin tuna in Jersey's territorial waters.
### Closure of ports in Normandy to Jersey fishermen and freight
Jersey exports much of the fish that is caught locally by its own fishing fleet to France, landing it at the ports of Carteret, Granville or Saint Malo. Jersey boats registered with North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission can land crustaceans and fin fish they have caught, as these species are exempt from the EU sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) requirements for an Export Health Certificate. However, specific French permission is required before each landing. Scallops, clams and whelks cannot be landed into the EU without a health certificate. On 10 March 2021, Jersey fishermen blocked the island's harbour to draw attention to being prevented from landing their catch in French harbours since Brexit. The day after the 6 May protest, a Jersey fishing boat was prevented from landing its catch of cuttlefish in Carteret by French fishermen who lined the quay.
On 7 May, the Manche government formally notified the Government of Jersey that it was suspending the landing of catches by Jersey boats in Granville, Carteret and Diélette until further notice. Jersey's government said it considered the ban to be non-compliant with the terms of the TCA and it would appeal to the European Commission. The ban was temporarily lifted on 10 May but was reinstated the following day and extended to prevent freight movements. Jersey businesses that regularly export fish to France were warned that even if the ports were officially open to Jersey exporters, local fishermen may obstruct them trying to offload their produce.
On 7 September, Jersey's Environment Minister told a scrutiny panel that work to rebuild relationships had led to better cooperation with the French, and the Government of Jersey was "not getting the complaints that [it] used to with landing, hostility, or anything of that nature anymore, that has gone away".
### 18 September protest
At midday on 18 September, between 100 and 150 fishermen, their families and officials gathered on Armanville beach, Pirou to highlight the licensing issue and put pressure on the Jersey authorities. The beach is where Normandie 3, one of the three undersea electricity cables to Jersey is buried.
## Reactions
On 3 May, the Normandy region and the Manche department closed their combined offices in Jersey, which were set up in 1995, to protest their discontent and lack of understanding. The Maison de Normandie reopened on 1 July.
On 5 May, the Maritime Minister Annick Girardin said France was "ready to use ... retaliatory measures" including cutting off the island's power supply from France. Former UK Secretary of State for Defence Penny Mordaunt wrote in a letter to the UK Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Kwasi Kwarteng that the proposed £1.2bn AQUIND Interconnector between Normandy and Portsmouth which would supply up to 5% of the UK's electricity needs should not proceed because of the risk that it would "become politicised and involved in any future discussions, in particular on fishing".
On the evening of the protest the UK Government issued a statement saying that under the Trade and Cooperation Agreement, Jersey authorities have a right to regulate fisheries in their waters and that they continue to support them in exercising those rights.
In the week after the protest, MEP Stéphanie Yon-Courtin suggested that the EU could apply economic sanctions by restricting agreements permitting Jersey to sell its financial services to EU citizens, and accused Jersey of being a tax haven. She said Jersey should withdraw from the TCA and revert to an agreement similar to the previous Granville Bay treaty that would provide more access to Jersey waters for French fishermen.
The European Commission spokesperson Vivian Loonela said UK was breaking the Brexit trade deal. The UK Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs George Eustice called the threat to shut down electricity to Jersey "disproportionate and unacceptable".
## Related disputes
In October 2020, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the Fisheries Act 2020. It includes a 'permissive extent clause' that would enable the Government of the United Kingdom by an Order in Council to extend the provisions of the Act to cover the Crown Dependencies to bring them into line with the UK's international obligations. This move caused outrage in Jersey as it was seen to be contrary to Jersey's constitutional relationship with the UK. It was reported that the UK intended to cede Jersey's territorial waters as a bargaining chip in order to secure a better deal with the EU. This was denied by the British government.
## Attempts to resolve the dispute
During the discussions on the day of the protest, the Government of Jersey committed to setting up a telephone number which the French fishermen could use to speak directly with fluent French-speaking staff in its marine resources team as an addition to the formal diplomatic channels. On 12 May, Girardin called for this to be suspended.
Jersey extended the time that boats over 12 metres (39 ft) had to provide additional evidence of their historic fishing activities in the area until 1 July. However, on 12 May, Girardin wrote to the EU Commissioner Sinkevicius asking for all licences to be renewed until 30 September, without the new requirements that were imposed by Jersey. On 18 May, the Alizé 3 a 16-metre (52 ft) French fishing boat from Granville was alleged to have fished in an exclusion area where scientific research was due to take place. Jersey's fisheries protection vessel Norman Le Brocq intercepted the fishing boat whose skipper was adamant that he had permission to fish there. Deputy Guida said that Jersey would be lodging a complaint with the European Commission.
As of 19 June, with two weeks before the 1 July deadline, the Jersey authorities had not received any further data from French boats over 12 metres (39 ft) to evidence the extent that they had historically fished in Jersey's waters.
When questioned by the House of Lords' European Affairs Committee, the Ambassador of the European Union to the United Kingdom João Vale de Almeida said the way to resolve the dispute was to "use the instruments we created, the bodies we set up within the withdrawal agreement, the joint specialised committees within the Trade and Corporation Agreement, a number of committees and working groups" a governance structure he described as "complex" rather than unilateral measures.
On 28 June, Jersey media reported that the EU had recently requested a further extension to the transitional arrangements, and Jersey had agreed to do so until the end of September. The 47 larger boats equipped with tracking systems would continue to be able to fish, along with 177 smaller boats that had applied for licences, and the rules about the number of days that the French boats can fish and the gear that they can use would temporarily not apply. This time would enable "constructive discussions" to continue, and more historical catch data to be submitted and analysed during July. In exchange, Jersey sought assurances that the three of its fishing fleet that had requested permits to continue to fish in French waters would be granted them, and that the French would honour the terms of the trade deal by continuing to allow Jersey boats to unload their catch in France. As of 10 September 2021, the UKSIA listed 177 boats under 12 metres (39 ft) that had been authorised to fish under the transitional arrangements until 30 September 2021.
On 6 September, French prime minister Jean Castex wrote to President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen that there was a lack of "political will" to resolve the dispute, and called for a consultative body to be established, similar to those in place under the Granville Bay agreement.
On 7 September, Senator Gorst informed the House of Commons Justice Select Committee that the TCA made clear that it was up to Jersey to issue the licences, that there was no automatic transition from the previous treaty, and that the Island's government wanted to work through the technical details and data to respect the historic fishing rights of the French but "no more and no less". While the communication was more positive, Jersey "still did not have all the data" and was pushing all parties for the data via Brussels.
In January 2022, France's Europe Minister Clément Beaune said the French could take legal action, which Jersey's Environment Minister understood to mean they could ask the EU to invoke arbitration mechanisms that are built into the Withdrawal Agreement. As of 9 March 2022, no such complaint had been filed. President Macron had told Brittany and Normandy that they could negotiate directly with Jersey, alongside the formal route between Jersey, the UK, the EU, France and the regions, and the first such meeting had taken place.
The 'nature and extent' part of the licensing agreement that covers which species of fish each boat can catch, where and in what quantity remains under discussion as of December 2022, together with the rules on replacement vessels. Jersey's new Environment Minister, Deputy Jonathan Renouf was seeking approval for a change in the regulations so that there is more flexibility in how similar a replacement fishing boat needs to be to the old one. This would allow for the replacement to be slightly longer or have a bigger engine, for example.
## EU compensation scheme
A €60m EU-funded compensation scheme is intended to provide individual support to fishers that failed to be granted a licence, or to enable them to exit the profession.
## See also
- 1993 Cherbourg incident
- Cod Wars
- English Channel scallop fishing dispute
- External relations of Jersey
- Fish for finance
- France–United Kingdom relations |
4,174,311 | Cambodian campaign | 1,165,776,486 | Incursions into eastern Cambodia by US and South Vietnamese forces (April–June 1970) | [
"1970 in Cambodia",
"April 1970 events in Asia",
"Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1970",
"Cambodia–United States relations",
"Conflicts in 1970",
"Invasions by the United States",
"Invasions of Cambodia",
"July 1970 events in Asia",
"June 1970 events in Asia",
"May 1970 events in Asia"
]
| The Cambodian campaign (also known as the Cambodian incursion and the Cambodian liberation) was a brief series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia in 1970 by South Vietnam and the United States as an extension of the Vietnam War and the Cambodian Civil War. Thirteen major operations were conducted by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) between 29 April and 22 July and by U.S. forces between 1 May and 30 June 1970.
The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40,000 troops of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong (VC) in the eastern border regions of Cambodia. Cambodian neutrality and military weakness made its territory a safe zone where PAVN/VC forces could establish bases for operations over the border. With the US shifting toward a policy of Vietnamization and withdrawal, it sought to shore up the South Vietnamese government by eliminating the cross-border threat.
A change in the Cambodian government allowed an opportunity to destroy the bases in 1970, when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro-U.S. General Lon Nol. A series of South Vietnamese–Khmer Republic operations captured several towns, but the PAVN/VC military and political leadership narrowly escaped the cordon. The operation was partly a response to a PAVN offensive on 29 March against the Cambodian Army that captured large parts of eastern Cambodia in the wake of these operations. Allied military operations failed to eliminate many PAVN/VC troops or to capture their elusive headquarters, known as the Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN) as they had left a month prior, but the haul of captured material in Cambodia prompted claims of success.
## Preliminaries
### Background
The PAVN had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked. These base areas were also utilized by the PAVN and VC to store weapons and other material that had been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail. PAVN forces had begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963.
Cambodian neutrality had already been violated by South Vietnamese forces in pursuit of political-military factions opposed to the regime of Ngô Đình Diệm in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 1966, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia, convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule, had concluded an agreement with the People's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply.
During 1968, Cambodia's indigenous communist movement, labeled Khmer Rouge (Red Khmers) by Sihanouk, began an insurgency to overthrow the government. While they received very limited material help from the North Vietnamese at the time (the Hanoi government had no incentive to overthrow Sihanouk, since it was satisfied with his continued "neutrality"), they were able to shelter their forces in areas controlled by PAVN/VC troops.
The US government was aware of these activities in Cambodia, but refrained from taking overt military action within Cambodia in hopes of convincing the mercurial Sihanouk to alter his position. To accomplish this, President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert cross-border reconnaissance operations conducted by the secret Studies and Observations Group in order to gather intelligence on PAVN/VC activities in the border regions (Project Vesuvius).
### Menu, coup and North Vietnamese offensive
The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), General Creighton W. Abrams, recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after Nixon's inauguration that the Cambodian base areas be bombed by B-52 Stratofortress bombers. Nixon initially refused, but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN's Tet 1969 Offensive in South Vietnam. Nixon, angered at what he perceived as a violation of the "agreement" with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam, authorized the covert air campaign. The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on 18 March and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3,000 sorties had been flown and 108,000 tons of bombs had been dropped on eastern Cambodia.
While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970, government-sponsored anti-Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia. Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister/Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on 12 March to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours. The prince, outraged that his "modus vivendi" with the communists had been disturbed, immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia.
National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger wrote in his memoirs that "historians rarely do justice to the psychological stress on a policy-maker", noting that by early 1970 President Nixon was feeling very much besieged and inclined to lash out against a world he was believed was plotting his downfall. Nixon had vowed to end the Vietnam War by 1 November 1969 and failed to do so while in the fall of 1969 he had seen two of his nominations to the Supreme Court rejected by the Senate. Nixon had taken the rejection of his nominations to the Supreme Court as personal humiliations, which he was constantly brooding over. In February 1970, the "secret war" in Laos was revealed, much to his displeasure.
Kissinger had denied in a press statement that any Americans had been killed fighting in Laos, only for it emerge two days later that 27 Americans had been killed fighting in Laos.As a result, Nixon's public approval ratings fell by 11 points, causing him to refuse to see Kissinger for the next week. Nixon had hopes that when Kissinger secretly met Lê Đức Thọ in Paris in February 1970 that this might lead to a breakthrough in the negotiations and was disappointed that proved not to be so.
Nixon had become obsessed with the film Patton, a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton, Jr., which he kept watching over and over again, seeing how the film presented Patton as a solitary and misunderstood genius whom the world did not appreciate a parallel to himself. Nixon told his chief of staff, H.R. Haldeman, that he and the rest of his staff should see Patton and be more like the subject of the film. Feeling that events were not working in his favor, Nixon was in a favor of some bold, audacious action that might turn his fortunes around.
In particular, Nixon believed that a spectacular military action that would prove "we are still serious about our commitment in Vietnam" might force the North Vietnamese to conclude the Paris peace talks in a manner satisfactory to American interests. In 1969, Nixon had pulled out 25,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam and was planning to pull out 150,000 in the very near future. The first withdrawal of 1969 had led to an increase in PAVN/VC activities in the Saigon area, and General Abrams had warned Nixon to pull out another 150,000 troops without eliminating the PAVN/VC bases over the border in Cambodia would create an untenable military situation. Even before the coup against Sihanouk, Nixon was psychologically inclined to invade Cambodia.
On 18 March, the Cambodian National Assembly removed Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state. Sihanouk was in Moscow, having a discussion with the Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin, who had to inform him mid-way in the conversation that he had just been deposed. In response, Sihanouk immediately established a government-in-exile in Beijing and to ally himself with North Vietnam, the Khmer Rouge, the VC and the Laotian Pathet Lao. In doing so, Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control.
Sihanouk was revered by the Khmer peasantry as a god-like figure and his endorsement of the Khmer Rouge had immediate effects in rural areas (Silhanouk was less popular in the more educated urban areas of Cambodia). The reverence for the royal family was such that Lon Nol after the coup went to the Royal Palace, knelt at the feet of the queen mother Sisowath Kossamak and asked for her forgiveness for deposing her son. In the rural town of Kampong Cham, farmers enraged that their beloved ruler had been overthrown lynched one of Lon Nol's brothers, cut out his liver, cooked it and ate it to symbolize their contempt for the brother of the man who overthrown Sihanouk, who was viewed as the rightful once and future king.
Sihanouk was enraged by the vulgar media attacks by Lon Nol against himself and his family, saying in interview with Stanley Karnow in 1981 that despite the fact that the Khmer Rouge slaughtered much of the royal family including several of his children he still had no regrets about allying himself with the Khmer Rouge in 1970. His voice raising in fury, Sihanouk told Karnow: "I had to avenge myself against Lon Nol. He was my minister, my officer and he betrayed me". Sihanouk left Moscow for Beijing, where he was greeted warmly by Zhou Enlai, who assured him that China still recognized him as the legitimate leader of Cambodia, and would back his efforts at restoration.
Sihanouk went on Chinese radio to appeal to his people to overthrow Lon Nol, whom he depicted as a puppet of the Americans. Lon Nol was an intense Khmer nationalist, who detested the Vietnamese, the ancient archenemies of the Khmer nation. Like many other Khmer nationalists, Lon Nol had not forgotten the southern half of Vietnam was part of the Khmer empire until the 18th century nor had he forgiven the Vietnamese for conquering an area that historically was part of Cambodia.
Though Cambodia had a weak army, Lon Nol had given Hanoi 48 hours to pull its forces out of Cambodia and began the hasty training of 60,000 volunteers to fight the PAVN/VC. By late March 1970, Cambodia had descended into anarchy as Karnow noted: "Rival Cambodian gangs were hacking each other to pieces, in some instances celebrating their prowess by eating the hearts and livers of their victims."
The North Vietnamese response was swift; they began directly supplying large amounts of weapons and advisors to the Khmer Rouge and Cambodia plunged into civil war. Lon Nol saw Cambodia's population of 400,000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment. Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror, murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians. Lon Nol encouraged pogroms against the Vietnamese minority and the Cambodian police took the lead in organizing the pogroms.
On 15 April for example, 800 Vietnamese men were rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar, tied together, executed, and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River. They then floated downstream into South Vietnam. Cambodia's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments. The massacres of Cambodia's Vietnamese minority greatly enraged people in both Vietnams. Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down, PAVN had begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos (the Ho Chi Minh trail) into northeastern Cambodia.
Nixon was taken by surprise by the events in Cambodia, saying at a National Security Council meeting: "What the hell do those clowns do out there in Langley [CIA]?". The day after the coup, Nixon ordered Kissinger: "I want Helms [the CIA director] to develop and implement a plan for maximum assistance to pro-U.S. elements in Cambodia". The CIA began to fly in arms for the Lon Nol regime, through the Secretary of State William P. Rogers told the media about Cambodia on 23 March 1970 "We don't anticipate that any request will be made". Realizing that he had lost control of the situation, Lon Nol did a volte-face and suddenly declared Cambodia's "strict neutrality".
On 29 March 1970 the PAVN launched an offensive (Campaign X) against the Cambodian Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK), quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country, isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham. Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealed that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea. In early-April South Vietnamese Vice President Nguyễn Cao Kỳ twice visited Lon Nol in Phnom Penh for secret meetings to reestablish diplomatic relations between the two countries and agree on military cooperation. On 14 April 1970, Lon Nol appealed for help, saying that Cambodia was on the verge of losing its independence.
On 17 April the Khmer Republic announced that North Vietnam was invading Cambodia and appealed for assistance in countering North Vietnamese aggression. The U.S. responding immediately, delivering 6,000 captured AK-47 rifles to the FANK and transporting 3–4,000 ethnic Cambodian Civilian Irregular Defense Group program (CIDG) troops to Phnom Penh. On 20 April the PAVN overran Snuol, on 23 April they seized Memot, on 24 April they attacked Kep and on 26 April they began firing on shipping along the Mekong River, attacked Chhloung District northeast of Phnom Penh and captured Ang Tassom, northwest of Takéo. After defeating the FANK forces, the PAVN turned the newly won territories over to local insurgents. The Khmer Rouge also established "liberated" areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country, where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese.
### Planning
In mid-April 1970 Abrams and Chief of the South Vietnamese Joint General Staff (JGS) General Cao Văn Viên discussed the possibility of attacking the Cambodian base areas. Cao passed on these discussions to South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu who verbally ordered the JGS to instruct ARVN III Corps to liaise with MACV for operations in Cambodia. In late April Thiệu sent a secret directive instructing the JGS to conduct operations in Cambodia to a depth of 40–60 km (25–37 mi) from the border. By April 1970, the PAVN/Khmer Rouge offensive in Cambodia was going well and they had taken all five of Cambodia's northeastern provinces and Kissinger predicated to Nixon that the Lon Nol regime would not survive 1970 on its own.
In response to events in Cambodia, Nixon believed that there were distinct possibilities for a U.S. response. With Sihanouk gone, conditions were ripe for strong measures against the base areas. He was also adamant that some action be taken to support "The only government in Cambodia in the last twenty-five years that had the guts to take a pro-Western stand." As the poorly-trained FANK went from defeat after defeat, Nixon was afraid that Cambodia would "go down the drain" if he did not take action.
Nixon then solicited proposals for actions from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and MACV, who presented him with a series of options: a naval quarantine of the Cambodian coast; the launching of South Vietnamese and American airstrikes; the expansion of hot pursuit across the border by ARVN forces; or a ground invasion by ARVN, U.S. forces, or both.
Nixon went to Honolulu to offer his congratulations to the Apollo 13 astronauts who had survived a malfunction on their spacecraft and while there, met the Commander in Chief, Pacific Command, Admiral John S. McCain Jr., who was the sort of aggressive, pugnacious military man he admired the most. McCain drew for Nixon a map of Cambodia that depicted the bloody claws of a red Chinese dragon clutching half of the country and advised Nixon that action was needed now. Impressed by Admiral McCain's performance, Nixon brought him back to his house in San Clemente, California to repeat it for Kissinger who was unimpressed. Kissinger was upset that Thọ had temporarily ended their secret meetings in Paris and shared Nixon's inclinations to lash out against an enemy. Kissinger regarded Thọ like all Vietnamese as "insolent".
During a televised address on 20 April, Nixon announced the withdrawal of 150,200 U.S. troops from South Vietnam during the year as part of the Vietnamization program. This planned withdrawal implied restrictions on any offensive U.S. action in Cambodia. By early 1970, MACV still maintained 330,648 U.S. Army and 55,039 Marine Corps troops in South Vietnam, most of whom were concentrated in 81 infantry and tank battalions.
On 22 April Nixon authorized the planning of a South Vietnamese incursion into the Parrot's Beak (named for its perceived shape on a map), believing that "Giving the South Vietnamese an operation of their own would be a major boost to their morale as well as provide a practical demonstration of the success of Vietnamization." At the meeting of 22 April, both Rogers and the Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird proposed waiting to see if the Lon Nol regime could manage to survive on its own. Kissinger took an aggressive line, favoring having the ARVN invade Cambodia with American air support.
The Vice President, Spiro Agnew, the most hawkish member of Nixon's cabinet, forcefully told Nixon to avoid "pussyfooting" around and invade Cambodia with American troops. On 23 April, Rogers testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that "the administration had no intentions...to escalate the war. We recognize that if we escalate and get involved in Cambodia with our ground troops that our whole program [Vietnamization] is defeated."
Nixon then authorized Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region. A preliminary operational plan had actually been completed in March, but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to Lieutenant general Michael S. Davison, commander of II Field Force, Vietnam, he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch. Seventy-two hours later, Davison's plan was submitted to the White House. Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on 26 April, and the National Security Council staffer was appalled by its "sloppiness".
The main problems were the pressure of time and Nixon's desire for secrecy. The Southeast Asia monsoon, whose heavy rains would hamper operations, was only two months away. By the order of Nixon, the State Department did not notify the Cambodian desk at the US Embassy, Saigon, the Phnom Penh embassy, or Lon Nol of the planning. Operational security was as tight as General Abrams could make it. There was to be no prior U.S. logistical build-up in the border regions which might serve as a signal to the communists. U.S. brigade commanders were informed only a week in advance of the offensive, while battalion commanders got only two or three days' notice.
### Decisions
Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient. Laird and Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris (they had both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons). Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their "bureaucratic foot-dragging." As a result, Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation.
Through relations between Laird and Kissinger were unfriendly, the latter felt that it was not proper for the Defense Secretary to be unaware that a major offensive was about to be launched. Laird advised Kissinger not to inform Rogers, who was due to testify before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, whose chairman, J. William Fulbright, was an opponent of the war. Laird wanted Rogers to honesty say he was unaware of plans to invade Cambodia to avoid having him indicted for perjury.
Once Laird learned that Nixon was determined "to do something", he suggest only invading the "Parrot's Beak" area with ARVN forces. Nixon in his 1978 memoirs wrote this recommendation was "the most pusillanimous little nitpicker I ever saw". Nixon had decided to go for "the big play" for "all the marbles" since he anticipated "a hell of an uproar at home" regardless of what he did. Lon Nol was not informed in advance that American and South Vietnamese forces were about to enter his nation.
On the evening of 25 April Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger. Afterward, they screened Patton, which Nixon had seen five times previously. Kissinger later commented that "When he was pressed to the wall, his [Nixon's] romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton." The following evening, Nixon decided that "We would go for broke" and gave his authorization for the incursion.
The joint U.S./ARVN campaign would begin on 1 May with the stated goals of: reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam; assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces; and enhancing the U.S./Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris. The task of providing a legal justification was assigned to William Rehnquist, the assistant attorney general, who wrote a legal brief saying in times of war the president had the right to deploy troops "in conflict with foreign powers at their own initiative".
As Nixon had testy relations with Congress, he had Kissinger inform Senators John C. Stennis and Richard Russell Jr. of the plans to invade Cambodia. Both Stennis and Russell were conservative Southern Democrats who were chairmen of key committees and both were expected to approve of their invasion as indeed they did. In this way, Nixon could say he did inform at least some leaders of Congress about what was being planned. Congress as a body was kept uninformed of the planned invasion.
On 29 April, press reports stated that ARVN troops had entered the "Parrot's Beak" area, leading to demands from anti-war senators and congressmen that the president should promise no American troops would be involved, only for the White House to say the president would be giving a speech the next day. Nixon ordered Patrick Buchanan, his speechwriter, to start composing a speech to justify the invasion.
### Nixon speaks
In order to keep the campaign as low-key as possible, Abrams had suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon. At 21:00 on 30 April, however, Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that "It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight" and that "the time has come for action." Nixon's speech began 90 minutes after American troops entered the "Fishhook" area. He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN, "the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam."
Nixon's speech on national television on 30 April 1970 was called "vintage Nixon" by Kissinger. Nixon announced that nothing less than America's status as a world power was at stake, saying he had spurned "all political considerations", as he maintained he rather be a one-term president than "be a two-term president at the cost of seeing America become a second-rate power".
Nixon stated: "If, when the chips are down, the world's most powerful nation, the United States of America, acts like a pitiful helpless giant, then the forces of totalitarianism and anarchy will threaten free nations and free institutions throughout the world". Karnow wrote that Nixon could have presented the invasion as a relatively minor operation designed to speed up the withdrawal of American forces from South Vietnam by eliminating PAVN/VC bases, but instead by presenting the invasion as necessary to maintain America as a world power made it sound like a far bigger operation than what it really was.
On 1 May 1970, Nixon visited the Pentagon where he received the news that 194 PAVN/VC troops had been killed since the previous day, most by air strikes. Upon seeing a map, Nixon noticed there other PAVN/VC sanctuaries besides the "Parrot's Beak" and the "Fishhook. When Nixon asked if they were being invaded as well, he was told that Congress might object. His response was: "Let me be the judge as far as the political reactions are concerned. Knock them all out so they can't be used against us again Ever".
Lon Nol first learned of the invasion when an American diplomat told him, who in turn learned about it from a Voice of America radio broadcast. Kissinger sent his deputy, Alexander Haig, to Phnon Penh to meet Lon Nol. Dressed in battle fatigues, Haig refused to share any information with the U.S. embassy staff, instead meeting Lon Nol alone. Lon Nol complained the invasion had not helped as it only pushed the PAVN/VC forces deeper into Cambodia and broke down in tears when Haig told him that the Americans would be withdrawing from Cambodia in June.
## Operations
### Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government
Planning for any eventuality the North Vietnamese started planning emergency evacuation routes in the event of a coordinated assault by Cambodians from the west and South Vietnamese from the east. After the Cambodian coup, COSVN was evacuated on 19 March 1970. While the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG) and PAVN/VC bases were preparing to also move to the north and safety they came under aerial bombardment from B-52 bombers on 27 March. As laid out by the evacuation plans General Hoàng Văn Thái planned to have three divisions to cover the escape. The 9th Division would block any movement from the ARVN, the VC 5th Division would screen any FANK forces and the 7th Division would provide security to the civilian and military members of the PAVN/VC bases.
Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March, elements of the PRG and VC were surrounded in their bunkers by ARVN forces flown in by helicopter. Surrounded, they waited until nightfall and then with security provided by the 7th Division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in Kratie Province in what would come to be known as the "Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government". Trương Như Tảng, then Minister of Justice in the PRG, recounts that the march to the northern bases was a succession of forced marches, broken up by B-52 bombing raids.
Years later Trương would recall just how "Close [South Vietnamese] were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance – elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership". After many days of hard marches the PRG reached the northern bases, and relative safety, in the Kratie region. Casualties were light and the march even saw the birth of a baby to Dương Quỳnh Hoa, the deputy minister of health in the PRG. The column needed many days to recover and Trương himself would require weeks to recover from the long march.
### The Angel's Wing – Operation Toan Thang 41
On 14 April ARVN III Corps units launched a three-day operation into the "Angel's Wing" area of Svay Rieng Province called Operation Toan Thang (Complete Victory) 41. Mounted by two ARVN armor-infantry task forces, the units began their advance at 08:00 on 14 April. One task force met heavy resistance and killed 182 PAVN and captured 30 for the loss of seven killed. The next day the task forces skirmished with PAVN/VC and uncovered food and material caches and claimed 175 PAVN killed and one captured for losses of one killed. On 16 April, the task forces began their withdrawal, returning to South Vietnam by 12:10 on 17 April. Total PAVN losses, according to the ARVN, were 415 killed or captured and over 100 weapons captured. ARVN losses were 8 killed and one Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) A-1H Skyraider shot down. Documents captured during the operation and prisoner interrogations revealed that the area was the base for the PAVN 271st Regiment, 9th Division and other support units.
### The Crow's Nest – Operation Cuu Long/SD9/06
On 20 April, elements of the ARVN 9th Infantry Division attacked 6 km (3.7 mi) into Cambodia west of the "Crow's Nest" in Operation Cuu Long/SD9/06. The ARVN claimed 187 PAVN/VC killed and over 1,000 weapons captured for a cost of 24 killed. Thirty CH-47 sorties were flown to remove captured weapons and ammunition before it was decided to destroy the remainder in situ. The ARVN force returned to South Vietnam on 23 April.
On 28 April, Kien Tuong Province Regional Forces with support from the 9th Division attacked 3 km (1.9 mi) into the "Crow's Nest" again in a two-day operation, reportedly killing 43 PAVN/VC and capturing two for the loss of two killed. During the same period the Regional Forces also raided northwest of Kampong Rou District killing 43 PAVN/VC and capturing 88 for the loss of 2 killed.
On 27 April, an ARVN Ranger battalion advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a PAVN/VC base. Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory. On 20 April, 2,000 ARVN troops advanced into the Parrot's Beak, killing 144 PAVN troops. On 22 April, Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations. All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger-scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts, subject to authorization by Nixon.
### The Parrot's Beak – Operation Toan Thang 42
On 30 April ARVN forces launched Operation Toan Thang 42 (Total Victory), also labeled Operation Rock Crusher. 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8,700 troops (two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th and 5th Infantry Divisions, an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division, and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regiment from the 3rd Ranger Group) crossed into the Parrot's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province.
The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí, the commander of III Corps, who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals. Tri's operation was to have begun on the 29th but Trí refused to budge, claiming that his astrologer had told him "the heavens were not auspicious". During their first two days in Cambodia, ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces losing 16 killed while killing 84 PAVN and capturing 65 weapons. The PAVN, forewarned by previous ARVN incursions, however, conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west.
Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of IV Corps, consisting of the 9th Infantry Division, five armored cavalry squadrons and one Ranger group. Four tank-infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot's Beak from the south. After three days of operations, ARVN claimed 1,010 PAVN troops had been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead. On 3 May the III Corps and IV Corps units linked up and searched the area for supply caches.
Phase III began on 7 May with one ARVN task force engaging the PAVN 10 km (6.2 mi) north of Prasot killing 182 and capturing 8, while another task force found a 200-bed hospital. On 9 May the two task forces linked up southwest of Kampong Trach, crossed the Kompong Spean River and searched the area for supply caches until 11 May.
On 11 May Thiệu and Kỳ visited ARVN units in the field and Thiệu ordered III Corps to clear Route 1 and be prepared to relieve Kampong Trach in order to facilitate the evacuation of Vietnamese civilians from Phnom Penh. On 13 May Trí launched Phase IV, moving all three III Corps task forces west along Route 1 from Svay Rieng to meet up with IV Corps forces at Kampong Trabaek. To replace the departing units, Tây Ninh Province Regional Force units were moved into the area. On 14 May the task forces killed 74 PAVN/VC and captured 76. On 21 May a task force killed 9 PAVN and captured 26 from the PAVN 27th Regiment, 9th Division. By 22 May Route 1 was considered secured.
On 23 May III Corps began Phase V to relieve Kampong Cham, headquarters of FANK's Military Region I, which had been under siege by the PAVN 9th Division, which had occupied the 180-acre (0.73 km<sup>2</sup>) Chup rubber plantation northeast of the city and had begun bombarding the city from there. Two task forces moved along Routes 7 from Krek and 15 from Prey Veng to converge on the Chup plantation. The ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion engaged PAVN forces outside of Krek killing 26 and capturing 16. On 25 May armored and Ranger units clashed with the PAVN south of Route 7. On 28 May one task force engaged a PAVN unit killing 73 while the other task force located various supply caches. As the task forces converged on the Chup plantation heavy fighting began which continued until 1 June.
Meanwhile, on 25 May Tây Ninh Province RF units and CIDG forces engaged PAVN/VC forces in the Angel's Wing area killing 38 and capturing 21. On 29 May a task force was sent to assist in the Angel's Wing area. PAVN/VC anti-aircraft fire was particularly heavy, downing one RVNAF A-1H, one USAF F-100 Super Sabre and one U.S. Army AH-1 Cobra gunship.
On 3 June the ARVN began rotating units for rest and refit, withdrawing from around Kampong Cham to Krek. The PAVN quickly moved back into the area and renewed their siege of the city. On 19 June Thiệu ordered III Corps to relieve Kampong Cham once again and on 21 June three task forces moved towards Chup along Route 7 from Krek. By 27 June the PAVN had left the Chup area. On 29 June Task Force 318 was engaged by a PAVN force on Route 15 and the ARVN killed 165 PAVN for losses of 34 killed and 24 missing.
Results for the operation were 3,588 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 1,891 individual and 478 crew-served weapons captured.
### The Fishhook – Operations Toan Thang 43-6/Rock Crusher
On 1 May an even larger operation, in parallel with Toan Thang 42, known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rock Crusher, got underway as 36 B-52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook. This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter-bombers. At 10:00, the 1st Cavalry Division, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment (11th ACR), the ARVN 1st Armored Cavalry Regiment and the ARVN 3rd Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province. Known as Task Force Shoemaker (after General Robert M. Shoemaker, the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division), the force attacked the PAVN/VC stronghold with 10,000 U.S. and 5,000 South Vietnamese troops. The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that had been lifted in by helicopter.
Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy, but PAVN/VC forces had begun moving westward two days before the advance began. By 3 May, MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded, low casualties for such a large operation. There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the 11th ACR three kilometers inside Cambodia. PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes. When the smoke had cleared, 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action.
The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack. A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B-3 Front, captured during the incursion, ordered PAVN/VC forces to "break away and avoid shooting back...Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can". The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol, who had been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country. He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the U.S. Ambassador, who had found out about it himself from a radio broadcast.
The only conventional battle fought by American troops occurred on 1 May at Snuol, the terminus of the Sihanouk Trail at the junction of Routes 7, 13 and 131. Elements of the 11th ACR and supporting helicopters came under PAVN fire while approaching the town and its airfield. When a massed American attack was met by heavy resistance, the Americans backed off, called in air support and blasted the town for two days, reducing it to rubble. During the action, Brigadier general Donn A. Starry, commander of the 11th ACR, was wounded by grenade fragments and evacuated.
On the following day, Company C, 1st Battalion (Airmobile), 5th Cavalry Regiment, entered what came to be known as "The City", southwest of Snoul. The two-square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts, storage sheds, and bunkers, each of which was packed with food, weapons and ammunition. There were truck repair facilities, hospitals, a lumber yard, 18 mess halls, a pig farm and even a swimming pool.
The one thing that was not found was COSVN. On 1 May a tape of Nixon's announcement of the incursion was played for Abrams, who according to Lewis Sorley "must have cringed" when he heard the President state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation.
MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate. In response to a White House query before the fact, MACV had replied that "major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle" and that "the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote".
After the first week of operations, additional battalion and brigade units were committed to the operation, so that between 6 and 24 May, a total of 90,000 Allied troops (including 33 U.S. maneuver battalions) were conducting operations inside Cambodia. Due to increasing political and domestic turbulence in the U.S., Nixon issued a directive on 7 May limiting the distance and duration of U.S. operations to a depth of 30 kilometers (19 mi) and setting a deadline of 30 June for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces to South Vietnam. The final results for the operation were 3,190 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 4,693 individual and 731 crew-served weapons captured.
### Operations Toan Thang 44, 45 and 46
On 6 May the U.S. 1st and 2nd Brigades, 25th Infantry Division, launched Operation Toan Thang 44 against Base Areas 353, 354 and 707 located north and northeast of Tây Ninh Province. Once again, a hunt for COSVN units was conducted, this time around the Cambodian town of Memot and, once again, the search was futile. On 7 May the 2nd Battalion, 14th Infantry Regiment engaged a PAVN force killing 167 and capturing 28 weapons. On 11 May brigade units found a large food and material cache. The operation ended on 14 May. Results for the operation were 302 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 297 individual and 34 crew-served weapons captured. Another source states that the division killed 1,017 PAVN/VC troops while losing 119 of its own men killed.
Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44, two battalions of the U.S. 3rd Brigade, 9th Infantry Division, crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the "Dog's Face" from 7 through 12 May. The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near Chantrea District, where 51 PAVN were killed and another 21 were captured. During the operation, the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded.
On 6 May the 2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, launched Operation Toan Thang 45 against Base Area 351 northwest of Bù Đốp District. On 7 May the Cavalry located a massive supply cache, nicknamed "Rock Island East" after the U.S. Army's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois, the area contained more than 6.5 million rounds of anti-aircraft ammunition, 500,000 rifle rounds, thousands of rockets, several General Motors trucks, and large quantities of communications equipment.
A pioneer road was constructed to aid the evacuation of the captured weaponry. On 12 May the 5th Battalion, 12th Infantry Regiment, was attacked overnight by a PAVN force losing one killed while claiming 50 PAVN killed. The Cavalry continued searching for supply caches until returning to South Vietnam on 29 June. Results for the operation were 1,527 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 3,073 individual and 449 crew-served weapons captured.
Also on 6 May the ARVN 9th Regiment, 5th Infantry Division, launched Operation Toan Thang 46 against Base Area 350. On 25 May, after being engaged by a PAVN/VC force, the 9th Regiment discovered a 500-bed hospital. The Regiment continued searching for supply caches before starting a withdrawal towards Route 13 on 20 June, returning to South Vietnam on 30 June. Results for the operation were 79 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 325 individual and 41 crew-served weapons captured.
### Operations Binh Tay I–III
In the II Corps area, Operation Binh Tay I (Operation Tame the West) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the ARVN 40th Infantry Regiment, 22nd Infantry Division against Base Area 702 (the traditional headquarters of the PAVN B-2 Front) in northeastern Cambodia from 5–25 May. Following airstrikes, the initial American forces, the 3rd Battalion, 506th Infantry (on loan from the 101st Airborne Division), assaulting via helicopter, were driven back by intense anti-aircraft fire. On 6 May following preparatory airstrikes the assault was resumed. Helicopters carrying the 3rd Battalion, 8th Infantry were met again by intense anti-aircraft fire and were diverted to an alternative landing zone, however only 60 men were landed before intense PAVN fire (which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others) shut down the landing zone, leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight.
On 7 May, the division's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed. On 10 May, Bravo Company, 3/506th Infantry, was ambushed by a much larger PAVN force in the Se San Valley. Eight U.S. soldiers were killed and 28 wounded, among those killed was Specialist Leslie Sabo, Jr. (posthumously promoted to Sergeant), who was recommended for the Medal of Honor, but the paperwork went missing until 1999. Sabo was awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012 by President Barack Obama.
After ten days the American troops returned to South Vietnam, leaving the area to the ARVN. Historian Shelby Stanton has noted that "there was a noted lack of aggressiveness" in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be "suffering from almost total combat paralysis." The operation ended on 25 May, U.S./ARVN losses were 43 killed while PAVN/VC losses were 212 killed and 7 captured and 859 individual and 20 crew-served weapons captured.
During Operation Binh Tay II, the ARVN 22nd Division moved against Base Area 701 from 14 to 27 May. No significant combat occurred but the ARVN killed 73 PAVN/VC and captured 6 and located supply caches containing 346 individual and 23 crew-served weapons, ammunition and medical supplies. The operation ended on 27 May.
Operation Binh Tay III, was carried out by ARVN forces between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 23rd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740. During Phase 1 from 20 May to 3 June the ARVN killed 96 PAVN/VC and captured one while losing 29 killed. Phase 2 took place from 4 to 12 June with limited results. During Phase 3 from 19 to 27 June and resulted the ARVN killed 149 PAVN/VC and captured 3 and 581 individual and 85 crew-served weapons for the loss of 38 killed.
### Operations Cuu Long I–III
On 9 May ARVN IV Corps launched Operation Cuu Long, in which ARVN ground forces, including mechanized and armored units, drove west and northwest up the eastern side of the Mekong River from 9 May to 1 July. A combined force of 110 Republic of Vietnam Navy and 30 U.S. vessels proceeded up the Mekong to Prey Veng, permitting IV Corps ground forces to move westward to Phnom Penh to aid ethnic Vietnamese seeking flight to South Vietnam. During these operations South Vietnamese and American naval forces evacuated about 35,000 Vietnamese from Cambodia. Those who did not wish to be repatriated were then forcibly expelled.
Surprisingly, North Vietnamese forces did not oppose the evacuation, though they could easily have done so. It was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution, but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could be evacuated to safety. Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave. The new relationship did not, however, prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left.
Subsequent operations conducted by IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II (16–24 May), which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong. Lon Nol had requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kampong Speu, a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and 90 miles (140 km) inside Cambodia. A 4,000-man ARVN armored task force linked up with FANK troops and then retook the town. Operation Cuu Long III (24 May – 30 June) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces had left Cambodia.
Operation Cuu Long II was initiated by IV Corps on 16 May to assist the FANK in restoring security around Takéo. ARVN forces committed included the 9th and 21st Infantry Divisions, 4th Armor Brigade, 4th Ranger Group and the Châu Đốc Province Regional Forces. The weeklong operation resulted in 613 PAVN/VC killed and 52 captured and 792 individual and 84 crew-served weapons captured. ARVN losses were 36 killed. Operations continued under the name Operation Cuu Long III starting 25 May in the same area with the same forces less the 21st Division which had returned to South Vietnam. While the PAVN/VC generally avoided contact, the ARVN located 3,500 weapons in a storage area.
### Evacuation of Ratanakiri – Operation Binh Tay IV
In late June the FANK asked the U.S. and South Vietnam for assistance in evacuating two isolated garrisons at Ba Kev and Labang Siek in Ratanakiri Province. On 21 June the ARVN 22nd Division was given the mission of facilitating the evacuation of the bases. On 23 June the division moved to Đức Cơ Camp and was organized into four task forces which would then advance west along Route 19 to Ba Kev, protected by U.S. air cavalry units.
The FANK units at Labang Siek would then move 35 km (22 mi) east along Route 19 to Ba Kev and would then be flown or trucked to Đức Cơ across the border to South Vietnam. The operation began on 25 June and was successfully completed by 27 June with 7,571 FANK troops, their dependents and refugees evacuated. ARVN losses were 2 killed while PAVN losses were 6 killed and 2 weapons captured.
### Air support and logistics
Aerial operations for the incursion got off to a slow start. Reconnaissance flights over the operational area were restricted since MACV believed that they might serve as a signal of intention. The role of the United States Air Force (USAF) in the planning for the incursion itself was minimal at best, in part to preserve the secrecy of Menu which was then considered an overture to the thrust across the border.
On 17 April, Abrams requested that Nixon approve Operation Patio, covert tactical airstrikes in support of MACV-SOG reconnaissance elements in Cambodia. This authorization was given, allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate 13 miles (21 km) into northeastern Cambodia. This boundary was extended to 29 miles (47 km) along the entire frontier on 25 April. Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties had been flown. The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May.
During the incursion itself, U.S. and ARVN ground units were supported by 9,878 aerial sorties (6,012 USAF/2,966 RVNAF), an average of 210 per day. During operations in the Fishhook, for example, the USAF flew 3,047 sorties and the RVNAF 332. These tactical airstrikes were supplemented by 653 B-52 missions in the border regions (71 supporting Binh Tay operations, 559 for Toan Thang operations and 23 for Cuu Long).
30 May saw the inauguration of Operation Freedom Deal (named as of 6 June), a continuous U.S. aerial interdiction campaign conducted in Cambodia. These missions were limited to a depth of 48 kilometers between the South Vietnamese border and the Mekong River. Within two months, however, the limit of the operational area was extended past the Mekong and U.S. tactical aircraft were soon directly supporting Cambodian forces in the field. These missions were officially denied by the U.S. and false coordinates were given in official reports to hide their existence. Defense Department records indicated that out of more than 8,000 combat sorties flown in Cambodia between July 1970 and February 1971, approximately 40 percent were flown outside the authorized boundary.
The real struggle for the U.S. and ARVN forces in Cambodia was the effort at keeping their units supplied. Once again, the need for security before the operations and the rapidity with which units were transferred to the border regions precluded detailed planning and preparation. Abrams was fortunate, had the PAVN/VC fought for the sanctuaries instead of fleeing, U.S. and ARVN units would have rapidly consumed their available supplies. This situation was exacerbated by the poor road network in the border regions and the possibility of ambush for nighttime road convoys demanded that deliveries only take place during daylight.
The tempo of logistical troops could be mind numbing. The U.S. Third Ordnance Battalion for example, loaded up to 150 flatbed trucks per day with ammunition. Logisticians were issuing more than 2,300 short tons (almost five million pounds) of supplies every day to support the incursion. Aerial resupply, therefore, became the chief method of logistical replenishment for the forward units. Military engineers and aviators were kept in constant motion throughout the incursion zone.
Due to the rapid pace of operations, deployment, and redeployment, coordination of artillery units and their fires became a worrisome quandary during the operations. This was made even more problematic by the confusion generated by the lack of adequate communications systems between the rapidly advancing units. The joint nature of the operation added another level of complexity to the already overstretched communications network. Regardless, due to the ability of U.S. logisticians to innovate and improvise, supplies of food, water, ammunition, and spare parts arrived at their destinations without any shortages hampering combat operations and the communications system, although complicated, functioned well enough during the short duration of U.S. operations.
## Aftermath
The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and, if possible, to fall back westward and regroup. PAVN/VC forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN/B-3 Front military units were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began. During 1969 PAVN logistical units had already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict.
As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route, PAVN forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year, pushing what had been a 60-mile (97 km) corridor to a width of 90 miles (140 km) and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia. A new logistical command, the 470th Transportation Group, was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new "Liberation Route" ran through Siem Pang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng.
The majority of the PAVN/VC forces had withdrawn deeper into Cambodia before the invasion with a rearguard left to stage a fighting retreat to avoid charges of cowardice. PAVN/VC losses in manpower were minimal, but much equipment and arms were abandoned. The allied forces captured a vast haul of weapons and equipment and the for the rest of 1970 PAVN/VC activities in the Saigon area were notably reduced. However, by 1971 all of the weapons and equipment had been replaced while the PAVN/VC returned to their frontier bases in the summer of 1970 after the withdraw of the Americans in June 1970.
General Abrams was frustrated with the invasion, saying: "We need to go west from where we are, we need to go north and east from where we are. And we need to do it now. It's moving and-goddam, goddam". When one officer asked "Time to exploit?", Abrams replied: "Christ! It's so clear. Don't them pick up the pieces. Don't let them pick up the pieces. Just like the Germans. You give them 36 hours and, goddam it, you've got to start the war all over again".
As foreseen by Laird, fallout from the incursion was quick in coming on the campuses of America's universities, as protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country. On 4 May the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four unarmed students (two of whom were not protesters) during the Kent State shootings. Two days later, at the University at Buffalo, police wounded four more demonstrators. On 15 May city and state police killed two and wounded twelve at Jackson State College in Jackson, Mississippi.
Earlier, on 8 May 100,000 protesters had gathered in Washington and another 150,000 in San Francisco on only ten days notice. Nationwide, 30 ROTC buildings went up in flames or were bombed while 26 schools witnessed violent clashes between students and police. National Guard units were mobilized on 21 campuses in 16 states. The student strike spread nationwide, involving more than four million students and 450 universities, colleges and high schools in mostly peaceful protests and walkouts.
Simultaneously, public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of Nixon's actions. Fifty-eight percent blamed the students for what had occurred at Kent State. On both sides, emotions ran high. In one instance, in New York City on 8 May, pro-administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students. Such violence, however, was an aberration. Most demonstrations, both pro- and anti-war, were peaceful. On 20 May 100,000 construction workers, tradesmen, and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of Nixon's policies.
Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift. Senators Frank F. Church (Democratic Party, Idaho) and John S. Cooper (Republican Party, Kentucky), proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act of 1971 that would have cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia, but would also have ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces. On 30 June the U.S. Senate passed the act with the amendment included. The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled. The newly amended act did, however, rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution (better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon had conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war.
The Cooper–Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970. This time the measure made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December. As a result, all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia, while the air war being conducted in both countries by the USAF was ignored.
In June 1970 Thiệu met with Lon Nol, Prince Sirik Matak and Cheng Heng at Neak Loeung where the ARVN had established an operational base. On 27 June 1970 Thiệu gave a televised speech in which he outlined South Vietnam's Cambodia policy: (1) South Vietnamese forces would continue to operate on Cambodian territory after the withdrawal of U.S. forces to prevent the PAVN/VC from returning to their base areas; (2) South Vietnamese forces would continue to evacuate Vietnamese who wished to be repatriated; (3) The South Vietnamese government would support the Cambodian government in meeting PAVN/VC aggression; (4) future activities in Cambodia would be conducted without U.S. support; (5) the bulk of South Vietnamese forces would be withdrawn from Cambodia; and (6) the object of South Vietnamese actions was to improve South Vietnamese security and ensure the success of Vietnamization. The South Vietnamese military established a liaison office in Phnom Penh and monthly meetings of the JGS, FANK command and MACV were instituted.
South Vietnamese operations into the border areas of Cambodia continued. Operation Toan Thang 42 Phase VI was conducted along Routes 1 and 7 with limited success due to the onset of the rainy season. Operation Cuu Long 44-02 was conducted from 13 to 25 January 1971 to reopen Route 4 which had been closed by the PAVN 1st Division occupying the Pich Nil Pass (). The operation was successful with PAVN/Khmer Rouge losses of 211 killed while ARVN losses were 16 killed.
In mid-1971 the Cambodian government requested the abrogation of South Vietnam's zone of operations in Cambodia and the South Vietnamese agreed to reducing the zone to a depth of 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi), which reflected the inability of the South Vietnamese to conduct deeper incursions without U.S. support. South Vietnam mounted its last major operation in Cambodia from 27 March to 2 April 1974 culminating in the Battle of Svay Rieng. Following that action the severe constraints on ARVN ammunition expenditures, fuel usage, and flying hours permitted no new initiatives.
## Conclusion
Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be "the most successful military operation of the entire war." Abrams was of like mind, believing that time had been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces had been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972. A "decent interval" had been obtained for the final American withdrawal. ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical:
> [D]espite its spectacular results...it must be recognized that the Cambodian incursion proved, in the long run, to pose little more than a temporary disruption of North Vietnam's march toward domination of all of Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam.
John Shaw and other historians, military and civilian, have based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia had been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective. However this was only temporary as shown by the sustained PAVN attacks on An Loc supported out of Cambodia during the 1972 Easter Offensive.
The U.S. and ARVN claimed 11,369 PAVN/VC soldiers killed and 2,509 captured. The logistical haul discovered, removed, or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious: 22,892 individual and 2,509 crew-served weapons; 7,000 to 8,000 tons of rice; 1,800 tons of ammunition (including 143,000 mortar shells, rockets and recoilless rifle rounds); 29 tons of communications equipment; 431 vehicles; and 55 tons of medical supplies. MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN/VC forces in southern Vietnam required 1,222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations.
The official PAVN history claims that from April to July they eliminated 40,000 enemy troops, destroyed 3,000 vehicles and 400 artillery pieces and captured 5,000 weapons, 113 vehicles, 1,570 tons of rice and 100 tons of medical supplies.
Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos, MACV estimated that for every 2.5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail, only one ton reached its destination. However, the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent. Due to lack of verifiable sources in North Vietnam, this figure is, at best, an estimate. The official PAVN history noted:
> [T]he enemy had established control over and successfully suppressed, to some extent at least, our nighttime supply operations. Enemy aircraft destroyed 4,000 trucks during the 1970–1971 dry season... Our supply effort, conducted during a single season of the year and using a single supply route, was unable to keep up with our requirements and our night supply operations encountered difficulties.
Regardless, the PAVN's Group 559 successfully countered these efforts through camouflage tactics and the construction of thousands of kilometers of "bypass" roads to avoid choke points that frequently came under enemy attack. Per the same history,
> [I]n 1969 Group 559 shipped 20 thousand tons of supplies to the battlefields, in 1970 this total rose to 40 thousand tons and in 1971 it increased to 60 thousand tons... losses along the way in 1969, which were 13.5 percent, declined to 3.4 percent in 1970 and 2.7 percent in 1971.
The USAF's best estimate for the same time period was that one-third of the total amount was destroyed in transit.
South Vietnamese forces had performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven. Trí proved a resourceful and inspiring commander, earning the sobriquet the "Patton of the Parrot's Beak" from the American media. Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyễn Viết Thanh, commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot's Beak operation. Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese, both officers were killed in helicopter crashes, Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Trí in February 1971. Other ARVN commanders, however, had not performed as well. Even at this late date in the conflict, the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence.
As a test of Vietnamization, the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike, but the Vietnamese had not really performed alone. The participation of U.S. ground and air forces had precluded any such claim. When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos (Operation Lam Son 719) in 1971, the ARVN's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent.
The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it was already under way. The Cambodian leadership however welcomed the intervention against PAVN bases and the resulting weakening of PAVN military capabilities. The leadership had hoped for permanent U.S. occupation of the PAVN sanctuaries because FANK and ARVN forces were unable to fill the vacuum in these territories following U.S. withdrawal and instead the PAVN and Khmer Rouge moved quickly to fill the void. It has been argued that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause. |
5,807,380 | Cripple Creek miners' strike of 1894 | 1,171,287,487 | Labor strike by the Western Federation of Miners in Colorado | [
"1890 in the United States",
"1890s in Colorado",
"1890s strikes in the United States",
"1894 in Colorado",
"1894 labor disputes and strikes",
"Colorado Mining Boom",
"History of Teller County, Colorado",
"Labor disputes in Colorado",
"Labor disputes in the United States",
"Law enforcement operations in the United States",
"Miners' labor disputes in the United States",
"Western Federation of Miners"
]
| The Cripple Creek miners' strike of 1894 was a five-month strike by the Western Federation of Miners (WFM) in Cripple Creek, Colorado, United States. It resulted in a victory for the union and was followed in 1903 by the Colorado Labor Wars. It is notable for being the only time in United States history when a state militia was called out (May/June 1894) in support of striking workers.
The strike was characterized by firefights and use of dynamite, and ended after a standoff between the Colorado state militia and a private force working for owners of the mines. In the years after the strike, the WFM's popularity and power increased significantly through the region.
## Causes of the strike
At the end of the 19th century, Cripple Creek was the largest town in the gold-mining district that included the towns of Altman, Anaconda, Arequa, Goldfield, Elkton, Independence and Victor, about 20 miles from Colorado Springs on the southwest side of Pikes Peak. Surface gold was discovered in the area in 1891, and within three years more than 150 mines were operating there.
The Panic of 1893 caused the price of silver to crash; the gold price, however, remained fixed, as the United States was on the gold standard. The influx of silver miners into the gold mines caused a lowering of wages. Mine owners demanded longer hours for less pay.
In January 1894, Cripple Creek mine owners J. J. Hagerman, David Moffat and Eben Smith, who together employed one-third of the area's miners, announced a lengthening of the work-day to ten hours (from eight), with no change to the daily wage of \$3.00 per day. When workers protested, the owners agreed to employ the miners for eight hours a day – but at a wage of only \$2.50.
Not long before this dispute, miners at Cripple Creek had formed the Free Coinage Union. Once the new changes went into effect, they affiliated with the Western Federation of Miners, and became Local 19. The union was based in Altman, and had chapters in Anaconda, Cripple Creek and Victor.
On February 1, 1894, the mine owners began implementing the 10-hour day. Union president John Calderwood issued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners reinstate the eight-hour day at the \$3.00 wage. When the owners did not respond, the nascent union struck on February 7. Portland, Pikes Peak, Gold Dollar and a few smaller mines immediately agreed to the eight-hour day and remained open, but larger mines held out.
## Events of the strike
The strike had an immediate effect. By the end of February, every smelter in Colorado was either closed or running part-time. At the beginning of March, the Gold King and Granite mines gave in and resumed the eight-hour day.
Mine owners still holding out for the 10-hour day soon attempted to re-open their mines. On March 14, they obtained a court injunction ordering the miners not to interfere with the operation of their mines, and hired strikebreakers. The WFM initially attempted to persuade these men to join the union and strike, but when they were unsuccessful, the union resorted to threats and violence. These tactics succeeded in driving non-union miners out of the district.
On March 16, an armed group of miners ambushed and captured six sheriff's deputies en route to the Victor mine. A fight broke out, in which one deputy was shot and another hit by a club. An Altman judge, a member of the WFM, charged the deputies with carrying concealed weapons and disturbing the peace, then released them.
### Involvement of the state militia
After the assault on his deputies, El Paso County Sheriff M. F. Bowers wired the governor and requested the intervention of the state militia (predecessor to the Colorado National Guard). Governor Davis H. Waite, a 67-year-old Populist, dispatched 300 troops to the area on March 18 under the command of Adjutant General T. J. Tarsney. Tarsney found the area tense but quiet. Union president Calderwood assured him that union members would cooperate with his operations, even surrendering for arrest if requested. Convinced that Bowers had exaggerated the extent of the chaos in the region, Tarsney recommended the withdrawal of troops; Waite concurred. The state militia left Cripple Creek on March 20.
In response to the recall of the state militia, the mine owners closed the mines. Bowers arrested Calderwood, 18 other miners, and the mayor and town marshal of Altman (who had supported the miners). They were taken to Colorado Springs and quickly tried on several different charges, but found not guilty. Meanwhile, outbursts of violence, such as stone-throwing and fights between union miners and scabs, increased in frequency. Stores and warehouses were broken into, and guns and ammunition stolen.
In early May, the mine owners met with representatives of the WFM in Colorado Springs in an attempt to end the strike. The owners offered to return to the eight-hour day, but at a daily wage of only \$2.75. The union rejected the offer and talks broke down.
### County sheriff deputizes an army
Shortly after negotiations with the union ended, the mine owners met secretly with Sheriff Bowers in Colorado Springs. They told Bowers they intended to bring in hundreds of nonunion workers, and asked if he could protect such a large force of men. Bowers said he could not, for the county lacked the financial resources to pay and arm more than a few deputies. The mine owners offered to subsidize an initial force of a hundred or so men. Bowers agreed, and immediately began recruiting ex-police and ex-firefighters from Denver.
News of the mine owners' meeting with Bowers soon leaked out, and the miners organized and armed themselves in response. Calderwood was leaving on a tour of the WFM locals in Colorado to raise funds for the Cripple Creek strike, and so appointed Junius J. Johnson, a former U.S. Army officer, to take over strike operations. Johnson immediately established a camp atop Bull Hill, which overlooked the town of Altman. He ordered that fortifications be built, a commissary stocked and the miners be drilled in maneuvers.
### Dynamiting the Strong mine
On May 24, the strikers seized the Strong mine on Battle Mountain, which overlooked the town of Victor. The next day, at about 9 am, 125 deputies arrived in Altman and set up camp at the base of Bull Hill. As they started to march toward the strikers' camp, miners at the Strong mine blew up the shafthouse, hurling the structure more than 300 feet into the air. A few moments later, the steam boiler was also dynamited, showering the deputies with timber, iron and cable. The deputies fled to the rail station and left town.
A celebration broke out among the miners, who broke into liquor warehouses and saloons. That night, some of the miners loaded a flatcar with dynamite and attempted to roll it toward the deputies' camp. It overturned short of its goal and killed a cow. Other miners wanted to blow up every mine in the region, but Johnson quickly discouraged them. Frustrated, several drunken miners then stole a work train and steamed into Victor. They caught up with the group of fleeing deputies, and a gun battle broke out. One deputy and one miner died, a man on each side was wounded, and six strikers were captured by the deputies. The miners subsequently captured three officials of the Strong mine who had been present when the shafthouse was blown up. A formal prisoner exchange later freed all prisoners on both sides.
Calderwood returned during the night and restored calm. He asked saloons to close, and he imprisoned several miners who had instigated outbursts of violence.
On May 26, mine owners met again with Sheriff Bowers in Colorado City. The owners agreed to provide more funding to allow the sheriff to raise 1,200 additional deputies. Bowers quickly recruited men from all over the state, and established a camp for them in the town of Divide, about 12 miles away from Cripple Creek.
### Waite intervenes
Warned about the size of the force Bowers was raising, Governor Davis Hanson Waite interceded again in the strike. He issued a proclamation on May 27 in which he called on the miners to disband their encampment on Bull Hill. In a development unparalleled in American labor history, he also declared the force of 1,200 deputies to be illegal and ordered the group disbanded. He also ordered the state militia to be on the alert for a possible move on Cripple Creek. On May 28, the governor visited the miners, who authorized Waite to negotiate on their behalf.
An initial meeting on May 30 nearly ended in disaster. Waite and several local civic leaders called union president Calderwood and mine owners Hagerman and Moffat to a conference in a meeting hall on the campus of Colorado College in Colorado Springs. Talks were under way and proceeding well when a mob of local citizens attempted to storm the building. Blaming Calderwood and Waite for the violence in Cripple Creek, they intended to lynch both men. As a local judge distracted the mob, Calderwood and Waite escaped out a rear door and onto the governor's waiting train.
Negotiations resumed in Denver on June 2, and the parties reached an agreement on June 4. The agreement provided for resumption of the \$3.00-per-day wage and the eight-hour day. The mine owners agreed not to retaliate against or prosecute any miner who had taken part in the strike, and the miners agreed not to discriminate against or harass any nonunion worker who remained employed in the mines.
### The state militia returns
With 1,300 deputies still in Cripple Creek, Sheriff Bowers was unable to control the army he had created. On June 5, the deputies moved into Altman, perhaps as a prelude to storming Bull Hill. The deputies cut the telegraph and telephone wires leading out of town, and imprisoned a number of reporters. Concerned that the paramilitary force might get out of hand, Waite again dispatched the state militia, this time under the command of General E.J. Brooks.
When Colorado state troops arrived in Cripple Creek early on the morning of June 6, more violence had already broken out. The deputies were exchanging gunfire with the miners on Bull Hill. Gen. Brooks quickly moved his troops from the train station to the foot of Bull Hill. As Sheriff Bowers and Gen. Brooks began to argue about what course of action to take next, the deputies took advantage of the lull and attempted to charge the miners. The miners sounded the whistle at the Victor mine, alerting Gen. Brooks. Soldiers of the state militia quickly intercepted the deputies and stopped their advance. Brooks ordered his men to occupy the top of Bull Hill, and the miners offered no resistance.
The deputies turned their attention to Cripple Creek itself. They arrested and imprisoned hundreds of citizens without cause. Many inhabitants of the town were seized on the street or pulled from their homes, then clubbed, kicked or beaten. The deputies formed a gauntlet and forced townspeople to pass through it, spitting, slapping and kicking them. With Bull Hill in his possession, Gen. Brooks began detaining the deputies. By nightfall, Brooks had seized the town and corralled all of Bowers' men.
Waite threatened to declare martial law, but the mine owners refused to disband their deputy force. Gen. Brooks then threatened to keep his troops in the region for another 30 days. Faced with the prospect of paying for a paramilitary force which could only sit on its hands, the owners agreed to disband it. The deputies, which Gen. Brooks had dispatched via rail to Colorado Springs, began dispersing on June 11. The Waite agreement became operative the same day, and the miners returned to work.
Union president Calderwood and 300 other miners were arrested and charged with a variety of crimes. Only four miners were convicted of any charges, and were quickly pardoned by the sympathetic populist governor.
## Impact of the strike
The Cripple Creek strike was a major victory for the miners' union. The Western Federation of Miners used the success of the strike to organize almost every worker in the Cripple Creek region – including waitresses, laundry workers, bartenders and newsboys – into 54 local unions. The WFM flourished in the Cripple Creek area for almost a decade, even helping to elect most county officials (including the new sheriff).
The Cripple Creek strike also transformed the Western Federation of Miners enormously as a political entity. The year-old union, weak and penniless before the strike, became widely admired among miners throughout the West. Thousands of workers joined the union over the next few years. Politicians and labor officials throughout the country became steady allies of the union, and the WFM became a political force throughout much of the Rocky Mountain West.
But the WFM's success at Cripple Creek also created a significant backlash. The WFM was forever tarred as a dangerous and violent organization in the eyes of employers. Never again would the WFM have in a local strike the level of public support it enjoyed at Cripple Creek in 1894. Indeed, when the union struck the Cripple Creek mines again in 1898, its public support ended after violence broke out. During another strike in 1903–4, whose violent significance earned it the name Colorado Labor Wars, the union went up against the power of the employers and the state combined.
The union's success also altered the course of Colorado politics. Colorado citizens blamed Waite for protecting the miners' union and encouraging violence and anarchy. The backlash led to Waite's defeat at the polls in November 1894 and the election of Republican Albert McIntire. The Populist movement in Colorado never recovered.
The Cripple Creek strike of 1894 also hardened the attitudes of mine owners. Under Gov. McIntire, the government of Colorado formed a political alliance with the mine owners. Mine owners increasingly turned to the Thiel Detective Service Company and Pinkerton National Detective Agency for spies, increased the use of strikebreakers, and implemented the lockout and blacklist as a means of controlling union members.
After a nighttime rifle and dynamite attack by striking miners on two mines during the Leadville Miners' Strike in 1896, which succeeded in burning down the surface works of one of the mines, even the pro-union county sheriff requested Gov. McIntire to send in the state militia, and the WFM lost the strike, and its influence in Leadville. The collapse of the 1896 Leadville strike caused the WFM to sever its relationship with the American Federation of Labor and to turn strongly to the left politically. After the Colorado Labor Wars, the WFM was instrumental in launching the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in 1905, but withdrew from the IWW a few years later. Although the IWW's heyday was short-lived, the union was symbolically important and the ideals embodied by it continue to deeply influence the American labor movement to this day.
## See also
- Colorado Labor Wars, the WFM strike of 1903–4
- Albert Horsley (a.k.a. Harry Orchard)
- Copper Country strike of 1913–1914 |
6,875,631 | New York State Route 228 | 1,135,188,265 | State highway in Schuyler County, New York, US | [
"State highways in New York (state)",
"Transportation in Schuyler County, New York"
]
| New York State Route 228 (NY 228) is a state highway in Schuyler County, New York, in the United States. It runs for 12.47 miles (20.07 km) in a northeast to southwest direction from an intersection with NY 224 in the village of Odessa to a junction with NY 227 in the hamlet of Perry City within the town of Hector. NY 228 has a short overlap with NY 79 in the Hector community of Mecklenburg. The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York; however, it initially ended at NY 79 in Mecklenburg, from where NY 79 went north to Perry City. NY 79 was realigned to head west from Mecklenburg in the early 1960s, at which time the NY 228 designation was extended northward over NY 79's former routing.
## Route description
NY 228 begins at an intersection with NY 224 in Odessa. It progresses northward from NY 224 as the two-lane Mecklenburg Road, crossing nearby railroad tracks and entering a more pronounced rural area north of town. The road gradually curves to the northeast, passing by brief wooded areas on its way into the hamlet of Catharine, where NY 228 intersects with County Route 10 (CR 10). At this point, NY 228 turns northward to follow CR 10's right-of-way out of the hamlet. Just outside Catharine, NY 228 begins to parallel the western shoreline of nearby Cayuta Lake, which ends about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north of the community. After Cayuta Lake, the road winds its way northward along the base of a largely undeveloped valley to reach the town of Hector and its hamlet of Smith Valley. Here, the valley and NY 228 curve northeastward, following Taughannock Creek through eastern Schuyler County.
The route remains on a northeast–southwest alignment to the hamlet of Mecklenburg, where the highway passes some residences ahead of intersections with CR 6 and NY 79. NY 79 and NY 228 overlap for one block before NY 228 splits to the northeast at the northern edge of the community. The overlap with NY 79 is the busiest section of NY 228, serving an average of 2,556 vehicles per day as of 2009. Outside of Mecklenburg, the road crosses more rural areas in the town of Hector as it heads generally northeastward along Taughannock Creek and approaches the Tompkins County line. The route pulls to within a tenth-mile (0.2 km) of the line at the hamlet of Perry City, where NY 228 ends at an intersection with NY 227. Also present at the junction is CR 3, a short route leading east to CR 142 at the Tompkins County line. NY 227 enters the intersection from the west; however, it leaves to the north on NY 228's right-of-way.
## History
In 1911, the New York State Legislature created Route 46, an unsigned legislative route extending from Coopers Plains in Steuben County to Trumansburg in Tompkins County via Watkins Glen. East of Watkins Glen, Route 46 proceeded generally northeastward through Burdett, Reynoldsville and Mecklenburg on its way to Trumansburg. On March 1, 1921, the Route 46 designation was reassigned to another highway in Allegany and Steuben counties as part of a partial renumbering of the legislative route system. The section of pre-1921 Route 46 between Mecklenburg and Perry City went unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, when it became part of NY 79.
At Mecklenburg, NY 79 connected to NY 228, another route assigned in the renumbering that ran southwest from Mecklenburg to NY 224 in Odessa. The road that became NY 228 was state-maintained south of Cayuta Lake by 1926, while the remainder of the highway was rebuilt as a state road c. 1930. NY 228 went unchanged until the early 1960s when NY 79 was rerouted to follow a previously unnumbered highway west of Mecklenburg instead. The former routing of NY 79 from Mecklenburg to Perry City became an extension of NY 228.
## Major intersections
## See also |
26,371 | Ratatoskr | 1,168,860,178 | Norse mythical animal | [
"Creatures in Norse mythology",
"Mythological rodents",
"Squirrels in human culture",
"Talking animals in mythology",
"Yggdrasil"
]
| In Norse mythology, Ratatoskr (Old Norse, generally considered to mean "drill-tooth" or "bore-tooth") is a squirrel who runs up and down the world tree Yggdrasil to carry messages between the eagles perched atop Yggdrasil, and the serpent Níðhöggr, who dwells beneath one of the three roots of the tree. Ratatoskr is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson.
## Etymology
The name Ratatoskr contains two elements: rata- and -toskr. The element toskr is generally held to mean "tusk". Guðbrandur Vigfússon theorized that the rati- element means "the traveller". He says that the name of the legendary drill Rati may feature the same term. According to Vigfússon, Ratatoskr means "tusk the traveller" or "the climber tusk."
Sophus Bugge theorized that the name Ratatoskr is a loanword from Old English meaning "Rat-tooth." Bugge's basis hinges on the fact that the -toskr element of the compound does not appear anywhere else in Old Norse. Bugge proposed that the -toskr element is a reformation of the Old English word tūsc (Old Frisian tusk) and, in turn, that the element Rata- represents Old English ræt ("rat").
According to Albert Sturtevant, "[as] far as the element Rata- is concerned, Bugge's hypothesis has no valid foundation in view of the fact that the [Old Norse] word Rata (gen. form of Rati\*) is used in Háv[amál] (106, 1) to signify the instrument which Odin employed for boring his way through the rocks in quest of the poet's mead [...]" and that "Rati\* must then be considered a native [Old Norse] word meaning "The Borer, Gnawer" [...]".
Sturtevant says that Bugge's theory regarding the element -toskr may appear to be supported by the fact that the word does not appear elsewhere in Old Norse. However, Sturtevant says that the Old Norse proper name Tunne (derived from Proto-Norse \*Tunþē) refers to "a person who is characterized as having some peculiar sort of tooth" and theorizes a Proto-Germanic form of -toskr. Sturtevant concludes that "the fact that the [Old Norse] word occurs only in the name Rata-toskr is no valid evidence against this assumption, for there are many [Old Norse] hapax legomena of native origin, as is attested by the equivalents in the Mod[ern] Scandinavian dialects." Modern scholars have accepted this etymology, listing the name Ratatoskr as meaning "drill-tooth" (Jesse Byock, Andy Orchard, Rudolf Simek) or "bore-tooth" (John Lindow).
## Attestations
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál, the god Odin (disguised as Grímnir) says that Ratatoskr runs up and down Yggdrasil bringing messages between the eagle perched atop it and Níðhöggr below it:
Ratatoskr is described in the Prose Eddas Gylfaginning's chapter 16, in which High states that
> An eagle sits at the top of the ash, and it has knowledge of many things. Between its eyes sits the hawk called Vedrfolnir [...]. The squirrel called Ratatosk [...] runs up and down the ash. He tells slanderous gossip, provoking the eagle and Nidhogg.
## Theories
According to Rudolf Simek, "the squirrel probably only represents an embellishing detail to the mythological picture of the world-ash in Grímnismál. Hilda Ellis Davidson, describing the world tree, states the squirrel is said to gnaw at it—furthering a continual destruction and re-growth cycle, and posits the tree symbolizes ever-changing existence. John Lindow points out that Yggdrasil is described as rotting on one side and as being chewed on by four harts and Níðhöggr, and that, according to the account in Gylfaginning, it also bears verbal hostility in the fauna it supports. Lindow adds that "in the sagas, a person who helps stir up or keep feuds alive by ferrying words of malice between the participants is seldom one of high status, which may explain the assignment of this role in the mythology to a relatively insignificant animal".
Richard W. Thorington Jr. and Katie Ferrell theorize that "the role of Ratatosk probably derived from the habit of European tree squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) to give a scolding alarm call in response to danger. It takes little imagination for you to think that the squirrel is saying nasty things about you."
## In popular culture
Ratatoskr appears in his natural habitat in American Gods by Neil Gaiman.
A fragment of Ratatoskr, nicknamed “Bitter” and voiced by Troy Baker, appears in the 2018 video game God of War, where he has the ability to provide the player with healing items. The actual Ratatoskr appears in the 2022 sequel, God of War Ragnarök (alongside Bitter), tending to the world tree Yggdrasil; this version of the character is voiced by SungWon Cho.
He also appears as a playable character in the game Smite.
In the 2010 video game Young Thor, Ratatoskr is depicted as an ally of Hel, who serves as the game's antagonist.
Ratatoskr also appears in the 2020 video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla, where he engages the player in flyting, a poetic duel, in the mythical realm of Jötunheimr.
In the comic book series The Unbeatable Squirrel Girl, Ratatoskr is featured as a villainous female squirrel god from Asgard who wants to destroy all of humanity. She was defeated by Squirrel Girl after she teamed up with Thor and Loki. However, she later teamed up with Squirrel Girl to fight the Frost Giants.
Ratatoskr appears in the trading card game Magic: The Gathering as 'Toski, Bearer of Secrets'; a homage to the mythical creature. The card's effects connote Toski's tenacity to exchange information between the many realms of Kaldheim.
Ratatoskr can be cast as the spell "Ratatoskr's Spin," as of 2019, in the video game Wizard101, where he climbs down the world tree, digging up a giant acorn and damaging all enemies with it.
Ratatosk appears in the novel Hellboy: The Bones of Giants (2001) by Christopher Golden.
In the novel Hammered, Atticus rides Ratatoskr to the top of Yggdrasil on his quest to steal the golden apples of Iðunn.
Ratatosk is referenced in Larry Niven's novel Rainbow Mars. Plans were made to capture a giant squirrel that ran up and down the World Tree (Yggdrasil). Although called "Batatosk" in the story, it is clearly referring to the mythical creature Ratatosk.
Ratatosk is the name of the Summon Spirit of Monsters in Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World, though his role is quite a bit different from Norse myth. He is responsible for managing the distribution of mana through the world (via monsters). He resides in Ginnungagap, and also acts as the guardian of the gate to Niflheim. Much of the story of the game is centered around him.
The Ratatosk Express is the name given to the train in The Mechanisms' album, 'The Bifrost Incident', which is the setting for the majority of the events in the album.
Ratatoskr is a recurring enemy in the video game La-Mulana 2. He is first found at the roots of the tree of Yggdrasil near Níðhöggr (stylized in-game as Nídhogg) and, later in the game, can be found near Veðrfölnir (stylized in-game as Vedfolnir). He plays a prominent role both in both gameplay and plot, and his appearances culminate into a boss battle which occurs in Hel (location) and opens the pathway to fight Hel (mythological being).
Ratatosk appears in Walter Simonson's Ragnarok comic, which takes place in an alternate mythos in which the forces of evil won the final battle.
Ratatosk appears as the name of a cave system in the video game Guild Wars 2. In that context, the name may also be punning on the numerous "Rata-" cities such as "Rata Sum" and "Rata Novus", which instead derive their names from Latin.
Ratatoskr appears in the video game, Jotun, where it spends its life carrying messages between Vethrfolnir and an unnamed eagle who are perched at the top of the World Tree, Yggdrasil, and Nidhogg, the dragon that lives in the roots of the tree. Ratatoskr is massive, being many times the size of a human, and can be spotted a few times in the Vethrfolnir's Perch level, scurrying up and down the trunk of Yggdrasil. |
1,214,092 | Steve Van Buren | 1,161,348,049 | American football player (1920–2012) | [
"1920 births",
"2012 deaths",
"American football running backs",
"American football safeties",
"Continental Football League coaches",
"Deaths from pneumonia in Pennsylvania",
"Honduran emigrants to the United States",
"Honduran players of American football",
"LSU Tigers football players",
"National Football League players with retired numbers",
"Philadelphia Eagles players",
"Players of American football from New Orleans",
"Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees",
"Sportspeople from La Ceiba",
"Warren Easton High School alumni"
]
| Stephen Wood Van Buren (December 28, 1920 − August 23, 2012) was an American professional football player who was a halfback for the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL) from 1944 to 1951. Regarded as a powerful and punishing runner with excellent speed, through eight NFL seasons he won four league rushing titles, including three straight from 1947 to 1949. At a time when teams played 12 games a year, he was the first NFL player to rush for over ten touchdowns in a season—a feat he accomplished three times—and the first to have multiple 1,000-yard rushing seasons. When he retired, he held the NFL career records for rushing attempts, rushing yards, and rushing touchdowns.
Van Buren played college football for Louisiana State University, where he led the NCAA in scoring in his senior season for the LSU Tigers. After leading LSU to victory in the Orange Bowl, he was drafted by the Eagles with the fifth overall pick in the 1944 NFL Draft. Van Buren acquired many nicknames over his career in reference to his running style, including "Wham Bam", "Moving Van", and "Supersonic Steve". He was the driving force for the Eagles in the team's back-to-back NFL championships in 1948 and 1949; he scored the only touchdown of the 1948 NFL Championship Game against the Chicago Cardinals, and in the next year's championship game against the Los Angeles Rams he set postseason records with 31 carries and 196 rushing yards.
After his playing career, Van Buren coached in minor league football, winning an Atlantic Coast Football League (ACFL) championship with the Newark Bears in 1963. He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965. Van Buren is a member of the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team, the National Football League 75th Anniversary All-Time Team and the National Football League 100th Anniversary All-Time Team. Considered one of the greatest players in Eagles franchise history, his number 15 jersey is retired by the team, and he is enshrined in the Philadelphia Eagles Hall of Fame and the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame. For his college career, he was inducted into the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1944 and the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1961.
## Early life
Born in La Ceiba, Honduras to an American father and a mother of Spanish heritage, Stephen Wood Van Buren was orphaned at age ten and was sent to live with relatives in New Orleans, Louisiana. There he attended Warren Easton High School, and tried out for the football team originally as a sophomore, but did not make it. Later that year he dropped out of high school and went to work in an iron foundry. He returned to high school two years later and made the team as an end his senior year. He played well enough that season to earn an athletic scholarship to Louisiana State University (LSU) in Baton Rouge.
## College career
Playing for the LSU Tigers football team, Van Buren was used primarily for blocking until his senior season, when head coach Bernie Moore moved him to tailback because of a lack of players due to World War II conscription. Van Buren received a class IV-F exemption due to an eye defect, so he was able to avoid conscription. "He probably was the greatest running back in Southeastern Conference history," Moore recalled, "and I used him as a blocking back until his last year. The folks in Baton Rouge never let me forget that."
He began the 1943 season by scoring four touchdowns in a 34–27 win over Georgia, including the game-winning touchdown with less than two minutes to play. His final college game was the 1944 Orange Bowl against Texas A&M. Despite A&M coach Homer Norton devising a game-plan specifically to stop him, Van Buren was responsible for all of his team's points, as he ran for two touchdowns, threw for one more, and kicked LSU's only successful extra point attempt in the 19–14 victory. He finished the season with 847 yards rushing and 16 touchdowns. He also completed 13 of 36 passing attempts for 160 yards. His 98 points scored (111 including the bowl game) led the nation. After the season, the Associated Press named Van Buren to its All-Southeastern Conference first team.
## Professional career
While still enrolled at LSU, Van Buren was drafted into the National Football League by the Philadelphia Eagles with the fifth overall pick of the 1944 NFL Draft. A month later, on May 19 he resigned from the university due to an eye infection that had been bothering him since the Orange Bowl game. The Eagles gave Van Buren a \$4,000 contract with no signing bonus. But Van Buren, modest to a fault, took three weeks to sign the contract because he did not feel he was good enough to play professionally. He played as a running back and return specialist in the NFL for eight seasons, all of them with the Eagles. He spent the first seven of them under head coach Earle "Greasy" Neale, who dubbed Van Buren "the best halfback in modern times."
### 1944–1946: Kick return prowess
Van Buren played in nine games during his first season with the Eagles, rushing for 444 yards as a running back and recording five interceptions on defense as a defensive back. His first NFL return touchdown came in the third game of the season, on a 55-yard punt return in the second quarter of a 38–0 shutout win against the Boston Yanks. Three games later, he returned a kickoff 97 yards for a touchdown against the New York Giants, which was the longest kickoff return by any player that season. His 15.3 yards per punt return also led the league. Van Buren was named to the Associated Press's All-Pro first team following the season, the only rookie so named for 1944.
In 1945, Van Buren led the NFL in rushing yards for the first time, and also led the league in scoring, yards from scrimmage, and kickoff return yards. He set an Eagles single-season record with 15 rushing touchdowns, a mark that stood until 2011. His 18 total touchdowns broke Don Hutson's league record by one, set three seasons earlier. He again had the longest kickoff return of the season, this time with a 98-yard return touchdown against the Giants. In that game he also rushed for 100 yards and two more touchdowns as he scored all of the Eagles' touchdowns in the 28–21 loss. At least six major publications named him a first-team All-Pro for the season, including the Associated Press and United Press.
By 1946, Van Buren was considered one of the best players in the league. Before the season, he signed a three-year contract to remain with the Eagles, dispelling rumors that he planned to join the rival All-America Football Conference. He returned just five punts in the 1946 season, but ran one of them back 50 yards for a touchdown against the Boston Yanks in the final game of the year. It was the last punt Van Buren returned in his career. He finished the season with 529 rushing yards, third-most behind leader Bill Dudley of the Pittsburgh Steelers and rookie Pat Harder of the Chicago Cardinals. He was named a first-team All-Pro by the New York Daily News and a second-team All-Pro by the United Press.
After the Eagles' loss to the Steelers during the 1946 season, Eagles coach Greasy Neale gave Dudley high praise during a conversation with Steelers coach Jock Sutherland. Sutherland then offered to trade Dudley to the Eagles. In return he wanted Van Buren, but according to Les Biederman of The Pittsburgh Press, "before [Sutherland] finished the second syllable of that name, Neale had fled the table."
### 1947–1949: Three straight rushing titles
Van Buren claimed his second rushing title in 1947, which was the first in a string of three straight. His 1,008 rushing yards broke the single-season record of 1,004 set by Beattie Feathers with the Chicago Bears in 1934. He was no longer returning punts for the team, as the role was taken over by halfback Bosh Pritchard, though he still returned kickoffs. His 95-yard kickoff return touchdown against the Washington Redskins in the first game of the season was again the longest kickoff return by any player that season, as well as the last kick return touchdown of his career.
The Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers both finished the 1947 regular season atop the Eastern Conference with an 8–4 record, so the two teams met for a tiebreaker game to determine the conference champion. During the week before the game, the Steelers ran workouts concentrating on a means of stopping Van Buren's running. In the game, the Steelers' defensive line held Van Buren to 45 rushing yards and no rushing touchdowns, but he scored the game's first touchdown on a 15-yard reception from quarterback Tommy Thompson. The Eagles won with a 21–0 shutout, setting them up to face the Chicago Cardinals in the NFL Championship Game, the first championship game appearance in franchise history. Against the Cardinals' "Million Dollar Backfield", Van Buren was held in check, as the Eagles were defeated 28–21 in a back-and-forth contest.
The 1948 season was the second straight that Van Buren led the league in carries, rushing yards, rushing touchdowns, and yards from scrimmage. In Week 3, in the first quarter against the New York Giants Van Buren scored his 39th career rushing touchdown, surpassing Ernie Nevers as the all-time leader. That game—a 45–0 shutout win—was the first in an eight-game winning streak for the Eagles in which they scored 275 points total and allowed 49. The team finished the regular season with the best record in the Eastern Division and were to meet the Chicago Cardinals again for the league championship.
#### 1948 NFL Championship Game
Having posted similar offensive statistics in the regular season, the Eagles and Cardinals were expected to play a tight game. Played in a blizzard at Philadelphia's Shibe Park, the game's only score was a fourth quarter rushing touchdown by Van Buren from five yards out. The 7–0 win gave the Eagles their first league title. Van Buren finished with 98 yards on 26 carries, though he nearly missed the game entirely. Thinking the game would not be played in the blizzard, he remained home until coach Greasy Neale called him and told him the game was still on. He had to catch three trolleys and walk six blocks in order to make the game on time. "I looked out my bedroom window that morning, saw the snow and went back to bed," he later explained. "I was sure the game would be postponed."
#### 1949: Career rushing title and second championship
By 1949, Van Buren's annual salary was \$15,000. Despite the Eagles franchise struggling financially the previous season, Neale was willing to pay him more, but Van Buren declined. "I could have gotten a good deal more," he said. "But you acted a little different when your team lost money." He came into his sixth NFL season needing 104 rushing yards to break Clarke Hinkle's career record of 3,860, which he set after ten seasons with the Packers. Van Buren passed Hinkle's mark against the Detroit Lions in the second game of the season, and by the end of the year had broken his own single-season record as he rushed for 1,146 yards. He became the first running back in NFL history to achieve three consecutive rushing titles. Jim Brown twice, Earl Campbell, and Emmitt Smith have since managed the feat. The Eagles clinched the Eastern Division title in the tenth game of the season with a win over the Steelers. With Pittsburgh's defense designed to stop him, Van Buren ran for 205 yards on 27 carries, setting an Eagles single-game franchise record for rushing yards that stood for over 60 years. The Eagles won their final two games and advanced to their third NFL championship game in as many seasons.
In the 1949 NFL Championship Game at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum against the Los Angeles Rams, as in the previous season's game, Van Buren carried the Eagles' offense. Although he failed to score, he carried the ball 31 times for a championship game–record 196 yards on the heavily muddied field. The Eagles won 14–0, becoming the first—and as of 2016, the only—team in league history to win consecutive championship games with a shutout. Following the game, Rams coach Clark Shaughnessy called Van Buren one of the greatest ball carriers he had seen in forty years of football. "He is equal to any player I've ever seen," said Shaughnessy. Van Buren was named the outstanding athlete of the year by the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association.
### 1950–1951: Injuries and retirement
Back, leg, and neck injuries began to take a toll on Van Buren in 1950, and his production dropped. He broke his toe in the 1950 off-season and suffered from bone spurs, which caused him to miss the team's four preseason exhibition games and regular season opener. He returned to lead the league in carries for the fourth straight season, but lost the rushing title for the first time in four years and had career-lows in touchdowns and yards per carry. The Eagles finished with a 6–6 regular season record. Greasy Neale was fired by the Eagles the following February and replaced by Bo McMillin. In 1951, Van Buren played alongside his brother, halfback and linebacker Ebert, whom the Eagles selected in that year's draft out of LSU. The elder Van Buren continued to play through injuries, taking several shots of Novocaine before each game. He had a career-low 327 rushing yards for the season, as the Eagles finished with a losing record for the first time since 1942.
During training camp prior to the 1952 season, Van Buren tore a knee ligament and required surgery. He missed the entire season and retired as a player in September 1953, but remained on the Eagles payroll in a public relations capacity. He finished his career having carried 1,320 times for 5,860 yards and 69 touchdowns. He also scored three times returning kickoffs, three times on receptions, and twice on punt returns for a total of 77 touchdowns. On defense, he intercepted nine opponents' passes.
## NFL career statistics
## Playing style
Van Buren's profile at the Pro Football Hall of Fame states he "lined up as a halfback but played more like a fullback." He had a rare combination of strength, speed, and endurance. While not as elusive or nimble as other backs, he preferred to run through tacklers instead of avoid them, and never ran out of bounds if he felt he could pick up extra yards. "There's no trick," he said of his running style. "When I see I'm gonna be tackled I just put my head down and give 'em the shoulder." He was described as a "deadly tackler", hitting as hard on defense as he did when he carried the ball. His disregard for his own body led to many injuries for both himself and opposing players.
He gained the majority of his yards and touchdowns on the ground, as he preferred being a runner rather than a receiver. All but three of his 69 offensive touchdowns were scored by rushing. Van Buren acquired many nicknames over his career. He was nicknamed "Wham Bam" for his quick and punishing running style. He was also referred to as "Supersonic Steve," "Blockbuster," and "Moving Van."
## Coaching career
Van Buren served as a coach for several seasons in minor league football after his playing career. After serving as a scout for the Eagles, he coached a minor league team in Bristol, Pennsylvania for three years. He then served as head coach for the Franklin Miners of Franklin, New Jersey and led them to a 27–5 win–loss record through 1958 and 1959. The Miners moved to Paterson, New Jersey and joined the Atlantic Coast Football League (ACFL), winning the league's championship in 1962. Van Buren then became head coach for the Newark Bears of the ACFL, which he led to a league championship in 1963. In 1965, the Bears franchise joined the Continental Football League, and in 1966 moved to Orlando, Florida and was renamed the Panthers. Van Buren was elevated to vice president and director of player personnel for the Panthers in 1966. He led the newly formed Hudson Valley Vikings of the North Atlantic Football League as head coach in 1967. In 1968, Van Buren became the offensive backfield coach for the Pottstown Firebirds of the ACFL. In 1969, he was the coach of the independent, semi-pro Jersey Senators, and in 1970, the Phoenix Steelers.
## Legacy, honors, and later life
Van Buren retired as the NFL record holder for career rushing yards and career rushing touchdowns. He was the first player to rush for over 1,000 yards in a season twice, and he held the top two single-season records in rushing yards and rushing touchdowns. He was the first to rush for over ten touchdowns in a season, a feat he accomplished three times before any other player did so once. He was the last Eagles player to win the rushing title until LeSean McCoy led the league in rushing yards in 2013. As of 2019, he remains the Eagles' career leader in rushing touchdowns.
In 1950, Van Buren was selected by the Associated Press for an all-time Southeastern Conference team, which honored the best 11 players in the conference's then 17-year existence. He was inducted into the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1944 and the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1961.
He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in the class of 1965, which also included Guy Chamberlain, Paddy Driscoll, Dan Fortmann, Otto Graham, Sid Luckman, and Bob Waterfield. He was the first Eagles player to be inducted. Clarke Hinkle presented him with the honor at the induction ceremony. Van Buren's acceptance speech consisted of four sentences:
> Thank you Clarke Hinkle, I'm certainly glad to have broken your record. Since you people can't hear too good and I'm not too good a speaker I won't say much, but it's a great honor to be here. The two days I've spent in Canton will certainly bring me back every year from now on. Thank you very much.
Van Buren's jersey number 15 was later retired by the Eagles. He is also a member of the Philadelphia Eagles Hall of Fame and the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame. In 2007, he was named to the Eagles 75th Anniversary Team as the starting running back. Van Buren is a member of the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team, which honors the best players from the decade. He was selected to the NFL’s 75th and 100th Anniversary All-Time Teams in 1994 and 2019, respectively.
Van Buren lived quietly in Lancaster, Pennsylvania after his football career, where he ran an antique shop with his son-in-law. He also owned a used-car lot with George Ferguson in Delaware County. He also owned a dance hall. His wife, Grace, died in 1978. Van Buren died of pneumonia on August 23, 2012, in Lancaster at the age of 91.
## See also
- Foreign players in the National Football League
- List of Philadelphia Eagles first-round draft picks
- List of NCAA major college football yearly scoring leaders |
2,643,819 | Boone Carlyle | 1,163,423,451 | Fictional character from the American television series "Lost" | [
"Fictional businesspeople",
"Fictional characters from California",
"Fictional lifeguards",
"Lost (2004 TV series) characters",
"Male characters in television",
"Television characters introduced in 2004"
]
| Boone Carlyle is a fictional character who was played by Ian Somerhalder on the ABC drama television series Lost, which chronicles the lives of the survivors of a plane crash in the south Pacific. Boone is introduced in the pilot episode as the stepbrother of fellow crash survivor Shannon Rutherford. He tries to contribute as much as he can to the safety of the castaways and eventually becomes John Locke's protégé.
Also, unlike many other characters of the first season, who were rewritten based on their actors, Boone was largely the same through production. Somerhalder did not want to shoot a pilot; however, he jumped at the opportunity once he found out he would be working with co-creator/executive producer J. J. Abrams. The character was generally well received by critics and fans; USA Today described Boone as a "callow, privileged young man striving for maturity."
## Appearances
### Before the crash
Boone is born in October 1981, the son of wealthy Sabrina Carlyle, the head of a wedding company. When Boone was ten years old, Sabrina marries Adam Rutherford, who has an eight-year-old daughter named Shannon. When Boone is twenty years old, he becomes the chief operating officer of his mother's business in New York City. Boone harbors a fondness for his stepsister, which develops into a romantic attraction. When Boone learns of Shannon’s financial difficulties after her father’s death he offers to give her money, but she does not accept. Boone "rescues" Shannon several times from abusive relationships by paying the boyfriends to leave her. One such rescue attempt leads Boone to Sydney, Australia in September 2004, where he learns the relationships are actually scams concocted by Shannon to get his money and attention. Boone is deeply hurt by the deception. Boone and Shannon have sex after her Australian boyfriend runs away with her money. The next day, they board Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 to return to the United States.
### On the island
Boone unsuccessfully tries to perform CPR on an unconscious Rose Henderson, which he claims to have learned from when he was a lifeguard, but Jack Shephard convinces him to retrieve a pen, unnecessarily. Boone maintains a generally helpful attitude and remains protective of Shannon (although he criticizes her for her affectedness). His protective attitude combines with jealousy when she develops feelings for Sayid Jarrah, and Boone unsuccessfully attempts to discourage the relationship.
Boone is drawn to the hunting and survival skills of John Locke, a fellow castaway. He becomes Locke’s apprentice and begins to distance himself from the other survivors. Boone and Locke find a metal hatch while tracking the kidnapped Claire Littleton and Charlie Pace. The two excavate the hatch, keeping its existence a secret from the other survivors. Locke subjects Boone to a hallucinatory exercise on their twenty-fourth day on the island allowing Boone to resolve his feelings for Shannon, in which Boone sees Shannon after she is killed by the monster. Forty-one days after the crash, Boone and Locke discover a heroin runner's Beechcraft stuck high in a tree canopy. Boone climbs up into the aircraft and finds a working radio in the cockpit, which he uses to transmit a Mayday signal. He receives a response to his message by a man, later revealed to be Bernard Nadler of the tail-section survivors, but the aircraft unbalances and falls nose-first to the ground. Boone sustains severe injuries and, despite Jack's attempts to treat him, dies on November 2, 2004. Boone tries to pass a message to Shannon through Jack, but dies before he is able to finish the sentence. Somerhalder said the news of his character's death was "pretty devastating", which is notable for being the first death of a major character on the series.
Almost four weeks later, Locke experiences a self-induced hallucination, where a longer-haired Boone appears and pushes Locke around in a wheelchair in an imaginary Sydney International Airport, where the other survivors are present but acting in different roles. Boone tells Locke someone in the airport was in serious danger. Close to the end of the hallucination, Locke finds Eko's stick covered in blood and Boone appears bloody and injured. He tells Locke "They've got him. You don't have much time." In the Oceanic Six's cover story, Boone was one of the ones who survived the initial crash, but soon died of internal injuries.
### In the alternate timeline
In the alternate timeline, Shannon does not go back with Boone. In "LA X", Boone goes back alone on Flight 815 and sits beside Locke, where he finds out about Locke supposedly going on a Walkabout in Australia. In a parallel with the island timeline, Boone tells Locke if they crashed, he would follow him. Once the plane lands, Boone shakes Locke's hand and exits the plane. Boone reappears in the final episode of Lost. In "The End", we see Hurley and Sayid talking in a car on a dark street, and they witness a thug beating up a guy (Boone) outside of a bar. Shannon shouts "Leave my brother alone," and Sayid gets out of the car to intervene. His and Shannon's memories are restored the moment they touch. Boone, having conspired with Hurley to bring Shannon and Sayid together, wanders over to the car. He jokes with Hurley about how he had to take a beating and "thanks for taking your time." He also comments how difficult it was to get Shannon to return from Australia with him, but he and Hurley agree the effort was worth it for this moment to have her and Sayid's memories restored. Boone is one of the first people Jack greets in the church where everyone reunites to move on to the afterlife together.
## Characteristics
USA Today described Boone as "a callow young man who had been toughened by island challenges." Variety called him "hot-headed", while Entertainment Weekly wrote he was "even-tempered". Boone's quick decisions with good intentions are often rash. On his sixth day on the island, Joanna Miller drowns. As soon as he finds out she is drowning, he immediately tries to save her, although he does not succeed and almost becomes a casualty himself. While trying to take on a leadership role, Boone steals the camp's water; however, his plan backfires and the survivors turn on him. When Boone suspects Sawyer has Shannon's medicine, he attempts to steal it. Aside from Shannon, he was closest to John Locke, who acted as a father figure and mentor to the younger, inexperienced Boone and who, unlike others including Shannon, tried to help him do his part on the island. Boone similarly is one of the few to trust Locke's guidance and made Locke feel like the hero he had always wanted to be. Boone reflects aspects of Locke's personality, such as his desire to have a unique purpose and his willingness to believe in the unlikely.
Boone always offers to help his fellow survivors, joining the party trying to send a radio distress call on the second day, helping Sayid triangulate Danielle Rousseau's distress signal on the eighth day, searching for the abducted Claire Littleton on the sixteenth day and standing guard for the return of Ethan Rom on the twenty-eighth day. IGN wrote "he appeared to be both integral and counterproductive to their survival" and "Boone appeared to be a pure and honest guy who tried to help people on the island and attempted to carry his own weight among the seemingly-unscathed survivors of Oceanic Flight 815."
## Development
Unlike many other characters of the first season, who were rewritten based on their actors, Boone was largely the same through production. He was originally going to be named Boone Anthony Markham V, going by the nickname, "Five." In the script for the pilot, the writers ran a search and replace to change Boone's name so when Jack counted to five, the script read, "One, two, three, four, Boone." Somerhalder did not want to shoot a pilot; however, he jumped at the opportunity once he found out he would be working with co-creator/executive producer J. J. Abrams. Somerhalder was paid between \$20,000 and \$40,000 an episode, initially received the third highest billing in the credits, before the producers decided to list the main cast alphabetically.
Boone has appeared in a total of twenty-five episodes, and his voice has been heard in a twenty-sixth episode. Boone has physically appeared in three episodes since the first season with the credit of "special guest star." He returned for the flashbacks of Shannon, Nikki Fernandez and Paulo and Locke's hallucination. In Nikki's third season flashback, the producers did not ask Somerhalder to cut his hair for two days of work and had him wear a wig, making his hair noticeably longer than it should have been.[^1] There is some confusion over the spelling of Boone's last name. While "Carlyle" appears on Boone's checkbook and grave, "Carlisle" appears on the subtitles for "Hearts and Minds."
In the original outline of the eleventh episode, Locke was to be accompanied by two guest characters to search for Claire and discover the Hatch. In the final product, Boone accompanied Locke, a choice leading to Boone's death. While the executive producers have stated Somerhalder took the news of his character's death professionally, Somerhalder has said he found it "pretty devastating." Boone's death is notable as the first death of a major character on the series. According to executive producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse, Boone's death made sense from a story perspective to fuel the rivalry between Jack and Locke and lead to the events in the season finale. Following Somerhalder's departure from the show, ABC signed him to another one-year contract. Somerhalder stated being a part of Lost was "the greatest experience" of "the greatest year of his life."
## Reception
BuddyTV called Boone a fan "favorite." After three episodes had aired, an article in USA Today called Somerhalder "camera-friendly." A poll was run by ComingSoon.net in spring 2005 on the favorite of the fourteen main Lost characters, in which Boone placed seventh with 4.3% of over 2000 votes. After his death, a TV Guide critic wrote she misses Boone's "very pretty eyes." IGN ranked Boone as the tenth best character of the first three seasons of Lost.
Somerhalder co-won the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for "Best Ensemble – Drama Series. He was also nominated in the category of "TV: Choice Breakout Performance – Male" in the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to Desperate Housewives' Jesse Metcalfe, who plays John Rowland. While starring on Lost, Somerhalder was voted one of "20 Teens Who Will Change the World" by Teen People, despite being 26 years old at the time. Teen People also called him "the next Johnny Depp." He placed ninth on TV Guide'''s "Top Ten Hunks" list.
[^1]: Lindelof, Damon & Cuse, Carlton, (March 26, 2007) "Official Lost Podcast ," ABC. Retrieved on July 13, 2007. |
55,972,601 | 2017 Hong Kong ePrix | 1,144,688,207 | null | [
"2017 in Chinese motorsport",
"2017 in Hong Kong sport",
"2017–18 Formula E season",
"December 2017 sports events in China",
"Hong Kong ePrix"
]
| The 2017 Hong Kong ePrix (formally the 2017 FIA Formula E HKT Hong Kong ePrix for sponsorship purposes) was a pair of Formula E electric car races held on 2 and 3 December 2017 at the Hong Kong Central Harbourfront Circuit in Hong Kong before a two-day crowd of 27,000 people. They were the first and second races of the 2017–18 Formula E Championship and the second running of the event. The 43-lap race on 2 December was won by Virgin driver Sam Bird from second place. Jean-Éric Vergne finished second for the Techeetah team and Mahindra driver Nick Heidfeld was third. The longer 45-lap race held on 3 December was won by Heidfeld's teammate Felix Rosenqvist from pole position. Edoardo Mortara of the Venturi team was the highest-placed rookie in second and Jaguar's Mitch Evans was third.
Vergne won the pole position for the first race by recording the fastest lap in qualifying and maintained his startline advantage on the first lap. The race saw the first race stoppage in Formula E history on the first lap when rookie André Lotterer was caught out by traffic and hit the turn three and four chicane barrier, forcing three other cars to stop on track. After the running order was sorted, the race restarted half an hour later behind the safety car with Vergne leading Bird. On lap 20, Bird took the lead from Vergne, and held it for the rest of the race despite incurring a drive-through penalty for a collision with the side of his garage in the pit lane claim his sixth career victory.
Rosenqvist took pole position for the second race which began behind the safety car because of a technical failure that stopped the lights gantry from working. He immediately lost the lead when he half-spun at turn one, allowing Mortara to pass him for the position. Mortara managed his electrical energy usage better than the rest of the field to lead for most of the race. With three laps left, however, Mortara spun at turn two, promoting Abt into first place who held it to finish first on-track. Three hours after the race, Abt was disqualified because his inverter and motor-generator unit security stickers did not match those on his car's technical passport. Audi did not take up an appeal to protest the decision and Rosenqvist took his second career victory.
After the races Bird led the Drivers' Championship by two points over Vergne in second. Rosenqvist's victory in the second race put him third on 29 points while Mortara was a further five points behind in fourth and Heidfeld was fifth. Mahindra took the early lead in the Teams' Championship with 44 points; Virgin were in second place on 41 and Techeetah were a further eight points behind in third. Venturi were fourth on 30 points and Jaguar rounded out the top five with ten races left in the season.
## Background
The Hong Kong ePrix was confirmed as part of Formula E's 2017–18 series schedule in September 2017 by the FIA World Motor Sport Council. They were the first and second of twelve scheduled single-seater electric car races of the 2017–18 Championship, and the second running of the event, The ePrix was granted double header status for the first time by motor racing's world governing body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). Additionally, the event was the first Asian double header round in Formula E history and was held on 2 and 3 December 2017 at the Hong Kong Central Harbourfront Circuit. Organisers expected that 41,000 people would attend the race. Construction of the track started on 23 November, nine days before the first race. After the 2016 race, the turn three and four chicane was tightened in an attempt to reduce the likelihood of accidents there.
Heading into the new season, some teams opted to keep the same line-up as they had in the previous season; however, some teams switched drivers or changed names. ABT Audi Sport became Audi Sport ABT to reflect the increased manufacturer involvement from Audi. Faraday Future ended their partnership with Dragon Racing and NextEV NIO's name was shortened to become NIO. 2011 Formula Nippon title winner and 2012 World Endurance Champion André Lotterer was employed by Techeetah to replace Stéphane Sarrazin, while 2007–08 A1 Grand Prix champion and 2016 24 Hours of Le Mans co-winner Neel Jani took over Loïc Duval's seat at Dragon.
Former IndyCar Series podium finisher and Blancpain GT Endurance Series racer Luca Filippi joined Oliver Turvey at NIO, replacing Nelson Piquet Jr. who left the team by enabling a performance clause and went to Jaguar to replace Adam Carroll. José María López's place at Virgin was taken over by 2014 GP3 Series champion and 2017 12 Hours of Sebring co-winner Alex Lynn, while 2010 Formula 3 Euro Series champion and two-time Macau Grand Prix winner Edoardo Mortara entered the series with Venturi. Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters driver Tom Blomqvist was due to replace Robin Frijns at Andretti but his car was driven in Hong Kong by World Endurance Championship and Super Formula competitor Kamui Kobayashi. Defending drivers' champion Lucas di Grassi stayed at Audi after his title winning campaign and was again joined by Daniel Abt.
## Race one
### Practice and qualifying
Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second lasted half an hour. Although drivers were concerned over the possibility of reduced visibility, Sébastien Buemi of e.Dams-Renault set the fastest time in the first practice session with a lap of 1 minute, 3.310 seconds at 200 kW (270 hp) of power, four-tenths of a second faster than any one else on the track. His closest challenger was Mitch Evans in second. The Audis of Abt and di Grassi, Sam Bird, Nico Prost, Piquet. Mortara, Jean-Éric Vergne and Turvey rounded out the session's top ten drivers. During the session, where several drivers struggled to find their preferred rhythm, Prost stopped on track with a battery management system glitch and restarted his car to continue driving. Later, Jani broke part of his car's front-left suspension in a collision with the turn ten inside wall but returned to the pit lane to switch into a second car. Lotterer glanced the same wall and damaged his car's front-right quarter. A short full course yellow flag was called for when Rosenqvist drove off the circuit at the final corner.
In the second practice session, Evans set the fastest lap of the weekend so far at 1 minute, 2.875 seconds, and was two-tenths of a second quicker than Abt in second. His Audi teammate di Grassi, Turvey, Nick Heidfeld (Mahindra), Bird. Piquet, Rosenqvist, Prost and António Félix da Costa completed the top ten. Buemi locked his rear tyres at the turn six hairpin after going onto some dirt, and oversteered into the barrier six minutes in, causing superficial damage to his car's steering. Heidfeld hit the turn ten barrier while on his maximum power lap and Maro Engel slid onto the turn two run-off area. Yellow flags were waved with five minutes left when Mortara stopped his car on track at the second turn and ended all competitive running in the session.
Saturday's afternoon qualifying session ran for an hour and was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest times (Super Pole from first to fifth, and group qualifying from sixth to twentieth). The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships., Buemi led the first group, ahead of early benchmark setter Lotterer and Engel. Mortara was on a fast lap but Lynn's loose car delayed him, and Mortara twice struck the barrier. Lynn took fourth and Mortara was the first group's slowest driver. Bird set the fastest overall lap time in the second group at 1 minute, 3.276 seconds, while Félix da Costa in second was quickest until Bird's lap. Kobayashi was third despite hitting the barrier and Filippi was fourth. Evans was group two's slowest driver after failing to set a maximum power lap due to him not crossing the start-finish line after an inter-team miscommunication. In the third group, Heidfeld had more on-circuit grip and was fastest, demoting Vergne to second. Rosenqvist was third-fastest and Piquet and Jani (who aborted his maximum power lap) were the third group's slowest runners.
Prost struck the turn five barrier in group four and collected a trackside sponsorship banner that entangled on his front wing and then his rear wheel. Despite littering debris on the track, marshals did not wave yellow flags, and Jérôme d'Ambrosio collected the barrier which wrapped around his front-left wheel, stopping the session. When qualifying restarted, Abt ended the group fastest and prevented his teammate di Grassi from progressing to super pole. Turvey was third and d'Ambrosio fourth. The stewards did not allow Prost to continue in qualifying and was the fourth group's slowest driver. At the end of group qualifying, the times set by Bird, Heidfeld, Vergne, Rosenqvist and Abt advanced them into super pole. Vergne took the first pole position of the season and the fifth of his career with a lap of 1 minute, 3.568 seconds. As he completed his lap, Vergne lost control of his car at the final turn, slightly damaging it from contact with the outside wall, and stopped after the timing line. Vergne's spin meant his in-lap was more than 120 per cent of his qualifying time but was not penalised since he was deemed not to have been a danger to others. Vergne was joined on the grid's front row by Bird who made a small error at the second hairpin. Heidfeld qualified third. Abt set a benchmark time that put him on provisional pole but fell to fourth. Rosenqvist, fifth, locked his brakes at the first hairpin and ran wide. After qualifying, Jani was demoted ten places on the grid for changing his car's battery after his first practice crash. Following the application of Jani's penalty, the remainder of the grid consisted of di Grassi, Turvey, Félix da Costa, Buemi, Piquet, d'Ambrosio, Lotterer, Kobayashi, Engel, Filippi, Lynn, Prost, Mortara, Evans and Jani.
### Race
The weather at the start of the race were dry and warm with the air temperature between 23 and 23.9 °C (73.4 and 75.0 °F) and the track temperature ranged from 27.2 to 28.3 °C (81.0 to 82.9 °F). A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kW (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. For the first Hong Kong race, Kobayashi, Abt and Filippi were handed the extra power. When the race began from its standing start at 15:00 Hong Kong Time (UTC+08:00), Vergne maintained his pole position advantage heading towards the first corner with Bird remaining in second position. Heidfeld launched an attack for the lead of the ePrix but ran wide and fell to fourth after failing to get past Bird. Turvey steered onto the outside line and moved from seventh to third pass Rosenqvist, di Grassi, Abt and Heidfeld at the first turn as the majority of the field went defensive.
The field negotiated the first two corners without incident, but a track blockage at the turn three and four chicane prompted the race director to stop the race for the first time in Formula E history. Piquet drove over the kerbs on the inside of the turn three and four chicane and Lotterer (who was attempting to swerve to avoid the traffic) was caught out and drove into the barrier. Prost, Evans, Mortara and Jani were all forced to stop on track, while the rest of the field entered the pit lane and awaited further instruction from the race director. Shortly after, the drivers who were stranded at the first chicane were allowed to drive back onto the circuit so that they could line up in the correct running order. The race restarted after more than a half hour delay under the safety car for one lap. Vergne led at the restart, followed by Bird who immediately duelled him. Di Grassi immediately began attacking his teammate Abt by turning right in the second corner but did not pass him.
On lap five, Buemi attacked di Grassi by driving on the inside line going into the first turn and the two made contact since di Grassi drove defensively and gave Buemi a small amount of room. At the same time, Filippi closed up to Rosenqvist but sent the latter into a spin at the first corner, dropping Rosenqvist to 15th position and damaging his radiator. Heidfeld attempted to overtake Turvey around the outside heading towards the second corner but Heidfeld locked his brakes which meant he could not complete the move. Consequently, this loss of momentum allowed Abt to draw alongside Heidfeld and moved past him for fourth. Di Grassi and Buemi got involved in the battle for third place shortly afterwards. Di Grassi was the first driver to enter the pit lane on the sixteenth lap because Audi claimed that his right-rear suspension had sustained damage from his earlier contact with Buemi. Di Grassi switched into his second car soon after but this would leave him with less electrical energy than the rest of the field.
Turvey had not been able to remain with the leading two drivers but slowed suddenly with a technical problem and drove to the pit lane to switch into his second car. Vergne and Bird led the rest of the field by nine seconds. After initially failing to pass Vergne, Bird turned right and passed him for first at turn seven on lap 20. Vergne entered the pit lane on lap 21 for the mandatory switch into his second car while Bird completed one extra lap. When Bird made his pit stop, he locked his tyres on some dust, and slid into the side of his garage. Bird hit team equipment and narrowly avoided injuring a Virgin Racing staff member. Bird abandoned his car at the side of the garage but kept the lead. After the pit stops, Bird led Vergne by seven seconds, who was followed in turn, by Engel, Piquet and Rosenqvist. Abt lost the most places due to a technical error which lost him 20 seconds and fell to eighth.
After his pit stop, Buemi's car shut down due to a technical issue at the exit of the first turn and stopped in the centre of the track. Buemi was able to restart his vehicle quickly but fell to 13th position. Since Bird did not park his car inside his garage during his pit stop, he incurred a drive-through penalty but the short length of the pit lane and his large lead allowed him to narrowly remain ahead of Vergne after taking it. Rosenqvist was close behind Engel in a battle for fourth place. The duo came into contact at the turn three and four chicane which saw Rosenqvist run into Engel but both drivers avoided the wall. Heidfeld drew alongside Vergne at the turn two hairpin but the latter locked his brakes and ran deep, preventing Heidfeld from passing him. Lotterer incurred with a drive-through penalty that was related to his first lap multi-car collision as Filippi was similarly penalised for his earlier collision with Rosenqvist.
On the 42nd lap, Rosenqvist braked later than Piquet at the first corner and overtook him for fifth place. He closed up to Engel but was not near enough to pass him and fell to eighth while conserving electrical energy. Bird crossed the start-finish line in first place after 43 laps to clinch his first victory of the season and the sixth of his career. Vergne followed 11.575 seconds later in second and Heidfeld was third. Off the podium, Engel originally finished fourth but was penalised with a time penalty for overusing energy and dropped to 13th. Piquet finished fourth, Abt fifth, Félix da Costa sixth and Mortara was the highest-placed rookie in seventh. Rosenqvist lost his eighth-place result after being adjudged to have overused power and dropped to 14th. Lynn, Prost and Filippi rounded out the top-ten. Buemi, Evans, Engel, Rosenqvist, Kobayashi, Turvey, di Grassi and Jani completed the finishing order. Lotterer was deemed to have left his car in an unsafe position under parc fermé conditions and was disqualified from the race. The sole non-classified finisher was d'Ambrosio who pulled to the side of the circuit with a mechanical failure and later retired after rejoining.
### Post-race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Bird spoke about the erratic nature of the race and said it was "unreal" for him to have won after taking his drive-through penalty He also admitted the race had stressed him but relished its competitive nature despite the first-lap stoppage: "Welcome to Formula E. That's like a normal race for us. We've had some crazy races in the past, you only have to look at the first ever race in the series and the crash at the last corner." Vergne said it was the most difficult race of his career because he lacked radio communication and battery regeneration: "So, if this morning somebody told me I’d have these issues, I wouldn’t even take the start of the race. To finish second off the back of this is almost like a victory to us. We’re hoping to fix things overnight and come back stronger tomorrow." Heidfeld stated that his third-place was a result he was least happy with but praised his team.
Vergne's defensive move at the turn three and four chicane drew criticism from Heidfeld who claimed Vergne broke series rules for his driving that the two discussed. Heidfled was unhappy when Vergne told him that he believed the manoeuvres were acceptable. Vergne argued that he was not at fault because he did not wish to undertake an action that would have jeopardised his chances of a championship duel and wanted to the finish the race: "Sometimes you have to finish second and third or fourth, but take the points. And at the end of the year they will count." Buemi was critical of di Grassi's driving, believing that the latter should have ceded the position once they reached the corner. He revealed he attempted to drive as close as he could towards the barrier without hitting it but found di Grassi's driving too aggressive: "The corner is very tight, but I am there, you cannot just do the corner – and he just does the corner. He turns, so I end up pushing him and damaging both cars. If I'm beside you it's a bit difficult. What should I do? I cannot do anything." Di Grassi ignored Buemi's criticism and clarified his right-rear suspension was damaged from his contact with Abt instead of Buemi's hit as had been initially reported by Audi.
It was discovered after the race that several drivers had poor radio reception due to the local skyscrapers, prompting them to recalculate their regeneration and electrical energy usage without assistance. Abt likened the situation to Formula 4 racing while Piquet believed he could have improved on his fourth-place had his radio functioned correctly. Jani said the lack of communication in his first race hindered him as he did not have the knowledge of what his regeneration targets were and Rosenqvist agreed the situation was unexpected and hard to deal with. Lynn revealed his team had been previously affected in a prior race and were better prepared for a similar situation. Bird was told to see the stewards after the race and was given a ten-place grid penalty for the following day's race for not stopping in the garage during his pit stop. Virgin team principal Alex Tai told the press that he sought an answer of whether Bird's penalty was appealable but chose to follow instructions since that would be difficult to do. Engel revealed his issue was caused by a loss of electrical power between the first and second turns every lap which allowed Rosenqvist to attack him.
As a consequence of the final positions, Bird led the Drivers' Championship with 25 points. Vergne was four points behind in second place, Heidfeld was third with 15 points and Piquet followed a further three points behind in fourth place. With 11 points, Abt was fifth. In the Teams' Championship, Virgin became the early leaders on 29 points with both their drivers finishing in the top ten. Vergne's pole position and second-place finish earned the second-placed Techeetah 21 points and Mahindra were a further six points adrift in third. Jaguar were fourth with 12 points and Audi on 11 points were fifth.
### Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
## Race two
### Practice and qualifying
One 45-minute practice session on Sunday morning was held before the early afternoon race. Buemi bested Evans's fastest lap of the weekend to go fastest in the third practice session with a time of 1 minute, 2.002 seconds; Lynn followed three-tenths of a second behind in second. Di Grassi, Vergne, Bird, Rosenqvist, Abt, Mortara, Heidfeld and Turvey made up position three to ten. During practice, where several drivers locked their brakes and drove onto the track's run-off areas, Engel briefly stopped at the first turn but no red flag was necessitated since he restarted his car in time. Prost narrowly avoided being caught out by Turvey who lost control of his car's rear at turn nine while passing the former and d'Ambrosio hit Prost's vehicle and dislodged its right-rear fender at the corner's apex. Prost was able to drive back to the pit lane but voiced his anger over the radio. Buemi slowed to avoid hitting debris at the turn three and four chicane and impeded the faster Félix da Costa with the pair gesticulating.
In contrast to the first race, the lottery system was changed with the top five drivers in the championship put in the first group and lower ranked competitors drawn in order in the three remaining groups. This was changed to allow drives to remain close to each other and stop significant variables such as changeable weather from affecting the starting order. In the first qualifying group of five runners, Turvey paced the session with di Grassi a quarter of a second slower in second. Lotterer, d'Ambrosio and the early benchmark setter Jani rounded out the first group's slowest drivers. D'Ambrosio noted that the driving in group one was difficult due a Roborace demonstration that took place between the third practice and second qualifying sessions leaving debris on the track. In the second group, Rosenqvist moved straight to provisional pole but Evans's was quickest overall with a lap of 1 minute, 2.577 seconds. Rosenqvist was second, Engel third and Kobayashi fourth. Buemi was group two's slowest driver as he was off the pace due to him damaging his car with a glance of the turn five inside barrier; he began from the back of the field for the first time since the 2016 Buenos Aires ePrix. Mortara was fastest in the third group, followed by Lynn, Félix da Costa. Filippi, and early pace setter Prost. In the fourth group, Abt set a lap that moved him to second overall The fourth group's four slowest participants were Bird, Vergne, Heidfeld and Piquet. At the end of group qualifying, the lap times set by Evans, Abt, Mortara, Rosenqvist and Bird advanced them into super pole. Despite an oversteer in the final sector, Rosenqvist drove aggressively to take his fourth career pole position with a lap of 1 minute, 2.836 seconds. He was joined on the grid's front row by Evans who was faster than Rosenqvist earlier in his lap. Despite ruining his preparation at the end of his warm-up lap and an error at turn one, Mortara took third and Bird was fourth in his attempt to minimise the effect of his grid penalty. Abt bent his car's steering arm from minor contact with a wall and a slow pace put him fifth. After qualifying, Evans's super pole time was deleted because he was deemed to have overused electrical power and Bird began from 13th. The rest of the grid lined up after penalties as Lynn, Félix da Costa, Vergne, Turvey, Filippi, Heidfeld, Piquet, di Grassi, Bird, Prost, Engel, Kobayashi, Lotterer, d'Ambrosio, Jani and Buemi.
### Race
The second race started at 15:00 local time. The weather at the start were dry and sunny with the air temperature ranging from 23.25 and 23.9 °C (73.85 and 75.02 °F) and a track temperature between 27.2 and 28.35 °C (80.96 and 83.03 °F). As in the first ePrix, the winners of the FanBoost vote were Abt, Kobayashi and Filippi. On the grid, a circuit board failure resulted in the five red lights gantry failing to illuminate, causing the entire field to remain in their starting positions as they awaited a signal from the race director Scot Elkins. Three minutes later, race control elected to use the safety car to start the race. Rosenqvist led the field up to speed but locked his rear brakes heading towards the turn one hairpin and half-spun, falling to eleventh. This gave Mortara the lead and Abt moved into second position. More action took place further down the field as drivers got close to each other but all made it through without any trouble. Filippi's track rod fractured early on and later became the race's only retiree after entering the pit lane. At the end of the second lap, Mortara led from Abt, Evans, Lynn, Félix da Costa, Vergne, Turvey, Piquet, Prost and Bird.
Early movement within first to fifth occurred as Félix da Costa overtook Lynn around the outside for fourth place while Bird moved from fourteenth to ninth by the start of the fifth lap. On the following lap, Mahindra suffered further problems when Heidfeld slowed and drove to the side of the circuit with a technical issue but was later able to get the fault rectified and continued racing. Upfront, Mortara opened up a four-second advantage over Abt, while Rosenqvist began to move up the field and Buemi and di Grassi struggled in the non-points scoring positions. Abt looked to lessen Mortara's lead but the latter was better managing his electrical energy usage and began to increase his advantage as the pit stop phase was getting closer. Soon after, Heideld delayed Mortara as he seemed to not realise that the race leader was about to lap him. The mandatory pit stops for the switch into a second car began on the 23rd lap when Mortara entered the pit lane with one percent of usable electrical energy. Félix da Costa and Lynn stayed on the circuit for one additional lap before the duo made their pit stops. Soon after his pit stop, di Grassi stopped temporarily at the side of the track at turn six with a battery management system fault. He fell to 17th after restarting his car.
After the pit stops, Mortara kept the lead and was now three-and-a-half-seconds in front of Abt. Rosenqvist made up the most positions and moved to third. Félix da Costa's second car had trouble starting and this required a full reset that dropped him to 14th. Similarly, Evans lost four seconds at his pit stop due to a problem with his second car and fell from third to fourth. Mortara was soon placed under pressure by Heidfeld who was making an attempt to unlap himself. Mortara responded by defending as if he was battling for position but was later informed over the radio that this was not the case. Numerous battles occurred in the middle of the field with Bird and Vergne close to each other while Buemi had moved up the order to run in eleventh place. Rosenqvist drew closer to Abt at the rate of half a second per lap and was five seconds adrift with eight laps left. However, Abt responded to Rosenqvist's faster pace to remain in third. Mortara had more usable electrical energy but Abt was able to close up on him and the lead was reduced to two seconds. Mortara used this to his advantage to set personal best lap times and give him a three-second advantage in the closing stages and it appeared he would take his and Venturi's first Formula E win.
However, on lap 43, just as Abt used his FanBoost on the back straight, Mortara endured difficulty with his regenerative braking system, and lost control of his car's rear at the second turn but avoided hitting a wall. This promoted Abt into the lead which he held for the final two laps to finish first on the road for would have been his maiden Formula E victory and his first in motor racing since the 2012 GP3 Series. Rosenqvist completed his recovery and took second while Mortara came back from his late race spin to complete the podium in third. Off the podium, Evans finished in fourth to match Jaguar's best result in Formula E and Vergne followed in fifth. Bird lost out in his battle with Vergne and was sixth. Turvey, Engel and Prost all had quiet races and followed in positions seven to nine. Lynn was more economical with using electrical energy and eventually slowed to take tenth because he could not overtake Evans. Buemi, Félix da Costa and Piquet followed in the next three placings. Lotterer swerved to avoid Piquet on the inside lane for turn ten, and speared into the exit barriers, heavily damaging his car's front-right corner. Lotterer crossed the timing beam in 14th. Di Grassi, d'Ambrosio, Heidfeld, Kobayashi and Jani were the final classified finishers.
### Post-race
Three hours after the race, it was announced by the FIA stewards that Abt's car was not compliant with the Formula E technical regulations. They discovered that the FIA security stickers on the car's inverter and the motor-generator unit did not match those declared on the vehicle's technical passport provided to the team for the ePrix. Audi team principal Allan McNish suspected an administrative error and announced the team's intention to file an appeal with the FIA International Tribunal in Paris to clarify the details surrounding the mix-up. The next day, Audi scrutinised all documents and processes and determined that Abt gained no advantage as a result and all parts of the car were fully homologated. The team accepted the FIA's decision and apologised to Abt for the error. The consequence of the decision meant Rosenqvist inherited the second victory of his career with Mortara second and Evans taking Jaguar's first Formula E podium. Additionally, Audi were fined €5,000 (\$5,944) after five of its team personnel convened to the podium via the circuit before the final car had reached parc fermé, deemed by the stewards to be "serious breach of safety regulations".
Rosenqvist was happy to win the race but was sympathetic to Abt: "It’s not the way you want to win and I don’t feel like I’ve won the race. But I’m happy with the points. Sometimes you’re happy and then you’re sad, like yesterday we were in P15 and turned it around – getting fastest lap but it got taken away, so there’s been a lot like that but I’ll take maximum points and third in the championship." Second-placed Mortara acknowledged he was possibly overconfident as he sought the additional point for setting the fastest lap along with the victory and vowed to be calmer at the season's next race: "It’s... difficult to find the words actually, after a race like that. It’s tough to swallow actually, today. We had the pace, we were managing the race from the beginning to the end – I was pretty much 100% all through the race, to keep the gap with Daniel and I was choosing when to push." Evans was proud to take Jaguar's first Formula E podium but that it was regretful as Abt is a close friend of his.
According to Buemi, an unexplained issue with his car's chassis compromised his speed over the race weekend and that his team did not have the knowledge on how to rectify it. He also confirmed to the press that the same problem affected all four of his vehicles. Di Grassi was frustrated with the problems of his vehicle: "The car is strong, we have the potential, we have to figure it out. Saturday we lost a fourth place or a fifth place easy, Sunday we lost again at least another fifth or fourth place. It is just frustrating because of small details which are sometimes out of our control." Lotterer said his first lap incident in the first race was him being in "the wrong place at the wrong time” but he was encouraged over a battle he had with Buemi in the next race and was eager to discover how his team's performance could be improved for future races. Jani said that it had been quite some time since a teammate of his out-performed him but spoke of his satisfaction to improve his performance following Saturday's race. Félix da Costa spoke of his disappointment over the result as he believed he could have come second had his pit stop not been slow.
The result meant Bird remained the Drivers' Championship leader on 36 points but his advantage over Vergne was reduced from six to two points. Rosenqvist's victory gained him third position with 29 points and Mortara's second-place finish moved him to fourth. Heidfeld's non-points scoring finish dropped him to fifth and was tied with Evans on points. Mahindra's result enabled them to move into the lead of the Teams' Championship with 44 points, three ahead of Virgin in second place. Techeetah fell to third while Venturi's strong performance allowed the team to move into fourth. Jaguar rounded out the top five with ten races left in the season. 27,000 people attended the two-day event.
### Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
## Classification
### Qualifying one
Notes:
- — Neel Jani was demoted ten places for changing his car's battery following an accident in the first practice session.
### Race one
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
Notes:
- — Three points for pole position.
- — One point for the fastest lap awarded to Daniel Abt as Jérôme d'Ambrosio did not finish in the top ten.
- — André Lotterer was disqualified for leaving his car in an unsafe condition under parc fermé conditions.
### Qualifying two
Notes:
- — Sam Bird was demoted ten places for not stopping in his garage during his mandatory pit stop in the first race.
- — Mitch Evans' super pole lap was deleted for exceeding the mandated maximum amount of electrical power usage.
### Race two
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
| Pos. | No. | Driver | Team | Laps | Time/Retired | Grid | Points |
|-----------------------------------------|-----|------------------------------------------------|-------------------|------|-----------------|------|--------|
| 1 | 19 | data-sort-value="ROS"\| Felix Rosenqvist | Mahindra | 45 | 50:05.084 | 1 | 25+3+1 |
| 2 | 4 | data-sort-value="MOR"\| Edoardo Mortara | Venturi | 45 | +7.031 | 2 | 18 |
| 3 | 20 | data-sort-value="EVA"\| Mitch Evans | Jaguar | 45 | +10.619 | 4 | 15 |
| 4 | 25 | data-sort-value="VER"\| Jean-Éric Vergne | Techeetah-Renault | 45 | +12.593 | 7 | 12 |
| 5 | 2 | data-sort-value="BIR"\| Sam Bird | Virgin-Citroën | 45 | +12.879 | 13 | 10 |
| 6 | 16 | data-sort-value="TUR"\| Oliver Turvey | NIO | 45 | +14.199 | 9 | 8 |
| 7 | 5 | data-sort-value="ENG"\| Maro Engel | Venturi | 45 | +15.676 | 15 | 6 |
| 8 | 8 | data-sort-value="PRO"\| Nico Prost | e.Dams-Renault | 45 | +18.905 | 14 | 4 |
| 9 | 36 | data-sort-value="LYN"\| Alex Lynn | Virgin-Citroën | 45 | +19.025 | 5 | 2 |
| 10 | 9 | data-sort-value="BUE"\| Sébastien Buemi | e.Dams-Renault | 45 | +22.139 | 20 | 1 |
| 11 | 28 | data-sort-value="FDC"\| António Félix da Costa | Andretti-BMW | 45 | +23.159 | 6 | |
| 12 | 3 | data-sort-value="PIQ"\| Nelson Piquet Jr. | Jaguar | 45 | +27.104 | 11 | |
| 13 | 1 | data-sort-value="DIG"\| Lucas di Grassi | Audi | 45 | +28.591 | 12 | |
| 14 | 18 | data-sort-value="LOT"\| André Lotterer | Techeetah-Renault | 45 | +39,137 | 17 | |
| 15 | 7 | data-sort-value="DAM"\| Jérôme d'Ambrosio | Dragon-Penske | 45 | +55,189 | 18 | |
| 16 | 23 | data-sort-value="HEI"\| Nick Heidfeld | Mahindra | 44 | +1 Lap | 10 | |
| 17 | 27 | data-sort-value="KOB"\| Kamui Kobayashi | Andretti-BMW | 44 | \+ 1 Lap | 16 | |
| 18 | 6 | data-sort-value="JAN"\| Neel Jani | Dragon-Penske | 44 | \+ 1 Lap | 19 | |
| scope="row" data-sort-value="19" \| Ret | 68 | data-sort-value="FIL"\| Luca Filippi | NIO | 36 | Track rod | 9 | |
| scope="row" data-sort-value="20" \| DSQ | 66 | data-sort-value="ABT"\| Daniel Abt | Audi | 45 | Disqualified''' | 3 | |
| Source: | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
Final second race classification
Notes:'''
- — Three points for pole position.
- — Felix Rosenqvist won the one point for the fastest lap as Lucas di Grassi did not finish in the top ten.
- — Daniel Abt finished first on the track, but was disqualified after FIA stewards discovered the bar codes on his car's inverter and motor-generator unit did not match those on its technical passport provided to Audi. |
149,709 | Willie Nelson | 1,173,356,751 | American country singer (born 1933) | [
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]
| Willie Hugh Nelson (born April 29, 1933) is an American singer, songwriter, guitarist, activist, and actor. He was one of the main figures of the progressive and outlaw country subgenres that developed in the late 1960s as a reaction to the conservative restrictions of the Nashville sound. The critical success of his album Shotgun Willie (1973), combined with the critical and commercial success of Red Headed Stranger (1975) and Stardust (1978), made Nelson one of the most recognized artists in country music. Nelson has acted in over 30 films, co-authored several books, and has been involved in activism for the use of biofuels and the legalization of marijuana.
Nelson wrote his first song at age seven and joined his first band at ten. During high school, he toured locally with the Bohemian Polka as their lead singer and guitar player. After graduating from high school in 1950, he joined the U.S. Air Force but was later discharged due to back problems. After his return, Nelson attended Baylor University for two years but dropped out because he was succeeding in music. He worked as a disc jockey at radio stations in his native Texas, and in several radio stations in the Pacific Northwest, all the while working as a singer and songwriter throughout the late 1950s. During that time, he wrote songs that would become country standards, including "Funny How Time Slips Away", "Hello Walls", "Pretty Paper", and "Crazy". In 1960 he moved to Nashville, Tennessee, and later signed a publishing contract with Pamper Music which allowed him to join Ray Price's band as a bassist. In 1962, he recorded his first album, ...And Then I Wrote. Due to this success, Nelson signed in 1964 with RCA Victor and joined the Grand Ole Opry the following year. After mid-chart hits in the late 1960s and the early 1970s, Nelson grew weary of the corporate Nashville music scene, and in 1972 he moved to Austin, Texas. The ongoing music scene of Austin motivated Nelson to return to performing, appearing frequently at the Armadillo World Headquarters.
In 1973, after signing with Atlantic Records, Nelson turned to outlaw country, including albums such as Shotgun Willie and Phases and Stages. In 1975, he switched to Columbia Records, where he recorded the critically acclaimed album Red Headed Stranger. The same year, he recorded another outlaw country album, Wanted! The Outlaws, along with Waylon Jennings, Jessi Colter, and Tompall Glaser. During the mid-1980s, while creating hit albums like Honeysuckle Rose and recording hit songs like "On the Road Again", "To All the Girls I've Loved Before", and "Pancho and Lefty", he joined the country supergroup The Highwaymen, along with fellow singers Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings, and Kris Kristofferson. In 1985, he helped organize the first Farm Aid concert to benefit American farmers; the concerts have been held annually ever since and Nelson has been a fixture, appearing at every one.
In 1990, Nelson's assets were seized by the Internal Revenue Service, which claimed that he owed \$32 million. The difficulty of paying his outstanding debt was aggravated by weak investments he had made during the 1980s. In 1992, Nelson released The IRS Tapes: Who'll Buy My Memories?; the profits of the double album—destined to the IRS—and the auction of Nelson's assets cleared his debt. During the 1990s and 2000s, Nelson continued touring extensively, and released albums every year. Reviews ranged from positive to mixed. He explored genres such as reggae, blues, jazz, and folk.
Nelson made his first movie appearance in the 1979 film The Electric Horseman, followed by other appearances in movies and on television. Nelson is a major liberal activist and the co-chair of the advisory board of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML), which is in favor of marijuana legalization. On the environmental front, Nelson owns the biodiesel brand Willie Nelson Biodiesel, whose product is made from vegetable oil. Nelson is also the honorary chairman of the advisory board of the Texas Music Project, the official music charity of the state of Texas.
## Early life
Nelson was born in Abbott, Texas, on April 29, 1933, the son of Ira Doyle Nelson and Myrle Marie (née Greenhaw). His birthday was incorrectly recorded by Dr. F. D. Sims as April 30. He was named Willie by his cousin Mildred, who also chose Hugh as his middle name, in honor of her recently deceased younger brother. Nelson traces his genealogy to the American Revolutionary War, in which his ancestor John Nelson served as a major. His parents moved to Texas from Arkansas in 1929 to look for work. His grandfather, William, worked as a blacksmith, while his father worked as a mechanic. His mother left soon after he was born, and his father remarried and also moved away, leaving Nelson and his sister Bobbie to be raised by their grandparents, who taught singing back in Arkansas and started their grandchildren in music. Nelson's grandfather bought him a guitar when he was six, and taught him a few chords, and Nelson sang gospel songs in the local church alongside Bobbie. He wrote his first song at age seven, and when he was nine, he played guitar for local band Bohemian Polka. During the summer, the family picked cotton alongside other Abbott residents. Nelson disliked picking cotton, so he earned money by singing in dance halls, taverns, and honky tonks from age 13, which he continued through high school. His musical influences were Hank Williams, Bob Wills, Lefty Frizzell, Ray Price, Ernest Tubb, Hank Snow, Django Reinhardt, Frank Sinatra, and Louis Armstrong.
Nelson attended Abbott High School, where he was a halfback on the football team, guard on the basketball team, and shortstop in baseball. He also raised pigs with the Future Farmers of America. While still at school, he sang and played guitar in The Texans, a band formed by his sister's husband, Bud Fletcher. The band played in honky tonks, and also had a Sunday morning spot at KHBR in Hillsboro, Texas. Meanwhile, Nelson had a short stint as a relief phone operator in Abbott, followed by a job as a tree trimmer for the local electric company, as well as a pawn shop employee. After leaving school in 1950, he joined the U.S. Air Force; he served for nine months before being medically discharged because of issues with his back. Upon his return in 1952, he married Martha Matthews, and from 1954 to 1956 studied agriculture at Baylor University, where he joined the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, until dropping out to pursue a career in music. He worked as a nightclub bouncer, autohouse partsman, saddle maker, and tree trimmer again. He later joined Johnny Bush's band.
Nelson moved with his family to Pleasanton, Texas, where he auditioned for a job as a DJ at KBOP. The owner of the station, Dr. Ben Parker, gave Nelson the job despite his lack of experience working on radio. With the equipment of the station, Nelson made his first two recordings in 1955: "The Storm Has Just Begun" and "When I've Sung My Last Hillbilly Song". He recorded the tracks on used tapes, and sent the demos to the local label SARG Records, which rejected them. He then had stints working for KDNT in Denton, KCUL, and KCNC in Fort Worth, where he hosted The Western Express, taught Sunday school, and played in nightclubs. He then decided to move to San Diego but, when he was unable to find a job there, he hitchhiked to Portland, Oregon, where his mother lived. When nobody picked him up, he ended up sleeping in a ditch before hopping a freight train bound for Eugene. A truck driver drove him to a bus station and loaned him \$10 for a ticket to reach Portland.
## Music career
### Beginnings (1956–1971)
Nelson was hired by KVAN in Vancouver, Washington, and appeared frequently on a television show. He made his first record in 1956, "No Place for Me", that included Leon Payne's "Lumberjack" on the B-side. The recording failed. Nelson continued working as a radio announcer and singing in Vancouver clubs. He made several appearances in a Colorado nightclub, later moving to Springfield, Missouri. After failing to land a spot on the Ozark Jubilee, he started to work as a dishwasher. Unhappy with his job, he moved back to Texas. After a short time in Waco, he settled in Fort Worth, and quit the music business for a year. He sold bibles and vacuum cleaners door-to-door, and eventually became a sales manager for the Encyclopedia Americana.
After his son Billy was born in 1958, the family moved to Houston, Texas. On the way, Nelson stopped by the Esquire Ballroom to sell his original songs to house band singer Larry Butler. Butler refused to purchase the song "Mr. Record Man" for \$10, instead giving Nelson a \$50 loan to rent an apartment and a six-night job singing in the club. Nelson rented the apartment near Houston in Pasadena, Texas, where he also worked at the radio station as the sign-on disc jockey. During this time, he recorded two singles for Pappy Daily on D Records "Man With the Blues"/"The Storm Has Just Begun" and "What a Way to Live"/"Misery Mansion". Nelson then was hired by guitar instructor Paul Buskirk to work as an instructor in his school. He sold "Family Bible" to Buskirk for \$50 and "Night Life" for \$150. "Family Bible" turned into a hit for Claude Gray in 1960.
Nelson moved to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1960, but was unable to find a label to sign him. During this period he often spent time at Tootsie's Orchid Lounge, a bar near the Grand Ole Opry frequented by the show's stars and other singers and songwriters. There Nelson met Hank Cochran, a songwriter who worked for the publishing company Pamper Music, owned by Ray Price and Hal Smith. Cochran heard Nelson during a jam session with Buddy Emmons and Jimmy Day. Cochran had just earned a raise of \$50 a week, but convinced Smith to pay Nelson the money instead to sign him to Pamper Music. On hearing Nelson sing "Hello Walls" at Tootsie's, Faron Young decided to record it. After Ray Price recorded Nelson's "Night Life", and his previous bassist Johnny Paycheck quit, Nelson joined Price's touring band as a bass player. While playing with Price and the Cherokee Cowboys, his songs became hits for other artists, including "Funny How Time Slips Away" (Billy Walker), "Pretty Paper" (Roy Orbison), and, most famously, "Crazy" by Patsy Cline. Nelson and Cochran also met Cline's husband, Charlie Dick at Tootsie's. Dick liked a song of Nelson's he heard on the bar's jukebox. Nelson played him a demo tape of "Crazy". Later that night Dick played the tape for Cline, who decided to record it. "Crazy" became the biggest jukebox hit of all time.
Nelson signed with Liberty Records and was recording by August 1961 at Quonset Hut Studio. His first two successful singles as an artist were released by the next year, including "Willingly" (a duet with his soon-to-be second wife, Shirley Collie, which became his first charting single and first Top Ten at No. 10) and "Touch Me" (his second Top Ten, stalling at No. 7). Nelson's tenure at Liberty yielded his first album entitled ...And Then I Wrote, released in September 1962. In 1963 Collie and Nelson were married in Las Vegas. He then worked on the west coast offices of Pamper Records, in Pico Rivera, California. Since the job did not allow him the time to play music of his own, he left it and bought a ranch in Ridgetop, Tennessee, outside of Nashville. Fred Foster of Monument Records signed Nelson in early 1964, but only one single was released: "I Never Cared For You".
By the fall of 1964, Nelson had moved to RCA Victor at the behest of Chet Atkins, signing a contract for \$10,000 per year. Country Willie – His Own Songs became Nelson's first RCA Victor album, recorded in April 1965. That same year he joined the Grand Ole Opry, and he met and became friends with Waylon Jennings after watching one of his shows in Phoenix, Arizona. In 1967, he formed his backing band "The Record Men", featuring Johnny Bush, Jimmy Day, Paul English and David Zettner. During his first few years on RCA Victor, Nelson had no significant hits, but from November 1966 through March 1969, his singles reached the Top 25 in a consistent manner. "One in a Row" (#19, 1966), "The Party's Over" (#24 during a 16-week chart run in 1967), and his cover of Morecambe & Wise's "Bring Me Sunshine" (#13, March 1969) were Nelson's best-selling records during his time with RCA.
By 1970, most of Nelson's songwriting royalties were invested in tours that did not produce significant profits. In addition to the problems in his career, Nelson divorced Shirley Collie in 1970. In December, his ranch in Ridgetop, Tennessee, burned down. He interpreted the incident as a signal for a change. He moved to a ranch near Bandera, Texas, and married Connie Koepke. In early 1971 his single "I'm a Memory" reached the top 30. After he recorded his final RCA single, "Mountain Dew" (backed with "Phases, Stages, Circles, Cycles and Scenes"), in late April 1972, RCA requested that Nelson renew his contract ahead of schedule, with the implication that RCA would not release his latest recordings if he did not. Due to the failure of his albums, and particularly frustrated by the reception of Yesterday's Wine, although his contract was not over, Nelson decided to retire from music.
### Outlaw country and success (1972–1989)
Nelson moved to Austin, Texas, where the burgeoning hippie music scene (see Armadillo World Headquarters) rejuvenated the singer. His popularity in Austin soared as he played his own brand of country music marked by country, folk and jazz influences. In March, he performed on the final day of the Dripping Springs Reunion, a three-day country music festival aimed by its producers to be an annual event. Despite the failure to reach the expected attendance, the concept of the festival inspired Nelson to create the Fourth of July Picnic, his own annual event, starting the following year.
Nelson decided to return to the recording business; he signed Neil Reshen as his manager to negotiate with RCA, who got the label to agree to end his contract upon repayment of \$14,000. Reshen eventually signed Nelson to Atlantic Records for \$25,000 per year, where he became the label's first country artist. He formed his backing band, The Family, and, by February 1973, he was recording his acclaimed Shotgun Willie at Atlantic Studios in New York City.
Shotgun Willie, released in May 1973, earned excellent reviews but did not sell well. The album led Nelson to a new style, later stating that Shotgun Willie had "cleared his throat". His next release, Phases and Stages, released in 1974, was a concept album about a couple's divorce, inspired by his own experience. Side one of the record is from the viewpoint of the woman, and side two is from the viewpoint of the man. The album included the hit single "Bloody Mary Morning". The same year, he produced and starred in the pilot episode of PBS' Austin City Limits.
Nelson then moved to Columbia Records, where he signed a contract that gave him complete creative control, made possible by the critical and commercial success of his previous albums. The result was the critically acclaimed and massively popular 1975 concept album Red Headed Stranger. Although Columbia was reluctant to release an album with primarily a guitar and piano for accompaniment, Nelson and Waylon Jennings insisted. The album included a cover of Fred Rose's 1945 song "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain", that had been released as a single previous to the album, and became Nelson's first number one hit as a singer. Throughout his 1975 tour, Nelson raised funds for PBS-affiliated stations across the south promoting Austin City Limits. The pilot was aired first on those stations, later being released nationwide. The positive reception of the show prompted PBS to order ten episodes for 1976, formally launching the show.
As Jennings was also achieving success in country music in the early 1970s, the pair were combined into a genre called outlaw country, since it did not conform to Nashville standards. The album Wanted! The Outlaws in 1976 with Jessi Colter and Tompall Glaser cemented the pair's outlaw image and became country music's first platinum album. Later that year Nelson released The Sound in Your Mind (certified gold in 1978 and platinum in 2001) and his first gospel album Troublemaker (certified gold in 1986).
In the summer of 1977, Nelson discovered that Reshen had been filing tax extensions and not paying the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) since he took over as his manager. In June, a package containing cocaine was sent from Reshen's office in New York to Jennings in Nashville. The package was followed by the DEA, and Jennings was arrested. The charges were later dropped, since Reshen's assistant, Mark Rothbaum stepped in and took the charges. Rothbaum was sentenced to serve time in jail. Impressed by his attitude, Nelson fired Reshen and hired Rothbaum as his manager. In 1978, Nelson released two more platinum albums. One, Waylon & Willie, was a collaboration with Jennings that included "Mammas Don't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys", a hit single written and performed by Ed Bruce. Though observers predicted that Stardust would ruin his career, it went platinum the same year. Nelson continued to top the charts with hit songs during the late 1970s, including "Good Hearted Woman", "Remember Me", "If You've Got the Money I've Got the Time", and "Uncloudy Day".
During the 1980s, Nelson recorded a series of hit singles including "Midnight Rider", a 1980 cover of the Allman Brothers song which Nelson recorded for The Electric Horseman, the soundtrack "On the Road Again" from the movie Honeysuckle Rose, and a duet with Julio Iglesias titled "To All the Girls I've Loved Before".
In 1982, Pancho & Lefty, a duet album with Merle Haggard produced by Chips Moman was released. During the recording sessions of Pancho and Lefty, session guitarist Johnny Christopher and co-writer of "Always on My Mind", tried to pitch the song to an uninterested Haggard. Nelson, who was unaware of Elvis Presley's version of the song asked him to record it. Produced by Moman, the single of the song was released, as well as the album of the same name. The single topped Billboard's Hot Country Singles, while it reached number five on the Billboard Hot 100. The release won three awards during the 25th Annual Grammy Awards: Song of the Year, Best Country Song and Best Male Country Vocal Performance. The single was certified platinum; while the album was certified quadruple-platinum, and later inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2008.
Meanwhile, two collaborations with Waylon Jennings were released;WWII in 1982, and Take it to the Limit, another collaboration with Waylon Jennings was released in 1983. In the mid-1980s, Nelson, Jennings, Kristofferson, and Johnny Cash formed The Highwaymen, a supergroup, who achieved platinum record sales and toured the world. Meanwhile, Nelson became more involved with charity work, such as singing on We are the World in 1984. In 1985, Nelson had another success with Half Nelson, a compilation album of duets with a range of artists such as Ray Charles and Neil Young. In 1980, Nelson performed on the south lawn of the White House. The concert of September 13 featured First Lady Rosalynn Carter and Nelson in a duet of Ray Wylie Hubbard's "Up Against the Wall Redneck Mother". Nelson frequently visited the White House, where according to the biography by Joe Nick Patoski, Willie Nelson: An Epic Life, he smoked marijuana on the White House roof.
### Later career (1990s)
In 1996, Nelson re-recorded the tracks "Hello Walls" with the band the Reverend Horton Heat, and "Bloody Mary Morning" with the Supersuckers, for
Twisted Willie, a tribute album featuring rock versions of Nelson's songs performed by artists such as Johnny Cash, Kris Kristofferson, Jerry Cantrell, Mark Lanegan, L7, the Presidents of the United States of America, and Jello Biafra, among others. Proceeds from the sale of the record went to Nelson's Farm Aid.
During the 1990s and 2000s, Nelson toured continuously, recording several albums including 1998's critically acclaimed Teatro, and performed and recorded with other acts including Phish, Johnny Cash, and Toby Keith. His duet with Keith, "Beer for My Horses", was released as a single and topped the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts for six consecutive weeks in 2003, while the accompanying video won an award for "Best Video" at the 2004 Academy of Country Music Awards. A USA Network television special celebrated Nelson's 70th birthday, and Nelson released The Essential Willie Nelson as part of the celebration. Nelson also appeared on Ringo Starr's 2003 album, Ringo Rama, as a guest vocal on "Write One for Me".
Nelson was featured on the album True Love by Toots and the Maytals, which won the Grammy Award in 2004 for Best Reggae Album, and showcased many notable musicians including Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Trey Anastasio, Gwen Stefani, and Keith Richards. In the following year of 2005, Nelson released a reggae album entitled Countryman which featured Toots Hibbert of Toots and the Maytals on the song "I'm a Worried Man".
Nelson headlined the 2005 Tsunami Relief Austin to Asia concert to benefit the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which raised an estimated \$75,000 for UNICEF. Also in 2005, a live performance of the Johnny Cash song "Busted" with Ray Charles was released on Charles' duets album Genius & Friends. Nelson's 2007 performance with jazz trumpeter Wynton Marsalis at the Lincoln Center, was released as the live album Two Men with the Blues in 2008; reaching number one in Billboard's Top Jazz Albums and number twenty on the Billboard 200. The same year, Nelson recorded his first album with Buddy Cannon as the producer, Moment of Forever. Cannon acquainted Nelson earlier, during the production of his collaboration with Kenny Chesney on the duet "That Lucky Old Sun", for Chesney's album of the same name. In 2009 Nelson and Marsalis joined with Norah Jones in a tribute concert to Ray Charles, which resulted in the Here We Go Again: Celebrating the Genius of Ray Charles album, released in 2011.
### 2010s
In 2010, Nelson released Country Music, a compilation of standards produced by T-Bone Burnett. The album peaked number four in Billboard's Top Country Albums, and twenty on the Billboard 200. It was nominated for Best Americana Album at the 2011 Grammy Awards. In 2011 Nelson participated in the concert Kokua For Japan, a fund raising event for the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan which raised \$1.6 million.
In February 2012, Legacy Recordings signed a deal with Nelson that included the release of new material, as well as past releases that would be selected and complemented with outtakes and other material selected by him. With the new deal, Buddy Cannon returned to produce the recordings of Nelson. After selecting the material and the sound of the tunes with the singer, Cannon's work method consisted in the recording of the tracks with studio musicians, with the takes later completed on a separate session by Nelson with his guitar. Cannon's association to Nelson also extended to songwriting, with singer and producer composing the lyrics by exchanging text messages.
Nelson's first release for the Legacy Recordings was Heroes, that included guest appearances by his sons Lukas and Micah of the band Insects vs Robots, Ray Price, Merle Haggard, Snoop Dogg, Kris Kristofferson, Jamey Johnson, Billy Joe Shaver and Sheryl Crow. The album reached number four on Billboard's Top Country Albums. His 2013 release To All the Girls..., a collection of duets with all female partners, featured among others Dolly Parton, Loretta Lynn, Rosanne Cash, Sheryl Crow, Mavis Staples, Norah Jones, Emmylou Harris, Carrie Underwood and Miranda Lambert. The album entered Billboard's Top Country Albums at number two, marking his highest position on the chart since the release of his 1989 A Horse Called Music, and extending his record to a total of forty-six top ten albums on the country charts. Nelson scored as well his second top ten album on the Billboard 200, with the release entering at number nine.
His following release was Band of Brothers, in 2014, the first Nelson album to feature the most newly self-penned songs since 1996's Spirit. Upon its release, it topped Billboard's Top Country albums chart, the first time since 1986's The Promiseland, the last Nelson album to top it. The release reached number five on the Billboard 200, Nelson's highest position on the chart since 1982's Always on My Mind. In December 2014, a duet with Rhonda Vincent, "Only Me", topped Bluegrass Unlimited's National Airplay chart. In June 2015, his collaboration with Haggard Django and Jimmie topped Billboard's Top Country albums chart and reached number seven on the Billboard 200.
In 2017, Nelson released God's Problem Child. The release, consisting mostly of Nelson originals co-written with Cannon, entered the Top country albums at number one, while it reached number ten on the Billboard 200.
In 2018, Nelson sang a song written by Daniel Lanois called "Cruel World" for the soundtrack of Rockstar Games's action-adventure video game Red Dead Redemption 2. Lanois wrote the song especially for Nelson. When a hurricane prevented Nelson from recording the song, the production team sent the track to Josh Homme in the hopes that he could record it in time for the game's release. Nelson was ultimately able to record the song in time in Los Angeles; the team considered combining the two versions into a duet, but ultimately included both versions in the game. Also in 2018, Nelson was one of several artists on Restoration, a cover album containing various country renditions of songs originally by Elton John, on which he performed "Border Song". His 2019 release Ride Me Back Home charted at number two on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart. For the title-track, Nelson received the Grammy Award for Best Country Solo Performance.
### 2020s
Following the U.S. coronavirus pandemic lockdowns that began in March 2020, Nelson livestreamed a series of benefit concerts. The first two raised \$700,000 for people who had suffered financial loss due to effects on the U.S. economy. The third, which was held on April 20, 2020, was a variety show titled Come and Toke It. Some of the content was cannabis-themed, and some of the proceeds will be used to support The Last Prisoner Project, a restorative justice program relating to persons convicted of cannabis related crimes. The same year, Nelson was approached by Karen O of The Yeah Yeah Yeahs to collaborate. They chose to do a cover of David Bowie and Queen's Under Pressure.
For his releases of The Willie Nelson Family (2021) and A Beautiful Time (2022), Nelson received four nominations for the 65th Annual Grammy Awards winning in two categories: Best Country Solo Performance and Best Country Album. In December 2022, Mark Rothbaum announced the release of a five-part documentary entitled Willie Nelson and Family released at the 2023 Sundance Film Festival. In 2023, Nelson performed at two concerts at the Hollywood Bowl celebrating his 90th birthday and was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
## Other ventures
Nelson's acting debut was in the 1979 film The Electric Horseman, followed by appearances in Honeysuckle Rose, Thief, and Barbarosa. He played the role of Red Loon in Coming Out of the Ice in 1982 and starred in Songwriter two years later. He portrayed the lead role in the 1986 film version of his album Red Headed Stranger. Other movies that Nelson acted in include Wag the Dog, Gone Fishin''' (as Billy 'Catch' Pooler), the 1986 television movie Stagecoach (with Johnny Cash), Half Baked, Beerfest, The Dukes of Hazzard, Surfer, Dude and Swing Vote. He has also made guest appearances on Miami Vice (1986's "El Viejo" episode); Delta; Nash Bridges; The Simpsons; Monk; Adventures in Wonderland; Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman; King of the Hill; The Colbert Report; Swing Vote; and Space Ghost Coast to Coast.
In 1988 his first book, Willie: An Autobiography, was published. The Facts of Life: And Other Dirty Jokes, a personal recollection of tour and musical stories from his career, combined with song lyrics, followed in 2002. In 2005 he co-authored Farm Aid: A Song for America, a commemorative book about the twentieth anniversary of the foundation of Farm Aid. His third book, co-authored with long-time friend Turk Pipkin, The Tao of Willie: A Guide to the Happiness in Your Heart, was published in 2006. In 2007 a book advocating the use of bio-diesel and the reduction of gas emissions, On The Clean Road Again: Biodiesel and The Future of the Family Farm, was published. His next book, A Tale Out of Luck, published in 2008 and co-authored by Mike Blakely, was Nelson's first fictional book. In 2012, it was announced the release of a new autobiography by Nelson, Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die: Musings from the Road. Released on November 13, it was named after the song from his album Heroes. The book contained further biographical details, as well as family pictures and stories about Nelson's political views, as well as his advocation for marijuana. The artwork of the book was designed by Nelson's son, Micah, and the foreword written by Kinky Friedman. In 2015, the publication of a second Nelson autobiography entitled It's a Long Story: My Life co-authored with David Ritz, the book was published on May 5, 2015. Pretty Paper, another collaboration with Ritz was published the following year.
In 2002, Nelson became the official spokesman of the Texas Roadhouse, a chain of steakhouses. Nelson heavily promoted the chain and appeared on a special on Food Network. The chain installed Willie's Corner, a section dedicated to him and decked out with Willie memorabilia, at several locations. In 2004, Nelson and his wife Annie became partners with Bob and Kelly King in the building of two Pacific Bio-diesel plants, one in Salem, Oregon, and the other at Carl's Corner, Texas (the Texas plant was founded by Carl Cornelius, a longtime Nelson friend and the eponym for Carl's Corner). In 2005, Nelson and several other business partners formed Willie Nelson Biodiesel ("Bio-Willie"), a company that was marketing bio-diesel bio-fuel to truck stops. The fuel was made from vegetable oil (mainly soybean oil), and can be burned without modification in diesel engines. Nelson registered his company with Earth Biofuels and he became a board member. In 2007, Nelson forfeited six million shares of the company as he left the board. By 2008, he reopened Willie's Place, a truck stop in Carl's Corner, Texas. The U.S. Bankruptcy Court allowed Nelson to invest in it. The establishment had about 80 employees, and was used as a concert hall with a bar and a 1,000 square feet (93 m<sup>2</sup>) dance floor. Willie's Place also featured BioWillie pumps. At the time, the government of the United States offered a one dollar tax credit to producers of biodiesel. As the competition grew, the tax credit was discontinued while the prices of fossil fuels continued to drop. Nelson and his partners defaulted the \$4,75 million loan they took for the construction of Willie's Place. Nelson then paid \$35,000 back, while a judge later rejected the request of his creditors to receive more money from him. TravelCenters of America bought Willie's Place during its foreclosure in 2011. The BioWillie plant was then put on the market for sale. Nelson kept the trademark for BioWillie, which is sold in the islands of Maui and Hawaii. Meanwhile, Nelson owns shares of Big Island Biodiesel in Hawaii and SeQuential-Pacific Biodiesel in Oregon.
In 2010, Nelson founded with the collaboration of producers and filmmakers Luck Films, a company dedicated to produce feature films, documentaries and concerts. The next year, he created the Willie's Roadhouse show which aired on channel 56 of SiriusXM radio. The channel was a result of the merger of his two other channels The Roadhouse and Willie's Place. In November 2014, it was announced that Nelson would be the host of the television series Inside Arlyn, shot at Arlyn Studio in Austin, Texas. The thirteen-episode first season would feature artists being interviewed by Nelson and Dan Rather, followed by a performance. The series concept received attention from cable channels that requested to see the pilot episode. Following the legalization of marijuana in different states, Nelson announced in 2015 through spokesman Michael Bowman the establishment of his own marijuana brand, Willie's Reserve. Plans to open chain stores in the states where marijuana was legalized were announced, to be expanded state-to-state if marijuana legalization is further expanded. Bowman called the brand "a culmination of (Nelson's) vision, and his whole life".
In 2017, Nelson appeared as himself in Woody Harrelson's live film, Lost in London. In June 2017, he appeared alongside Merle Haggard in the documentary The American Epic Sessions directed by Bernard MacMahon. They performed a song Haggard had composed for the film, "The Only Man Wilder Than Me", and Bob Wills's classic "Old Fashioned Love", which they recorded live direct to disc on the first electrical sound recording system from the 1920s. It was the last filmed performance of the pair. Rolling Stone commented that "in the final performance of Sessions, Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard perform the duet 'The Only Man Wilder Than Me.' Haggard has a look of complete joy on his face throughout the session in the old-timey recording setup once used by his musical heroes."
## Music style
Nelson uses a variety of music styles to create his own distinctive blend of country music, a hybrid of jazz, pop, blues, rock and folk. His "unique sound", which uses a "relaxed, behind-the-beat singing style and gut-string guitar" and his "nasal voice and jazzy, off-center phrasing", has been responsible for his wide appeal, and has made him a "vital icon in country music", influencing the "new country, new traditionalist, and alternative country movements of the 1980s and 1990s".
### Guitars
In 1969, the Baldwin company gave Nelson an amplifier and guitar with their "Prismatone" pickup. During a show in Helotes, Texas, Nelson left the guitar on the floor of the stage, and it was later stepped on by a drunk man. He sent it to be repaired in Nashville by Shot Jackson, who told Nelson that the damage was too great. Jackson offered him a Martin N-20 Classical guitar, and, at Nelson's request, moved the pickup to the Martin. Nelson purchased the guitar unseen for \$750 and named it after Roy Rogers' horse "Trigger". The next year Nelson rescued the guitar from his burning ranch.
Constant strumming with a guitar pick over the decades has worn a large sweeping hole into the guitar's body near the sound hole—the N-20 has no pick-guard since classical guitars are meant to be played fingerstyle instead of with picks. Its soundboard has been signed by over a hundred of Nelson's friends and associates, ranging from fellow musicians to lawyers and football coaches. The first signature on the guitar was Leon Russell's, who asked Nelson initially to sign his guitar. When Nelson was about to sign it with a marker, Russell requested him to scratch it instead, explaining that the guitar would be more valuable in the future. Interested in the concept, Nelson requested Russell to also sign his guitar. In 1991, during his process with the IRS, Nelson was worried that Trigger could be auctioned off, stating: "When Trigger goes, I'll quit". He asked his daughter, Lana, to take the guitar from the studio before any IRS agent arrived there, and then deliver it to him in Maui. Nelson then concealed the guitar in his manager's house until his debt was paid off in 1993.
## Activism
Nelson is active in a number of issues. Along with Neil Young and John Mellencamp, he set up Farm Aid in 1985 to assist and increase awareness of the importance of family farms, after Bob Dylan's comments during the Live Aid concert that he hoped some of the money would help American farmers in danger of losing their farms through mortgage debt. The first concert included Dylan, Billy Joel, B.B. King, Roy Orbison, and Neil Young among many others, and raised over \$9 million for America's family farmers. Besides organizing and performing in the annual concerts, Nelson is the president of the board of Farm Aid.
Nelson is a co-chair of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) advisory board. He has worked with NORML for years, promoting marijuana legalization. In 2005 Nelson and his family hosted the first annual "Willie Nelson & NORML Benefit Golf Tournament", leading to a cover appearance and inside interview in the January 2008 issue of High Times magazine. After his arrest for possession of marijuana in 2010, Nelson created the TeaPot party under the motto "Tax it, regulate it and legalize it!"
In 2001, following the September 11 attacks, Nelson participated in the benefit telethon America: A Tribute to Heroes, leading the rest of the celebrities singing the song "America the Beautiful". In 2010, during an interview with Larry King, Nelson expressed his doubts with regards to the attacks and the official story. Nelson explained that he could not believe that the buildings could collapse due to the planes, attributing instead the result to an implosion.
Nelson supported Dennis Kucinich's campaign in the 2004 Democratic presidential primaries. He raised money, appeared at events, and composed the song "Whatever Happened to Peace on Earth?", criticizing the war in Iraq. He recorded a radio advertisement asking for support to put musician/author Kinky Friedman on the ballot as an independent candidate for the 2006 Texas gubernatorial election. Friedman promised Nelson a job in Austin as the head of a new Texas Energy Commission due to his support of bio-fuels. In January 2008, Nelson filed a suit against the Texas Democratic Party, alleging that the party violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution by refusing to allow co-plaintiff Kucinich to appear on the primary ballot because he had scratched out part of the loyalty oath on his application.
Nelson is an advocate for better treatment for horses and has been campaigning for the passage of the American Horse Slaughter Prevention Act (H.R. 503/S. 311) alongside the Animal Welfare Institute. He is on its board of directors and has adopted a number of horses from Habitat for Horses. In 2008, Nelson signed on to warn consumers about the cruel and illegal living conditions for calves raised to produce milk for dairy products. He wrote letters to Land O'Lakes and Challenge Dairy, two of the major corporations that use milk from calves raised at California's Mendes Calf Ranch, which employs an intensive confinement practice that was the subject of a lawsuit and campaign brought by the Animal Legal Defense Fund. Nelson is seen in the film The Garden supporting the impoverished community South Central Farm in Southern Los Angeles.
A supporter of the LGBT movement, Nelson published in 2006 through iTunes a version of Ned Sublette's "Cowboys Are Frequently, Secretly Fond of Each Other", that met instant success. During an interview with Texas Monthly in 2013, regarding the Defense of Marriage Act and Same-sex marriage in the United States, Nelson responded to a comparison the interviewer made with the Civil Rights Movement, stating: "We'll look back and say it was crazy that we ever even argued about this". He also presented two logos with the pink equal sign, symbol of the LGBT movement. The first one, featured the sign represented with two long braids; while the second one, featured the sign represented with two marijuana cigarettes. The use of the logos became popular quickly in social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook.
In June 2018, Nelson deplored the Trump administration family separation policy. During his Fourth of July Picnic, he performed a song with Beto O'Rourke, the Democratic candidate for the Senate election in Texas. Nelson endorsed O'Rourke, and received negative reactions from the conservative part of his followers. On September 29, 2018, Nelson offered a free concert in Austin supporting the candidate's run. The last number he performed was "Vote 'Em Out", a new track that was subsequently released as a single.
## Personal life
Nelson has been married four times and has eight children. His first marriage was to Martha Matthews from 1952 to 1962. The couple had three children: Lana, Susie, and Willie "Billy" Hugh Jr. The latter died by suicide in 1991. The marriage was marked by violence, with Matthews assaulting Nelson several times, including one incident when she sewed him up in bedsheets and beat him with a broomstick. Nelson's next marriage was to Shirley Collie in 1963. The couple divorced in 1971, after Collie found a bill from the maternity ward of a Houston hospital charged to Nelson and Connie Koepke for the birth of Paula Carlene Nelson. Nelson married Koepke the same year, and they had another daughter, Amy Lee Nelson. Following a divorce in 1988, he married his current wife, Annie D'Angelo, in 1991. They have two sons, Lukas Autry and Jacob Micah. In 2012, Nelson learned that he fathered a daughter with his friend Mary Haney. Born on January 22, 1953, Rene Butts (born Lynda Renee Barley) met Nelson and she shared a picture of both of them on Father's Day in 2016. Butts died in 2017.
Nelson owns "Luck, Texas", a ranch in Spicewood, and also lives in Maui, Hawaii with several celebrity neighbors. While swimming in Hawaii in 1981, Nelson's lung collapsed. He was taken to the Maui Memorial Hospital and his scheduled concerts were canceled. Nelson temporarily stopped smoking cigarettes each time his lungs became congested, and resumed when the congestion ended. He was then smoking between two and three packs per day. After suffering from pneumonia several times, he decided to quit either marijuana or tobacco. He chose to quit tobacco. In 2008, he started to smoke marijuana with a carbon-free system to avoid the effects of smoke. In 2004, Nelson underwent surgery for carpal tunnel syndrome, as he had damaged his wrists by continuously playing the guitar. On the recommendation of his doctor, he canceled his scheduled concerts and only wrote songs during his recovery. In 2012, he canceled a fund-raising appearance in the Denver area. He suffered from breathing problems due to high altitude and emphysema and was taken to a local hospital. His publicist Elaine Schock confirmed soon after that Nelson's health was good and that he was heading to his next scheduled concert in Dallas, Texas. After repeated instances of pneumonia and emphysema through the years, Nelson underwent stem-cell therapy in 2015 to improve the state of his lungs.
During his childhood, Nelson grew interested in martial arts. He ordered self-defense manuals on jujitsu and judo that he saw advertised in Batman and Superman comic books. Nelson started to formally practice kung fu after he moved to Nashville, in the 1960s. During the 1980s, Nelson began training in taekwondo and now holds a second-degree black belt in that discipline. During the 1990s, Nelson started to practice the Korean martial art GongKwon Yusul. In 2014, after 20 years in the discipline, his Grand Master Sam Um presented him with a fifth-degree black belt in a ceremony held in Austin, Texas. A 2014 Tae Kwon Do Times magazine interview revealed that Nelson had developed an unorthodox manner of training during the lengthy periods of time he was on tour. Nelson would conduct his martial arts training on his tour bus "The Honeysuckle Rose" and send videos to his supervising Master for review and critique.
In March 2021, "I'll Be Seeing You", a new original by Nelson, was used on a public service announcement by the Ad Council to encourage COVID-19 vaccination in the United States. Earlier in January 2021, Nelson and his sister received the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine. In May 2022, Nelson postponed several shows after he contracted COVID-19. Nelson's wife detailed that he was severely affected by the illness, and that he received a treatment including Paxlovid, monoclonal antibodies, and steroids. Nelson resumed his tour in September 2022.
### Legal issues
Nelson has been arrested several times for marijuana possession. The first occasion was in 1974 in Dallas, Texas. In 1977, after a tour with Hank Cochran, Nelson traveled to The Bahamas. Nelson and Cochran arrived late to the airport and boarded the flight without luggage. The bags were later sent to them. As Nelson and Cochran claimed their luggage in the Bahamas, a customs officer questioned Nelson after marijuana was found in a pair of his jeans. Nelson was arrested and jailed. As Cochran made arrangements to pay the bail, he took Nelson a six-pack of beer to his cell. Nelson was released a few hours later. Inebriated, he fell after he jumped celebrating and was taken to the emergency room. He then appeared before the judge, who dropped the charges but ordered Nelson to never return to the country.
In 1994, Texas Highway patrolmen found marijuana in his car near Waco, Texas. His requirement to appear in court prevented his attending the Grammy awards that year. While traveling to Ann W. Richards' funeral in 2006, Nelson, along with his manager and his sister, Bobbie, were arrested in St. Martin Parish, Louisiana, and charged with possession of marijuana and hallucinogenic mushrooms. Nelson received six months probation.
On November 26, 2010, Nelson was arrested in Sierra Blanca, Texas, for possession of six ounces of marijuana found in his tour bus while traveling from Los Angeles back to Texas. He was released after paying bail of \$2,500. Prosecutor Kit Bramblett supported not sentencing Nelson to jail due to the small amount of marijuana involved, but suggested instead a \$100 fine and told Nelson that he would have him sing "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain" for the court. Judge Becky Dean-Walker said that Nelson would have to pay the fine but not to perform the song, explaining that the prosecutor was joking. Nelson's lawyer Joe Turner reached an agreement with the prosecutor. Nelson was set to pay a \$500 fine to avoid a two-year jail sentence with a 30-day review period, which in case of another incident would end the agreement. The judge later rejected the agreement, claiming that Nelson was receiving preferential treatment for his celebrity status; the offense normally carried a one-year jail sentence. Bramblett declared that the case would remain open until it was either dismissed or the judge changed her opinion.
### Issues with the Internal Revenue Service
In 1990, the IRS seized most of Nelson's assets, claiming that he owed \$32 million. In addition to the unpaid taxes, Nelson's situation was worsened by the weak investments he had made during the early 1980s. In 1978, after he fired his manager Neil Reshen, Nelson was introduced by Dallas lawyer Terry Bray to the accounting firm Price Waterhouse. To repay the debt Reshen had created with the IRS, Nelson was recommended to invest in tax shelters that ultimately flopped. While the IRS disallowed his deductions for 1980, 1981 and 1982 (at a time that Nelson's income multiplied), due to penalties and interests, the debt increased by the end of the decade.
His lawyer, Jay Goldberg, negotiated the sum to be lowered to \$16 million. Later, Nelson's attorney renegotiated a settlement with the IRS in which he paid \$6 million, although Nelson did not comply with the agreement. Nelson released The IRS Tapes: Who'll Buy My Memories? as a double album, with all profits destined for the IRS. Many of his assets were auctioned and purchased by friends, who donated or rented his possessions to him for a nominal fee. He sued Price Waterhouse, contending that they put his money in illegal tax shelters. The lawsuit was settled for an undisclosed amount and Nelson cleared his debts by 1993.
## Legacy
Nelson is widely recognized as an American icon. He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1993, and he received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1998. In 2011, Nelson was inducted to the National Agricultural Hall of Fame, for his labor in Farm Aid and other fund raisers to benefit farmers. In 2015 Nelson won the Gershwin Prize, the lifetime award of the Library of Congress. In 2018, The Texas Institute of Letters inducted him among its members for his songwriting. He was included by Rolling Stone on its 100 Greatest Singers and 100 Greatest Guitarists lists.
In 2003, Texas Governor Perry signed bill No. 2582, introduced by State Representative Elizabeth Ames Jones and Senator Jeff Wentworth, which funded the Texas Music Project, the state's official music charity. Nelson was named honorary chairman of the advisory board of the project. In 2005, Democratic Texas Senator Gonzalo Barrientos introduced a bill to name 49 miles (79 km) of the Travis County section of State Highway 130 after Nelson, and at one point 23 of the 31 state senators were co-sponsors of the bill. The legislation was dropped after two Republican senators, Florence Shapiro and Wentworth, objected, citing Nelson's lack of connection to the highway, his fund raisers for Democrats, his drinking, and his marijuana advocacy.
An important collection of Willie Nelson materials (1975–1994) became part of the Wittliff collections of Southwestern Writers, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas. The collection contains lyrics, screenplays, letters, concert programs, tour itineraries, posters, articles, clippings, personal effects, promotional items, souvenirs, and documents. It documents Nelson's IRS troubles and how Farm Aid contributions were used. Most of the material was collected by Nelson's friend Bill Wittliff, who wrote or co-wrote Honeysuckle Rose, Barbarosa and Red Headed Stranger. In 2014, Nelson donated his personal collection to the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History. The items include photographs, correspondence, song manuscripts, posters, certificate records, awards, signed books, screenplays, personal items and gifts and tributes from Nelson's fans.
In April 2010, Nelson received the "Feed the Peace" award from The Nobelity Project for his extensive work with Farm Aid and overall contributions to world peace. On June 23, 2010, he was inducted into the Library of Congress's National Recording Registry. Nelson is an honorary trustee of the Dayton International Peace Museum. In 2010, Austin, Texas renamed Second Street to Willie Nelson Boulevard. The city also unveiled a life-size statue to honor him, placed at the entrance of Austin City Limits' new studio. The non-profit organization Capital Area Statues commissioned sculptor Clete Shields to execute the project. The statue was unveiled on April 20, 2012. The date selected by the city of Austin unintentionally coincided with the number 4/20, associated with cannabis culture. In spite of the coincidence and Nelson's advocacy for the legalization of marijuana, the ceremony was scheduled also for 4:20 pm. During the ceremony, Nelson performed the song "Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die". The same year, Nelson was honored during the 46th Annual Country Music Association Awards as the first recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award, which was also named after him. In 2013, he received an honorary doctorate from the Berklee College of Music. The following year, he was part of the inaugural class inducted into the Austin City Limits Hall of Fame. Also included among the first inductees was his friend Darrell Royal, whose jamming parties that Nelson participated in were the source of inspiration for the show.
For many years, Nelson's image was marked by his red hair, often divided into two long braids partially concealed under a bandanna. In the April 2007 issue of Stuff Magazine Nelson was interviewed about his long locks. "I started braiding my hair when it started getting too long, and that was, I don't know, probably in the 70's." On May 26, 2010, the Associated Press reported that Nelson had cut his hair, and Nashville music journalist Jimmy Carter published a photograph of the pigtail-free Nelson on his website. Nelson wanted a more maintainable hairstyle, as well helping him stay cool more easily at his Maui home. In October 2014, the braids of Nelson were sold for \$37,000 at an auction of the Waylon Jennings estate. In 1983, Nelson cut his braids and gave them to Jennings as a gift during a party celebrating Jennings' sobriety.
Nelson's touring and recording group, the Family, is full of longstanding members. The original lineup included his sister Bobbie Nelson, drummer Paul English, harmonicist Mickey Raphael, bassist Bee Spears, Billy English (Paul's younger brother), and Jody Payne. The current lineup includes all the members but Jody Payne, who retired, Bee Spears, who died in 2011, and Willie's sister Bobbie Nelson, who died in 2022. Willie & Family tours North America in the bio-diesel bus Honeysuckle Rose, which is fueled by Bio-Willie. Nelson's tour buses were customized by Florida Coach since 1979. The company built the Honeysuckle Rose I in 1983, which was replaced after a collision in Nova Scotia, Canada, in 1990. The interior was salvaged and reused for the second version of the bus the same year. Nelson changed his tour bus in 1996, 2005 and 2013, currently touring on the Honeysuckle Rose V.
## Discography
Solo studio albums
- ...And Then I Wrote (1962)
- Here's Willie Nelson (1963)
- Country Willie: His Own Songs (1965)
- Country Favorites: Willie Nelson Style (1966)
- Make Way for Willie Nelson (1967)
- The Party's Over (1967)
- Texas in My Soul (1968)
- Good Times (1968)
- My Own Peculiar Way (1969)
- Both Sides Now (1970)
- Laying My Burdens Down (1970)
- Willie Nelson & Family (1971)
- Yesterday's Wine (1971)
- The Words Don't Fit the Picture (1972)
- The Willie Way (1972)
- Shotgun Willie (1973)
- Phases and Stages (1974)
- Red Headed Stranger (1975)
- The Sound in Your Mind (1976)
- The Troublemaker (1976)
- To Lefty from Willie (1977)
- Stardust (1978)
- Willie Nelson Sings Kristofferson (1979)
- Pretty Paper (1979)
- Family Bible (1980)
- Somewhere Over the Rainbow (1981)
- Always on My Mind (1982)
- Tougher Than Leather (1983)
- Without a Song (1983)
- City of New Orleans (1984)
- Angel Eyes (1984)
- Me & Paul (1985)
- Partners (1986)
- The Promiseland (1986)
- Island in the Sea (1987)
- What a Wonderful World (1988)
- A Horse Called Music (1989)
- Born for Trouble (1990)
- The IRS Tapes: Who'll Buy My Memories? (1992)
- Across the Borderline (1993)
- Moonlight Becomes You (1994)
- Healing Hands of Time (1994)
- Just One Love (1994)
- Spirit (1996)
- Teatro (1998)
- Night and Day (1999)
- Me and the Drummer (2000)
- Milk Cow Blues (2000)
- Rainbow Connection (2001)
- The Great Divide (2002)
- Nacogdoches (2004)
- It Always Will Be (2004)
- Countryman (2005)
- You Don't Know Me: The Songs of Cindy Walker (2006)
- Songbird (2006)
- Moment of Forever (2008)
- American Classic (2009)
- Country Music (2010)
- Remember Me, Vol. 1 (2011)
- Heroes (2012)
- Let's Face the Music and Dance (2013)
- To All the Girls... (2013)
- Band of Brothers (2014)
- Summertime: Willie Nelson Sings Gershwin (2016)
- For the Good Times: A Tribute to Ray Price (2016)
- God's Problem Child (2017)
- Last Man Standing (2018)
- My Way (2018)
- Ride Me Back Home (2019)
- First Rose of Spring (2020)
- That's Life (2021)
- The Willie Nelson Family (2021)
- A Beautiful Time (2022)
- I Don't Know a Thing About Love (2023)
- Bluegrass'' (2023)
## Filmography
## See also
- List of Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
- List of country music performers
- Music of Austin, Texas |
641,560 | Caesar (cocktail) | 1,167,599,979 | Cocktail created and primarily consumed in Canada | [
"Canadian alcoholic drinks",
"Canadian drinks",
"Canadian seafood dishes",
"Celery",
"Clam dishes",
"Cocktails with tomato juice",
"Cocktails with vodka",
"Cuisine of Alberta",
"Food and drink introduced in 1969",
"Spicy cocktails"
]
| A Caesar (also known as a Bloody Caesar) is a cocktail created and consumed primarily in Canada. It typically contains vodka, tomato juice and clam broth (such as in Mott's Clamato), hot sauce, and Worcestershire sauce, and is served with ice in a large, celery salt-rimmed glass, typically garnished with a stalk of celery and wedge of lime. What distinguishes it from a Bloody Mary is the inclusion of clam broth. The cocktail may also be contrasted with the Michelada, which has similar flavouring ingredients but uses beer instead of vodka.
## Origin
'Bloody Mary a La Milo' in the 1951 Ted Saucier cocktail book titled 'Bottoms Up' (page 45), appears to be the first published cocktail recipe that includes vodka, tomato juice, clam juice, and Worcestershire sauce. Ted Saucier credits the recipe to Milo J. Sutliff, Publisher, New York. This pre-dates the version at the Polonaise nightclub in Manhattan by at least 2–3 years.
The original cocktail of vodka with seasoned tomato and clam juice made its debut at the Polonaise nightclub in Manhattan in November 1953. The drink was introduced as the "Smirnoff Smiler" by owner Paul Pawlowski. In December 1953, columnist Walter Winchell reported that the drink was seasoned with "a dash of Wooooshhhtasheer Sauce".
In 1959, cartoonist and creator of The Addams Family , Charles Addams (employed by the New Yorker magazine, a few blocks from the Polonaise nightclub in Manhattan) claimed he invented the "Gravel Gertie", a cocktail of clam/tomato juice and vodka seasoned with Tabasco sauce.
In 1962, Carl La Marca, bar manager at the Baker Hotel in Dallas, invented the "Imperial Clam Digger", adding a basil garnish and dash of lime to an existing version of the "Smirnoff Smiler", called the "Clam Digger".
In October 1968, Seagram president Victor Fischel and Mott's Clamato marketer Ray Anrig claimed to have invented the seasoned tomato/clam/vodka cocktail, the "Clamdigger" earlier in 1968, in Manhattan. Seagram, headquartered 2 blocks from the Polonaise nightclub, filed a trademark application on the name "Clamdigger" claiming first use on May 31, 1968. From late 1968 to the end of 1969, Seagram and Mott's ran a major advertising promotion of the "Clam Digger" cocktail recipe in national magazines.
The Caesar was invented in 1969 by restaurant manager Walter Chell of the Calgary Inn (today the Westin Hotel) in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He devised the cocktail after being tasked to create a signature drink for the Calgary Inn's new Italian restaurant. He mixed vodka with clam and tomato juice, Worcestershire sauce, and other spices, creating a drink similar to a Bloody Mary, but with a uniquely spicy flavour.
Chell said his inspiration came from Italy. He recalled that in Venice, they served Spaghetti alle vongole, spaghetti with tomato sauce and clams. He reasoned that the mixture of clams and tomato sauce would make a good drink, and mashed clams to form a "nectar" that he mixed with other ingredients.
According to Chell's granddaughter, his Italian ancestry led him to call the drink a "Caesar". The longer name of "Bloody Caesar" is said to differentiate the drink from the Bloody Mary, but Chell said it was a regular patron at the bar who served as the inspiration. During the three months he spent working to perfect the drink, he had customers sample it and offer feedback. One regular customer, an Englishman, who often ordered the drink said one day, "Walter, that's a damn good bloody Caesar".
## Popularity
Chell said the drink was an immediate hit with the restaurant's patrons, claiming it "took off like a rocket". Within five years of its introduction, the Caesar had become Calgary's most popular mixed drink. It spread throughout Western Canada, then to the east. Coinciding with its 40th anniversary, a petition was launched in 2009 in the hopes of having the Caesar named the nation's official mixed drink. In Calgary, Mayor Dave Bronconnier celebrated the drink's anniversary by declaring May 13, 2009, as Caesar Day in the city.
The Mott's company was independently developing Clamato, a mixture of clam and tomato juices, at the same time the Caesar was invented. Sales of Clamato were initially slow: Mott's sold only 500 cases of Clamato in 1970, but sales consistently increased after the company's distributors discovered Chell's drink. By 1994, 70% of Mott's Clamato sales in Canada were made to mix Caesars, while half of all Clamato sales were made in Western Canada. Motts claims that the Caesar is the most popular mixed drink in Canada, estimating that over 350 million Caesars are consumed every year.
In the United States, the Caesar is typically available at bars along the Canada–United States border. Elsewhere, bartenders will frequently offer a Bloody Mary in its place. In Europe, the drink can be found wherever there are higher concentrations of Canadians. The drink's anonymity outside Canada has continued in spite of concerted marketing efforts. Producers of clam-tomato juices have speculated that their beverages have been hampered by what they describe as the "clam barrier". They have found that consumers in the United States fear that there is too much clam in the beverages.
While Mott's Clamato continues to be synonymous with the cocktail, other producers have begun offering alternative Caesar mixes. Walter Caesar (named in honor of Chell) was launched in 2013 to offer an 'all-natural' alternative to Clamato. Walter Caesar also became the first Caesar mix in Canada to be approved by Ocean Wise by using ocean-friendly clam juice from the North Atlantic.
The Caesar is popular as a hangover "cure", though its effectiveness has been questioned. A study by the University of Toronto released in 1985 showed that drinking a Caesar when taking aspirin could help protect a person's stomach from the damage aspirin causes, as compared with drinking plain tomato juice.
Mott's holds an annual "Best Caesar in Town" competition as part of the Prince Edward Island International Shellfish Festival. Contests held across Canada to celebrate the cocktail's 40th anniversary in 2009 encouraged variants that featured the glass rimmed with Tim Hortons coffee grinds, Caesars with maple syrup, and Caesars with bacon-infused vodka.
## Preparation
Basic preparation of a Caesar follows the "one, two, three, four" rule. The recipe calls for one 1.5-US-fluid-ounce (44 ml) shot of vodka, two dashes of hot sauce, three dashes of salt and pepper, four dashes of Worcestershire sauce and topped with 4–6 US fluid ounces (120–180 ml) of caesar mix and served with ice. The ingredients are poured into a glass rimmed with celery salt or a mixture of salt and pepper and garnished with a celery stalk and lime.
The Caesar is an unusual drink in that it can be mixed in bulk and stored for a period of time before drinking.
### Variants
Though it was not one of Chell's original ingredients, Tabasco sauce is a frequent addition, as is horseradish. Vodka is occasionally replaced with gin, tequila or rum, though the Clamato may not be substituted. A variant that replaces vodka with beer is commonly called a "Red Eye", "Clam Eye", or "Saskatchewan Caesar" and one without alcohol is a "Virgin Caesar". The Toronto Institute of Bartending operates a "Caesar School" in various locations across Canada that teaches bartenders how to mix several variants of the drink.
## See also
- List of cocktails
- Queen Mary (beer cocktail) |
781,295 | 1973 Atlantic hurricane season | 1,154,219,160 | Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean | [
"1973 Atlantic hurricane season"
]
| The 1973 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season to use the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale, a scale developed in 1971 by Herbert Saffir and Robert Simpson to rate the intensity of tropical cyclones. The season produced 24 tropical and subtropical cyclones, of which only 8 reached storm intensity, 4 became hurricanes, and only 1 reached major hurricane status. Although more active than the 1972 season, 1973 brought few storms of note. Nearly half of the season's storms affected land, one of which resulted in severe damage.
The season officially began on June 1, 1973, and lasted until November 30, 1973. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. However, the first system formed on April 18, more than a month before the official start. Three more depressions formed before June 1; however, none attained storm intensity. The first named storm of the year was Hurricane Alice which formed on July 1 and became the first known cyclone to affect Bermuda during July. More than a month later, the second hurricane, Brenda, formed and was considered the worst storm to strike Mexico along the eastern coast of the Bay of Campeche, killing 10 people.
Later in August, Tropical Storm Christine developed inland over Guinea, and later produced torrential rainfall across much of the Eastern Caribbean. The most intense storm of the season was Hurricane Ellen, a Category 3 cyclone that remained over open water. The final named storm was meteorologically significant in that it became the first recorded tropical cyclone to transition into a subtropical cyclone. No names were retired during the season; however, due to the addition of male names into the list of Atlantic hurricane names in 1979, several of the names were removed and have not been used since.
## Season summary
The first storm of the 1973 hurricane season, forming in mid-April, developed more than a month before the official start of the season. Several other short-lived, weak depressions formed before and during June; however, none reached storm intensity. The first named storm, Alice, formed on July 1. Tracking generally to the north, Alice also became the first hurricane of the season as well as the first known cyclone to impact Bermuda during July. Shortly after Alice dissipated over Atlantic Canada, another depression formed. By the end of July, two more non-developing depressions formed and the first subtropical cyclone, given the name Alfa, developed off the east coast of the United States. This storm was short-lived and dissipated on August 2 just offshore southern Maine. The first half August was relatively quiet, with only one depression forming. However, later in the month, the season's second hurricane, Brenda, formed in the northwestern Caribbean. Peaking just below Category 2 status on the newly introduced Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale, Brenda made the first recorded landfall in the Mexican State of Campeche.
Later in August, Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record, developing over the western African country of Guinea on August 25. The system traveled for several thousand miles before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea in early September. At the start of the month, a new tropical storm formed in the Gulf of Mexico. This storm, named Delia, became the first known cyclone to make landfall in the same city twice. After moving inland a second time, Delia eventually dissipated on September 7. As Delia dissipated another depression formed in the same region, eventually making landfall in the same city as Delia, Freeport, Texas. Another brief depression formed several days later. On September 13, the strongest storm of the season, Ellen, formed over the eastern Atlantic. After tracking northwest for several days, Ellen eventually attained hurricane status as it turned westward. Several days later, the hurricane turned northeast due to an approaching frontal system. Shortly before becoming extratropical, Ellen reached major hurricane intensity at a record northerly latitude.
In late September, a brief depression affected northern Florida before dissipating. After a week of inactivity, the second subtropical storm of the year formed over the central Atlantic. This storm, named Bravo, gradually intensified, becoming fully tropical, at which time it was renamed Fran, a few days later. Upon being renamed, Fran had intensified into a hurricane and maintained this intensity for several days before dissipating east of the Azores on October 12. A few days after Fran dissipated, the final named storm of the year formed in the central Caribbean Sea. A slow moving system, Gilda gradually intensified just below hurricane-intensity before striking Cuba and moving over the Bahamas. A few days after passing through the islands, Gilda became the first storm on record to transition from a tropical cyclone into a subtropical cyclone. A large storm, Gilda eventually became extratropical near Atlantic Canada and dissipated later that month. Around the time Gilda was dissipating, a weak depression briefly existed near the Azores. The final storm of the year was a strong depression in the southern Caribbean Sea. This system was active for less than two days but may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity as it made landfall in southern Nicaragua.
## Systems
### Hurricane Alice
The first named storm formed out of the interaction between tropical wave and a mid-level tropospheric trough northeast of the Bahamas in late-June. A well-defined circulation became apparent by June 30 and satellite images depicted cyclonic banding features. The following day, the system intensified into a tropical depression and shortly thereafter became a tropical storm as reconnaissance aircraft recorded gale-force winds. An area of high pressure to the east of Alice steered the storm generally to the north. Decreasing wind shear allowed the storm to become increasingly organized and a well-defined eye developed by July 3. By this time, reconnaissance had determined that the storm had intensified into a hurricane, with maximum winds reaching 80 mph (130 km/h).
On July 4, the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 986 mbar (hPa; 29.12 inHg), as the eastern portion of the eyewall brushed Bermuda. After passing the island, Alice began to accelerate in response to a mid-level trough over the eastern United States and weakened. By July 6, winds head decreased below hurricane intensity as the storm neared Atlantic Canada. Later that day, Alice made landfall in eastern Newfoundland with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone.
During its passage of Bermuda, Alice produced sustained winds up to 75 mph (120 km/h) and gusts to 87 mph (140 km/h). No major damage was recorded on the island, though the winds blew down a few trees and powerlines. The heavy rainfall, peaking at 4.57 in (116 mm), ended a three-month drought in Bermuda. Although Alice tracked through Atlantic Canada, no impact was recorded.
### Subtropical Storm Alfa
During late July, an upper-level low, with a non-tropical cold core, formed near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina and tracked southward. Gradually, the circulation lowered to the surface and developed subtropical characteristics. On July 31, the system attained gale-force winds off the Mid-Atlantic coast and was named Alfa, the first name from the list of subtropical storm names for the 1973 season. Tracking north-northeast, the system intensified very little as it paralleled the coastline. By August 1, the system weakened below subtropical storm intensity as it neared New England. The following day, Alfa dissipated just off the southern coast of Maine. The only effects from Alfa was light to moderate rainfall in New England, peaking at 5.03 in (128 mm) in Turners Falls, Massachusetts. Most of southern Maine recorded around 1 in (25 mm), with a maximum of 2.59 in (66 mm) in Saco.
### Hurricane Brenda
Hurricane Brenda originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 9; however, the initial wave quickly weakened upon entering the Atlantic Ocean. By August 13, the wave began to regenerate as it passed through the Lesser Antilles. Several days later, convection associated with the system consolidated into a central, organized mass and on August 18, the system had become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression while situated near the Yucatán Channel. Early the next day, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda as it made landfall in the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula. After moving inland, a strong ridge of high pressure over Texas forced the storm to take an unusual track, eventually leading it to enter the Bay of Campeche on August 20.
Once back over water, Brenda began to intensify, attaining hurricane status late on August 20. The next day, a well-defined eye had developed and the storm attained its peak intensity as a high-end Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar (hPa; 28.85 inHg). The storm made landfall later that day near Ciudad del Carmen, Mexico at this intensity, becoming the first hurricane on record to strike the region. After moving inland, Brenda rapidly weakened to a depression by the morning of August 22 and dissipated later that day.
Already suffering from severe flooding that killed at least 18 people and left 200,000 homeless, Hurricane Brenda worsened the situation with torrential rainfall and additional flooding. The storm killed at least 10 people in the country. Following the damage wrought by Brenda, a large earthquake struck the region, hampering relief efforts and collapsing numerous structures. Winds on land gusted up to 112 mph (180 km/h), leading to severe wind damage. Two of the fatalities occurred in Campeche after 80% of the city was flooded. This was considered the worst flooding in the city in over 25 years. An estimated 2,000 people were left homeless as a direct result of Brenda throughout Mexico. Offshore, a freighter with 25 crewman became trapped in the storm after its engines failed. They were safely rescued several days later once the storm had dissipated.
### Tropical Storm Christine
Tropical Storm Christine originated from a tropical wave over Africa in mid-August. As it neared the Atlantic Ocean, the wave organized into a tropical depression inland over Guinea at 14.0°W. It steadily tracked west across the Atlantic, and attained tropical storm intensity on August 28. Despite the lack of aircraft reconnaissance in the region, the intensity was determined by wind readings from a German cargo ship that passed through the storm. On August 30, the first reconnaissance mission into the storm found tropical storm-force winds and the first advisory was issued that day, immediately declaring the system as Tropical Storm Christine. Three days later, Christine attained its peak intensity just below hurricane-status with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar (hPa; 29.41 inHg). Shortly thereafter, increasing wind shear caused the storm to weaken as it neared the Leeward Islands. As it passed over Antigua on September 3, Christine weakened to a tropical depression and eventually dissipated near the Dominican Republic later that day.
During its passage through the Leeward Islands, Christine produced torrential rainfall, peaking at 11.74 in (298 mm) in southeastern Puerto Rico. These rains led to flooding on several islands. One person was killed during the storm after being electrocuted by a downed power line on a flooded road. Schools were closed ahead of the storm in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands as a precaution following the issuance of flood warnings. Six scientists had to be evacuated from the small island of Aves once the storm posed a threat to them. No major damage was reported on any of the affected islands in the wake of Christine.
### Tropical Storm Delia
On August 27, a tropical wave formed over the central Caribbean and tracked towards the west-northwest. The system gradually developed organized shower and thunderstorm activity. By September 1, a tropical depression developed from the wave. By September 3, the depression had intensified into a tropical storm, receiving the name Delia, and began tracking more towards the west. A complex steering pattern began to take place later on that day, resulting in the creation of a more hostile environment for tropical cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico. As Delia neared the Texas coastline, it managed to intensify into a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). The lowest pressure was recorded at 986 mbar (hPa; 29.12 inHg) at this time. Shortly thereafter, the cyclone made its first landfall in Freeport, Texas late on September 4. After executing a counterclockwise loop, the storm made landfall in Freeport again on September 5. After moving inland, the storm quickly weakened, becoming a depression on September 6 before dissipating early the next day over northern Mexico.
Due to the erratic track of the storm along the Texas coastline, widespread heavy rains fell in areas near the storm and in Louisiana. Tides up to 6 ft (1.8 m), in addition to rainfall up to 13.9 in (350 mm), caused significant flooding in the Galveston-Freeport area. Up to \$3 million was reported in damages to homes due to the flooding. Throughout Louisiana, there was substantial flooding of farmland. Damages to crops amounted to \$3 million. In addition to the flooding rains produced by Delia, eight tornadoes also touched down due to the storm, injuring four people. Five people were killed during Delia, two drowned during floods, two died in a car accident and the other died from a heart attack while boarding up his home.
### Tropical Depression Eleven
On September 6, a tropical depression formed over the northwestern Caribbean Sea within a trough of low pressure extended southeastward from Delia, which was situated over southeast Texas at the time. The depression remained weak until it reached the Texas coastline on September 10. Once onshore, it produced significant rainfall, causing significant damage that was attributed to Tropical Storm Delia. After turning northeast and tracking inland, the depression quickly increased in forward speed before dissipating over North Carolina on September 14.
Along the coasts of Texas and Louisiana, the depression produced significant amounts of rainfall, peaking at 11.15 in (283 mm) near Freeport. Several areas in southern Louisiana recorded rainfall exceeding 5 in (130 mm) with a maximum amount of 9.2 in (230 mm) falling in Kinder. Significant rainfall was also recorded in the Carolinas and Georgia, with numerous areas recording over 3 in (76 mm). A maximum of 9.35 in (237 mm) fell near Whitmire, South Carolina before the system dissipated. In all, the depression resulted in an additional \$22 million in crop losses in southern Louisiana.
### Hurricane Ellen
The strongest storm of the season, Hurricane Ellen, began as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on September 13. On the following day, the wave spawned an area of low pressure south of the Cape Verde Islands that quickly became a tropical depression. Tracking northeast, the system intensified into a tropical storm on September 15 after sustained winds of 45 mph (75 km/h) were reported by a French naval vessel; however, due to sparse data on the storm, the first advisory on Ellen was not issued for two more days. A slightly elongated storm, Ellen gradually intensified over the open Atlantic and was steered by two troughs of low pressure. On September 18, the storm took a nearly due west track and the system became increasingly organized, with an ill-defined eye becoming present on satellite imagery.
The next day, Ellen intensified into a hurricane before taking a sharp turn to the north-northwest in response to a weak trough moving northeast from the Bahamas. Gradually, the hurricane turned more towards the northeast and began to accelerate as well as intensify. Despite being at an unusually high latitude for development, the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification, strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane on September 23. At that time, Ellen attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 962 mbar (hPa; 28.41 inHg). Upon attaining this intensity at 42.1°N, Ellen had become a major hurricane farther north than any other tropical cyclone on record, and is one of two storms to become a major hurricane north of 38°N, the other being Hurricane Alex in 2004. Shortly after peaking, Ellen transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before merging with a frontal system several hundred miles east of Newfoundland on September 23.
Hurricane Ellen was photographed by the Skylab 3 mission from orbit, from the Skylab space station.
### Tropical Depression Thirteen
On September 24, a depression formed northeast of the Bahamas. The following day, the NHC issued their first advisory on the system, declaring it a subtropical depression. The depression was displayed an asymmetrical structure, with most winds being recorded up to 300 mi (480 km) north of the center. Later that day, the subtropical depression organized into a tropical depression. Upon doing so, the NHC issued small craft advisories for coastal areas between North Carolina and St. Augustine, Florida. Tracking north-northwestward in response to a break in a subtropical ridge to the north, the depression eventually made landfall near Marineland, Florida and quickly weakened, dissipating before reaching the Gulf of Mexico.
Heavy rain fell in association with the depression in parts of Florida and Georgia. A maximum of 6.74 in (171 mm) fell in Orlando while several other areas recorded over 3 in (76 mm) of rain. Over land, wind gusts reached 40 mph (65 km/h) in some locations. Offshore, swells produced by the system reached 10 ft (3.0 m), impacting several vessels in the region. Minor beach erosion and coastal flooding was reported in parts of South Carolina as a result of the storm. In parts of coastal Georgia, high water resulted in several road closures and flooded a few homes. Police officers in Savannah reported that wave were topping the local seawall; however, no damage was reported.
### Hurricane Fran (Bravo)
The final hurricane of the season, Fran, originated from an area of convection north of Hispaniola on October 1. By October 4, the system interacted with a mid-tropospheric trough near the southeast United States, resulting in the formation of a surface low. Tracking eastward, showers and thunderstorms began to develop around the circulation; however, the structure of the system was not fully tropical. Late on October 8, the cyclone had become sufficiently organized to be classified a subtropical depression. Cold air from the remnants of a cold front became entrained within the circulation; however, the cold air gradually warmed. The following day, winds increased to gale-force and the depression was upgraded to a subtropical storm, at which time it was given the name Bravo.
By October 10, Bravo had intensified substantially, as hurricane hunters recorded hurricane-force winds roughly 15 mi (25 km) from the center of the storm. Following this finding, the National Hurricane Center reclassified the system as a tropical system and renamed it Fran, dropping its previous designation of Bravo. Steered generally eastward by a deep surface low in the westerlies, Fran accelerated towards the Azores Islands. Shortly after bypassing the islands on October 12, the central pressure of Fran decreased to 978 mbar (hPa; 28.88 inHg), the lowest recorded in relation to the hurricane. Shortly after reaching this intensity, the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and quickly merged with a cold front off the coast of France. Although Fran passed near the Azores, no impact was recorded on any of the islands.
### Tropical Storm Gilda
The precursor to Tropical Storm Gilda was a large convective system partially due to a tropical wave. It gradually became better organized over the northwestern Caribbean Sea, and on October 15, a tropical depression formed off the coast of Nicaragua. As it drifted to the northeast, it strengthened to a tropical storm, peaking at 70 mph (110 km/h) winds. Before it hit the coast of Cuba, it weakened enough to cause only minor damage. By the time it struck the island, it had become very disorganized in nature.
On October 24, cool, dry air entered the newly developed convection, and as a result it transitioned into a subtropical cyclone. Gilda became the first tropical system to pass through a subtropical stage prior to becoming extratropical. The large circulation continued northeast before becoming extratropical on October 27. The remnants of Gilda intensified as they tracked near Atlantic Canada, attaining a central pressure of 968 mbar (hPa; 28.59 inHg) near Cape Race, Newfoundland. The system eventually dissipated near southern Greenland on October 29.
Gilda caused heavy rain and mudslides in Jamaica, destroying six homes and killing six people. In Cuba, Gilda dropped over 6 in (150 mm) of rain, while 60 mph (95 km/h) winds were reported in the northern part of the country. In the Bahamas, Gilda caused significant crop damage from heavy rainfall and high tides. The storm's persistent strong currents and easterly winds caused moderate beach erosion on the East Coast of the United States, mostly along the Florida coast. The extratropical remnants of the storm produced hurricane-force wind gusts over parts of Atlantic Canada, peaking at 75 mph (120 km/h); however, no damage was reported.
### Other storms
In addition to the eight named storms of 1973 and two notable tropical depressions, there were several minor systems that were classified as depressions by the National Hurricane Center. The first four systems of the year were not classified as fully tropical, rather they were associated with the remnants of decaying cold fronts. On April 18, the first of these depressions formed northeast of the Bahamas and tracked in a curved motion before dissipating over open water on April 21. Several days later, on April 24, another depression formed in the same general region; however, this system was shorter lived and dissipated two days later without significant movement. On May 2, another partially tropical system formed over open waters. The cyclone tracked northeast and dissipated late on May 5 east-southeast of the Azores. On May 11, a brief depression formed near Bermuda but dissipated the following day. Roughly a week into the official hurricane season, the fifth depression of the year formed just offshore southeast Florida, near Miami. The system tracked northwest across the peninsula and briefly entered the Gulf of Mexico on June 8 before making landfall along the Florida Panhandle. The depression eventually dissipate on June 10 over South Carolina.
On June 23, another depression formed along Florida, this time just onshore near the Georgia border. The system slowly tracked northeastward before dissipating on June 26 southeast of the North–South Carolina border. As Hurricane Alice neared Bermuda on July 9, a depression formed near the east coast of the United States; however, the storm dissipated the following day. On July 19, the first Cape Verde storm formed over the central Atlantic. This system did not intensify, remaining a weak depression and dissipated on July 21 without affecting land. The next day, a new depression formed over the southwestern Caribbean Sea near the coast of Nicaragua. The depression tracked over Central America, briefly moving back over water in the Gulf of Honduras before making a second landfall in Belize. The system persisted over land for a few days before entering the eastern Pacific late on July 25.
Only one non-developing depression formed during the month of August, an unusually eastward forming system. The depression was first identified just offshore eastern Africa on August 8, near where Tropical Storm Christine formed later in the month. Tracking rapidly towards the west, the depression dissipated on August 11 over open waters. In addition to the two notable tropical depressions and two named storms in September, a slow-moving depression formed south-southeast of Bermuda on September 8. Tracking generally northward, the depression dissipated early on September 10 without affecting land. Upon the declaration of Hurricane Fran on October 10, a new depression formed southwest of the strengthening hurricane. This system rapidly tracked northeast and dissipated two days later. Later that month, a slow-moving depression formed near the Azores. This system tracked southeast and dissipated on October 30 without affecting land. The final system of the year formed near the northern coast of Panama on November 17. The depression was noted as a "...strong depression..." by the National Hurricane Center and may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity before making landfall in northern Costa Rica on November 18; the system dissipated later that day over land.
## Storm names
The following names were used for named storms (tropical storms and hurricanes) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1973. Storms were named Christine, Delia, Ellen and Fran for the first time in 1973. Due to the relatively minimal impact caused by storms during the season, no names were retired in the spring of 1974; however, due to the addition of male names in 1979, the list was removed and replaced with a new set of names. Fran, Kate, Rose, and Sally got placed onto the modern lists, with Fran being retired after 1996.
### Subtropical storm names
The following names were used for subtropical storms in the Atlantic basin for this year. This year was the second and last year to use the phonetic alphabet. Although a storm was given the name Bravo, it was renamed Fran after acquiring tropical characteristics.
## Season effects
This is a table of the storms in 1973 and their landfall(s), if any. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but are still storm-related. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low.
\|- \| One \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Two \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Alice \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Category 1 hurricane \|\| \|\| \|\| Bermuda, Newfoundland \|\| Minimal \|\| \|\| \|- \| Alfa \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| New England \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Brenda \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Category 1 hurricane \|\| \|\| \|\| Mexico \|\| Unknown \|\| 10 \|\| \|- \| Christine \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Tropical storm \|\| \|\| \|\| Leeward Islands \|\| Unknown \|\| 0 (1) \|\| \|- \| Delia \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| Mexico, Texas \|\| \$6 million \|\| 2 (3) \|\| \|- \| Eleven \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Tropical depression \|\| \|\| \|\| Quintana Roo, Mexico, Texas \|\| \$22 million \|\| \|\| \|- \| Ellen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Category 3 hurricane \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Thirteen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Fran (Bravo) \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Category 1 hurricane \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Fifteen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Gilda \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| \|\| Cuba, Bahamas \|\| Unknown \|\| 6 \|\| \|- \| Seventeen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Tropical depression \|\| \|\| \|\| Costa Rica \|\| Unknown \|\| \|\| \|-
## See also
- 1973 Pacific hurricane season
- 1973 Pacific typhoon season
- 1973 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
- Australian cyclone seasons: 1972–73, 1973–74
- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1972–73, 1973–74
- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1972–73, 1973–74
- South Atlantic tropical cyclone
- Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone |
6,141,803 | Jannik Hansen | 1,165,001,806 | Danish ice hockey player | [
"1986 births",
"Danish expatriate ice hockey people",
"Danish expatriate sportspeople in Canada",
"Danish expatriate sportspeople in Finland",
"Danish expatriate sportspeople in Russia",
"Danish expatriate sportspeople in the United States",
"Danish ice hockey right wingers",
"Expatriate ice hockey players in Russia",
"HC CSKA Moscow players",
"Living people",
"Malmö Redhawks players",
"Manitoba Moose players",
"Portland Winterhawks players",
"Rødovre Mighty Bulls players",
"San Jose Sharks players",
"Sportspeople from Rødovre",
"Tappara players",
"Vancouver Canucks draft picks",
"Vancouver Canucks players"
]
| Jannik Hansen (born 15 March 1986) is a Danish former professional ice hockey right winger. Hansen began playing professionally at the age of 16 with both the Rødovre Mighty Bulls of the Danish league and the Malmö Redhawks of the Swedish J20 SuperElit and HockeyAllsvenskan leagues. He played three seasons with Rødovre, during which time he was selected 287th overall by the Canucks in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. A year after his selection, he moved to North America to play major junior hockey with the Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League (WHL) for one season. In 2006–07, Hansen began playing with the Canucks' minor league affiliate, the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League (AHL). That season, he was called up by the Vancouver Canucks and became the first Danish citizen to play and register a point in an NHL playoff game. After another campaign spent primarily with Manitoba, Hansen earned a full-time roster spot with the Canucks.
Internationally, Hansen has competed for the Danish national team in four World Championships. At the junior level, he represented Denmark in both Division I and main tournament play at the IIHF World U18 and U20 Championships.
## Personal life
Hansen was born and raised in Rødovre, Denmark, a suburb of Copenhagen. His father, Bent Hansen, was a carpenter and a member of the Danish national hockey team. Guided by his father, Hansen began skating at the age of two, but did not begin playing hockey until age 11. Growing up, hockey attracted a low-profile in Denmark (football is the country's national sport). At the time, no Dane had ever played in the NHL. Hansen has recalled neither he nor any of his peers ever having any realistic aspiration to make the NHL, describing "Everyone grew up wanting to play in Sweden, or Germany, or Finland" instead.
Hansen and his wife Karen had twin boys, Lucas and Daniel, on 3 March 2013.
## Playing career
### Europe and junior
Hansen developed with the Rødovre Mighty Bulls of the Danish Oddset League, joined the senior team at age 16. He played in Rødovre for a season-and-a-half, then was invited to play for the Swedish Malmö Redhawks's under-18 team in 2002–03. Hansen played the remainder of the season in Malmö, then returned to Rødovre the following season. After recording 19 points over 35 games in 2003–04 with Rødovre, Hansen was selected by the Vancouver Canucks, 287th overall, in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. Despite his success the previous season, his selection was delayed to the latter stages of the draft due to his small stature and a traditional lack of NHL players coming out of Denmark. Hansen stayed with Rødovre another season following his draft and recorded a Danish career-high 32 points in 34 games.
Selected by the Portland Winter Hawks of the Western Hockey League (WHL) 33rd overall in the 2005 Canadian Hockey League (CHL) Import Draft, Hansen moved to North America and joined the club for the 2005–06 season. Hansen's proficiency in English played a part in Winter Hawks general manager Ken Hodge selecting him. Canucks management also wanted him playing major junior in order to better his transition to the more physical North American style of play. Becoming the first Danish player to compete in the WHL, Hansen scored at a point-per-game pace, leading all rookies with 64 points. He continued his scoring pace in the playoffs with 13 points in 12 games as Portland was eliminated in the second round.
### Vancouver Canucks
In July 2006, Hansen signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Vancouver Canucks. Playing the 2006–07 season with the Canucks' minor league affiliate, the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League (AHL), he scored 12 goals and 34 points over 72 games, leading all team rookies in scoring.
During the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs, Hansen was called up by the Canucks. He became the first born-and-raised Danish player to compete and register a point in the NHL post-season — Frans Nielsen had played and scored the first point by a born-and-raised Dane in the regular season earlier that year. The point was scored in Game 3 of the first round against the Dallas Stars by assisting on a goal by Jan Bulis. The Canucks advanced past the Stars in seven games to meet the Anaheim Ducks in the second round. In Game 5 of the series, with the Canucks facing elimination in overtime, Hansen played an instrumental part on the ice when the Ducks scored. Attempting to carry the puck out of the defensive zone, he was hit to the ice by Ducks forward Rob Niedermayer. While Canucks goaltender Roberto Luongo had his arm up in the direction of the referee, protesting the lack of penalty, the puck came loose to Ducks defenceman Scott Niedermayer, who scored past the distracted Luongo. Following the Canucks' elimination, Hansen was sent back to the Moose for their 2007 Calder Cup playoffs. Back in the AHL, he was pointless in six games as the Moose were defeated by the Hamilton Bulldogs in the second round.
The following season, Hansen was plagued by injuries, initially suffering a broken thumb in the pre-season with the Canucks. After recovering, he was assigned to the Moose in early-October, but was re-called by the Canucks within a month. In January 2008, Hansen was re-injured, suffering a concussion. Later in the campaign, he earned his second call-up of the season in April. Finishing the season with the Moose, he finished with 43 points in 50 games for the third-highest point-per-game average on the club, as well as a team-high plus-minus rating of +23. In NHL play, he was pointless in five games.
Hansen played his first full season with the Canucks in 2008–09, making the roster out training camp and establishing himself as a third-line forward. He became known as a player for his speed and work ethic, lending to his effectiveness in puck-pursuit and forechecking. Also responsible defensively, he began to be used consistently on the penalty kill. Hansen has recalled the transition to the NHL requiring a change in his style of play to incorporate more physicality and abrasiveness. Prior to making the NHL, he relied more on skill and finesse, having been a go-to offensive player for teams up to that point.
Hansen scored his first NHL regular season point on 11 October 2008, an assist on a Ryan Kesler goal against the Calgary Flames. He scored his first NHL goal two games later against goaltender Chris Osgood in a 4–3 win against the Detroit Red Wings. Midway through the season, Hansen was briefly sent back to Manitoba for the Canucks to make room on the roster for the recently acquired Mats Sundin. He was, however, recalled within three days. In late-February, he broke his finger and was sidelined for 14 games. He completed the season with 21 points in 55 games, ranking 26th in scoring among NHL rookies. In the off-season, he became a restricted free agent before re-signing with the Canucks to a one-year, two-way contract worth a reported US\$550,000.
The following 2009 pre-season, Hansen injured his hand during a fight against Edmonton Oilers forward Gilbert Brulé, He returned to the lineup in mid-November 2008 after missing 19 games. On 1 January 2009, he was assigned for to the Moose for 10 days on a conditioning assignment, scoring two assists in five games. Back in Vancouver, Hansen completed the season with nine goals and 15 points over 47 games. He added three points in 12 playoff games, while playing through a sprained ankle suffered in the second round against the Chicago Blackhawks.
Becoming a restricted free agent for the second consecutive summer, Hansen was taken to salary arbitration by the Canucks. Following his hearing on 20 July 2010, he was awarded a one-year, one-way deal worth \$850,000, which the Canucks agreed to. Recording career-highs of 9 goals, 20 assists and 29 points over 82 games in 2010–11, Hansen received the Canucks' Fred J. Hume Award as the team's "unsung hero" (voted by the Canucks' booster club). He added three goals and nine points over 25 games in the 2011 playoffs as the Canucks advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they were defeated in seven games by the Boston Bruins. In the off-season, Hansen filed for salary arbitration. Prior to his hearing, Hansen and the Canucks avoided arbitration by agreeing to a three-year, \$4.05 million contract. Many in the media, including those from the local Province newspaper, suggested that he ceded to the Canucks' negotiations, to which Hansen responded, "If you want to be in a position to win, you have to make some sacrifices."
In the first month of the 2011–12 season, Hansen was hit from behind by defenceman Shea Weber in a game against the Nashville Predators on 20 October 2011. While he was uninjured on the play, Weber was fined \$2,500 — the maximum allowable financial penalty — by the League the following day. The following month, Hansen earned a brief stint playing on the Canucks' first line with Daniel and Henrik Sedin, replacing Alexandre Burrows. Enjoying a career season, he surpassed his previous personal best of nine goals in the NHL by December 2011. He continued to play the majority of the campaign on the Canucks' checking line and finished with 16 goals and 39 points over 82 games. Although Vancouver won their second consecutive Presidents' Trophy in 2011–12, they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Los Angeles Kings. Hansen had one goal in the five-game series.
Hansen earned praise from local and league-wide media amidst a strong start to the lockout-shortened 2012–13 season. He finished the campaign scoring at the most prolific rate of his career, with 10 goals and 27 points over 47 games, ranking third in team scoring behind Daniel and Henrik Sedin. Playing the San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2013 playoffs, Hansen failed to record a point in four games as the Canucks were swept. On 29 September 2013, Hansen signed a four-year deal with the Canucks.
On 23 November 2014, Hansen recorded his first career hat-trick in a 4–1 victory over the Chicago Blackhawks.
Hansen spent much of the 2015–16 season playing on the Canucks' top line with the Sedin twins, following a 5–3 win over the Columbus Blue Jackets on 10 November 2015 which saw the line tally 11 points. Hansen responded by scoring a career-high 22 goals that season; scoring at least 20 goals for the first time in his career.
In the 2016 off-season, the Canucks signed free agent Loui Eriksson to be the Sedins' new linemate. As a result, Hansen started the 2016–17 season on the second line with Markus Granlund and Brandon Sutter. Hansen scored his 100th career NHL goal on 20 October 2016; against Robin Lehner in a 2–1 win over the Buffalo Sabres.
### San Jose Sharks
On 28 February 2017, Hansen was traded by the Canucks to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for Nikolay Goldobin and a conditional 4th round-pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. Hansen was placed on the Shark's top line with Joe Pavelski and Joe Thornton.
### CSKA Moscow
On 2 August 2018, having reached the end of his 12-year NHL career, Hansen signed for Russian club, HC CSKA Moscow of the Kontinental Hockey League. In the 2018–19 season, Hansen continued to play his two-way defensively responsible role on the third line, contributing with 7 goals and 18 points in 45 games. In the playoffs, Hansen posted 3 points in 9 games to help CSKA claim their first Gagarin Cup.
On 27 April 2019, Hansen announced his retirement from professional hockey following 16 professional seasons, citing physical inability.
## International play
Hansen made his international debut with Denmark in Division I play of the 2002 IIHF World U18 Championships, held in Slovenia. At 16 years old, he was the second-youngest player on the under-18 team; he went pointless in four games. Denmark narrowly avoided relegation to Division II, beating out Japan on goal-differential by one. At the 2003 IIHF World U18 Championships, Denmark finished first in their Division I group, earning a promotion to the main tournament for the following year. In Hansen's second tournament appearance, he tied for sixth in Group A scoring with seven points over five games.
Hansen advanced to the under-20 level, playing in Division I of the 2004 World Junior Championships, held in Berlin. He registered an assist in three games as Denmark finished second in their group to Germany, missing out on a promotion to the main tournament for the following year. He returned to the under-18 team for a third time later that year. Competing in the main tournament, Denmark finished in seventh place. Hansen scored seven points in six games, third in team-scoring. At the 2005 World Junior Championships, Hansen helped Denmark to a third-place finish in their five-team Division I group. He led his team with four goals and added an assist for five points over five games.
In February 2005, Hansen made his debut with the Danish men's team, competing in qualification play for the 2006 Winter Olympics. He notched an assist over three games as Denmark finished third in their group, failing to qualify for the Olympics. He returned to the men's team for the 2005 World Championships, going pointless in four games. Denmark finished in 14th place out of 16 teams.
The following year, Hansen made his third and final appearance for the under-20 team at the 2006 World Junior Championships. With four points in four games, he helped Denmark to a second-place finish in Group A of Division I play. Several months later, he competed in his second Men's World Championships in Riga, Latvia. Denmark finished in 13th place out of 16 teams in the top pool; Hansen scored twice in six games. He again joined the Danish national team in the 2008 World Championships, held in Quebec City and Halifax, Canada. He played in six games in the tournament, scoring two goals and adding two assists, as Denmark finished in 12th place. Hansen missed the opportunity to play in the 2010 World Championships after having sprained his ankle during the NHL playoffs with the Canucks.
Unavailable for the 2011 IIHF World Championship due to a run to the Stanley Cup Finals with the Canucks, Hansen rejoined Denmark the following year in Finland and Sweden. He was named Denmark's player of the game after recording four shots on goal in a 2–0 preliminary loss to the Czech Republic.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International
## Awards and honours |
2,054,884 | Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria | 1,158,564,451 | Tsar of the First Bulgarian Empire from 1015 to 1018 | [
"1018 deaths",
"10th-century births",
"11th-century Bulgarian tsars",
"Bulgarian military personnel killed in action",
"Bulgarian people of Armenian descent",
"Bulgarian people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars",
"Burials at the Church of St Achillios (Lake Prespa)",
"Cometopuli dynasty",
"Eastern Orthodox monarchs",
"Monarchs killed in action"
]
| Ivan Vladislav (Church Slavonic: Їѡаннъ Владиславъ; Bulgarian: Иван/Йоан Владислав; died February 1018) served as the emperor (tsar) of the First Bulgarian Empire from approximately August or September 1015 until February 1018. The precise year of his birth remains elusive; he was born at least ten years prior to 987, but likely not much earlier than that.
Saved from death by his cousin Gavril Radomir, the Bulgarian Emperor, in 976, Ivan Vladislav murdered him in October 1015 and seized the Bulgarian throne. Due to the desperate situation of the country following the decades-long war with the Byzantine Empire, and in an attempt to consolidate his position, he tried to negotiate truce with the Byzantine emperor Basil II. After the failure of the negotiations he continued the resistance, attempting unsuccessfully to push the Byzantines back. During his period of rule, Ivan Vladislav tried to strengthen the Bulgarian army, reconstructed many Bulgarian fortresses and even carried out a counter-offensive, but he died at the Battle of Dyrrhachium in 1018. After his death his widow, Empress Maria, the Patriarch and most of the nobility finally surrendered to Basil II, who soon suppressed the last remnants of resistance and brought about the end of the First Bulgarian Empire.
Ivan Vladislav left a mixed heritage, varying from a reputation of being a ruthless murderer to a hero defending his country as well as he could. The descendants of Ivan Vladislav entered the Byzantine nobility and rose to the highest ranks of the hierarchy. Two women of his family became empresses of the Byzantine Empire and others became military commanders or high-ranking officials. He was an ancestor of the Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos.
## Biography
### Early life
Ivan Vladislav was the son of Aron, the brother of Emperor Samuel (r. 997–1014) of the Cometopuli dynasty. In 976 or 987 Samuel ordered his brother Aron executed for treason together with his entire family near Razmetanitsa. Ivan Vladislav was the only survivor, being spared through the intercession of his cousin, Samuel's son Gavril Radomir. His life during the subsequent decades and until his accession is unknown.
### Assumption of power
By 1015, Bulgaria had been embroiled in almost thirty years of war with the Byzantine Empire, and Gavril Radomir had succeeded Samuel, who died on 6 October 1014 after the disastrous Battle of Kleidion. However, from the outset Radomir's position was insecure: Ivan Vladislav, as a son of the elder of the Cometopouli brothers, could lay claim on the throne based on seniority. During that time the Byzantine Emperor Basil II campaigned deep into Bulgarian territory. He retook the previously lost town of Voden (Edessa) and laid siege to the massive fortress of Maglen, situated to the north-west. Gavril Radomir did not have enough forces and was unable to interfere and could only watch the course of the events from the nearby Lake Ostrovo. His inability to cope with the Byzantine threat aroused discontent among the nobility and Ivan Vladislav became their chosen leader. The fall of Maglen sealed Gavril Radomir's fate—in the late summer of 1015, while hunting near Ostrovo (Arnissa), he was murdered by his cousin, perhaps at the behest of Byzantine agents. Ivan Vladislav then seized the Bulgarian throne and took steps to ensure his position against potential rivals.
### First months of reign
After assuming the throne, Ivan Vladislav immediately sent a delegation to Basil II, which arrived five days after the fall of Maglen. In his letter, Ivan Vladislav notified Basil that he had personally murdered Gavril Radomir and had seized all the power in the country and promised Basil deep humility and obedience, an act of submission which some in the nobility supported. After Ivan Vladislav firmly secured his hold on the throne, however, he openly declared to be against any kind of compromise with the Byzantines and quickly began to follow the determined policy of his predecessors against the ongoing Byzantine conquest. Basil II soon understood that Ivan Vladislav's letter was a ruse and plotted a retaliatory action, bribing the kavkhan Theodore, who was in Byzantine captivity, to murder the Bulgarian ruler. Theodore in turn paid a trusted man in Ivan Vladislav's employ to commit the murder, but in the event the assassin actually killed Theodore himself. In the meantime Basil II continued his march, forcing the Bulgarian emperor to retreat to the Albanian mountains, and advanced into the heart of the Bulgarian state. The Byzantines took the capital Ohrid and burned the imperial palaces; news, however, arrived that Ivan Vladislav had laid siege to Dyrrhachium and that to the south the Bulgarian general Ibatzes had defeated the Byzantine rear army in a battle near Bitola. With his supply routes cut, Basil II had to retreat back to Thessalonica leaving a small garrison in Ohrid, which was swiftly retaken by the Bulgarians. Back in his base at Mosynopolis, Basil divided the Byzantine army to harass the areas of Strumitsa and Sofia. In January 1016 the Byzantine emperor returned to Constantinople.
### Consolidation
Meanwhile, Ivan Vladislav consolidated his positions in the mountains of Albania and Macedonia. As early as October 1015 he began the reconstruction of many strongholds destroyed during the war, including the fortress at Bitola (as testified in the Bitola inscription). In 1016 he invited his vassal Prince Jovan Vladimir of Doclea, who was married to Gabriel Radomir's sister Theodora Kosara, to come to his court. The emperor probably desired to seize the prince and so secure his western flank. The Prince was determined to attend the invitation of Tsar, but his wife Theodora Kosara did not trust the murderer of her brother, and fearing for her husband's life persuaded him not to go. Ivan Vladislav however vowed not to threaten his vassal's life, and sent him a golden cross as a proof of good will. Jovan Vladimir still hesitated, saying that God was nailed to a wooden not golden cross, but Ivan Vladislav repeated his vow and gave him a guarantee of safe-conduct, also guaranteed by the Bulgarian patriarch David. Eventually Jovan Vladimir travelled to the court of the Tsar in Prespa, but upon his arrival on 22 May, he was immediately beheaded, and the emperor refused to allow the burial of his body. It was not until a number of miraculous events related to the corpse of the prince were observed that Vladislav returned the body to Kosara.
In the spring of 1016 Basil II led his armies along the Struma valley and besieged the strong fortress of Pernik. The fort's defence was headed by the capable commander Krakra, who remained loyal to the Bulgarian cause. As all the previous attempts against Pernik, the 88-day siege was a failure, costing the Byzantines many casualties before they were forced to retreat south and regroup at Mosynopolis.
### Fighting in 1017
In the early days of 1017 the Byzantine emperor renewed his campaigns. He sent David Arianites and Constantine Diogenes to pillage along the River Vardar and captured the castle of Longos. After that he marched south and besieged Kastoria. Under the walls of the town Basil II received messages from Tzitzikios, the Byzantine strategos of Dorostolon (Silistra), that Ivan Vladislav had sent Krakra to negotiate assistance from the Pechenegs and that they were crossing the Danube. The Byzantine emperor immediately abandoned the siege and hurried northwards, but in the vicinity of Lake Ostrovo he learned that the Pechenegs were unwilling to risk war. Returning south, Basil II captured Setina, where Samuel used to have a palace and acquired for himself the large amount of provisions that were stored there. Ivan Vladislav, who was closely monitoring the Byzantine movements, ambushed the troops who were under the command of Constantine Diogenes, who would have perished had not Basil II come to relieve him. According to John Skylitzes, the Emperor charged alone in front of his army to Diogenes' rescue. When the Bulgarians saw him, they shouted "Run, the Emperor" ("Βεγεῖτε Τσαῖσαρ") and retreated in panic. Contented with their victory, the Byzantines moved on to Voden and returned to Constantinople.
### Death
In the early 1018 Ivan Vladislav besieged Dyrrhachium, but in February he was killed under the walls of the city. The accounts of his death are contradictory. According to some he became victim of a plot and was killed by his servants; according to others, he perished in battle. The Bulgarian additions to the Skylitzes Chronicle are more detailed, saying that Ivan Vladislav dueled with the strategos of Dyrrhachium, the patrikios Niketas Pegonites, on horseback, and while fighting, two Byzantine infantrymen from the audience rushed to the emperor and wounded him mortally in the belly. A later Byzantine historian claimed that the duel was fair and Pegonites stabbed Ivan Vladislav in the chest with his spear, killing him instantly. The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja reports an altogether different story: while having a meal in his camp, the emperor was attacked by an unknown soldier, in whom Ivan Vladislav seemed to have recognized the murdered Jovan Vladimir. Terrified, he cried for help but no one rushed to his rescue and the unknown soldier mortally wounded the Bulgarian ruler.
His death marked the effective end of the Bulgarian Empire. Ivan Vladislav's sons were young and inexperienced, and even the strongest Bulgarian leaders doubted the advisability of further resistance. Upon learning of the death of the Tsar, Basil II left Constantinople. In Adrianople he was met by the brother of Krakra who acknowledged Byzantine authority. His example was followed by the larger part of the Bulgarian nobility who pledged loyalty to Basil II, giving up their fortresses. In Serres, Krakra along with the commanders of 35 castles met the emperor and surrendered, and in Strumitsa he received a message sent by the Empress-dowager Maria to negotiate the surrender of the capital and the country. Basil II richly awarded those who surrendered, allowing them to keep their lands, wealth and titles. Short-lived resistance continued under Ivan Vladislav's eldest son Presian and his brothers, but they also surrendered by the end of 1018.
## Legacy
Living more than one hundred years after Ivan Vladislav, the historian known as the Priest of Duklja, who wrote from a Dukljan perspective, was outraged by the murder of Jovan Vladimir, and wrote that after the Tsar died, he was "forever connected with the angels of Satan". Many modern Bulgarian historians, including Vasil Zlatarski, also criticize the emperor, claiming that his actions hastened the fall of Bulgaria and that instead of raising the morale of the nation he turned into a murderer and was unable to cope with the intrigues and the corruption in court. Steven Runciman is also critical of the emperor, noting that his assassination of Gavril Radomir unleashed a general confusion where each noble started looking out for his own personal interests, but nevertheless credits him with "a considerable ruthless energy". Jordan Andreev is more favourable to Ivan Vladislav, noting that he had reasons for his acts—he had to revenge the murder of his family according to the old Bulgarian pagan beliefs, but he only killed Gavril Radomir and his wife without harming the rest of Gavril Radomir's family. He had to cope with Jovan Vladimir who, as a husband of one of Samuel's daughters, was a threat to his position, and had also attempted a compromise with the Byzantines. According to Andreev, Ivan Vladislav's struggle to defend the Bulgarian state and his heroic death serve to mitigate his ill deeds. He cites a Byzantine historian who claimed that during Ivan Vladislav's reign the Byzantine state "hanged in the balance, because that barbarian like Goliath resisted the Romans and they were all despaired by that invincible foe." The Polish historian Kazimierz Zakrzewski also writes with sympathy for the last ruler of the First Empire, in light of the fact that Ivan Vladislav managed to sustain a guerilla war which he skilfully ran until his death.
Ivan Vladislav Point on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria.
## Family
Ivan Vladislav married Maria, possibly the daughter of Tsar Boris II of Bulgaria and a Byzantine noblewoman, by whom he left progeny. Maria was named zoste patrikia by Basil II, and the descendants of Ivan Vladislav entered Byzantine service, becoming part of the Byzantine nobility and forming close ties with the Komnenos clan in particular. Both his daughter Catherine and an unnamed (possibly Anna) granddaughter married (future) Byzantine emperors. His second son Alusian took part in the Uprising of Petar Delyan against Byzantine rule but eventually betrayed the Bulgarian cause.
Maria and Ivan Vladislav had several children, including:
1. Presian, later Byzantine magistros
2. Alusian, Byzantine patrikios in 1019, strategos of Theodosiopolis in Anatolia, briefly emperor of Bulgaria in 1041
3. Aaron, Byzantine general
4. Trayan / Troianus, father of Maria of Bulgaria, who married Andronikos Doukas.
5. Catherine (Ekaterina), who married the future Byzantine Emperor Isaac I Komnenos |
43,194,510 | Monica (song) | 1,111,546,099 | 1968 song by the Kinks | [
"1968 songs",
"Calypso songs",
"Song recordings produced by Ray Davies",
"Songs about prostitutes",
"Songs written by Ray Davies",
"The Kinks songs"
]
| "Monica" is a song by the English rock band the Kinks from their sixth studio album, The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society (1968). Written and sung by Ray Davies, the song was recorded sometime between late 1967 and May 1968. The song features congas and a syncopated rhythm, indicating Davies's continued interest in calypso music. Its lyrics are a serenade for a prostitute and were partly inspired by Dylan Thomas's radio drama, Under Milk Wood (1954), though Davies kept the lyrics deliberately subtle to avoid a radio ban. Retrospective commentators have disputed the song's level of thematic cohesion with the others on Village Green.
## Background and composition
Ray Davies composed "Monica" as a love song, sung as a serenade to a prostitute. Its lyrics are deliberately subtle, never directly referencing her profession, something that arose out of Davies' desire to avoid a ban by BBC Radio. The song's narrator claims Monica for himself, but sings that while she is a prostitute her love cannot be bought. Davies may have been inspired by the prostitute character Polly Garter from Under Milk Wood, a 1954 radio drama by Welsh poet Dylan Thomas. The drama began to influence Davies's songwriting in late 1966, and he later directly referenced Garter in his composition "Polly", probably recorded around March 1968. Under Milk Wood's format of exploring characters in a small Welsh town later served as Davies's broader inspiration for the Kinks' 1968 album The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society. Author Mark Doyle suggests that in addition to Garter, the woman addressed in "Monica" may have been inspired by fellow Under Milk Wood character, Gossamer Beynon, the local school teacher whom all the men in town desire. Author Thomas M. Kitts writes that in "Monica", Davies uses a typical trick of Thomas whereby a single word in a stock phrase is altered – in particular, Davies changes the phrase "morning to midnight" into "morning to moonshine".
Musically, "Monica" is an example of calypso music, a genre Davies first explored in his 1965 song "I'm on an Island". Author Johnny Rogan suggests Davies often used calypso as a contrast against his more serious songwriting and compares its "Acapulco-style beat" to another of his songs on Village Green, "Starstruck". Kitts thinks the calypso rhythm is meant to suggest that the song takes place in the narrator's fantasy and emphasise that he actually only possesses Monica in his mind. Author Ken Rayes describes the song's arrangement as "celebratory" in its incorporation of Caribbean rhythms, jazz tempo changes and a playful vocal from Davies suggesting a schoolboy-like innocence.
## Recording and release
The Kinks recorded "Monica" sometime between late 1967 and May 1968, during a period when the band recorded numerous songs without initially knowing when or in what format they would be released. Recording took place in Pye Studio 2, one of two basement studios at Pye Records' London offices. Davies produced the song, while Pye's in-house engineer Alan "Mac" MacKenzie operated the four-track mixing console. The song features a syncopated backing track, including an acoustic guitar, congas and organ. Bass guitar does not appear until the second verse.
"Monica" was among the songs Davies selected for the aborted US album Four More Respected Gentlemen, originally planned for a late 1968 release. While sessions for Village Green continued through the summer of 1968, the Kinks performed the song for BBC Radio on 1 and 9 July 1968. Davies planned to include "Monica" on the original twelve-track edition of Village Green and he kept the song on the album when he decided to expand it to fifteen tracks, though he changed the planned sequence from the first to the second side of the LP. Pye released Village Green in the UK on 22 November 1968, with "Monica" sequenced as the penultimate track. In his preview of the album for New Musical Express magazine, critic Keith Altham wrote that "Monica" is an example of "the beauty of [Ray Davies]" in that "you are never quite sure when to take him seriously".
Among retrospective commentators, Miller considers "Monica" "the flimsiest thing" on the album, and Morgan Enos of Billboard placed it last in his ranking of the songs. Rogan considers the song and "Starstruck" to be "distinctly un-Village Green compositions", while Kitts counters that it fits into the album with its theme of escapism through obsession, something he thinks is also heard on "Starstruck" and "Phenomenal Cat". Kitts and Miller each consider the song one of the album's several character studies. |
17,443,542 | Charles Frederick Horn | 1,168,379,008 | British composer | [
"1762 births",
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"Composers from London",
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| Charles Frederick Horn (24 February 1762 – 3 August 1830) was an English musician and composer. Born in Germany, he emigrated to London with few possessions and no knowledge of the English language, yet rose to become a music teacher in the Royal Household. As an editor and arranger, he helped introduce the music of Johann Sebastian Bach to England.
## Life
Born in Nordhausen, Germany to John Wolfgang Horn and Sophia Dorothea Shenaman, Charles Frederick Horn was the third of their four children. According to the memoirs of Charles Frederick's son, Charles Edward Horn, John Wolfgang wished for his son to become a surveyor. Horn would often furtively practice music instead; when his father found out, he destroyed the family's clavichord in the hopes of preventing his son from becoming distracted from his studies. This, though, did not dissuade Horn from taking music lessons from Nordhausen organist Christoph Gottlieb Schröter.
On Schröter's death in 1782, Horn decided to move to Paris to try a living as a musician. He left his home with little money and a suitcase of clothes. En route to Paris, he encountered a stranger in Hamburg by the name of Winkelman, who persuaded the impressionable Horn that London would better serve the aspirations of a young German musician than France. Winkelman accompanied him to London, but upon arriving, stole almost all of Horn's money and disappeared. Destitute and knowing no English, he wandered the streets of London before encountering a German-speaking Irishman, who sympathised with his plight. The man took Horn to the piano shop of Longman and Broderip at Cheapside, where Horn played the piano for its co-proprietor, Francis Fane Broderip. Impressed, Broderip introduced Horn to the Saxon ambassador John Maurice de Brühl. de Brühl recommended Horn to Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, who hired him as his daughters' music teacher.
The appointment meant that Trentham Hall, Leveson-Gower's estate in Staffordshire, became Horn's new residence. There, he met and fell in love with Diana Dupont, the French tutor of Leveson-Gower's daughters. The two married on 28 September 1785, and subsequently moved to London, where Dupont gave birth to the couple's first child, Charles Edward Horn, on 21 June 1786. Horn published his first composition, Six Sonatas for the Piano, Violin, and Violoncello (Op. 1), earlier that year in May. Subscribers to the work included Muzio Clementi, Johann Peter Salomon, George IV (then the Prince of Wales), and Lady Caroline Waldegrave. The latter introduced Horn to Queen Charlotte, who appointed him as her personal music tutor; he instructed the Queen twice a week from 20 October 1789 to 9 October 1793. While in her service, he maintained two homes, one in London and the other in Windsor. He was also engaged from June 1789 to October 1812 to teach music to the royal princesses. During his employment in the royal household, he composed a set of three Sonatas (Op. 2), which he dedicated to the Queen.
Horn continued composing numerous pieces, but he is perhaps best known for his work in arranging and editing music—in particular, the works of Bach. In 1807, he published an arrangement for two violins, viola, and cello/piano for 12 of Bach's organ fugues. The next year, he met Samuel Wesley, with whom he would collaborate in editing, arranging, and publishing the first ever complete edition of Bach's six trio sonatas for organ (1809) and the first English edition of the Well-Tempered Clavier (1810). Horn, whom Wesley described as "indefatigable", had plans to publish all of Bach's works, but this never came to fruition.
In June 1824, King George IV appointed Horn as organist of St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle. He stepped down after King George's death on 26 June 1830, and died shortly after in Windsor. He was buried at St George's Chapel. Horn was survived by his wife, with whom he had seven children.
## Selected works
### Compositions
- Six Sonatas for the Piano, Violin, and Violoncello (Op. 1, 1786)
- Three Sonatas for the Piano Forte or Harpsichord, with an Accompaniment for a Violin or a Flute (Op. 2, 1791)
- Three Sonatas (Op. 3, 1794)
- Twelve Country Dance for the Piano Forte (1796)
- A Collection of Divertimentos (1804)
- The Boatman (1817)
- Themes with Variations (c. 1823)
### Arrangements and editions
- A Favorite Overture – Joseph Haydn (1786)
- Sinfonia for a Grand Orchestra – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (c. 1790)
- Celebrated Concertante – Ignaz Pleyel (c. 1790)
- (with Samuel Wesley) A Sett of 12 Fugues Composed for the Organ by Sebastian Bach arranged as Quartettos – Johann Sebastian Bach (1807)
- (with Samuel Wesley) A Trio composed originally for the organ by John Sebastian Bach and now adapted for 3 hands – Johann Sebastian Bach (1809)
- (with Samuel Wesley) New and correct edition of the Preludes and Fugues of John Sebastian Bach – Johann Sebastian Bach (1810) |
1,916,692 | Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria | 1,172,362,503 | Emperor of Bulgaria from 1187/1188 to 1196 | [
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"Eastern Orthodox monarchs",
"Murdered Bulgarian monarchs"
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| Ivan Asen I, also known as Asen I or John Asen I (Bulgarian: Иван Асен I; died in 1196), was emperor or tsar of Bulgaria from 1187/1188 to 1196 as co-ruler with his elder brother, Peter II. Hailing from the Byzantine theme of Paristrion, his exact place and date of birth are unknown. Although most contemporaneous chronicles describe Asen and his brothers, Theodor (Peter) and Kaloyan, as Vlachs, they were probably of mixed Bulgarian,Cuman and Vlach ancestry.
In 1185, Asen and Theodor went to see the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos in Thrace to demand an estate in the Balkan Mountains. After the Emperor refused and humiliated them, the brothers persuaded their Bulgarian and Vlach compatriots to rise up against the Byzantine Empire. Before the end of the year, Theodor was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria, taking the name Peter. After Isaac II defeated them in early 1186, Asen and Peter fled north over the Danube but returned in the autumn, accompanied by Cuman reinforcements. They captured Paristrion and began pillaging the nearby Byzantine territories.
Asen became his brother's co-ruler in 1187 or 1188. They divided their realm around 1192, with Asen receiving Tarnovo and its region. Asen made a series of raids against Byzantine territories and expanded his rule over the lands along the Struma River in the early 1190s. A boyar, Ivanko, stabbed him to death in 1196.
## Early life
The careers of Asen and his brother, Theodor, suggest they were descended from a prominent family, according to historian Alicia Simpson. Historian Alexandru Madgearu says their father was most probably a wealthy man who owned herds in the Balkan Mountains. Asen's birth date is unknown.
The Synodikon of Tsar Boril calls him "Ioan Asen Belgun". One of the Lives of Ivan of Rila confirms that Ivan (or Ioan) was his baptismal name. His other two names are of Turkic origin: Asen came from a Turkic word meaning "sound, safe, healthy", Belgun from a word for "wise". The ethnic background of Asen and his brothers is still a source of controversy among historians. Chronicles written in the late 12th and early 13th centuries unanimously described them as Vlachs (predecessors of modern Romanians). Their close relationship with the Cumans, and the Turkic etymology of Asan's names, implies they were of Cuman or Pecheneg stock. According to a scholarly theory, the multiethnic character of their homeland, the Byzantine theme (or district) of Paristrion, makes it probable that Bulgarians, Vlachs and Cumans were among their ancestors.
Robert of Clari, author of a chronicle of the early history of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, stated that Asen (whom Clari confused with his younger brother, Kaloyan) had "once [been] a sergeant of the emperor, having charge of one of the emperor's horse farms". He noted that Asen was obliged to send sixty to one hundred horses to the imperial army at the Emperor's order. According to Simpson, Clari's report may only show that Asen was not a landowner, but a pastoralist.
In the autumn of 1185, the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos encamped at Kypsela in Thrace (now İpsala in Turkey) during his campaign against the Normans of Sicily, who had invaded the Byzantine Empire. Theodor and Asen came to the camp to meet with the Emperor. Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates suggests they came only to provide grounds for their uprising. Clari says, Asen, as the manager of an imperial horse farm, was to come to the imperial court "once a year".
Theodor and Asen requested a grant from the Emperor, but its nature is uncertain. The words of Choniates, who recorded the events, suggest they applied for a pronoia (revenues of an imperial estate). On the other hand, a pronoia of little value was seldom granted personally by the monarch. This implies the brothers demanded something more, such as the governorship of a district, or the administration of a semi-independent territory, according to modern scholarly theories. The Emperor rebuffed the brothers' request, but they dared to argue with his decision. Asen, whom Choniates characterized as the "more insolent and savage of the two", was especially impertinent and was "struck across the face and rebuked for impudence" at the command of Isaac II's uncle, John Doukas. They were not detained and could leave the Emperor's camp.
## Uprising
### Beginnings
A special tax, levied to finance the Emperor's marriage to Margaret of Hungary had brought the Bulgarian and Vlach population to the edge of an uprising before the public humiliation of Asen and his brother at the imperial camp. In spite of the general discontent, the brothers were initially unable to stir up a rebellion, because their compatriots did not believe they had any chance against the imperial troops. Theodor and Asen took advantage of the sack of Thessalonica by the Normans, during which icons of Demetrius of Thessalonica, the patron saint of the town, were taken to Bulgaria. They built a "house of prayer" and summoned Bulgarian and Vlach shamans to the site. The brothers instructed these "demoniacs", as Choniates called them, to declare before the mob that God "had consented to their freedom" and Saint Demetrius would "come over to them" from Thessalonica "to be their helper and assistant" against the Byzantines.
Theodor was crowned and assumed the name Peter, thus adopting the name of a 10th-century tsar (or emperor) of Bulgaria. The coronation and Theodor's new name are evidence the brothers wanted to demonstrate from the beginning they had established a state which was the political successor of the First Bulgarian Empire. They laid siege to Preslav, the old capital of the Bulgarian Empire but could not capture it. During the first months of 1186, the brothers made plundering raids against Thrace, seizing captives and cattle. Isaac II led a counteroffensive against the rebels in person, but they resisted the invaders hiding in "inaccessible places" in the mountains. It was only the solar eclipse of 21 April 1186 that enabled the imperial troops to mount an unexpected attack and defeat the rioters. Peter and Asen fled from their homeland and crossed the Lower Danube, seeking military assistance from the Cumans.
Isaac II thought his victory was decisive and returned to Constantinople without securing the defense of Paristrion. Peter and Asen made an alliance with some Cuman chieftains who helped them to return to the Byzantine Empire in the autumn. Choniates wrote contradictory reports about the negotiations between the brothers and the Cumans. In a formal speech, he attributed the alliance to Peter's efforts; in his chronicle, he emphasized Asen's role. Shortly after their return, the brothers took control of Paristrion and launched a plundering expedition against Thrace. Asen's military tactics—the application of sudden raids and quick withdrawals—prevented the imperial troops from making successful counterattacks. Choniates emphasized the brothers were not simply content to seize Paristrion but had decided to "unite the political power of Paristrion and Bulgaria into one empire as of old", referring to their attempt to restore the First Bulgarian Empire.
### Co-ruler
Seals bearing the inscription Ivan "basileus" (or emperor) of the Bulgarians were found in Constantinople and other places. According to George Akropolites, "Asen ruled over the Bulgarian race as emperor for nine years" before he died in 1196. This suggests Asen became his brother's co-ruler in 1187 or 1188. The Byzantines launched a series of unsuccessful campaigns against the rebellious Bulgarians and Vlachs, but they could not prevent Peter and Asen from securing their rule in Paristrion. Isaac II personally led his troops against the brothers' realm and laid siege to Lovech in the spring of 1188. Although he could not occupy the fortress, the Byzantines captured Asen's wife, Helen, and his younger brother, Kaloyan. He was held hostage in Constantinople for years.
The arrival of the crusader army of the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbarossa, in the Balkan Peninsula in July 1189 enabled Peter and Asen to occupy new territories of the Byzantine Empire. One of the chronicles of Barbarossa's crusade, The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick, explicitly mentions that they seized "the region where the Danube flows into the sea" (present-day Dobruja) and parts of Thrace. When writing of the negotiations between Barbarossa and the brothers' envoys during the march of the crusaders across the Balkans, primary sources mention only Peter, suggesting he was regarded as the senior ruler of Bulgaria. The crusaders left the Balkans for Asia Minor in March 1190.
Shortly after the crusaders' departure, Isaac II Angelos moved into the lands under the rule of Peter and Asen. He could not defeat the Vlachs and Bulgarians, because they avoided a pitched battle, forcing the Emperor to start to retreat. The imperial army was ambushed and defeated at a mountain pass. The victorious Vlachs and Bulgarians, along with their Cuman allies, launched new raids against Thrace, pillaging Anchialus and other towns. Isaac II defeated the Cumans near Adrianople in April 1191. Thereafter his cousin, Constantine Angelos Doukas, routed Peter and Asen's troops in a series of battles.
A eulogy delivered in praise of Isaac II in 1193 referred to Asen as a "reckless and obdurate rebel", surrounded by "imperial traps", while describing Peter as a "stumbling block" and an "adverse wind" to his brother. The speech shows, Byzantine intrigues stirred up a conflict between the brothers in 1192. Madgearu says, Peter was allegedly willing to make peace with the Byzantines, but Asen wanted to continue the war. Akropolites knew that Peter moved from Tarnovo to Preslav at an unspecified date, a region known as "Peter's land" even in the 13th century. Historians Madgearu and Paul Stephenson agree, the sources provide evidence the brothers divided their realm around 1192, with Asen retaining Tarnovo and its region.
After Constantine Angelos Doukas was blinded during the rebellion against Isaac II, the Vlachs and the Bulgarians resumed their attacks against the Byzantine Empire. The Emperor dispatched Alexios Gidos and Basil Vatatzes to wage war against the invaders, but their united armies were almost annihilated in the Battle of Arcadiopolis. Peter and Asen conquered new territories in Thrace, including Philippopolis.
Isaac II decided to launch a new campaign to recover Thrace himself. While he was mustering his troops at Kypsela, his brother, Alexios, captured and blinded him on 8 April 1195. Alexios III sent envoys to Peter and Asen, proposing to make peace with them. The brothers refused the new emperor's proposal. Asen moved into Byzantine territory and defeated Alexios Aspietes. He captured the Byzantine fortresses along the River Struma leaving Vlach and Bulgarian troops to garrison them.
A new Byzantine army, under the command of the Emperor's son-in-law, Isaac Komnenos, launched a counterinvasion. Asen's Vlach, Bulgarian and Cuman troops surrounded the invaders and defeated them near Serres. Komnenos was captured by a Cuman warrior who secretly tried to hold him to ask for a huge ransom from the Emperor. When Asen was informed of Komnenos's capture, he ordered the Cuman to hand over his captive.
### Death
A boyar Ivanko stabbed Asen in 1196, but the motive for this act is uncertain. Choniates, who narrated the events, recorded two versions. According to one account, the captive Isaac Komnenos persuaded Ivanko to kill the Tsar, promising to give his daughter in marriage to him. The second version claims, Ivanko had "clandestine sexual relations with the sister of Asen's wife", but their affair was revealed to Asen. He decided to have his sister-in-law executed for the illicit love affair which insulted his family, but his wife persuaded him to punish Ivanko instead of her sister. Asen ordered Ivanko to come to his tent late at night. Ivanko who had been informed about the tsar's decision came with a sword hidden under his garments. He killed Asen during the meeting.
Choniates stated, Ivanko wanted to rule "more justly and equitably" than Asen who had "governed everything by the sword". Stephenson concludes, Choniates' words show that Asen had introduced a "reign of terror", intimidating his subjects with the assistance of Cuman mercenaries. Vásáry, however, says the Byzantines encouraged Ivanko to kill Asen. Ivanko attempted to assume control in Tarnovo with Byzantine support, but Peter forced him to flee to the Byzantine Empire. Peter charged Kaloyan with the governing of Asen's realm.
## Family
Asen fathered at least two sons, Ivan Asen and Alexander. Ivan Asen, who was born around 1193, became the emperor of Bulgaria in 1218. His younger brother, Alexander, bore the title sebastokrator during Ivan Asen II's reign.
## See also
- Asen Peak |
65,666,941 | Edgar P. Rucker | 1,170,847,332 | American lawyer, politician, and businessperson | [
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| Edgar Parks Rucker (December 23, 1861 – April 21, 1908) was an American lawyer, politician, and businessman in the U.S. state of West Virginia. He was a Republican who served as the 12th attorney general of West Virginia from March 4, 1897, until March 3, 1901.
Rucker was born in Covington, Virginia, in 1861 and was raised in Lewisburg, West Virginia, where he attended school at Lewisburg Academy. He briefly worked as a schoolteacher in Greenbrier County public schools then earned a Bachelor of Laws from West Virginia University's Department of Law in 1887. He returned to Lewisburg and practiced law with his father William Parks Rucker. In July 1887, Rucker engaged in a duel with Lewisburg deputy postmaster Bedford Beirne, resulting in serious injuries to Beirne. Rucker relocated to Princeton, where he practiced law for three years; then to Bramwell, where he was editor of the Flat Top Monitor. He then moved to Welch and established a law firm in which he served as senior partner with Benjamin Franklin Keller among his firm's partners.
In 1888, Rucker unsuccessfully ran for the 8th Senate district seat and in 1892 for the 3rd congressional district seat. He served on the West Virginia University board of regents from 1895 to 1897. In 1896, Rucker was elected state attorney general, and during his tenure, his office was involved with cases resulting in increased tax revenue for the state. In addition to his political career, Rucker served as an incorporator and the president of several companies in Welch. After suffering poor health in his later years, Rucker died in 1908 in Washington, D.C. following surgery.
## Early life and education
Edgar Parks Rucker was born in Covington, Virginia, on December 23, 1861, during the early period of the American Civil War. He was the youngest of four sons of William Parks Rucker and Margaret Scott Rucker. Rucker's three older brothers were Hedley Scott Rucker; William Waller Rucker, U.S. Representative from Missouri; and James Thomas Rucker. During his early years, Rucker and his family relocated to Lewisburg in Greenbrier County, where he attended Lewisburg Academy. In his early adulthood, Rucker was a schoolteacher in Greenbrier County public schools. He then attended and completed a course in West Virginia University's Department of Law, where he won a prize for his essay entitled "The Works and Age of Milton", and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1887.
## Law career
Immediately following his graduation, Rucker returned to Lewisburg, where he practiced law with his father. In July 1887, Rucker engaged in a duel with Lewisburg deputy postmaster Bedford Beirne, in which Rucker shot and seriously injured Beirne. The duel occurred after Beirne supposedly insulted Rucker. Rucker fired the first shot, which broke Beirne's wrist, then both men fired at each other and Beirne was shot in the chest. Rucker was arrested and bailed out of jail after the duel. When Beirne's condition worsened, however, Rucker was re-arrested and jailed.
After his marriage to Maude Applegate in January 1888, Rucker and his wife relocated to Princeton, where he practiced law for three years. On September 3, 1890, he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the West Virginia National Guard's 2nd Regiment, Company A, which was organized and mustered into service in Princeton. In 1892, Rucker then moved to Bramwell in the burgeoning Pocahontas Coalfield region, where he remained for one year and served as the editor of the Flat Top Monitor, a Republican newspaper.
In 1893, Rucker and his family moved to Welch, which the previous year had become the county seat of McDowell County, and Rucker established a law practice there. Rucker served as the senior partner of his law firm, which initially consisted of Benjamin Franklin Keller and James L. Hamill, and was known as Rucker, Keller, and Hamill. This partnership lasted until 1898, after which Rucker was joined by other law partners, including Luther C. Anderson, William Wellington Hughes, and Daniel J. F. Strother.
## Political and government career
Rucker took an interest in politics and was active in West Virginia's Republican Party. In 1888, he unsuccessfully ran as the party's candidate for the 8th district of the West Virginia Senate, losing by 403 votes. Due to his young age, he became known as "the boy candidate". In June 1892, the Republicans of West Virginia's 3rd congressional district met in Montgomery and selected Rucker as their candidate for the district's congressional seat. He lost the November election against Democratic incumbent John D. Alderson. Rucker served on the West Virginia University board of regents for a two-year term from 1895 until June 1, 1897. In February 1897, Rucker joined regents in advocating for appropriations from the West Virginia Legislature for a new building to accommodate the increased enrollment at West Virginia University.
### Attorney general
In June and July 1896, Rucker was endorsed by McDowell County Republican Conventions as their candidate for Republican nominee for West Virginia attorney general. On July 23, 1896, at the state convention in Parkersburg, he was formally nominated as the Republican candidate for attorney general, and in November, he ran for election against Democratic incumbent Thomas S. Riley. On January 14, 1897, the West Virginia Legislature convened a joint assembly to canvass the returns of the 1896 election, and declared Rucker the 12th attorney general-elect with 105,432 votes to incumbent Riley's 94,060 votes.
Rucker commenced his tenure as attorney general on March 4, 1897. At the start of his term, he was directed by the West Virginia Board of Public Works to represent the state in the case , and appeared before the U.S. Supreme Court alongside his predecessors Riley and Thayer Melvin. In November 1888, the court decided in favor of West Virginia, ruling the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad and other railroad companies were required to pay taxes on their bridges across the Ohio River to the state of West Virginia. The taxable amount of the railroad bridge in question at Steubenville alone was \$3,060 per year, with back taxes for four years, totaling \$12,240 (), owed to West Virginia. Also during Rucker's term, the case Maryland v. West Virginia, in which Maryland claimed the South Branch Potomac River rather than the North Branch Potomac River as its true southern boundary, was ongoing.
In September 1897, Rucker went to Keystone to intervene in a mob intending to lynch Tom Major, who was being held in jail in connection with the murder of special officer Newt Hines. Rucker and local officials transported Major via freight engine from Keystone to the jail in Welch to ensure Major's safety and avoid a race riot. In October 1897, Rucker's office was also involved in the prosecution of the "Wheeling whiskey cases" in response to the banding together of Wheeling saloonkeepers to resist payment of state license taxes to sell whiskey. At that time, the saloonkeepers paid for licenses to sell beer and wine, which were \$100 per year (), but continued to sell whiskey without paying for the annual \$350-dollar license fee (). Rucker went to Wheeling and assisted Ohio County prosecuting attorney W. C. Meyer in instituting proceedings against the saloonkeepers who were violating state law. Ohio County made more than 1,700 indictments; however, Rucker and Meyer procured injunctions against the most-prominent violators, which resulted in those saloonkeepers agreeing to pay the full license tax and in West Virginia recovering \$18,000 in taxes (). Rucker served as attorney general until March 3, 1901.
## Business career
Rucker served as the president of several companies, including the Margaret Mining Company, the Hensley (or Hursley) Coal Company, the Merrimac Coal and Coke Company, the Slick Rock Coal Company, and the Welch Lumber Company. He also served as a director of the McDowell County Bank and a number of other corporations. In June 1896, Rucker was an incorporator of the McDowell Publishing Company in Welch, which was chartered for the purpose of publishing a newspaper and book printing. In October 1899, Rucker was an incorporator of the C. L. Ritter Lumber Company of Welch. In March 1905, Rucker was among several representatives of West Virginia's coal industry who met with Governor William M. O. Dawson and state tax commissioner Charles W. Dillon to protest a state law that taxed coal, oil, and gas leases as personal property.
## Personal life
### Marriage and children
Rucker married Maude Applegate of Keytesville, Missouri, on January 11, 1888, at the residence of her uncle L. M. Applegate near Keytesville; according to the Chariton Courier, the wedding was a "quiet and unpretentious affair". Rucker and his wife had one daughter, Margaret Clarke Rucker, who was born in Princeton on November 4, 1890, and married Edward Robert Shannon Jr. on June 12, 1916. She and Edward had one daughter, Margaret "Peggy" Rucker Shannon, who was born July 6, 1917, in Cincinnati.
### Organizational memberships
Rucker served as president of the West Virginia League of Republican Clubs in 1894. He was a member of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows and an active member of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, where he worked to secure a new building for the congregation and served as a delegate to the Methodist General Conference of 1902.
## Later life and death
Rucker's final years were dedicated to his law practice and his businesses in Welch. News reports in 1903 and 1904 noted Rucker's poor health. He remained ill and for three years, he consulted specialists for a cure. In April 1908, Rucker underwent surgery at Episcopal Hospital in Washington, D.C., to remove from his nose a malignant polyp that had caused a partial loss of eyesight. He died following complications from the operation at 5 p.m. on April 21, 1908, and was buried at the Old Stone Church cemetery in Lewisburg.
Following Rucker's death, his wife and daughter relocated to Cincinnati. At the West Virginia Republican Party's 6th Senate district meeting at Keystone in August 1908, a resolution expressing sorrow at Rucker's death was passed. Former Governor George W. Atkinson said of Rucker in his book "Bench and Bar of West Virginia" (1919):
> General Rucker was an unusually brilliant and successful lawyer. Always intensely active, wholly devoted to the interests of his clients, ever resourceful, particularly in an emergency, a fine orator, a born leader of men, he was a good lawyer and a splendid gentleman.
## Explanatory notes |
15,339,938 | Tony Marchant (cyclist) | 1,156,564,633 | Australian cyclist | [
"1937 births",
"Australian male cyclists",
"Australian track cyclists",
"Cyclists at the 1956 Summer Olympics",
"Cyclists from Melbourne",
"Living people",
"Medalists at the 1956 Summer Olympics",
"Olympic cyclists for Australia",
"Olympic gold medalists for Australia",
"Olympic medalists in cycling",
"People from Chelsea, Victoria",
"Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia",
"Sportsmen from Victoria (state)"
]
| Anthony John Marchant OAM, also known as "Tippy" Marchant (born 28 August 1937) is a former Australian track cyclist who along with Ian Browne won the 2000 m tandem event at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Marchant had little formal training and only took up the sport at the age of 16 because his friends liked the sport. In 1955, Marchant shot to prominence after only two years in the sport, winning the 500 m time trial and the 5 mile event at the Junior Australian Championships. This resulted him being approached by Browne to team up in early 1956 and they promptly won the tandem event at the national championships to earn national selection. The pair were eliminated after losing their first two races but were given a reprieve when the Soviet Union pair were hospitalised in a crash and forced to withdraw. Thereafter Marchant and Browne were unbeaten and progressed to an unlikely Olympic gold. In 1957, Marchant retired to play Australian rules football, again basing his decision on his friends' interests. In 1958 he made a brief comeback as a professional, but with only sporadic success, he retired in 1961.
## Early years
Marchant was born in Chelsea, Victoria, where he grew up. His father was a member of the Royal Australian Navy, who later became a bank manager. His father died when Marchant was young. This left his mother, a nurse, to raise Marchant and his four sisters and three brothers. Unlike his siblings, Marchant was interested in sport from a young age. He particularly took a liking to boxing, and won the school boxing championship at St Bede's College. In his teenage years, he fought about 25 bouts with the Chelsea Youth Club.
Influenced by three of his friends, Marchant took up cycling in 1953 at the age of 16. He earned some money from selling flowers and delivering newspapers and bought a semi-racing bike. Later, he was a given a proper racing bike from his first trainer Merv Norton.
Marchant began at the Chelsea Amateur Cycling Club, which did not even have a banked cycling track and was trained by Norton and Maurie Cramer. Marchant rose to prominence by winning the 500 metres (m) time trial at the 1955 Victorian Championships for juniors in only his second year of competition. He then won the 5 mile title and the 500 m time trial at the Australian Junior Championships. He added a silver medal in the sprint.
Marchant first teamed up with Ian Browne at the start of 1956, just ten months before the start of the Melbourne Olympics. The older Browne selected Marchant because of the pure speed that Marchant had exhibited in the past year. They were a contrasting pair. Marchant was a short man of 170 cm (5.6 ft) and 65 kg (143 lb), while Browne stood at 186 cm (6.10 ft) and 86 kg (190 lb), unusually tall for a cyclist. For a final test run before the pair formally committed to racing together, the pair simply had a few tandem sprints around the track. Browne sat in the front seat, while Marchant sat in the rear seat. The pair went on to win the 2000 m tandem event at the Australian Championships in 1956, but going into the Melbourne Olympics, nobody, themselves included, regarded them as realistic medal chances. However, their mentor, former champion Billy Guyatt convinced them that they had the potential to make progress at international level.
Their training schedule consisted of individual training two or three times a week and two days a week of coordinated tandem training during the Olympic year. Marchant's main tactical responsibility was to look to the outside for impending attacks while Browne patrolled the inside. Marchant devised a signal system, such as a head bump on Browne's hip, or even a verbal shout when the opposition made a move.
## Olympics
Ten nations were entered in the tandem competition, and in the first round, they were drawn with Germany and South Africa, who fielded their silver medallist pairing of Tom Shardelow and Ray Robinson from the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. The Australians made their move too early and led at the ringing of the bell at the start of the last lap, but they were overhauled well before the line as they faded in the final straight. Browne and Marchant were given another chance in the repechage round later in the same day. The Australians lead for three quarters of the distance, but were overhauled by their Czechoslovakian opponent in the final metres and were defeated in a photo finish. This would normally have meant that the Australians would have been eliminated, however the final repechage between the Soviet Union and the Germans resulted in a tangle, resulting in a heavy pile-up. Neither team finished the race, but the Soviets were hospitalised. The cycling officials decided that the bruised Germans would be forced to compete in a repechage sequel against the losers in the previous repechages to qualify. This allowed the United States and the Australians a reprieve.
The Australians seized their good fortune and set their fastest time to date with 11.0 seconds (s). Having been beaten twice after leading out, the Australians sat back before sweeping past the Germans and Americans in the final lap. Australia were again drawn against South Africa in their quarter-final, who had defeated them easily in the heats. This time they equalled the fastest team in the competition over the final 200 m, clocking 10.8 s to progress to the final, where they faced the Italy. Giuseppe Ogna and Cesare Pinarello appeared to be in control at the start of the final lap. They had moved alongside the Australians with one and a half laps to go, but the Australians surprised them at the start of the final lap. The Italians came back to pull level at the start of the back straight, but the Australians held them off and pulled away to win by a length and a half. The Italians lodged a protest for interference but it was dismissed. The Australians finished in a time of 10.8 s and Browne later claimed that he was convinced by the performance that they would win the gold medal.
The final took place on the third day of racing. The Australians came to the conclusion that their wheels and tyres were too heavy, so they sought to buy better cycling equipment from the defeated Germans. The Germans agreed, saying "Have ours and you will win the gold medal." Australia were again pitted against the Czechoslovak Vaclav Machek and Ladislav Foucek. One of the reasons behind Australia's return to form had been the return of Guyatt to a mentoring role. Guyatt had assisted them at the national championships, but they were assigned to another coach at the Olympics. Guyatt was regarded as a marketing-style motivator and he attempted to give Browne and Marchant a psychological boost. Equipped with their new machines, Browne and Marchant employed a tactical trick devised by Guyatt. The Australian staff had noticed that the Czechoslovaks had always made their final burst from a certain point from the finish. During the final, Australian team manager Bill Young stood at the said point as the Australian led out. When Browne came to the point, he pulled upwards and pre-emptively blocked the expected Czechoslovakian attack. As the Australians veered out to cut off the opposition attack, the two pairs made hip contact. This helped to stifle the attack and Australia went on to win the gold medal. Upon returning to his home town, he was mobbed by thousands of schoolchildren who had come to welcome him, and he was given a civic reception.
## Later years
The following year in 1957, Marchant unexpectedly left the sport, much to the dismay of the cycling community, which believed that he would continue to more success. He switched to playing Australian rules football because that was what his friends did. He felt that fitting in with his friends was more important, saying "I was a funny bloke. I did a lot on brilliance rather than hard work. I preferred to do what my mates were doing."
After a year away from the bike, Marchant returned to cycling and turned professional in 1958. Within a year he left for Europe with Ron Murray and Alan McLellan on the professional racing circuit. The trip was unsuccessful. The group did not take their track bikes with them, with Marchant ordering one from Italy. The equipment never arrived and he competed in Belgium and Copenhagen on borrowed bikes. Marchant only displayed glimpses of his ability, defeating the Italian champion in one outing and also winning the La Trobe race in Tasmania. Marchant then retired in 1961.
During his cycling career, Marchant had worked as an apprentice shoe cutter. After his retirement, he continued along the same line of work, spending his entire working career in the shoe industry, designing and marketing women's fashion shoes under the brand Imps and Cadets. He married in 1962 and has two children. |
279,580 | Oneness Pentecostalism | 1,173,144,228 | Nontrinitarian religious movement within Pentecostalism | [
"Christian fundamentalism",
"Nature of Jesus Christ",
"Nontrinitarian denominations",
"Oneness Pentecostalism"
]
| Oneness Pentecostalism (also known as Apostolic, Jesus' Name Pentecostalism, or the Jesus Only movement) is a nontrinitarian religious movement within the Protestant Christian family of churches known as Pentecostalism. It derives its name from its teaching on the Godhead, a form of Modalistic Monarchianism commonly referred to as the Oneness doctrine. The doctrine states that there is one God―a singular divine spirit with no distinction of persons―who manifests himself in many ways, including as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This stands in sharp contrast to the doctrine of three distinct, eternal persons posited by Trinitarian theology.
Oneness Pentecostals differ from most other Pentecostals and Evangelicals in their beliefs on soteriology. Most believe that faith in Jesus Christ is the only essential element for salvation, but Oneness Pentecostals believe that true saving faith is demonstrated by repentance, full-submersion water baptism, and baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in other tongues. Oneness believers also solely baptize in the name of Jesus Christ (instead of the Trinitarian formula of baptizing "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit") as they state that Jesus is the one name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and so all religious activities should be performed in that one name.
Many Oneness Pentecostal groups tend to emphasize strict holiness standards in dress, grooming and other areas of personal conduct. This teaching is shared with traditional Holiness Pentecostals, but not with other Finished Work Pentecostal groups, at least not to the degree that is generally found in some Oneness Pentecostal (and Holiness Pentecostal) churches who also say holiness is to be set apart to God.
The Oneness Pentecostal movement first emerged in North America around 1914 as the result of a schism following the doctrinal disputes within the nascent Finished Work Pentecostal movement (which itself had broken from Holiness Pentecostalism)—specifically within the Assemblies of God. The movement claims an estimated 24 million adherents today. It was often referred to as the Jesus Only movement in its early days, referring to its baptismal formula, which may be misleading as do not deny existence of the Father or Holy Spirit.
## History
### Background of Oneness theology
The first Pentecostals were Holiness Pentecostals, who teach three works of grace (the new birth, entire sanctification, and Spirit baptism accompanied by glossolalia); Finished Work Pentecostals broke off and became partitioned into Trinitarian and nontrinitarian branches, the latter being known as Oneness Pentecostalism.
The Oneness Pentecostal movement in North America is believed to have begun in 1913 as the result of doctrinal disputes within the nascent Pentecostal movement, specifically within the Assemblies of God, the first Finished Work Pentecostal denomination. In 1913, Canadian Pentecostal Robert T. McAlister preached at a Pentecostal camp meeting in Los Angeles that the "Jesus only" baptismal formula found in Acts 2:38 was to be preferred over the three-part formula "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" found in Matthew 28:19, leading to a group to rebaptize themselves and form a new Pentecostal movement.
During these formative years, doctrinal division developed and widened over traditional Trinitarian theology and over the formula used at baptism, with some Pentecostal leaders claiming revelation or other insights pointing them toward the Oneness concept. Pentecostals quickly split along these doctrinal lines; those who held to belief in the Trinity and in the Trinitarian baptismal formula condemned the Oneness teaching as heresy. On the other hand, those who rejected the Trinity as being contrary to the Bible and as a form of polytheism (by dividing God into three separate beings, according to their interpretation) formed their own denominations and institutions, which ultimately developed into the Oneness churches of today.
Scholars within the movement differ in their views on church history. Some church historians, such as Dr. Curtis Ward, Marvin Arnold, and William Chalfant, hold to a Successionist view, arguing that their movement has existed in every generation from the original day of Pentecost to the present day. Ward has proposed a theory of an unbroken Pentecostal church lineage, claiming to have chronologically traced its perpetuity throughout the church's history. This view is supported by Michael Servetus' book in 1531 titled: De Trinitatis erroribus libri vii, which argued theological fallacies within the doctrine of the Trinity. Michael Servetus was later tried on thirty-eight articles drawn up by John Calvin, alleging blasphemy and heresy regarding the Trinity and infant baptism, and burned at the stake by the government of Geneva.
Others hold to a Restorationist view, believing that while the apostles and their church clearly taught Oneness doctrine and the Pentecostal experience, the early apostolic church went into apostasy and ultimately evolved into the Catholic Church. For them, the contemporary Oneness Pentecostal movement came into existence in America in the early 20th century during the latter days of the Azusa Street Revival. Restorationists such as Dr. David K. Bernard and Dr. David S. Norris deny any direct link between the church of the Apostolic Age and the current Oneness movement, believing that modern Oneness Pentecostalism is a total restoration originating from a step-by-step separation within Protestantism culminating in the final restoration of the early apostolic church.
### Oneness views on the early church
Both Successionists and Restorationists among Oneness Pentecostals assert that the early apostolic church believed in the Oneness and Jesus name baptism doctrines. Oneness theologian David K. Bernard claims to trace Oneness adherents back to the first converted Jews of the Apostolic Age. He asserts that there is no evidence of these converts having any difficulty comprehending the Christian Church's teachings and integrating them with their existing strict Judaistic monotheistic beliefs; however in the post-Apostolic Age, Bernard claims that Hermas, Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Polycrates, Ignatius (who lived between 90 and 140 A.D.), and Irenaeus (who died about 200 A.D.) were either Oneness, modalist, or at most a follower of an "economic Trinity," that is, a temporary Trinity and not an eternal one. He also asserts that Trinitarianism's origin was pagan, quoting anti-Catholic Alexander Hislop, a Presbyterian minister; none of Hislop's arguments on Christian theology and history have been confirmed by historians in modern scholarship.
Bernard theorizes that the majority of all believers were Oneness adherents until the time of Tertullian, who he believes was the first prominent exponent of Trinitarianism (though Theophilus of Antioch was the first to use the term, albeit in completely different understanding). In support of his allegation, Bernard quotes Tertullian as writing against Praxeas:
> The simple, indeed (I will not call them unwise or unlearned), who always constitute the majority of believers, are startled at the dispensation (of the Three in One), on the very ground that their very Rule of Faith withdraws them from the world's plurality of gods to the one only true God; not understanding that, although He is the one only God, He must yet be believed in with His own economy. The numerical order and distribution of the Trinity, they assume to be a division of the Unity.
In contrast to Bernard's theory, most scholars suggest the writings of Ignatius and Irenaeus suggest an eternal Trinity, though Oneness theologian Dr. David S. Norris disagrees with them in his book I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology, writing, "While Ignatius can on occasion utilize the language of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, he does not have three persons in mind."
### Beginnings of the Oneness movement
In April 1913, at the Apostolic Faith Worldwide Camp Meeting held in Arroyo Seco, California and conducted by Maria Woodworth-Etter, organizers promised that God would "deal with them, giving them a unity and power that we have not yet known." Canadian R. E. McAlister preached a message about water baptism just prior to a baptismal service that was about to be conducted. His message defended the "single immersion" method and preached "that apostolic baptism was administered as a single immersion in a single name, Jesus Christ," saying: "The words Father, Son, and Holy Ghost were never used in Christian baptism." This immediately caused controversy when Frank Denny, a Pentecostal missionary to China, jumped on the platform and tried to censor McAlister. Oneness Pentecostals mark this occasion as the initial "spark" in the Oneness revival movement.
John G. Schaepe, a young minister, was so moved by McAlister's revelation, after praying and reading the Bible all night, he ran through the camp the following morning shouting that he'd received a revelation on baptism: that the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit was "Lord Jesus Christ." Schaepe claimed during this camp-meeting that the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost was the name of the "Lord Jesus Christ," which was later part of the baptismal command posited by Peter in Acts 2:38—i.e., baptism "in the name of Jesus Christ"—and was the fulfillment and counterpart of the Great Commission in Matthew 28:19 constituting baptism in the name (singular) of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit (which name Oneness believers hold to be that of Jesus). This conclusion was accepted by several others in the camp and given further theological development by a minister named Frank Ewart.
On April 15, 1914, Frank Ewart and Glenn Cook publicly baptized each other specifically in "the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" (and not the Trinitarian formula) in a tank set up in Ewart's Crusade tent. This is considered to be the historical point when Oneness Pentecostalism emerged as a distinct movement. A number of ministers claimed they were baptized "in the Name of Jesus Christ" before 1914, including Frank Small and Andrew D. Urshan. Urshan claims to have baptized others in Jesus Christ's name as early as 1910. In addition, Charles Parham, the founder of the modern Pentecostal movement, was recorded baptizing using a Christological formula during the Azusa Street revival.
However, it was not the Oneness baptismal formula which proved the divisive issue between Oneness advocates and other Pentecostals, but rather their rejection of the Trinity. In the Assemblies of God, the re-baptisms in Jesus' name caused a backlash from many Trinitarians in that organization, who feared the direction that their church might be heading toward. J. Roswell Flower initiated a resolution on the subject, which caused many Oneness baptizers to withdraw from the organization. In October 1916 at the Fourth General Council of the Assemblies of God, the issue finally came to a head. The mostly-Trinitarian leadership, fearing that the new issue of Oneness might overtake their organization, drew up a doctrinal statement affirming the truth of Trinitarian dogma, among other issues. When the Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths was adopted, a third of the fellowship's ministers left to form Oneness fellowships. After this separation, most Oneness believers became relatively isolated from other Pentecostals.
### Forming Oneness organizations
Having separated themselves from the Trinitarians within the new Pentecostal movement, Oneness Pentecostals felt a need to come together and form an association of churches of "like precious faith." This led to the formation of the General Assembly of the Apostolic Assemblies in Eureka Springs, Arkansas in January 1917, which merged with a second Oneness body by 1918, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World.
Several small Oneness ministerial groups formed after 1914. Many of these were ultimately merged into the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, while others remained independent, like AFM Church of God. Divisions occurred within the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World over the role of women in ministry, usage of wine or grape juice for communion, divorce and remarriage, and the proper mode of water baptism. There were also reports of racial tension in the organization. African Americans were joining the church in great numbers, and many held significant leadership positions. In particular, the African American pastor G. T. Haywood served as the church's general secretary, and signed all ministerial credentials. In 1925, three new organizations were formed: the Apostolic Churches of Jesus Christ, Emmanuel's Church in Jesus Christ and the Pentecostal Ministerial Alliance. The first two later merged to become the Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ.
In 1945 a merger of two predominantly-white Oneness groups, the Pentecostal Church, Inc. and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ, resulted in the formation of the United Pentecostal Church International, or UPCI. Beginning with 521 churches, it has become the largest and most influential Oneness Pentecostal organization through its evangelism and publishing efforts, reporting a membership of 5.5 million.
## Oneness doctrine of God
Oneness Pentecostalism has a historical precedent in the Modalistic Monarchianism of the fourth century. This earlier movement affirmed the two central aspects of Oneness belief:
1. There is one indivisible God with no distinction of persons in God's eternal essence, and
2. Jesus Christ is the manifestation, human personification, or incarnation of the one God.
They contend that, based on Colossians 2:9, the concept of God's personhood is reserved for the immanent and incarnate presence of Jesus only.
### Characteristics of God
Oneness theology specifically maintains that God is a singular spirit who is absolutely and indivisibly one (not three persons, individuals, or minds). They contend that the terms "Father," "Son," and "Holy Ghost" (also known as the Holy Spirit) are merely titles reflecting the different personal manifestations of God in the universe. When Oneness believers speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, they see these as three personal manifestations of one being, one personal God.
Oneness teachers often quote a phrase used by early pioneers of the movement: "God was manifested as the Father in creation, the Son in redemption, and the Holy Ghost in emanation," though Oneness theologian Dr. David Norris points out that this does not mean that Oneness Pentecostal believe that God can only be one of those manifestations at a time, which may be suggested in the quote.
According to Oneness theology, the Father and the Holy Spirit are one and the same personal God. They teach that the term "Holy Spirit" is a descriptive title for God manifesting himself through the Christian Church and in the world. These two titles (as well as others) do not reflect separate persons within the Godhead, but rather two different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. Thus, when the Old Testament speaks of "The Lord God and his Spirit" in Isaiah 48:16, it does not indicate two persons, according to Oneness theology. Rather, "The Lord" indicates God in all of his glory and transcendence, while "his Spirit" refers to his own Spirit that moved upon and spoke to prophets. Oneness theologians teach that this passage does not imply two persons any more than the numerous scriptural references to a man and his spirit or soul (such as in Luke 12:19) imply two "persons" existing within one body.
The ambiguity of the term "person" has been noted by both Oneness and Trinitarian proponents as a source of conflict. This issue is addressed by Trinitarian scholar and Christian apologist Alister McGrath:
> The word 'person' has changed its meaning since the third century when it began to be used in connection with the 'threefoldness of God'. When we talk about God as a person, we naturally think of God as being one person. But theologians such as Tertullian, writing in the third century, used the word 'person' with a different meaning. The word 'person' originally derives from the Latin word persona, meaning an actor's face-mask—and, by extension, the role which he takes in a play. By stating that there were three persons but only one God, Tertullian was asserting that all three major roles in the great drama of human redemption are played by the one and the same God. The three great roles in this drama are all played by the same actor: God. Each of these roles may reveal God in a somewhat different way, but it is the same God in every case. So when we talk about God as one person, we mean one person in the modern sense of the word, and when we talk about God as three persons, we mean three persons in the ancient sense of the word. ... Confusing these two senses of the word 'person' inevitably leads to the idea that God is actually a committee.
In contrast, Oneness theologian Dr. David K. Bernard asserts that it is unbiblical to describe God as a plurality of persons in any sense of the word, "regardless of what persons meant in ancient church history."
### Son of God
According to Oneness theology, the Son of God did not exist (in any substantial sense) prior to the incarnation of Jesus of Nazareth except as the Logos (or Word) of God the Father. They believe that humanity of Jesus did not exist before the incarnation, although Jesus (i.e. the Spirit of Jesus) pre-existed in his deity as the eternal God. This belief is supported by the lack of Jesus' incarnate presence anywhere in the Old Testament.
Oneness Pentecostals believe that the title "Son" only applied to Christ when he became flesh on earth, but that Christ was the Logos or Mind of the Father prior to his being made human, and not a separate person. In this theology, the Father embodies the divine attributes of the Godhead and the Son embodies the human aspects. They believe that Jesus and the Father are one essential person, though operating as different modes.
Oneness author W. L. Vincent writes, "The argument against the 'Son being his own Father' is a red herring. It should be evident that Oneness theology acknowledges a clear distinction between the Father and Son–in fact this has never been disputed by any Christological view that I am aware of."
#### The Word
Oneness theology holds that "the Word" in John 1:1 was the mind or plan of God. Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Word was not a separate person from God but that it was the plan of God and was God Himself. Dr. David K. Bernard writes in his book The Oneness View of Jesus Christ,
> In the Old Testament, God’s Word (dabar) was not a distinct person but was God speaking, or God disclosing Himself (Psalm 107:20; Isaiah 55:11). To the Greeks, the Word (logos) was not a distinct divine person, but reason as the controlling principle of the universe. The noun logos could mean thought (unexpressed word) as well as speech or action (expressed word). In John 1, the Word is God’s self-revelation or self-disclosure. Before the Incarnation, the Word was the unexpressed thought, plan, reason, or mind of God.
Additionally, Bernard claims that the Greek word pros (translated “with” in John 1:1) could also be translated as “pertaining to,” meaning that John 1:1 could also be translated as (in his view), “The Word pertained to God and the Word was God.”
In the incarnation, Oneness believers hold that God put the Word (which was His divine plan) into action by manifesting Himself in the form of the man Jesus, and thus "the Word became flesh" (John 1:14). In this, Oneness believers say that the incarnation was a singular event, unlike anything God had done prior or will ever do again. Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Word of John 1:1 does not imply a second pre-existent, divine person, but that the Word is simply the plan of God, which was put into action through the incarnation.
#### The Dual Nature of Christ
When discussing the Incarnation, Oneness theologians and authors often refer to a concept known as the "dual nature" of Christ, which is understood as the union of human and divine natures in the man Christ Jesus. Dr. Bernard describes this concept in his book The Oneness of God, stating that Jesus "is both Spirit and flesh, God and man, Father and Son. On his human side He is the Son of man; on his divine side He is the Son of God and is the Father dwelling in the flesh." They see this not as two persons in one body but rather as two natures united in one person: Jesus Christ. Oneness believers see the "mystery" of 1 Timothy 3:16 as referring to this concept of two natures being united in the one person of Jesus Christ.
Although the Oneness belief in the union of the divine and human into one person in Christ is similar to the Chalcedonian formula, Chalcedonians disagree sharply with them over their opposition to Trinitarian dogma. Chalcedonians see Jesus Christ as a single person uniting God the Son, the eternal second person of the traditional Trinity, with human nature. Oneness believers, on the other hand, see Jesus as one single person uniting the one God himself with human nature as the Son of God.
### Scripture
Oneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the doctrine of Sola Scriptura in common with mainstream Pentecostals. They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God, and as absolutely inerrant in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation). They specifically reject the conclusions of church councils such as the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed. They believe that mainstream Trinitarian Christians have been misled by long-held and unchallenged "traditions of men."
### The name of Jesus
The overwhelming emphasis on the person of Jesus shapes the content of a theology based on experience among both Oneness and Trinitarian Pentecostals. In principle, the doctrinal emphasis on Jesus attributes all divine qualities and functions to Christ. What might therefore be called a 'Christological maximalism' in the Pentecostal doctrine of God leads among Oneness Pentecostals to a factual substitution of the three divine persons with the single person of Jesus, while Trinitarian Pentecostals typically elevate Christ from the 'second' person of the Trinity to the central figure of Christian faith and worship.
Critics of Oneness theology commonly refer to its adherents as "Jesus Only," implying that they deny the existence of the Father and Holy Spirit. Most Oneness Pentecostals consider that term to be pejorative, and a misrepresentation of their true beliefs on the issue. Oneness believers insist that while they do indeed believe in baptism only in the name of Jesus Christ, citing Acts 2:38, Acts 8:12; 8:16, Acts 10:48, and Acts 19:15 as opposed to the traditional Trinitarian baptism; to describe them as "Jesus Only Pentecostals" implies a denial of the Father and Holy Spirit.
### View of the Trinity
Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Trinitarian doctrine is a "tradition of men" and is neither scriptural nor a teaching of God, citing the absence of the word "Trinity" from the Bible as one evidence of this. They—alongside the nontrinitarian Jehovah's Witnesses—generally believe the doctrine was gradually developed over the first four centuries AD, culminating with the Council of Nicaea and later councils which made the doctrine as believed today orthodox; most mainstream Christian scholars have rejected these assertions and some have rebutted alleged misinterpretations of Trinitarians seeming to support those assertions. Oneness Pentecostals insist that their conception of the Godhead is true to early Christianity's allegedly strict monotheism, contrasting their views not only with Trinitarianism, but equally with the theology espoused by the Latter-day Saints (who believe that Christ was a separate god from the Father and the Spirit) and Jehovah's Witnesses (who see him as the first-begotten Son of God, and as a subordinate deity to the Father). Oneness theology is similar to historical Modalism or Sabellianism, although it cannot be exactly characterized as such.
The Oneness position as nontrinitarians places them at odds with the members of most Christian denominations, some of whom have accused Oneness Pentecostals of being Modalists and derided them as cultists. Oneness clergy consecrated into the Joint College of Bishops are also at odds on grounds of their claims to apostolic succession (being that documented consecrators in succession were Trinitarian from the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Eastern churches, alongside contradicting records).
#### Accusations of Modalism and Arianism
Oneness believers are often accused of being Modalistic. They have also occasionally been accused of Arianism or Semi-Arianism, usually by isolated individuals rather than church organizations. While Oneness theologian Dr. David K. Bernard indicates that Modalistic Monarchianism and Oneness are essentially the same, and that Sabellius was basically correct (so long as one does not understand Modalism to be the same as patripassianism), and while Arius also believed that God is a singular person, Bernard vehemently denies any connection to Arianism or Subordinationism in Oneness teaching.
## Oneness soteriology
Oneness theology does not represent a monolithic soteriological view; however, there are general characteristics that tend to be held in common by those who hold to a Oneness-view of God. In common with most Protestant denominations, Oneness Pentecostal soteriology maintains that all people are born with a sinful nature, sin at a young age, and remain lost without hope of salvation unless they embrace the Gospel; that Jesus Christ made a complete atonement for the sins of all people, which is the sole means of man's redemption; and that salvation comes solely by grace through faith in Jesus Christ. Oneness doctrine also teaches that true faith has the fruit of obedience, and that true salvation is not only to profess faith, but to demonstrate it as well in action. Oneness churches, while exhibiting variations, generally teach the following as the foundation of Christian conversion:
- repentance;
- water baptism in the name of Jesus Christ (Acts 2:38; Acts 10:48);
- baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues (Acts 2:4; Acts 10:46; Acts 19:6).
Oneness Pentecostals generally accept that these are the minimal requirements of conversion.
### Grace and faith
Oneness Pentecostals maintain that no good works or obedience to law can save anyone, apart from God's grace. Furthermore, salvation comes solely through faith in Jesus Christ; there is no salvation through any name or work other than his (Acts 4:12). Oneness teaching rejects interpretations that hold that salvation is given automatically to the elect; they believe that all men are called to salvation, and "whosoever will, may come" (Revelation 22:17).
While salvation is indeed a gift in Oneness belief, it must be received. This reception of salvation is generally what is considered conversion, and is accepted in the majority of evangelical Protestant churches. The first mandate is true faith in Jesus Christ, demonstrated by obedience to God's commands, and a determination to submit to his will in every aspect of one's life. Oneness adherents reject the notion that one may be saved through what they call mental faith: mere belief in Christ, without life-changing repentance or obedience. Thus, they emphatically reject the idea that one is saved through praying the sinner's prayer, but rather the true saving faith and change of life declared in scripture. Oneness Pentecostals have no issue with the prayer itself, but deny that it alone represents saving faith, believing the Bible accordingly mandates repentance, baptism by water and spirit with receipt of the Holy Spirit as a manifestation of the spirit part of the rebirth experience and the true, godly faith obeyed and done by the early Church believers. Thus, one who has truly been saved will gladly submit to the biblical conditions for conversion. According to these believers, Jesus and the apostles taught that the new birth experience includes repentance (the true Sinner's Prayer) and baptism in both water and God's Spirit.
### Repentance
Oneness Pentecostals maintain that salvation is not possible without repentance. While repentance is in part godly sorrow for sin, it is as much as complete change of heart and mind toward God and his word. This is why Oneness churches expect a complete reformation of life in those who have become Christians.
### Water baptism
Most Oneness Pentecostals believe that water baptism is essential to salvation and not merely symbolic in nature, and also believe that one must have faith and repent before being baptized, therefore deeming baptisms of infants or by compulsion unacceptable. Oneness Pentecostal theology maintains the literal definition of baptism as being completely immersed in water. They believe that other modes either have no biblical basis or are based upon inexact Old Testament rituals, and that their mode is the only one described in the New Testament. The articles of faith of the largest Oneness Pentecostal religious organization states, "The scriptural mode of baptism is immersion and is only for those who have fully repented... It should be administered... in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, according to the Acts of the Apostles 2:38, 8:16, 10:48, 19:5; thus obeying Matthew 28:19."
#### Baptismal formula
Oneness adherents believe that for water baptism to be valid, one must be baptized "in the name of Jesus Christ," rather than the Trinitarian baptismal formula "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." This is referred to as the Jesus' Name doctrine. "Jesus' Name" is a description used to refer to Oneness Pentecostals and their baptismal beliefs.
This conviction is mainly centered around the baptismal formula mandated in Acts 2:38: "Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins; and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost." Oneness Pentecostals insist that there are no New Testament references to baptism by any other formula–save in Matthew 28:19, which most hold to be simply another reference to baptism in the name of Jesus. Although Matthew 28:19 seems to mandate a Trinitarian formula for baptism, Oneness theology avows that since the word "name" in the verse is singular, it must refer to Jesus, whose name they believe to be that of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Oneness believers insist that all Bible's texts on the subject must be in full agreement with each other; thus, they say that either the apostles disobeyed the command they had been given in Matthew 28:19 or they correctly fulfilled it by using the name of Jesus Christ.
Some Oneness believers consider that the text of Matthew 28:19 is not original, quoting various scholars and the early Church historian Eusebius, who referred to this passage at least eighteen times in his works. Eusebius' text reads: "go and make disciples of all nations in my name, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I commanded you." However, most Oneness believers accept the full Matthew 28:19 as an authentic part of the original text.
Oneness Pentecostals assert that all of the five mentions of baptism in the Book of Acts were performed in the name of Jesus (Acts 2:38; Acts 8:16; Acts 10:48; Acts 19:3–5; and Acts 22:16), and that no Trinitarian formula is ever referred to therein. In addition, 1 Corinthians 1:13 is taken by Oneness Pentecostals to indicate baptism in Jesus' name as well; Oneness author William Arnold III explains their reasoning: "If we follow Paul’s train of thought, his obvious implication is 'No, Christ was the one crucified for you and so you were baptized in the name of Christ.' So the believers at Corinth as well as those in Rome were baptized in Jesus’ name." Hence, Oneness believers claim that this constitutes proof that the Jesus name formula was the original one and that the Trinitarian invocation was erroneously substituted for it later. As additional support for their claim, Oneness Pentecostals also cite editions of Britannica, the Catholic Encyclopedia, Interpreter's Bible and various scholars to justify this claim; David Norris writes that "there is a strong scholarly consensus that the earliest Christian baptism was practiced in Jesus' name."
In contrast, the Didache—a Jewish Christian text generally dated to the first century AD—cites the Trinitarian formula. In response, some Oneness Pentecostals deride the text and support the now less-common assertion of it being a second century text; they also consider it untrustworthy citing one manuscript existing, though a Latin manuscript was discovered in 1900.
Mainstream (or Nicene/Trinitarian) Christians exegete "in the name of Jesus Christ" as by the "authority of Jesus" which denotes baptism in the name of the three persons of the Trinity. In response, Oneness Pentecostals claim that the wording of Acts 22:16 requires an oral invocation of the name of Jesus during baptism, and that the way one exercises the authority of Jesus is by using His name (pointing to the healing of the lame man at the Gate Beautiful in Acts 3 as an example of this, and referencing Jesus as the one name of God revealed).
### Baptism of the Holy Spirit
Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is a free gift, commanded for all. The Holy Spirit is defined in Pentecostal doctrine as the Spirit of God (also known as the Spirit of Christ, Romans 8:9) dwelling within a person. It is further explained as the power of God to edify them, help them abstain from sin, and anoint them with power to exercise the Gifts of the Spirit for edification of the church by the Will of God. This differs substantially from the incarnation of God as Jesus Christ, for the Incarnation involved "the fullness of the Godhead" (Colossians 2:9) uniting with human flesh, inseparably linking the deity and man to create the person of Jesus Christ. Believers, on the other hand are not permanently bonded with God as Jesus was, nor can any believer ever become as Jesus is by nature: God and man.
The Pentecostal doctrine of the indwelling of the Holy Spirit is most simply explained as God:
- dwelling within an individual;
- communing with an individual;
- working through that individual.
Oneness doctrine maintains the Holy Spirit is the title of the one God in action, hence they maintain that the Holy Spirit within any individual is nothing more or less than God himself acting through that individual.
Pentecostals, both Oneness and Trinitarian, maintain that the Holy Spirit experience denotes the genuine Christian Church, and that he carries with him power for the believer to accomplish God's will. As do most Pentecostals, Oneness believers maintain that the initial sign of the infilling Holy Spirit is speaking in tongues, and that the New Testament mandates this as a minimal requirement. They equally recognize that speaking in tongues is a sign to unbelievers of the Holy Spirit's power, and is to be actively sought after and utilized, most especially in prayer. However, this initial manifestation of the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 12:7) is seen as distinct from the gift of divers kinds of tongues mentioned in 1 Corinthians 12:10, which is given to selected spirit-filled believers as the Holy Spirit desires. Oneness adherents assert that receipt of the Holy Spirit, manifested by speaking in tongues, is necessary for salvation.
## Practices
### Worship
In common with other Pentecostals, Oneness believers are known for their charismatic style of worship. They believe that the spiritual gifts found in the New Testament are still active in the church; hence, services are often spontaneous, being punctuated at times with acts of speaking in tongues, interpretation of tongues, prophetic messages, and the laying on of hands for the purposes of healing. Oneness believers, like all Pentecostals, are characterized by their practice of speaking in other tongues. In such ecstatic experiences a Oneness believer may vocalize fluent unintelligible utterances (glossolalia), or articulate a natural language previously unknown to them (xenoglossy).
Some Oneness Pentecostals practice foot washing, often in conjunction with their celebration of Holy Communion, as Jesus Christ did with his disciples at the Last Supper.
### Holiness standards
Oneness Pentecostals believe that a Christian's lifestyle should be characterized by holiness. This holiness begins at baptism, when the blood of Christ washes away all sin and a person stands before God truly holy for the first time in his or her life. After this, a separation from the world in both practical and moral areas is essential to spiritual life. Moral or inward holiness consists of righteous living, guided and powered by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Practical or outward holiness for many Oneness believers involves certain holiness standards that dictate, among other things, modest apparel and gender distinction. Oneness Pentecostals believe wholeheartedly in dressing modestly. They believe that there is a distinct deference in modesty (shunning indecency) and moderation (avoiding excesses and extremes). They justify this belief by using 1 Timothy 2:9 ("In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel") and Philippians 4:5 (“Let your moderation be known unto all men"). Some Oneness organizations, considering current social trends in fashion and dress to be immoral, have established dress codes for their members. These guidelines are similar to those used by all Pentecostal denominations for much of the first half of the 20th century. According to UPCI standards, women are generally expected not to wear pants, make-up, form fitting clothing, jewelry, or to cut their hair; while men are expected to be clean-shaven, short-haired, and are expected to wear long sleeve shirts (women are also expected to wear long sleeve dresses or blouses) and long-legged pants, as opposed to shorts. Additionally, some Oneness organizations strongly admonish their members not to watch secular movies or television. Many of these standards have roots in the larger Holiness movement. However, the precise degree to which these standards are enforced varies from church to church and even from individual to individual within the movement.
In the early days of the Oneness movement standards, holiness was not a held belief nor required bylaw for congregants. In fact, holiness or sanctification was actually shared with that of the Wesleyan viewpoint.
Due to the comparative strictness of their standards, Oneness Pentecostals are often accused of legalism by other Christians. Oneness denominations respond by saying that holiness is commanded by God and that it follows salvation, rather than causes it. They say holiness proceeds from love rather than duty and is motivated by the holy nature imparted by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. While the Christian life is indeed one of liberty from rules and laws, that liberty does not negate one's responsibility to follow scriptural teachings on moral issues, many of which were established by the apostles themselves.
## Notable adherents
- David K. Bernard – minister, theologian, general superintendent of the United Pentecostal Church International, and founding president of Urshan College and Urshan Graduate School of Theology
- Irvin Baxter Jr. – minister, founder and president of Endtime Ministries, seen on various Christian television channels
- Kim Davis – clerk of Rowan County, Kentucky who gained national media attention after defying a federal court order requiring that she issue same-sex marriage licenses following the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges
- Garfield Thomas Haywood – first presiding bishop of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (1925–31); also the author of many tracts and composer of many gospel songs
- Pastor Gino Jennings – founder of the First Church of our Lord Jesus Christ, Inc
- Bishop Robert C. Lawson – protege of Bishop G. T. Haywood and founder of the Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith from 1919 to his death in 1961
- Bishop Sherrod C. Johnson – founder and chief apostle of the Church of the Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith
- Hailemariam Desalegn – former Prime Minister of Ethiopia
- Tommy Tenney – a minister and best-selling author
- Bishop Jesse Delano Ellis II – first presiding prelate of the United Pentecostal Churches of Christ and Pentecostal Churches of Christ; founder of the Joint College of Bishops
## See also
- Global Alliance of Affirming Apostolic Pentecostals
- Apostolic School of Theology
- Second blessing
- William M. Branham
- United Pentecostal Church International
- Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry
- List of Oneness Pentecostal denominations |
83,464 | Lizzie McGuire | 1,172,033,376 | American teen comedy television series | [
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"2000s American school television series",
"2001 American television series debuts",
"2004 American television series endings",
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"Fictional characters with alter egos",
"Fictional middle school students",
"Lizzie McGuire",
"Middle school television series",
"Teenage characters in film",
"Teenage characters in television",
"Television series about families",
"Television series about siblings",
"Television series about teenagers",
"Television series by Disney",
"Television series created by Terri Minsky",
"Television shows filmed in Los Angeles",
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]
| Lizzie McGuire is an American comedy television series created by Terri Minsky that premiered on Disney Channel on January 12, 2001. The series stars Hilary Duff as the titular character who learns to navigate the personal and social issues of her teenage years. Duff also voices an animated version of Lizzie that performs soliloquies to express the character's inner thoughts and emotions. The series also stars Lalaine, Adam Lamberg, Jake Thomas, Hallie Todd and Robert Carradine. The series concluded on February 14, 2004, after a total of 65 episodes were produced. A feature film based on the series, The Lizzie McGuire Movie, was released in 2003.
The series was nominated for two Emmy Awards in 2003 and 2004 for Outstanding Children's Program. The pilot received a nomination at the Writers Guild of America Awards for Best Children's Script. The series also received various awards and nominations at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards from 2002 to 2005. Television critics acknowledged the innocent nature of the series, and the appeal of the writing towards adolescents.
A revival series was announced in August 2019 to be entering production for Disney+, with Duff reprising her role and Minsky returning as showrunner, but Minsky later departed from the role. Lamberg, Thomas, Todd and Carradine were also attached to return to the series in their original roles. The series began production in association with Disney Channel, but entered a hiatus after Minsky's departure and did not resume; the revival was officially canceled in December 2020.
## Premise
The series follows Lizzie McGuire, a thirteen-year-old girl who faces the personal and social issues of adolescence. She attends junior high alongside her best friends Miranda and Gordo. Episodes depict Lizzie's transition into adolescence at home and school, including the friends' rivalry with their classmate Kate, and affections for Ethan. Lizzie tries to develop her own identity, but is also attracted to the idea of popularity at school and longs for social acceptance by her peers. She has a close relationship with her family: her mother, Jo; her father, Sam; and her younger brother, Matt. Lizzie's thoughts and emotions are conveyed sporadically in the episodes through her animated persona, who sometimes speaks directly to the audience.
## Cast and characters
### Main
- Hilary Duff as Lizzie McGuire, a shy and clumsy girl who tries to find her place in the world. Her inner thoughts and emotions are expressed through the soliloquies of an animated version of herself.
- Lalaine as Miranda Sanchez, Lizzie's confident best friend, who enjoys singing and dreams of being a musician
- Adam Lamberg as David "Gordo" Gordon, Lizzie's childhood best friend, who has a passion for filmmaking and playing hacky sack. He later becomes attracted to Lizzie.
- Jake Thomas as Matt McGuire, Lizzie's younger brother, who regularly develops schemes to create trouble around the house. He and Lizzie bicker but still care deeply about each other.
- Hallie Todd as Jo McGuire, Lizzie's mother, who sometimes struggles with the pressure of raising a teenager
- Robert Carradine as Sam McGuire, Lizzie's father, who sometimes struggles with the pressure of raising a teenager and is a bit slow-minded
### Recurring
- Ashlie Brillault as Kate Sanders, a popular girl at school who was formerly the best friend of Lizzie and Miranda; she is now their frenemy
- Clayton Snyder as Ethan Craft, who is friendly and popular, and whom Lizzie, Miranda, and Kate hope to date
- Kyle Downes as Larry Tudgeman III, a stereotypical geek who is treated like an outcast at school, and is fond of Miranda
- Davida Williams as Claire Miller, Kate's new best friend who is jealous of the friendship Kate had with Lizzie and Miranda
- Christian Copelin as Lanny Onasis, Matt's best friend, who does not speak
- Carly Schroeder as Melina Bianco, Matt's best friend, who likes to create trouble for him
- Arvie Lowe Jr. as Mr. Dig, Lizzie's laid-back substitute teacher whom she perceives as cool
- Rachel Snow as Veruca Albano, Lizzie's nerdy but tough classmate
- Haylie Duff as Amy Sanders, Kate's older cousin
## Episodes
## Production
### Development
In 2000, Hilary Duff was asked to audition for a series on Disney Channel. Created by Terri Minsky, the series was known by the working title What's Lizzie Thinking? throughout development. The series was later retitled Lizzie McGuire, and Duff successfully auditioned for the title character of Lizzie, who was described as a regular teenager. The premise for the series was based on a script previously written by Minsky, which featured the main character's inner thoughts and emotions as narration. Producer Stan Rogow conceived a high-concept version of the script in which an animated version of the character would be featured to convey these thoughts. This concept became known the "animated Lizzie" persona, and was also voiced by Duff. The animation was originally envisioned as a talking head in the corner of the screen. Rogow stated that the visual design of the show was inspired by the film Run Lola Run.
Independent animator Debra Solomon designed the animated version of Lizzie, based on Duff's appearance on her audition tape. Rather than drawing a mere caricature of Duff, she tried to capture the actress's essence by giving Lizzie's alter ego a more "hip" look: cropped shirts with trim pants and high flip-flops. New York's Tapehouse Toons produced the animation along with Kratky Studios. The drawings were digitally inked and painted using the Animo 3.1 software and then composited into the live-action footage at Disney's Los Angeles studio. Due to the low budget given by Disney, there are only two minutes of animated Lizzie in each episode.
In July 2001, a second season of 22 episodes were ordered, to begin production in September and air in 2002. Lalaine's character Miranda did not appear in the last 6 episodes filmed for the second season, or The Lizzie McGuire Movie, due to Lalaine leaving the series early to work on other projects such as You Wish!. Filming of the movie and series concluded in December 2002 after 65 episodes were produced, a standard limit for Disney Channel's series.
### Canceled spin-offs
In May 2003, it was revealed that Lizzie McGuire would end production due to contract disagreements between Duff and Disney. The company was interested in transitioning the program into a high school-centered series for ABC and expanding the franchise with a further film, while Duff was receiving offers for lucrative roles with other studios. After the series ended its original run, Disney Channel also considered producing an animated version of the series. In November 2004, a pilot for an intended spin-off was ordered, which was to center on Miranda's younger sister Stevie Sanchez and her Latino family. The series would follow the 12-year-old central character, who was played in the pilot by Selena Gomez, and would also feature an animated version of the character like Lizzie. It was to star LaLaine, and be produced by Minsky and Rogow. The pilot was produced in 2005, but the series was not picked up in favor of Hannah Montana.
### Canceled revival
In 2014, Duff stated that she would be open for a reunion, and in December 2018, stated that there had been discussions about reviving the series. On August 23, 2019, it was officially announced at the D23 Expo that Disney was developing a revival television series of Lizzie McGuire. The series was revealed to be in production for exclusive distribution on the Disney+ streaming service, with Duff reprising her role as the title character; the original series creator, Terri Minsky, planned to serve as the reboot's showrunner. The sequel series would have centered on Lizzie at the age of thirty, navigating life working as an apprentice to an interior decorator. She would be living in an apartment in Brooklyn, New York City, engaged to a man who owns a restaurant in SoHo, Manhattan. When Lizzie discovers her fiancé cheating on her, she returns home to Los Angeles. It was revealed that the animated alter ego of Lizzie would also have appeared in the series. The series was to be produced by Salty Pictures in association with Disney Channel as part of an overall deal with Minsky. Duff was to serve as an executive producer, alongside Rachel Winter, and co-executive producer Ranada Shepard. In October 2019, it was announced that Thomas, Todd and Carradine would also return to the series, reprising their roles as Matt, Jo and Sam McGuire respectively. Production on the sequel series began on October 29, 2019, on location in Washington Square Park in New York. Further filming for the series would have taken place in Los Angeles. In November, it was revealed that Federico Dordei would be joining the cast as new character, Dominic Shaw, and that Lamberg would be reprising his role as Gordo.
Minsky departed as the showrunner of the revival in January 2020 after the first two episodes of the series had been filmed, due to creative differences with Disney. Production of the series was placed on a hiatus and delayed until a new showrunner would be decided, with speculation that Minsky had been fired and the series would be canceled. In February 2020, Duff hinted on social media that production had stopped because the series was not thought "family-friendly" enough by Disney+ executives. Disney reaffirmed that the development of the series was ongoing and that a new showrunner had not yet been decided. Duff later posted a statement publicly pleading for Disney+ to move the series to Hulu as had been done with Love, Victor and High Fidelity, stating that it would allow the series to fully represent the life of a thirty-year-old without the constraints of a "family friendly" classification. The Hollywood Reporter stated that the first episode's script featured references to sex and involved cheating as a central plot point. It was reported in April that Minsky was in contact with the writers of the series, and Duff was still in talks with Disney; however, in December 2020, Duff announced that the revival was officially canceled.
## Release
The series premiered on Disney Channel on January 12, 2001, as a special sneak preview, following the premiere of the film Zenon: The Zequel. The series officially premiered on January 19, 2001. Lizzie McGuire was scheduled to begin airing in reruns on ABC as part of Disney's One Saturday Morning on September 15, 2001. On September 14, 2002, the series began airing on the rebranded ABC Kids programming block.
In 2006, Superstation WGN acquired the rights to Even Stevens and Lizzie McGuire. Internationally, Egmont Imagination and Telescreen distributed the series.
## Other media
### Film
Walt Disney Pictures released a film based on the series, The Lizzie McGuire Movie, on May 2, 2003, in the United States. Set after the conclusion of the series and her junior high graduation, the film follows Lizzie and her classmates on a school trip to Rome, Italy. It earned \$42.7 million at the U.S. box office and \$12.8 million internationally, for a total of \$55.6 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who found it superficial, but thought the show's fans would enjoy it.
### Merchandising
Throughout the early 2000s, the series' popularity led Disney to release merchandise, including a series of books and comics, a Lizzie McGuire character doll, a bedroom set, and board games. Disney Interactive published three video games for the Game Boy Advance, including: Lizzie McGuire: On the Go! in 2003, Lizzie McGuire 2: Lizzie Diaries in 2004, and Lizzie McGuire 3: Homecoming Havoc in 2005. Toys were also released through a partnership with McDonald's in 2004. Fortune estimated in 2003 that Lizzie McGuire merchandise had earned nearly \$100 million. Two soundtracks for the series were produced, Lizzie McGuire and Lizzie McGuire Total Party!
## Reception
### Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of Lizzie McGuire has an approval rating of 80% based on reviews from 5 critics, while the second season has an approval rating of 100% based on reviews from 5 critics. Common Sense Media claimed that the series was relatable for both boys and girls, and described its representation of friendship as realistic. Reviewing the series premiere in 2001, Laura Fries of Variety called the program "good-natured", and praised the writers' ability to include adolescent vernacular and pop culture references. A review on the DVDizzy blog called early episodes "clever, funny, and pretty sincere", but suggested that the show later suffered from a creative decline in favor of more celebrity guest appearances. A DVD review by Dove.org in 2003 called the series "wholesome", and noted its real-world lessons. Susan Benner of TV Guide praised the filming style of the show, and explained that the writing and pop-culture references would appeal to children. Katie Minard of Entertainment Weekly listed "Picture Day" as the best episode of the series in her 2016 ranking, arguing that it has a relatable plot and an important moral.
### Awards and nominations |
24,785,529 | Hurricane Neki | 1,171,666,659 | Category 3 Pacific hurricane in 2009 | [
"2009 Pacific hurricane season",
"2009 in Hawaii",
"Category 3 Pacific hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Hawaii",
"Tropical cyclones in 2009"
]
| Hurricane Neki was the final tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season. It developed on October 18 as an unusually large disturbance from a trough south of Hawaii. Moving northwestward, it organized only slowly at first due to its large size. After reaching hurricane status on October 21, Neki intensified at a much faster rate and peaked with winds of 125 mph (205 km/h). It later turned to the north and north-northeast and weakened due to hostile conditions. While passing through the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Neki was downgraded to a tropical storm after the center became exposed from the deepest convection. It caused little impact in the island chain. After stalling and executing a small loop, Neki resumed its northward track and dissipated on October 27.
## Meteorological history
The origins of Hurricane Neki were from a surface trough that persisted near the equator in the central Pacific Ocean in the middle of October 2009. A weak tropical disturbance became evident in the trough on October 15, and three days later the system began developing curved bands of convection on its northern and southern periphery. This created an unusually large gyre for the region. Following the formation of a well-defined circulation, it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Three-C late on October 18, about 730 mi (1175 km) south of Ka Lae, Hawaii.
Upon developing into a tropical cyclone, the storm was moving west-northwestward, influenced by a ridge to its north. It was located over an area of warm sea surface temperatures and moderate wind shear, which favored gradual intensification. The convection diminished during a diurnal cycle before redeveloping the next day. Maintaining an unusually large size, the depression slowly organized, gradually separating from the trough from which it developed. On October 19, the CPHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Neki, and shortly thereafter the storm turned toward the northwest. By the next day, the cyclone resembled the structure of a monsoon depression typically found in the western Pacific Ocean. However, the structure began to more resemble a tropical cyclone after the outermost convection diminished and the thunderstorms around the center increased. Following the development of a banding-eye feature, Neki intensified into a hurricane early on October 21 about 625 mi (1010 km) southwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, or about 335 mi (535 km) east-southeast of Johnston Atoll.
After reaching hurricane status, Neki began rapidly intensifying as it turned northward, due to an approaching upper-level trough to its north. An anticyclone aloft provided favorable outflow, which contributed in the strengthening. Early on October 22, Neki reached its peak winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) about 215 mi (345 km) northeast of Johnston Atoll, based on estimates from satellite imagery using the Dvorak technique. Afterward, the trough that influenced the hurricane's track also began restricting westerly outflow and increasing wind shear, which caused a steady weakening trend. It maintained major hurricane status – a Category 3 major hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale – for about 24 hours, during which the track turned toward the north-northeast. The weakening and deterioration of the storm's structure became more marked on October 23 after the thunderstorms failed to persist over the center.
While approaching the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Neki weakened to tropical storm status. Continued wind shear exposed the circulation from the convection, although further weakening was slow to occur. On October 24, Neki made its closest approach to land after passing within 13 mi (21 km) of the uninhabited Necker Island. Its forward motion slowed due to a building ridge to the north, causing the storm to execute a small loop. Despite the shear, Neki was initially able to continue developing thunderstorms, although cooler water temperatures resulted in further weakening. The storm resumed its northward motion after the ridge receded to the east, and on October 26 Neki weakened to a tropical depression once the circulation decoupled from the thunderstorms. Neki dissipated on the next day, as the storm's center became elongated ahead of an approaching cold front.
## Preparations and impact
Although still a minimal tropical storm at the time, the CPHC anticipated Neki to become a hurricane as it tracked northwestward. As such, they issued a hurricane watch for Johnston Island on the afternoon of October 19. The following day, the hurricane watch was replaced by a tropical storm watch as Neki was no longer forecast to pass close enough to the island to produce hurricane-force winds. Later that day, a hurricane watch was issued for the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument for areas between the French Frigate Shoals and Lisianski Island. The following morning, a supplementary hurricane warning was issued for the monument for areas between the French Frigate Shoals and Nihoa. Additionally, the tropical storm watch for Johnston Island was discontinued. Early on October 22, the hurricane watch for Lisianski Island to Marco Reef was replaced by a tropical storm watch. Several hours later, the CPHC discontinued this watch. Early on October 23, as Neki weakened to a tropical storm, the hurricane warning for areas between the French Frigate Shoals and Nihoa was replaced by a tropical storm warning. The tropical storm warning remained in effect for more than a day before being canceled during the afternoon of October 24.
As the hurricane turned northward and was seen as a threat to the Hawaiian Islands, officials in the Papahanaumokuakea requested that all 17 personnel in the region be evacuated. Several days before the storm passed through the islands, an AC-130 aircraft was flown to the area and evacuated the people stationed on Tern Island, while a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration vessel evacuated the temporary residents on Laysan Island. Hurricane Neki caused relatively little damage in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. All of the structures were undamaged; however, two small natural habitat islands, Round and Disappearing Islands, were affected substantially. The former lost some land area and the latter was completely washed away. The storm damaged coral reefs in the region, which quickly regrew in the subsequent years. Neki did not affect the state of Hawaii, other than producing high clouds across the region.
## See also
- List of Category 3 Pacific hurricanes
- Hurricane Walaka - a strong hurricane in 2018 that took a similar path through the northwestern Hawaiian islands |
72,291,329 | Balladen om killen | 1,159,648,084 | 1969 single by Örjan Ramberg | [
"1969 singles",
"1969 songs",
"CBS Records singles",
"LGBT-related songs",
"Mercury Records singles"
]
| "Balladen om killen" (English: "Ballad about the guy") is a song written by bass guitarist Göran Lagerberg, recorded by singer Örjan Ramberg. Inspired by the life of Ramberg, Lagerberg composed the song as a reflection over both their lives inspired by Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone". The song, which is in the Swedish language, tells the tale of an unnamed narrator, who during a walk along a country road, details incidents that recently occurred in his life, including moving away from home, tongue-in-cheek references to acquaintances and the court proceedings after being caught with cannabis.
Lagerberg largely intended for the song to be a side project for his band Blond, which was the successor of Swedish band Tages. Despite this, Blond members Lasse Svensson and Björn Lindér appear on the recording, which took place at Europafilm Studio in Stockholm. Lagerberg produced the session and sang the A-side. Despite sharing titles, the A and B-sides are separate songs musically.
Upon release in September 1969, "Balladen om killen" was due to a clerical mixup released on two separate record labels, CBS and Mercury Records. Despite Lagerberg's role in the production of the song, it was only credited to Ramberg under his first name. The song became a commercial failure, only reaching number 13 on Tio i Topp for a week, which many critics attribute to its controversial lyrics. Nonetheless, the song garnered positive reviews in the press following the release and has been considered a pioneering song in the development of rock in the Swedish language.
## Background
By 1969, Swedish rock band Tages had undergone several changes to their line-up; lead vocalist Tommy Blom had left the band the previous year. They had also changed their name to Blond, following a meeting with Richard Reese-Edwards. However, following recording sessions in March for their next album, the guitarists Danne Larsson and Anders Töpel left the band, citing the obligatory conscription Sweden had as a contributing reason. As a result, bassist Göran Lagerberg, who had composed most of Tages and Blond's output, had started looking into different musical ventures during the time they looked for new band members; it was the first such opportunity he had been given since 1964, when they had their breakthrough hit.
Meanwhile, in Gothenburg, a young aspiring actor and singer named Örjan Ramberg had started becoming popular on the underground musical scene in the city as he fronted a band named Que, who were a house band at the popular Cue Club. Tages, who frequently attended and performed at the club, were thus introduced to Ramberg, who struck up a friendship with the band, particularly Lagerberg, who saw the potential in him. This collaboration between Tages and Ramberg would largely culminate in the latter being called upon as a stand-in singer in place of Blom during various performances, including an instance which he had an appendectomy. As a result, Lagerberg became interested in producing recordings together with Ramberg, which he could fulfill during his time in Blond.
## Recording and composition
After writing the song, Lagerberg rehearsed it together with fellow Blond members Lasse Svensson and Björn Lindér, who recently had joined their line-up. At the initiative of Lagerberg, Ramberg was also later included in a rehearsal of the song, which resulted in Lagerberg booking studio time on 3 August 1969. It was recorded at Europafilm in Bromma, where most of Tages recordings were conducted. Because Lagerberg considered the recording a solo project unrelated to Blond, their producer Anders Henriksson was not present at the session, with the bassist himself taking the role of production during the recording. Nonetheless, recording engineer Björn Almstedt was present during the session, and is credited with adding the sound effect of a police siren which can be heard halfway through the song. Despite being considered a solo project, Svensson and Lindér were present during the session and contributed their respective instruments of drums and lead guitar. Lindér, a multi-instrumentalist, also overdubbed rhythm guitar, piano and organ to the song, in addition to backing vocals.
Musically, despite the title on the single signifying it was split into two parts due to length it is rather two separate musical compositions altogether. The A-side of the single was largely composed in A major and is contrary to the title, "a straight-forward rocker" which features "boogie-woogie piano" and "lush" guitar licks that prevails throughout. The B-side on the contrary is according to Linus Kuhlin "much closer to a ballad", which also features "great guitar licks". Strangely, it is not Ramberg who sings on the A-side, but rather Lagerberg. The reason behind this varies; according to Göran Brandels and Lennart Wrigholm, Ramberg was not comfortable with singing the song and with time running out, Lagerberg himself sang on it. Other sources however claims that Lagerberg was a perfectionist and chose to record the vocals himself because his vocals were superior to Ramberg's. Nonetheless, Ramberg does sing lead vocals on the B-side, contrary to popular conception.
Despite the musical composition, the song is best known for the lyrics. According to the book Tusen Svenska Klassiker, "Balladen om killen" was Lagerberg's attempt at a Swedish rewrite of Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone" (1965); "a compelling rock song" which featured "driving verses" about "moving out" and the "sexual freedom" and opportunities that open up with this. According to Kuhlin, Lagerberg largely "succeeds with the task", stating that the song is a "condensed epic" regarding a guy and "his fate, in this case Ramberg". The lyrics were largely inspired by Ramberg's own life, though it included several lines alluding to Lagerberg's own life, including lines about a getting a summoning to court because of possession of cannabis; this largely mirrors an incident in which Blom was busted with the drug in 1967, which resulted in headlines across the Swedish media. "Balladen om killen" is one of few songs written by Lagerberg in Swedish, as he considers English to be the language of rock.
The lyrics follow a man walking down a country road recalling incidents which happened in the past, such as being cocky to his school teachers. The song alludes to falling in love with the girlfriend of Hans Lindberg, who was an acquaintance of Lagerberg and his tongue-in-cheek appearance in the song was intended as a joke against him. A reference to a woman who the narrator describes as having "large breasts and the common sense to keep quiet" was according to Kuhlin the most "dated aspect of the song", which by then was "written almost fifty years ago". The song also describes alcoholism among the narrator's social group, along with a line which alludes to the fact that the narrator is homosexual; Brandels and Wrigholm cite this as an example of the song being lyrically ahead of its time relative to what other writers were putting out then.
## Release and commercial performance
The song was released approximately a month after it had been recorded, in September 1969. Despite the heavy involvement of Lagerberg, it was only credited to Ramberg under his first name Örjan. Unusually, the single was issued on two different labels during the same time, CBS Records International, on which it became the second release, and Mercury Records. The two different releases both have different picture sleeves and were the error of Ramberg's publishing company, who had mixed up the single release. Kuhlin states that the nonchalant attitude to the release added to the confusion; he noted that record buyers most likely would not have known who Ramberg was, let alone when the release was solely credited to his first name, though notes the "men in suits at the record companies" most likely assumed how the image of him on the picture sleeve would generate sales amongst teenage girls because "he was extremely handsome".
"Balladen om killen" did however take a while to be tested on Tio i Topp, a reason which was most likely attributed to the record label mixup. It was tested on 6 December 1969, reaching a position of only number 13, one of the lower rankings of the chart. This was additionally the only week the song appeared on the chart, as it was voted off the following week. Because of this, the song also failed to reach sales chart Kvällstoppen. As a result, it was one of the worst performing singles in Lagerberg's career, despite never being released in his name. Nonetheless, the relatively poor chart performance was blamed on the controversial lyrics, specifically the lines regarding the narrator being homosexual along with the ones explicitly talking about "large breasts". Critics agree that the single most likely would've fared better on the Swedish music scene if it was credited under Lagerberg or Blond's name rather than the at the time unknown Ramberg.
At the time of its release, the song did not appear on any album, partly due to the obscene and controversial lyrics, and also due to the fact that the record labels dropped Ramberg shortly after it failed on Tio i Topp. Both sides of the single were however included on the 2003 re-issue of Blond's album The Lilac Years as bonus tracks; this was their first release on an album.
## Reception and legacy
Upon release in Sweden, the single was met with primarily positive reviews, with most reviewers noting the lyrics along with the backing band. In a review for Dagens Nyheter, the staff writer states that the single seems to be "one of the latest and best" on the Swedish music scene as of yet. They state that the lyrics seem a "tad ironic" given the subject matter and the inclusion of several references to alcohol and cannabis might be "too inappropriate for mainstream" radio, though the staff writer ends by noting how the single is a decent addition to the wave of new singles appearing. In Aftonbladet, a writer describes the single as "decent" with "thought-provoking" lyrics which add some "humour to the song", while also praising the backing band, particularly Lindér's guitar work, for the "driving yet interesting backing".
In Expressen, the staff writer seemed a bit more skeptical about the lyrics of the song, stating that they might be considered "vile and disgusting" among various groups of people, particularly "the elders", though writing it is based on a decent backing "by an obviously competent group of musicians" giving the single a "feeling of American rock and roll". A writer for Svenska Dagbladet believes the single to have a "very effective" and "driving backing" to go along with the lyrics, which they write are "surprisingly vulgar and modern" for being written in Swedish. They additionally claim that the single either will become the "biggest Swedish hit of the year or a complete flop", basing it on whether or not the teenagers listening to it "dig it or not".
According to Kuhlin, "Balladen om killen" popularized rock music in the Swedish language during a time in which the genre was dominated by the English language. He states that virtually no other Swedish artist sang rock in their native tongue. At the time, virtually only easy listening or dansband acts were performing music in Swedish; the release of the single brought a change to the Swedish music scene, which would eventually lead to the rise of the Progg movement. Although many critics insist that Pugh Rogefeldt's album Ja, dä ä dä, which was released at the same time as "Balladen om killen", was the basis for rock music in Sweden, Kuhlin bases his opinion on the fact that Ramberg and Lagerberg were unaware of Rogefeldt's recording and thinks they both should be "seen as pioneers of Swedish-language rock".
Following the release of the single, Ramberg chose to pursue a career as an actor, with "Balladen om killen" remaining as his only solo release. Although he would be featured on later recordings such as the 1985 single "Skål!" together with acts such as Siw Malmkvist, and Martin Ljung, they were never solely credited to Ramberg. Despite only being moderately commercially successful, the song was a popular record to play at nightclubs in Sweden for years to come. Following the 2019 allegation of abuse against his partner Josefin Nilsson, the lyrical content of "Balladen om killen" was once again brought into the spotlight in the Swedish media.
## Personnel
Personnel according to the book Boken om Tages: från Avenyn till Abbey Road.
- Örjan Ramberg – lead vocals (side 2)
- Göran Lagerberg – lead vocals (side 1), harmony vocals (side 2), bass guitar, producer
- Björn Lindér – harmony vocals (side 2), lead and rhythm guitars, piano, organ
- Lasse Svensson – drums, percussion
- Björn Almstedt – studio engineer
## Charts |
10,998,080 | English Water Spaniel | 1,156,080,868 | null | [
"Dog breeds originating in England",
"Extinct animals in the United Kingdom",
"Extinct dog breeds",
"Water dogs"
]
| The English Water Spaniel is a breed of dog that has been extinct since the first part of the 20th century, with the last specimen seen in the 1930s. It was best known for its use in hunting waterfowl and for being able to dive as well as a duck. It is described as similar to a Collie or to a cross between a Poodle and a Springer Spaniel with curly fur and typically in a white and liver/tan pattern.
Pre-dating the Irish Water Spaniel and thought to have been referred to by Shakespeare in Macbeth, it is believed to have genetically influenced several modern breeds of dog, including the American Water Spaniel, Curly Coated Retriever and the modern variety of Field Spaniel. It is unknown if the breed was involved in the creation of the Irish Water Spaniel.
## History
In 1570, Dr John Caius described the Water Spaniel. It has been suggested that Shakespeare also knew the breed "for he mentions the 'water rug' in Macbeth. " Furthermore, Shakespeare specifically mentions the breed in Act III Scene 1 of The Two Gentlemen of Verona when Launce says of his love, "She hath more qualities than a water-spaniel."
The breed is mentioned specifically by name as early as 1802, in Sportsman's Cabinet, where it is described as having "hair long and naturally curled, not loose and shaggy"; the description accompanied an engraving of a liver and white curly-coated spaniel. This shows that they pre-date the Irish Water Spaniel which was not developed as a breed until the 1830s. Unfortunately as the person credited with developing the Irish Water Spaniel, Justin McCarthy, left no written records, it is unknown if the English Water Spaniel was involved in its development. During the first half of the 18th century, the English Water Spaniel was used for duck hunting in East Anglia.
The Kennel Club initially had a class for "Water spaniels other than Irish" as no standard was specifically set up for the English Water Spaniel and the judging of this class was described as "chaos" by Hugh Dalziel in British Dogs: Their Varieties, History, Characteristics, Breeding, Management, And Exhibition. Writing in 1897, Dalziel said of the breed, "I do not believe the breed is lost, but that scattered throughout the country there are many specimens of the old English water spaniel, which it only requires that amount of encouragement to breeding which it is in the power of show committees to give to perpetuate the variety and improve its form." Dalziel bemoaned the fact that while the Irish Water Spaniel continued, the English Water Spaniel was allowed to quietly be absorbed into other Spaniel breeds.
The stud book of the Kennel Club also had a class for "Water spaniels other than Irish", however only fourteen dogs were registered in the twelve years up to 1903. This led some writers and judges of that time to believe that the English Water Spaniel was merely a cross of the Irish Water Spaniel as entrants in dogs shows in that same class do not match the description of the dog from earlier periods. Dogs awarded prizes as Water Spaniels during this period have been described as having "coats as flat as a Clumber, but with a bit of longish hair about the top of the skull."
Writing in 1967, author John F. Gordon stated, "After two centuries of breeding it is now extinct. None have been seen for over thirty years." Descendant breeds of the English Water Spaniel are thought to include the American Water Spaniel, which was also developed using additional stock from the Irish Water Spaniel and the Flat Coated Retriever breeds. The Curly Coated Retriever is considered to have descended from the Poodle, the retrieving setter, the St. John's water dog and the English Water Spaniel. Records for the origin of the modern Field Spaniel are more precise and show that one of the four progenitor dogs used in creating the breed was an English Water Spaniel-Cocker Spaniel cross which was registered at the time as a Sussex Spaniel due to his liver colour.
## Appearance
Very unlike the Irish Water Spaniel in appearance, the English Water Spaniel more closely resembled a curly-haired version of the Springer Spaniel, with some traits of the Collie, poodle, and setter. The white and liver (tan) dog stood about 20 inches (51 cm) tall and looked like a typical, lean, long-legged spaniel with long ears and tail, a white underbelly, and a brown back, except that it had the coat of a water dog.
The English Water Spaniel was described as having a long and narrow head, with small eyes and ears that were long and covered in thick curls of fur. The body was moderately stout and barrel shaped, but not as much as that of the Field Spaniel. Its legs were long and straight with large feet. The dog varied in size with the larger varieties known as "Water Dogs" and the smaller as "Water Spaniels".
Due to the English Water Spaniel's colours of liver (tan) and white, it has been suggested that the breed may have been the source of the colours now found in the modern English Springer Spaniel and Welsh Springer Spaniel breeds.
## Hunting
Paintings by Henry Bernard Chalon and Ramsay Richard Reinagle both show English Water Spaniels working with their masters hunting ducks. An engraving by Henry Thomas Alken Snr. shows a slightly different looking English Water Spaniel, but also reinforces its area of work by again showing it while duck hunting. In The Sportsman's Repository (1820), the author advises that if an individual wishes to hunt ducks or any other type of waterfowl, then the hunter had best use an English Water Spaniel.
The breed is described as swimming and diving as well as the ducks themselves; and they are intelligent enough to avoid being lured away from the nesting places. The author described the best variety of the breed to be those with long ears whose coat was white under the belly and around the neck but brown on the back. |
64,371,425 | Ibn Hawshab | 1,170,501,565 | Iraqi Isma'ili missionary (died 914) | [
"10th century in Yemen",
"10th-century Ismailis",
"914 deaths",
"9th century in Yemen",
"9th-century Ismailis",
"Ismaili da'is",
"Ismaili theologians",
"People from Kufa"
]
| Abu'l-Qāsim al-Ḥasan ibn Faraj ibn Ḥawshab ibn Zādān al-Najjār al-Kūfī (Arabic: أبو القاسم الحسن ابن فرج بن حوشب زاذان النجار الكوفي; died 31 December 914), better known simply as Ibn Ḥawshab, or by his honorific of Manṣūr al-Yaman (Arabic: منصور اليمن, lit. 'Conqueror of Yemen'), was a senior Isma'ili missionary (dāʿī) from the environs of Kufa. In cooperation with Ali ibn al-Fadl al-Jayshani, he established the Isma'ili creed in Yemen and conquered much of that country in the 890s and 900s in the name of the Isma'ili imam, Abdallah al-Mahdi, who at the time was still in hiding. After al-Mahdi proclaimed himself publicly in Ifriqiya in 909 and established the Fatimid Caliphate, Ibn al-Fadl turned against him and forced Ibn Hawshab to a subordinate position. Ibn Hawshab's life is known from an autobiography he wrote, while later Isma'ili tradition ascribes two theological treatises to him.
## Origin and conversion to Isma'ilism
Ibn Hawshab was born at a village near the Nahr Nars canal, in the environs of Kufa in southern Iraq. His origin is unknown, although later Isma'ili tradition held that he was a descendant of Muslim ibn Aqil ibn Abi Talib (a nephew of Ali ibn Abi Talib).
Sources differ on his profession, portraying him as a linen weaver or a carpenter. He hailed from a family that were adherents of Twelver Shi'ism. According to his own report, he had been experiencing a crisis of faith after the death of the eleventh imam, Hasan al-Askari, in 874, apparently without male progeny. Eventually, the Twelvers came to believe in an infant son of al-Askari as the twelfth and hidden imam (whence the name "Twelvers"), who would one day return as the mahdī, the messianic figure of Islamic eschatology, who according to legend would overthrow the usurping Abbasid caliphs and destroy their capital Baghdad, restore the unity of the Muslims, conquer Constantinople, ensure the final triumph of Islam and establish a reign of peace and justice. However, that belief was not yet firmly established during the early years after Hasan al-Askari's death. Like Ibn Hawshab, many Shi'ites had doubts about the claims made about the twelfth imam, and were further demoralized by the political impotence and quietism of the Twelver leadership. In this climate, the millennialism of the Isma'ilis, who preached the imminent return of a mahdī, and the start of a new messianic era of justice and the revelation of the true religion, was very attractive to dissatisfied Twelvers.
According to his own account, Ibn Hawshab was converted to the rival Isma'ili branch of Shi'ism by an old man who came to him while he was studying the Quran at the bank of the Euphrates. Pro-Fatimid accounts hold that the agent (dāʿī) in question was Firuz, who was chief dāʿī at the movement's headquarters at Salamiya and the chief proxy (bāb, "gate") for the hidden Isma'ili imam, whereas the anti-Fatimid Qarmatian tradition holds that this was Ibn Abi'l-Fawaris, a lieutenant of Abdan, the chief dāʿī of Iraq.
Shortly after, Ibn Hawshab claims that he met the Isma'ili imam, then secretly living at Salamiya. After his training was complete, he was tasked with spreading the Isma'ili creed to Yemen. He was joined by a recently converted native Yemeni, Ali ibn al-Fadl al-Jayshani, and set off in late May or early June 881.
## Mission to Yemen
The two missionaries made for Kufa, where they joined the pilgrim caravans, whose multitudes, gathered from all corners of the Islamic world, allowed them to travel with anonymity. After completing the rituals of the pilgrimage at Mecca, the two men arrived in northern Yemen in August 881. The Yemen was at the time a troubled province of the Abbasid empire. Caliphal authority had traditionally been weak and mostly limited to the capital, Sana'a, while in the rest of the country tribal conflicts, sometimes dating to pre-Islamic times, persisted. At the time of Ibn Hawshab and Ibn al-Fadl's arrival, the country was politically fragmented and only loosely under Abbasid suzerainty. Much of the interior was held by the Yu'firid dynasty, who as Sunnis recognized the Abbasids. After capturing Sana'a in 861, their rule extended from Sa'ada in the north to al-Janad [ar] (northeast of Taiz) in the south and Hadramawt in the east. A rival dynasty, the Ziyadids, also nominally loyal to the Abbasids, held Zabid on the western coastal plain, and at times exercised significant control over wide portions of the country. The Manakhi family ruled the southern highlands around Taiz, while the northern parts of the country were in practice dominated by warring tribes owing allegiance to no-one. The lack of political unity, the remoteness of the province and its inaccessible terrain, along with deep-rooted Shi'a sympathies in the local population, made Yemen "manifestly fertile territory for any charismatic leader equipped with tenacity and political acumen to realise his ambitions".
After travelling through Sana'a and al-Janad, Ibn Hawshab stayed for a while in Aden, where he passed himself off as a cotton merchant. Ibn Hawshab was evidently the senior of the two, but at some point, Ali ibn al-Fadl left him, moving to his home town of Jayshan (near modern Qa'tabah [ar]), where he independently began his mission in the mountains of Jebel Yafi'i. Ibn Hawshab does not appear to have had much success in gaining converts in Aden. When he met some pro-Shi'a members of the northern Banu Musa clan, who were open to his teachings and invited him to join them in their homeland, he left Aden and settled in the village of Adan La'a, west of Sana'a. There Ibn Hawshab settled in the house of a Shi'a partisan who had died in the Yu'firid dungeons, married his orphaned daughter, and in 883/4 began his public mission (daʿwa), proclaiming the imminent appearance of the mahdī.
As in other areas of the Islamic world, this call soon attracted many followers. The widespread millennialist expectations of the period coincided with a deep crisis of the Abbasid Caliphate (the Anarchy at Samarra, followed by the Zanj Rebellion), and with dissatisfaction among many Twelver adherents, to enhance the appeal of the revolutionary Isma'ili message. Ibn Hawshab quickly made many converts, with his wife's family foremost among them: one of her cousins, al-Haytham, was sent as a dāʿī to Sindh, thus beginning a long history of Isma'ili presence in the Indian subcontinent. Furthermore, Abdallah ibn al-Abbas al-Shawiri was sent to Egypt; Abu Zakariyya al-Tamami to Bahrayn; and others to Yamama and parts of India (most probably Gujarat). Most consequential among the dāʿīs trained and sent by Ibn Hawshab was Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i, a native of Sana'a. On Ibn Hawshab's instructions, in 893 he left for the Maghreb, where he began proselytizing among the Kutama Berbers. His mission was extremely successful. Backed by the Kutama, in 903 he was able to rise in revolt against the Aghlabid emirs of Ifriqiya, culminating in their overthrow and the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate in 909.
By 885, the Isma'ili daʿwa was strong enough for Ibn Hawshab to request, and receive, permission from Salamiya to raise troops and openly engage in a military contest for power. In 885/6, after repelling an attack by local Yu'firid troops, Ibn Hawshab and his followers erected a fortified stronghold at Abr Muharram at the feet of the Jabal Maswar (or Miswar) mountains, northwest of Sana'a. 500 men are said to have worked to build the fort in seven days, and Ibn Hawshab and the fifty most prominent of his followers took up residence there. A few days later he led his followers to settle the Jabal al-Jumayma mountain.
From this base, his forces took Bayt Fa'iz at Jabal Tukhla. This was a fortress dominating the Maswar massif, which fell when Ibn Hawshab managed to suborn part of the garrison. The fortress of Bayt Rayb, located about a kilometre away and protected by sheer cliffs on all sides, was captured on the third attempt. It soon became the residence and main stronghold of Ibn Hawshab, who termed it dār al-hijra, lit. 'place of refuge'. The term deliberately echoed the exile of Muhammad and his first followers from Mecca to seek protection in Medina; by implication, those who joined Ibn Hawshab were thus held to leave the corrupt world behind them to recreate a purer faith, emulating the first Muslims.
These three inaccessible fortresses provided a core territory from which Ibn Hawshab then began to extend his control over nearby valleys and mountains. After capturing the Jabal Tays mountain, he appointed the dāʿī Abu'l-Malahim as governor. The localities of Bilad Shawir, Ayyan, and Humlan were also captured. Ibn Hawshab's first attack on the Yu'firid capital Shibam failed, but he was soon able to capture it thanks to treason inside the walls, only to be forced to abandon it after a month. The exact dates of these operations are unknown, other than a general terminus ante quem of 903, but by 892/3 his position was firmly established, eventually earning him the honorific epithet (laqab) of Manṣūr al-Yaman ('the Conqueror of Yemen') or simply al-Manṣūr.
## Expansion and clash with Ibn al-Fadl
In the meantime, Ibn Hawshab's fellow missionary, Ali ibn al-Fadl, had secured the support of the local ruler of al-Mudhaykhira. With his help, he expanded his control over the highlands north of Aden. At the same time, in 897, another Shi'a leader entered Yemen: al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, a representative of the rival Zaydi sect, who established a state based in Sa'ada, with himself as imam.
In the original Isma'ili doctrine, the expected mahdī was Muhammad ibn Isma'il. However, in 899, the Isma'ili daʿwa was split when the Qarmatians renounced the movement's secret leadership in Salamiya, when the future founder of the Fatimid Caliphate, Abdallah al-Mahdi, dropped the notion of the return of Muhammad ibn Isma'il and proclaimed himself as the mahdī. Both Ibn Hawshab and Ibn al-Fadl remained loyal to al-Mahdi. Abdallah al-Mahdi was soon forced to flee Salamiya, and in 905, he deliberated between moving on to Yemen or the Maghreb, both of which hosted successful Isma'ili missions. In view of later events, Wilferd Madelung suggests that doubts about Ibn al-Fadl's loyalty may have played a role in his eventual decision to choose the Maghreb.
On 25 January 905, Ibn al-Fadl evicted his erstwhile ally from al-Mudhaykhira. The two Isma'ili leaders now exploited the country's political division to expand their domains: in November 905, Ibn al-Fadl captured Sana'a, which allowed Ibn Hawshab to in turn seize Shibam. With the exception of Zaydi-held Sa'ada in the north, Ziyadid-ruled Zabid on the western coast, and Aden in the south, all of Yemen was now under Isma'ili control. In late 905, for the first time after coming to Yemen 25 years earlier, the two men met at Shibam. Madelung writes that the meeting "was evidently uneasy", as Ibn Hawshab warned Ibn al-Fadl against overextending his forces, which the latter disregarded. Of the two, Ibn al-Fadl was the most active in the following years, campaigning across the country against those who still opposed the daʿwa; but when he raided al-Bayad, Ibn Hawshab had to support him.
Both Sana'a and Shibam were briefly lost to the Zaydi imam al-Hadi in 906, but Shibam was recovered before the end of the year, and Sana'a in April 907. In June/July 910, after the Zaydis once again occupied Sana'a and then withdrew, Ibn Hawshab's men briefly occupied the city, but could not hold it due to their small number. Instead, the city fell to the Yu'firid As'ad ibn Ibrahim, before being taken again by Ibn al-Fadl in August 911.
At this point, Ibn al-Fadl publicly renounced allegiance to Abdallah al-Mahdi, who had revealed himself following the successes of Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i and the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate in 909. Indeed, now Ibn al-Fadl declared himself to be the awaited mahdī.
When Ibn Hawshab rebuffed his colleague's demands to join him and criticized his actions, Ibn al-Fadl marched against Ibn Hawshab. Shibam and Jabal Dhukhar were captured, and after a few battles, Ibn Hawshab was blockaded in the Jabal Maswar. After eight months of siege, in April 912, Ibn Hawshab sought terms, and handed over his son Ja'far as a hostage. Ja'far was returned after a year with a golden necklace as a gift.
## Death and aftermath
Ibn Hawshab died on 31 December 914, followed in October 915 by Ibn al-Fadl. Both men were succeeded by their sons, but their power rapidly declined, and Ibn al-Fadl's domain was soon destroyed by the Yu'firids. For over a century, until the rise of the Sulayhid dynasty, Isma'ilism remained mostly underground movement in Yemen, with few political patrons. Ibn Hawshab's three sons were ousted from the leadership by the daʿī Shawiri, and one of them, Ja'far, fled to the Fatimid court in Ifriqiya, carrying his father's works with him and becoming himself a significant author of the early Fatimid period. Nevertheless, the northern Yemeni community founded by Ibn Hawshab survived, and has provided the nucleus for the continued existence of Isma'ilism in Yemen to the present day.
## Writings
Ibn Hawshab's life is known in detail through a quasi-hagiographic Life (Sīra), written either by himself or by his son, Ja'far. It is now lost, but known through extensive quotations in later authors, and is, according to the historian Heinz Halm, "one of the most important sources for the history of the daʿwa".
Later Isma'ili tradition ascribed to him two of the earliest known Isma'ili theological treatises. The first of these, the Book of Righteousness and True Guidance (Kitāb al-Rushd wa’l-hidāya), survives only in fragments, which were published (including an English translation) by Wladimir Ivanow. The work is an exegesis of the Quran, and is one of the earliest surviving Isma'ili works, as it still mentions Muhammad ibn Isma'il as the awaited mahdī. The second, the Book of the Sage and Disciple (Kitāb al-ʿĀlim wa’l-ghulām), is more usually ascribed to his son, Ja'far. It consists of a series of encounters between a novice and his spiritual guide (the dāʿī), who gradually reveals the hidden, esoteric knowledge (bāṭin) to his disciple. The authenticity of both attributions is uncertain. The 12th-century Yemeni dāʿī Ibrahim al-Hamidi furthermore quotes in his work an epistle (risāla) attributed to Ibn Hawshab.
## See also
- Islamic history of Yemen
- Shia Islam in Yemen |
23,901,669 | Limnoperdon | 1,133,579,713 | Genus of fungi | [
"Agaricales",
"Agaricales genera",
"Aquatic fungi",
"Fungi of Africa",
"Fungi of Asia",
"Fungi of North America",
"Monotypic Basidiomycota genera"
]
| Limnoperdon is a fungal genus in the monotypic family Limnoperdaceae. The genus is also monotypic, as it contains a single species, the aquatic fungus Limnoperdon incarnatum. The species, described as new to science in 1976, produces fruit bodies that lack specialized structures such as a stem, cap and gills common in mushrooms. Rather, the fruit bodies—described as aquatic or floating puffballs—are small balls (0.5–1 mm diameter) of loosely interwoven hyphae. The balls float on the surface of the water above submerged twigs. Experimental observations on the development of the fruit body, based on the growth on the fungus in pure culture, suggest that a thin strand of mycelium tethers the ball above water while it matures. Fruit bodies start out as a tuft of hyphae, then become cup-shaped, and eventually enclose around a single chamber that contains reddish spores. Initially discovered in a marsh in the state of Washington, the fungus has since been collected in Japan, South Africa, and Canada.
## Taxonomy, classification and phylogeny
The family, genus and species were first described in a 1976 publication by graduate students Gustavo Escobar and Dennis McCabe, and undergraduate Craig Harpel who, in the fall of 1974, found the fungus as part of "a class project to find and isolate phycomycetes". The holotype is located in the University of Washington Mycological Herbarium. An isotype (duplicate of the holotype specimen) is located in the Herbarium of the University of El Salvador in San Salvador.
Limnoperdon incarnatum was originally thought to be associated with the Gasteromycetes, an artificial assemblage of species united by the fact that their spores mature inside the fruit bodies and are not forcibly discharged from the basidia. Other morphologically similar genera include the Gasterella of the family Gasterellaceae, and the Protogaster of the family Protogastraceae; however, it was excluded from these genera because of significant differences in spore color and structure, presence of clamp connections, and structure of the basidia. For these reasons the new family Limnoperdaceae was described to contain the new species, and it was classified along the Protogastraceae in the (now defunct) order Protogastrales. More recently, molecular phylogenetics has been used to clarify the relationship Limnoperdon with other fungi. In 2001, David Hibbett and Manfred Binder established the membership of Limnoperdon incarnatum in the euagarics clade, a phylogenetically related group of species traditionally forming the order Agaricales. Additional molecular studies have placed Limnoperdaceae in the pluteoid clade of the Agaricales, a grouping that includes the families Pluteaceae, Amanitaceae, and Pleurotaceae; other studies that used comparisons of ribosomal DNA sequences placed Limnoperdon near the gilled genera Melanoleuca or Resupinatus, of the family Tricholomataceae.
A 2007 field study that used molecular techniques to survey aquatic fungal taxa in a small springbrook in Valley Spring, Southern Ontario, Canada discovered many fungal taxa with high genetic affinity to Limnoperdon incarnatum, which suggests that a closely related species may also be common in streams.
## Description
The genus description is similar to the family description, but further specifies that the fruit bodies float, are sometimes embedded in a loose subiculum (a woolly or net-like growth of hyphae), and that the spores are reddish. The fungus has been described as an "aquatic puffball", although a later review considered "floating puffball" to be a more apt descriptor.
The fruit bodies of L. incarnatum are tiny, oval to roughly spherical, and measure 35–1250 by 200–450 μm. The floating balls are sometimes enclosed in a loose subiculum, with a whitish surface that is byssoid (consisting of fine threads). The peridium (the outer protective tissue layer) is 18–30 μm thick, byssoid, and made of clamped hyphae typically 2.5–4 μm in diameter intertwined with dendrophyses (irregularly branched cystidia) 1 μm in diameter. The surface of the peridium is hydrophobic, a feature that helps keep water off the growing hymenium during its development, and gives the fruit body buoyancy.
The gleba is a single chamber, reddish in color, with a cavity that has an oblate spheroid shape. Initially empty, in maturity it is filled with spores that measure 330–1220 by 180–420 μm. The smooth inner surface of the chamber comprises the fertile spore-bearing tissue (the hymenium). The basidia (spore-bearing cells)—conspicuous when viewed under the microscope—are hyaline (translucent), more or less club-shaped, and usually have basal and apical swellings separated by a narrow strip of variable length. The basidia are four-spored, and have inflated sterigmata with a central constriction. The basidia measure 20–90 (typically 25–55) μm long by 8–10 μm thick. Reddish in mass, the spores are obovate (egg-shaped, with the broad extremity located away from the base), smooth, thick-walled, and measure 11–16 (typically 12–15) by 7–10 μm. They have a beaked pedicel that is 2–4 by 2–5 μm, and a basal germ pore.
## Habitat and distribution
The species was originally discovered floating in petri dishes that contained submerged hardwood twigs previously collected from a marsh next to a playground on the south shore of Lake Union in Seattle, Washington. After the initial 1976 publication, L. incarnatum was reported the following year when Keisuke Tubaki recovered it from wood blocks submerged in brackish water in Japan; scientists Seiya Ito and T. Yokoyama later reported collecting it in Japanese rice paddy fields. Later surveys uncovered the fungus in several localities in South Africa and in freshwater ponds in Canada.
## Development
Escobar grew cultures of the fungus by placing fresh fruit bodies on agar containing growth medium with an extract of horse dung. The tips of the hyphae were used to obtain axenic cultures; the fungus can grow on a variety of media commonly used to grow fungi in the laboratory. Depending on the composition of the growth media, fruit bodies were formed as early as eight days after initiating, when grown at 20 °C (68 °F) and under dim light. When minute agar blocks containing mycelium were submerged in distilled water, mycelial strands grew towards the water surface and eventually gave rise to floating fruit bodies connected to the parent agar block by strands of hyphae.
Mycologist Dennis McCabe studied the development of the fruit body using specimens grown in pure culture. Starting out as a hyphal tuft, the fungus grows into a cup shape before eventually closing in completely to create the spherical structure of the mature fruit body. When the fungus is in the cup stage, the exposed hymenium is immature; typically, spores develop after the fruit body is fully closed. In some cases, the fruit body stops developing at the cup stage while the hymenium continues to mature. This results in a cup-shaped fungus with an exposed layer of basidia bearing normal and mature spores. Limnoperdon incarnatum is a structurally simple fungus, and relatively easy to grow in culture, suggesting it may have potential as a model organism for fruit body development in general. Under the experimental conditions used, fruit bodies matured to produce spores about 72 hours after the fungus started growing. The aborted cups resemble the sporocarps of the cyphelloid fungi, but can be distinguished by their orthotrophic spore attachment and the lack of ballistospory (forceful spore discharge). McCabe and Escobar later suggested that the fungus may have evolved the loss of ballistospory by being compensated with the cup-shaped fruit body closing at maturity. Halocyphina villosa is another small cup-shaped Basidiomycete fungus that has adapted to a marine environment; in contrast to L. incarnatum, however, it starts out with a closed fruit body that later opens up to become cup-shaped.
Although it is not known with certainty how the spores are dispersed, they may disperse passively in the water, or a mature spore-containing fruit body may float on the water surface for dispersal. L. incarnatum is homothallic, a mode of reproduction commonly employed by marine fungi that may confer a competitive advantage in marine environments.
## See also
- List of Agaricales families
- List of Agaricales genera |
2,133,367 | Cuthbert of Canterbury | 1,137,842,999 | 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury and saint | [
"760 deaths",
"8th-century English clergy",
"8th-century English people",
"8th-century English writers",
"8th-century Latin writers",
"8th-century archbishops",
"Archbishops of Canterbury",
"Bishops of Hereford",
"English abbots",
"Kentish saints",
"Latin letter writers",
"Year of birth unknown"
]
| Cuthbert (Old English: Cūþbeorht, Latin: Cuthbertus; died 26 October 760) was a medieval Anglo-Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury in England. Prior to his elevation to Canterbury, he was abbot of a monastic house, and perhaps may have been Bishop of Hereford also, but evidence for his holding Hereford mainly dates from after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. While Archbishop, he held church councils and built a new church in Canterbury. It was during Cuthbert's archbishopric that the Diocese of York was raised to an archbishopric. Cuthbert died in 760 and was later regarded as a saint.
## Early life and Hereford
Of noble birth, Cuthbert is first recorded as the abbot of Lyminge Abbey, from where he was elevated to the see of Hereford in 736. The identification of the Cuthbert who was Bishop of Hereford with the Cuthbert who became archbishop, however, comes from Florence of Worcester and other post-Conquest sources. The contemporary record in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that Cuthbert was consecrated archbishop, where if he had been Bishop of Hereford, he would have been translated. No consecration is needed when a bishop is translated from one see to another. Given the nature of the sources, the identification of the bishop of Hereford with the archbishop of Canterbury, while likely, must not be regarded as proven.
If Cuthbert was at Hereford, he served in that capacity for four years before his elevation to the See of Canterbury in 740. He is credited with the composition of an epitaph for the tomb of his three predecessors at Hereford. The cathedral church of the see may not even have been located at Hereford by Cuthbert's time.
Whoever Cuthbert was prior to his election to Canterbury, he probably owed his selection as archbishop to the influence of Æthelbald, King of Mercia. A number of Mercians were appointed to Canterbury during the 730s and 740s, which suggests that Mercian authority was expanding into Kent.
## Canterbury
Cuthbert was the recipient of a long letter from Boniface who complained about the lax morals of the clergy in the British Isles, and too much drinking of alcohol by the Anglo-Saxon bishops. Cuthbert also sent letters to Lull who was Archbishop of Mainz and a native of England. During Cuthbert's time as archbishop he no longer claimed authority over all of Britain, like his predecessor Theodore. Pope Gregory III in 735 had sent a pallium to the bishop of York, raising the see of York to the status of an archbishopric. As a sign of the enhanced status of York, Cuthbert only consecrated bishops south of the Humber and his synods were attended only by bishops from the south of England.
Cuthbert presided over the Council of Clovesho in 747 along with Æthelbald of Mercia. This gathering mandated that all clergy should explain the basic tenets of Christianity to the laity, as well as legislating on clerical dress, control of monasteries, and the behavior of the clergy. It also mandated that each diocese hold a synod to proclaim the decisions of the council. Cuthbert sent his deacon Cynebert to Pope Gregory III after the council with a report on the council and its resolutions. This action may have been taken in response to Boniface's complaints about Cuthbert and Æthelbald to the papacy. The actions of the council were also gathered into a collection at Cuthbert's command.
After the council, Cuthbert continued to correspond with Boniface up until Boniface's martyrdom in 754, and then sent condolences to Boniface's successor. Cuthbert held a second synod in 758, but nothing is known of any enactments it made. He also built the church of St. John the Baptist in Canterbury, which was destroyed by fire in 1067. He was buried in his new church. The new church was located on the west side of the cathedral, and was used as a baptistery. The church also became a burial site for many of the archbishops, and later was used for trials by ordeal. There is no explicit contemporary reference that states that these uses were intended by Cuthbert, but the fact that the church was dedicated to St. John the Baptist argues strongly that Cuthbert at least intended the new building as a baptistery.
The burial practices of the archbishops did change after Cuthbert, but it is not clear whether this was intended by Cuthbert, as a Post-Conquest Canterbury cartulary has it, or due to other reasons, unconnected with Cuthbert. Although Sonia Hawkes argues that the change in burial customs, which extended over most of Britain, resulted from Cuthbert's mandating burial in church yards, instead of outside the city limits as had been the custom previously. However, the main evidence for this theory is a 16th-century tradition at Canterbury and the archaeological evidence of a change in burial patterns. Although a change did occur, the archaeological evidence does not give a reason why this change happened, and given the late date of the Canterbury tradition, the theory cannot be considered proven.
## Death and legacy
Cuthbert died on 26 October 760, and was later considered a saint with a feast day of 26 October. He was buried in his church of St. John, and was the first Archbishop of Canterbury that was not buried in St Augustine's Abbey. His letters to the Anglo-Saxon missionaries on the European continent show him to have been highly educated. |
13,305,463 | Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine | 1,171,165,694 | 1966 song by Bob Dylan | [
"1966 songs",
"1967 singles",
"1974 singles",
"Bob Dylan songs",
"Song recordings produced by Bob Johnston",
"Songs written by Bob Dylan"
]
| "Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine", or "Most Likely You Go Your Way (and I'll Go Mine)", is a song by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan. It was released as the first track on side three of his seventh studio album Blonde on Blonde (1966). The song was written by Dylan and produced by Bob Johnston. Dylan recounted that he had probably written the song after the end of a relationship. The song's narrator criticizes the lies and weakness of a woman, and says that he finds it hard to care. The final verse establishes that the woman has been unfaithful to the narrator by having a relationship with another man, as he suspected all along.
Six takes, two of them complete, were recorded at Columbia Studio B in Nashville, on March 9, 1966, with Dylan accompanied by members of The Nashville A-Team of studio musicians that had been engaged for the album sessions, alongside organist Al Kooper and guitarist Robbie Robertson. The album version received a positive critical reception, with several reviewers praising the lyrics and music. The song was also released as the B-side of "Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat" in 1967.
Dylan has performed the song in concert over 400 times, from January 1974 to November 2022. It was prominently featured during the Bob Dylan and The Band 1974 Tour and a live version from the subsequent album Before the Flood was issued as a single and reached number 66 on the US chart. Critics noted that this live version was more intense and aggressive than the original cut. "Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine" was the first of Dylan's songs to be remixed; that 2007 remix by Mark Ronson reached number 51 on the UK chart, and confounded the expectations of several critics who found that the track was unexpectedly enjoyable. The song has been covered by Hard Meat (1970), by Todd Rundgren (1976), and by Patti LaBelle on her eponymous solo debut album (1977).
## Background and recording
The album Another Side of Bob Dylan (1964) saw Bob Dylan start to move away from the contemporary folk music sound that had characterized his early albums. Bringing It All Back Home (1965) featured both electric and acoustic tracks, and Highway 61 Revisited later that year was purely electric. In 1965, he hired the Hawks as his backing group, but recording sessions in New York for a new album were not productive with them, and he accepted a suggestion from his producer Bob Johnston that the recording sessions should transfer to Nashville, Tennessee. Dylan went to Nashville in February 1966, with Al Kooper and Robbie Robertson from the New York sessions also making the trip.
"Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine" was recorded at Columbia Studio B in Nashville, on March 9, 1966, at the fifth of the sessions there. The track features Dylan singing and playing harmonica, with members of the A-Team of studio musicians that had been engaged for the album sessions, including Charlie McCoy on trumpet, Hargus "Pig" Robbins on piano, Kenny Buttrey on drums, and guitarists Joe South, and Wayne Moss, alongside Kooper on organ and Robertson on guitar. Dylan had earlier worked with McCoy, who had played guitar on Desolation Row (1965). The group worked on the track between six and nine p.m., recording six takes, two of which were complete. The sixth take was the master. As he did with other songs at the Nashville sessions, Dylan revised the lyrics during the recording sessions.
In the liner notes to Biograph (1985), Dylan explained that it was "probably written after some disappointing relationship where, you know, I was lucky to have escaped without a broken nose". The song is in AABA form. In the first verse, the narrator criticizes the lies and weakness of a woman, and during the second verse expresses that "sometimes it gets so hard to care". Following what the critic Andy Gill summarises as a "quirky, nonsensical middle-eight concerning a badly-built, stilt-walking judge", the final verse establishes that the woman has been unfaithful to the narrator, as he suspected.
The song, lasting three minutes and 30 seconds, was released as the first track on side three of Dylan's seventh studio album Blonde on Blonde, on June 20, 1966. The following March, it appeared as the B-side of the "Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat" single, which reached number 81 in the American Billboard charts.
## Critical comments
Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian described "Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine" as "a breakup song whose narrator can't deal with the unpredictability and lack of commitment from their partner". Dylan's biographer Robert Shelton felt that the lyrics "for all their mundaneness, build with economy a dialogue of lovers parting". Gill also commented on the plainness of the lyrics, and thought that apart from the middle-eight, they were the most "straightforward" from Dylan's output from 1965 and 1966. Despite this, commentators have been divided on the effect of the song. Mike Marqusee considered that the song was "remarkable for the sustained petty rage" contained in it, and presented "a heady and affecting mix of desire, regret, jealousy, and disgust"; David Yaffe felt the song was "venomous". In contrast, Daryl Sanders, author of a book about the recording of Blonde on Blonde, wrote that the song was relatively tame for one tackling a breakup.
The musicianship was praised by the San Francisco Examiner critic Ralph Gleason, who called it a "wildly swinging track", and by Oliver Trager, who regarded it as "one of Dylan's most infectious stompers".
Neil Spencer, who noted that a version of the title appears in the lyrics of Buddy Holly's recording of "It Doesn't Matter Anymore" (1958), gave the song a rating of 5/5 stars in an Uncut magazine Dylan supplement in 2015. Author John Nogowski rated the song as "B+", and described it as "Dylan's personal Declaration of Independence, set to a martial beat".
## Live performances
"Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine" was frequently the concert opening and encore song on the Bob Dylan and The Band 1974 Tour. One such performance was included later that year as the first track on the resulting live album, Before the Flood. Released as a single, it reached number 66 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number 47 on the Cash Box Top 100 Pop Singles. The reviewer for Cash Box wrote that it was a "natural rocker done up in heavier, contemporary style" and that the musicians provided excellent backing for Dylan's powerful singing. According to Paul Williams, the performances of the song represented a statement by Dylan that there was no real relationship and the audience, although it was still as if he was saying to the audience that "as long as we remember this we can have a good time here tonight". Tim Riley called the song as performed on the tour Dylan's "most dramatic antilove letter to his audience, the number that flaunts his self-assurance even as it vents injury". Riley wrote that while the 1966 version proceeded with "deadpan irony", the 1974 live version "fairly seethes ... a song less about the comedy of a fallout than the ravages". Jim Beviglia felt that the 1974 "in-your-face wail of exasperation" was a mutation from the more distant sense from the 1966 recording. Similarly, John Nogowski commented that the live performance was harder and more uptempo than the album track, with Dylan's voice "aggressive, filled with exclamation points".
According to his official website, Dylan has performed the song in concert over 400 times since debuting the song live at Chicago Stadium on January 3, 1974, with the most recent performances occurring on the European leg of his Rough and Rowdy Ways World Wide Tour, in November 2022. In a review of the performance at the New Theatre Oxford on November 4, Nick Hasted of Uncut commented that Dylan's delivery left a "comically canyon-wide" pause between the two phrases in the song's title.
## Cover versions and 2007 remix
British progressive rock group Hard Meat included a cover of "Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine" on their debut album in 1970. The staff writer for Cash Box felt that it was the highlight of an album that could sell well, but The Sentinel's reviewer thought it was one of the album tracks "tending toward the loud and low in quality".
A version by Todd Rundgren on Faithful (1976) was criticized as "a foolish parody of Dylan" by John Bialas in the Sun Herald, and described as "notable only as a passable Dylan imitation" by Rick Atkinson in The Record. Patti LaBelle covered the song on her eponymous solo debut album (1977). Dave Marsh felt that her version was "at best competent", and might have been improved but for her producer David Rubinson whose "notion of funk remains as stiff and fey as ever". In the Los Angeles Times, Don Snowden also criticized the album's production, and that the track, "given the formula funk treatment", suffered from a "highly cliched musical approach".
### 2007 remix
Mark Ronson reworked and remixed "Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine" in 2007, the first time that one of Dylan's songs had been remixed. It was available on the digital edition of Dylan (2007), and as a 7-inch and CD single. Ronson and Columbia Records executive Mike Smith were invited to choose a track from Dylan's back catalog to remix. Smith felt that the original had "a great rhythmic backbeat ... [and] a timeless, universal lyric", and predicted that the remix would "confound people's expectations of Bob, which he has done throughout his career". An accompanying video showed an actor, seen from behind, portraying Dylan at several stages of his career. This version charted at number 51 in the UK.
Paul Morley wrote in The Sunday Telegraph that Ronson "takes a classic hand-made Dylan landmark and turns it into a cheap mass-produced plastic model", and contrasted "Ronson's bloodless flashiness" with "the tangled flash of Dylan [which] is fantastically alienated and perversely meditative." Jeremiah Tucker of The Joplin Globe regarded the track as one of Dylan's best releases of recent years, and "Proof that Dylan's songs are sturdy enough to be kicked around a bit."
Several reviewers, including Joe Levy for Rolling Stone, John Mulvey of Uncut, and David Williamson of the Western Daily Mail were pleasantly surprised by how much they enjoyed the remixed track. Levy thought that the track had "los[t] some of the spite in the process", but felt that listeners should be grateful for how true to the original the track was." For Mulvey, the remix was not "quite the disaster it could have been", although "Dylan's rancorous vocal sounds a little small and overwhelmed". Williamson found the version an example of "genuine innovation" that "preserves the core lyric and the rhythmic spine yet somehow instils the urge to leap up and down".
## Personnel
The personnel for the original album session were as follows. According to studio records, McCoy played both bass and trumpet on the track. Kooper recalled McCoy on bass and picking up the trumpet to play it one handed whilst continuing to play bass with the other; however, although McCoy did sometimes play both instruments at the same time with his band the Escorts, he has stated that he only played trumpet on "Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine".
Musicians
- Bob Dylan – vocals, harmonica
- Robbie Robertson – electric guitar
- Wayne Moss – electric guitar
- Al Kooper – organ
- Hargus Robbins – piano
- Charlie McCoy – trumpet
- Joe South – bass
- Kenneth Buttrey – drums
Technical
- Bob Johnston – production
## Charts |
2,424,386 | Missouri Route 162 | 1,158,412,754 | State highway in the Missouri Bootheel | [
"State highways in Missouri",
"Transportation in Dunklin County, Missouri",
"Transportation in New Madrid County, Missouri"
]
| Route 162 is a state highway in the Missouri Bootheel. Its western terminus is at Route 25 in Clarkton, Dunklin County, and the route travels eastward to nearby towns of Gideon and Portageville, where it intersects U.S. Route 61 (US 61) and Interstate 55 (I-55). The road then continues through rural New Madrid County and ends at a boat ramp near the Mississippi River.
The route was designated in 1956 to replace two supplemental routes that extended from Clarkton to Portageville. The route was fully paved in the same year, and an interchange was built at I-55 by 1967.
## Route description
In 2015, Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) calculated as many as 1,888 vehicles traveling on Route 162 west of Route 153, and as few as 252 vehicles traveling east of Route M. This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT), a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year.
The route is located in Dunklin and New Madrid counties. The route starts at a T-intersection with Route 25 on the western edge of Clarkton. It travels on the northern side of the city, and leaves city limits and Dunklin County past Shelton Drive. The road enters New Madrid County and travels through a small section of farmland before entering the city of Gideon. In the northern side of the city, the route meets Route 153 at a T-intersection, and it travels southward concurrently with Route 153. At Fourth Street, Route 162 travels eastward, ending the concurrency. The route passes by the entrance of the Gideon Memorial Airport, before leaving the city at County Road 279 (CRD 279). At CRD 268, the road begins to travel southeastward until it reaches CRD 272, crossing several streams along the way. Route B becomes concurrent with Route 162, crossing a river and intersecting two county roads before continuing southwards. The route crosses the Little River past CRD 357. At McCrate Avenue, Route 162 enters Portageville. The road travels across the northern part of the city, intersecting city streets and Route F. After crossing over the River Subdivision railroad, the road meets US 61 at a T-intersection and becomes concurrent. Both US 61 and Route 162 travel southwestward until the road reaches Main Street. At this point, US 61 and Route 162 travel eastward and crosses over the Portage Bayou, while Route T begins travelling southward. Just outside of Portageville, the road meets I-55 at a diamond interchange, and US 61 continues its concurrency with I-55. Route 162 continues eastward through rural New Madrid County. East of CRD 427, the road intersects the termini of Routes KK and TT. At Route M, Route 162 begins travelling southwestwards toward the Mississippi River. CRD 439 is the last intersection before the road ends at a boat ramp near the river.
## History
Around 1932, Routes C and K were designated along gravel roads in the Missouri Bootheel. Route C connected from Route 25 in Clarkton to Gideon, while Route K was from Portageville to near the Mississippi River. Route K was extended southeastward one year later, intersecting the newly designated Route M. Route C was extended east of Gideon in 1935, and its section from Clarkton to Gideon was paved one year later. The section of Route C east of Gideon was paved by 1949, and the route was extended eastward by 1953. Route K was also paved during that time. By 1954, Route C was extended along a gravel road to Portageville, connecting with US 61 and Route K. In 1956, Route 162 was designated, replacing Routes C and K. The remaining gravel section and was paved that year. An interchange at I-55 was being built during 1967, and it was completed later that year. The project was part of the I-55 extension from New Madrid to Portageville, with a total cost of \$6,375,556 in 1966.
## Major intersections |
24,849,606 | Globalization and women in China | 1,157,618,647 | Overview of the impact of globalization on women in China | [
"Globalization by location",
"Social change",
"Social history of China",
"Women in China"
]
| The study of the impact of globalization on women in China examines the role and status of Chinese women relative to the political and cultural changes that have taken place in the 20th century as a consequence of globalization. Globalization refers to the interaction and integration of people, products, cultures and governments between various nations around the globe; this is fostered by trade, investment, and information technology. Globalization affected women's rights and the gender hierarchy in China, in aspects of domestic life such as marriage and primogeniture, as well as in the workplace. These changes altered the quality of life and the availability of opportunities to women at different junctures throughout the modern globalization process.
The dynamics of gender inequity are related with the ideological principles held by the ruling political regime. The imperial era was dominated by the social paradigm of Confucianism, which was a pervasive philosophy throughout the Orient. Confucian ideals emphasized morality, character, social relationship, and the status quo. Confucius preached jen (humanity) and the equality and educability of all people; Neo-Confucianists and Imperial leaders used his beliefs in social hierarchy, particularly in the family setting, for the physical and social oppression of women. As the Chinese government began to re-assimilate themselves into the global community in the late 19th to early 20th century, it shifted away from conventional Confucian ideals and women's role in society changed as well. After Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China in 1949, a change in traditional gender roles came about. Mao's death marked the beginning of the current communist administration, and an influx of international communications in the areas of commerce, politics and social ideals. Since the 1980s, under the new communist party, the women's rights movement has gained momentum and has become a national issue as well as a sign of modernization. Some reporters state that increased globalization and the Belt and Road Initiative have led to an increase in sex trafficking of women in China.
In rural areas, women traditionally work alongside their family to produce crops like tea and rice. In urban areas, women work in factories, living away from home. Most of these factory workers are young girls who send their income to their families. To help maintain the rights of women in factories, labor unions and organizations were built. In their homes, women take care of their children and cook.
## Western bias
Western scholarship has historically used ideas of subordinance and victimization to characterize traditional Chinese womanhood. These beliefs were largely constructed on the basis of ideological and political agendas, and were widely accepted despite their ethnocentrism. Early European writings pertaining to Chinese women were produced by missionaries and ethnologists at the conclusion of the 19th century. The goal of the missionaries was to "civilize China," and highlighting weakness and victimization provided for the continuance of their work. This belief prompted scholars to use female subordination as a means to validate Western ideas about Chinese culture and Confucian principles.
In the 1970s, as the feminist movements were forming, they began to affect the literature surrounding women in China. Studies on Chinese women from this period were concerned with women's liberation, and were sympathetic to the feminist movement. This sentiment largely influenced the topics and methodology of the research. With this shift in perspective, the focus of discourse remained on subordination, patriarchal oppression, and victimization. These studies examined such issues as foot binding and the chastity of widows. Literature formulated by feminist writers did nothing to dispel the myth of the weak, subservient woman. These works provided a new bias that had not before been articulated. Feminists believed that Chinese women were a part of a "universally subordinated womanhood". This line of thinking illustrates the cultural superiority inherently felt by Western women. Writings on Chinese woman rarely account for differences in time, ethnicity, class, region or age, preferring to describe the status of women as a static, unitary fixture of Chinese culture, despite the political and geographic boundaries that defined different regions and the economic and social changes that occurred throughout history.
## History of female oppression in marriage
### Traditional roles and Confucianism
From the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 CE) until the modern period (1840–1919), scholars and rulers developed a male-dominated patriarchal society in China. Patriarchy is a social and philosophical system where men are considered as superior to women, and thus men should have more power in decision-making than women. Confucianism was at the root of the development of the patriarchal society in China, and emphasized the distinctions between the sexes and the roles they have within the family. These ideologies continued through the Tang dynasty (618-907), and girls were taught from a very young age to be submissive to their fathers, then to their husbands, and later to their sons. During the Song Dynasty (960-1297), Confucian scholars further developed the patriarchal tradition with more restrictions for females, including foot binding for girls at a very young age.
### Married life in Imperial China
The traditional Chinese marriage system benefitted men more than women. This effect could be seen in monogamy, concubinage, divorce, and the heritage of lineage and property through males. After the Spring and Autumn Period, elite men could take primary and secondary wives, concubines, and maids. Ancient Chinese women were denied the right to choose their marriages. Generally, traditional Chinese marriage was organized by the parents of the groom and bride in order to obtain alliances between the two families to ensure the continuance of the family line. The prime mission of a married woman, regardless of her social status, was to bear at least one son in order to carry on the family name. Therefore, women were only valued for their reproduction functions. Three types of marriage dominated in Ancient China. The first traditional Chinese marriage type, which originated in the primitive society, was called a "capture marriage," in which the groom would go to his prospective bride's house at dusk to "kidnap" her. The second type was called a "purchase marriage," in which women were paid for by their husbands. Once women were purchased, they became their husband's possession and could be traded or sold. The third type was the "arranged marriage," which could be traced back to the Warring States, emphasized the necessity of parental control and matchmaking institutions. Matchmakers acted as go-betweens for both families. If there was not a matchmaker, the marriage could be deemed unacceptable and could be dissolved. Once two people were married, the wife would leave her family, live with the husband's family, and be obedient to her in-laws as if they were her own parents.
During the Chou Dynasty, the upper class considered daughters-in-law as commodities of the husband's parents, not the husbands. This meant that wives had to be subservient to parents-in-law. They were expected to have impeccable manners, including refraining from coughing and sneezing in the presence of their husbands' parents. Wives could not leave their rooms or accept gifts from relatives without permission. Refusal to turn gifts over to parents-in-law lead to physical abuse and expulsion from the family. In addition, wives were required to serve in-laws, including helping them bathe, arranging their bedding, and cooking. People placed a strong emphasis on food preparation in Ancient China. Cooking was one of the most time-consuming tasks for wives because of traditional rituals and high expectations for the taste and appeal of food.
### May Fourth Movement
The "New Culture" movement began in China around 1916 following the unsuccessful activities of the 1911 Revolution to establish a republican government, and continued through the 1920s. The May Fourth Movement, which took place on May 4, 1919, was a demonstration led by students at the National Peking University against the government, in which they protested the abolition of Confucianism and changes in the traditional value system. Many believed that the solution to China's problems would be to adopt Western notions of equality and democracy. Since the movement stressed group efforts and propaganda, women were involved in numerous collective tasks such as publication, drama production, and fund raising, which helped them gain more social contact with men and win respect.
### Marriage reforms in the Twentieth Century
Chinese modern heterosexual monogamous marriage was officially established with the Marriage Law of 1950 after the founding of the People's Republic of China. The New Marriage Law declared the abolition of the feudal marriage system, which included arranged and forced marriage, male superiority, and the disregard for the interests of children. This law also asserted the rights to divorce and embraced the free-choice marriage. Although progress has been made, Chinese women are restricted by the heteronormative and hypergamous marriage system. Currently, all Chinese women are still expected to marry a man with superior educational and economic status in their early or mid-twenties. Many well-educated and well-paid urban professional women tend to delay their partner seeking and marriage, which results in a supposed revival of tradition – parental matchmaking. Since Chinese parents generally do not "use a daughter's marriage to build a family network or maintain a household's social status" anymore, this matchmaking is not a forced marriage; it is a suggestion intended to benefit their daughters.
As a result of these reforms, the roles of wives have changed for both rural and urban women. Today, a wife's role is to support her husband and children, not serve her in-laws. Mothers-in-law have less authority, and married couples are able to have more intimate relationships. Since the one-child policy was established, urban wives have devoted their time to raising "'the perfect only child,'" so they now exert more effort creating their own families than serving in-laws. Despite this focus on children, patrilocal residence increased again towards the end of the twentieth century. Urban parents have stayed close to their sons to help them find jobs, housing, and services. Rural women have also gained more autonomy, including the freedom to voice their opinions and desires. Wives in the wealthy countryside have demanded construction of mansions for neolocal residences.
## Domestic life of a Chinese woman
### Foot binding
Foot binding is the process in which the arch of a woman's feet is broken and the toes are wrapped up against the foot to create a smaller looking foot with an acute arch. These "fists of flesh" were seen as attractive and arousing for men and the practice was passed down as a prerequisite to marriage from mother to daughter across generations. The process of foot binding was painful and often confined women to their rooms. Few lower-class women were able to have their feet bound because they needed to be able to walk normally to accomplish house work. Bound feet came to be an indication of high class and wealth for women. Chinese male reformers during the imperialism period recognized the liberation of the Chinese women as something necessary for their own sake. The humiliation that China had gone through on an international level was turned on the Chinese "women". Naturally, the foot binding was recognized as "national shame," and people found it as a serious problem to be disappeared, thus raging anti-footbinding campaigns in the 1890s to the 1900s. Moreover, the new government that came in after the 1911 revolution banned foot binding practice. Thus, it started to disappear in the coastal areas in 1900 to 1920. However, the practice was still popular within the interior areas of China till the 1930s and even in the 1950s.
### Changes to customs based on Confucianism
Under Confucianism the typical family was patriarchal because men had the capability to pass on the family name and carry on the lineage of the ancestors; women were expected to be subservient. Adoption of Western family values in the twentieth century challenged traditional Chinese values. Nationalism contributed to the changes of customs and status of women. Nationalist revolutionary Qiu Jin promoted feminism through various essays and speeches, as well as through her Chinese Women's Journal. Jin chastised wife beating, female infanticide, arranged marriages, and foot binding. She eventually began teaching at a girls' school. Around this time, many other schools for girls opened in China. This led to increased job opportunities for women in the 1920s.
Later, as the Communist regime changed the structure of Chinese society through economic reform, the structure of the Chinese family was altered. "The Four Olds" (sijiu) – old ideas, old habits, old customs, old cultures – were discouraged and were replaced by Communist ideology, particularly during the Cultural Revolution. The economy was shifted to total government control with few chances to own private property and communal property. Collectivization destroyed "clan-based" systems and had a great effect on motivation of workers and family loyalties.
The traditional social structure was further degraded by the Cultural Revolution. The Red Guards turned members of a family against one another as they sought out "class enemies" to be sent for "re-education," ultimately resulting in a loss of family ties. Women were elevated to equal status as men through a series of laws which prohibited practices such as arranged marriages, concubinages, dowries, and child betrothals. Under these marriage laws, women enjoyed joint property in marriage and could file for a divorce.
As a result of Communist rule in China, the social status of women improved greatly. Women were empowered to work outside the home. Communist rule also brought about the end of practices such as foot binding, child marriages, prostitution, and arranged marriages. China has seen a decrease in domestic violence due to government-supported grassroots programs to counter these practices. Women in rural areas remain largely uneducated.
### Population control
During the reform period, the Communist regime in China regulated birth control. The government shaped policies with the intention to develop population science "through selective absorption of Western science and technology." In 1979, the Planned Birth Policy was implemented. The Chinese government only allowed one child per Han family, with more children allowed to non-Han families. Since this planned birth policy was implemented based on local laws rather than on a national population law, the level of birth restriction differed in urban and rural areas. In families reliant on farming for income, the household is the fundamental unit of production, so many rural families would rather pay the hefty fines for excess birth.
In 2011, city couples who both came from one-child families were allowed to have a second child, while couples in rural areas could have a second if just one of them came from a one-child family. In 2013, the further revision of the Planned Birth Policy allowed couples in which either parent had no siblings to have two children. In 2015, China allowed all couples to have two children, abolishing its decades-long one-child policy for urban families.
Another instance of population control is the prevalence of female infanticide. People in rural areas practiced female infanticide and selective neglect due to a preference of sons over daughters. Since the 1980s, roughly 200,000 female infants would be killed per year because of the preference for male children and the advancement in technologies such as ultrasound, which help to find out the sex of the fetus. In addition to female infanticide, girls are being unregistered or are abandoned by their families, which stops them from receiving education and legal benefits the government offered. These methods of controlling population have resulted in a huge gender gap in China.
## Chinese women throughout the workplace
### History of working women
In the imperial era, women experienced physical restrictions that limited their social positions. They held jobs that required minimal physical activity like domestic chores and producing textiles to sell or use.
During Mao's rule (1949–1976), Chinese women were needed for their manual labor for farming and for urban industrialization. To compensate for their hard work, they were provided access to education and politics. The Chinese government supported women's education. The percentage of girls attending school was 96.2% compared to below 20% before the People's Republic (1949). The Chinese government has tried to decrease the number of women illiterates while promoting adult and vocational schools. The percentage number of illiterates has gone down from 90% in 1949 and 32% from 1993. In the first 30 years of Communist rule women's discrimination was decreasing, but they did not have jobs that had real decision-making power.
The Chinese government has made great efforts to achieve a high level of economic status for women. Since 1949, with the founding of the People' Republic, the rate for employed women has risen. Chinese women account for 44% of the work force and 34.5% account for the women's work force in the world.
### Rural areas
The key role women have in farming is to maintain ownership of the main sources of production in rural areas. In traditional China, women were not allowed to own land or property. Land was inherited through the sons, and if there was no son in the family, it was taken by a close male relative. In less populated areas, women do more agricultural work than men because of shifting cultivation. In more populated areas, men do more work than women because extensive plough cultivation is used. Female involvement is high in the double-cropping rice area. Other types of work women perform in the countryside include pig and poultry rearing, spinning, weaving, basket-making, and other handicrafts. This type of work supplements agricultural income.
### Urban areas
China's economic policies laid the basis of the industrialization drive in export-oriented development, and its reliance on low-wage manufacturing to produce consumer goods for the world market. Young migrant women left their homes in rural settings to work in urban industrial areas. Work included export-oriented industrialization, manufacturing in electronics and toy assembly, sewing in garment production, and mixed assembly and sewing in the footwear industry. Hong Kong and Shenzhen were cities established as centers of export-oriented industrialization, and migrant women workers have made up 70% of Shenzhen's three million people.
Private sector employers are reluctant to hire women because Chinese law requires that the employer cover maternity leave and childbirth costs. However, certain industries prefer female workers for assumed benefits. For example, the beauty economy, which is defined as "a marketplace in which young, attractive women are used to promote commercial products and services," includes the sales industry. The development of the sales industry has increased job opportunities for women, but women are also restricted to these gendered professions.
#### Reasons for migrant labor
A recent phenomenon, the migration of rural Chinese workers began in 1984 when the Regulations of Permanent Residence Registration became less punitive and allowed people to move to find employment. People left rural areas to escape poverty, and females left due to the lack of local opportunities for women. In the cities, women could find new, low-paid factory-based jobs that did not require highly skilled workers. According to national statistics, the ratio of male to female migrant workers averages 2:1, and an estimated 30-40 million of the migrant women work in the cities, namely Hong Kong and Shenzhen.
In the Nanshan district of Shenzhen, females comprised 80% of the workforce and had an average age of 23. Young female workers are preferred over older females or males for several reasons. First, as married women are less mobile, female migrant workers are younger and more likely to be single than their male counterparts. Young rural women are preferred for these jobs primarily because they are less likely to get pregnant, and are able and willing to withstand longer working hours, have "nimble fingers, and will be less experienced in asking for their statutory rights. In many cases, migrant women sign contracts stating that they will not get pregnant within their period of employment."
In the interest of the family, rural females are sent to find urban employment over male counterparts, mainly to supplement familial income at home and to support the males, who are more likely to attend college. The male standard of education in China is higher, particularly when a family is under financial stress, females are more likely to drop out of school to generate income for the family. Because females have lesser impact on the family's long-term financial stability, their rights for opportunities development are consequently unequal. This inequality also reinforces emotional motivations for migration. Many women migrate to find personal fulfillment. Stereotypes in China that developed as a result of globalization portray rural women as "‘backward’" and urban women as "‘modern’". Many people associate modernity with maturity, so rural women migrate to cities to be perceived as mature. Migrant women also appreciate the knowledge they obtain (including political- and self-awareness) while living in cities. Some women even report desiring to leave villages as a result of boredom with rural life. Ideas perpetuated due to globalization simultaneously increased women's intentions to become independent; many migrant workers desire lives separate from those of their families’.
This new system allowed rural residents to migrate, it did not allow them to change their residence or accept any benefits in the cities. This resulted in a growing population of migrant laborers without the minimal benefits of residency including medical care, housing, or education. Many migrant women do not trust the government to protect their rights. Today, up to 90% of migrants work without contracts, in violation of the Chinese labour law.
#### Degradation
The freedom to display femininity and gender equality seem incompatible in Chinese society. Gender equality appeared prevailing only when women were restricted to desexualization in the Mao era. Opening up policy guarantees women's freedom for resexualization, but it simultaneously brings back gender inequality.
Women factory workers are known as "dagongmei" (working girls). They are traditionally young women migrants who experience a segmented labor market in informal and low-wage employment sectors. Workers in export-oriented factories receive minimum wage and minimum overtime pay, they pay for meals and lodging at the factory, and they pay fines for breaking factory rules. The average daily wage, for a 12-hour day in a toy factory, in the mid-1990s was US\$1.10 for migrant women workers in Shenzhen. Although migrant workers in China still earn low wages, their average income has increased over the past several years. In 2008, the average daily income for migrant workers in China was equivalent to US\$6.48. In 2014, the average daily income was equivalent to US\$13.86.
These conditions create "maximum surplus appropriation"; workers' daily lives revolve around factory production and are dependent on the economic conditions. The state disallows local unionization and has the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) as the legitimate forum of worker representation. Without the right to form unions and with the state sanctioned ACFTU, migrant women workers find it hard to effectively gain suitable rights and treatment from the factory management. The 2003 statistics from the People's University show 90% of migrants work without contracts, directly violating the Chinese Labour Law. According to the ACFTU, migrant workers are owed over 100 billion Yuan in back wages.
Organizations are now attempting to assist and empower female migrant workers through training and education on their labor-related rights. Legal clinics have begun to assist female migrants in filing claims against employers and local labor bureaus. One case of female worker exploitation in the Hua Yi garment factory in Beijing resulted in mistreatment by management as well as withholding pay for at least 24 women. After filing complaints, in collaboration with the Center for Women's Law Studies and Legal Services of Beijing University, the women received 170,000 Yuan in back wages and compensation.
Relations between workers and employers represent both the immediate need of manufacturing plants for large quantities of low wage laborers, and the insecurities young workers face in relocating long distances to life in factory dormitories. Hiring single young women serve needs of management. The employment of young females allow management to exhibit maximum control and authority over the labor force. Compared to older women and male workers, young single women are susceptible to the authority and demands of management. The common manipulation of "factory as family" by owners and managers suggests how workers hold a subliminal status within the factory environment. Uneven power relations inside the factory result in demands from management for personal services from women workers, from hair washing to sex.
## See also
- Women in China
- Sexuality in China
- Chinese economic reforms
- Qiu Jin
- Family planning policy |
22,905,864 | Prince George's County Sheriff's Office | 1,172,073,927 | Law enforcement services in Prince George's County, Maryland in the United States | [
"1696 establishments in Maryland",
"Prince George's County, Maryland",
"Sheriffs' offices of Maryland"
]
| The Prince George's County Sheriff's Office (PGSO), officially the Office of the Sheriff, Prince George's County, provides law enforcement services in Prince George's County, Maryland in the United States. Its headquarters are located in Upper Marlboro, near the Depot Pond. The sheriff is the chief law enforcement officer of Prince George's County and is elected every four years. There are no term limits for the sheriff.
Created in 1696, the traditional duties of the sheriff are keeper of the public peace and the enforcement arm of the county court, analogous to the U.S. Marshals Service. The PGSO has a relatively long history compared to other police departments and sheriff's offices in Maryland. The PGSO was involved with events that occurred during the burning of Washington and affected the writing of "The Star-Spangled Banner". Prior to 1931, the PGSO was the sole law enforcement organization of the county.
Today, the duties of the sheriff include law enforcement services of the two county courthouses and surrounding property, service of court-ordered warrants, writs, protective orders, and other injunctions, and limited patrol responsibility with the County Police. The Domestic Violence Unit has expanded its role in the county to include responding to calls for service that are domestic-related. The creation of the School Resource Deputy division has placed a deputy sheriff at all of the local high schools, replacing the County Police. All other law enforcement services of the county are provided by multiple agencies but mostly left to the separate Prince George's County Police Department (PGPD), though some responsibilities are shared by both agencies. The PGSO, like most other county-level law enforcement agencies in the United States, is a progressive agency with an array of services, from the Specialized Services Team (dealing with high-risk arrest warrants and barricaded situations) to community services aiding the county's residents in safety education.
The PGSO was accredited for the first time by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc. (CALEA) in 2018.
## Authority
The sheriff is the chief law enforcement official of Prince George's County, per Maryland common law. All deputy sheriffs are certified, sworn law enforcement officials with full power of arrest. All sworn members of the sheriff's office are agents of the U.S. state of Maryland and thus have authority throughout the entire state, although direct jurisdiction is limited to the Seventh Judicial Circuit of Maryland, which includes Calvert County, Charles County, Prince George's County, and St. Mary's County.
## History
### 1690s–1720s: Founding and British rule
The Sheriff's Office was founded April 22, 1696, when Maryland was a colony of England. The governor of Maryland, Sir Francis Nicholson, appointed Thomas Hillary as the first sheriff. The St. Paul's Church in Charlestown held the headquarters for the Sheriff's Office until the 1720s when it was relocated to the town of Upper Marlboro. At the time of the 18th century, there was no set salary for the sheriff, but he was often paid in tobacco. From 1696 to 1776, the sheriff was appointed by the colonial governor to a one-year term. In 1776, the Maryland constitution changed this so that the sheriff was elected by the voters to three-year terms.
### 1810s: War of 1812
During the War of 1812, which lasted from 1812 to 1815, an incident occurred at the time of the burning of Washington, D.C., when the sheriff's office became involved in an occurrence that led to the writing of the U.S. national anthem. As the British Army marched from Washington they passed through Prince George's County. Because the residents had cooperated with the British, the commander ensured that minimal damage was inflicted upon the local residents and their property. After the Battle of Bladensburg, the British Army returned to the area of Upper Marlboro. However, this time some of the British soldiers looted local farms. A sheriff's posse subsequently arrested the offending soldiers and placed them in the county jail. Upon learning about the arrest of his soldiers, the British commander ordered the arrest of the sheriff and the posse in turn. One of the posse members was Dr. William Beam. Beam was ultimately arrested and held for ransom on a British warship. Beam's brother-in-law, Francis Scott Key, went to Baltimore Harbor in search of him. He witnessed the British fleet under attack which was the inspiration of "The Star-Spangled Banner".
During the war, an incident occurred involving the Prince George's County jail, when local resident Dr. William Beanes, (1775–1824) captured several marauding British Army deserters from the passing army of General General Robert Ross (1766–1814) and Vice Admiral, Sir George Cockburn, (1772–1853), and held them in the County Jail, after he had treated several wounded "Redcoat" soldiers in their march on to Washington and the disastrous Battle of Bladensburg on the Eastern Branch stream of the Anacostia River in August 1814. Later he was arrested along with several others including Robert Bowie, former 11th Governor of Maryland (1803–06, 1811–12) by retreating British cavalry on orders from Ross who had stayed in his home as headquarters. Later Francis Scott Key (1779–1843), a Georgetown and Frederick lawyer with Col. John S. Skinner, U.S. Prisoner-of-War and Parole Agent went to Baltimore secured a small sailing ship, the Minden, and sailed down the Patapsco River and the Chesapeake Bay to find the British Royal Navy fleet after leaving the Patuxent River, beating up the Bay from their base on Tangier Island, Virginia heading for their attack on the hated "nest of pirates" - Baltimore. After being received and negotiating with General Ross, Admiral Cockburn and their superior, Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, (1758–1832), and showing him some letters written by captured British wounded soldiers testifying to the fair treatment Beanes had given them and tended to them, they agreed to free him but that would be held up until they could celebrate after the Burning of Baltimore following their attack on Fort McHenry and landing troops to the east at North Point. Well, the famous story has been told, how the general was killed prior to the skirmishing at the Battle of North Point on September 12, how the advancing British under successor, Colonel Arthur Brooke led the British regiments to face the 20,000 drafted and volunteer citizens and militia under the command of Major General Samuel Smith, (1752–1839), of the Maryland Militia on the eastern heights of "Loudenschlager's Hill" (later known as "Hampstead Hill" in modern Patterson Park, between Highlandtown and Canton neighborhoods) whose dug-in fortifications and dragged cannon were so numerous that the "Redcoats" halted in their tracks and decided to await the shelling of the fort which guarded the entrances to the Harbor to pass into the inner port and the waterfront of Fells Point. Following the failure of the fort to fall to two days of "the rockets' red glare and the bombs bursting in air" and their flanking troop-loaded barge attack around the west end but driven back by alert artillery seamen at Forts Covington and Babcock in a driving night rainstorm, the British fleet turned about and set sail. Key and his companions Beanes and Skinner who were startled, amazed and emotionally overcome to see a huge 30 by 42 foot banner being raised in the light of the early morning with the distant booming of the morning's gun salute, knew that the fort and the city had held. When they landed at "The Basin" (modern "Inner Harbor") and Key finished up his draft of a new poem "The Defence of Fort McHenry" at the Indian Queen Hotel at West Baltimore and Hanover Streets, (later to be set to music in a few days) and sung lustily through the city, performed on the stage at the famed Holliday Street Theatre, and then soon throughout the state and soon the nation as "The Star Spangled Banner".
In 1851, the sheriff's term was changed from a three-year term to a two-year term.
### 1922–1930: Sheriff and police split
In 1922, the sheriff's term length was extended from two years to four years.
From 1929 to 1930, due to an increase in population and crime, Prince George's County created a separate police department. Prior to this time, laws allowed detectives to be used on loan from the Baltimore City Police Department. The newly created police department allowed the Sheriff's Office to focus its manpower on enforcing orders of the court.
### 1994–2000: Funding cuts and vacancies
From December 12, 1994, to January 2000, the PGSO did not hire any new deputies or civilian employees, leaving the agency with 92 vacant positions that needed to be filled. Over that period, 66 deputies left the agency, some retiring routinely, others leaving due to increased workloads caused by vacant positions. In some cases, deputies worked sixteen hours in one day, eight in courtrooms, and eight serving warrants. In December 1994, the agency had 248 deputies, whereas on January 20, 2000, it only had 192 deputies, with 20 leaving from November 1998 to January 2000. In July 1996, the county government decreased the amount of funding the PGSO was receiving. Unlike the PGPD at the time, the PGSO was not nationally accredited and did not receive accreditation until 2018. Computers were also in short supply, and the few that were in use were outdated and obsolete.
In 1996, the Southern Management Company, a firm responsible for managing residential apartments complexes, filed a lawsuit against the sheriff and the county government, with the plaintiffs alleging that they lost revenue due to the sheriff's office inability to evict tenants who were not paying their rent costs.
In 1998, Alonzo D. Black II was elected sheriff of Prince George's County. He was the first African American to be elected sheriff of Prince George's County.
In January 2000, it was revealed that the PGSO held seized money inside of a safe and did not report it to higher authorities. In response to the news, the county council responded that they did not object to the PGSO's actions.
In February 2000, the county government attempted to gain 57 million dollars from the state government at a courthouse in Charles County, to cover the costs of having sheriff's deputies providing security at a district court since 1971. The state countered that the county was responsible for any of the costs incurred.
In March 2000, the county executive announced 1.4 billion dollar budget for the county's government in the 2001 fiscal year, which included funding increases for the sheriff's office.
### 2000–2002: Intra-departmental politics
At the end of October 2000, the PGSO had 129 deputies.
At the end of October 2001, the PGSO had 125 deputies, down from the previous year.
On August 23, 2002, dozens of members from the Deputy Sheriff's Association issued a vote of no confidence against the incumbent sheriff, Alonzo D. Black, during a meeting at the county's courthouse. The vote, they claimed, was issued due to allegations that the sheriff made against members of the agency, in which he said they were deliberately malingering in order to reflect badly on him. The sheriff rejected the allegations as unfounded and voiced his displeasure over the vote, calling them politically motivated due to their proximity to the primary elections, which was only weeks away at the time.
At the end of October 2002, the PGSO had 124 deputies, down from the previous year.
### 2002: Deputies killed in the line of duty
On the evening of Thursday, August 29, 2002, two PGSO sheriff's deputies, Corporal James Victor "Jim" Arnaud, aged 53, and Deputy Elizabeth "Liz" Licera Magruder, aged 30, were killed in the line of duty while trying to serve an Emergency Petition Service (EPS), a court-ordered psychological evaluation, on James Ramiah Logan, a 23-year-old part-time computer technician, drug dealer, and High Point High School graduate.
#### Background
At approximately 9:30 p.m., on the night of August 29, 2002, Corporal Arnaud and Deputy Magruder arrived at the residence of James Ramiah Logan, a 23-year-old man and convicted felon who lived at his parents' single-story rambler house at 9332 Lynmont Drive in Adelphi, Maryland, near the Buck Lodge Middle School. According to departmental protocol, they were to arrive at the house with a third deputy, however, none were available at the time. They were to serve a petition to have an emergency psychiatric evaluation performed on Logan. Earlier in the day, Logan's wife, Valencia Flood, fearing for her safety and the safety of her children, filed the petition with the judicial system to have her husband receive treatment, saying that Logan was "paranoid" and that he "needs to be hospitalized immediately" as "his condition was worsening". The petition entailed the deputies taking Logan to a hospital, where he would have his psychiatric health examined by medical personnel. A few days earlier, on August 26, Logan had been examined by a psychiatrist, who diagnosed him with paranoid schizophrenia and recommended that he be admitted to a medical institution to receive treatment for his mental health. Logan adamantly believed that he was in sound mental health and refused to consent to any such treatment, and as such, he was not admitted to such an institution and was released.
After the deputies arrived at the man's house, Logan's father, James Logan Sr., a television repairman, led them inside the residence, where Logan was in the basement conducting a Bible study with Anthony Antwan Kromah, a 19-year-old man from Hyattsville, Maryland. Earlier in the month, Logan was released from a St. Mary's County detention center after being arrested and posting a \$25,000 bond. He had been arrested by a Maryland state trooper who had found cocaine, marijuana, and a .38 caliber handgun in Logan's automobile after stopping him as he was driving with Kromah and another man in St. Mary's County. Logan was charged with possession of an illegal controlled substance with the intent to distribute. Logan had also been using cocaine and smoking marijuana earlier in the day.
After the deputies went into the basement, he was asked by Arnaud to come with him, who said to him, "You've got to come and go with me now." However, Logan adamantly refused, saying "I told you, I'm not going with you anywhere." Logan then ran up the staircase and went into his former bedroom, now used as a guest bedroom, and closed the door. Arnaud and Magruder followed him to the room and stood outside the door. Arnaud tried to convince Logan to come out of the room, as Logan's parents and Magruder, who had joined the department in February 2001, stood by, watching. After Logan's parents left the scene and went to the house's master bedroom, Logan became belligerent and uncooperative. Partially hidden behind a closet door, Logan retrieved a semi-automatic 9mm-chambered handgun and fired at Arnaud, where a bullet struck him in the throat and severed his carotid artery. Logan then shot Arnaud fatally in the chest.
Seeing Arnaud felled by gunfire, Magruder, who was wearing body armor, stepped back and drew her sidearm. However, before she could return fire, Logan then shot six bullets at her, one of which struck her in the head, mortally wounding her. Logan then went over to Arnaud and, while standing over his body, shot him four more times, injuring his liver and inducing severe internal bleeding. Arnaud would die from severe gunshot-induced blood loss at the scene, but the mortally wounded Magruder was able to call for assistance over her radio at 9:34 p.m. Logan's father, who was in the house's master bedroom, had heard the gunshots, and thinking that the deputies had shot him, went over to see what had happened. Instead, he saw Logan leaving the house with a firearm in hand, and saw that the two deputies had been shot. Logan's father then called 9-1-1 via telephone at 9:39 p.m. to report the shooting to authorities. Emergency medical technicians arrived and removed Arnaud and Magruder from the house via stretchers. Magruder was airlifted on a medical helicopter to the Prince George's Hospital Center, with CPR being applied on her while en route. However, she would be pronounced dead at the hospital before midnight.
#### Manhunt
After shooting Magruder and killing Arnaud, Logan then fled the scene with Kromah in a silver-painted Dodge Charger with Maryland license plates, with Kromah driving the vehicle. After leaving the house, Kromah took the weapon from Logan and attempted to wipe off any residual evidence, such as fingerprints, from it. The two then disposed of the murder weapon by burying it at a nearby forested cemetery and abandoned the getaway vehicle. Kromah was captured and charged as an accomplice to the murder; he pleaded guilty on April 24, 2003 to being an accessory after the fact to a murder. In the meantime, Logan stayed briefly at the residence of Twyla James, a woman who lived in Largo, Maryland. James would later be arrested and charged as an accessory to murder as she had transported Logan, who she had known was a murder suspect and fugitive sought by legal authorities, to her residence and allowed him to stay there. Logan was apprehended two days after the murder, on August 31, 2002, at a shed near the Quebec Arms Apartments in Hyattsville, Maryland, on the 8200 block of 14th Avenue. He was spotted there by undercover policemen, who had received information that it had been an area that Logan was known to frequent in the past. Logan was found hiding in the shed by policemen, who then used a police canine and a taser to subdue and apprehend him. The firearm believed to be used in the murders was recovered earlier as well.
After his capture, Logan was taken to the Prince George's Hospital Center, where he received stitches and sutures, being treated for canine bites on his ankle and arms. After receiving medical treatment for his injuries, Logan was taken to a police station, where he was interrogated for approximately three-and-a-half hours by Vincent "Vince" Canales, a PGPD detective, where he admitted to the murders. When asked by the detective why he had murdered the deputies, rather than fleeing without killing them, Logan said "I wanted to annihilate them, I couldn't leave them alive". The interrogation was recorded by a camera and stored onto a VHS cassette tape and DVD, the contents of which would later be used in his murder trial as evidence to assist in convicting him. In November 2002, Logan's attorney, Fred Warren Bennett, claimed that Logan could not be held criminally responsible for the murders, due to mental deficiencies and poor psychiatric health. In response, the judiciary mandated that Logan undergo a psychiatric evaluation.
#### Trial
At his trial in late October 2003, Logan's attorney, Fred Warren Bennett, argued that although Logan did kill the deputies, he was not criminally responsible for the killings due to mental illness, and thus, should be acquitted by reason of insanity. However, the state's prosecution argued that any mental deficiencies Logan had were brought about by his usage of illegal narcotics, such as cocaine and marijuana, and as such, he would be legally responsible for the murders.
Ultimately, the jury did not agree with the arguments put forth by Logan's defense attorney and Logan was convicted of second-degree murder on November 10, 2003, after jurors deliberated for ten hours over the span of three days over his fate. A few weeks later, on December 12, 2003, Logan was sentenced by the trial's judge, E. Allen Shepherd, to one hundred years of imprisonment, without the possibility of parole.
Before he was sentenced, Logan apologized to the relatives and comrades of his victims, and asked Shepherd to show mercy in his sentencing him. Shepherd rebuked Logan's pleas for mercy, citing the heinous nature of the crime, which he remarked as being the most callous one that he had ever encountered as a member of the judiciary. Shepherd said to Logan, "I've never experienced a case of a murder more cold-blooded than those that occurred in this case" and "You decided you were going to annihilate those two people".
#### Retrial
Despite his conviction, Logan's attorneys tried to appeal to the courts, with the one-hundred year prison sentence being unanimously upheld by a three-judge judicial panel on June 15, 2004. However, in their decision, the panel granted him the possibility of paroled release after fifty years. However, more than a year later, on September 7, 2005, the conviction was overturned by the Maryland Court of Appeals and Logan was awarded a second trial. The judiciary determined that the investigators had acted with impropriety in the process of obtaining of Logan's confession to the murders by violating Logan's Miranda rights, and by deliberately misleading him in order to obtain a confession. The court also determined that the judiciary's selection process of jurors for the trial had not been rigorous enough and had thus been conducted improperly.
Logan's retrial began in June 2007, with the prosecution unable to use Logan's confession to present its case for conviction, for the judiciary had ruled that it had been obtained with impropriety. In the retrial, the prosecution used the same argument it had used in the original trial back in 2003, arguing that Logan's insanity defense was illegitimate due to his usage of illegal controlled substances. The state's prosecution argued that Logan himself was solely responsible for any deficiencies in his mental health, saying that they were brought about through his consumption of illegal narcotics, such as cocaine and marijuana, the two illegal controlled substances which he had used on the day of the murders. Ultimately, the first attempt at a retrial ended in June 2007 with a mistrial after jurors could not come to a verdict after ten hours of deliberations. On July 1, 2007, Logan's attorney died after being involved in an automobile collision on Route 10 in Glen Burnie, further complicating matters. However, a few months later, Logan was subsequently convicted again after pleading guilty and sentenced to thirty years of imprisonment on October 24, 2007, with credit for the five years he had already served, much to the disappointment of the victims' surviving family members, who felt he deserved a lifelong imprisonment for his crime.
#### Legacy
The murders occurred eleven days before the Maryland Democratic Party's primary election to determine its candidate for the Prince George's County sheriff. As there were no candidates running for sheriff in any other parties, the winner of the primary election would automatically run unopposed in the general election itself. The incumbent sheriff, Alonzo D. Black II, lost nomination and reelection to the union president, Michael A. Jackson, who went on to be elected sheriff. Jackson vowed to implement new measures to prevent a similar incident from occurring in the future.
Arnaud was posthumously promoted to sergeant, and Magruder was posthumously promoted to deputy first class. At the time of his death Arnaud was married to his wife, Theresa, and had several children. At the time of her death, Magruder was married to her husband Derwinn and had a three-year-old son named Devinn.
`In September 2002, Arnaud and Magruder were posthumously honored before the U.S. House of Representatives by U.S. Representative Steny H. Hoyer of Maryland's 5th congressional district.`
The killings helped to spur the passage of a new Maryland state law pertaining to the treatment of the mentally ill, which went into effect on October 1, 2003. The law's creation and passage were spurred in part by testimony from Logan's parents, James Logan Sr. and Karen Logan. The law allows a judge to order a mandatory psychiatric evaluation of a person, if the person presented a threat to themselves or to others.
In March 2017, Logan was considered for release on parole by the state, but was ultimately denied amid opposition from relatives of the victims.
### 2008: Deputy wounded in Laurel
On February 16, 2008, at approximately 3:30 a.m., PGSO SWAT team member, Cpl. Cal Bowers, was shot and critically wounded while serving a warrant as part of a task force with Deputy U.S. Marshals. The suspect, Aaron M. Lowry, was wanted for the shooting of Washington, D.C. police officer Antonio Duncan. Lowry was subsequently shot and killed by police. The injured deputy was flown to Baltimore Shock Trauma Center where he had surgery and was upgraded to serious but stable condition, and survived.
### 2008: Berwyn Heights mayor's residence raid
On July 29, 2008, the PGPD and PGSO raided the home of Cheye Calvo, the mayor of the Town of Berwyn Heights. The raid team did not coordinate their action with the local police department as required by mutual agreement, nor did they did not obtain a warrant or knock on the door to announce their presence. They raided the house with explosive devices and with firearms drawn. During the course of the raid, they shot and killed the Calvo family's two pet Labrador retriever dogs.
No charges were filed against the family. A PGSO internal investigation stated that the PGSO's actions were justified. In 2010, Sheriff Michael A. Jackson, defended the actions taken during the raid, saying: "Quite frankly we'd do it again tonight."
### 2012: Courthouse misconduct
In June 2012, Deputy Lamar McIntyre was convicted of "malfeasance in office," upon having sex with a woman who was in custody at the county courthouse. In 2014, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to three years in custody, with all but one year suspended. He was mandated to be required to submit to eighteen months of supervised probation.
### 2012–present
In 2014, Melvin High was elected to another term as sheriff, and died in office in 2022.
In late 2015, the PGSO received Ford Taurus Police Interceptors for use in its vehicular fleet.
In 2018, the PGSO became nationally accredited for the first time by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc. (CALEA) after more than 18 years of attempting to obtain accreditation. The PGSO's CALEA Team was officially notified of the award on March 24, 2018 in Dallas, Texas. The PGSO's sheriff was awarded the certificate of accreditation by the CALEA Executive Director, Mr. W. Craig Hartley Jr.
## Organization
The sheriff is elected by the citizens of Prince George's County. The rank structure of the remaining members of the Sheriff's Office is, like many U.S. law enforcement agencies, modeled after the U.S. military. The ranks of student deputy through corporal are non-competitive. Sergeant through captain are competitive. The ranks of major, assistant sheriff, and chief assistant sheriff are appointed by, and serve at the discretion of the sheriff.
The PGSO is divided into three bureaus:
### Headquarters
The Prince George's County Sheriff's Office's headquarters was located at the county seat of Upper Marlboro until 2000, when Sheriff Alonzo D. "Al" Black II, moved it to the nearby town of Largo where it remained until August 2008. His successor, Sheriff Michael A. Jackson returned the office headquarters to Upper Marlboro, near the Depot Pond, where it remains today. He was succeeded by Sheriff Melvin C. High in 2010, who was subsequently re-elected in 2014, and passed away in office in 2022. The current sheriff, D.B. Carr, continues to utilize the same facility.
### Bureau of Court Services
The PGSO's Bureau of Court Services is based out of the court complex located within the municipality of Upper Marlboro and is responsible for the safety and security of the circuit court in Upper Marlboro, transportation of inmates, and to provide assistant security and law enforcement services to the District Court in Upper Marlboro and Hyattsville, as well as domestic violence liaison services. The Bureau of Court Services is subdivided into four sections: Circuit Court, District Court, Transportation, and Building Security. Specifically, the bureau is responsible for the safety and security of the 7th Judicial Circuit for the State of Maryland and the District Court for Prince George's County located within the court complexes and adjacent property in Upper Marlboro and Hyattsville. Yearly, between the Circuit Court, District Court, Transportation, and Building Security Sections, the bureau transports an average of 31,000 prisoners, effects 700 warrant and warrantless arrests, and interviews over 8,000 victims of domestic violence.
### Bureau of Field Operations
The PGSO's Bureau of Field Operations was based out of the Largo Substation and is charged with: Civil/Landlord & Tenant, Domestic Violence Intervention Unit (DVIU or DV Unit), Warrant/Fugitive Squad, and Child Support Enforcement. The Civil section is responsible for service of criminal and civil summonses, and other court-ordered writs. The Landlord and Tenant (L&T) Section is responsible for notification of delinquent rent and/or mortgage payments/foreclosures, and court-ordered evictions. The section receives approximately 10,000 writs for non-payment each month.
The Domestic Violence Intervention Unit's primary responsibility is response to domestic-related 9-1-1 calls, court-ordered psychiatric commitments, and ex parte protective order service. The Prince George's DV Unit was the first in the State of Maryland and the first to operate on a 24-hour basis, and is considered a nationally recognized model. The unit receives on average over 1,200 orders per month, the highest in the state.
### Bureau of Administration
The PGSO's Bureau of Administration is based out of the main headquarters located in Upper Marlboro and contains the School Resource, Public Information Office (PIO), Recruiting, Training, and Internal Affairs. The Public Information Office (PIO) also operates an Explorers Post, Prince George's County Sheriff's Office Explorer Post \#1696 for Prince George's County youths between the ages of 15 (or 14, provisionally) and 20. The sheriff and his command staff operate out of the Sheriff's Office complex located in Upper Marlboro. Most of the civilian support personnel also work out of this facility providing administrative duties such as NCIC monitoring, teletype (TTY), uniform and supply, criminal warrant research and organization, as well as other administrative duties as directed.
### Special Operations Division
The PGSO's Special Operations Division (SOD) is responsible for specialized and specific services. The division is commanded by an assistant bureau chief and has different teams specifically responsible for: SST (SWAT)-response, executive and witness protection, riot control, crisis negotiations, intelligence gathering, motorcycle escort, and ceremonial duties.
#### Specialized units
- Specialized Services Team (SST)
- VIP/Witness Protection Team (VIPER)
- Civil Disturbance Unit (CDU)
- K-9
- Motorcycle Unit
- D.A.R.E.
- Hostage Negotiation Team
- Homeland Security and Intelligence
### Union representation
Sworn PGSO personnel below the rank of captain, are represented by the Fraternal Order of Police (FOP), Lodge 112. The FOP is a labor union that provides, among other things, collective bargaining and legal assistance for its members. The current president of the FOP is Gary Yancy.
## Sheriffs
## Line of duty deaths
There have been two PGSO deputy sheriffs killed in the line of duty, both in August 2002.
## Rank structure
## Fleet
The Prince George's County Sheriff's Office currently operates a fleet consisting primarily of sixth-generation Ford Taurus Police Interceptors, ninth generation Chevrolet Impalas and Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptors. It also operates the Ford Police Interceptor Utility, both the post-2013 and post-2016 variants. The PGSO's transportation unit uses specialized Chevrolet and Dodge vans, whereas the motorcycle unit uses Harley-Davidson Police Edition motorcycles. The PGSO also has a Freightliner FS-65 bus.
In the past, the PGSO used eighth generation Chevrolet Impalas, first generation Ford Crown Victorias, fifth generation Pontiac Grand Prix sedans, Jeep Cherokees, as well as a few 1999 to 2001 Chevrolet Luminas.
The current paint scheme of the PGSO's marked cruisers is a white base paint with brown and gold striping with the word "SHERIFF" emblazoned on the side doors. In the past, the PGSO's horizontal vehicular stripe decals were green and gold, with a simple PGSO patch door decal being used before that, along with black "SHERIFF" lettering written in a sans-serif typeface. The light bars used on the PGSO's cars are a slim Whelen Generation II LED version, with red and blue lighting. The Domestic Violence Intervention Unit has all marked vehicles with Panasonic Toughbook computers assigned to the cars.
### Current vehicles
### Past vehicles
## See also
- List of law enforcement agencies in Maryland
- Prince George's County, Maryland
- Prince George's County Police Department |
3,552,855 | Architecture of Norway | 1,167,342,686 | Buildings of Norway | [
"Architecture in Norway",
"Norwegian art",
"Norwegian culture"
]
| The architecture of Norway has evolved in response to changing economic conditions, technological advances, demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts. While outside architectural influences are apparent in much of Norwegian architecture, they have often been adapted to meet Norwegian climatic conditions, including: harsh winters, high winds and, in coastal areas, salt spray.
Norway's architectural trends are also seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries. Prior to the Viking Age, wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant and effective construction of the Viking longships. Following that, the ascent of Christianity introduced Romanesque architecture in cathedrals and churches, with characteristically slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, cruciform piers supporting vaults, and groin vaults; in large part as a result of religious influence from England.
During the Middle Ages, the geography dictated a dispersed economy and population. As a result, the traditional Norwegian farm culture remained strong, and Norway differed from most European countries in never adopting feudalism. This, combined with the ready availability of wood as a building material, ensured that relatively few examples of the Baroque, Renaissance, and Rococo architecture styles so often built by the ruling classes elsewhere in Europe, were constructed in Norway.
Instead, these factors resulted in distinctive traditions in Norwegian vernacular architecture, which have been preserved in existing farms in the many Norwegian open-air museums that showcase buildings from the Middle Ages through to the 19th century; prominent examples include the Norsk Folkemuseum in Oslo and Maihaugen in Lillehammer, as well as extant buildings still in service on farms such as those in the Heidal valley.
In the 20th century, Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand, and innovation on the other. Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work, both within Norway—where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy—and outside Norway, in several innovative projects.
## General features
Construction in Norway has always been characterized by the need to shelter people, animals, and property from harsh weather, including predictably cold winters and frost, heavy precipitation in certain areas, wind and storms; and to make the most of scarce building resources. Until modern times, transportation infrastructure was also primitive, and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials.
## History
### Prehistoric times
Thanks to new digging methods like topsoil excavation, archeologists have been able to further uncover the remains or foundations of 400 prehistoric houses that were previously hidden beneath the ground. Prior to this only 200 sites were immediately visible from the surface layer. Throughout the 20th century, Scandinavian archeologists have also been attempting to reconstruct prehistoric houses. The largest reconstruction project in Norway is the Bronze Age settlement at Forsand in Ryfylke and the Iron Age farm at Ullandhaug close by Stavanger. There's also the rebuild of the large chieftain house from the Viking age at Borg in Lofoten.
Most of our archeological material derives from surveys done in the 20th century, and excavations done in major cities the past 25 years [as of 2003], including other archeological surveys from the 80s and 90s.
The oldest surviving traces of construction in Norway dates back to about 9000 BC, in mountainous regions near Store Myrvatn in contemporary Rogaland, where excavations have found portable dwellings most likely kept by nomadic reindeer hunters. Traces of similar albeit younger tents have also been found other places along the western coast: Kollsnes at Øygarden in Hordaland, on Slettnes, Sørøy, and Mortensnes close by Nesseby in Finnmark, and one dating back to around 6500 BC at Fosenstraumen near Radøy in Hordaland. Stone age hunters must have used such simple tent and turf hut constructions, which in principle could have been very similar to those still in use by Sami nomads, with straight or hook-formed rods. The oldest turf hut had an approximately circle shaped floor plan and was built with two sets of hook latches (rafters that intersect at the roof ridge) which forms roof and walls as one element. For materials they probably used hides and wooden poles.
With time, such tents became semi-permanent through the introduction of a simple foundation, allowing people to stay in one place for longer parts of the year. These "houses" have a diameter of 3–6 meters (9.8–19.7 ft) and covers an area of 20 square meters (220 sq ft), and were found as oval pits that had been cleared for stones. In the centre of the building, there could well have been a fireplace, and a part of the floor could have been covered by a platform on which they could sleep on top of. They were also partly dug into the earth with external ramparts made of earth and stone. Traces of these constructions can be found along the whole coast, but especially in the north: Leksa i Sør-Trøndelag, Flatanger i Nord-Trøndelag, Mortensnes in Finnmark. The most notable of these is located at the Vega archipelago, an area that is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
There have been many instances where several houses have been found together in a cluster. This suggests that multiple family groups that's been living together in the same place. On Vega, such houses were already in use by 7000 BC, and they were still in use 5000 years later, in the transition from the Stone age into the Bronze Age around 1800 BC. At this point, the houses became larger and they gained a rectangular form, covering an area of 70 square meters (750 sq ft), as demonstrated at Gressbakken in Nesseby in Finnmark. Excavations have revealed that the inner walls were protected by thick ramparts of stone and peat, and there is evidence of several entrances through this rampart-wall. The roof construction of these buildings is uncertain, however. It is difficult to conclude whether the rafts rested on the ramparts or on top of posts. Since it is not uncommon to find several fireplaces along the mid axis of the house, it is deduced that multiple families stayed collectively at these larger houses.
The first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BC, with the introduction of agriculture to Norway. Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures. Iron Age dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in long houses in order to preserve heat. Remains of structures from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age and the Iron Age have been excavated at Forsand in Ryfylke, near Stavanger and several other locations. Most prehistoric longhouses had pairs of roof-bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves, and walls of palisades, wattle and daub or turf. Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe.
### Viking and medieval eras
Two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners, a technique thought to have been imported from the peoples to the east of Scandinavia. The other was the stave building tradition (typically found in stave churches), possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric longhouses that had roof-bearing posts dug into the ground. Although there is scant archaeological evidence of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures, finds of Viking ships (e.g., the Oseberg ship) suggest significant mastery of woodworking and engineering. In the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway, a Viking chieftain's holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum.
Not counting the 28 remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are log houses, some with added stave-built galleries or porches.
As the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time. Fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry. These structures followed the European styles of their time.
#### Stave churches
Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages, most of them during the 12th and 13th centuries. Until the beginning of the 19th century, as many as 150 stave churches still existed. Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple, puritan lines, and today only 28 remain, though a large number were documented and recorded by measured drawings before they were demolished.
The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves (posts) to prevent them from rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an advanced art and science. After the Reformation, however, no new stave churches were built. New churches were mainly of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners. Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy, neglect or deterioration, or because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations, and too impractical according to later standards.
### Romanesque architecture
The first stone churches in Norway were Romanesque, built under the influence of Anglo-Saxon missionaries, particularly bishop Nicholas Breakspear. Later churches were influenced by Continental architecture. Examples include the churches at Ringsaker, Kviteseid, and elsewhere. Many of these churches have either been lost or rebuilt in the Gothic style, but numerous examples still exist, notably the Trondenes Church at Trondenesin Troms.
### Gothic architecture
Several churches that were originally built as Romanesque structures were modified or extended during the Gothic period. Among these are the cathedral of Hamar, now in ruins, the Stavanger Cathedral, and the renowned Nidaros Cathedral, one of the most important pilgrim destinations in medieval Europe.
### Under Danish rule
In the late Middle Ages, the Norwegian state was severely weakened. In 1389 Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark and Sweden in the Kalmar Union. As the kings resided in Denmark, Norway was gradually reduced to a provincial status, and after the Reformation most of its separate institutions were abolished. The Danish government in Copenhagen regarded Norway as a backward province to be exploited, but not worthy of investment in monumental architecture. Hence, ambitious Renaissance architecture is unusual in Norway compared to other European countries.
Fortresses, such as Akershus in Oslo, Vardøhus in Vardø, Tønsberghus in Tønsberg, the Kongsgården in Trondheim and Bergenhus with the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen were built in stone in accordance with standards for defensive fortifications of their time. Many of these were modernized and rebuilt through the years.
The Hanseatic League also built unique commercial buildings at Bryggen in Bergen, starting in the 16th century. They were log buildings combining native and German traditions.
#### Renaissance architecture
After the Black Death, monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill, except for vernacular building, only to be resumed in the 16th and 17th centuries under Danish administration. There are few examples of Renaissance architecture in Norway, the most prominent being the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen, Barony Rosendal in Hardanger, and the contemporary Austråt manor near Trondheim, and parts of Akershus Fortress.
Christian IV undertook a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on Renaissance architecture He established mining operations in Kongsberg and Røros, now a World Heritage Site. After a devastating fire in 1624, the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts, and renamed Christiania. King Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand, naming it after himself.
#### Baroque architecture
As Norway became a strategic part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, Danish kings built fortifications along borders and the seacoast. Over time, many of the fortifications at border areas and ports were modernized in line with Baroque military practice.
Although most residences were built according to local vernacular traditions, some manors (such as Austråt and Rosendal) exhibit the influence of Baroque architecture. Only the city of Christiania (Oslo) had a building code that prohibited wooden houses, and a number of large town houses modeled after Continental building types were constructed. Some large churches were constructed with brick walls, notably in Bergen, Christiania, Røros and Kongsberg.
Probably the most famous Baroque structure in Norway is Stiftsgården, the Royal residence in Trondheim, a residential building that is one of the largest wooden structure in Northern Europe.
#### Rococo architecture
Rococo provided a brief but significant interlude in Norway, appearing primarily in the decorative arts, and mainly in interiors, furniture and luxury articles such as table silver, glass and stoneware. In some country districts, folk artists produced the distinctly Norwegian craft of decorative painting, rosemaling, and related wood carving style. In polite architecture, a few wooden town houses and manors show rococo influence, notably in Trondheim and Bergen, Damsgård Manor in Bergen being the most significant.
In towns and central country districts during the 18th century, log walls were increasingly covered by weatherboards, a fashion made possible by sawmill technology. These buildings were better insulated and better protected against the harsh climate. But the main reason for the rapid adoption of this custom was the more fashionable appearance of boarded walls, which were more suitable than bare log walls as a background to details and ornaments borrowed from classical architecture.
### 19th century
The Napoleonic Wars led to the separation of Norway and Denmark. Norway was restored in 1814 as an autonomous kingdom in a personal union with Sweden. The two states had separate institutions, except for the king and the foreign service. Regained statehood required new public buildings, mainly in the capital of Christiania. During the following century, the country experienced impressive growth in wealth and population, resulting in a need for new infrastructure and buildings.
#### Neo-classicism
At the dawn of the 19th century, less than a handful of academically trained architects were active in Norway, most of them military officers having studied civil engineering. The market for architects was limited in a sparsely inhabited country with no capital city, no court and no important government institutions. Architecture was of interest mainly to a limited group of wealthy merchants and landowners. However, toward the close of the previous century, this group saw a remarkable increase in prosperity. Large fortunes were made by a few, who then sought to surround themselves with buildings and gardens appropriate to their social position. Well connected internationally, these people were acquainted with the latest trends in architecture. Neoclassical structures were much in demand.
Architect Carl Frederik Stanley (1769–1805), educated in Copenhagen, spent some years in Norway around the turn of the 19th century. He did minor works for wealthy patrons in and around Oslo, but his major achievement was the renovation of the only seat of higher education in Christiania, the Oslo Katedralskole, completed in 1800. He added a classical portico to the front of an older structure, and a semi-circular auditorium that was sequestered by Parliament in 1814 as a temporary place to assemble, now preserved at Norsk Folkemuseum as a national monument.
Christian Collett (1771–1833), a graduate of the Mining Academy at Kongsberg, designed the splendid Ulefoss manor, built between 1802 and 1807 by sawmill owner Niels Aall. This is one of the few brick houses in Norway, boasting a palladian layout, a central cupola, and a classical colonnade. Collett designed several other manors and town houses.
The same period saw the erection of a large number of splendid neo-classicist houses in and around all towns along the coast, notably in Halden, Oslo, Drammen, Arendal, Bergen and Trondheim, mainly wooden buildings dressed up as stone architecture. By far the largest private house in Norway is the Jarlsberg manor, renovated 1812–14 by the Danish architect Løser for count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg.
Christiania, promoted to the status of a capital city in 1814, had practically no buildings suitable for the many new government institutions. An ambitious building program was initiated, but realised very slowly because of a strained economy. The first major undertaking was the Royal Palace, designed by Hans Linstow and built between 1824 and 1848. Linstow also planned Karl Johans gate, the avenue connecting the Palace and the city, with a monumental square halfway to be surrounded by buildings for the university, the Parliament (Storting) and other institutions. But only the university buildings were realised according to this plan. Christian Heinrich Grosch, one of the first fully educated architects in Norway, designed the original building for the Oslo Stock Exchange (1826–1828), the local branch of the Bank of Norway (1828), Christiania Theatre (1836–1837), and the first campus for the University of Oslo (1841–1856). For the university buildings, he sought the assistance of the renowned German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
The German architectural influence persisted in Norway, and many wooden buildings followed the principles of Neoclassicism.
#### Romanticism and historicism
Norwegian romantic nationalism also had an influence on Norwegian architecture from around 1840. Following the German lead, many classicist architects designed red-brick buildings in a revival of medieval styles. Romanesque and Gothic examples were considered eminently suitable for churches, public institutions and factories. Linstow was the first Norwegian architect to be inspired by the Middle Ages in his proposal of 1837 for a square to be surrounded by public building, bisected by an avenue between Christiania and the new Royal Palace. On the north side, planned buildings for the university were to be "composed in some Medieval or Florentine style", with exposed brick-work. His classicist colleague Grosch was the first to convert to historicism and realize a number of red-brick buildings, after his 1838 visit to Berlin, where he met the famous architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The first major historicist work by Grosch was the neo-romanesque Bazaars and the adjacent fire station near the Oslo Cathedral, begun in 1840 and extended in several stages until 1859. Other architects followed, notably Heinrich Ernst Schirmer with the Botsfengselet (penitentiary) (1844–1851), the Gaustad Hospital (1844–1855) and the Railway Station (1854) (with von Hanno). Also in Oslo, the German architect Alexis de Chateauneuf (1799-1853) designed Trefoldighetskirken, the first neo-gothic church, completed by von Hanno in 1858.
Most urban apartment buildings and villas continued to be built in the classical tradition, with plastered brick walls. The repertoire of historic styles was expanded in Homansbyen, Oslo's first residential development of detached villas, planned by Georg Andreas Bull. He designed most of the early villas built from 1858 until 1862 in a variety of styles, ranging from medieval to classicist and exotic.
From around 1840, architects started to design wooden buildings in a new style, the so-called Swiss chalet style. The style and its name originated in Germany, where Swiss popular culture was much admired by the romanticists. Elements such as projecting roofs, verandas and emphasis on gables were inspired from Alpine vernacular buildings. But the style may more correctly be termed historicism in wood, a term introduced by Jens Christian Eldal. A number of residential, institutional, and commercial buildings were built in this style, characterized by ornate, projecting details. Railway stations and churches, designed by trained architects, were distributed all in rural districts and helped to make this style popular and to keep it alive in the vernacular tradition long after it went out of fashion among architects.
The Swiss chalet-style evolved into a Scandinavian variation, known in Norway as the "dragon style”, which combined motifs from Viking and medieval art with vernacular elements from the more recent past. The most renowned practitioner of this style was the architect Holm Hansen Munthe, who designed a number of tourist resorts, exhibition pavilions and churches in the 1880s and 1890s. These caught the eye of the German emperor Wilhelm II, who visited Norway annually. He commissioned Munthe to design his "Matrosenstation" near Potsdam and a hunting lodge with a "stave church" in Rominten in East Prussia. These last buildings were destroyed during World War II.
Architects abandoned both the "Swiss" and the "dragon" styles shortly after 1900, but elements of the "Swiss style" survived in vernacular buildings for some decades. In the recent past, producers of pre-fabricated family homes have increasingly reintroduced motifs from the "Swiss" style in their repertoire.
### Vernacular architecture
Until the 20th century, most Norwegians lived and worked in buildings that were designed and built according to vernacular building traditions, what in Norwegian is known as byggeskikk. These practices varied somewhat by region and climatic conditions and evolved over time, but were largely based on use of wood and other locally available resources.
Since the Middle Ages, most dwellings were log houses with notched corners, carefully crafted to ensure protection against the elements. Centrally placed open-hearth fires with smoke vents in the roofs gave way to stone stoves and chimneys in early modern times. Specialized buildings became commonplace, organized around farmyards or gårdstun. The introduction of exterior boarding (weatherboarding) in the 18th century improved housing standards considerably and gave rise to larger houses.
Building practices along the coast also included boathouses, fishing cottages, piers, etc. Here, houses for livestock and people were typically built up from the actual shoreline. A typical medium-sized farm in the inland of Norway would include a dwelling house (våningshus), hay barn (låve), livestock barn (fjøs), one or more food storage houses (stabbur), a stable, and occasionally separate houses for poultry, pigs, etc. Houses that had separate heat sources, e.g., washing houses (eldhus) and smithies were usually kept separate from the other houses to prevent fires. Outhouses were typically separate, small structures. If the farm housed craftsmen, there would also be separate houses for carpentry, wheel making, shoemaking, etc.
In Eastern inland Norway and Trøndelag, the houses around a tun were typically organized in a square (firkanttun); in Gudbrandsdal, there was a distinction between inntun (inner tun) and uttun (outer tun). The configuration of houses also depended on whether the farm was situated on a hill or in flatter terrain.
Depending upon the size and economic well-being of the farm, there might also be a feast hall (oppstue), a house for the retired farmers (føderådstue), farm hands' dormitory (drengstue), carriage house (vognskjul), and even distillery (brenneskur). Smaller, poorer farms might combine barns and dwelling houses, have simpler storage areas, and use the facilities of other farms for activities they could not afford to build houses for.
Building traditions varied by region and type of structure. Food storage houses – stabbur – were usually built on stilts in ways that made it difficult for mice and rats, but not cats, to get in. Exterior cladding varied by region, often to take into account local climate conditions. Roofs were often covered with birch bark and sod.
Many places in Norway farms also maintained mountain farms (seter/støl), where cows, goats, and sheep would put out to pasture during the summer months. These would typically include a small dwelling house and a dairy for making and storing cheese, sour cream, etc.
Modern Norwegian farms often maintain many building traditions but no longer need the many and varied buildings of the past. However, many of the traditions have been carried on in more recently built vacation cabins in the mountains and along the coast.
### 20th-century architecture
The German influence brought into Norway by neo-classicism abated when Norway gained full independence in 1905. A new generation of Norwegian architects educated in Sweden took the lead in developing a distinctly national architecture, endeavouring to break the German historicist tradition. However, German modernism and town planning continued to influence early 20th-century architecture. As the Norwegian Institute of Technology was founded in 1910 and began to teach architecture in Trondheim, there also emerged a distinctly Norwegian collegium of architects that has contributed to a Norwegian regional architecture, discussed by the art historian Sigfried Giedeon.
#### Art Nouveau architecture
The Jugendstil, a variant of Art Nouveau, had a certain influence on much of the new construction in Norway around the turn of the 20th century. The city of Ålesund, after burning to the ground in 1904, was rebuilt almost entirely in this style and continues to be a prominent example, along with Riga and Brussels. Trondheim also has numerous art nouveau buildings. In the capital Oslo, few art nouveau buildings were erected, due to a local economic crisis and a stagnant building trade during the first decade of the century. However, some public buildings were constructed in this style, such as the Historical Museum and the Government office building. In Bergen, the main theatre Den Nationale Scene is a monumental example.
#### Mass residential architecture
Changing demographics and a growing social awareness led to increased political and architectural interest in providing cost-effective, sanitary, and comfortable residential space to the growing urban population in general and the working class in particular. This was known as boligsaken ("the housing cause") in Norwegian popular culture and continues to play a role to this day.
Not unlike other countries during the evolution of their economies, Architecture became a tool for and manifestation of social policy, with architects and politicians determining just what features were adequate for the intended residents of housing projects. As late as in 1922, there were many who felt that working-class families had no need for their own bath; apartments and small houses only included a small kitchen and one or two rooms.
Before World War II, a number of cooperative investment projects known as "egne hjem" (roughly "our own homes") resulted in a handful of developments, but after the war these gave way to cooperative organizations that were formed to finance and build large-scale residential complexes. The largest—Oslo Bolig og Sparelag, known as OBOS—built its first complex Etterstad in Oslo, but there were similar initiatives throughout the country. These co-ops set standards for housing, hired architects to design solutions, and contracted to have them built. Entire sections, known as drabantbyer—or "satellite cities"—were built in the outskirts of major cities. The first of these, Lambertseter, introduced an entirely new phenomenon in the eastern areas of Oslo such as in Groruddalen, but similar areas also emerged in Bergen, Trondheim, and other cities. The apex of this trend was reached in 1966 with the massive buildings in Ammerudlia.
This era—which had spent most of its force by the mid-1970s—led to an increased awareness of the physical and emotional needs of city dwellers. Some of the issues under debate were.
- Kitchen – traditional Norwegian homes combined the family room and kitchen, but in early apartment buildings, small, so-called "laboratory kitchens" were popular. Over time, eat-in-kitchens took their place.
- Natural light – large apartment buildings were oriented to provide sunlight to the residents, ideally orienting the kitchen toward the east to get the morning light and the living room to the west for evening light.
- Privacy – providing separate sleeping quarters for parents and children, and among children led to larger apartments over time. Similarly, most buildings had a limited number of apartments adjoining each staircase.
- Alienation – monolithic, homogenous apartment complexes reinforced what some characterized as "social democracy's hell."
The perceived shortcomings of the mass housing movement led to efforts to create cost-effective housing solutions that were more varied, more integrated with natural surroundings, and above all more customized to families' needs. In 1973, the Parliament of Norway recommended a shift toward small residential houses rather than large apartment buildings. The Norwegian State Housing Bank (Husbanken) provided citizens with the ability to fund construction of their homes, and an entire construction industry formed to build these needs.
As a result of the pioneering efforts by Olav Selvaag and others, archaic and otherwise unnecessary restrictions were relaxed, improving opportunities for more Norwegians to build housing to suit their individual needs and preferences. Norwegians often undertake home improvement projects on their own, and many have built most of their own homes.
#### Functionalism
In the late 1920s, Modernism (or the International style) was taken up by Scandinavian architects. In Scandinavia this architectural trend was called Functionalism (or colloquially in Sweden and Norway "funkis"). Modernism found many adherents among young architects, especially in Norway. Its definite breakthrough was the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930, after which the majority of architects all over Scandinavia converted to the modern movement. Nowhere else did Modernism become so firmly established as the mainstream trend in architecture. It maintained its dominant position until about 1940.
A number of landmark structures, particularly in Oslo, were built in the functionalist style, the first one being the Skansen restaurant (1925–1927) by Lars Backer, demolished in 1970. Backer also designed the restaurant at Ekeberg, opened in 1929. The art gallery Kunstnernes Hus by Gudolf Blakstad and Herman Munthe-Kaas (1930) still shows influence from the preceding classicist trend of the 1920s. Hvalstrand bath (1934) is one of several public seaside bath facilities in Norway, by André Peters. A year before, Ingierstrand Bad was designed by Ole Lind Schistad (1891–1979) and Eivind Moestue(1893–1977). Other great names of Norwegian functionalist architecture are Ove Bang, Maja Melandsø, Fridtjof Reppen, Nicolai Beer (1885–1950) and Per Grieg (1897–1962).
#### Reconstruction architecture
Following the scorched earth tactics of retreating Wehrmacht troops, large areas in Northern Norway needed to be rebuilt. In 1945, there was an overwhelming need for housing. An architectural competition produced several designs for simple, cost-effective, and rapidly assembled housing. The resulting houses were spartan and broke with building standards, but met an immediate need for shelter.
The Museum of Reconstruction in Hammerfest is dedicated to the reconstruction.
#### Government-sponsored architecture
As Norway gained full independence in 1905, the national government determined to establish institutions consistent with the newly formed state's ambitions as a modern society. The first prime minister made it a priority to modernize the Royal Palace in Oslo, building among other things, some of the country's first water toilets, providing hot and cold water, and granting the Royal Family's wish of providing a common apartment for the king, queen, and their son.
In the early years, such public works were limited to structures needed for the national government's own administrative needs, but an increasing number of large-scale projects were conceived, designed, and completed since 1905 to meet various needs, such as:
- Public health and welfare, including:
- Hospital complexes and polyclinical facilities, e.g., Rikshospitalet, Haukeland University Hospital, Gaustad Hospital, etc.
- Orphanages, later vacated in favor of other solutions that in turn required their own architecture.
- Sanatoria, also vacated as the public health problem of tuberculosis was solved
- Temporary and provisional housing for the indigent, asylum seekers, and homeless.
- Sports and recreation facilities. Social policy in Norway both at the national and local level has emphasized the connection between athletics at the mass and elite levels, and athletic centers have typically been built both to accommodate spectators, participants, and training. As an example, the Holmenkollen ski jump has been rebuilt several times, the Bislett Stadion was rebuilt in 2004–2005, and virtually every municipality has built year-round facilities.
- Centers for cultural expression. Some of the most ambitious and controversial structures have been those dedicated to performing arts, art museums, and any combination of such activities. Since many of these have been built in cities with an architectural legacy, their designs have sought—more or less successfully—to complement the urban landscape by giving it a modern element. Examples include the Henie-Onstad Art Centre (by Jon Eikvar and Sven Erik Engebretsen), Chateau Neuf by Lund & Slaatto, the "barn" at Hedmarkmuseet by Sverre Fehn, and the Grieg Hall (by Knud Munk).
- Churches. The Norwegian State Church, holding the legacy of nearly one thousand years of Norwegian church architecture, commissioned new churches that covered a wide range of architectural styles, including entirely new designs (e.g. the Arctic Cathedral by Jan Inge Hovig) to new casts of traditional designs (e.g., Veldre church, by Roar Jacobsen and Ulf Zettersten.)
- Transportation infrastructure, including bridges, tunnels, and most notably transit centers for rail, sea, and air transportation. Oslo airport (by the Aviaplan consortium at Gardermoen) was Norway's largest construction project ever.
The architectural designs of these projects have reflected not only the style currents of their time, but the societal debate over the purpose they were intended to serve. Nationalistic ambitions early on gave way to austere designs based on functionalism, and then to designs that emphasized human and ecological needs. To a great extent, Norwegian architects have found the opportunity to develop their signature styles through these projects, and thereby also a Norwegian architectural dialect.
Many of the projects have been controversial, and the resulting creative tension has probably served to advance the state of architectural arts in Norway. National and local governments and governmental institutions will continue to be among the largest customers of architects in coming years.
## Contemporary themes
A number of trends influence contemporary architecture in Norway, among them:
- Growing public and private affluence. Buildings have a wider range of purpose, and are expected to meet increasingly complex demands. For example, the new opera building (designed by Snøhetta) in Oslo reflects an ambition not just to build a vibrant cultural center, but also to create a new architectural icon in the Oslofjord.
- Aesthetics as a factor of well-being. From the early austere principle that form should strictly follow function, there is a growing sensibility that aesthetics affect the physical and emotional health of those who use a building or structure. Norwegian laws concerning occupational health have for several decades emphasized access to daylight and fresh air, and it may also be that harsh climatic conditions create an added imperative for uplifting aesthetics.
- Environmental concerns. In addition to concerns about air and water pollution, Norwegian architectural design has also emphasized integration with the natural landscape. More recently, architects have also worked with engineers to make the most out of scarce resources, e.g., energy, water, etc.
- Demographic diversity. Norwegian demographics have undergone significant changes the last few decades, resulting in new religious buildings
- Norwegian building traditions. While it may be too much to speak of a renaissance in traditional Norwegian architecture, more and more urban planning is affected by the need to preserve or restore these traditions. Examples include plans to renew the center of Oppdal and recent work at the Oslo neighborhood of Grünerløkka.
A number of architectural prizes are awarded in Norway, including the Houen Foundation Award, Treprisen, Statens byggeskikkpris, Sundts premie, Betongelementprisen, Betongtavlen, Glassprisen, Murverksprisen, Stenprisen, and Stålkonstruksjonsprisen.
## See also
- Churches in Norway
- Norske arkitekters landsforbund
## References and notes
### Books
- Bjørn Myhre, Bjarne Stoklund, Per Gjærder: Vestnordisk byggeskikk gjennom 2000 år. Tradisjon og forandring fra romertiden til 19. århundre. AmS skrifter nummer 7, Stavanger
- Eilert Sundt: Om bygningsskikken på landet i Norge. 1862.
- Christian Norberg-Schulz: Modern Norwegian Architecture. 1986. Oslo. Scandinavian University Press.
- Christian Norberg-Schulz: Stedskunst. 1995. Oslo. Gyldendal.
- Ole Daniel Bruun: Arkitektur i Oslo. 1999. Oslo. Kunnskapsforlaget. |
28,013,959 | Lactarius repraesentaneus | 1,171,911,110 | Species of fungus | [
"Fungi described in 1885",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of North America",
"Lactarius"
]
| Lactarius repraesentaneus, commonly known as the northern bearded milkcap, the northern milkcap, or the purple-staining milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It has a northerly distribution, and is found in temperate regions of North America and Europe, associated with spruce trees. Distinguishing features of its fruit body include the large orange-yellow cap up to 18 cm (7.1 in) wide, cream to pale yellow gills, and a yellow coarsely-pitted stem that is up to 12 cm (4.7 in) long and 3 cm (1.2 in) thick. Cut fruit bodies ooze a white latex that will stain mushroom tissue lilac to purple. Several chemicals have been isolated and identified from the fruit bodies that can modify the growth of plants, and the mushroom also has antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus aureus. L. repraesentaneus is poisonous, and consumption causes stomach aches.
## Taxonomy
Lactarius repraesentaneus was first described by German mycologist Max Britzelmayr in 1885, based on material collected from Bavaria. The variety Lactarius scrobiculatus var. repraesentaneus, proposed by Killermann in 1933, is considered a synonym. Rolf Singer in 1942 defined the subspecies L. repraesentaneus ssp. speciosus to include fruit bodies with matted fibers ("felt") arranged in concentric rings on the cap (zonate), in comparison with the nominate subspecies, where in young specimens the felt was evenly distributed on the cap surface, only becoming zonate at the cap margins in maturity.
According to the classification proposed by Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their 1979 monograph of North American Lactarius species, L. repraesentaneus belongs in the stirps Speciosus of the section Aspideini, of the subgenus Piperites of genus Lactarius. Other species in stirps Speciosus include L. dispersus, L. subtorminosus, and L. speciosus, all of which have a hairy cap edge. Singer's 1986 classification of the Agaricales does not divide subsection Aspideini into stirpes, instead grouping Lactarius repraesentaneus with L. aspideus, L. uvidus, L. luridis, L. psammicola, and L. speciosus.
The mushroom is commonly known as the "northern bearded milkcap", the "northern milkcap", or the "purple-staining milkcap". The specific epithet repraesentaneus is Latin for "well-represented".
## Description
The cap of L. repraesentaneus is 6–18 cm (2.4–7.1 in) wide, convex to broadly funnel-shaped. The margin (the edge of the cap) is conspicuously bearded on young specimens. The cap surface is faintly zoned to azonate, with a thin layer of matted fibers, often becoming scurfy with age. It is dry to somewhat sticky, light yellow to orange-yellow, sometimes with rusty tints when older. The attachment of the gills to the stem is slightly decurrent—running slightly down the length of the stem. The gills are moderately broad, close to crowded, sometimes forked near the stem. Normally a cream to pale ochraceous color, they will stain dull lilac to purple when bruised.
The stem is 5–12 cm (2.0–4.7 in) long, 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) thick, nearly equal in width throughout or enlarged downward, hollow at maturity, sticky to dry, scrobiculate (coarsely pitted), pale yellow to orange-yellow, and stains dull lilac to purple. The flesh is firm, brittle, white, and will stain dull lilac to purple when cut. The odor is sometimes faintly fragrant or not distinctive, but when the mushroom is dry it smells intensely of soap. Its taste is mild to slightly acrid or somewhat bitter, and the flavor has been compared to sweet flag (Acorus calamus). The abundant amount of latex produced by the mushroom is white to cream, unchanging, staining all tissues dull lilac to purple. It tastes mild to slightly acrid or somewhat bitter. The spore print is yellowish. The fruit bodies are considered poisonous and consumption will cause stomach aches, but the nature of the toxic agents has not been identified.
A new form, Lactarius repraesentaneus f. immutabilis, was described from Le Sappey, in the Haute-Savoie department of southeastern France in 2011. It differs in the staining reaction of its injured flesh.
The spores are 8–12 by 6.5–9 μm, broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid, ornamented with warts and ridges that do not form a reticulum, prominences up to 0.8 μm high, hyaline, and amyloid. The cap cuticle is an ixocutis—with the hyphae embedded in a slimy or gelatinized layer.
### Similar species
Lactarius repraesentaneus is similar in appearance to Lactarius scrobiculatus, which has latex that turns yellow when exposed to air, a different smell, a stinging flesh and a different reaction of the milk to alkali: in L. scrobiculatus the milk turns reddish-orange while that of L. representaneus does not change color. Lactarius uvidus also has a violet reaction but it has a different color and is not hairy at the margin of the cap. L. flavidus has a yellowish cap but does not have a hairy margin.
## Habitat and distribution
Like other Lactarius species, L. repraesentaneus is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, forming a sheath of tissue. This enables the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and affords the tree greater access to soil nutrients. The fruit bodies of L. repraesentaneus are found scattered or in groups on the ground under spruce from August to September. The fungus is distributed in higher elevations in the northern USA and southern Canada where spruce is present. It has also been reported from Alaska, California, and the Rocky Mountains. The frequency of its appearance is described as occasional to fairly common. In Europe, where it is fairly rare, it is found mainly underneath sallows (Salix capraea) in forests at the foot of mountains on non-calcareous soil. It has been collected in Czechoslovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, the French Alps and England; overall, it is widely distributed throughout the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. The fungus has also been collected under birch (B. pubescens, B. nana, and B. glandulosa) in Greenland.
## Bioactive compounds
Lactarius repraesentaneus was reported to have antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus aureus in 1947. The substance responsible for the antibacterial activity, determined to be heat-sensitive, was not identified. A number of chemicals have been isolated and identified from L. repraesentaneus that can regulate the growth of plants. The chemicals, in a class called sesquiterpenoids are named repraesentin A, and two related sesquiterpenes, namely repraesentins B and C. These compounds were shown to promote the radicle elongation of lettuce seedlings by 136%, 118% and 184% at 67 ppm, respectively. Other compounds reported in 2006 are repraesentins D, E, and F. Repraesentin E showed the strongest growth promotion activity, 164% at 3.6 μm, of the three compounds toward the radicle elongation of lettuce seedlings.
## See also
- List of Lactarius species
## Cited text |
3,605,255 | The Last Temptation of Homer | 1,154,796,838 | null | [
"1993 American television episodes",
"Cultural depictions of Isaac Newton",
"Television episodes about adultery",
"The Simpsons (season 5) episodes"
]
| "The Last Temptation of Homer" is the ninth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 9, 1993. In the episode, a female employee named Mindy is hired at the nuclear power plant. Homer and Mindy find themselves attracted to each other after bonding over their shared interests of beer, donuts and television. Although Homer is tempted to sleep with Mindy, he remains faithful to his wife Marge. Meanwhile, Bart becomes an outcast after medical treatments make him look like a nerd.
The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza. It features cultural references to films such as The Wizard of Oz, It's A Wonderful Life, and A Christmas Carol. It did not get the usual amount of laughs at the test screenings, which made the staff worry the show was not as funny as they expected.
Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics; guest star Michelle Pfeiffer was especially praised for her performance as Mindy, which was highlighted on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.7, and was the highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired.
## Plot
After Homer and his coworkers barely escape from a gas leak at the nuclear power plant, Homer's coworker is fired when he asks Mr. Burns to put in a real emergency exit after the one they had turned out to be painted on the wall. When Burns breaks numerous labor laws in hiring a replacement — such as hiring undocumented workers and ducks — the United States Department of Labor demands that he hire at least one female worker. A beautiful woman, Mindy Simmons, is hired and Homer falls in love with her. Barney advises Homer to talk to Mindy because they will most likely have nothing in common. To his horror, Homer finds they have exactly the same interests. Marge gets sick with a bad cold, which makes her unattractive to Homer.
Bart is sent to an eye doctor, who finds Bart has a lazy eye and fits him with thick glasses he must wear for two weeks. A dermatologist treats Bart's dry scalp by matting his hair down with a medicated salve, parting his hair to both sides. He receives a pair of oversized shoes from the podiatrist to help his posture, and the otolaryngologist sprays his throat. These changes make Bart look and sound like a nerd, causing school bullies to pick on him. Bart eventually returns to school in his normal guise after his treatments end, but the bullies pummel him anyway.
Homer decides to tell Mindy they should avoid each other because of their mutual attraction. However, they are chosen to represent the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant at the National Energy Convention in Capital City. After a romantic dinner as an award for winning the convention, Homer and Mindy return to their hotel room. Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him, but assures him that he can decide how far their relationship will go. Although he is very tempted by her, Homer declares his faithfulness to Marge. Mindy accepts his decision and leaves after they share a kiss. Later, Marge and Homer share a romantic evening together in the same room.
## Production
The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza. The idea was conceived by the then-show runner David Mirkin. When he was hired to work on The Simpsons, one of his goals was to study the aspect of Homer's character if he was "really tempted away" from Marge. Mirkin wanted to find out what would happen in a situation where Homer finds himself attracted to another woman. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening had previously written an episode for the show's third season, called "Colonel Homer", where Homer finds himself attracted to a country singer named Lurleen Lumpkin. In that episode, Lurleen immediately had a "crush" on Homer, but Homer was not aware of it until later on. With this episode, Mirkin wanted Homer to immediately know he was attracted to Mindy. Mirkin thought it was a "great exploration" to see what happened to Homer in this particular case.
The episode did not get the usual amount of laughs at the animatic test screening, which made the staff worry it was not as funny as they expected. Mirkin said it had to do with the fact that because there were very "subtle" performances in the episode, the animation had to be "exactly right" for it to be funny. Baeza and David Silverman, another animation director on the show, worked "hard" on the episode. Mirkin said from the very beginning it was a "huge group effort" from both the writing and the animation staff.
Many scenes in the animatic portrayed Mindy as flirty. Mirkin did not like this because the secret of the episode was Homer and Mindy are two good people who are thrown into the situation and "can't help that their libidos are going crazy upon seeing each other". He added that the two characters have "so much in common" that it is "not just a physical relationship, but a mental connection as well", and that Mindy is not a seductress but rather a woman just as nervous as Homer. Mirkin also pointed out that while Homer is being tempted by a "seemingly perfect" woman at work, his wife could not be more "imperfect" since she has got a cold and looks sick. "He's trying to connect with his family, but with Marge looking sick and Bart looking like a nerd, everything is just not working," Mirkin said.
American actress Michelle Pfeiffer provided the voice of Mindy Simmons in the episode. All the writers showed up at the recording studio in West Los Angeles to see her record her lines. When Pfeiffer entered the room with her daughter, Pfeiffer was "mobbed" by the energy of the writers and directors, who were excited to see her. Mirkin, who directed Pfeiffer in the studio, was nervous because he thought she was a beautiful woman who was on a "completely different level" than the other actors and actresses he had directed on the show. Pfeiffer was also nervous because she had never voiced an animated character. Mirkin told her: "You're gonna love this more than anything you have ever done because it's calm and pleasant, and we have so much time to play and experiment." This helped her calm down and by the end of the session, she was "really relaxed" and they had a "fantastic" time.
Silverman told Pfeiffer to not sound too flirty, and that she should just act herself. In one scene in the episode, Mindy drools as she eats doughnuts, much like Homer does. To get the right drool sound, Pfeiffer put broccoli and water in her mouth. Mirkin said he did not have to give much direction during the recording of Homer and Mindy's final scene together, in which Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him. Pfeiffer "hit it really well" and they did it several times to get it "more and more real". Mirkin also thought that Pfeiffer completely understood the part and played it perfectly. He described her as "one of those actresses that you don't even have to see to know they're great, instead you can hear from her voice what a brilliant actress she is." Dan Castellaneta was also praised by Mirkin for his performance as Homer. Castellaneta struggled to be "sweet" and "moving" in his performance.
When Homer calls a marriage counseling hotline in the episode, he accidentally knocks himself unconscious in the phone booth. In a dream, he is approached by his guardian angel. The angel initially takes the form of Isaac Newton, but since Homer has no idea who that is, instead takes the form of Colonel Klink, then shows Homer what his life would be like without Marge (in the style of It's A Wonderful Life). Colonel Klink is a character on the American television series Hogan's Heroes. Klink's actor in Hogan's Heroes, Werner Klemperer, provided the voice of Klink in this episode. Mirkin said Klemperer was a "fantastic sport" to do the character. Since Hogan's Heroes had gone off the air in 1971, he had forgotten how to play Klink. Mirkin therefore had to do an impression of Klink that Klemperer could imitate to get it right. This cameo was Klemperer's last credited role before his death in 2000.
## Cultural references
The title is a reference to the 1988 film "The Last Temptation of Christ". When Homer first meets Mindy, he imagines her as Venus in Sandro Botticelli's painting The Birth of Venus. To deal with Homer and Mindy charging room service to the company, Mr. Burns unleashes flying monkeys in the manner of the Wicked Witch of the West, as seen in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. However, the attempt fails as the monkeys all fall to their deaths. The scene where Homer meets his guardian angel in the guise of Isaac Newton (who changes into Colonel Klink from Hogan's Heroes because Homer has no idea who Newton is), wondering what his life would have been like if he married Mindy and not Marge, draws from the films It's A Wonderful Life and A Christmas Carol. When Homer meets Mindy in the elevator, he thinks "unsexy thoughts" to avoid being seduced by her. He imagines Barney in a bikini and humming the theme tune to the American sitcom I Dream of Jeannie. At home, Homer watches a TV show about the 'secret affairs' of Kennedy, Eisenhower, Bush and Clinton. Homer attempts to read the notes for Mindy that he wrote on his hand, but they have smeared out because of sweat. In his attempt, Homer unknowingly babbles the Nam Myoho Renge Kyo, a Japanese Buddhist chant in Nichiren Buddhism and Soka Gakkai. This is a reference to an Akbar and Jeff cartoon, written by Matt Groening, in which the same mantra is used. When Homer notices the sweat, he says he is "sweating like [film critic] Roger Ebert". In the bathroom, Homer sings a rough version of the song "Mandy" by Barry Manilow, replacing "Mandy" with "Mindy"; when Homer panics upon realizing Lisa heard him singing and tries to cover the song up, Lisa glumly says "It sounds like you're infatuated with a woman named Mindy. (pause) Or a man named Andy." Homer refers to comic strip Ziggy when he wonders if Mindy agrees the title character has become "too preachy". Barry White's song "Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe" is played in the episode's final scene where Homer and Marge make out at the hotel room; the song was previously featured in the fourth season episode "Whacking Day".
## Reception
### Critical reception
Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics.
In 2003, it was placed tenth on Entertainment Weekly's top 25 The Simpsons episode list, and The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of "The 10 Best Simpsons Television Episodes".
Nancy Basile of About.com named it one of her top twenty favorite episodes of the show, and said Michelle Pfeiffer "is so elegant and beautiful, that the irony of her playing a burping love interest for Homer Simpson is funny enough." She added "the thorny issue of adultery is tackled in a way only The Simpsons could," and "though Homer is contemplating cheating, he's a sympathetic and almost innocent character."
During a review of the 2008 episode "Dangerous Curves", Robert Canning of IGN called the episode "smart, touching and funny", and said "it did a great job showing Homer's struggle to deal with the flirtations of a co-worker."
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it a "wonderfully scripted episode".
DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson said, "Given Homer’s utter devotion to Marge, it may seem off-character for him to fall for Mindy, but the show makes it fit, as his obsession doesn’t come across as inconsistent." He added the plot with Bart becoming a nerd is the "funnier one" of the two.
Bill Gibron of DVD Talk called it a "jest fest loaded with insight into the human heart and hilarious over-the-top goofiness."
TV DVD Reviews's Kay Daly called it the season's finest episode with the "greatest foray into emotional resonance". Matt Groening thought it was an amazing episode with "a lot of fun" in it. David Mirkin said Frank Mula's script was great.
In a 2008 article, Entertainment Weekly named Pfeiffer's role as Mindy one of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons. She also appeared on AOL's list of their top favorite guest stars on the show. Brett Buckalew of Metromix Indianapolis wrote that Pfeiffer "gives arguably the best celebrity guest-vocal performance in series history." Total Film'''s Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the 15th best guest appearance in the show's history.
When the inspectors visit the plant, they mention finding an entire Brazilian soccer team working there, and Burns says that they have to because their plane crashed on his property. This scene was mentioned by various media outlets after the 2016 disaster that killed most players on the Brazilian team Chapecoense.
### Ratings
In its original American broadcast, "The Last Temptation of Homer" finished 24th (tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel Air'') in the ratings for the week of December 6–12, 1993. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.7. The episode was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. |
455,065 | Ontario Highway 58 | 1,173,070,141 | Ontario provincial highway | [
"Ontario provincial highways",
"Roads in the Regional Municipality of Niagara",
"Thorold",
"Transport in Port Colborne",
"Transport in Welland"
]
| King's Highway 58, commonly referred to as Highway 58, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The route is divided into two segments with a combined length of 15.5 km (9.6 mi). The southern segment travels from Niagara Regional Road 3, formerly Highway 3, in Port Colborne, to the Highway 58A junction in the southern end of Welland, a distance of 7.2 km (4.5 mi). The northern segment begins at Highway 20 near Allanburg and travels north and west to a large junction with Highway 406 at the St. Catharines – Thorold boundary, a distance of 8.3 km (5.2 mi). An 18.1 km (11.2 mi) gap separates the two segments within Welland and Pelham. The entire route is located within the Regional Municipality of Niagara.
The history of Highway 58 is tumultuous due to various relocation projects resulting from the construction of the fourth Welland Canal and Highway 406. Prior to 1997, Highway 58 was continuous and travelled through the west side of Welland, maintained under a Connecting Link agreement. The route was first established in 1935, though it remained unnumbered on the 1935 and 1936 official road maps. By 1937 it extended from Port Colborne to St. Catharines, though the route it travelled between those places shifted several times over the following 30 years. In the late 1990s, the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) transferred several highways or portions of highways throughout the province to lower levels of government. Highway 58 was decommissioned through Welland on April 1, 1997.
## Route description
The segment between Highway 406 in Thorold and Niagara Road 57 east of Thorold is a four-lane freeway. It also contains the Thorold Tunnel, one of the three tunnels under the Welland Canal. The remaining segments vary between a two-lane rural highway and four-lane urban roadway. Overall, the highway is 15.5 km (9.6 mi) in length, with a 18.1-kilometre (11.2 mi) gap separating the two sections.
The southern section of Highway 58 begins at a junction with the former Highway 3 in the city of Port Colborne, several kilometres north of Lake Erie. South of this intersection, the road once continued as Niagara Regional Road 64 to Killaly Street; such has since been downloaded to the city of Port Colborne. Proceeding north, the highway, known locally as West Side Road, passes through the suburbs of Port Colborne, north of which it skirts the eastern edge of the Wainfleet Bog, one of the few remaining habitats of the Massasauga Rattlesnake. West of Dain City, Highway 58 crosses the Port Colborne – Welland boundary at Forks Road, a grade-separated intersection. The route crosses several rail lines on a bridge south of its terminus at Highway 58A (Humberstone Road) at the southern edge of the built up area of Welland. North of there, it continues as Niagara Regional Road 54 (Prince Charles Drive)
The northern section of Highway 58 begins at an intersection with the western terminus of Highway 20, approximately 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) east of Highway 406, within Thorold. South of this intersection, the road that carries Highway 58 continues as Niagara Regional Road 82, whereas west of the intersection the road that carries Highway 20, Lundy's Lane, continues as Niagara Regional Road 58 through Allanburg. Highway 58 proceeds north, at first along an established concession road, before branching to the east on its own alignment known as Davis Road. The route crosses several flooded valleys that form part of the Welland Canal before arriving at Thorold Stone Road, at which point Highway 58 turns west and enters the Thorold Tunnel, descending beneath the canal.
At the western end of the tunnel, Highway 58 emerges as a divided highway in Thorold. It meets an interchange with Pine Street; the eastbound on-ramp from Pine Street features a stop sign and no merging lane prior to entering the Thorold Tunnel. West of Pine Street, the route passes beneath a Trillium Railway line and curves slightly southwest. It encounters an interchange with Collier Street, gradually curving to the northwest and passing beneath Richmond Street. Highway 58 ends at a complicated interchange with both St. Davids Road as well as Highway 406 on the edge of the Niagara Escarpment.
## History
The first portion of what became Highway 58 was assumed on September 4, 1935. Although only a short stub travelling south from Main Street in Welland (then Highway 3A), it connected to a road owned by the Welland Canal Authority (WCA) travelling along the east side of the old canal, now known by various names including Barber Drive, Canal Road, Kingsway, and Canal Bank Street. Initially unnumbered, the route was extended to Port Colborne and St. Catharines on October 6, 1937, and by then had been given the designation of Highway 58. It now began at Highway 3 in Port Colborne and travelled to Welland along the east side of the canal, and thereafter north along Niagara Street, the Merrittville Highway and Glenridge Road (Niagara Regional Road 50) to Highway 8 in downtown St. Catharines.
On July 17 and 30, 1958, the Department of Highways assumed the West Side Road, constructed in the years prior by Welland County between Port Colborne and Welland. The old highway was turned back to the WCA on June 26 and September 4 of that same year. Highway 58 then entered Welland along what is now Prince Charles Drive, meeting and becoming concurrent with Highway 3A at Riverside Drive / Lincoln Street and then turning east along East Main Street. By 1960, the Welland Bypass was completed along the routing of the former Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto Railway interurban line – the final operating interurban railway in Canada, which ceased operations on the line on March 28, 1959. This rerouted the highway along what is now Prince Charles Drive northwest to Thorold Road, where it turned east to Niagara Street.
North of Welland, Highway 58 initially travelled concurrent with Highway 3A along Niagara Street and the Merrittville Highway to Highway 20, where Highway 3A ended. Highway 58 turned east and travelled concurrent with Highway 20 across the Welland Canal at Allanburg, before turning north onto the current route. However, it continued north along Allanburg Road into Thorold, where it crossed the Welland Canal on a swing bridge and travelled north into St. Catharines along Ormond Street, Merritt Street and Hartzel Road (Niagara Regional Road 52) to Highway 8 (Queenston Street, now Niagara Regional Road 81).
### Effect of the Thorold Tunnel and Highway 406
The routing of Highway 58 was eventually upheaved by two major changes within the Niagara Peninsula. The first was the construction of the Thorold Tunnel, which was built as part of the larger Welland Bypass project of the Welland Canal in order to minimize road and rail crossings that plagued the length of the canal prior to the 1970s. The Thorold Tunnel was designed to carry a divided four lane road beneath the canal, bypassing the swinging bridge between Allanburg Road and Ormond Street. It was built during the winter months between 1965 and 1967, with the canal drained, and opened on September 18, 1968. Following its completion, Highway 58 was rerouted through the tunnel, west of which it forked. At the Pine Road interchange, one fork travelled north on Pine, east along Richmond Street and north along Ormond Street (now Niagara Regional Road 52). The other fork followed the present route. As part of the creation of the Regional Municipality of Niagara, Highway 8 was transferred to the newly formed region as well as the original alignment of Highway 58.
The second change was the initial construction of Highway 406 in the mid-1960s, establishing a new northern terminus for Highway 58 at the St. Davids Road interchange on the Niagara Escarpment. The St. Davids Road interchange was fully opened with the Highway 406 extension to Beaverdams Road on November 21, 1969. Eventually Highway 406 would reroute the section of Highway 58 along the Merrittville Highway between Welland and Highway 20 to instead turn east from Niagara Street along Merritt Road, where it curved north to become the two-laned Highway 406. This happened when Highway 406 was extended south from Beaverdams Road to Merritt Road on June 30, 1971.
### Downloading
Budget constraints brought on by a recession in the 1990s resulted in the Mike Harris provincial government forming the Who Does What? committee in 1995 to determine cost-cutting measures in order to balance the budget after a deficit incurred by former premier Bob Rae. It was determined that many Ontario highways no longer serve long-distance traffic movement and should therefore be maintained by local or regional levels of government. The MTO consequently transferred many highways to lower levels of government in 1997 and 1998 (downloading), removing a significant percentage of the provincial highway network. As Highway 58 had largely been replaced by Highway 406, the central segment through Welland and Pelham was deemed to no longer serve long-distance traffic, and was downloaded to the Regional Municipality of Niagara on April 1, 1997. It now exists as Regional Road 54 along Prince Charles Drive and Regional Road 50 along Niagara Street and the Merrittville Highway.
No part of Highway 58 today follows the original 1935 route along the Welland Canal. Only a 6.7-kilometre (4.2 mi) section of the 1937 routing, north from Highway 20 (Lundy's Lane) is still used by the route now.
## Major intersections |
1,478,979 | William Stoughton (judge) | 1,170,940,818 | Salem witch trial magistrate, Massachusetts colonial official | [
"1631 births",
"1701 deaths",
"Alumni of New College, Oxford",
"American Puritans",
"Colonial governors of Massachusetts",
"Dominion of New England",
"Ejected English ministers of 1662",
"Harvard College alumni",
"Justices of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature",
"Lieutenant Governors of colonial Massachusetts",
"New England Puritanism",
"People of the Salem witch trials",
"Witch hunters"
]
| William Stoughton (1631 – July 7, 1701) was a New England Puritan magistrate and administrator in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. He was in charge of what have come to be known as the Salem Witch Trials, first as the Chief Justice of the Special Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692, and then as the Chief Justice of the Superior Court of Judicature in 1693. In these trials he controversially accepted spectral evidence (based on supposed demonic visions). Unlike some of the other magistrates, he never admitted to the possibility that his acceptance of such evidence was in error.
After graduating from Harvard College in 1650, he continued religious studies in England, where he also preached. Returning to Massachusetts in 1662, he chose to enter politics instead of the ministry. An adept politician, he served in virtually every government through the period of turmoil in Massachusetts that encompassed the revocation of its first charter in 1684 and the introduction of its second charter in 1692, including the unpopular rule of Sir Edmund Andros in the late 1680s. He served as lieutenant governor of the province from 1692 until his death in 1701, acting as governor (in the absence of an appointed governor) for about six years. He was one of the province's major landowners, partnering with Joseph Dudley and other powerful figures in land purchases, and it was for him that the town of Stoughton, Massachusetts was named.
## Early life
William Stoughton was born in 1631 to Israel Stoughton and Elizabeth Knight Stoughton. The exact location of his birth is uncertain, because there is no known birth or baptismal record for him, and the date when his parents migrated from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony is not known with precision. What is known is that by 1632 the Stoughtons were in the colony, where they were early settlers of Dorchester, Massachusetts.
Stoughton graduated from Harvard College in 1650 with a degree in theology. He intended to become a Puritan minister and traveled to England, where he continued his studies in New College, Oxford. He graduated with an M.A. in theology in 1653. Stoughton was a pious preacher who believed in the "Lord's promise and expectations of great things." England was at the time under Puritan Commonwealth Rule, although 1653 was the year Oliver Cromwell dissolved Parliament, beginning The Protectorate. Stoughton preached in Sussex, and after Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, Stoughton lost his position in the crackdown on religious dissenters that followed.
## Politics and land development
With little prospect for another position in England, Stoughton returned to Massachusetts in 1662. He preached on several occasions at Dorchester and Cambridge, but refused offers of permanent ministerial posts. He instead became involved in politics and land development. He served on the colony's council of assistants (a precursor to the idea of a governor's council) almost every year from 1671 to 1686, and represented the colony in the New England Confederation from 1673 to 1677 and 1680 to 1686. In the 1684 election, Joseph Dudley, who had been labelled as an enemy of the colony (along with Stoughton, Bulkley, and others) for his moderate position on colonial charter issues, failed to win reelection to the council. Stoughton, who was reelected by a small majority and was a friend and business partner of Dudley, refused to serve in protest.
In 1676 he was chosen, along with Peter Bulkeley, to be an agent representing colonial interests in England. Their instructions were narrowly tailored. They were authorized to acquire land claims from the heirs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason that conflicted with some Massachusetts land claims in present-day Maine. These they acquired for £1,200, incurring the anger of Charles II, who had intended to acquire those claims for the Duke of York. They were unsuccessful in maintaining broader claims made by Massachusetts against other territories of Maine and the Province of New Hampshire. Their limited authority upset the Lords of Trade, who sought to have the colonial laws modified to conform to their policies. The mission of Stoughton and Bulkley did little more than antagonize colonial officials in London because of their hardline stance.
For many years Stoughton and Joseph Dudley were friends, as well as political and business partners. The two worked closely together politically, and engaged in land development together. In the 1680s Stoughton acquired significant amounts of land from the Nipmuc tribe in what is now Worcester County in partnership with Dudley. The partnership included a venture that established Oxford as a place to settle refugee Huguenots.
Dudley and Stoughton used their political positions to ensure that the titles to lands they were interested in were judicially cleared, a practice that also benefited their friends, relatives, and other business partners. Concerning this practice, Crown agent Edward Randolph wrote that it was "impossible to bring titles of land to trial before them where his Majesties's rights are concerned, the Judges also being parties." This was particularly obvious when Stoughton and Dudley were part of a venture to acquire 1 million acres (4,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of land in the Merrimack River valley. Dudley's council, on which Stoughton and other investors sat, formally cleared that land's title in May 1686.
When Dudley was commissioned in 1686 to temporarily head the Dominion of New England, Stoughton was appointed to his council, and he was then elected by the council as the deputy president. During the administration of Sir Edmund Andros he served as a magistrate and on the council. As a magistrate he was particularly harsh on the town leaders of Ipswich, who had organized tax protests against the dominion government, based on the claim that dominion rule without representation violated the Rights of Englishmen. When Andros was arrested in April 1689 in a bloodless uprising inspired by the 1688 Glorious Revolution in England, Stoughton was one of the signatories to the declaration of the revolt's ringleaders. Despite this statement of support for the popular cause, he was sufficiently unpopular due to his association with Andros that he was denied elective offices. He appealed to the politically powerful Mather family, with whom he still had positive relations. In 1692, when Increase Mather and Sir William Phips arrived from England carrying the charter for the new Province of Massachusetts Bay and a royal commission for Phips as governor, they also brought one for Stoughton as lieutenant governor.
## Lieutenant governor and chief justice
### Witch trials
When Phips arrived, rumors of witchcraft were running rampant, especially in Salem. Phips immediately appointed Stoughton to head a special tribunal to deal with accusations of witchcraft, and in June appointed him chief justice of the colonial courts, a post he would hold for the rest of his life.
In the now-notorious Salem Witch Trials, Stoughton acted as both chief judge and prosecutor. He was particularly harsh on some of the defendants, sending the jury deliberating in the case of Rebecca Nurse back to reconsider its not guilty verdict; after doing so, she was convicted. Many convictions were made because Stoughton permitted the use of spectral evidence, the idea that a demonic vision could only take on the shape or appearance of someone who had made some sort of devilish pact or engaged in witchcraft. Although Cotton Mather argued that this type of evidence was acceptable when making accusations, some judges expressed reservations about its use in judicial proceedings. Stoughton, however, was convinced of its acceptability, and may have influenced other judges to this view. The special court stopped sitting in September 1692.
In November and December 1692 Governor Phips oversaw a reorganization of the colony's courts to bring them into conformance with English practice. The new courts, with Stoughton still sitting as chief justice, began to handle the witchcraft cases in 1693, but were under specific instructions from Phips to disregard spectral evidence. As a result, a significant number of cases were dismissed due to a lack of evidence, and Phips vacated the few convictions that were made. On 3 January 1693 Stoughton ordered the execution of all suspected witches who had been exempted by their pregnancy. Phips denied enforcement of the order. This turn of events angered Stoughton, and he briefly left the bench in protest.
Historian Cedric Cowing suggests that Stoughton's acceptance of spectral evidence was based partly in a need he saw to reassert Puritan authority in the province. Unlike his colleague Samuel Sewall, who later expressed regret for his actions on the bench in the trials, Stoughton never admitted that his actions and beliefs with respect to spectral evidence and the trials were in error.
### Acting governor
Stoughton was also involved in overseeing the colonial response to King William's War, which had broken out in 1689. Massachusetts Bay (which included the area now known as Maine) was in the forefront of the war with New France, and its northern frontier communities suffered significantly from French and Indian raids. Governor Phips was frequently in Maine overseeing the construction of defenses there, leaving Stoughton to oversee affairs in Boston. During one such absence, for example, Stoughton was responsible for raising a small force of militia intended to help protect neighboring New Hampshire, which was similarly being devastated by raids. In early 1694 Phips was recalled to London, to answer charges of misconduct. He delayed his departure until November, at which time Stoughton took over as acting governor. Phips died in London in early 1695, before the charges against him were heard.
Stoughton viewed himself as a caretaker, holding the government until the crown appointed a new governor. As a consequence, he gave the provincial assembly a significant degree of autonomy, which, once established, complicated the relationship the assembly had with later governors. He also took relatively few active steps to implement colonial policies, and only did the minimum needed to follow instructions from London. A commentator in the colonial office observed that he was a "good scholar", but that he was "not suited to enforce the Navigation Act".
In 1695 Stoughton protested the actions of French privateers operating from Acadia, who were wreaking havoc in the New England fishing and merchant fleets. In an attempt to counter this activity, he authorized Benjamin Church to organize a raid against Acadia. While Church was recruiting men for the expedition, New France's governor, the comte de Frontenac, organized an expedition to target the English fort at Pemaquid, Maine. Church had still not departed in August 1696 when he learned that the fort had been taken and destroyed. The instructions Stoughton issued to Church were somewhat vague, and he did little more than raid Beaubassin at the top of the Bay of Fundy before returning to Boston. Before Church's return Stoughton organized a second, smaller expedition that unsuccessfully besieged Fort Nashwaak on the Saint John River. The failure of these expeditions highlighted the inadequacies of the provincial forces, and the Massachusetts assembly appealed to London for aid.
Peace between France and England was achieved with the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, but it did not resolve any issues concerning the Abenakis to the north. As a result, there continued to be tension on the frontier, and disputes over fishing grounds and the use of Acadian territory by New Englanders for drying fish continued. Stoughton and Acadian Governor Joseph Robineau de Villebon exchanged complaints and threats in 1698 over the issue, with Villebon issuing largely empty threats (he lacked the needed resources to execute them) to seize Massachusetts ships and property left in Acadian territory. Stoughton appealed to London for diplomatic assistance, which had some success in reducing tensions.
Stoughton served as acting governor until 1699, while still also serving as chief justice. He remained lieutenant governor during the brief tenure of the Earl of Bellomont as governor, and again became acting governor on the latter's departure in 1700. He was by then in poor health, and accomplished little of note in his final year.
### Harvard and the Brattle Street Church
The corporate existence of Harvard College had been thrown into turmoil by the recission of the colonial charter in 1684, upon which the Harvard charter depended. In 1692 the provincial assembly passed a law enacting a new charter for the college, but the Board of Trade vetoed this law in 1696, again throwing the college's existence into jeopardy. Stoughton, then acting governor, made temporary arrangements for the college's governance while the assembly worked to craft a new charter. Ultimately, Harvard's charter problems would not be solved until 1707, when its 1650 charter was revived.
Religious and political differences between factions of directors at Harvard boiled into the open during the late 1690s. Increase Mather, then the president of Harvard, was theologically conservative, while a number of the directors had adopted moderate views, and in these years they began a struggle for control of the college. This split eventually led to the founding in 1698 of Boston's Brattle Street Church, which issued a manifesto explicitly distancing itself from some of the more extreme Puritan practices advocated by Mather and his son, Cotton. Stoughton and a number of other high-profile religious and political figures in the colony stepped in to resolve the dispute. The peace was so successfully brokered that the elder Mather took part in the new church's dedicatory services.
## Family and legacy
Stoughton was given the then-prestigious Green Dragon Tavern for his social status, one of Boston's most significant architectural and historical landmarks c. 1676.
He died at home in Dorchester in 1701, while serving as acting governor, and was buried in the cemetery now known as the Dorchester North Burying Ground. He was a bachelor, and willed his mansion and a portion of his estate to William Tailer, the son of his sister Rebeccah. Tailer, who was twice lieutenant governor and briefly served as acting governor, was buried alongside his uncle Stoughton.
The only sermon of Stoughton's to be published was entitled New-Englands True Interest. The sermon was originally delivered at the election of 1668, and was published in 1670. In it he harkened back to the founding of the colony, saying "God sifted a whole Nation that he might send choice Grain over into this Wilderness", but also lamented what he saw as a decline in Massachusetts society, and urged the lay members of society to defer judgment to their clerical elders.
The town of Stoughton, Massachusetts is named in his honor, as is one of the Harvard College dormitories in Harvard Yard. Construction of the first Stoughton Hall, in 1698, was made possible by his £1,000 gift. |
57,324,108 | Deriba (caldera) | 1,136,416,010 | Volcanic formation in Darfur, Sudan | [
"Calderas of Africa",
"Darfur",
"Dormant volcanoes",
"Highest points of countries",
"Marrah Mountains",
"VEI-4 volcanoes",
"Volcanic crater lakes",
"Volcanoes of Sudan"
]
| Deriba is a Pleistocene or Holocene caldera in Darfur, Sudan. Part of the volcanoes of the Marra Mountains, it lies on the Darfur dome and like the Tagabo Hills and Meidob Hills volcanism may be the product of a mantle plume. After the separation of South Sudan, the highest point of Sudan is on the margin of the caldera.
The caldera lies atop a shield volcano or ash cone in the southern Marra Mountains, which developed first as a pile of basaltic lava flows and later as layers of volcanic ash and tuff, including the eruptions that formed the caldera. A large eruption occurred about 3,520 ± 100 years before present, and hot springs and fumaroles are active to the present day.
Deriba contains two lakes, one in the northeastern side of the main caldera and the other in a cone in the southwestern sector of the Deriba caldera. The fresher southwestern lake is smaller but considerably deeper than the saltier northeastern lake; in the late Pleistocene the caldera was filled with a larger lake.
## Geography and geomorphology
Deriba lies in the Marra Mountains of Sudan, Africa's geographic centre; Deriba is in the southern sector of these mountains and close to the main summit thereof. The caldera rim became Sudan's new highest point, after the independence of South Sudan. The town of Nyala lies south of Deriba. The volcano is poorly studied due to the ongoing Darfur conflict.
Deriba is an oval, 4.8 by 6.4 kilometres (3 mi × 4 mi) wide and 500–1,000 metres (1,600–3,300 ft) deep caldera, with a volcanic cone occupying the southwestern part of the caldera floor. At least five overlapping vents form the volcanic cone. The rim of the caldera reaches a maximum elevation of 3,024 metres (9,921 ft) in the southwest, and is steep almost vertical. The caldera is cut into volcanic ash, lapilli, lavas, obsidian and tuffs, and the floor is strewn with pumice blocks. A gap lies in the eastern caldera wall.
### Lakes
Deriba contains two lakes, which are known as the "Deriba lakes". A 11.5-metre (38 ft) deep lake occupies the northeastern area of the caldera, and being located in the lowest part of the caldera floor it is the sink of Deriba. In 1918 it had dimensions of 1,230 by 1,780 metres (1,350 yd × 1,950 yd), but by 1964 the size of the lake had increased. The lake is surrounded by a gradually sloping muddy beach with the exception of the northern shore. This lake is also known as the "female" lake, with green salty water. The salt consists of chloride, potassium and sodium salts.
The volcanic cone has a lake as well, which is 108 metres (354 ft) deep and smaller, with a roughly rectangular shape that extends in north-south direction. In comparison to the other lake 1.21 kilometres (0.75 mi) northwest, this "male" lake had dimensions of 820 by 1,420 metres (900 yd × 1,550 yd) in 1918. Steep slopes surround this lake, which is filled with fresher water. Reportedly, the local Fur people considered the lake haunted, but the lakes were also used as a source for salt.
Water levels in these lakes are fairly stable from season to season although evidence for substantial fluctuations have been found that correlate to the regional climate and to fluctuations in the water levels of Lake Chad. Together with several perennial streams they are thus perennial waterbodies. Around the Deriba caldera, drainage occurs either southward or westward, leading into the Bahr El-Arab of the White Nile and the Chari River of Lake Chad respectively. The lakes themselves have no surface outlets.
In the past, larger lakes existed inside the Deriba caldera. The first such lake stage has been dated to 23,000 or 19,000 years before present when water levels rose 25 metres (82 ft) above the present-day levels, the second 19,600 - 16,000 years before present when they were 8–5 metres (26–16 ft) higher than currently and the third 14,000 years before present, then 9 metres (30 ft) above present-day. Similar lake stages have been documented in Trou au Natron in Tibesti, where shifts of the position of the subtropical jet stream and the tropical depressions associated with the jet stream have been invoked as an explanation. These lake stages have left shorelines and limestone deposits in the caldera, and it is likely that the lakes sometimes overflowed through the eastern caldera rim gap.
## Geology
Deriba is part of Jebel Marra volcano, which together with the Tagabo Hills and the Meidob Hills is one of three volcanic fields in Darfur; these form the little known Darfur Volcanic Province. The Jebel Marra volcano is maximally 80 kilometres (50 mi) wide and 200 kilometres (120 mi) long in north-south direction, where the northern segment is centered around Jebel Gurgei.
Jebel Marra consists of a pile of mostly basaltic lava which has been covered by pumice and volcanic ash as well as pyroclastic rocks and ignimbrites. The Deriba caldera which forms the top of the entire complex, which around Deriba has the appearance of a large ash cone or shield volcano. Other, less spectacular vents are found elsewhere in the Marra Mountains. Erosion has cut canyons into the volcanic complex. The occurrence of volcanism has been explained with a mantle plume centered between Meidob and Jebel Marra.
The basement is formed by crystalline rocks, mainly metamorphosed gneisses and schists, and is a mobile belt of Panafrican age. They are in part covered by the Nubian Sandstones of Cretaceous age and aeolian sands, and by the Jebel Marra massif which occupies a surface of 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 sq mi). Tectonic uplift of the Darfur dome commenced in the Cretaceous and resulted in a noticeable upwarp of the basement beneath Jebel Marra. Two major tectonic lineaments intersect at Jebel Marra, one trending south-southeastward and the other east-northeastward.
### Eruptive history
Volcanism in the Jebel Marra mountains appears to have begin 15 million years ago and continued in two stages, separated by an erosional period. Volcanism in the southwestern Marra mountains took place between 4.35 million years ago and 60,000 years ago, subdivided into an Old Series and a New Series which is younger than 2 million years ago. After an initial stage, during which olivine basalt and small amounts of pyroclastic material were erupted, trachyte were emplaced. The Deriba caldera probably formed either in the early Pleistocene, 60,000 or 3,520 ± 100 years before present (BP), but activity continued with the volcanic cone inside of the caldera and peripheral vents, possibly into historical time.
The 3,520 ± 100 BP eruption was a Plinian eruption that deposited pyroclastic material containing blocks of basement material. The ash fall from the eruption reaches thicknesses of 20 metres (66 ft) as far as 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) away from Deriba, while pyroclastic flows have been identified as far as 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the caldera. The eruption has an estimated volcanic explosivity index of 4 and may be associated with the volcanic cone inside the caldera.
The volcano was formerly considered to be extinct. Hot springs, whose temperature reaches 65–85 °C (149–185 °F) and which may be supplied by magmatic water, and fumaroles, both within the caldera around the volcanic cone and in the surrounding Marra Mountains, indicate that Jebel Marra and the Deriba caldera are a dormant volcano. Reportedly, the exhalations of the fumaroles can kill birds and insects, and some fumarolic vents may have formed between 1964 and 1966, implying that the fumarolic activity may reflect a recent change of volcanic activity.
## Climate
Jebel Marra has a humid subtropical climate (Cwa) bordering on a subtropical highland climate (Cwb). Precipitation on Jebel Marra is about 1,200 millimetres per year (47 in/year), the mountain lies at the eastern margin of the Sahel and receives more precipitation than the surrounding region. Between 12,000 and 8,000 years before present, the climate was wetter as a consequence of a northward shift of climate zones.
## Biology
Vegetation around Deriba consists of grassland with scarce trees such as the wild olive. The plant life is classified as Afromontane, it also includes species from temperate climates. It is likely that past humid periods permitted the expansion of Mediterranean species into the Jebel Marra mountains. Presently, Jebel Marra is a suitable site for agriculture and used as such by the Fur people. Semidesert and desert landscapes dominate the region around the Marra Mountains.
The lakes are salty, oxygen poor and remote and thus contain little plant or animal life. Some vegetation grows around the smaller lake, as well as in other parts of the Deriba caldera where water is available.
Copepods live in the smaller lake, while the larger one is populated by blue-green algae and rotifers. Spirulina occurs in the large lake, and Melosira and Nitzscia diatoms have been identified in the small lake. The copepod Eucyclops gibsoni has been encountered in the small lake. Among the rotifers are Brachionus dimidiatus, Brachionus plicatilis, Hexarthra jenkinae and Lecane bulla, some of which also occur in the smaller lake. Ephedra flies are widespread around the large lake, and other insects were collected on the small lake. Birds are uncommon, with greenshanks, little grebes, sacred ibis and stilts.
## Gallery |
21,871,615 | Gullfisk | 1,084,757,516 | Norwegian tram class, in service 1937–1985 | [
"600 V DC multiple units",
"Oslo Tramway stock",
"Train-related introductions in 1957"
]
| Class B and Class E, normally referred to as Gullfisk (Norwegian for "goldfish"), were a class of 46 trams built by Strømmens Værksted and Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk for Oslo Sporveier and Bærumsbanen of Oslo, Norway, in 1937 and 1939. They were the first aluminium trams to operate on the Oslo Tramway and the first bogie trams to operate on street lines. They had contemporary modern electronic equipment, a streamlined shape, and comfortable accommodation. Until 1964, they were also faster than any other Norwegian tramcar or suburban railcar.
Six prototype trams were delivered by Strømmen in 1937, with four different motor solutions, from AEG, Siemens, Vickers and Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri (NEBB). None of these were particularly successful, and the 40 serial production trams used conventional motors from ELIN. These were delivered in 1939, with 20 (class E) being used by Oslo Sporveier mainly on the Kjelsås Line, but also on other services. The remaining 20 trams (class B) were leased to Bærumsbanen, that used them on the Kolsås and Østensjø Lines, and later on the Ekeberg Line.
From 1967, Oslo Sporveier transferred all its trams to Bærumsbanen, where they remained in use until 1985. The class has been involved in several fatal incidents, including the Strømsveien tram fire in 1958. Six trams (prototype no 163, nos 166, 170, 196 and 199) remain at the Oslo Tramway Museum; whilst Oslo Sporveier has kept two and converted them to maintenance vehicles (nos 185 and 198), painted them yellow with zebra stripes. They also kept one themselves as a veteran tram (no 183).
## Background
During the 1930s, Oslo Sporveier operated a fleet of 150 trams and 130 trailers. The latest series, the HaWa Class, had been delivered during the early 1920s and were, by the late 1930s, becoming old fashioned, with low speed, uncomfortable interiors and a two-axle wheel arrangement. Increased competition from cars and buses made the tram company start a process to find a new "generation" of trams and buses. In 1935, an agreement was made with Stømmmens Værksted to build a series of aluminium-bogied trams and buses. Since the last order, the tracks had been relaid farther from one another, so the tramway could operate 2.5-metre (8.2 ft) wide and 15-metre (49 ft) long trams.
The use of an aluminium body was controversial, and international experts recommended that the tram company should not choose that solution. The goal was to decrease the weight so the trams could operate with less-powerful motors, giving a lower cost. The first prototype was a full-scale model of a tram, built at Homansbyen Depot in 1935, using an undercarriage from disused horsecars.
## Construction
Strømmens Værksted delivered six prototypes for Oslo Sporveier in 1937, all with slightly different specifications. They were numbered 158–163. The four main types of prototypes were later designated B2 (158–159 with motors from Vickers), E4 (160 with motors from Siemens), E3 (161–162 with motors from AEG) and E2 (163 with motors from NEBB). The trams were taken into use in February 1937 on the Kjelsås Line. They were capable of 65 km/h (40 mph), compared to the maximum 35 km/h (22 mph) possible by the older trams. According to tests by JG Brill Company, which was a specialist on high-speed interurban railcars, streamline construction would afford a power reduction of 17% at as low speed as 32 km/h (20 mph).
Shortly after being taken into use, No. 158 lost braking power, killing one person when it landed on the pavement. The initial plan was to use the six trams to operate all services on the Kjelsås Line, with one vehicle in reserve, but this was not possible because of more out-of-service vehicles than estimated.
A further 40 units were ordered—20 from Strømmens Værksted and 20 license-built by Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk. The various experimental configurations fitted to the prototype trams did not work too well; and instead a conventional motor solution was chosen. The serial units were also not equipped with regenerative brakes. The series from Strømmen and Skabo received the same motors and bogies, but the electrical equipment was different. The Skabo series had electrical equipment from AEG and was optimized for street-tram operation, while the Strømmen trams were optimized for the suburban tramways and equipped with electrical equipment from Vickers. The Strømmen series was delivered from February to June 1939 and leased to Oslo Sporveier's subsidiary Bærumsbanen, which gave them the designation Class B. They were put into service on the Østensjø–Kolsås Line, with both end stations far outside Oslo's city limits that time. The trams partially ran through a relatively rural landscape, and more than any other Norwegian tramway this line may be called an interurban. The Oslo Sporveier trams were numbered 164–183, while the Bærumsbanen trams were numbered 184–203. The tram's body was streamlined and had a tail at the end that made them look like a goldfish. They were therefore nicknamed "Gullfisk", the Norwegian term for goldfish; this later became the most common term for the class.
## Operation
During World War II, the rationing of petroleum fuels gave a boost to ridership on the electric tramways. To handle the massive increase in ridership, the trams were equipped with two conductors. The single-centre-door solution that worked excellently before the war became a bottle-neck as the trams became packed with riders. Lack of parts, particularly for the British Vickers motors, caused long waits for defective vehicles at the depots. From 1942, the Kolsås Line was transferred to terminate at Nationaltheatret in the city centre, and the Class B was operated along the Lilleaker Line from the west. Trams 164–166 were sent to Düsseldorf in Germany, but were never used because the city lacked balloon loops and the trams were too wide.
After the end of the war, Oslo Sporveier decided to transfer all the remaining trams to Bærumsbanen. Their high speed made them well suited on the light rail, but the centre door reduced their capacity. The order of the SM53-series from Høka gave Oslo Sporveier sufficient stock to operate the street lines, and from 1952 to 1957, the company transferred the 19 trams to Bærumsbanen. Here, they were given the designation Class E. No. 163 was in too bad condition to be used on the line, and was retired. In October 1949, no. 184 caught fire and was taken out of service. On 2 August 1958, five people perished and 17 were injured in the Strømsveien tram fire, the worst disaster in the tramway's history.
The Østensjø Line became part of the Oslo Metro in 1967, and several of the Class E trams were transferred to other parts of the tramway. However, the Lilleaker Line was instead tied to the Ekeberg Line on the east side of the city, and the trams started operating on the Jar–Ljabru service. After the last bus route had been converted to one-man operation and the conductor replaced with a ticket-selling motorman, Oslo Sporveier started the process of converting their tram fleet. No. 176 was converted as a trial, and after 1971, all the remaining Gullfisks were converted. Because the trams had been delivered with a single front door, the cost of converting the trams was very small, and the single-manning highly profitable.
In 1976, a class B tram was retired after it had lost braking power and crashed near Sjømannsskolen on the Ekeberg Line. After this, only selected trams were given overhauls, the last being no. 170 in 1980. Following the delivery of the articulated SL79, the Class B and E were gradually retired, with the last tram running into 1985. Oslo Tramway Museum has kept six trams, while Oslo Sporveier kept two, converted them to maintenance vehicles and painted them yellow with zebra stripes.
## Specifications
The Gullfisk were built as self-contained aluminium riveted bodies. This gave a light body that was strong as steel, giving what at the time was regarded as a more elastic structure which would not break as easy. However, this resulted in the bodies sinking somewhat at the ends and between the bogies. It also caused more deformation during accidents, increasing the costs of repairs. The bodies were 15.40 meters (50 ft 6 in) long and 2.50 meters (8 ft 2 in) wide. The centre beam between the two bogies was made of steel, and was intended to compensate for the soft aluminium structure; these were prone to rust and needed repeated replacement. The bodies had a very streamlined shape and a distinct tail, that in addition to the aesthetic purpose was chosen because it strengthened the structure. During prototyping, the vehicle was tested in a wind tunnel.
The trams were unidirectional and had a single door at the front and a double door in the middle, both on the right side. Class E also had a single door at the rear. The trams were originally delivered with two compartments, with a wall and inside door in front of the centre door. This was removed after the trams became smoke-free. They had a partial wooden interior, with linoleum floors. Various renovations changed the panelling, usually variations of brown and yellow. The trams originally had incandescent light bulbs, but these were replaced with fluorescent lamps after 1955. From 1970 to 1974, the trams were rebuilt to remove the conductor, and the driver was given space for a purse and ticket machine, as well as an announcement system. The E-series eventually had the rear door taken out of use and blocked with an extra seat.
All but one of the trams had a SV36-bogie from Strømmens Værksted. The two bogies, each with two axles, were attached to the steel crossbeam. The aluminium body was attached to the crossbeam with leaf springs. The bogie frames were fastened to the axle box via a revolute joint and a spiral spring. Each bogie had two motors, each controlling one axle. In 1941, no. 187 was equipped with a SV41-bogie from Strømmen; it had a different spring system that allowed the tram to remain at the same height independent of the weight.
Class E was equipped with disc brakes, while the Class B was equipped with drum brakes. All the trams were equipped with rail brakes, and dynamic brakes. The serial production models were equipped with four 36.6-kilowatt (49.1 hp) ELIN BBFa20 motors. This gave a maximum speed of 65 km/h (40 mph). They were built with two serial motors connected in parallel to the two other serial motors, so each motor used 300 V.
### Prototypes
No. 158 and 159 were equipped with four 36.5-kilowatt (48.9 hp) Vickers 116E motors. This was a compound motor with regenerative brakes. The trams had sixteen regulating notches and were very complicated to operate. The technology had previously been used in Birmingham, but there the tram company had discontinued them quickly because of their complexity. This complicated set-up was part of the reason for the fatal accident in Sannergata in 1937. The regenerative brakes were removed in the late 1940s. The two trams' motors were prone to technical failures, and spent much time in the workshop. They weighed 12.87 tonnes (12.67 long tons; 14.19 short tons).
No. 160 was equipped with four 33.5-kilowatt (44.9 hp) Siemens DW331e motors. The motor controller and electrical equipment were run by a battery that was charged from the overhead wire. The motorman regulated the motor controller that again magnetized the motors. The tram was also equipped with regenerative brakes. Particularly the battery-charging system had many defects, and the tram needed frequent repairs. Eventually the controller and regenerative brakes were removed. It weighed 13.16 tonnes (12.95 long tons; 14.51 short tons).
No. 161 and 162 were equipped with four 33.0-kilowatt (44.3 hp) AEG USL2039 motors. They had a conventional design and regenerative brakes, although the latter was eventually removed. They had many technical difficulties, and held Bærumsbanen's record in maintenance time. They weighed 13.57 tonnes (13.36 long tons; 14.96 short tons).
No. 163 was equipped with two 50.0-kilowatt (67.1 hp) NEBB GLM1303 motors, one on each bogie that powered both axles. This caused problems because the monomotor required the wheels to be ground regularly to avoid uneven driving, but this was not discovered until 1941. It weighed 13.44 tonnes (13.23 long tons; 14.82 short tons). |
30,159,037 | Saegusa–Ito oxidation | 1,134,181,818 | Chemical reaction in organic chemistry | [
"Name reactions"
]
| The Saegusa–Ito oxidation is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry. It was discovered in 1978 by Takeo Saegusa and Yoshihiko Ito as a method to introduce α-β unsaturation in carbonyl compounds. The reaction as originally reported involved formation of a silyl enol ether followed by treatment with palladium(II) acetate and benzoquinone to yield the corresponding enone. The original publication noted its utility for regeneration of unsaturation following 1,4-addition with nucleophiles such as organocuprates.
For acyclic substrates the reaction yields the thermodynamic E-olefin product exclusively.
This discovery was preceded nearly eight years earlier by a report that treatment of unactivated ketones with palladium acetate yielded the same products in low yields. The major improvement provided by Saegusa and Ito was the recognition that the enol form was the reactive species, developing a method based on silyl enol ethers.
Benzoquinone is actually not a necessary component for this reaction; its role is to regenerate palladium(II) from its reduced form palladium(0), so that a smaller amount of expensive palladium(II) acetate is required at the beginning. The reaction conditions and purifications could be easily simplified by just using excess of palladium(II) acetate without benzoquinone, while at a much higher cost. Since the reaction typically employs near-stoichiometric amounts of palladium and is therefore often considered too expensive for industrial usage, some progress has been made in the development of catalytic variants. Despite this shortcoming, the Saegusa oxidation has been used in a number of syntheses as a mild, late-stage method for introduction of functionality in complex molecules.
## Mechanism
The mechanism of the Saegusa–Ito oxidation involves coordination of palladium to the enol olefin followed by loss of the silyl group and formation of an oxoallyl-palladium complex. β-hydride elimination yields the palladium hydride enone complex which upon reductive elimination yields the product along with acetic acid and Pd<sup>0</sup>. The reversibility of the elimination step allows equilibration, leading to the thermodynamic E-selectivity in acyclic substrates. It has been shown that the product can form a stable Pd<sup>0</sup>-olefin complex, which may be responsible for the difficulty with re-oxidation seen in catalytic variants of the reaction.
## Scope
The wide applicability of the Saegusa–Ito oxidation is exemplified by its use in several classic syntheses of complex molecules. The synthesis of morphine by Tohru Fukuyama in 2006 is one such example, in which the transformation tolerates the presence of carbamate and ether substituents.
Samuel J. Danishefsky's synthesis of both (+) and (-) peribysin began with a Saegusa–Ito oxidation of the Diels-Alder adduct of carvone and 3-trimethylsilyloxy-1,3-butadiene to yield the enone below. In this case the oxidation tolerated the presence of alkene and carbonyl moieties.
Yong Qiang Tu's synthesis of the Alzheimer's disease medication galantamine likewise used this reaction in the presence of an acid-sensitive acetal group.
Larry E. Overman's synthesis of laurenyne utilizes a one-pot oxidation with pyridinium chlorochromate followed by a Saegusa oxidation, tolerating the presence of a halogen and a sulfonate.
The synthesis of sambutoxin reported by David Williams uses a novel Saegusa–Ito oxidation involving an unprotected enol moiety. The enone product cyclized in situ to regenerate the enol and form the tetrahydropyran ring. Subsequent deprotection of the methoxymethyl group furnished the natural product.
## Variations
The vast majority of improvements to this reaction have focused on rendering the transformation catalytic with respect to the palladium salt, primarily due to its high cost. The original conditions, though technically catalytic, still require 50 mol% of palladium(II) acetate, raising the cost to prohibitively high levels for large scale syntheses.
The major advances in catalytic versions of this reaction have steered towards co-oxidants that regenerate the palladium(II) species effectively. Specifically, conditions using atmospheric oxygen as well as stoichiometric allylcarbonate have been developed.
With respect to the former, the method developed by Larock in 1995 represents an environmentally and cost-attractive method as a catalytic substitute for the Saegusa–Ito oxidation.
This method suffers from long reaction times and often produces significantly lower yields than the stoichiometric equivalent as showcased in the synthesis of platyphillide by Nishida. The contrast of the two methods highlights the catalytic method's shortcomings.
Catalytic variants employing stoichiometric diallylcarbonate and other allylic carbonates have also been developed, primarily by Jiro Tsuji. For these the choice of solvent is essential: nitrile solvents produce the desired enones while ethereal solvents produce α-allylketones instead.
This latter method has enjoyed greater success as a synthetic tool, most notably in the Shibasaki total synthesis of the famous poison strychnine.
Despite these methods, much work remains to be done with regard to catalytic installation of α-β unsaturation.
## See also
- Silyl enol ether
- Palladium(II) acetate
- Selenoxide elimination
- Galantamine total synthesis
- Strychnine total synthesis |
24,788,953 | Stuka Jr. | 1,167,423,274 | Mexican professional wrestler | [
"1979 births",
"21st-century professional wrestlers",
"Living people",
"Masked wrestlers",
"Mexican National Trios Champions",
"Mexican male professional wrestlers",
"NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champions",
"People from Gómez Palacio, Durango",
"Professional wrestlers from Durango",
"Unidentified wrestlers"
]
| Omar Alvarado García (born July 17, 1974), better known by his ring name Stuka Jr., is a Mexican luchador (or professional wrestler), who works for the Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), where he is a member of the Los Guerreros Laguneros stable. Stuka Jr. is not, despite what the name indicates, the son of luchador Stuka, but is actually Stuka's younger brother.
For years, Stuka Jr. formed a team with Fuego, known as Los Bombadieros ("The Bombardiers"), who collectively held the CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship for a record four and a half years. He is a one-time NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champion, a one-time Occidente Light Heavyweight Champion and a one-time Mexican National Trios Champion (with Metro and Máscara Dorada). He is also the winner of the 2014 and 2022 Reyes del Aire ("King of the air") tournaments. He has spent the majority of his career as a luchador enmascarado, and lost a Lucha de Apuestas match to Atlantis Jr., after which he was forced to unmask and reveal his birth name. His mask was styled to look like aviator goggles and an early 20th-century pilot helmet and his tights include designs representing the Luftwaffe's Balkenkreuz insignia, reflecting the Stuka dive bomber from which his name is taken.
## Personal life
Stuka Jr. was born on July 17, 1974, in the Lagunero town of Gómez Palacio, Durango in Mexico. His father was a luchador known under the ring name Oso García ("Bear García"). His 15-year older brother Joel García had already made his professional wrestling debut by the time Stuka Jr. was born, using the name "Stuka". His other brothers followed in his footsteps, working under the ring names "Oso Negro" ("Black Bear") and Dandy García.
## Professional wrestling career
Stuka Jr. made his professional wrestling debut in 2002, after training with his older brother Stuka as well as local trainer El Moro. He adopted the ring name Stuka Jr., inspired by his brother, adopting a ring outfit adorned with the German Luftwaffe's Balkenkreuz insignia and a mask fashioned to look like aviator goggles and a helmet, avoiding the use of Nazi insignias on his ring gear. His first confirmed match was on February 27, 2002, where he teamed with Gigolo and La Parka to defeat El Texano, Jerry Estrada and Máscara Maligna (Stuka under a different mask). Initially, the Stuka brothers teamed together, winning the Northern Mexico Tag Team Championship not long after Stuka Jr. made his wrestling debut.
### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2005–present)
In early 2005, Stuka Jr. made his debut for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), teaming with Chamaco Valaguez Jr. and Sensei to defeat Pandilla Guerrera (Arkangel de la Muerte, El Koreano and Hooligan). Because of CMLL's working relationship with International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG), Stuka Jr. participated in several of IWRG's major events including participating in IWRG's 2005 Guerra del Golfo event. At Guerra del Golfo Stuka Jr., El Felino, Mephisto and Pierroth escaped the steel cage match, forcing Ultra Mega to compete, and lose his mask to Nemesis later that night. In CMLL he was mainly working in the opening matches while receiving additional training from its head trainer Satánico. Stuka Jr.'s first headline exposure came when he participated in the first Torneo cibernetico qualifier for the 2007 Leyenda de Plata tournament on May 18, 2007, where he was eliminated by eventual winner Mr. Águila. A month later Stuka Jr. participated in the 2007 version of CMLL's Torneo Gran Alternativa, teaming up with veteran Negro Casas. The team lost to Dr. Wagner Jr. and Máscara Purpura in the first round. On September 28, 2007, Stuka Jr. teamed up with Metalico and Valiente to defeat Los Infernales (Euforia and Nosferatu) and Loco Max on the undercard of the CMLL 75th Anniversary Show.
#### Los Bombadieros (2008–2013)
By 2008, Stuka Jr. had begun teaming with Flash on a semi-regular basis, especially on CMLL's "lower level" shows away from Arena Mexico. When CMLL announced that they were bringing back the CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship in June 2008, the team of Stuka Jr. and Flash was one of the 16 teams entered in the tournament. The tournament's first three-round took place on June 22, 2008, and saw Stuka Jr. and Flash defeat Astro Boy and Molotov in the first round, the Los Guerreros Tuareg team of Nitro and Skandalo in the quarter-final and Bronco and Diamante Negro in the semi-final. The team faced and defeated Los Infernales (Nosferatu and Euforia) in the final on June 28 to win the Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship. Stuka Jr. and Flash teamed with Máscara Purpura to defeat the Guerreros Tuareg team of Arkangel de la Muerte, Loco Max, and Skándalo at CMLL's 2008 Infierno en el Ring event. Throughout late 2008 Stuka Jr. and Flash worked a series of matches against Los Infernales, including a successful tag team title defense on December 14, 2008. Los Infernales defeated Stuka Jr. and Flash at CMLL's La Hora Cero PPV on January 11, 2009, but the Coliseo Tag Team title was not The tournament's first three-round took place on June 22, 2008. In June 2009, Stuka Jr. along with El Hijo del Fantasma, Sangre Azteca and Dragón Rojo Jr. traveled to Europe to wrestle at the Hot Air Fair, an art exhibit featuring a wrestling show for the fair-goers. Stuka Jr. and Flash teamed with Metalico at CMLL's 2009 Infierno en el Ring event as the trio lost to the team of Virus, Euforia, and Skandalo.
On December 19, 2009, the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. announced that Poder Mexica had been stripped of the Mexican National Trios Championship because Black Warrior had left CMLL, breaking up the team. At the same time, they announced an eight-team tournament to crown new trios champions. The top half of the bracket took place on December 22, 2009, and the bottom half of the bracket occurred on December 29. In the top bracket, Stuka Jr. teamed with Máscara Dorada and Metro for the first time ever and defeated Guerreros Tuareg (Arkangel de la Muerte, Loco Max, and Skándalo) in the first round and Los Cancerberos del Infierno (Virus, Euforia, and Pólvora) in the second round to qualify for the finals. The bottom bracket took place on December 29, 2009, and saw the team of Poder Mexica (Sangre Azteca, Dragón Rojo Jr., and Misterioso Jr.) qualify for the final. On January 6, 2010, Mascara Dorada, Stuka Jr., and Metro defeated Poder Mexica to become the new Mexican National Trios Champions, making Stuka Jr. a double champion. In mid-2010 Stuka Jr. and Metal Blanco started a storyline feud against Máscara Mágica and Exterminador, that played out on CMLL's weekly shows in Guadalajara, Jalisco. On July 27, Stuka Jr. and Metal Blanco won a Lucha de Apuesta, masks vs. hair match. Stuka Jr. and Metal Blanco originally appeared like they would have to unmask after losing the third fall, but the local wrestling commission voided the results of the third fall due to cheating by Máscara Mágica and Extreminador, restarting the match. In the end, Stuka Jr. and Metal Blanco won the third and deciding fall, forcing their opponents to be shaved bald per lucha libre traditions.
By virtue of holding the Mexican National Trios Championship, Stuka Jr. participated in the 2010 Universal Championship tournament. Stuka Jr. was part of "Block A" that competed on the July 30, 2010, Super Viernes show. He was the second wrestler eliminated in the seeding battle royal and then lost to his Mexican National Trios Championship partner Mascara Dorada in the first round of the actual tournament. On November 18, Máscara Dorada announced he was relinquishing the Mexican National Trios Championship. Stuka Jr.'s and Metro's new partner was to be determined in an online poll. On December 20, CMLL announced that Delta had won the poll and became one-third of the champions, alongside Stuka Jr. and Metro. On January 9, 2011, Stuka Jr., Delta, and Metro lost the Mexican National Trios Championship to Ángel de Oro, Diamante, and Rush. He was briefly unmasked by Euforia on Spanish TV in late March 2011, but his face was blurred out on television. In late 2012 Stuka Jr. began to develop a rivalry with Japanese wrestler Namajague, initiated by Namajague's attempts to cheat his way to victory. Stuka Jr. and Fuego successfully defended the CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship against Namajague and his La Fiebre Amarilla ("The Yellow Fever") partner Okumura. Through the series of Arena Coliseo tag team matches Namajague began targeting Stuka Jr. specifically, more intent on hurting and humiliating him including tearing Stuka Jr.'s mask open during the match. In late 2013 Rey Cometa was added to the storyline as it also drew in Okumura as Namajague's back up. On March 3, 2013, Stuka Jr. and Fuego's four and a half year reign as the CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Champions came to an end, when they lost the title to Namajague and Okumura. On March 15, 2013, Stuka Jr. and Rey Cometa defeated La Fiebre Amarilla in the main event of the 2013 Homenaje a Dos Leyendas show, forcing Okumura to have all his hair shaved off and Namajague was unmasked and had to reveal his real name, Kyosuke Mikami, as per lucha libre traditions.
#### Various teams (2013–2016)
In late March 2013, Stuka Jr. was announced as a participant in the 2013 En Busca de un Ídolo ("In search of an Idol") tournament that took place from May to July 2013 as one of eight competitors. From January 14 to 19, 2014, Stuka Jr. worked the New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and CMLL co-produced Fantastica Mania 2014 tour, which marked his debut in Japan. For the entire tour, Stuka Jr. worked undercard matches alongside Rey Cometa. On April 27, Stuka Jr. won the 2014 Reyes del Aire tournament, outlasting a field that included Averno, Mephisto, Ephesto, Mr. Niebla, Valiente, Tritón, Delta, Guerrero Maya Jr., Rey Cometa, Niebla Roja, Puma, and Tiger. In January 2015, Stuka Jr. returned to Japan to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2015 tour, during which he unsuccessfully challenged Mephisto for the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship. Stuka Jr. would go on to unsuccessfully challenge Mephisto for a championship on two further occasions, on July 5, 2015, and August 7, 2017. Stuka Jr. and various partners would also unsuccessfully challenge Mephisto, Ephesto, and Luciferno for the Mexican National Trios Championship on four occasions between 2015 and 2016.
#### Singles championship pursuit (2017–present)
For the 2017 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increíbles tournament, Stuka Jr. was teamed up with Hechicero as part of their slowly developing storyline rivalry. The duo lost to Rush and El Terrible in the first round. A month later Hechicero successfully defended the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship against Stuka Jr. The long-running rivalry between Stuka Jr. and Hechicero took another turn as Stuka Jr. defeated Hechicero to win the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship on August 14, 2018.
On September 16, 2022, Stuka Jr. lost a Lucha de Apuestas match to Atlantis Jr., after which he was forced to unmask and reveal his birth name, Omar Alvarado García. After working a few shows with Los Guerreros Laguneros, Stuka Jr. became the newest member of the stable in January 2023, effectively replacing Templario, who had been kicked out a year previously. On February 4, Atlantis Jr. defeated him for the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship, ending his reign at 1,635 days, the longest reign in the championship's history.
### US work (2016–present)
Through CMLL's working relationship, Stuka Jr. has worked for the US-based Ring of Honor (ROH) on several occasions over the years. He made his ROH debut on July 16, 2016, losing to Kamaitachi (who had worked for CMLL before joining ROH). Stuka Jr. returned to ROH in June 2018, during the company's tour of Texas. On the first night Stuka Jr., Atlantis and, Guerrero Maya Jr. defeated SoCal Uncensored (Christopher Daniels, Frankie Kazarian, and Scorpio Sky). The victory led to a match for the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship, losing to then-champions The Kingdom (Matt Taven, T. K. O'Ryan and Vinny Marseglia). Stuka Jr. was invited back for ROH's 2018 Survival of the Fittest tournament on November 4, where he lost to its winner Marty Scurll in the opening round. Stuka Jr. and Guerrero Maya Jr. represented CMLL at the 2019 Crockett Cup tournament on April 27, 2019 in Concord, North Carolina. The duo lost to Royce Isaacs and Thomas Latimer in the first round of the tournament to be eliminated.
## Professional wrestling style and persona
Stuka Jr. is credited with inventing the "Torpedo Plancha" dive. For this move Stuka Jr. climbs to the top rope, facing the ring, then he leaps backward in a twisting motion over the top ring post, landing on an opponent on the floor. Another high flying move that Stuka Jr. often uses during tag or trios matches involves one of his tag team partners performing a monkey flip off the entrance ramp, throwing Stuka Jr. high up in the air and onto an opponent on the floor. He often wins his matches with the "Torpedo Splash", a leaping splash off the top rope where Stuka Jr. keeps both arms straight down the side to simulate a bomb dropping from the sky. His wrestling style has earned him the nickname "the Human Missile".
Throughout his career, Stuka Jr. has always portrayed a tecnico (a face in English wrestling terms; those that portray the good guy in wrestling), with the crowds generally behind him, especially for headline matches such as the Lucha de Apuetas win over Okumura and Namajague. Pro Wrestling Illustrated (PWI) as 380 out of the top 500 in 2016, Stuka Jr.'s highest ranking in their annual list. Over the years Stuka Jr. has moved up the ranks of CMLL, initially holding the lowest ranking championship (CMLL Arena Mexico Tag Team Championship), to claiming one of the mid-card titles (the Mexican National Trio Championship), and in 2018 winning one of the top-ranked singles championships in CMLL, the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship.
## Championships and accomplishments
- Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
- CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Fuego
- Mexican National Trios Championship (1 time) – with Metro and Máscara Dorada/Delta
- NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Occidente Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Reyes del Aire (2014)
- Reyes del Aire VIP (2022)
- Rey del Inframundo (2022)
- Pro Wrestling Illustrated
- PWI ranked him \#380 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2016
- Regional Championships
- Durango Trios Championship (1 time) – with Bala de Plata and Piloto Suicida
- Northern Mexico Lightweight Championship (1 time)
- Northern Mexico Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Stuka
- Nuevo León Mexico Trios Championship (1 time) – Tigre Universitario and Gato Volador
## Luchas de Apuestas record |
967,992 | Orange (word) | 1,165,775,456 | Word in the English language | [
"English words",
"Etymologies"
]
| The word orange is a noun and an adjective in the English language. In both cases, it refers primarily to the orange fruit and the color orange, but has many other derivative meanings.
The word is derived from a Dravidian language, and it passed through numerous other languages including Sanskrit and Old French before reaching the English language. The earliest uses of the word in English refer to the fruit, and the color was later named after the fruit. Before the English-speaking world was exposed to the fruit, the color was referred to as "yellow-red" (geoluread in Old English) or "red-yellow".
"Orange" has no true rhyme. There are several half rhymes or near-rhymes, as well as some proper nouns and compound words or phrases that rhyme with it. This lack of rhymes has inspired many humorous poems and songs.
## Etymology
The word "orange" entered Middle English from Old French and Anglo-Norman orenge. The earliest recorded use of the word in English is from the 13th century and referred to the fruit. The first recorded use of "orange" as a colour name in English was in 1502, in a description of clothing purchased for Margaret Tudor. Other sources cite the first recorded use as 1512, in a will now filed with the Public Record Office. It is generally thought that Old French calqued the Italian melarancio ("fruit of the orange tree", with mela "fruit") as pume orenge (with pume "fruit"). Although pume orenge is attested earlier than melarancio in available written sources, lexicographers believe that the Italian word is actually older.
The word ultimately derives from a Dravidian language – possibly Tamil நாரம் nāram or Telugu నారింజ nāriṃja or Malayalam നാരങ്ങ nāraŋŋa — via Sanskrit नारङ्ग nāraṅgaḥ "orange tree". From there the word entered Persian نارنگ nārang and then Arabic نارنج nāranj. The initial n was lost through rebracketing in Italian and French, though some varieties of Arabic lost the n earlier.
The place named Orange has a separate etymology. The Roman-Celtic settlement was founded in 36 or 35 BC and originally named Arausio, after a Celtic water god. The Principality of Orange was named for this place and not for the color. Some time after the sixteenth century, though, the color orange was adopted as a canting symbol of the House of Orange-Nassau. The color eventually came to be associated with Protestantism, as a result of the participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion, the Irish campaigns, and the Dutch Eighty Years' War.
## Pronunciation
With forest, warrant, horrible, etc., orange forms a class of English words where the North American pronunciation of what is pronounced as , the vowel in lot, in British Received Pronunciation varies between the vowel in north ( or depending on the cot–caught and horse–hoarse mergers) and that in lot ( or depending on the father–bother merger). The former is more common while the latter is mainly found on the East Coast of the United States. While many dictionaries of North American English include the north pronunciation as the primary or only variant, Merriam-Webster lists the lot variant first and glosses the north variant as "chiefly Northern & Midland" for orange but not for other words in the class (forest etc.). Its Collegiate Dictionary listed north first until the 1973 eighth edition, but has flipped the order since the 1983 ninth edition. Merriam-Webster is also unique in including monosyllabic variants (/ɑːrndʒ, ɔːrndʒ/).
## Rhyme
No common English word is a full rhyme for "orange", though there are half rhymes, such as "hinge", "lozenge", "syringe", and "porridge". Slang and otherwise uncommon examples exist. Although this property is not unique to the word—one study of 5,411 one-syllable English words found 80 words with no rhymes—the lack of rhyme for "orange" has garnered significant attention, and inspired many humorous verses.
Although "sporange", a variant of "sporangium", is an eye rhyme for "orange", it is not a true rhyme as its second syllable is pronounced with an unreduced vowel , and often stressed.
There are a number of proper nouns which rhyme or nearly rhyme with "orange", including The Blorenge, a mountain in Wales, and Gorringe, a surname. US Naval Commander Henry Honychurch Gorringe, the captain of the USS Gettysburg, who discovered Gorringe Ridge in 1875, led Arthur Guiterman to quip in "Local Note":
In Sparkill buried lies that man of mark
Who brought the Obelisk to Central Park,
Redoubtable Commander H.H. Gorringe,
Whose name supplies the long-sought rhyme for "orange."
The slang word "blorange", a hair color between blond and orange, is a rhyme. It is attested from the early 2000s and appears in fashion-related media from about 2017.
Various linguistic or poetic devices provide for rhymes in some accents.
Compound words or phrases may give true or near rhymes. Examples include "door-hinge", "torn hinge", "or inch", and "a wrench". William Shepard Walsh attributes this verse featuring two multiple-word rhymes to Walter William Skeat:
I gave my darling child a lemon,
That lately grew its fragrant stem on;
And next, to give her pleasure more range,
I offered her a juicy orange.
And nuts, she cracked them in the door-hinge.
Enjambment can also provide for rhymes. One example is Willard Espy's poem, "The Unrhymable Word: Orange".
The four eng-
ineers
Wore orange
brassieres.
Another example by Tom Lehrer relies on the /ˈɑrəndʒ/ pronunciation commonly used on the East Coast of the United States:
Eating an orange
While making love
Makes for bizarre enj-
oyment thereof.
Rapper Eminem is noted for his ability to bend words so that they rhyme. In his song "Business" from the album The Eminem Show, he makes use of such word-bending to rhyme "orange":
Set to blow college dorm rooms doors off the hinges,
Oranges, peach, pears, plums, syringes,
VROOM VROOM! Yeah, here I come, I'm inches,
Nonce words are sometimes contrived to rhyme with "orange". Composers Charles Fox and Norman Gimbel wrote the song "Oranges Poranges" to be sung by the Witchiepoo character on the television programme H.R. Pufnstuf.
Oranges poranges, who says,
oranges poranges, who says,
oranges poranges, who says
there ain't no rhyme for oranges?
## See also
- Rhymes with Orange, a syndicated comic strip |
40,042,884 | Image Lake | 1,150,568,404 | Lake in Snohomish County, Washington, USA | [
"Lakes of Snohomish County, Washington",
"Lakes of Washington (state)",
"North Cascades of Washington (state)"
]
| Image Lake is a tarn in Glacier Peak Wilderness, in the North Cascades of Washington, United States. The lake is surrounded by Plummer Peak to the east, a lookout point to the west, the Miners Creek drainage and Glacier Peak to the south, and Canyon Lake to the north. The course of the popular Miners Ridge Trail skirts the lake. Glacier Peak can be seen from the outlet of the lake, and the peak reflected in the lake is a popular photographic subject.
As a result of a relatively mild temperate climate with ample precipitation, the areas around Image Lake boast rich natural habitats with many species of plants, insects, rodents, and large mammals. Native Americans took advantage of these resources, and may have inhabited the area seasonally. However, human activity such as hunting, fishing, and mining, and recreational overuse increased after the arrival of Europeans. As a result, some areas experienced significant environmental degradation near the end of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, including the eradication of large predatory animals. Recreational overuse and the presence of livestock were especially problematic in the early to mid-twentieth century.
## Hydrology
Image Lake has a drainage basin with an area of less than 1 square mile (2.6 km<sup>2</sup>). Its primary outflow is a small, unnamed creek that feeds into Miners Creek, which in turn drains into the Suiattle River. The Suiattle River drains into the Skagit River, which in turn empties into Puget Sound. The highest point in the drainage basin is nearly 7,000 feet (2,100 m) above sea level. The lake itself is roughly circular, and has an area of about 3–4 acres (1.2–1.6 ha).
## History
There is archaeological evidence that Native Americans had been using the area for at least 8,500 years before present, and had been present at Cascade Pass for at least 9,600 years. Wild game was apparently utilized by Native Americans, and obsidian was exploited since at least 5,000 years before present. They used several routes that passed through the region, and may have used its natural resources during the summer. Some tribes personified the mountains and incorporated them into their religions. Many of these routes followed ridge tops in order to avoid the dense brush and avalanche chutes of the valley bottoms. Horses were also used in the eighteenth century. There was a trail used by Native Americans as a route between Lake Chelan and the Suiattle River valley. The trail apparently traversed Cloudy Pass, which is some distance east of the lake. It was later used by miners and shepherds in the early 1900s. Shepherding was banned on Miners Ridge in 1940, but the popularity of the area continued to grow. Due to the area's popularity, the surrounding meadows deteriorated as a result of livestock grazing and off-trail hiking. As a result, livestock were allocated to the nearby Lady Camp Basin and hardier plants were introduced to the area surrounding the lake.
Image Lake was originally called "Mirror Lake", but was given its present name on April 10, 1940 by Hugh Ritter and Rudo Fromme, who were employees of the US Forest Service. The lake was first surveyed on July 14, 1939 by the Forest Service.
Kennecott Copper Corporation, as of 1988, planned to dig an open-pit copper mine in a basin approximately one mile east of Image Lake. However, protests by various advocacy groups, such as The Mountaineers, prevented the plan from developing further.
In 2003, floods washed out large portions of the Suiattle River Road, beginning 12.5 miles (20.1 km) from the trailhead, making Image Lake more accessible from Holden or Trinity. As of August 2013, construction crews are repairing the road, which was scheduled to be open by 2014. However, the Forest Service has a limited budget, and the effort to rebuild the road has been criticized by environmental groups, partly because of the lower number of visitors, since access from the west has become almost impossible. Since Image Lake is all but inaccessible from the west, it is necessary for hikers to access the lake from the east, via a two-day hike from Holden or Trinity.
## Hiking
The trail to Image Lake can be accessed from the Suiattle River Road. It can also be accessed from Holden, on the east side of the Cascade crest, west of Lake Chelan. The trail begins by following the Suiattle River, eventually reaching open meadows with views of Glacier Peak. There is also an alpine route that leads from the Miners Ridge Trail to Plummer Mountain, and a little used trail that leads to Canyon Lake and Totem Pass, which is about 4 miles (6.4 km) southeast of Dome Peak.
## See also
- List of lakes in Washington (state) |
4,893,575 | Romania in the Early Middle Ages | 1,171,322,280 | History of Romania – 3rd to 13th century | [
"Romania in the Early Middle Ages"
]
| The Early Middle Ages in Romania started with the withdrawal of the Roman troops and administration from Dacia province in the 270s. In the next millennium a series of peoples, most of whom only controlled two or three of the nearly ten historical regions that now form Romania, arrived. During this period, society and culture underwent fundamental changes. Town life came to an end in Dacia with the Roman withdrawal, and in Scythia Minor – the other Roman province in the territory of present-day Romania – 400 years later. Fine vessels made on fast potter's wheels disappeared and hand-made pottery became dominant from the 450s. Burial rites changed more than once from cremation to inhumation and vice versa until inhumation became dominant by the end of the 10th century.
The East Germanic Goths and Gepids, who lived in sedentary communities, were the first new arrivals. The Goths dominated Moldavia and Wallachia from the 290s, and parts of Transylvania from the 330s. Their power collapsed under attacks by the nomadic Huns in 376. The Huns controlled Eastern and Central Europe from around 400, but their empire disintegrated in 454. Thereafter the regions west of the Carpathian Mountains – Banat, Crişana, and Transylvania – and Oltenia were dominated by the Gepids. Within a century, the lands east of the mountains became important centers of the Antes and Sclavenes. Hydronyms and place names of Slavic origin also prove the one-time presence of Early Slavs in the regions west of the Carpathians.
The nomadic Avars subjugated the Gepids in 568 and dominated the Carpathian Basin up until around 800. The Bulgars also established a powerful empire in the 670s which included Dobruja and other territories along the Lower Danube. Bulgaria officially adopted the Eastern Orthodox variant of Christianity in 864. An armed conflict between Bulgaria and the nomadic Hungarians forced the latter to depart from the Pontic steppes and began the conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895. Their invasion gave rise to the earliest reference, recorded some centuries later in the Gesta Hungarorum, to a polity ruled by a Romanian duke named Gelou. The same source also makes mention of the presence of the Székelys in Crişana around 895. The first contemporaneous references to Romanians – who used to be known as Vlachs – in the regions now forming Romania were recorded in the 12th and 13th centuries. References to Vlachs inhabiting the lands to the south of the Lower Danube abound in the same period.
Banat, Crişana, and Transylvania were integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century. These regions were subject to plundering raids by the nomadic Pechenegs and Cumans, who dominated the lowlands east of the mountains. Hungarian monarchs promoted the immigration of Western European settlers to Transylvania from the 1150s. The settlers' descendants, who were known as Transylvanian Saxons from the early 13th century, received collective privileges in 1224. Because of the settlement of the Saxons in their former territories, the Székelys were moved to the easternmost zones of the kingdom. The emergence of the Mongol Empire in the Eurasian Steppes in the first decades of the 13th century had lasting effects on the history of the region. The Mongols subjugated the Cumans in the 1230s and destroyed many settlements throughout the Kingdom of Hungary in 1241 and 1242, bringing the Early Middle Ages to an end.
## Background
### Roman provinces and native tribes
Contacts between the Roman Empire – which developed into the largest empire in the history of Europe – and the natives of the regions now forming Romania commenced in the 2nd century BC. These regions were inhabited by Dacians, Bastarnae and other peoples whose incursions posed a threat to the empire. The Romans initially attempted to secure their frontiers by various means, including the creation of buffer zones. Finally, they decided that the annexation of the lands of these fierce "barbarians" was the best measure. The territory of the Getae between the river Danube and the Black Sea (modern Dobruja) was the first region to be incorporated into the empire. It was attached to the Roman province of Moesia in 46 AD.
The Lower Danube marked the boundary between the empire and "Barbaricum" until Emperor Trajan decided to expand the frontiers over territories controlled by the Dacian Kingdom. He achieved his goal through two military campaigns, the second of which ended with the annihilation of the Dacian state and the establishment of the province of Dacia in 106. It included Oltenia and large portions of Banat, Transylvania, and Wallachia. Many settlers "from all over the Roman world" arrived and settled in the new province in the following decades.
Dacia was situated over the empire's natural borders. Dacia was surrounded by native tribes inhabiting the regions of Crișana, Maramureș, and Moldavia, which are now part of Romania. Dacia province was plundered by neighboring tribes, including the Carpians and Sarmatians from the 230s, and by the Goths from the 250s. As the frontiers were to be shortened for defensive purposes, the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Dacia began in the 260s. The province officially ceased to exist under Emperor Aurelian (270–275) who "withdrew the Romans from the cities and countryside of Dacia". Garrisons stationed in Drobeta and Sucidava remained on the northern bank of the river.
### Origin of the Romanians
Romanians speak a language originating from the dialects of the Roman provinces north of the "Jireček Line". This line divided, in Roman times, the predominantly Greek-speaking southern provinces from those where Latin was the principal language of communication. The emergence of Proto-Romanian from Vulgar Latin is first demonstrated by the words "torna, torna, frater" ("turn around, turn around, brother") recorded in connection with an Eastern Roman military action in 587 or 588. The soldier shouting them "in his native tongue" spoke an Eastern Romance dialect of the Balkan Mountains.
Grigore Nandris writes that the Romanian vocabulary suggests that the Romanians' ancestors were "reduced to a pastoral life in the mountains and to agricultural pursuits in the foothills of their pasture lands" following the collapse of the Roman rule. A great number of Romanian words of uncertain origin are related to animal husbandry: baci ("chief shepherd"), balegă ("dung"), and brânză ("cheese"), for instance, belong to this group. Many words related to a more settled form of animal husbandry were borrowed from Slavic, including coteţ ("poultry house"), grajd ("stable"), and stână ("fenced pasture"). Romanian has preserved Latin terms for agriculture and the Latin names of certain crops, but a significant part of its agricultural lexis originates from a Slavic-speaking population. The first group includes a ara ("to plough"), a semăna ("to sow"), a culege ("to harvest"), a secera ("to reap"), grâu ("wheat"), in ("flax"), and furcă ("pitchfork"), while a croi ("to cut out"), a plivi ("to weed"), brazdă ("furrow"), cobilă ("plow line"), coasă ("scythe"), lopată ("shovel") and many others are Slavic loanwords.
The Romanian religious vocabulary is also divided, with a small number of basic terms preserved from Latin and a significant number of borrowings from Old Church Slavonic. Romanian did not preserve Latin words connected to urbanized society.
The Romanians' ethnogenesis cannot be understood based exclusively on written sources, because the earliest records on their ancestors were made by 11th-century Byzantine historians. When referring to the Romance-speaking population of Southeastern Europe, early medieval sources used the Vlach exonym or its cognates, which all derived from the Common Slavic term for speakers of the Latin language. The earliest sources write of the Vlachs of the central territories of the Balkan Peninsula.
## Late Roman Age
### Scythia Minor and the limes on the Lower Danube (c. 270–c. 700)
The territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea remained a fully integrated part of the Roman Empire, even after the abandonment of Trajan's Dacia. It was transformed into a separate province under the name of Scythia Minor around 293. Before 300, the Romans erected small forts at Dierna and in other places on the northern bank of the Danube in modern-day Banat. In their wider region, Roman coins from the period—mostly of bronze—have been found.
The existence of Christian communities in Scythia Minor became evident under Emperor Diocletian (284–305). He and his co-emperors ordered the persecution of Christians throughout the empire, causing the death of many between 303 and 313. Under Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337), a bridge across the Danube was constructed at Sucidava, a new fort (Constantiana Daphne) was built, and ancient roads were repaired in Oltenia. The Lower Danube again became the empire's northern boundary in 369 at the latest, when Emperor Valens met Athanaric—the head of the Goths—in a boat in the middle of the river because the latter had taken an oath "never to set foot on Roman soil".
The Huns destroyed Drobeta and Sucidava in the 440s, but the forts were restored under Emperor Justinian I (527–565). Eastern Roman coins from the first half of the 6th century suggest a significant military presence in Oltenia—a region also characterized by the predominance of pottery with shapes of Roman tradition. Although Eastern Roman emperors made annual payments to the neighboring peoples in an attempt to keep the peace in the Balkans, the Avars regularly invaded Scythia Minor from the 580s. The Romans abandoned Sucidava in 596 or 597, but Tomis, which was the last town in Scythia Minor to resist the invaders, only fell in 704.
### North of the limes (c. 270–c. 330)
Transylvania and northern Banat, which had belonged to Dacia province, had no direct contact with the Roman Empire from the 270s. There is no evidence that they were invaded in the following decades. Towns, including Apulum and Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, and the surrounding areas continued to be inhabited but the urban areas diminished. The existence of local Christian communities can be assumed in Porolissum, Potaissa and other settlements. On the other hand, evidence – mainly pottery with "Chi-rho" (Χ-Ρ) signs and other Christian symbols – is "shadowy and poorly understood", according to archaeologists Haynes and Hanson.
Urns found in late 3rd-century cemeteries at Bezid, Mediaş, and in other Transylvanian settlements had clear analogies in sites east of the Carpathians, suggesting that the Carpians were the first new arrivals in the former province from the neighboring regions. Other Carpian groups, pressured by the Goths, also departed from their homeland and sought refuge in the Roman Empire around 300. Nevertheless, "Carpo-Dacians" were listed among the peoples "mixed with the Huns" as late as 379. The Sarmatians of the Banat were allies of the empire, demonstrated by a Roman invasion in 332 against the Goths, their enemies. Sarmatians were admitted into the empire in 379, but other Sarmatian groups remained in the Tisa plains up until the 460s.
### Gutthiuda: land of the Goths (c. 290–c. 455)
The Goths started penetrating into territories west of the river Dniester from the 230s. Two distinct groups separated by the river, the Thervingi and the Greuthungi, quickly emerged among them. The one-time province of Dacia was held by "the Taifali, Victohali, and Thervingi" around 350.
The Goths' success is marked by the expansion of the multiethnic "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov culture". Settlements of the culture appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia at the end of the 3rd century, and in Transylvania after 330. These lands were inhabited by a sedentary population engaged in farming and cattle-breeding. Pottery, comb-making and other handicrafts flourished in the villages. Wheel-made fine pottery is a typical item of the period; hand-formed cups of the local tradition were also preserved. Plowshares similar to those made in nearby Roman provinces and Scandinavian-style brooches indicate trade contacts with these regions. "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov" villages, sometimes covering an area exceeding 20 hectares (49 acres), were not fortified and consisted of two types of houses: sunken huts with walls made of wattle and daub and surface buildings with plastered timber walls. Sunken huts had for centuries been typical for settlements east of the Carpathians, but now they appeared in distant zones of the Pontic steppes.
The multiethnic Gutthiuda was divided into smaller political units or kuni, each headed by tribal chiefs or reiks. In case of emergency, the tribal chiefs' council elected a supreme leader who was known as iudex regum ("judge of kings") by St Ambrose. Christian prisoners of war were the first missionaries among the Goths. Ulfilas, himself a descendant of a Cappadocian captive, was ordained bishop "of the Christians in the land of the Goths" in 341. Expelled from Gutthiuda during a persecution of Christians, Ulfilas settled in Moesia in 348.
Gothic dominance collapsed when the Huns arrived and attacked the Thervingi in 376. Most of the Thervingi sought asylum in the Roman Empire, and were followed by large groups of Greuthungi and Taifali. All the same, significant groups of Goths stayed in the territories north of the Danube. For instance, Athanaric "retired with all his men to Caucalanda"—probably to the valley of the river Olt— from where they "drove out the Sarmatians". A hoard of Roman coins issued under Valentinian I and Valens suggests that the gates of the amphitheatre at Ulpia Traiana were blocked around the same time. The Pietroasele Treasure which was hidden around 450 also implies the presence of a Gothic tribal or religious leader in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube. It contains a torc bearing the inscription GUTANI O WI HAILAG, which is interpreted by Malcolm Todd as "God who protects the Goths, most holy and inviolate".
### Gepidia: land of the Gepids (c. 290–c. 630)
The earliest reference to Gepids – an East Germanic tribe closely related to the Goths – is found in a formal speech of 291. The anonymous author wrote that the Thervingi joined "battle with the Vandals and Gepids" at that time. The center of an early Gepidia, on the plains northwest of the Meseş Mountains, appears to have been located around Şimleu Silvaniei, where early 5th-century precious objects of Roman provenance have been unearthed.
The Huns imposed their authority over the Gepids by the 420s, but the latter remained united under the rule of their king named Ardaric. Although he was one of the favorites of Attila, king of the Huns, he initiated an uprising against the Huns when Attila died in 453. The Gepids regained their independence and "ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia".
Three sumptuous tombs found at Apahida evidence the wealth accumulated by Gepid royals through their connections with the Eastern Roman Empire. A golden ring with crosses found in one of the graves implies its owner's Christian faith. John of Biclar refers to an Arian bishop of the Gepids which suggests that they adopted Christianity through their connection with the Arian Goths.
New settlements appearing along the rivers Mureş, Someş, and Târnava reflects a period of tranquility in Gepidia until around 568. The common people in Biharia, Cenad, Moreşti, and other villages lived in sunken huts covered with gabled roofs but with no hearths or ovens. They were primarily farmers, but looms, combs, and other products evidence the existence of local workshops. Trading contacts between Gepidia and faraway regions is evidenced by finds of amber beads and brooches manufactured in the Crimea, Mazovia or Scandinavia.
The Avar invasion of 568 ended the independent Gepidia. Written sources evidence the survival of Gepid groups within the Avar Empire. For instance, Eastern Roman troops "encountered three Gepid settlements" on the Tisa plains in 599 or 600.
### Hunnic Empire (c. 400–c. 460)
The Huns, a people of uncertain origin, were nomadic and wandered "with the wagons" in the 370s. They were eminent mounted archers who imposed their authority over an increasing number of neighboring peoples. Their first ruler whose seat was located in the Lower Danube region was Uldin, initially an important ally and later an enemy of the Eastern Roman Empire between 401 and 408.
The Eastern Roman government paid an annual tribute to the Huns from the 420s. Gold flowing from the empire transformed the Hun society. The introduction of a centralized monarchy is evidenced in a report written by Priscus of Panium, an Eastern Roman envoy sent to the ruler of the Huns, Attila, in 448. At that time, Gothic was widely spoken in the royal court since "the subjects of the Huns" spoke "besides their own barbarous tongues, either Hunnic or Gothic, or—as many as have commercial dealings with the western Romans—Latin".
The Huns imposed their authority on a sedentary population. Priscus of Panium refers to a village where he and his retinue were supplied "with millet instead of corn" and "medos (mead) instead of wine". Attila's sudden death in 453 caused a civil war among his sons. The subject peoples revolted and emerged the victors at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The remnants of the Huns withdrew to the Pontic steppes. One of their groups was admitted to settle in Scythia Minor in 460.
## After the first migrations
### Between Huns and Avars (c. 450–c. 565)
The last "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov" objects once widespread in Gutthiuda – such as fine wares and weapons – are dated to the period ending around 430. According to Coriolan H. Opreanu, the same period is characterized by "population shifts" which caused the abandonment of many villages and the appearance of new settlements. Botoşana, Dodeşti, and other sites east of the Carpathians demonstrate the simplification of pottery forms and a decline in the use of the fast potter's wheel from the 450s. Around the same time, semi-sunken huts with stone or clay ovens appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia, forming ephemeral settlements with an area smaller than 5 hectares (12 acres). The locals practiced an "itinerant form of agriculture", instead of manuring the soil. Differences in local pottery indicate the coexistence of communities isolated from each other by marshes, forests or hills. For instance, contemporary Cândeşti produced a significant quantity of wheel-made pottery, Târgşor was characterized by crushed-shard tempered vessels, and a sample of the most common "Kolochin" vessels was found in the Budureasca Valley.
There are few known cemeteries from the second half of the 5th century, pointing to common use of cremation without the use of urns or pits. On the other hand, a huge biritual necropolis at Sărata-Monteoru produced more than 1,600 cremation burials, either in wheel-made urns or in pits without urns. Small cemeteries with inhumation graves have been found at Nichiteni and Secuieni.
Jordanes, Procopius and other 6th-century authors used the terms "Sclavenes" and "Antes" to refer to the peoples inhabiting the territory north of the Lower Danube. The Antes launched their first campaign over the Lower Danube in 518. After they concluded a treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545, the Sclavenes started to plunder the Balkan provinces. Both ethnic groups seized many prisoners of wars during their raids, but they were ready to integrate them "as free men and friends".
The names of early 6th-century leaders of the Sclavenes or Antes are unknown. This supports ancient authors' claims that both ethnic groups lived "under a democracy". The same conclusion can be drawn from Procopius's report of the "phoney Chilbudius" – a young Antian serf who "spoke the Latin tongue" – who was dispatched by his fellow tribesmen to negotiate with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545.
The disappearance of bronze and gold coins from sites north of the Lower Danube demonstrates an "economic closure of the frontier" of the Eastern Roman Empire between 545 and 565. The same period is characterized by a tendency towards cultural unification in Moldavia, Oltenia and Wallachia. Handmade pots with very similar incised designs evidence the "existence of a cross-regional set of symbols shared" by either potters or consumers. Pots, spindle whorls and other objects decorated with crosses or swastikas have been unearthed at Cândeşti, Lozna, and other sites. The use of handmade clay pans for baking bread was spreading from the regions south and east of the Carpathians towards lands over the Dniester and the Lower Danube.
### Avar Empire (c. 565–c. 800)
The Avars occupied Gepidia in 567, less than a decade after their arrival in Europe. They were nomadic pastoralists, who settled in the lowlands. Stirrups found at Sânpetru German are among the earliest finds in Romania attributed to the Avars. They received agricultural products from farming communities settled in their domains and neighboring peoples subjected to their authority. Emperor Justin II hired, in 578, the Avars to attack the Sclavenes who resumed their plundering raids against the empire around that time. The names of some of the Sclavene leaders were first recorded in the following period. One of them, Musocius, "was called rex in the barbarian tongue".
Graves of males interred together with horses found at Aiud and Band prove the Avars' settlement in Transylvania in the early 7th century. Their cemeteries are centered around salt mines. Spurs—never found in Avar context but widely used in Western Slav territories— were unearthed in Şura Mică and Medişoru Mare, suggesting the employment of non-Avar horsemen in the 8th century.
Large "Late Avar" cemeteries used by several generations between c. 700 and c. 800 imply "an advanced degree of sedentization" of the entire society. The Avar Empire collapsed after the Franks launched three campaigns against the westernmost Avar territories between 791 and 803. Soon afterwards the Bulgars attacked the Avars from the southeast, and Charlemagne settled Avar groups in Pannonia.
### Emergence of new powers (c. 600–c. 895)
The Lower Danube region experienced a period of stability after the establishment of the Avar Empire. Archaeological sites in Moldavia, Oltenia and Wallachia became characterized by the growing popularity of hand-made vessels with finger impressions and by a decline in detectable cemeteries. Ananias of Shirak, a 7th-century Armenian geographer described the "large country of Dacia" as inhabited by Slavs who formed "twenty-five tribes".
Villages of sunken huts with stone ovens appeared in Transylvania around 600. Their network was expanding along the rivers Mureş, Olt and Someş. The so-called "Mediaş group" of cremation or mixed cemeteries emerged in this period near salt mines. The Hungarian and the Romanian vocabulary of salt mining was taken from Slavic, suggesting that Slavs were employed in the mines for centuries. Bistriţa ("swift"), Crasna ("nice" or "red"), Sibiu ("dogwood"), and many other rivers and settlements with names of Slavic origin also evidence the presence of Slavs in Transylvania.
The Turkic-speaking Bulgars arrived in the territories west of the river Dniester around 670. At the Battle of Ongal they defeated the Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Emperor Constantine IV in 680 or 681, occupied Dobruja and founded the First Bulgarian Empire. They soon imposed their authority over some of the neighboring tribes. The great variety in burial rites evidences the multi-ethnic character of the Bulgarian Empire. Even the Bulgars were divided in this respect; some of them practiced inhumation and others cremation. Initially, a sharp distinction existed between the Bulgars and their subjects, but the Slavicization of the Bulgars soon began.
Opreanu writes that the "new cultural synthesis" known as the "Dridu culture" developed in the Lower Danube region around 680. New settlements and large cemeteries show that the region experienced a steady demographic rise in the 8th century. The large, unfortified "Dridu" settlements were characterized by traditional semi-sunken huts, but a few houses with ground-level floors have also been unearthed in Dodeşti, Spinoasa, and other places.
"Dridu" communities produced and used gray or yellow fine pottery, but hand-made vessels were still predominant. Fine, gray vessels were also unearthed in the 9th-century "Blandiana A" cemeteries in the area of Alba-Iulia, which constitutes a "cultural enclave" in Transylvania. Near these cemeteries, necropolises of graves with west–east orientation form the distinct "Ciumbrud group". Female dress accessories from "Ciumbrud graves" are strikingly similar to those from Christian cemeteries in Bulgaria and Moravia. From an earlier date are the cremation cemeteries of the "Nuşfalau-Someşeni group" in northwestern Transylvania, with their 8th- and 9th-century tumuli, similar to the kurgans of East Slavic territories.
Contemporaneous authors rarely dwelled on early medieval Southeastern Europe. For instance, the Royal Frankish Annals makes a passing reference to Abodrites living "in Dacia adjacent to the Danube near the Bulgarian border" on the occasion of their envoys' arrival in Aachen in 824. Bulgaria's territory increased under Krum (c. 803–814), who took Adrianople and forced at least 10,000 of the town's inhabitants to settle north of the Lower Danube in 813. The ambitions of his son Omurtag (814–831) in the regions of the rivers Dnieper and Tisa are attested by two columns erected in the memory of Bulgar military leaders who drowned in these rivers during military campaigns. Emperor Arnulf sent envoys, in 894, to the Bulgarians to "ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians", suggesting a Bulgarian control over either the Transylvanian salt mines or the roads to Moravia.
In the same year, the nomadic Hungarians – who had arrived in the Lower Danube region from the steppes of Eastern Europe in 837 or 838 – became involved in a conflict between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire on the latter's behalf. The Bulgarians incited another nomadic tribe, the Pechenegs, to invade the Hungarians from the east, while the Bulgarians also attacked them from the south. The two synchronized attacks forced the Hungarians to cross the Carpathian Mountains in search for a new homeland.
About 300 years later, Anonymus, the author of Gesta Hungarorum, wrote a comprehensive list of polities and peoples of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. He wrote about the Hungarian conquest of the territory but did not mention Simeon I of Bulgaria, Svatopluk of Moravia and the conquerors' opponents known from contemporary sources. Instead, he wrote of a number of personalities unknown by other chroniclers. In Gesta Hungarorum, Menumorut ruled over "the peoples that are called Kozár" in Crişana. Anonymus also wrote of the Székelys ("previously the peoples of King Attila") living in the territory for centuries who joined the invading Hungarians. Banat, according to Anonymus, was ruled by Glad who had come "from the castle of Vidin." Glad is described to employ "Cumans, Bulgarians and Vlachs" in his army. Anonymous also wrote of Gelou, "a certain Vlach" ruling in Transylvania, a land inhabited by "Vlachs and Slavs". Gelou's subjects are portrayed as having "suffered many injuries from the Cumans and Pechenegs".
## Formation of new states and the last waves of migrations
### First Bulgarian Empire after conversion (864–1018)
Boris I, the ruler of Bulgaria, converted to Orthodox Christianity in 864. He promoted vernacular worship services, thus Old Church Slavonic was declared the language of liturgy in the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 893. One of the earliest examples of Cyrillic script—an alphabet strongly associated with Slavonic liturgy—was found in Mircea Vodă in Romania. The Cyrillic inscription from 943 refers to a "župan Dimitrie".
Byzantine troops occupied large portions of Bulgaria, including modern Dobruja, under Emperor John I Tzimiskes (969–976). After his death an anti-Byzantine uprising led by four brothers broke out. One of the brothers, David, was killed by Vlachs in the present-day border region between Greece and North Macedonia. In 1018, the Byzantines conquered the whole territory of the Bulgarian Empire and the Archbishop of Ohrid acquired ecclesiastic jurisdiction in 1020 over the Vlachs living there.
### Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin (c. 895–c. 1000)
The way taken by the Hungarians across the Carpathian Mountains when they started the conquest of the Carpathian Basin varies from source to source. According to Gesta Hungarorum, the Hungarians descended through the northern passes to the lowlands, bypassing Transylvania, and only began the invasion of the regions east of the Tisa after the conquest of the western regions. Gesta Hungarorum says the Vlach Gelou of Transylvania died fighting the Hungarians, while his subjects chose "for themselves as lord Tétény", one of the Hungarian leaders. Anonymus also wrote of Menumorut's defeat, but said he preserved his rule in Crişana until his death by giving his daughter in marriage to Zolta, heir to Árpád, the head of the Hungarians. In a contrasting account, the Illuminated Chronicle writes of Hungarians fleeing through the eastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains to Transylvania where they "remained quietly" and "rested their herds" for a while before moving further west. The so-called "Cluj group" of small inhumation cemeteries—graves with west–east orientation, often containing remains of horses— appeared on both sides of the Apuseni Mountains around 900. Their military character evidences that the people using them formed a "double defensive line" organized against the Pechenegs. Transylvanian cemeteries of the "Cluj group" cluster around salt mines.
Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus identified "the whole settlement" of Hungary with the lands where the rivers Criş, Mureş, Timiş, Tisa and Toutis–possibly the Bega—ran around 950. The concentration of objects of Byzantine provenance at the confluence of the Mureş and Tisa shows that this territory was a regional center of power. Accordingly, the seat of Gyula, a Hungarian chieftain baptized in Constantinople around 952, most probably existed in this region. On the other hand, Hungarian chronicles associate Gyula's family with Transylvania. Place names from the nomadic stratum of Hungarian toponymy—those corresponding to proper names or Hungarian tribal names, including Decea, Hotoan, and Ineu— also evidence that major Hungarian groups settled in Transylvania from the 950s. An early "Bijelo Brdo" cemetery belonging to a 10th- and 11th-century archaeological culture with finds from all over the Carpathian Basin was found at Deva.
### Patzinakia: land of the Pechenegs (c. 895–c. 1120)
The Turkic-speaking Pechenegs took the control of the territories east of the Carpathians from the Hungarians around 895. Emperor Constantine VII wrote that two Pecheneg "provinces" or "clans" ("Kato Gyla" and "Giazichopon") were located in Moldavia and Wallachia around 950. The change of dominion had no major effect on the sedentary "Dridu" villages in the region. The settlements in Moldavia and Wallachia, most of them built on river banks or lake shores, remained unfortified. Sporadic finds of horse brasses and other "nomadic" objects evidence the presence of Pechenegs in "Dridu" communities. Snaffle bits with rigid mouthpieces and round stirrups—novelties of the early 10th century—were also unearthed in Moldavia and Wallachia. Cemeteries of the locals show that inhumation replaced cremation by the end of the 10th century.
The Eymund's saga narrates that Pechenegs (Tyrkir) with Blökumen "and a good many other nasty people" were involved in the disputes for the throne of Kievan Rus' in 1019. An 11th-century runic inscription on a stone from Gotland narrates that a Varangian man was murdered "on a voyage abroad" by Blakumen. Both Blökumen and Blakumen may refer to Vlachs inhabiting the regions east of the Carpathians, although their translation to "black men" cannot be excluded. Graffiti depicting ships and dragons in Scandinavian style were found in the Basarabi Cave Complex at Murfatlar.
Large groups of Pechenegs pressured from the east by the Ouzes received asylum in the Byzantine Empire in 1046 and 1047. All the same, Pecheneg populations remained in the regions north of the Lower Danube even thereafter. Some of them were admitted into the Kingdom of Hungary in the next decades, where they were settled in southern Transylvania and other regions.
### Byzantine revival and the Second Bulgarian Empire (970s–c. 1185)
Around 971, Emperor John I Tzimiskes established the theme or "district" of Paristrion in the territories occupied between the Balkan Mountains and the Lower Danube. Naval bases were built at Capidava, Noviodunum, and Păcuiul lui Soare on the river. Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the annexed territories often expressed their hostility towards imperial rule. Anna Comnena relates how local Vlachs showed "the way through the passes" of the Balkan Mountains to invading Cumans in 1094. All the same, Vlachs served in the imperial army, for instance during an imperial campaign against the Kingdom of Hungary in 1166. New taxes imposed by imperial authorities caused a rebellion of Vlachs and Bulgarians in 1185, which led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The Vlachs' eminent status within the new state is evidenced by the writings of Robert of Clari and other western authors, who refer either to the new state or to its mountainous regions as "Vlachia" until the 1250s.
### Kingdom of Hungary (c. 1000–1241)
Stephen I, the first crowned king of Hungary whose reign began in 1000 or 1001, unified the Carpathian Basin. Around 1003, he launched a campaign against "his maternal uncle, King Gyula" and occupied Transylvania. Stephen I later turned against Ahtum, "who had been baptised in the Orthodox faith in Vidin", and conquered Banat. Hartvik, Stephen I's hagiographer, wrote that the monarch "divided his territories in ten bishoprics". In the territory of modern Romania, three Roman Catholic dioceses were established with their seats in Alba Iulia, Biharea (from the last decades of the 11th century in Oradea), and Cenad.
Royal administration in the entire kingdom was based on counties organized around royal fortresses. In modern Romania's territory, references to an ispán or count of Alba in 1097, and to a count of Bihor in 1111 evidence the appearance of the county system. The counties in Banat and Crişana remained under direct royal authority, but a great officer of the realm, the voivode, supervised the ispáns of the Transylvanian counties from the end of the 12th century.
Eastward expansion of "Bijelo Brdo" villages along the Mureş continued in the 11th century. Cauldrons and huts with hearths carved into the soil were the characterizing items of the period. Nevertheless, semi-sunken huts with stone ovens from Sfântu Gheorghe, Şimoneşti and other villages evidence the survival of the local population. The lands between the Carpathians and the Tisa were plundered by Pechenegs in the 1010s and in 1068, by Ouzes in 1085, and by Cumans in 1091. Cluj, Dăbâca and other royal forts built of earth and timber were strengthened after the 1068 attack. In these forts appeared the so-called "Citfalău cemeteries", dependent upon late 11th-century royal legislation forcing commoners to set up their graveyards around churches.
The early presence of Székelys at Tileagd in Crişana, and at Gârbova, Saschiz, and Sebeş in Transylvania is attested by royal charters. Székely groups from Gârbova, Saschiz, and Sebeş were moved around 1150 into the easternmost regions of Transylvania, when the monarchs granted these territories to new settlers arriving from Western Europe. The Székelys were organized into "seats" instead of counties, and a royal officer, the "Count of the Székelys" became the head of their community from the 1220s. The Székelys provided military services to the monarchs and remained exempt of royal taxes.
A great number of Flemish, German, and Walloon "guest settlers" arrived in Transylvania around 1150. Wheel-made fine vessels with analogies in Thuringia found at Şelimbăr demonstrate the advanced technology they introduced to their new home. An account of royal revenues from the 1190s shows that almost one-tenth of all royal income derived from taxes they paid. In 1224, King Andrew II granted collective privileges to those inhabiting the region between Orăștie and Baraolt. The Diploma Andreanum confirmed the custom of freely electing their priests and local leaders; only the right to appoint the head of their community, the "Count of Sibiu", was preserved for the monarchs. The Transylvanian Saxons—as they were collectively mentioned from the early 13th century—also received the right to "use the forests of the Romanians and the Pechenegs" along with these peoples.
The earliest royal charter referring to Romanians in Transylvania is connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Cârța around 1202, which was granted land, up to that time possessed by Romanians. Another royal charter reveals that Romanians fought for Bulgaria along with Saxons, Székelys and Pechenegs under the leadership of the Count of Sibiu in 1210. The Orthodox Romanians remained exempt from the tithe payable by all Catholic peasants to the Church. Furthermore, they only paid a special in kind tax, the "fiftieth" on their herds.
Organized settling continued with the arrival of the Teutonic Knights in Ţara Bârsei in 1211. They were granted the right to freely pass through "the land of the Székelys and the land of the Vlachs" in 1222. The knights tried to free themselves from the monarch's authority, thus King Andrew II expelled them from the region in 1225. Thereafter, the king appointed his heir, Béla, with the title of duke, to administer Transylvania. Duke Béla occupied Oltenia and set up a new province, the Banate of Severin, in the 1230s.
### Cumania: land of the Cumans (c. 1060–1241)
The arrival of the Cumans in the Lower Danube region was first recorded in 1055. A 17th-century version of the Turkic chronicle Oghuzname relates that Qipchaq, the ancient Cuman hero, fought against the Ulak (Romanians), along with other nations. Cuman groups assisted the rebelling Bulgarians and Vlachs against the Byzantines between 1186 and 1197.
"Dridu" villages of the lowlands east of the Carpathians were abandoned between 1050 and 1080, around which time new settlements appeared on higher land on both banks of the Prut. A sharp decrease from 300 to 35 in the number of archaeological sites—settlements, cemeteries and coin hords—evidences a population decline which continued well into the 13th century. Byzantine troops marching towards Transylvania through the territory east of the Carpathians encountered "a land entirely bereft of men" in 1166.
A coalition of Rus' princes and Cuman tribes suffered a sound defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223. Shortly thereafter Boricius, a Cuman chieftain, accepted baptism and the supremacy of the king of Hungary. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was set up in his territories in 1228. A letter of 1234 written by Pope Gregory IX refers to a "certain people within the Cuman bishopric called Walati" (Vlachs) who even persuaded Catholic Hungarians and Germans to accept the ecclesiastic authority of Orthodox prelates.
### Mongol invasion (1241–1242)
The Mongols, who had decided to invade Europe in 1235, attacked the Cumans in 1238. Masses of Cumans sought refuge in Bulgaria and Hungary. The Mongols crossed the Carpathians in March 1241, and soon afterwards they destroyed "the rich village of the Germans" (Rodna), and took Bistrița, Cluj, and Oradea. Another Mongol army "proceeded by way of the Qara-Ulagh" ("Black Vlachs"), and defeated their leader named "Mishlav". They also entered Transylvania, sacked Alba Iulia, Sibiu, the abbeys at Cârța and Igriș, and Cenad.
The Mongol invasion lasted for a year, and the Mongols devastated huge swathes of territory of the kingdom before their unexpected withdrawal in 1242. Matthew Paris and other contemporaneous scholars considered the Mongol invasion as a "sign of apocalypse". Whole villages were destroyed, and many were never rebuilt. According to a royal charter of 1246, Alba Iulia, Harina, Gilău, Mărişelu, Tășnad and Zalău were almost depopulated. Another charter from 1252 evidences that Zec, a village on the Olt, was totally deserted.
> After the devastation of the region, they [the Mongols] surrounded the great village with a combined force of some Tatars together with Russians, Cumans and their Hungarian prisoners. They sent first the Hungarian prisoners ahead and when they were all slain, the Russians, the Ishmaelites, and Cumans went into battle. The Tatars, standing behind them all at the back, laughed at their plight and ruin and killed those who retreated from the battle and subjected as many as they could to their devouring swords, so that after fighting for a week, day and night, and filling up the moat, they captured the village. Then they made the soldiers and ladies, of whom there were many, stand in a field on one side and the peasants on the other. Having robbed them of their money, clothing and other goods, they cruelly executed them with axes and swords, leaving only some of the ladies and girls alive, whom they took for their entertainment.
## Aftermath
A new period of intensive settlements began in Banat, Transylvania and other regions within the Kingdom of Hungary after the withdrawal of the Mongols. King Béla IV was also considering settling the Knights Hospitallers in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube. His diploma of 1247 for the Knights evidences the existence of four Romanian polities in the region. They were under the rule of voivodes Litovoi and Seneslau, and of knezes Farcaș and John.
Internal conflicts characterized the last decades of the 13th century in the Kingdom of Hungary. For instance, a feud between King Béla and his son, Stephen caused a civil war which lasted from 1261 to 1266. Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy, Voivode Litovoi attempted to get rid of the Hungarian monarchs' suzerainty in the 1270s, but he fell in a battle while fighting against royal troops. One of his successors, Basarab I of Wallachia was the first Romanian monarch whose sovereignty was internationally recognized after his victory over King Charles I of Hungary in the Battle of Posada of 1330.
## See also
- Balkan–Danubian culture
- Banat in the Middle Ages
- Bulgarian lands across the Danube
- History of the Székely people |
339,513 | Fernando de la Rúa | 1,173,633,532 | Former President of Argentina | [
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| Fernando de la Rúa (; 15 September 1937 – 9 July 2019) was an Argentine politician and a member of the Radical Civic Union (UCR) political party who served as President of Argentina from 10 December 1999 to 21 December 2001. De la Rúa was born in Córdoba; he entered politics after graduating with a degree in law. He was elected senator in 1973 and unsuccessfully ran for the office of Vice President as Ricardo Balbín's running mate the same year. He was re-elected senator in 1983 and 1993, and as deputy in 1991. He unsuccessfully opposed the pact of Olivos between President Carlos Menem and party leader Raúl Alfonsín, which enabled the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution and the re-election of Menem in 1995.
De la Rúa was the first chief of government of Buenos Aires to be elected by popular vote, a change introduced by the amendment of the Constitution. He expanded the Buenos Aires Underground, adding new stations to Line D, starting the expansion of Line B, and establishing Line H. He established Roberto Goyeneche Avenue and the city's first bicycle path.
In 1999, De la Rúa was elected President after running on the Alliance ticket, a political coalition of the UCR and the Frepaso. He was opposed by the Peronist unions and his Vice President Carlos Álvarez resigned after denouncing bribes in the Senate. The economic crisis that began during Menem's administration worsened and by the end of 2001 led to a banking panic. The government established the Corralito to limit bank withdrawals. De la Rúa called a state of emergency during the December 2001 riots. Following his resignation on 20 December, the Argentine Congress appointed a new president. After leaving office, De la Rúa retired from politics and faced legal proceedings for much of the remainder of his life until his death in 2019.
## Early life
Fernando de la Rúa was the son of Eleonora Bruno and Antonio De la Rúa; he was born in the city of Córdoba and attended the local Military Lyceum before entering the National University of Córdoba, from which he graduated with a law degree at the age of 21. He married a Buenos Aires socialite, Inés Pertiné, in 1970; they had three children, including Antonio de la Rúa. De la Rúa became involved in politics at a young age; he entered public service in 1963 as an advisor to President Arturo Illia's minister Juan Palmero.
He was elected senator in the March 1973 general elections, defeating the Peronist Marcelo Sánchez Sorondo. He was the only politician from the Radical Civic Union (UCR) who could defeat the Peronist candidate in his administrative division. The elected president Héctor José Cámpora and his vice president resigned a few months later, leading to the call to new elections. Ricardo Balbín ran for president in the September general elections, with De la Rúa as his running mate for the post of vice president. The UCR was defeated by Juan Perón in a landslide. De la Rúa was removed from the Congress during the 1976 Argentine coup d'état. He left politics and worked as a lawyer for the firm Bunge y Born.
The National Reorganization Process ended in 1983. De la Rúa intended to run for president but lost in the primary elections of the UCR to Raúl Alfonsín, who was elected in the general election. De la Rúa ran for the post of senator instead, defeating the Peronist Carlos Ruckauf. He ran for re-election as senator in 1989 but, despite his electoral victory, the electoral college voted for the Peronist Eduardo Vaca. De la Rúa was elected deputy in 1991 and returned to the senate in 1993. President Carlos Menem, elected in 1989, wanted to amend the constitution to allow him to run for re-election in 1995, which was opposed by the UCR. Alfonsín signed the Pact of Olivos with Menem, negotiating terms to support the proposal. De la Rúa led the opposition to the pact within the UCR, but Alfonsín prevailed in the internal dispute. This damaged the relationship between the two leaders, but helped the party to retain a number of radicals who were against the pact. De la Rúa could not prevent the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution. As a result, Menem was re-elected in 1995. The UCR finished third in the elections for the first time, being surpassed by the Frepaso, a new party composed by former Peronists.
## Mayor of Buenos Aires
The constitutional amendment gave autonomy to the city of Buenos Aires, allowing it to sanction local laws and elect its own mayor, who was previously appointed by the president of the nation. De la Rúa was the first mayor elected in this manner, defeating the previous mayor Jorge Domínguez. During his term of office he created or reformulated several institutions to fit the new status of the city, as required by the national constitution and the recently approved Constitution of Buenos Aires.
De la Rúa worked on the expansion of the Buenos Aires Underground. The first stations of the extended Line D, Olleros and José Hernández, were opened in 1997, Juramento was opened in 1999, and Congreso de Tucumán in 2000. He also started the works to extend the Line B. Carlos Menem started to transfer the control and financing of the underground system to the city, but the 2001 economic crisis halted the process.
The former mayor Domínguez intended to expand the Pan-American Highway into Saavedra, but the project met widespread opposition. De la Rúa reformulated the project and built an avenue instead of a highway, which was accepted. The avenue was named Roberto Goyeneche. He also restarted a project to build the Cámpora Highway linking Dellepiane Avenue with the Riachuelo, and established the first non-recreational bikeway in Buenos Aires at Avenida del Libertador.
## Presidential elections
The Pact of Olivos diminished the electoral strength of the UCR, leading to the rise of the Frepaso. Both parties united in a political coalition, the Alliance, which defeated the PJ in the 1997 midterm elections. It was the PJ's first national defeat since 1985. The parties held open primary elections for the 1999 presidential elections. De la Rúa stood for the UCR; the whole party, including Alfonsín, supported him. The Frepaso candidate was Graciela Fernández Meijide, who had defeated Peronism in the populous Buenos Aires province. De la Rúa won the primary elections by a wide margin. In the primaries, De la Rúa was voted for by more people than those who voted for the UCR in 1995. Despite his victory, Alfonsín was still the president of the UCR. They disagreed on the vice president for De la Rúa's ticket; he thought that it should be Meijide because she took part in the primary elections and came from a different district than him. Alfonsín preferred the popular Carlos Álvarez, leader of the Frepaso, saying he could attract more voters and had more political expertise. It was also a result of the internal politics of the Alliance: except for Meijide, the Frepaso did not have a political figure who could run with high prospects for winning the post of Governor of the Buenos Aires province. Had she run for vice president, Frepaso would have had to resign that candidacy to a radical candidate.
Carlos Menem dismissed De la Rúa as a "boring" candidate. De la Rúa exploited that description in television advertisements, embracing it and setting a comparison with the glitzy style of Menem and the perceived political corruption of his administration. He also compared himself with the Peronist candidate Eduardo Duhalde. He promised to solve the economic crisis with fiscal austerity and higher tax controls, hoping it would lower interest rates, bring more foreign investments, and reduce unemployment. He also promised to keep the convertibility plan established by Menem that pegged the Argentine peso one-to-one with the United States dollar.
The 1999 presidential election was held on 24 October. De la Rúa defeated Duhalde by 48.4% to 38.3%, well ahead of the threshold to avoid a second round run-off election. Domingo Cavallo, Menem's former minister of economy, finished the race in third place. De la Rúa was inaugurated President of Argentina on 10 December 1999. He took office with a favorability rating of 75%. Unlike Menem, whose initial cabinet was composed of trusted friends, De la Rúa's cabinet included five people with international degrees and four economists.
## Presidency
He was President of Argentina from 10 December 1999 to 21 December 2001.
### Domestic policy
In the first days of his presidency, De la Rúa sent a bill to the Congress to request a federal intervention in the province of Corrientes. The province had a high level of debt, and organizations of piqueteros blocked roads to make demonstrations. There were two interim governors disputing power. The bill was immediately approved. The intervenor selected for the task was Ramón Mestre.
The Peronist unions opposed De la Rúa and held seven general strikes against him. He sent a bill known as the labour flexibility law to deregulate labor conditions, attempting to reduce the political influence of unions, to the Congress. This project was opposed by the PJ and was changed from the original draft. It was finally approved but Álvarez said several legislators were bribed to support the bill. Álvarez asked for the removal of the labor minister Alberto Flamarique, but De la Rúa instead promoted him to be his personal secretary. Álvarez resigned the following day and the political scandal divided the coalition. Several deputies who initially supported De la Rúa switched to the opposition. Alfonsín tried to prevent a breakup of the UCR. Some months later, it was proposed that Álvarez return to the De la Rúa government as the Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers. Álvarez initially supported the idea but De la Rúa opposed it. Cavallo was also proposed for the office before he was appointed Minister of Economy. De la Rúa intended to include the Frepaso in the new cabinet but to exclude Álvarez himself because he still resented the latter's resignation. The negotiations failed and the new cabinet included no Frepaso politicians, but the Alliance was still working as a coalition in the Congress. It also included several radical politicians from Alfonsín's internal faction. The new Chief of Cabinet was Chrystian Colombo, who mediated between Alfonsín and the president.
The PJ won the 2001 midterm election by 40% to 24%, giving it a majority in both chambers of the Congress. However, the abstention rate and several forms of protest votes combined reached 41%, the highest in Argentine history, as a consequence of the popular discontent with the two main parties. Even the few candidates of the Alliance who won at their districts, such as the radical Rodolfo Terragno in Buenos Aires, did so with political platforms against De la Rúa's administration.
### Foreign policy
The first year of De la Rúa's presidency coincided with the last year of Bill Clinton's presidency of the United States. Ricardo López Murphy, Minister of Defense at the time, met William Cohen, U.S. Secretary of Defense, in a summit of ministers that took place in Brazil in 2000. Both countries agreed to share classified information and to hold joint operations against terrorism.
George W. Bush took office as President of the United States in January 2001, and changed American policy towards countries in financial crises. His Treasury Secretary, Paul H. O'Neill, a critic of financial aid, said, "We're working to find a way to create a sustainable Argentina, not just one that continues to consume the money of the plumbers and carpenters in the United States who make \$50,000 a year and wonder what in the world we're doing with their money". The September 11 attacks occurred a few months later, and the U.S. focused its foreign policy on the War on Terror against countries suspected of harboring terrorist organizations. As a result, the U.S. gave no further financial aid to Argentina. This policy was confirmed after an interview of Bush with the Brazilian president, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who confirmed Brazil would not be affected by the Argentine crisis.
Although Argentina maintained neutrality as for the conflict itself in Afghanistan to topple the Taliban rule, defense minister Horacio Jaunarena ordered the Argentine Air Force to prepare to deploy to Afghanistan under UN humanitarian mission "after the war was over" with military personnel returning from Kosovo. The mission never materialized as the war extended in time beyond de la Rúa's term.
### Economic policy
De la Rúa's first Minister of Economy was the progressive José Luis Machinea, who was proposed by Alfonsín and Álvarez. Menem had left a deficit of 5 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) points that Machinea tried to compensate with higher taxes to people with the highest incomes, and a reduction of the highest retirement pensions. The deficit was reduced but the crisis continued. The scandal over the labor law and the resignation of Álvarez increased the country's risk, and made Argentina's access to international credit more difficult. The government negotiated a US\$38 billion International Monetary Fund (IMF) line of credit to prevent a default and allow the economy to grow again. Machinea also proposed appointing former minister Cavallo as the new President of the Central Bank of Argentina. However, Machinea was unable to achieve the levels of austerity negotiated with the IMF and resigned a few days later. The Minister of Defense Ricardo López Murphy became the new Minister of Economy. During the election camapain, De la Rúa had promised not to appoint him to that ministry, but with the ongoing crisis he did not want to risk problems caused by a temporary lack of minister. López Murphy announced a stricter austerity plan, with reduction to the health and education budgets. His plan was rejected by street demonstrations and the Frepaso, so De la Rúa declined it. Murphy resigned after being minister for 16 days.
De la Rúa appointed Cavallo, who had served under Menem and had established the convertibility plan. He was supported by the PJ, Carlos Álvarez, and the financial groups, but he was rejected by the rest of the UCR. The government announced it would retain the convertibility plan and that there would be no devaluation or sovereign default. Cavallo proposed several bills; De la Rúa sent them to the Congress and they were approved. The "superpowers law" authorized the chief of government to modify the national budget without the intervention of the Congress. There was a new tax on bank operations and more products attracted value-added tax. The wages of national customs workers were increased and some industries benefited from tax exemptions. The Megacanje was a negotiation to delay the payment of foreign debt in exchange for higher interest rates. However, internal debt was still a problem because the provinces, especially Buenos Aires, were nearing default. This led to conflicts between Cavallo and the provincial governors. Congress approved a bill for a "Zero deficit" policy to prevent further increases of debt and to work only with money from tax revenue. There was a banking panic in November; the government reacted by introducing the "corralito", which prevented people from withdrawing cash from banks. It was initially a temporary measure. The IMF refused to send the monthly payment for the line of credit approved at the beginning of the year because the government had not stuck to the "zero deficit" policy.
### Riots and resignation
The crisis worsened and by 19 December 2001, riots and looting broke out at several points in the country. De la Rúa announced in a cadena nacional (national network broadcast) that he had established a state of emergency. The riots continued; his speech was followed by increased protests, the cacerolazos, which caused 27 deaths and thousands of injuries. Cavallo resigned at midnight the same day, and the rest of the cabinet followed suit.
There was increased looting on 20 December, both in Buenos Aires and the Conurbano. The cacerolazos continued; large groups of people started demonstrations calling for the government's resignation. The unions—first the CTA and then the CGT—began general strikes against the state of emergency. Most of the UCR withdrew their support for De la Rúa, so he asked the PJ to create a government coalition. The PJ refused, and De la Rúa resigned from government. His last administrative action was to lift the state of emergency. He gave his resignation to Congress at 19:45 local time on 20 December 2001, and left the Casa Rosada in a helicopter. He had presided for two years, half of his allotted term of office.
Because Vice President Carlos Álvarez had already resigned, the Congress convened to appoint a new president. Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, governor of San Luis Province, was in office for two months while calling for new presidential elections. Renewed demonstrations forced him to resign as well, and Eduardo Duhalde was appointed as the new president. He was able to complete De la Rúa's term of office.
## Later life and death
De la Rúa retired from political life after his resignation. The scandal over the labor flexibility law was renewed in 2003 when a former Senate worker, Mario Pontaquarto, claimed to be a witness of the case who delivered \$5,000,000 to the legislators. De la Rúa was indicted alongside seven politicians from both the UCR and the PJ. In 2013, they were all cleared of charges by a unanimous resolution, and Pontaquarto was removed from the witness protection program.
De la Rúa was also indicted for the police repression which took place during the crisis; he was tried by judge Claudio Bonadio, who in 2009 declared him innocent. The Supreme Court overturned Bonadio's ruling and ordered him to further investigate the matter. De la Rúa and Cavallo were indicted for illegally benefiting the banks that took part in the Megacanje. They were declared innocent on 6 October 2014.
He died of heart failure on 9 July 2019 at age 81. He received a state funeral in Congress before a private burial the following day.
## Public image
De la Rúa started to work in politics from a very young age. He was nicknamed "Chupete" (Spanish: "Pacifier") because of this; the nickname was still employed when he grew up. During Carlos Menem's administration he was perceived as a serious and formal politician, in stark contrast with Menem's style. De la Rúa took advantage of this perception during the electoral campaign of 1999. When he became president and the economic crisis worsened, he was perceived as a weak and tired man who was unable to react to the crisis. He was perceived as a man without leadership skills who could not make use of his presidential authority. De la Rúa thought that the parody of him by the television comedian Freddy Villarreal helped to establish that image. He sought to change his image by appearing on the television comedy show El show de Videomatch, but his appearance on the program backfired. He confused the names of the show and that of the host Marcelo Tinelli's wife. After De la Rúa's participation ended, Tinelli began to close the program; De la Rúa could be seen seeking an exit from the set in the background. The aforementioned popular image of De la Rúa was further magnified when he was hospitalized for peripheral artery disease caused by high blood cholesterol. Although it is a standard, simple medical intervention, the medic told the press De la Rúa suffered from arteriosclerosis, which is usually linked with a lack of speed and reflexes.
### Honours
- Slovakia: Grand Cross (or 1st Class) of the Order of the White Double Cross (2001)
- Portugal: Key of Honor to the City of Lisbon on 15 November 2001 |
11,547,454 | Fern Hobbs | 1,068,344,446 | American attorney | [
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| Fern Hobbs (May 8, 1883 – April 10, 1964) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon, and Private Secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West. She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman, and became the highest-paid woman in public service in America in her mid-twenties.
Hobbs made international news when Governor West sent her to implement martial law in the small Eastern Oregon town of Copperfield. The event was considered a strategic coup for West, establishing the State's authority over a remote rural community and cementing his reputation as a proponent of prohibition.
Hobbs later worked for the American Red Cross in Europe and at The Oregon Journal newspaper. She died in Portland in 1964.
## Early life and career in public service
Hobbs was born on May 8, 1883, in Bloomington, Nebraska, to John Alden Hobbs and Cora Bush Hobbs. Her family moved to Salt Lake City, Utah when she was six years old; she lived there for 12 years, finishing high school. Her father then met with financial difficulties, and she moved to Oregon, settling in Hillsboro. There, she put her younger brother and sister through school, while studying stenography and working for a living, initially as a governess in a Portland home.
She soon became a private secretary to the president of the Title Guarantee and Trust Company. The bank, which held many assets of the Oregon Common School Fund, failed during Hobbs' time there. Ben Olcott, was appointed by Governor Chamberlain to represent the state in investigating the bank over the state's assets. He took note of Hobbs' strong loyalty to her employer.
After the bank's failure, Hobbs worked as a governess for J. Wesley Ladd (brother of William S. Ladd) in Portland. She also continued to help raise her younger brother and sister, studied stenography and the law, and worked as a secretary. In 1913, Hobbs graduated from Willamette University College of Law with a Bachelor of Laws degree, and was admitted to the Oregon State Bar.
Olcott, who managed Oswald West's successful 1910 campaign to become Governor of Oregon, recommended that West hire Hobbs as his private stenographer. She was hired, and impressed West to the point that he hired her as his private secretary two years later, making her the first Oregon woman appointed to an important political office following the passage of the Oregon Equal Suffrage Amendment. This also made her, at age 27, the highest-paid woman in public service in the United States, earning \$3,000 per year. While West was a prominent supporter of woman suffrage, Hobbs was quoted opposing the policy early in her career. West soon dispatched her to Washington, D.C. to represent the state in various land matters; she was the first woman to represent a governor's interests in Washington, and local coverage in the nation's capital expressed some surprise that a woman would be given an assignment of such gravity. She negotiated successfully with congressional committees and the U.S. Department of the Interior to untangle ownership issues around various parcels of land.
## Martial law in Copperfield, Oregon
West ordered Hobbs to Copperfield, Oregon to restore law and order on January 2, 1914, along with a group of six militia that included Oregon State Penitentiary warden B.K. Lawson. Copperfield, located on the Snake River in Baker County, had grown up around construction projects for a railroad tunnel and power plant. Fifteen-hundred jobs in the area came from the railway project of E. H. Harriman or the power generation facility.
The town had descended into lawlessness with a number of saloons, brothels, dancing halls, and widespread gambling. The town had no law enforcement officers, and the local government officials had become bar keepers. Governor West had extended prohibition laws, but they were widely ignored in Copperfield. Some local residents had appealed to the state government for assistance. Over half the residents of the town had signed a petition, addressed to West, alleging that saloons owned by the mayor and City Council members were selling liquor to minors and staying open later than their posted hours. Governor West responded by ordering county officials to restore order, close the saloons, and force the resignations of the corrupt city leaders by December 25, 1913.
County officials did not take care of the problem, so West sent Hobbs, hoping the presence of a woman would prevent any outbreak of violence. She was dispatched with orders to restore order and to implement martial law if necessary. While Hobbs was traveling to Eastern Oregon, both she and Governor West were coy with reporters about the presence of the militia, suggesting that Hobbs might be acting alone.
The saloon keepers, who received word that Hobbs was accompanied by law enforcement officers only shortly before her arrival, greeted her by dressing up the town with bunting, blue and pink ribbons, and flowers. A town meeting was arranged at 2:30 p.m. on January 3. Hobbs presented resignation letters prepared on behalf of city officials, but the officials refused to sign. Hobbs then ordered Lawson to declare martial law. It was the first time in Oregon since the Civil War that martial law was put into effect.
Soon the town was disarmed and order restored, with the gambling equipment and weapons confiscated, and the saloons closed down. Hobbs then left Lawson in charge and caught the 4:00 p.m. train out of town that same day. The residents did not openly resist Hobbs or the militia, although nearly all were armed and had been prepared to offer non-violent resistance. She stopped at the county seat in Baker City to officially remove the town's officials in front of a judge before returning to the state capitol in Salem. The Baker County Circuit Court quickly enjoined the militia from holding the town under martial law; Sheriff Rand began assembling a posse to carry out the court order. Governor West requested a hearing, seeking Rand's temporary removal from office, and appointed Hobbs to represent the State as special counsel.
The actions of the governor were later challenged in court, with Hobbs and West among the defendants. The saloon keepers sought remuneration for liquor they claimed was confiscated during the period of martial law. The Baker County circuit court determined the governor's actions were within his powers, and the Oregon Supreme Court ultimately concurred.
These events made Hobbs the most famous woman in Oregon at that time. Hobbs also made national and international news for these events. Writer Stewart Holbrook reported:
> In England, the Copperfield story escaped all bounds. One read that Miss Hobbs took off for the hellish place in command of a full battery of field artillery, plus machine gunners, in a special train; that she snapped commands to her troops and had them unlimber and train the heavy pieces on the doomed city.
## Later life
After the Copperfield affair, Hobbs continued as Governor West's secretary. She visited the Union County town of Cove in February 1914, also to investigate complaints about a saloon. A local election had declared the town "dry," but a county election had declared the entire county "wet." On advice of a judge, the mayor of Cove stated that he was unable to determine whether the saloon was legal or not, but expressed deference to the governor's wishes. Hobbs did not order the saloon closed down.
Despite speculation around the country that Hobbs would run for governor of Oregon, she did not seek the office.
In early 1915, West appointed Hobbs to the Oregon Industrial Accident Commission in January 1915, just prior to the end of his one term as governor. Hobbs' departure from that post later in the year was not without controversy; she offered her resignation to the Oregon State Senate as a bargaining maneuver, in exchange for its support of a contentious workmen's compensation bill. Senators speculated that her letter was presented in coordination with the ex-governor, in an effort to embarrass the Senate. Subsequently, the legislature passed a law permitting appointive heads (such as the governor) to recall officials from appointed positions. Then-governor James Withycombe accepted Hobbs' resignation. At the time, she expressed regret for not completing her term, and announced her intention to return to Portland.
Upon returning to Portland, Hobbs practiced law. Women's rights groups promoted Hobbs as a candidate to run for governor, but she never ran for office. Within a few years Hobbs became the commissioner of Oregon State Industrial Accident Commission, working on getting taxes due on the Oregon & California Lands. In 1917, with the United States entering World War I, she began a long association with the Red Cross. From 1917 to 1922 she worked in Europe, including time spent as the chief of the casualty division in Paris, France. In that position Hobbs was responsible for notifying dead soldiers' next of kin. She returned to Europe in the 1930s, working in the Rhine Valley when it was occupied by France.
Upon returning to Oregon, Hobbs worked as a secretary for business manager of the Oregon Journal newspaper, retiring in 1948.
The Oregon writer Stewart Holbrook interviewed her in the early 1950s, a few years after her retirement, observing that she "still weighs 104 pounds. Her eyes are clear and blue behind her glasses. There is not a gray hair on her head. She lives as quietly as she has always lived, except for those dreadful few days so long ago [concerning Copperfield]." Holbrook noted during his interview that "the subject of Copperfield bores her" and concluded his account of her as follows:
> She had much rather talk of her two years with the Red Cross in World War I, in France, and with the American Army of Occupation in Germany. That, she says, and her eyes light up, was a real adventure. One gathers that she considers the affair at Copperfield to have been a deplorable incident."
Fern Hobbs died on April 10, 1964, at the age of 80, and was buried at the Hillsboro Pioneer Cemetery in Hillsboro, Oregon. |
340,594 | Hillel Slovak | 1,173,132,313 | American-Israeli musician (1962–1988) | [
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"Jewish heavy metal musicians",
"Jews in punk rock",
"Lead guitarists",
"Musicians from Haifa",
"Red Hot Chili Peppers members",
"Sitar players",
"What Is This? members"
]
| Hillel Slovak (Hebrew: הלל סלובק; April 13, 1962 – June 25, 1988) was an Israeli-American musician, best known as the founding guitarist of the Los Angeles rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers, with whom he recorded two albums. His guitar work was rooted in funk and hard rock, and he often experimented with other genres, including reggae and speed metal. He is considered to have been a major influence on Red Hot Chili Peppers' early sound.
Born in Israel, he later moved to the United States. Slovak met future bandmates Anthony Kiedis, Flea, and Jack Irons while attending Fairfax High School in Los Angeles. There, he formed the group What Is This? with Irons, Alain Johannes, and Todd Strassman; Flea later replaced Strassman.
Slovak, Flea, Kiedis, and Irons founded Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1983, gaining popularity in Los Angeles through their energetic stage presence and spirited performances. Slovak eventually quit to focus on What is This?, which had been signed to a record deal, leaving the Red Hot Chili Peppers to record their 1984 debut album without him, including five songs he co-wrote. Slovak rejoined the Chili Peppers in 1985 and recorded the albums Freaky Styley (1985) and The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987) with them.
During his career, Slovak developed a serious heroin addiction. He attempted to rehabilitate several times but died of an overdose on June 25, 1988, at age 26. Several Red Hot Chili Peppers songs have been written as tributes to Slovak, including "Knock Me Down", "My Lovely Man", and "Feasting on the Flowers". In 1999, his brother James published a book, Behind the Sun: The Diary and Art of Hillel Slovak, which features Slovak's diaries and paintings. Slovak was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Red Hot Chili Peppers on April 14, 2012, with his brother accepting the award on his behalf.
## Life and career
### 1962–80: Early life and Anthym
Hillel Slovak was born in Haifa, Israel, to Jewish parents who were survivors of the Holocaust. His mother was originally from Poland while his father grew up in Yugoslavia. They settled in the Queens borough of New York City, then in 1967 relocated to Southern California. As a child, Slovak developed an interest in art, and often spent time painting with his mother, Esther. He attended Laurel Elementary School in West Hollywood and Bancroft Jr. High School in Hollywood, where he met future bandmates Jack Irons and Michael "Flea" Balzary. Slovak received his first guitar at age 13 as a bar mitzvah present, and regularly played the instrument into the late hours of the night. During this time, he was highly influenced by hard rock music such as Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, and Kiss.
As a freshman at Fairfax High School, Slovak formed a band with Irons on drums and two other high school friends, Alain Johannes and Todd Strassman. They called their band Chain Reaction, then changed the name to Anthem after their first gig. After one of the group's shows, Slovak met audience member Anthony Kiedis, and invited him to his house for a snack. Kiedis later described the experience in his autobiography Scar Tissue: "Within a few minutes of hanging out with Hillel, I sensed that he was absolutely different from most of the people I'd spent time with ... He understood a lot about music, he was a great visual artist, and he had a sense of self and a calm about him that were just riveting." Slovak, Kiedis and Flea became best friends and often used LSD, heroin, cocaine and methamphetamine recreationally.
The original bassist for Anthem, which renamed to Anthym, was deemed unsatisfactory, so Slovak began teaching Flea to play bass. Following several months of commitment to the instrument, Flea developed proficiency and a strong musical chemistry with Slovak. When Strassman saw Flea playing Anthym songs on his equipment he quit the band, with Flea quickly replacing him. Shortly afterwards Anthym entered a local Battle of the Bands contest and won second place. Anthym started to play at local nightclubs, despite the fact that the members were all underage. After graduating from high school, the band changed their name to What Is This?. Flea left Anthym around this time to accept an offer of playing bass in the prominent L.A. punk band Fear. What Is This? continued on and performed many shows along the California coast.
### 1980–82: Red Hot Chili Peppers formation
Slovak, Kiedis, and Flea began to create their own music after finding inspiration in a punk-funk fusion band called Defunkt. The three formed a band with former Anthym-drummer Jack Irons called Tony Flow and the Miraculously Majestic Masters of Mayhem. The band had only one song, entitled "Out in L.A.", and was formed for the purpose of playing the song once. The song was based on a guitar riff that Slovak wrote while "jamming" with Irons, and was not meant to become a real song until Kiedis decided to rap over the music. Following the group's first show at The Rhythm Lounge, the owner of the bar asked them to return, but with two songs instead of one. After several more shows, and the addition of several songs to their repertoire, the band's name was changed to Red Hot Chili Peppers.
After the band started to gain popularity amongst the L.A. club scene, Kiedis began writing more lyrics. The lyrics would eventually become songs such as "Green Heaven" and "True Men Don't Kill Coyotes", and the band's concert repertoire quickly grew to nine songs as a result of months of playing local nightclubs and bars. Over the course of the next six months, the Red Hot Chili Peppers played many shows in L.A. clubs and became something of an underground hit. Slovak, Kiedis, and Flea moved into a small house in a high-crime area in Hollywood where they collaborated musically and continued their drug addictions. The threesome traveled to New York City to perform more shows and to "spread Chili Pepperdom". Shortly after the trip, Slovak moved out of the group's shared house to live with his girlfriend.
### 1982–88: What is This? stint, Freaky Styley, and The Uplift Mofo Party Plan
The Red Hot Chili Peppers entered Bijou Studios to record a demo tape and subsequently secured a record deal with EMI. Flea left Fear to pursue the Red Hot Chili Peppers. At the same time, What Is This? had also gotten a record deal. Since Slovak considered the Chili Peppers to merely be a side project and not a serious commitment, he left them to concentrate on What Is This?. Flea ultimately respected the decision, but felt the band would suffer musically without him and Irons. He and Kiedis hired drummer Cliff Martinez and guitarist Jack Sherman to fill Irons' and Slovak's places, respectively. During the recording of the second What Is This? album, Slovak became frustrated with the band and contacted Flea about rejoining the Red Hot Chili Peppers. This came at an opportune time, as the group was dissatisfied with Slovak's replacement, Jack Sherman. Kiedis felt that Sherman's guitar work "didn't have the same spirit" that Slovak contributed to the band's sound. When Flea asked Kiedis how he felt about Slovak rejoining the band, Kiedis responded by saying, "I'd give my firstborn son to get him back in the band." After the culmination of the promotional tour for their first album, Sherman was fired and Slovak rejoined the band.
Slovak returned to the Chili Peppers for their second album, Freaky Styley, which was released on August 16, 1985. What is This? had finally disbanded, and Irons returned to the Chili Peppers in mid 1986 after Martinez was fired. Flea, Slovak and Kiedis especially were involved in heavy drug use and their relationships became strained. Flea recalled that "it began to seem ugly to me and not fun; our communication was not healthy". Kiedis became dependent on heroin, leaving the rest of the group to work on much of the album's material by themselves. The band lived in Detroit for a portion of the recording of the album, where Kiedis and Slovak indulged in heavy cocaine use. When Slovak was under the influence, he would often wear brightly colored clothing and dance in a "shuffling" fashion, which became the inspiration for the song "Skinny Sweaty Man" from the band's next album. After Kiedis completed a stint in rehab, he rejoined the Red Hot Chili Peppers in Los Angeles to record their third album The Uplift Mofo Party Plan. Slovak felt a deep connection to the album; he reflected in his diary "It was so fun. I'm so extremely proud of everybody's work—it is at times genius." Slovak was the subject of the songs "Skinny Sweaty Man", "Me and My Friends", & "No Chump Love Sucker". He was nicknamed "Slim Bob Billy", "Slim", or "Huckleberry", and throughout the albums Kiedis calls him by these nicknames before he starts a guitar solo. On The Uplift Mofo Party Plan, Slovak experimented with different musical styles, playing the sitar on the song "Behind the Sun".
## Health decline
Slovak and Kiedis became addicted to heroin early in their careers, and Slovak often attempted to conceal his addiction from his friends and family. The band was generally more worried about Kiedis' addiction, which was much more open and noticeable to the other members, while Slovak according to Kiedis was "much more subtle and much more cunning in his disguise." During the tour in support of Freaky Styley, Slovak's health began to deteriorate. Slovak and Flea would wrestle regularly on tour, but Slovak became too weak to participate. Kiedis commented on the situation: "I could tell that Hillel had no inner core of strength; he had been robbed by his addiction of the life force that allows you to at least defend yourself. It was a sad moment." A roadie of the band who was concerned for Slovak's health contacted his brother, James, who had been unaware that Slovak had ever used heroin.
Deciding to give sobriety a chance, both Kiedis and Slovak stopped using drugs prior to their European tour in support of The Uplift Mofo Party Plan, and decided to help each other "steer clear" of heroin. An entry from Slovak's diary on January 21, 1988, discusses his attempts to "begin a new drug-free phase of life". During the tour both experienced intense heroin withdrawal, with Slovak much more unstable than Kiedis. His withdrawal symptoms took a toll on his ability to play his instrument; at one point Slovak had a mental breakdown and was unable to play a show, leaving the rest of the band to play an entire set with no guitar. He recovered a few days later, but was briefly kicked out of the band and replaced by DeWayne McKnight for a few shows. After a few days with McKnight, the band decided to give Slovak another chance, and he rejoined for the European leg of the tour. Kiedis attempted to take Slovak to drug addiction counseling, but Slovak had difficulty admitting that his addiction was serious enough to require medical help.
## Death
Upon returning home, Slovak isolated himself from the rest of his bandmates, and struggled to resist drug abuse without the support of his friends, and Kiedis in particular. He stopped painting and writing in his diary during this time, and little is known about his life during the weeks following the tour, aside from a phone call to his brother on June 24, in which Slovak told him that he was having difficulty staying clean despite his desire to stop taking heroin. A few weeks after the band returned from the tour, the members attempted to contact Slovak, but were unable to do so for several days. Slovak died in his Hollywood apartment on June 25, 1988. On June 27, 1988, his autopsy confirmed, authorities determined that he died due to a heroin overdose. He is interred at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Hollywood Hills, California.
Following his death, Kiedis fled town and did not attend the funeral, considering the situation to be surreal. Although he found the death to be a shock, he was not initially "scared straight" and continued to use heroin. However, a few weeks later, his friend convinced him both to check into rehab and visit Slovak's grave, which inspired him to get clean. Irons was unable to cope with his death and subsequently left the band, saying that he did not want to be part of something that resulted in the death of his friends. Irons has suffered from severe depression since his death. This did not end Irons' musical career however, as he would work with Johannes on several projects, including the band Eleven, and would join Pearl Jam for a period in the 1990s, after initially declining to join the band upon its founding. Kiedis and Flea decided to continue making music, hoping to continue what he "helped build". They hired DeWayne McKnight and D.H. Peligro as replacements, who were later replaced by Chad Smith and John Frusciante.
## Musical style and legacy
Slovak was primarily influenced by hard rock artists such as Jimi Hendrix, Santana, and Led Zeppelin. His playing method was markedly based on improvisation, a style commonly used in funk music. He was also noted he would often play with such force that his fingers would "come apart." Kiedis observed that his playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This?, with Slovak adopting a more fluid style featuring "sultry" elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques. On Uplift, Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal. His guitar riffs would often serve as the basis of the group's songs, with the other members writing their parts to complement his guitar work. His melodic riff featured in the song "Behind the Sun" inspired the group to create "pretty" songs with an emphasis on melody. Kiedis describes the song as "pure Hillel inspiration". Slovak also used a talk box on songs such as "Green Heaven" and "Funky Crime", in which the sounds of his amplified guitar would be played through a tube into his mouth and then back into a microphone, creating psychedelic, voice-like effects. Slovak helped to incorporate new sounds in the group's work, including adding occasional drum machines. Despite the fact that the group billed itself as "The Organic Anti-Beat Box Band", Kiedis states that Slovak showed the group that drum machines could be used as artistic instruments.
Slovak's work was one of the major contributing factors to Red Hot Chili Peppers' early sound. When Kiedis and Flea were searching for a new guitarist to replace Slovak, Kiedis likened the experience to "shopping for a new Mom and Dad" because of his influence over the band. Flea, who originally listened exclusively to jazz, added that Slovak introduced him to a new genre of music, saying that "it was Hillel who first got me into hard rockin'". He was also a huge influence on a young John Frusciante, who would later replace him as guitarist in the band. Frusciante based a lot of his playing style on Slovak's work, and explained, "I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel's playing and I just took it sideways from there." Just like Slovak before him, Frusciante developed a heroin addiction. Unlike Slovak, Frusciante eventually managed to break and defeat the habit. The songs "Knock Me Down" (from Mother's Milk), "My Lovely Man" (from Blood Sugar Sex Magik), "This is the Place" (from By the Way), and "Feasting on the Flowers" (from The Getaway) were written about or as tributes to Slovak. The band's 1987 cover version of Jimi Hendrix's song "Fire", recorded with Slovak and previously only released on the "Fight Like a Brave" single and The Abbey Road EP, was included on 1989's Mother's Milk along with an image of one of Slovak's paintings inside the album's booklet. In 1999, a book titled Behind the Sun: The Diary and Art of Hillel Slovak was published. The book was authored by Slovak's brother, James Slovak, and features writings from his brother's diaries, paintings, photos and hand-written notes from Kiedis and Flea.
On December 7, 2011, Red Hot Chili Peppers were announced as 2012 inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Slovak's brother James accepted the award on his behalf and gave a speech honoring his brother. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Kiedis expressed his excitement with Slovak's induction, explaining "He's a beautiful person that picked up a guitar in the 1970s and didn't make it out of the 1980s, and he is getting honored for his beauty". Flea echoed those comments on the same day: "Hillel grew up loving rock and roll so much, he hasn't been here for some time, but I know how much it would mean to him. It's a powerful thing."
## Discography
With Addie Brik
- Wattsland – EP – (1984)
With What Is This?
- Squeezed – EP – (1984)
- What Is This? – (1985)
- 3 Out Of 5 Live – EP – (1985)
With Red Hot Chili Peppers
- The Red Hot Chili Peppers – (1984)
- Co-wrote "Get Up and Jump", "Green Heaven", "Out in L.A.", and "Police Helicopter"
- Freaky Styley – (1985)
- The Uplift Mofo Party Plan – (1987)
- The Abbey Road E.P. – (1988)
- Mother's Milk – (1989)
- Performs on only one track, "Fire"
- What Hits!? – (1992)
- Out in L.A. – (1994)
- Under the Covers: Essential Red Hot Chili Peppers – (1998)
- The Best of Red Hot Chili Peppers – (1994) |
207,372 | New Labour | 1,157,273,743 | Historical rebranding of the British Labour Party | [
"Centrism in the United Kingdom",
"Gordon Brown",
"Labour Party (UK) factions",
"Liberal socialism",
"New Labour",
"Political terms in the United Kingdom",
"Tony Blair"
]
| New Labour was a period in the history of the British Labour Party from the mid to late 1990s until 2010 under the leadership of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. The name dates from a conference slogan first used by the party in 1994, later seen in a draft manifesto which was published in 1996 and titled New Labour, New Life for Britain. It was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsed market economics. The branding was extensively used while the party was in government between 1997 and 2010. New Labour was influenced by the political thinking of Anthony Crosland and the leadership of Blair and Brown as well as Peter Mandelson and Alastair Campbell's media campaigning. The political philosophy of New Labour was influenced by the party's development of Anthony Giddens' Third Way which attempted to provide a synthesis between capitalism and socialism. The party emphasised the importance of social justice, rather than equality, emphasising the need for equality of opportunity and believed in the use of markets to deliver economic efficiency and social justice.
The New Labour brand was developed to regain trust from the electorate and to portray a departure from their traditional socialist policies which was criticised for its breaking of election promises and its links between trade unions and the state, and to communicate the party's modernisation to the public. Calls for modernisation became prominent following Labour's heavy defeat in the 1983 general election, with the new Labour leader, Neil Kinnock, who came from the party's soft left Tribune Group of Labour MPs, calling for a review of policies that led to the party's defeat, and for improvements to the party's public image to be made by Peter Mandelson, a former television producer. Following the leadership of Neil Kinnock and John Smith, the party under Tony Blair attempted to widen its electoral appeal under the New Labour tagline and by the 1997 general election it had made significant gains in the middle class; resulting in a landslide victory. Labour maintained this wider support at the 2001 general election and won a third consecutive victory in the 2005 general election for the first time ever in the history of the Labour Party. However, their majority was significantly reduced from four years previously.
In 2007, Blair resigned from the party leadership after thirteen years and was succeeded as Prime Minister by his Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown. Labour lost the 2010 general election which resulted in the first hung parliament in thirty-six years and led to the creation of a Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. Brown resigned as Prime Minister and as Labour Party leader shortly thereafter. He was succeeded as party leader by Ed Miliband, who abandoned the New Labour branding and moved the Labour Party's political stance further to the left under the branding One Nation Labour.
## History
First elected to parliament as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield, County Durham at the 1983 general election, Tony Blair became the leader of the Labour Party in 1994 after winning 57% of the vote in that year's leadership election, defeating John Prescott and Margaret Beckett. His first shadow cabinet role came in November 1988, when Neil Kinnock appointed him as Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and in July 1992 was promoted to the role of Shadow Home Secretary on the election of John Smith as Leader of the Labour Party.
Gordon Brown, who went on to hold senior positions in Blair's Labour government before succeeding him as Prime Minister in June 2007, was not a candidate in the 1994 leadership election because of an agreement between the two made in 1994 in which Brown promised not to run for election. The media has since speculated that Blair agreed to stand down and allow Brown the premiership in the future, although Blair's supporters have contended that such a deal never took place. The term New Labour was coined by Blair in his October 1994 Labour Party Conference speech as part of the slogan "new Labour, new Britain". During this speech, Blair announced the modification of Clause IV of the party's constitution which abandoned Labour's attachment to nationalisation and embraced market economics. The new version of the clause committed Labour to a balance of market and public ownership and to balance creation of wealth with social justice. Blair argued for increased modernisation at the conference, asserting that "parties that do not change die, and [Labour] is a living movement not a historical monument". During the period from 1994 to 1997, after Blair's election as party leader, Labour managed to reverse decades of decline in party membership by increasing the number by around 40%, increasing its capacity to compete for office whilst also legitimising the leadership of Blair.
In 1997, New Labour won a landslide victory at the general election after eighteen years of Conservative government, winning a total of 418 seats in the House of Commons—the largest victory in the party's history. The party was also victorious in 2001 and 2005, making Blair Labour's longest-serving Prime Minister and the first to win three consecutive general elections. He was also the first Labour leader to win a general election since Harold Wilson in 1974.
In the months following Labour's 1997 election victory, referendums were held in Scotland and Wales regarding devolution. There was a clear majority supporting devolution in Scotland and a narrower majority in Wales—Scotland received a stronger degree of devolution than Wales. The Labour government passed laws in 1998 to establish a Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly and the first elections for these were held in 1999. Blair attempted to continue peace negotiations in Northern Ireland by offering the creation of a regional parliament and government. In 1998, the Good Friday Agreement was made, allowing for a 108-member elected assembly and a power-sharing arrangement between nationalists and unionists. Blair was personally involved in these negotiations. The Fabian Society was a forum for New Labour ideas and for critical approaches from across the party. The most significant Fabian contribution to Labour's policy agenda in government was Ed Balls's 1992 pamphlet advocating Bank of England independence. In 1998, Blair and his New Labour government introduced the Human Rights Act. This was made to give UK law what the European convention of human rights had established. It was given the royal assent on the 9 November 1998, but it was not truly put in place until early October 2000.
After the United States strikes on Afghanistan and Sudan in 1998, Blair released a statement supporting the actions. He lent military support to the United States' 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. In March 2003, the Labour government, fearing Saddam Hussein's alleged access to weapons of mass destruction, participated in the American-led invasion of Iraq. British intervention in Iraq promoted public protest. Crowds numbering 400,000 and more demonstrated in October 2002 and again the following spring. On 15 February 2003, over 1,000,000 people demonstrated against the war in Iraq and 60,000 marched in Manchester before the Labour Party conference, with the demonstrators' issues including British occupation of Afghanistan and the forthcoming invasion of Iraq.
In June 2007, Blair resigned as the leader of the Labour Party and Gordon Brown, previously the Chancellor of the Exchequer, succeeded him following the 2007 Labour Party conference. Three years earlier, Blair had announced that he would not be contesting a fourth successive general election as Labour Party leader if he won the 2005 general election. Brown initially had strong public support and plans for a quick general election were widely publicised, although they never were officially announced. On 18 February 2008, Chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling announced that the failing bank Northern Rock would be nationalised, supporting it with loans and guarantees of £50,000,000,000. The bank had been destabilised by the subprime mortgage crisis the previous year in the United States and a private buyer of the bank could not be found.
The 2010 general election ended in a hung parliament in which Labour won 258 seats, 91 fewer than in 2005. Following failure to achieve a coalition agreement with the Liberal Democrats, Brown announced his intention to resign as leader of the party on 10 May and resigned as the Prime Minister the following day. Shortly thereafter, David Cameron and Nick Clegg announced the formation of a coalition between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. Cameron became the Prime Minister and Clegg the Deputy Prime Minister of a cabinet that contained eighteen Conservative ministers and five Liberal Democrat ministers. In announcing his intention to run for the leadership, David Miliband declared that the New Labour era was over. Following the publication of Blair's memoirs on 1 September 2010, Ed Miliband said: "I think it is time to move on from Tony Blair and Gordon Brown and Peter Mandelson and to move on from the New Labour establishment and that is the candidate that I am at this election who can best turn the page. I think frankly most members of the public will want us to turn the page". Miliband won the leadership election and was able to mobilise support from the trade union electorate. In a July 2011 speech, Blair stated that New Labour died when he left office and Brown assumed the party leadership, claiming that from 2007 the party "lost the driving rhythm". Nonetheless, New Labour's Third Way influenced a range of centre-left political parties across the world.
## Political branding
Once New Labour was established, it was developed as a brand, portrayed as a departure from Old Labour, the party of pre-1994 which had been criticised for regularly betraying its election promises and was linked with trade unionism, the state and benefit claimants. Mark Bevir argues that another motivation for the creation of New Labour was as a response to the emergence of the New Right in the preceding decades. The previous two party leaders Neil Kinnock and John Smith had begun efforts to modernise the party as a strategy for electoral success before Smith died in 1994. Kinnock undertook the first wave of modernisation between the 1987 and 1992 general elections, with quantitative research conducted by Anthony Heath and Roger Jowell indicating that the electorate viewed Labour as more moderate and electable in 1992 than in 1987, arguably legitimising the arguments for increased modernisation. However, Smith's approach which was dubbed (sometimes pejoratively) "one more heave" was perceived as too timid by modernisers like Blair, Brown and Mandelson. They felt that his cautious approach which sought to avoid controversy and win the next election by capitalising on the unpopularity of the Conservative government was not sufficient. New Labour also used the party's brand to continue this modernisation and it was used to communicate the modernisation of the party to the public. The party also began to use focus groups to test whether their policy ideas were attractive to swing voters. Its purpose was to reassure the public that the party would provide a new kind of governance and mitigate fears that a Labour government would return to the labour unrest that had characterised its past. Blair explained that modernisation was "about returning Labour to its traditional role as a majority mainstream party advancing the interests of the broad majority of people".
While the party was in power, press secretary Alastair Campbell installed a centralised organisation to co-ordinate government communication and impose a united message to be delivered by ministers. This process, known as "Millbankization" in reference to the campaign headquarters of Labour at the Millbank, was strict but very effective. Charlie Whelan, Brown's press officer, was often in conflict with Campbell because of the former's attempts to brief the press by his own initiatives—this continued until his resignation in 1999. Campbell followed a professional approach to media relations to ensure that a clear message was presented and the party planned stories in advance to ensure a positive media reaction. Campbell used his own experience in journalism as he was known for his attention to detail and effective use of sound bites. Campbell developed a relationship with News International, providing their newspapers with early information in return for positive media coverage.
In 2002, Philip Gould, a policy advisor to the Labour Party, wrote to the party's leadership that the brand had become contaminated and an object of criticism and ridicule, undermined by an apparent lack of conviction and integrity. The brand was weakened by internal disputes and the apparent failure to deal with issues. This assessment was supported by Blair, who argued that the government needed to spend more time working on domestic affairs, develop a unifying strategy and create "eye-catching initiatives". Blair also announced the need to be more assertive in foreign affairs.
The leaders of New Labour therefore created and ran an efficient and calculated media-handling strategy in an effort to increase electoral success. Florence Faucher-King and Patrick Le Galés note that "by 2007 the party had been emptied of its capacities for intermediation with society and, in the space of 10 years, lost half of its membership. But it had become a formidable machine for winning elections".
## Electoral support
Under Neil Kinnock, Labour attempted to widen its electoral support from narrow class divisions. After Blair took the leadership, the party made significant gains in higher social classes and won 39% support from managers and administrators in the 1997 election, more than in previous elections that the party had lost. This was due to the calculated targeting of C1 and C2 voters by the Labour campaign and an anti-Conservative vote as opposed to an endorsement of Labour. Labour won greater support among younger voters than older, but there was no significant gender difference. During the 1980s, much of Labour's support had retreated into industrial areas of the north and in 1997 Labour performed much better in the south of England. In the elections of 2001 and 2005, Labour maintained much of the middle-class support that it had won in 1997. According to academics Charles Pattie and Ron Johnston, Labour's landslide in 1997 was achieved through Labour's strong performance in opposition, their modernisation efforts and moderate policies. These all encouraged many Conservative voters to abstain as the landslide was seen by many as a foregone conclusion. The 2001 election resulted in significant drops in turnout in Labour heartland seats which has been attributed to voters regarding the re-election of Labour incumbents as a foregone conclusion, coupled with discontent surrounding Labour's perceived inability to deliver significant improvements in public services during their first term. In 2005, Labour's support was much lower than in the previous two elections which David Rubinstein has attributed to anger at the war in Iraq and towards Blair himself.
Professors Geoffrey Evans, John Curtice and Pippa Norris of Strathclyde University published a paper considering the incidence of tactical voting in the 1997 general election. Their studies showed that tactical voting increased in 1997—there was a strong increase in anti-Conservative voting and a decrease in anti-Labour tactical voting. Political commentators Neal Lawson and Joe Cox wrote that tactical voting helped to provide New Labour with its majorities in 1997, 2001 and 2005, arguing that the party won because of public opposition to the Conservative Party. The party declared after its victory that it "won as New Labour and would govern as New Labour", but Cox and Lawson challenged this view, suggesting that the party won on account of public opposition to the Conservative Party.
## Key figures
### Tony Blair
Tony Blair became the leader of the Labour Party after 1994's leadership election and coined the term New Labour in that October's party conference. Blair pursued a Third Way philosophy that sought to use the public and private sectors to stimulate economic growth and abandon Labour's commitment to nationalisation. Blair's approach to government included a greater reliance on the media, using that to set the national policy agenda, rather than Westminster. He spent considerable resources maintaining a good public image which sometimes took priority over the cabinet. Blair adopted a centralised political agenda in which cabinet ministers took managerial roles in their departments and strategic vision was to be addressed by the Prime Minister. Ideologically, Blair believed that individuals could only flourish in a strong society and this was not possible in the midst of unemployment.
Tony Blair served as Prime Minister, from 1997 to 2007.
### Gordon Brown
Gordon Brown was an important figure in Blair's Labour government and played a key role in developing the party's philosophy. Brown served as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1992 to 1997 and was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer following Labour's election victory in 1997. He attempted to control public spending and sought to increase the funding for education and healthcare. His economic strategy was market-based, attempting to reform the welfare state through a tax credit scheme for poorer working families and assigned the Bank of England to set interest rates.
### Peter Mandelson
In 1985, Peter Mandelson was appointed as the Labour Party's director of communications. Previously, he had worked in television broadcasting and helped the party become increasingly effective at communication and more concerned with its media image, especially with non-partisans. Mandelson headed the Campaigns and Communications Directorate (established in 1985) and initiated the Shadow Communications Agency. He oversaw Labour's relationship with the media and believed in the importance of the agenda-setting role of the press. He felt that the agenda of the press (broadsheets in particular) would influence important political broadcasters. In government, Mandelson was appointed minister without portfolio to co-ordinate the various government departments. In 1998, he resigned as a cabinet minister after being accused of financial impropriety.
In 2021, it was reported by The Times that Mandelson had been advising Labour leader Keir Starmer on moving the party beyond Corbyn's leadership and broadening its electoral appeal.
### Alastair Campbell
Alastair Campbell was the Labour Party's Press Secretary and led a strategy to neutralise the influence of the press which had weakened former Labour leader Neil Kinnock and create allies for the party. While in government, Campbell established a Strategic Communications Unit, a central body whose role was to co-ordinate the party's media relations and ensure that a unified image was presented to the press. Because of his background in tabloid journalism, Campbell understood how different parts of the media would cover stories. He was a valued news source for journalists because he was close to Blair—Campbell was the first press secretary to regularly attend cabinet meetings.
## Political philosophy
New Labour developed and subscribed to the Third Way, a platform designed to offer an alternative "beyond capitalism and socialism". The ideology was developed to make the party progressive and attract voters from across the political spectrum. According to Florence Faucher-King and Patrick Le Galés, "New Labour's leadership was convinced of the need to accept a globalized capitalism and join forces with the middle classes, who were often hostile to the Unions", therefore shaping policy direction. New Labour offered a middle way between the neoliberal market economics of the New Right which it saw as economically efficient; and the ethical reformism of post-1945 Labour which shared New Labour's concern for social justice. New Labour's ideology departed with its traditional beliefs in achieving social justice on behalf of the working class through mass collectivism. Blair was influenced by ethical and Christian socialist views and used these to cast what some consider a modern form of socialism or liberal socialism.
### Social justice
New Labour tended to emphasise social justice rather than the equality which was the focus of previous Labour governments and challenged the view that social justice and economic efficiency are mutually exclusive. The party's traditional attachment to equality was reduced as minimum standards and equality of opportunity were promoted over the equality of outcome. The Commission on Social Justice set up by John Smith reported in 1994 that the values of social justice were equal worth of citizens, equal rights to be able to meet their basic needs, the requirement to spread opportunities as much as possible and the need to remove unjustified inequalities. The party viewed social justice primarily as the requirement to give citizens equal political and economic liberty and also as the need for social citizenship. It encompasses the need for equal distribution of opportunity, with the caveat that things should not be taken from successful people to give to the unsuccessful.
### Economics
New Labour accepted the economic efficiency of markets and believed that they could be detached from capitalism to achieve the aims of socialism while maintaining the efficiency of capitalism. Markets were also useful for giving power to consumers and allowing citizens to make their own decisions and act responsibly. New Labour embraced market economics because they believed they could be used for their social aims as well as economic efficiency. The party did not believe that public ownership was efficient or desirable, ensuring that they were not seen to be ideologically pursuing centralised public ownership was important to the party. In government, the party relied on public-private partnerships and private finance initiatives to raise funds and mitigate fears of a tax and spend policy or excessive borrowing. New Labour maintained Conservative spending plans in their first two years in office and, during this time, Gordon Brown earned the reputation as an "Iron Chancellor" with his "Golden Rule" and conservative handling of the budget.
### Welfare
Welfare reforms proposed by New Labour in their 2001 manifesto included Working Families Tax Credit, the National Childcare Strategy and the National Minimum Wage. Writing in Capital & Class, Chris Grover argued that these policies were aimed at promoting work and that this position dominated New Labour's position on welfare. He considered the view that New Labour's welfare reforms were workfarist and argued that in this context it must refer to social policy being put in line with market economic growth. Gower proposed that under New Labour this position was consolidated through schemes to encourage work.
### Crime
Parts of New Labour's political philosophy linked crime with social exclusion and pursued policies to encourage partnerships between social and police authorities to lower crime rates whereas other areas of New Labour's policy maintained a traditional approach to crime, Tony Blair's approach to crime is quoted as being 'Tough on crime, Tough on the causes of crime'. The first government under New Labour spent a smaller percentage of the budget on crime than the previous Tory government, however the second Labour government spent practically double (roughly 6.5% of the budget), Finally the third Labour government spent roughly the same percentage of the budget on crime as the first. Incidents of crime did drastically decrease under New Labour, from around 18,000 in 1995 to 11,000 in 2005–6, yet this doesn't account for the decrease in police reports that occurred as well during this time.
The prison population in 2005 rose to over 76,000, mostly owing to the increasing length of sentences. Following the September 11 attacks, the Labour government attempted to emphasise counter-terrorism measures. From 2002, the government followed policies aimed at reducing anti-social behaviour; in the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act, New Labour introduced Anti-social behaviour orders. Under this Labour Government, the '7/7' bombings took place, the first Islamic suicide attack and most deadly since the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.
### Multiculturalism
Controversy on the subject came to the fore when Andrew Neather—a former adviser to Jack Straw, Tony Blair and David Blunkett—said that Labour ministers had a hidden agenda in allowing mass immigration into Britain. This alleged conspiracy has become known by the sobriquet Neathergate.
According to Neather, who was present at closed meetings in 2000, a secret government report called for mass immigration to change Britain's cultural make-up and that "mass immigration was the way that the government was going to make the UK truly multicultural". Neather went on to say that "the policy was intended—even if this wasn't its main purpose—to rub the right's nose in diversity and render their arguments out of date". Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: "The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when—hard as it is to imagine now—the booming economy was running up against skills shortages. [...] Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a "plot" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot".
In February 2011, the then Prime Minister David Cameron stated that the "doctrine of state multiculturalism" (promoted by the previous Labour government) had failed and will no longer be state policy. He stated that the United Kingdom needed a stronger national identity and signalled a tougher stance on groups promoting Islamist extremism. However, official statistics showed that European Union and non-European Union mass immigration, together with asylum seeker applications, all increased substantially during Cameron's term in office.
## Reception
Trade union activist and journalist Jimmy Reid wrote in The Scotsman in 2002 criticising New Labour for failing to promote or deliver equality. He argued that Labour's pursuit of a "dynamic market economy" was a way of continuing the operation of a capitalist market economy which prevented governments from interfering to achieve social justice. Reid argued that the social agenda of Clement Attlee's government was abandoned by Margaret Thatcher and not revived by New Labour. He criticised the party for not preventing inequality from widening and argued that New Labour's ambition to win elections had moved the party towards the right. Many left-wing Labour members such as Arthur Scargill left the party because of New Labour's emergence; however, New Labour attracted many from the centre and centre-right into its ranks. Underlining the significant ideological shifts that had taken place and indicating why the reception of New Labour was negative amongst traditional left-wing supporters, Lord Rothermere, the proprietor of The Daily Mail, defected to the Labour Party, stating: "I joined New Labour because that was obviously the New Conservative party".
Warwick University politics lecturer Stephen Kettell criticised the behaviour of the leadership of New Labour and their use of threats in parliament such as overlooking promotions for MPs in order to maintain party support. While referring to the other parties in Westminster as well, he likened these MPs as "little more than docile lobby-fodder for their respective oligarchies".
Although close to New Labour and a key figure in the development of the Third Way, sociologist Anthony Giddens dissociated himself from many of the interpretations of the Third Way made in the sphere of day-to-day politics. For him, it was not a succumbing to neoliberalism or the dominance of capitalist markets. The point was to get beyond both market fundamentalism and traditional top down socialism—to make the values of the centre-left count in a globalising world. He argued that "the regulation of financial markets is the single most pressing issue in the world economy" and that "global commitment to free trade depends upon effective regulation rather than dispenses with the need for it". In 2002, Giddens listed problems facing the New Labour government, naming spin as the biggest failure because its damage to the party's image was difficult to rebound from. He also challenged the failure of the Millennium Dome project and Labour's inability to deal with irresponsible businesses. Giddens saw Labour's ability to marginalise the Conservative Party as a success as well its economic policy, welfare reform and certain aspects of education. Giddens criticised what he called Labour's "half-way houses", including the National Health Service and environmental and constitutional reform.
## See also
- Blairism
- Brownism
- Economic liberalism
- Blatcherism
- Fabian Society
- New Democrats
- New Labour, New Danger
- Thatcherism
- Third Way |
34,857,293 | Dead Man Walking (Body of Proof) | 1,051,109,516 | null | [
"2011 American television episodes",
"Body of Proof episodes"
]
| "Dead Man Walking" is the fifth episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof. It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on April 19, 2011. The episode was directed by Matthew Gross and written by series creator Christopher Murphey.
In the episode, Megan (Dana Delany) investigates the murder of Ted Harbison (Kevin Kaine), who dies shortly after surgery and has to face up to her past, by going back to her former hospital; and Ethan (Geoffrey Arend) and Curtis (Windell Middlebrooks) autopsy Jessica Archer (Christina Hendricks), a woman who died from a blood clot, and meet her twin sister Karen (Hendricks), for whom Ethan begins to develop feelings.
The episode received positive reviews, and was watched by 11.30 million viewers, according to Nielsen ratings, on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States. Critics praised Hendricks, with one stating that "guest stars like this should help keep up the quality", saying her role was "lovely". Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic called it "one of its most entertaining episode's yet" due to the partnership between Ethan and Curtis.
## Plot
Ted Harbison (Kevin Kaine) is found dead in a park. Dr. Megan Hunt (Dana Delany) investigates into his death and during the investigation, it is revealed Ted had surgery just before he died, and Megan finds three surgical staples that weren't closed fully, causing him to bleed out internally, causing Megan to think that Ted was murdered. Megan visits her old hospital, where she was once a neurosurgeon. Ted's surgeon, Doctor Chandler (Marc Blucas) has a reputation for recklessness while performing surgeries and Megan finds out that the video was never turned on, meaning the surgery was never recorded. While at the hospital, Megan meets her old friend and the hospital administrator Gwen Baldwin (Carolyn McCormick) and while there Gwen reveals her son died of an overdose. Meanwhile, in Philadelphia, Ethan (Geoffrey Arend) and Curtis (Windell Middlebrooks) autopsy Jessica Archer (Christina Hendricks), with both Ethan and Curtis unsure how she died. Jessica's twin sister arrives, Karen (Hendricks), and she and Ethan are attracted to each other.
Meanwhile, Megan discovers that the surgical staple gun was tampered with. The guns come in packs of three but the pack was broken up between three surgeries, one was given to Ted, another to George White (Dan Amboyer) who Megan has to perform emergency surgery on after finding him near-dead, and the third staple gun was not used. Megan finds traces of fungus found on bonsai trees on the staple guns and Megan realizes that Gwen has bonsai trees. When her son died, he was pledging for the fraternity where George is president. Gwen tampered with the staple guns to kill George, not realizing that the pack would be broken up. Ethan and Curtis find out that Jessica had a genetic mutation that caused a blood clot, so Ethan warns Karen that she might also have one. Megan confronts Gwen, who confesses to Megan. Gwen is eventually taken away by the police, after admitting to George's attempted, and Ted's accidental murder.
## Production
"Dead Man Walking" was written by series creator Christopher Murphey and directed by Matthew Gross, best known for directing Dirty Sexy Money and Day Break, and films such as Fired Up! and Joe Somebody. This was Gross's first episode as a director, but he wrote the second episode of season one, "Letting Go", alongside Murphey. Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception, returned to compose the music for the episode. Actresses Christina Hendricks (best known for her role in Mad Men) and Carolyn McCormick (best known for her role in Law & Order) guest starred in the episode as Jessica/ Karen Archer and Gwen Baldwin, respectively. As well as Hendricks and McCormick, and actor Marc Blucas (best known for his role in Buffy The Vampire Slayer) played Dr. Chandler, as well as actresses Milena Govich and Meta Golding also guest starring in the episode. Regular cast member John Carroll Lynch who plays Detective Bud Morris, did not appear in this episode, although was credited.
"Dead Man Walking", along with the eight episode's from Body of Proof's first season, were released on a two-disc DVD set in the United States on September 20, 2011. The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode's, a preview of season 2 and a 10-minute "featurette" on the making of the show, with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script, as well as a "Contaminated Evidence" blooper reel.
## Reception
### Ratings
In its original American broadcast on April 19, 2011, "Dead Man Walking" was seen by 11.3 million viewers, according to Nielsen ratings. Among viewers between ages 18 and 49, it received a 2.4 rating/9 share; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing. This episode achieved higher viewers than the previous episode, "Talking Heads", but a lower number of viewers than the subsequent episode "Society Hill ". Body of Proof came seventh in the ratings on Tuesday night, it was outperformed by the CBS police procedural drama NCIS, as well as ABC's Dancing with the Stars. "Dead Man Walking" was watched by 1.75 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom.
### Critical response
"Dead Man Walking" received positive reviews. Jessica Banov from FayObserver said that Body of Proof was finding its "groove" due to this episode, as well as highly praising Hendricks guest role, saying that "guest stars like this should help keep up the quality". Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic also praised the episode, calling it "one of its most entertaining episode's yet". She also praised the character development between Megan and Peter (Nicholas Bishop), as well as praising the partnership between Ethan and Curtis, saying that they "made up for" the fact Bud was not in the episode. She said, "This partnership just keeps getting better and the visual of the two of them in bio-hazard suits was so comical. I look forward to more of these two as the show continues". She was also "glad" that Dr. Kate Murphy (Jeri Ryan) had a bigger role, summarising that the "character interaction sells this show". Like Banov, Orlando praised Hendricks guest role, saying it was "lovely" and that "she and real life husband Geoffrey Arend had a sweet sort of chemistry". She also hope that Hendricks would reprise her role as Karen, stating that it would be "wonderful". Finally, Orlando said that her favourite scene was with Kate in, when she and "an entire team of cops going in to a hospital and shutting it down". She called it, "Dramatic, but effective". |
25,951,394 | Typhoon Dan (1989) | 1,172,193,521 | Pacific typhoon in 1989 | [
"1989 Pacific typhoon season",
"1989 disasters in the Philippines",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in Vietnam",
"Typhoons in the Philippines"
]
| Typhoon Dan, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Saling, was the third of a series of tropical cyclones that impacted the Philippines and Vietnam in October 1989. The storm developed on October 6, and tracked generally westward throughout its course. After crossing Luzon, the typhoon emerged into the South China Sea and reached its peak intensity, with sustained 10-minute winds of 140 km/h (85 mph), 1-minute winds of 130 km/h (80 mph), and a minimum barometric pressure of 960 millibars. The storm moved ashore in central Vietnam and dissipated after moving inland. The storm caused extensive damage throughout its course. In the Philippines, Dan left hundreds of thousands homeless and killed 58 people. Power outages were extensive in the Manila region. In Vietnam, the storm's high winds and heavy rains caused extensive damage and loss of life. More than 500,000 structures were damaged or destroyed and at least 43 people were killed across the country.
## Meteorological history
On October 6, 1989, a tropical disturbance formed in the monsoon trough near the island of Chuuk. An advisory by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) assessed the system as having a "poor" chance to develop due to strong wind shear in the region. A day later, the potential of development was adjusted to "fair". On October 8, the wind shear relented and a well-defined band persisted near the storm's center of circulation. As a result, a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued. That same day, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) classified the storm as a tropical depression. At 1200 UTC, the JTWC issued their first warning on Tropical Depression 29W. At the time, it was centered about 70 mi (110 km) northeast of Yap.
About 18 hours later, the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Dan. The cyclone moved westward at 17 to 23 mph (27 to 37 km/h), and convection continued to mature. Outflow was good across most of the system, except the northwestern corner where it was restricted by interaction with a nearby typhoon. Due to the cyclone's proximity to the Philippines, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm, assigning it with the local name Saling. The JMA upgraded it to a tropical storm on October 9; both agencies recognized it as a typhoon the next day after an eye became visible and outflow improved in the northwestern quadrant. Dan made landfall on the southeastern coast of Luzon in the Philippines, and its center tracked just south of Ninoy Aquino International Airport.
Dan crossed over the island and emerged into the South China Sea, having lost its eye feature and weakened back into a tropical storm. Convection soon redeveloped as the storm moved northwestward through warm waters. The JTWC reports that Dan reattained typhoon status at 0000 UTC on October 12, although it according to the JMA it did so 24 hours earlier. The typhoon continued to intensify, and the JTWC estimates that it reached its peak intensity at 0600 UTC, with 1-minute maximum sustained winds of 130 km/h (80 mph). The JMA indicates that Dan peaked slightly afterward, with 10-minute sustained winds of 140 km/h (85 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure reading of 960 millibars.
The storm passed about 70 mi (110 km) south of Hainan Island and weakened somewhat. Increased wind shear further deteriorated the system as it approached the coast of Vietnam. The storm moved inland at around 1200 UTC on October 13, at which point the JMA downgraded it to a severe tropical storm and the JTWC issued their final advisory on the disturbance. The circulation ultimately dissipated over the mountainous terrain and its remnants continued to move westward into Laos.
## Impact
Although it was relatively weak, the storm caused severe damage. In the Philippines, 58 fatalities from the cyclone were reported, with an additional 121 injuries. In total, 682,699 people, or 135,245 families, were affected by the typhoon, and 49,972 houses sustained damage. Monetary storm damage is placed at \$59.2 million. The storm triggered flooding and landslides, while high winds, estimated up to 160 km/h (99 mph) brought down trees and powerlines. The second typhoon to strike the country within a week, Dan forced schools and government offices to close. Approximately 250,000 people were left homeless, and dozens of fishermen went missing offshore. In the Manila area, near-total power loss was reported. President Corazon Aquino issued a "state of calamity" there and in surrounding areas. In the wake of the storm, the nation's military provided \$300,000 worth of food for residents in evacuation centers. The Department of Social Welfare and Development also provided \$371,000 worth of emergency relief assistance to 2,700 families displaced by the storm. Despite the scale of damage from Dan and other typhoons in the region, no request for international assistance was made by the Philippine Government. As the storm progressed westward, it buffeted Hainan Island with gale-force winds and exacerbated damage caused by Typhoons Angela and Brian. Collectively, the three storms were responsible for 63 fatalities on the island, most of which were attributed to Brian.
Damage in Vietnam was also extensive. The high winds, reportedly blowing at 75 mph (121 km/h), ripped roofs off houses. Large storm tides along the coast pushed flood waters ashore. At least 43 people were killed and another 466 were injured by the storm throughout Vietnam. The most severe damage took place in Hà Tĩnh Province where 34 fatalities took place. In the province alone, 43,000 homes were destroyed and another 500,000 were damaged. Extensive flooding across the province submerged 330,000 acres (130,000 ha) of crops and killed thousands of cattle. In Hải Hưng Province, two people were killed and approximately 60 percent of the homes were damaged or destroyed. Another seven people perished in Thái Bình Province due to strong winds.
## See also
- Typhoon Dot (1985)
- Typhoon Wutip (2013)
- Typhoon Doksuri (2017) |
43,520,715 | Operation Southern Move | 1,173,472,551 | Final Croatian Army and Croatian Defence Council offensive of the Bosnian War | [
"1995 in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"Battles involving Croatia",
"Battles of the Bosnian War",
"Bosnian War",
"Conflicts in 1995",
"Military operations of the Bosnian War",
"October 1995 events in Europe"
]
| Operation Southern Move (Croatian: Operacija Južni potez) was the final Croatian Army (HV) and Croatian Defence Council (HVO) offensive of the Bosnian War. It took place in western Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8–11 October 1995. Its goal was to help the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) whose positions around the town of Ključ, captured by them during Operation Sana, were endangered by a counteroffensive by the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS). The objectives of Operation Southern Move included the capture of the town of Mrkonjić Grad and positions on the Manjača Mountain which would allow the HV and the HVO to directly threaten Banja Luka, the largest city controlled by Bosnian Serbs. Finally, the offensive was also aimed at capturing the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station, the last significant source of electricity under VRS control in western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The combined HV and HVO forces were under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina.
The offensive achieved its objectives, and significantly contributed, along with Operations Sana and Maestral 2 to forcing the Bosnian Serb leadership to serious peace negotiations. The offensive also contributed to the displacement of 10,000 Bosnian Serb refugees and resulted in the deaths of at least 181 Serbs while hundreds more went missing following the operation. A country-wide ceasefire came into effect on 12 October, one day after the offensive ended, and was soon followed by negotiations which produced the Dayton Agreement, ending the Bosnian War.
## Background
As the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan, its 55,000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army, which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska (Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS). This re-organisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992. This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War. Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital, Sarajevo, and other areas on 1 March 1992. On the following day, the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj. In the final days of March, Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery, resulting in a cross-border operation by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) 108th Brigade. On 4 April 1992, JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo. There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS, such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992, when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia, firing across the Drina River. At the same time, the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country.
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH) and the Croatian Defence Council (Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO), reporting to the Bosniak-dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively, as well as the HV, which occasionally supported HVO operations. In late April 1992, the VRS was able to deploy 200,000 troops, hundreds of tanks, armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and artillery pieces. The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces (Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS) could field approximately 25,000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons, while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100,000 troops, small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons. Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations (UN) arms embargo that had been introduced in September 1991. By mid-May 1992, when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The extent of VRS control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of 1992.
## Prelude
By 1995, the ARBiH and the HVO had developed into better-organised forces employing comparably large numbers of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications. The VRS was not capable of penetrating their defences even where its forces employed sound military tactics, for instance in the Battle of Orašje in May and June 1995. After recapture of the bulk of the Republic of Serb Krajina (the Croatian Serb-controlled areas of Croatia) in Operation Storm in August 1995, the HV shifted its focus to western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The shift was motivated by a desire to create a security zone along the Croatian border, establish Croatia as a regional power and gain favours with the West by forcing an end to the Bosnian War. The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina welcomed the move as it contributed to their goal of gaining control over western Bosnia and the city of Banja Luka—the largest city in the Bosnian Serb-held territory.
In the final days of August 1995, NATO launched Operation Deliberate Force—an air campaign targeting the VRS. This campaign was launched in response to the second Markale massacre of 28 August, which came on the heels of the Srebrenica massacre. Airstrikes began on 30 August, initially targeting VRS air defences, and striking targets near Sarajevo. The campaign was briefly suspended on 1 September and its scope was expanded to target artillery and storage facilities around the city. The bombing resumed on 5 September, and its scope extended to VRS air defences near Banja Luka by 9 September as NATO had nearly exhausted its list of targets near Sarajevo. On 13 September, the Bosnian Serbs accepted NATO's demand for the establishment of an exclusion zone around Sarajevo and the campaign ceased.
Following a relative lull in fighting in western Bosnia, the HV, HVO and ARBiH renewed their joint offensive against the VRS in the region. The HV and HVO component of the offensive, codenamed Operation Maestral 2, was launched on 8 September with the aim of capturing the towns of Jajce, Šipovo and Drvar. The ARBiH 7th Corps advanced on the right flank of the HV and the HVO towards Donji Vakuf. As Operation Maestral 2 neared its objectives, the ARBiH 5th Corps launched Operation Sana in the Bihać area, aimed at pushing the VRS back to the Sana River to the east. The ARBiH achieved significant territorial gains, advancing 70 kilometres (43 miles) to capture the town of Ključ, and approaching Sanski Most and Novi Grad by 18–19 September—before being halted by significant VRS reinforcements. A VRS counteroffensive, launched on the night of 23/24 September from Novi Grad, Sanski Most and Mrkonjić Grad gradually pushed the 5th Corps back towards Bosanska Krupa and Ključ, despite gradual arrival of reinforcements dispatched by the ARBiH 7th Corps. The VRS had approached within 1,000 metres (3,300 feet) of Ključ by 6 October, and ARBiH control of the town was under threat. In response, the ARBiH requested HV and HVO assistance.
## Order of battle
The HV and the HVO forces earmarked for the offensive comprised 11,000–12,000 troops, organised into two groups, under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina. The primary group consisted of the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigades, the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade (1. hrvatski gardijski zdrug – 1st HGZ) of the HV, while the second group was spearheaded by the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Guards Brigades of the HVO, and included the 126th Home Guard Regiment of the HV.
The VRS units facing the combined HV/HVO force were elements of Operational Group-2 and the 30th Division, under the command of Colonel Milenko Lazić. They were deployed around Mrkonjić Grad, and comprised the 7th Motorised, 3rd Serbian and 11th Mrkonjić Light Infantry brigades. The three brigades, numbering approximately 5,500 troops, were tasked to cover the rear of the VRS force counterattacking the ARBiH force in Ključ.
## Timeline
Operation Southern Move was to be carried out in two stages. The first stage involved the capture of Mrkonjić Grad and the surrounding Podrašnica Valley. In the second phase of the operation, the force would seize the last significant source of electricity in the VRS-controlled part of western Bosnia and Herzegovina—the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station. The whole operation was planned to take four days, immediately preceding a country-wide ceasefire scheduled to take effect on the morning of 12 October 1995. According to Brigadier Ante Kotromanović, then commander of the 126th Home Guard Regiment, the offensive was approved by the United States, and U.S. warplanes attacked VRS positions near Banja Luka in preparation of the offensive.
### Phase one: 8–9 October
The offensive began on 8 October with an attack launched by the HV 126th Home Guard Regiment and the HVO 1st Guards Brigade from a starting line 15 to 20 kilometres (9.3 to 12.4 miles) west of Mrkonjić Grad, against positions held by the 11th Mrkonjić Light Infantry Brigade. This effort was intended as a diversion aimed at misleading the VRS defences regarding the main axis of the offensive. It was hampered by poor weather which prevented the effective use of artillery fire.
The main HV force committed to the offensive, comprising the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards brigades and the 1st HGZ, began their advance on 9 October. Poor weather and heavy fog forced the HV to postpone the attack from 6:00 until 8:50. The advance was supported by strong artillery fire support and two Mil Mi-24s of the Croatian Air Force. The HV 7th Guards Brigade struggled to advance against the VRS positions southeast of Mrkonjić Grad around the villages of Liskovica, Bjelajci and Šehovci, manned by the 7th Motorised Brigade. The 4th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ faced the defences southwest of the town, manned by the 3rd Serbian Brigade. By the end of the day, the HV had advanced by about 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) partially enveloping Mrkonjić Grad. The town itself was hit by about 200 artillery shells fired by the HV and HVO.
### Phase two: 10–11 October
On 10 October, the 4th Guards Brigade broke through and outflanked the 7th Motorised Brigade positions, forcing the VRS to withdraw from Mrkonjić Grad. The move also placed the Podrašnica Valley and Čađavica junction under HV control, completing the objectives of the first stage of the operation. The HVO 2nd Guards Brigade was deployed on the right flank of the 7th Guards Brigade and the two units advanced north towards Bočac. At the same time, the 4th Guards Brigade advanced onto Manjača mountain.
The HV units were replaced by HVO elements on 11 October. The HVO 1st Guards and 2nd Guards brigades took over the northward advance from the HV 4th Guards and 7th Guards brigades, while the HVO 3rd Guards Brigade relieved the 1st HGZ and the 126th Home Guard Regiment. The VRS defence was disorganised, and they were gradually pushed north, while maintaining effective artillery fire support for their retreating troops. By the end of the day, the HVO had captured the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station. The final objective was achieved when the force reached a line 25 kilometres (16 miles) south of Banja Luka. The advance reportedly came within 14 kilometres (9 miles) of Banja Luka, whose electrical power supply was interrupted, and where a curfew was imposed in response to the deteriorating situation. Operation Southern Move ended on the night of 11/12 October.
## Aftermath
The offensive captured an area 40 kilometres (25 miles) wide and 20 kilometres (12 miles) deep. The defeat of the VRS also made it clear to the Bosnian Serb leadership that they had to commit to ending the war through negotiations or risk the capture of Banja Luka. In addition, the offensive proved decisive in halting the VRS counteroffensive against the ARBiH near Ključ and Bosanska Krupa, and allowing the ARBiH to mount a successful advance against the VRS 1st Krajina Corps defending Sanski Most. Finally, the outcome of the battle brought the VRS to a position where it was forced to choose between defending Prijedor, Banja Luka or the Doboj–Brčko route. This route had been vital for the resupply of both Banja Luka and Doboj since the VRS secured it in Operation Corridor 92 three years earlier. According to a Central Intelligence Agency analysis, the ground offensives of the HV, HVO and ARBiH in western Bosnia and Herzegovina, including Operation Southern Move, were a more significant contributor to bringing the Bosnian Serbs to the negotiation table than NATO airstrikes. A country-wide ceasefire went into effect on 12 October, followed by negotiations which produced the Dayton Agreement on 21 November and ended the Bosnian War.
The offensive displaced 10,000 Serb refugees from Mrkonjić Grad, adding to a growing humanitarian crisis as another 30,000 Serbs fled Sanski Most before the ARBiH captured it in the final days of Operation Sana. Approximately 6,000 non-Serbs were forced to flee their homes in Prijedor and Novi Grad by Bosnian Serb forces. According to Bosnian Serb sources, 480 Serbs died or went missing in the fighting in the area of Mrkonjić Grad. The figure includes 181 bodies recovered in a mass grave at the town's Serbian Orthodox cemetery. According to the Republika Srpska police who investigated the scene and interviewed witnesses, most of the dead were VRS prisoners of war or civilians who were killed by the 4th Guards Brigade to avenge the death of Colonel Andrija Matijaš, the brigade's deputy commander. The results of the investigation were forwarded to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), but the ICTY did not pursue the matter. As of December 2013, an investigation by the Bosnia and Herzegovina authorities against 27 high-ranking HV and HVO officers and Croatian officials is ongoing. In 2013, an officer and two soldiers of the 7th Guards Brigade charged with killing four Serb civilians near Mrkonjić Grad were acquitted, pending appeal. |
40,631,380 | Naqiʾa | 1,138,613,221 | Ancient Assyrian royal woman | [
"7th-century BC people",
"7th-century BC women",
"Ancient Assyrians",
"Ancient Mesopotamian women",
"Assyrian queens",
"Sargonid dynasty",
"Year of birth uncertain"
]
| Naqiʾa or Naqia (Akkadian: [] Error: : no text (help) Naqīʾa, also known as Zakutu ([] Error: : no text (help) Zakūtu), was a wife of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC) and the mother of his son and successor Esarhaddon (r. 681–669). Naqiʾa is the best documented woman in the history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and she reached an unprecedented level of prominence and public visibility; she was perhaps the most influential woman in Assyrian history. She is one of the few ancient Assyrian women to be depicted in artwork, to commission her own building projects, and to be granted laudatory epithets in letters by courtiers. She is also the only known ancient Assyrian figure other than kings to write and issue a treaty.
Naqiʾa must have been married to Sennacherib before he became king (705) since she gave birth to his son Esarhaddon c. 713. Whether she ever held the position of queen is debated; Assyrian kings had multiple wives but the evidence suggests that only one of them could be the queen at any one given time. Sennacherib is known to have had another queen, Tašmētu-šarrat. Naqiʾa might have become queen late in Sennacherib's reign. She is referred to as the "queen of Sennacherib" in documents from the reign of her son. In 684, Sennacherib, perhaps influenced by Naqiʾa, designated Esarhaddon as his crown prince despite having older sons.
During the reign of her son, Naqiʾa reached her most prominent position, bearing the title ummi šari (lit. 'Mother of the King'). Under Esarhaddon, Naqiʾa secured ownership of several estates throughout the empire and grew enormously wealthy, perhaps wealthier than Esarhaddon's own queen Ešarra-ḫammat. Naqiʾa might have governed her own set of territories surrounding the Babylonian city of Lahira. The last known attestation of Naqiʾa is from 669, in the months after Esarhaddon's death. After her son's death, Naqiʾa wrote a treaty which forced the royal family, aristocracy and all of Assyria to swear loyalty to her grandson Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631). After this, Naqiʾa appears to have retired from public life.
## Name and origin
Though nothing certain can be said of her origins, Naqiʾa having two names could point to her originating outside of Assyria proper, possibly in Babylonia or in the Levant. The name Naqīʾa is originally of Aramaic, or at the very least West Semitic, origin while Zakūtu is Akkadian. The name Zakūtu, used only sometimes, was probably adopted when she became associated with the Assyrian royal family; both names have the same meaning, interpreted as "purity", "pure" or "the pure one". Naqiʾa is known to have had a sister, Abirami (Abi-rāmi or Abi-rāmu), attested as purchasing land in the city of Baruri in 674 BC.
## Biography
### Reign of Sennacherib
Given the age at which she gave birth to Esarhaddon, Naqiʾa cannot have been born later than c. 728. Naqiʾa was one of the consorts of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (r. 705–681), with the marriage taking place by the late 8th century due to the birth of their son in c. 713. This was before Sennacherib's accession to the throne, when he was still crown prince under his father Sargon II. Except for Esarhaddon, it is unknown which of Sennacherib's many children were also the children of Naqiʾa. It is probable that Naqiʾa was also the mother of Sennacherib's only daughter known by name, Šadditu, since Šadditu retained a prominent position under Esarhaddon. Naqiʾa was not the mother of Sennacherib's elder sons, such as Arda-Mulissu.
It is possible that Naqiʾa gained influence already in Sennacherib's reign; in 684 she may have been responsible for the king dismissing Arda-Mulissu as heir and instead proclaiming their son Esarhaddon as crown prince. Despite growing reports that Esarhaddon suffered from various illnesses, Sennacherib at no point changed the succession after Esarhaddon's appointment as crown prince, also perhaps due to Naqiʾa's influence. She is recorded as employing divination and astrology to bolster Sennacherib's opinion of Esarhaddon. Throughout her life, Naqiʾa seems to have maintained a close relationship with prophets active in the city of Arbela.
Though often identified as a queen of Sennacherib, it is not clear whether Naqiʾa held that position in Sennacherib's lifetime. The chief issue is that Naqiʾa is known to have been associated with Sennacherib before he became king and with Esarhaddon throughout his subsequent reign (681–669), but Sennacherib is known to also have been married to another woman, Tašmētu-šarrat, who is securely attested with the title of queen. The general assumption among researchers is that while kings could have multiple wives, only one of them was at any given time recognized as the queen since administrative documents always use the title without qualification (implying that there was no ambiguity).
Naqiʾa is referred to as Sennacherib's queen (mí.é.gal) in multiple documents, but all of them, perhaps with a single exception, were written in Esarhaddon's reign, meaning that she might have been bestowed the title retroactively by her son. The single possible exception is a single bead with a fragmentary inscription that calls her "mí.é.gal of Sennacherib" and then breaks off; it is possible that it was written in Sennacherib's reign. Another possibility is that Naqiʾa achieved the status of queen only late in Sennacherib's reign. Tašmētu-šarrat is not mentioned in any documents from Esarhaddon's reign. Perhaps the promotion of Naqiʾa's son as crown prince means that she was queen around 684 and that Tašmētu-šarrat (otherwise attested only securely in c. 694) was dead at that point in time. After Esarhaddon became crown prince, Sennacherib granted some tax-exempt lands to Naqiʾa. In the document describing the grant, she is however titled only as the "mother of the crown prince".
### Reign of Esarhaddon
Naqiʾa's authority grew in the reign of her son; early on she built a palace for him in Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and made an inscription commemorating the construction. Constructing palaces was an unusual activity for a queen to engage in, usually done only by kings. The inscription documenting the project is bombastic and clearly takes inspiration from those of the kings. In most sources from Esarhaddon's time, Naqiʾa is referred simply to as the queen mother (ummi šari, lit. 'Mother of the King'). Naqiʾa retained this title in the reign of Esarhaddon's son (and her grandson) Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631), despite then no longer being the mother of the reigning king. In terms of surviving sources she was by far the most prominent queen mother in Assyrian history; most known occurrences of the title are from her lifetime.
As queen mother, the basic structure of Naqiʾa's household was similar to that of the queen and other officials. In addition to Nineveh, Naqiʾa probably had residencies in other cities, including some in Babylonia. Naqiʾa appears to have had significant estates in the Babylonian city of Lahira (Laḫiru), which she perhaps governed herself; a 678 document describes the city as part of "the queen mother's domain". All queens also appear to have had large holdings in the western city of Harran. Some mentions exist of a statue of Naqiʾa being built in the city of Gadisê, near Harran.
Naqiʾa was likely very wealthy, perhaps even wealthier than Esarhaddon's queen Ešarra-ḫammat. Naqiʾa is recorded to have made numerous donations to temples, to have provided the royal palace with horses from her estates and to have employed a large and extensive staff. It is clear that she held an exceptional position; in letters addressed to her numerous flattering epithets, such as "able like Adapa", are used. A legal document from Esarhaddon's reign claims that "the verdict of the mother of the king, my lord, is as final as that of the gods". Such statements are highly unusual given that they usually only applied to kings. Numerous letters from courtiers refer to the health of Naqiʾa. Her security appears to have been a matter of great concern as one document containing a query to the sun-god Shamash asks whether a person who might be appointed to her guard would guard Naqiʾa "like his own self.
Though letters to Naqiʾa were mostly about religious affairs, some concern politics. It is possible that she partook in Esarhaddon's rebuilding project of Babylon, destroyed by his father. Perhaps Naqiʾa's prominence resulted from Esarhaddon's own tumultuous accession, when he had to fight a civil war against his brother Arda-Mulissu. In 2014, Philippe Clancier speculated that Naqiʾa might have commanded armies during this civil war, though no Assyrian text describes her doing so. The only Assyrian queen, and woman overall, confidently known to have partaken in military campaigns is the earlier Shammuramat. If Naqiʾa did lead armies against Arda-Mulissu, omitting this from the records would not be surprising since all battlefield victories were normally ascribed to the Assyrian king personally whether or not the king was at the battle. The civil war is thought to have been the catalyst of Esarhaddon's later paranoia and distrust of his servants, vassals and family members. Although highly distrustful of his male relatives, Esarhaddon seems to not have been paranoid in regards to his female relatives. During his reign his queen Ešarra-ḫammat, his mother Naqiʾa and his daughter Šērūʾa-ēṭirat all wielded considerably more influence and political power than women during most earlier parts of Assyrian history,'''''' though they never occupied any formal political positions. A explanation for the reverence accorded to Naqiʾa by officials of the empire is that the people might have partly credited the empire's successes in Esarhaddon's reign to her. Though capable and energetic, Esarhaddon was chronically ill for the duration of his reign and Naqiʾa might have been believed to have had some sort of magical influence, connected to the association between the Assyrian queen and the goddess Ishtar, that kept the empire victorious.
### Later life
The last evidence of Naqiʾa is from around the time of Ashurbanipal's accession, at the end of 669, when she forced the royal family, aristocracy and all of Assyria to swear loyalty to her grandson. The royal treaty forced on the people by Naqiʾa, dubbed the Zakutu Treaty by modern historians, is a remarkable document as the only text of its kind written by someone other than the king. Why Naqiʾa, and not Ashurbanipal, was the one to implement the treaty is not known. Some aspects of the treaty, for instance its brevity, indicate that it was created relatively hastily after Esarhaddon's death in 669. The Zakutu Treaty reads:
> Treaty of Zakutu, queen of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, mother of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, (grandmother of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria) with Shamash-shum-ukin, his equal brother, with Shamash-metu-uballit and the rest of his brothers, with the king's relatives, with the officials and the governors, the bearded and the eunuchs, the courtiers, the exempted people, and everyone who enters the palace, with the people of Assyria, small and great: Anyone who (concludes) this treaty which Zakutu, the queen dowager, has imposed on all the people of Assyria on behalf of Ashurbanipal, her favorite grandson, anyone who should [...] lie and carry out a deceitful or evil plan or revolt against Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord; in your hearts plot evil intrigue (or) speak slander against Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord; in your hearts contrive (or) plan an evil mission (or) wicked proposal for rebellion (and) uprising against Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord; [...] or conspire with another for the murder of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord: May [...] Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mercury, [...] (And if) from this day on you (hear) an evil (plan) of conspiracy (and) rebellion against Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord, you shall come and report to Zakutu, his (grand)mother and Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord; and if you hear of a (plot) to kill or destroy Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord, you shall come and report to Zakutu, his (grand)mother and Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord; and if you hear of evil intrigue being contrived against Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord, you shall speak (of it) in the presence of Zakutu, his (grand) mother and Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord; and if you hear and know that there are men who agitate or conspire among you – whether bearded men or eunuchs, whether his brothers or royal relatives or your brothers or your friends or anyone in the whole country – should you hear or know, you shall seize and kill them and bring them to Zakūtu, his (grand) mother and Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord.
After Ashurbanipal became king without incident, Naqiʾa appears to have retired from public life since there is no further evidence of her acting publicly again. Sebastian Fink believes Naqiʾa died shortly after Ashurbanipal's accession. According to Gregory D. Cook, Naqiʾa was probably dead by the time of Ashurbanipal's Sack of Thebes in 663. Jack Finegan on the other hand believed that Naqiʾa was alive by the time of the civil war between Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin in 652–648 and that she during this conflict again tried to support Ashurbanipal's right to rule.
Naqiʾa's career resulted in her achieving, for a woman of her time, an unprecedented level of prominence and public visibility. She is the best documented, and perhaps most influential, woman of the Neo-Assyrian period. Naqiʾa stands apart from nearly all other Assyrian queens, who are often rarely mentioned by name in surviving texts. She is the only royal woman, other than Ashurbanipal's queen Libbāli-šarrat, known to have been depicted in royal artwork. In a relief depicting Naqiʾa and Esarhaddon, she is depicted seemingly nearly as his equal and as doing the same religious gesture as the king. She is also depicted wearing a "mural crown", a royal crown with features of a castle wall, also included in the artwork of Libbāli-šarrat.
## Legacy
In later Greco-Roman literary tradition, two great queens of Assyria were remembered: Semiramis (based on the earlier queen Shammuramat) and Nitocris. It is possible that the figure of Nitocris, said to have lived five generations after Semiramis and to have conducted building projects in Babylon, was based on Naqiʾa. The legend of building work in Babylon could relate to her lands in Babylonia, the possibility that she partook in Esarhaddon's projects in the city, or perhaps to the palace she built for her son in Nineveh early in his reign. The palace at Nineveh could also have served as inspiration since the ancient Greeks sometimes erroneously equated Nineveh and Babylon.
It is possible that some portions of the Semiramis legend were based on Naqiʾa, rather than Shammuramat. In particular, one of the legendary tales of Semiramis describes the queen as founding Babylon. While there are no obvious connections between the historical Shammuramat and Babylon, it is, as mentioned, possible to draw connections to Naqiʾa and building works in the city or the surrounding region.
Characterizations of Naqiʾa vary among modern historians. Some, such as Sarah C. Melville have viewed her as an unselfish mother, who worked to help her son during his reign, whereas others, such as Zafrira Ben-Barak, have viewed her as a politically ambitious woman who exploited every opportunity she could to advance her personal position. |
11,179,246 | Minnesota Golden Gophers men's basketball | 1,167,941,679 | NCAA Division 1 Mens Basketball Program | [
"1896 establishments in Minnesota",
"Basketball teams established in 1896",
"Minnesota Golden Gophers men's basketball"
]
| The Minnesota Golden Gophers men's basketball team represents the University of Minnesota in NCAA Division I college basketball competition. The Golden Gophers competes in the Big Ten Conference and play their home games at the Williams Arena.
The Gophers had great success in the early years of basketball, but have been largely overshadowed by other programs since the end of World War I. In total, the Gophers have won nine Big Ten championships, but only four since 1919. College basketball research organizations have retroactively awarded Minnesota national championships in 1902, 1903, and 1919.
The team has also had several instances of NCAA sanctions on the program that have affected performance and recruiting. In the 1970s, the Gophers were in a violent brawl with the Ohio State Buckeyes and were barred from post-season appearances for two seasons after an incident involving the illegal resale of tickets. Still more severe was the mid-1990s academic scandal under then-coach Clem Haskins that resulted in the forfeit of a Final Four appearance.
## Coaches
Initially, the Gophers team formed without any organized coach. L. J. Cooke took over the team in 1897. Cooke was put on the university payroll on a part-time basis in early 1897 and full-time by the fall; this made him one of the earliest professional coaches.
Cooke remained the coach of the Gophers for 28 seasons, and his .649 winning percentage is the second highest in school history. Dave MacMillan, who coached the team from 1927 to 1942 and 1945 to 1948, had the second longest tenure as coach at 18 seasons. John Wooden almost succeeded McMillan as Gophers head coach; Wooden claims that a dispute over retaining McMillan as an assistant coach and a delayed phone call led him to accept the job at UCLA instead.
The Gophers have had several NBA coaches grace the sidelines. John Kundla took over as Gophers head coach after the Minneapolis Lakers departed for Los Angeles. George Hanson was assistant coach under both Kundla and Fitch and was head coach for the 1970–71 season. Bill Fitch and Bill Musselman both coached the team for a couple seasons before departing for the NBA and ABA respectively, where each had success and coached for many years.
The program has had a fair degree of stability with their coaching staff. Tubby Smith became the 16th head coach in Gopher basketball history when hired in 2007; this total includes interim coaches Jim Molinari and Jimmy Williams. Five coaches led the team for more than 10 seasons: Cooke, McMillan, O. B. Cowles, Jim Dutcher, and Clem Haskins. On March 25, 2013, Tubby Smith was fired after failing to reach the Sweet Sixteen again. The Gophers hired Richard Pitino on April 3, 2013. He was fired on March 15, 2021, after eight seasons, and replaced the following week by former assistant coach and seasoned recruiter, Ben Johnson.
## Players
The Golden Gophers have had many successful players come through the program throughout its history. In the early years of basketball, when the Gophers had success, they recruited some of the best players in the country. George Tuck was a dominant center, and the first All-America for the Gophers in 1905. Frank Lawler was another early star: he led the Big Ten in scoring in 1911 and was also named to the All-America team, and helped the Gophers to a contested conference title.
In 1950, Lawler was named the greatest player in Gopher basketball history, but the subsequent decades of Gopher basketball have largely forgotten his legacy. Hall of Fame coach John Kundla was also a Gophers star and helped lead the team to its 1937 Big Ten Championship.
With the decline of the stature of the Gophers program, fewer elite players have joined the team. The diminished reputation has not, however, prevented some superior athletes from coming to the Minneapolis campus. Lou Hudson played 13 years in the NBA and had his number retired. Baseball Hall of Famer Dave Winfield played for the Gophers in the early 1970s, and he played at the same time as star post player Jim Brewer. Mychal Thompson was a Gophers star and was the first overall pick in the 1978 NBA draft. Among Thompson's teammates were former Minnesota Timberwolves, Detroit Pistons and Washington Wizards head coach Flip Saunders, as well as Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame forward Kevin McHale. Trent Tucker led the 1982 squad to the Big Ten Championship. Voshon Lenard was a key player for the Gophers in the early 1990s and went on to play more than a decade in the NBA. Willie Burton once scored 53 points in an NBA game with the Philadelphia 76ers. Other former Gophers with long NBA careers include Randy Breuer, Mark Olberding, Archie Clark, Jim Petersen, and Ray Williams. Five players from the 1997 Final Four team played in the NBA: Bobby Jackson, Sam Jacobson, Quincy Lewis, John Thomas, and Trevor Winter. Currently Amir Coffey (LA Clippers) and Daniel Oturu (2020 draft pick), former Gophers, play in the NBA. Jamal Abu-Shamala, a Palestinian-American, played internationally for the Jordan national basketball team in 2008 and the Palestine national basketball team since 2011.
### Current roster
This roster is current for the 2021–22 men's basketball season.
### Retired numbers
## History
### Program establishment (1895–1927)
The precise founding of the Gophers men's basketball program at the University of Minnesota is somewhat nebulous. Unlike many other universities with later foundations, the team did not form as a conscious act of the campus administration. The university's student newspaper at the time, the Ariel, reported on basketball throughout 1895 as the sport was introduced to the campus from a rival school, Minnesota A&M in St. Paul, later incorporated into the larger University of Minnesota Twin Cities. In 1896, a team from the school began to participate in a league with the Agriculture school, YMCA teams, and other local associations. The establishment of the Armory on-campus gave the team a new place to play. In February 1897, L. J. Cooke, a director of the Minneapolis YMCA, was hired on a part-time basis to coach the basketball program, and became the full-time coach and director of physical education by the fall of that year. Cooke was one of the first full-time professional coaches in all of college basketball and would remain at the program for 28 seasons.
Cooke began to improve the team significantly and was responsible for shifts in the Gophers' scheduling that foreshadowed other changes to come. The team never played a YMCA team after the 1903–04 season, and beginning in 1900, began to schedule large neighboring universities that would join Minnesota in Big Ten competition. This shift to playing similar competition helped the Gophers to become one of the premier programs in the nation. From the 1899–1900 to 1903–04 seasons, the Gophers had a 59–6 record. The 1901–02 squad has been retroactively named the national champions by both the Helms Foundation and the Premo-Porretta Power Poll; the Premo-Porretta poll also names the 1902–03 Gophers as national champions. When the Big Ten established basketball in 1905, the Gophers won the first two conference titles.
After 1907, Cooke's dominance of the national basketball scene was greatly reduced. He led the team to two more conference titles (1916–17, 1918–19), and one consensus retroactive national championship for the 1918–19 season, but the team was never the consistent winner that it was in the first decade under Cooke. He retired after the 1923–1924 season. His successor, Harold Taylor, was Cooke's assistant coach in his final season and had previously a successful high school coach; however, he had little success with the Gophers and was fired after never finishing higher than sixth in the conference in three forgettable seasons.
### Dave MacMillan and beyond (1927–1959)
Following the firing of Harold Taylor as coach, the program underwent a national search for a successor. Many of the candidates for the job were high-profile coaches of other conference foes. The team opted, however, to hire Dave MacMillan, who had been coaching the University of Idaho for the previous seven seasons and had previously played for the Original Celtics during the 1910s. MacMillan would dominate the program for the next 30 years, coaching the team from 1927 to 1942 and again from 1945 to 1948.
MacMillan's teams in 1928 began to play in the University of Minnesota Field House, a new on-campus arena. Basketball had been off-campus for several seasons when the team moved downtown. MacMillan's teams had middling success. His 1930–31 and 1931–32 teams competed near the top of the Big Ten, but his teams dropped off again until 1936. John Kundla joined the team for the 1936–1937 season and helped the team to the Big Ten Championship, which was ended up being its last until 1972. MacMillan's squad also competed in a tournament in 1936 to represent the United States in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin; the team advanced several rounds before being ousted by DePaul. Many Gophers players in this era were recruited from Minneapolis public high schools, and in some seasons this even constituted a majority of the roster. McMillan resigned in 1942, but returned in 1945 after three poor seasons for the Gophers in the interim. When he resigned for the second time in 1948, he was replaced by O. B. Cowles.
Cowles was known for playing slower tempo basketball like was most common in the 1920s and 1930s and was known as a defensive-minded coach, especially early in his career. His squads were led by two-time All-American Jim McIntyre and three-time NBA Champion Whitey Skoog for the early years of his career and Big Ten MVP Chuck Mencel for the middle ones. Another notable Gophers star from the era was Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Bud Grant. Cowles had a .612 winning percentage at the school. The Gophers were unable to win a Big Ten title, however, despite a solid nucleus in Cowles's early seasons. The team finished fourth or better in the conference seven times in Cowles's 11 seasons as Gopher head coach.
### Kundla and Fitch (1959–1971)
In 1959, John Kundla stayed behind in Minneapolis as the Lakers prepared to leave town and succeeded O. B. Cowles as head coach of the Golden Gophers. Kundla remained head coach until 1968. In 1963, he broke the color barrier in the Minnesota program and recruited three African-American players to come to the school. One of these first three players was Lou Hudson, who played in the NBA and was the first Gopher to have his number retired by the school. The other two players recruited by Kundla, Archie Clark and Don Yates, also were both drafted by NBA teams. That trio helped the Gophers to a third place Big Ten finish in 1963–64 and a second-place finish in 1964–65, but those were the high points for Kundla's collegiate career. Kundla's personal assessment of his Gophers career was that his personal weaknesses in recruiting were marring the team by the end of his tenure.
Kundla was succeeded by Bowling Green head coach Bill Fitch. Fitch remained with the Gophers for two seasons before being hired by the Cleveland Cavaliers as their first head coach in 1970 to make the leap to the NBA, where he later won an NBA title as coach of the Boston Celtics. Fitch did recruit Jim Brewer before he left, laying the first seed for the 1972 Big Ten title. George Hanson, a longtime assistant coach at the school, was hired as his replacement, but resigned after only one season.
### Musselman and NCAA sanctions (1971–1975)
The Gophers under Athletics Director Marsh Ryman hired Cal Luther away from Murray State to coach the team in 1971, but he changed his mind and turned the team down after accepting the position. Instead, Bill Musselman took over the program. Musselman was a defensive minded coach and designed his team around Brewer, recruiting several junior college players. University of Minnesota baseball star Dave Winfield also joined the team in 1971. The starters on the 1971–72 squad after the Ohio State game became known as the "Iron Five." Musselman's strategy succeeded, and the team took the Big Ten title, the first since 1937. The other Big Ten coaches did not approve of Musselman's recruiting posture as they all had gathered and agreed not to recruit Ron Behagen into the Big Ten because he was known as a troublemaker. Musselman had not been named Head Coach of Minnesota at that time and therefore was unaware of the internal agreement and therefore recruited what he thought were the best players available.
In 1973, former player Greg Olson accused Musselman of having attempted to strike him in a practice. It was also revealed that Olson had sold complimentary season tickets to a booster named Harvey Mackay, which prompted NCAA investigations. Musselman's coaching style also brought about significant transfers away from the Minnesota program to other schools. In 1975, Musselman resigned and was named the head coach of the San Diego Sails of the ABA. After his resignation, Musselman admitted to giving money to players for rent and transportation. These charges, coupled with the earlier ticket selling scandal and other transgressions regarding payments and aid revolving around Harvey Mackay, resulted in a list from the NCAA of more than 100 rule violations in Musselman's four seasons at the school. The extent of the consequences would not be known until early in Jim Dutcher's eleven season tenure as Gophers head coach.
### The Jim Dutcher era (1975-1986)
Dutcher took over the Gophers program in 1975 following the departure of Bill Musselman. The highlight of his time at Minnesota was 1982, a season in which he led the Gophers to the Big Ten Championship — to date, the last "official" conference title for the Gophers — and a Sweet 16 appearance. He was named the Big Ten Coach of the Year in 1982.
Prominent players coached by Dutcher at Minnesota included Ray Williams, who later played for the New York Knicks; Mychal Thompson, who played for the Portland Trail Blazers and Los Angeles Lakers; Kevin McHale, who played for the Boston Celtics; Trent Tucker, who played for the New York Knicks and Chicago Bulls; Randy Breuer, who played for the Milwaukee Bucks, Minnesota Timberwolves, Atlanta Hawks and Sacramento Kings; Flip Saunders, who became an NBA coach for the Minnesota Timberwolves, Detroit Pistons, and Washington Wizards; Osborne Lockhart, who played for the Harlem Globetrotters; Jim Petersen, who played for the Houston Rockets; Darrell Mitchell, who was named first-team All-Big Ten, and Tommy Davis, also a first-team All-Big Ten player.
On January 25, 1986, three Gopher players were arrested on rape charges in Madison, Wisconsin. A Madison woman claimed the players raped her at their team hotel hours after the Gophers played the Wisconsin Badgers. After the arrests, U of M officials canceled the Gophers' next scheduled game, against Northwestern, citing the arrests and a series of less serious incidents prior to the arrests. Not agreeing with the university's decision to forfeit the game, Dutcher resigned as head coach, Jimmy Williams served as the interim coach the rest of the season. All three players were ultimately acquitted of all charges.
### Success, and scandal, under Haskins (1986–1999)
Clem Haskins was hired as the Gopher basketball coach in 1986, expected to clean up and rebuild the Gopher program which had been torn apart by the Madison sexual assault allegations (of which the players were later acquitted) during the final year of coach Jim Dutcher. Though wins did not come easily in the first couple years of Haskins regime, by the 1988–89 season he had the Gophers in the 1989 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament as a \#11 seed, and directed a Cinderella run into the Sweet 16. In the 1989–90 season Haskins led the Gophers on another cinderella run in the 1990 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. This time as a No. 6 seed, the Gophers went all the way to the Elite Eight, and came within a basket of reaching their first ever Final Four. Though Haskins led the Gophers to post-season success in his first three seasons, the 1990 Elite Eight appearance would be the last time under Haskins the Gophers would "officially" appear in the NCAA tournament, due to their future tournament results being vacated as a result of NCAA violations.
Prominent players coached by Haskins at Minnesota included Minnesota native Sam Jacobson, who went on to play for the Los Angeles Lakers, Golden State Warriors, and hometown Minnesota Timberwolves, Sharp-shooter Voshon Lenard, who spent 5 seasons with the Miami Heat and won the 2004 Three-Point Contest, Quincy Lewis, who was a 3rd Team All American and played for the Utah Jazz and Minnesota Timberwolves, and Bobby Jackson who under Haskins was a Consensus All American and Big Ten Player Of The Year, before going on to play 12 seasons in the NBA, most prominently for the Sacramento Kings, where he won the 2003 Sixth Man of the Year Award, and now serves as an assistant coach. Big men John Thomas, Joel Przybilla, and Trevor Winter (the latter two both Minnesota natives), also flourished under Haskins and went on to have careers in the NBA.
#### Academic fraud scandal
On March 10, 1999, the day before the \#7 seed Gophers were to open the NCAA tournament against \#10 Gonzaga, the St. Paul Pioneer Press ran a story detailing allegations of massive academic fraud in the men's basketball program. Former basketball office manager Jan Gangelhoff had gone to the newspaper claiming she had written over 400 papers for at least 20 Gopher men's basketball players over a period of several years, ending in 1998. When the Gophers played Gonzaga on March 11, the university suspended players Antoine Broxsie, Kevin Clark, Jason Stanford, and Miles Tarver since they allegedly had papers written for them by Ganglehoff in previous seasons. With their roster depleted, the Gophers lost to Gonzaga, the season came to an end, and an internal investigation at the university began.
By June 1999 and in the midst of their investigation, the university had negotiated a buyout of the remainder of Haskins' contract, worth \$1.5 million over three years. It also withdrew from postseason consideration in the 1999–2000 season and docked itself 11 scholarships over four years. In the summer of 2000, Haskins came forward and admitted that he had paid Gangelhoff \$3,000 for her services; this revelation came to light after Haskins turned his financial records over to the NCAA. In addition, more details were emerging in which Haskins was also accused of mail fraud in an incident regarding a recruit's transcript, giving players cash, dismissing sexual harassment concerns against his players, as well as his staff trying to persuade professors to give his players inflated grades they had not earned.
` After the details of Haskins' ever-growing involvement became more clear, the university initiated legal action to recover the buyout money. A judge ultimately ruled that Haskins must return just over half of the original $1.5 million buyout.`
During this time an NCAA investigation was also underway. Ultimately, it revealed that Minnesota was guilty of massive violations under Haskins' watch. The NCAA stripped the Gophers of all postseason awards, titles, personal records, and statistics dating back to the 1993–94 season citing a "lack of institutional control." Haskins was also slapped with a seven-year "show-cause" order, which effectively banned him from coaching at any level in the NCAA until 2007. Besides lying about the \$3,000 payment, he had also told several of his players to lie to the NCAA. Later, the Big Ten forced the Gophers to vacate their 1997 conference title, as well as all regular season games dating to 1993–94. As a result, Minnesota's official record from 1993–94 to 1998–99 is 0–0. If not for the vacated games, Haskins would be the second-winningest coach in school history.
In addition, the NCAA docked the Gophers an additional five scholarships over the following three seasons, and also imposed recruiting limitations and department-wide probation lasting four years.
In addition to Haskins, Athletic Director Mark Dienhart, Vice President for Athletics, Student Development McKinley Boston, Associate Athletics Director Jeff Schemmel and academic counselor Alonzo Newby also resigned. The university also agreed to return 90% (approximately \$350,000) of the profits earned by the basketball program during their appearances in the NCAA tournament, including the 1997 Final Four run.
### The Monson era (1999–2006)
Following Haskins' departure, the university hired Gonzaga's Dan Monson to be their next head coach, who coincidentally had just beaten the Gophers in the NCAA Tournament the previous March. Monson was the coach for part of eight seasons. However, during his tenure the scholarship reductions took their full effect, making it difficult for him to recruit on the same level as the rest of the Big Ten. His Gopher teams only made the NCAA tournament once, in 2004–05. Monson almost left the Minnesota program for the University of Washington following the 2001–02 season, but was thought of highly by the athletics department under Tom Moe and was persuaded to stay despite limited success. These trends did not reverse after he remained at the program. During his final full season the Gophers were 5–11 in Big Ten play, and after a 2–5 start to open the 2006–07 season, Monson and Athletics Director Joel Maturi announced Monson's resignation on November 30, 2006. Despite Monson's inability to field a consistent winner, he was lauded by University officials for bringing integrity and cleanliness back to the program. Assistant coach Jim Molinari was named head coach on an interim basis and, after a 3–13 Big Ten record to finish the season, was not retained as head coach. Maturi began an extensive search for a new permanent head coach at season's end.
### The Tubby Smith era (2007–2013)
On March 23, 2007, Maturi made a move that surprised many when he hired Tubby Smith after he resigned from the University of Kentucky to be the next head Gopher basketball coach. Smith's name recognition and winning reputation gave the program a new optimism, something it badly needed to counter its dwindling fan interest.
Smith's coaching had an immediate impact on the previously unsuccessful Gophers squad. The team went from 8–22 in 2006–07 to 20–13 in 2007–08. Smith also led the Golden Gophers to the Big Ten tournament semi-finals after defeating 2nd seeded Indiana. Coach Smith also signed a top 25 recruiting class, the best in years for the program. Smith returned Minnesota to the NCAA tournament for the first time since 2005 in the 2008–09 season. Smith's team struggled throughout the 2009–10 season with off-court issues, but advanced to the championship game in the Big Ten tournament for the first time in school history (losing to regular season co-champion Ohio State) and made the NCAA tournament for the second consecutive season.
On March 25, 2013, Smith was relieved of his coaching duties at Minnesota.
### The Richard Pitino era (2013–2021)
On April 3, 2013, Richard Pitino, son of Louisville coach Rick Pitino, verbally agreed to coach the Golden Gophers. On April 3, after missing out on the NCAA tournament, the Gophers responded by winning the 2014 NIT championship trophy by defeating SMU. Austin Hollins was named the NIT MVP. As a result, Pitino claimed his first championship with the team. Following the success of an NIT championship, the Gophers hoped to qualify for the NCAA tournament the following year. However, the team struggled and finished with only six wins in the conference and did not qualify for any major tournament.
The 2016 season was a disaster for the Gophers as they only managed to win two conference games. The lone bright spot came during a late season upset against ranked Maryland to give the Gophers their first conference win on the season. Despite the lack of success on the court, the Gophers were able to get Amir Coffey, a highly ranked player from Hopkins to commit to the men's basketball program. Coffey, along with other recruits Eric Curry and Michael Hurt, were able to help lift the Gophers to a 23-8 regular season record in the 2016–2017 season, and a birth to the 2017 NCAA tournament, where they attained a 5 seed and lost to 12-seed Middle Tennessee State to finish with a 24–10 record. Expectations were high coming into the 2017–2018 season, as they only lost one rotational player, Akeem Springs, from the year before. This was evident as Minnesota received its highest preseason ranking in the AP poll since 1993, coming in at 15th. Before the season, things started to unravel for Pitino's team. Sophomore Eric Curry tore his ACL and MCL in late August, forcing him to miss the entirety of the 2017–2018 season. During the beginning of the season, sexual assault allegations came out against senior center Reggie Lynch, which resulted in Lynch's suspension and eventual expulsion from the University of Minnesota. Later in the season, sophomore Amir Coffey suffered a shoulder injury and ended up missing the last 12 games of the season. The Gophers ended the season 15–17, with a 4–14 record in conference play and a first round loss to Rutgers in the 2018 Big Ten tournament. The 2018–2019 season went much better for the Gophers. They finished with a record of 22–13, although they only went 9–11 in conference play. Still, after strong wins over No. 20 Wisconsin, and No. 11 Purdue twice, the Gophers finished 4th in the 2019 Big Ten tournament and returned to post-season play as a 10 seed in the East Region of the 2019 NCAA tournament. In the tournament, the Gophers beat the 7 seed Louisville Cardinals in the first round 86–76. In the Round of 32, the Gophers lost to the Michigan State Spartans 70–50, who would end up the champions of the East Region.
### The Ben Johnson era (2021–present)
On , the University of Minnesota welcomed a former player and former assistant coach Ben Johnson to helm the Men's Basketball program for its next era. Johnson, at 40 years of age, is the 18th head coach in program history. His tenure as a player began after a standout career at DeLaSalle High School in Minneapolis, where he led the private Catholic school to two state championships. He was named twice as a first-team all-state athlete for both basketball and football, and for his senior year was named a Street & Street All-American. His collegiate career took him to Northwestern University for two years, returning to the Twin Cities and the Gophers for his two remaining seasons. There, he finished with 533 points in 59 games for Minnesota (1,202 career collegiate points). He began his coaching career at the University of Dayton, with stops at the University of Texas–Pan American then four years as assistant coach at Northern Iowa in a pivotal program that won at least 20 games in all four years. He was an assistant coach at the University of Nebraska for a year, then worked for the Gopher program as an assistant coach and recruiter from 2013 to 2018. He is credited with recruitment and development of local standouts Daniel Oturu, Amir Coffey, and Jordan Murphy. In 2018 he made the move to Xavier, where he similarly excelled at recruitment (consecutive top-30 recruiting classes for 2019 and 2020), while posting a three-season record of 51–37. Now named to helm the Gophers for the 2021–22 season, Johnson is a seasoned leader and recruiter who brings a depth of local relationships and proven abilities to the role.
### Awards
Big Ten MVP
- Chuck Mencel – 1955
- Jim Brewer – 1972
- Mychal Thompson – 1978
- Bobby Jackson – 1997 (later revoked due to the academic fraud scandal)
Big Ten Coach of the Year
- Jim Dutcher – 1982
- Clem Haskins – 1997 (later revoked due to the academic fraud scandal)
- Richard Pitino – 2017
Henry Iba Award (National Coach of the Year)
- Clem Haskins – 1997
Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year
- Bobby Jackson – 1997 (later revoked due to the academic fraud scandal)
- Travarus Bennett – 2002
- Reggie Lynch – 2017
Big Ten Freshman of the Year
- Rick Rickert – 2002
- Kris Humphries – 2004
Consensus All-Americans
- Jim McIntyre – 1948
- Dick Garmaker – 1955
- Mychal Thompson – 1978
Academic All-American
- Blake Hoffarber – 2011 (2nd Team)
### Post-season
The Gophers enjoyed fairly regular post season appearances under former coach Clem Haskins, making the post season in 10 of his 13 seasons as coach (6 NCAA tournament, 4 NIT), including all of his last 8 seasons. The team advanced to one Final 4, one Elite 8, one Sweet 16, one second round appearance, and suffered two first round losses. However, after the academic fraud scandal in 1999, the last 6 years of post season records were wiped out. So officially, the Gophers made 2 NCAA Tournament and 2 NIT appearances in the 13 years Haskins was coach. They advanced to the Elite 8 in 1990, the Sweet 16 in 1989, and were NIT champions in 1993.
The Gophers saw some moderate success in the early 1980s, appearing in the 1980, 1981, and 1983 NITs and the 1982 NCAA tournament, where they advanced to the Sweet 16.
Multiple problems plagued the Gophers during the 1976–1977 season, Jim Dutcher's 2nd as head coach. Heading into the season the team knew they would not be eligible for the post season because of sanctions from the Bill Musselman era. Even so, this turned out to be one of the best teams in Gopher history, with the team finishing at 24–3. But if not being post-season eligible was not punishment enough, it was later found out that Mychal Thompson had sold two complimentary tickets to Gopher home games. When it was discovered, the profits were donated to University of Minnesota scholarship funds. The school and several prominent supporters, including Senator Wendell Anderson attempted to back Thompson and the team. Nevertheless, when the NCAA discovered Thompson's act, Minnesota's record for the season was forfeited and the accomplishments of that season are considered unofficial and not included in NCAA records.
### NCAA tournament results
The Golden Gophers have appeared in the NCAA tournament 14 times. Their combined record is 15–13. However, their tournament appearances from 1972, 1994, 1995 & 1997 have been vacated making their official record 9–10.
- Vacated by the NCAA
### NIT results
The Golden Gophers have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) 15 times. Their combined record is 33–13. They were NIT Champions in 1993, 1998 and 2014. However, their tournament appearances in 1996 and 1998 have been vacated, including their 1998 title, making their official record 27–12.
- Vacated by the NCAA
## Facilities
When the Gophers first organized, they played games in the on campus YMCA. In 1896, the team moved into the campus Armory, a large building with gymnasium space for the team to use, even if basketball was not its primary purpose. They remained in the Armory for almost 30 years. Halfway through the 1924–25 season, coach Harold Taylor moved the team from the University Armory to the Kenwood Armory in downtown Minneapolis. This significantly increased the attendance; capacity at the University Armory was 2,000, and it was 6,500 at Kenwood. The team only played at Kenwood for a few seasons, however, as the University of Minnesota Field House — later known as Williams Arena — opened partway through the 1927–1928 season. The team moved in on January 31, 1928.
The Field House increased attendance capacity further, to 9,500. It was named after Henry L. Williams, the former Minnesota Golden Gophers football coach in 1950, and was named after him when it was remodeled and expanded in 1950, bringing the arena to a capacity of 18,025, which was the largest in the country for 20 years and significantly larger than the capacity of Williams Arena today. Gophers fans refer to Williams Arena as the Barn. Consequently, the student section is known as The Barnyard. Williams Arena was remodeled in 1993 again, to create a new facility for the women's team to use. The team continues to play there to this day, making it one of the longest used arenas of any college basketball team and the oldest arena in the Big ten. Williams Arena is also one of the few remaining arenas with a raised court, in which players have to go up stairs to reach the playing surface.
## Rivals
In the early years of the program, the Gophers had several rivalries that have not extended into the modern era. Among them was a rivalry with Hamline University, now a Division III school in St. Paul. Hamline had one of the earliest college basketball programs in the country and it was several years before Minnesota competed on equal footing with them; they played as late as 1935. The greatest rival of the early years of the program was the Minnesota Aggies, representing the Minnesota School of Agriculture and Mining, which has since been incorporated into the University of Minnesota Twin Cities as the St. Paul campus. Minnesota A&M dominated the Gophers, winning ten consecutive games; Minnesota did not get its first win against the Aggies until 1899. This rivalry expired especially early, and the two teams did not meet after 1901.
The Gophers were also an active participant in the early rivalry between Eastern schools and Midwestern schools for basketball preeminence. Minnesota broke up a stretch of Ivy League dominance from 1901 to 1906 with their successful 1902 season. The Eastern teams – Yale, Columbia, and Dartmouth were early powers – played with a more physical approach, while Midwestern teams used a different method. Wisconsin coach Walter Meanwell used the motion offense and "stress[ed] finesse." W.C. Hyatt, who played for Yale, claimed that "The Minnesota and Wisconsin men played in the style prevalent among most of the girl colleges in the East, that is, the 'no contact' game."
In the modern era of the program, as is the case with most Big Ten sports, Minnesota's primary rivals are the Iowa Hawkeyes and Wisconsin Badgers. In recent years, the rivalry with Wisconsin has become more intense than that with Iowa, primarily due to Wisconsin's rise to basketball powerhouse on the court. Minnesota and Wisconsin's games together count towards the Border Battle, an annual trophy given to the points winner of several sports played between the two schools throughout the year.
The Gophers also have a less heralded rivalry with Ohio State. The two teams have very little history together, outside of the 1972 brawl between the teams at Williams Arena. That incident still lingers in the hearts of many long-time Buckeye fans.
## Results by season |
60,108,263 | Shooting of Vivian Strong | 1,173,664,158 | 1969 shooting in Omaha, Nebraska | [
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| On June 24, 1969, Vivian Strong, a 14-year-old African American girl, was killed in Omaha, Nebraska, United States, when a white police officer shot her in the back of the head without warning. The white police officer, and his Black partner, had been dispatched to the location because there were "juveniles breaking in." When they arrived at the scene a small group of teenagers fled out of an abandoned apartment where they had been dancing. The killing sparked three days of riots in Omaha's predominantly African-American Northeast neighborhood.
After being suspended and then fired, the officer was charged with and pleaded not guilty to manslaughter. After the case, in which he personally testified, he was acquitted by an all-white jury and served two more years on the Omaha police force.
The shooting has since been showcased in several theatrical adaptations.
## Vivian Strong
The daughter of James and Kasie Strong, Vivian was born on December 24, 1954, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She attended Tech Jr. High in Omaha, Nebraska and planned to become a secretary, but because of a heart condition she developed in 1964 (a leaky aortic valve), her attendance was irregular and sporadic. She routinely visited local hospitals and care facilities; for example in January 1964 she stayed at the University of Nebraska Medical Center for over a month (January 23 - February 27), and from April to November of the same year, she was a "bed patient" at Hattie B. Munroe Home. She had one sister and six brothers. A childhood friend described her as, "so sweet" and "a good friend to everybody."
## Shooting
On June 24, 1969, no more than nine teenagers gathered, played music, and danced at a party hosted in a vacant apartment in the Logan Fontenelle Housing Project. Following a call to police about a suspected robbery, two officers arrived, and the teenagers fled out of the back door. James Loder—the white officer of the two—shot into the fleeing group without warning, which struck the then 14-year old Strong in the back of the head, killing her. Both James W. Smith—Loder's African American partner—and Strong's sister, Carol, asked Loder, "Why did you shoot her?", but he did not reply.
In the first news article about the incident, which appeared on the cover of the Omaha World Herald on June 25, 19-year old Linda Bradley, Strong's babysitter at the time, said, "We were playing records in the alley. We do it all the time. I even went around to the neighbors to see that it would be alright." She said when the police arrived they "went to see what was going on," and she concluded by saying Loder "shot her right in the head. He didn't holler, or shoot in the air or anything. There was only one shot."
### Community response
Unrest followed for three days in Omaha's Northeast neighborhood, resulting in 88 injuries and over one million dollars in property damage and making national headlines. In just those three days, fifty-six arrests were made, all of them being African-Americans. During the riots, the Black Panthers, armed with weapons, protected Black churches and the local Black newspaper, the Omaha Star.
Within the week, on June 28, 30 Black and white women accused police of brutality in the Near North Side of Omaha, and of having a double standard for the treatment of white and Black people. The police chief denied both charges and talked to the delegation for over an hour. One of the women argued that police should give more attention to psychiatric screening of recruits before they are sent into the field. Similarly, two days later, Omaha Mayor Eugene Leahy met with a delegation of 15 African-American women, who complained about discrimination by the police; in response, the Mayor said their grievances would "be studied and analyzed".
Several days after the killing, activist Ernie Chambers called on the city to pay damages of \$100,000 to the parents of Strong. Mayor Leahy responded by saying it was "ridiculous" and, "I'm not saying the \$100,000 figure is ridiculous for a girl's life but it is ridiculous to demand that the city pay it," saying instead the remedy would be appropriately found in court. Members of the United Presbyterian Church contributed approximately \$300 to the family of Strong, and approximately 35 Omaha policemen and firemen, most of whom were African American, contributed \$150.
### Funeral
Strong was buried at Mount Hope Cemetery in Omaha, Nebraska. Reverend General R. Woods, president of the Coordinating Committee for the Civil Liberties in Omaha, spoke at the funeral and said the death of Strong was due to "the actions as well as the inactions of the police, the city council, members of the legislature and citizens of Nebrakska." Nebraska state senator Edward Danner said, "I feel ashamed to stand here today because I tried so hard in my legislative efforts." Senator Danner had tried to persuade the legislature to pass an amendment that would have made police more responsible for their actions.
## Legal proceedings
Initially, Police Chief Richard R. Anderson indicated Loder would be suspended for 15 days and then fired. Loder was released from jail on a \$500 bond, and Local 531 of the AFL-CIO Employees Union contributed at least \$3,000 to Loder's defense.
He entered a plea of "not guilty" to the charge of manslaughter. In the time period between the shooting and court case, Loder sought reinstatement by the City Personnel Board, but the board chose to withhold action pending the outcome of the criminal case.
### Preliminary hearing
Since officials banned all statements following the shooting, it was not until the preliminary hearing that the public heard Loder's version of what happened. Loder's statement, taken three hours after the shooting, was read in court, saying, "If I had known it was a female, I wouldn't have fired the shot." Loder claimed he called out three times to the fleeing person, "Stop or I'll shoot." During his testimony, Officer Smith said, "I believe Officer Loder said something like 'halt' or 'stop'."
On the second day of the preliminary hearing, the defense raised two motions to dismiss charges against Officer Loder, though these were rejected. On that same day, the judge commented from the bench to clarify that entering the vacant apartment at 1701 North 21st Avenue Plaza, a vacant apartment, was not a felony because it had not been established whether the front or back doors were locked.
A total of 21 witnesses were called by the state during the preliminary hearing. Two witnesses, ages 12 and 24, were dismissed when they started "sobbing" while testifying. Judge Simon A. Simon presided over the hearing, the county attorney was Donald Knowles, and the defense attorneys were Joseph J. Vance and Paul Watts.
Loder was ordered to stand trial for manslaughter in Douglas County District Court after a four-day preliminary hearing. After announcing his decision, Judge Simon said, "After we adjourn and everybody clears this courtroom, I don't want anything done or said that will offend the defendant or any police officer. I don't want any arguments or remarks made to provoke an argument in the courtroom or in the halls of the third floor of City Hall." Afterward, in an interview, Judge Simon said he relied heavily upon a 1929 Nebraska Supreme Court decision in the case of Broquet vs. The State of Nebraska. In that case, the Supreme Court asked the jury to consider, "A police officer, in arresting one who is guilty of a misdemeanor, may use such force as, to an ordinarily prudent person, appears reasonably necessary under the circumstances, even to the taking of life; but, if the officer slay the offender while effecting his arrest, the question as to whether he used more force than was, under the circumstances, reasonably necessary."
### Trial
James Loder's trial for manslaughter began on Monday, March 9, 1970, with District Court Judge Lawrence C. Krell. The defense lawyers were Joseph J. Vance and Paul Watts. The county attorney was Donald Knowles and the deputy attorney was Lawrence Corrigan. Loder faced a possible prison sentence of one to ten years. 32-witnesses were called to testify by the state.
During opening remarks, Corrigan said the original call made to police mentioned "juveniles breaking in." He said that when Loder chased Strong, there were "children all over", but that Loder had not called for the fleeing person to halt. But for the defense, Watts argued that there was no mention of juveniles in the original call to Car 206, but instead, "parties breaking in now," and that Loder had indeed called out a command to halt three times before firing. He also noted Loder's more than ten years of experience with the police and military.
His partner, Smith, testified that he heard Loder shout, "'Hey halt, stop' or something like that", while all other witnesses said Loder gave no warning. One witness stated that when Loder pulled his gun, one child playing in the area shouted, "Don't shoot her mister!"
Loder and his partner both testified that the call to Car 206 said, "parties are breaking in." But radio dispatchers had said—as recordings of the calls proved—"juveniles breaking in."
On Thursday, March 12, Sheriff Janing of Douglas County was visited by FBI agents in his office, saying that the agents expressed concern about out-of-town Black "militants" in Omaha, possibly to "exploit the Loder case". Also on the fourth day, Lew Davis, a member of the National Committee to Combat Fascism, read a statement in the courthouse lobby: "Black people have gathered here at the courthouse for the trial of James Loder to show that we are dissatisfied with the way that the Loder case is being dealt with. Namely, that the prosecution and the defense lawyers are cooperating very clearly in an attempt to get Loder acquitted."
Early on the fifth day, a telephoned bomb threat shut down the courtroom, but following a search, nothing was found. Afterward, one member of the jury was dismissed and replaced, and the state rested its case. The defense attorney asked that the trial be dismissed because the "state had failed to prove its case"; Judge Krell took it under advisement. In rebuttal, county attorney Knowles argued that if Strong committed any crime prior to Loder's arrival—such as her entry in the apartment—it was a misdemeanor and did not call for the use of force.
#### Loder testimony
Loder testified on the sixth day of the trial, Monday, March 16, on the stand for approximately an hour. After receiving a dispatch to investigate a break-in, Loder said that he and his partner drove quickly without sirens or lights to the location, about ten blocks away. The area was dimly lit and his partner, Smith, was arresting one young person while Loder ran into a playground area to the south, in which he heard a thump and turned around. There, he saw someone haunched over, outside a window. He pursued the person around a corner and through a backyard area, shouting (according to Loder) three times for the fleeing person to halt, or he would shoot. "I drew my weapon, I fired one shot," he said. Apparently afraid the person was getting away, he testified that he needed to shoot. On the stand he denied testimony from other witnesses that he had kicked Strong's body to turn her over. Instead, he said he lifted her arm to turn her partway over, to look for a wound, but did not find one.
### Verdict
On March 17, 1970, after approximately 12 hours of deliberation, an all-white jury of six men and six women acquitted James Loder of manslaughter. One juror said, "It was one of the hardest decisions I ever had to make. I felt that if you don't give police the authority to act we are just not going to have any law and order at all." Of the acquittal, Strong's mother said,
> He did wrong. They did wrong. ... If it would have been a white girl shot by a black policeman, he'd be serving time right now.
## James Loder after the verdict
Loder returned to the police force, where he served for two more years. The Omaha World Herald published an editorial on 2 April 1970, that disagreed with the decision to reinstate Loder to the police force,
> With all allowance for the difficulties which the board faced in reaching it, we do not believe reinstatement was the right decision.
After serving at a desk job for many months, on February 1, 1971, Loder was assigned to a patrol cruiser from 6 PM to 2 AM in a police district that included Near North Omaha, the location of Strong's shooting. The reassignment was made public, and complaints were made to the mayor of Omaha and governor of Nebraska, and Loder was subsequently assigned to patrol the west side of Omaha.
On Monday, November 29, 1971, Loder was fired by police Chief Richard Andersen for a series of rule infractions, including failure to appear in court to testify as a city witness, misuse of police radio, insubordination to a sergeant, and failure to pass uniform inspection.
Loder was the estranged natural son of Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr and actor John Loder, who had both claimed him as their adopted son. Lamarr had done so in 1941, long before marrying Loder, in order to conceal his illegitimacy.
## Aftermath
Strong's parents were divorced at the time of the shooting. During the unrest, her father, James Strong, said,
> I've been very confused this week. Our whole family took Vivian's death very hard. All this trouble doesn't help at all. — J. Strong (1969)
One of Strong's younger sisters, Carol, was with her when she was killed; Carol did not receive any counseling afterward. Her mother had a nervous breakdown, and Carol subsequently took over the care of her younger brothers and sisters.
In March 1970, approximately nine months after the deadly shooting, Strong's mother, Kasie Strong, sued James Loder for \$75,000 in district court for future loss of "earnings, support, and service".
Strong's 17 year-old brother, Orlando, was fined \$100 and sentenced to 90 days in jail after throwing a rock toward a police cruiser on April 10, 1970, less than a month after the Strong verdict. Later the same year, on October 25, 1970, Orlando published a poem about the shooting of his sister in the classified newspaper section of the Omaha World Herald. The poem ends with the four lines
He could have fired a warning shot
as he gunned her down in a very small lot.
What a price for suspicion of burglary
and Loder walked away – scott free.
## Legacy
### Vivian Strong Street
In April 2023 the Omaha City Council voted unanimously to name 21st Street from Clark Street to Paul Street, "Vivian Strong Street." On June 16, 2023, the Vivian Strong Street sign was unveiled.
### Vivian Strong Memorial Liberation School
The summer of Strong's death, the Black Panther Party (BPP) established the Vivian Strong Memorial Liberation School. The BPP established Liberation Schools in several US cities. The school in Omaha may have operated for only a week before it closed down.
### Theater
Sometime between 1969 and 1972, the Afro Academy of Dramatic Arts in Omaha presented a play written by Reverend Darryl Eure comparing the killing of Strong to Emmett Till.
Since then, two plays have been produced about Strong. Monica Bauer's 2019 play, Vivian's Music: 1969, imagines the last days of her life; it won an award at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival and was produced off-off-Broadway at 59E59 Theaters in New York City. Christopher Maly's 2018 play, The Blues of Knowing Why, was a "community account" of her short life based on interviews with friends, family, media, and members of resistance organizations, produced in Omaha's Union for Contemporary Arts. |
28,792,584 | First Battle of Algeciras | 1,168,970,079 | 1801 naval battle of the French Revolutionary Wars | [
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| The First Battle of Algeciras was a naval battle fought on 6 July 1801 (17 messidor an IX of the French Republican Calendar) between a squadron of British Royal Navy ships of the line and a smaller French Navy squadron at anchor in the fortified Spanish port of Algeciras in the Strait of Gibraltar. The British outnumbered their opponents, but the French position was protected by Spanish gun batteries and the complicated shoals that obscured the entrance to Algeciras Bay. The French squadron, under Contre-Amiral Charles Linois, had stopped at Algeciras en route to the major Spanish naval base at Cadiz, where they were to form a combined French and Spanish fleet for operations against Britain and its allies in the French Revolutionary Wars. The British, under Rear-Admiral Sir James Saumarez, sought to eliminate the French squadron before it could reach Cadiz and form a force powerful enough to overwhelm Saumarez and launch attacks against British forces in the Mediterranean Sea.
Sailing directly from his blockade station off Cadiz, Saumarez's squadron consisted of six ships of the line, twice the number under Linois's command. Discovering the French at anchor in Algeciras on the morning of 6 July, Saumarez launched an immediate attack on the anchorage through the complicated shoals of Algeciras Bay. Although the initial attack caused severe damage to the French ships, light winds and shallow water led to the British ship HMS Hannibal grounding under heavy fire while the French vessels were driven on shore to prevent their capture. With his intentions frustrated, Saumarez ordered his squadron to withdraw, five of his ships limping out of the bay while the battered Hannibal remained trapped. Isolated and unable to manoeuvre, Captain Solomon Ferris on Hannibal endured the enemy fire for another half an hour before surrendering his ship.
Both sides had suffered severe damage and casualties, but both were also aware that the battle would inevitably be rejoined and so the aftermath of the British defeat was one of frenzied activity at Gibraltar, Algeciras and Cadiz. While the British and French squadrons conducted hasty repairs, the French and Spanish fleet at Cadiz was prepared for a rescue mission, a heavy squadron arriving at Algeciras on 12 July. As the Spanish squadron departed with Linois's ships, they were attacked again by Saumarez's squadron at the Second Battle of Algeciras and caught at night by faster and more manoeuvrable ships, which resulted in the British inflicting heavy losses on the Spanish rearguard but failing for a second time to destroy the French squadron.
## Background
On 1 August 1798, the French Mediterranean Fleet was almost completely destroyed at the Battle of the Nile in Aboukir Bay off Egypt. As a result, the British Royal Navy became dominant in the Mediterranean Sea and imposed blockades on French and Spanish ports in the region, including the important naval bases of Toulon and Cadiz. By 1801, the British were planning a large scale operation to invade and recapture Egypt from the French, and First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte made plans to restore the Mediterranean Fleet and reinforce the garrison before the invasion took place. To this end, a squadron was despatched to Egypt from the French Atlantic ports and an agreement was reached with the Spanish Navy to supply the French Navy with six ships of the line from their reserve at Cadiz. The squadron never reached Egypt, diverting to Toulon under British pressure and separating, the most seaworthy vessels making a vain attempt to Egypt later in the year while the remainder were left at Toulon.
In June 1801, a squadron of three ships of the line that had been detached from the Egyptian squadron departed Toulon for Cadiz under the command of Contre-Amiral Charles Linois. The squadron's orders instructed Linois to join with the French and Spanish fleet at Cadiz and take possession of the promised vessels. From there the combined fleet, bolstered by 1,500 French soldiers under General Pierre Devaux on Linois's ships, could launch major operations against British forces or those of their allies: attacks on Egypt and Lisbon were both suggested, although no firm plan had been drawn up for either. Able to leave Toulon without resistance in the absence of the British blockade squadron, Linois passed along the Spanish Mediterranean Coast without interception, passing the fortified British port of Gibraltar on 3 July. There Linois was informed by Captain Lord Cochrane, captured in his brig HMS Speedy on 4 July, that a powerful squadron of seven British ships of the line were stationed off Cadiz under Rear-Admiral Sir James Saumarez. On hearing this news, Linois postponed the plan to reach the Spanish naval base and instead anchored at Algeciras, a well-fortified coastal town in Algeciras Bay, within sight of Gibraltar.
At Gibraltar, the only ship in harbour was the small sloop-of-war HMS Calpe under Captain George Dundas, who on sighting the French squadron immediately sent word to Saumarez off Cadiz. The message arrived on 5 July, delivered by Lieutenant Richard Janvrin in a small boat. The admiral, a veteran of the Battle of the Nile, immediately gathered his ships and sailed eastwards to investigate. He had only six ships of the line as one, HMS Superb under Captain Richard Goodwin Keats, was on detached duty at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River with the brig HMS Pasley. Saumarez sent messages in the frigate HMS Thames recalling Keats, who followed Saumarez towards Algeciras, and was in sight of the admiral's ship on the horizon at dawn on 6 July. However, after hearing an inaccurate report from an American merchant ship that Linois had already sailed from Algeciras, Keats reasoned that the French would have turned eastwards for Toulon and thus he would be too late to catch them. He therefore resolved to return to his station observing the Spanish at Cadiz, retaining Pasley and Thames.
As Saumarez sailed eastwards towards Algeciras against the wind, the already strong defences at Algeciras were augmented to meet him: Linois drew his ships up in a line of battle across the harbour, with the flagship Formidable at the northern edge, followed by Desaix and with Indomptable to the south, the ships each 500 yards (460 m) apart. The frigate Muiron was stationed in shallower water to the south of Indomptable. The French position was strengthened by the presence of 11 large Spanish gunboats at the northern extremity of the harbour, which was also overlooked by fortifications at the Bateria de San Iago and the Torre de Almirante. The southern approach to the harbour was covered by three gunboats and batteries at Fort Santa Garcia and Torre de la Vila Vega on the shore and the fortified island of Isla Verda, which mounted seven heavy cannon, lay between Indomptable and Muiron. Further support was offered by more distant forts that could land shells in the anchorage and most importantly by the geography of the bay, which was scattered with complicated shoals and rocks that made navigation difficult for unfamiliar sailors.
## Battle
### Saumarez's attack
Delayed during 5 July by contrary winds, Saumarez's squadron did not reach Algeciras until 07:00 on 6 July, the British admiral deciding to immediately descend on the French squadron and issuing orders for his ships to launch their small boats "in readiness to act when required". Thousands of spectators lined both the Spanish and Gibraltan shoreline in anticipation of the battle to come. Orders had been given for HMS Venerable under Captain Samuel Hood to lead the attack as the officer with most experience in these waters, and his vessel was the first to enter the bay around Cabrita Point. Once in the bay however, the wind dropped and Hood was left becalmed. As a result, the first shots of the engagement were fired from a battery on Cabrita Point at HMS Pompee under Captain Charles Stirling, which entered the bay at 07:50, followed closely by HMS Audacious under Captain Shuldham Peard. On sighting the British squadron, Linois gave orders for the French ships to warp into the shallower waters along the shoreline, and many sailors and soldiers aboard were despatched to assist the Spanish gun batteries around the bay. The French ships joined the fire as Pompee and Audacious came within range, first Muiron and then the ships of the line attacking the approaching British vessels.
Saumarez and remainder of the British squadron were 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) behind the leading ships but Stirling pressed ahead with the attack, passing close to the Isla Verda at 08:30 and engaging each of the French ships in turn until anchoring next to Formidable at 08:45 and opening fire from close range. Venerable and Audacious suffered from light winds further out in the bay and it was not until 08:50 that they were able to enter the action, Venerable firing on Desaix and Formidable and Audacious on Indomptable although, contrary to Saumarez's orders, both were anchored at long range. The French and Spanish responded with a heavy cannonade against the anchored ships, the engagement lasting half an hour until Formidable temporarily ceased firing and began to slowly warp further inshore. Suddenly, Pompee was caught by a fresh current, which swung the ship so that its bow was facing Formidable's broadside, although at some distance, allowing the French to rake the British ship which could only respond with a handful of the forward cannon. Assistance was provided by Dundas in Calpe, who took his small vessel inshore to engage the Spanish batteries firing on the British squadron, and also attacked the frigate Muiron at close range. Muiron was undermanned, but still powerful enough to drive off the smaller Calpe.
At 09:15 the straggling rear of the British squadron began to arrive, led by the flagship HMS Caesar, which anchored ahead of Audacious and inshore of Venerable before opening fire on Desaix. At 09:20, HMS Hannibal under Captain Solomon Ferris joined the action, anchoring ahead of Caesar. This left only HMS Spencer under Captain Henry Darby unengaged: Spencer had been left becalmed to the south of Isla Verda and came under heavy fire from the batteries and towers, some of which were firing hot shot designed to start fires in the ship's timbers. Captain Jahleel Brenton on Caesar suggested to Saumarez that if he negotiated with the Spanish they might permit him to seize the French ships in exchange for a cessation of the action, but Saumarez dismissed the idea as premature. At 10:12, with Formidable pulling into shallower waters away from the attacking British ships, Saumarez sent orders to Captain Ferris on Hannibal instructing him to manoeuvre his ship closer inshore to attack Formidable more effectively: specifically he was told to "go and rake the French admiral". Ferris began by sailing slowly northwards, using the light winds to pull ahead of the combat before tacking back towards Formidable. The manoeuvre was initially successful, but at 11:00, as he passed the Torre de Almirante, Hannibal grounded. From this position, Ferris was able to direct part of his broadside onto Formidable and the rest against the Spanish shore defences, but his ship was left very vulnerable to fire from the shore.
Hannibal was now isolated at the northern end of the British line, under heavy fire from Formidable as well as the Spanish shore batteries and gunboats and unable to manoeuvre or effectively respond. Ferris attempted to notify Saumarez of his ship's precarious position, but his signal halyards had been torn away by shot and it was sometime before assistance could be organised. The rest of the squadron was ordered to provide ship's boats to attempt to tow Hannibal off the shoal but the attempt failed, Caesar's pinnace sinking in the process after being struck by a cannonball. Ultimately, Hannibal was left stranded as the last of the seabreeze disappeared, preventing any of the other British ships from coming to Ferris' assistance. There was, however, a light land breeze from the northwest that initially favoured the outnumbered and battered French squadron, Linois immediately ordering his ships to sever their anchor cables and use the breeze to manoeuvre slowly into stronger defensive positions closer inshore. His flagship Formidable successfully completed the manoeuvre, but neither Indomptable nor Desaix could be brought back under control in time, and both grounded, Desaix directly in front of Algeciras and Indomptable northeast of Isla Verda with her bow facing out to sea.
Saumarez responded by cutting his cables on Caesar and wearing past the becalmed Audacious and Venerable, taking up station off Indomptable's vulnerable bows and repeatedly raking the stranded ship. Audacious followed the flagship at 12:00, taking up a new station between Caesar and Indomptable and also opening fire on the beleaguered Indomptable. Both Caesar and Audacious were now directly exposed however to the heavy fire from Isla Verda, the batteries there and all around the bay now manned by French sailors who had evacuated the grounded ships of the line. Audacious had been becalmed with Desaix off the bow and out of the ship's field of fire and it took considerable time and effort with the ship's boats to affect the turn needed to engage the French ship. Spencer and Venerable, ordered to join the attack, were unable to take up their intended positions due to the absence of wind, Venerable losing its mizen-topmast to French shot as Hood attempted to wear his ship around. Venerable's masts and rigging had been so badly torn by this stage of the battle that Hood was no longer able to effectively manoeuvre in the fitful breeze, although he did eventually pull his ship within range.
### Saumarez's withdrawal
To the north of this engagement, the trapped Pompée and Hannibal were under heavy fire from the anchored Formidable and an array of Spanish batteries and gunboats, both ships taking severe damage without being able to effectively reply as their main broadsides now faced away from the enemy. On Hannibal the situation seemed hopeless: as casualties mounted, the main and mizen masts were shot away and the ship remained firmly grounded. Pompée was in a slightly better position: Sterling's rigging was in tatters, but his masts held and his ship was at least afloat, although becalmed. At one stage, Pompée's colours were shot away, leading to French claims that the ship had surrendered, although they were quickly replaced. At 11:30, no longer able to contribute to the battle with rigging torn and more than 70 casualties, Saumarez ordered the remainder of the squadron to send their boats to tow Pompée out of danger. These boats came under heavy fire, and some were sunk.
The diversion of the boats to Pompée prevented Saumarez from launching a planned amphibious assault against Isla Verda with the squadron's Marines, and in the fitful breeze, both Caesar and Audacious were beginning to drift dangerously close to the shoals around the island: if they grounded, then they would share Hannibal's fate directly in front of the island's batteries. Observing the failure of his planned attack on the French squadron, Saumarez raised the signal at 13:35 for his ships to withdraw to Gibraltar. Pompée was already well on the way thanks to the towing boats, and Caesar and Audacious were able to cut their remaining anchors and limp out of the bay with the assistance of a sudden land breeze that carried them rapidly out of reach of the French and Spanish guns. They were joined by Venerable and Spencer as they left, the battered squadron retiring to Gibraltar leaving the almost dismasted hulk of Hannibal grounded in Algeciras harbour.
On Hannibal, more than sixty men had been killed and Captain Ferris ordered the survivors below decks to escape the worst of the fire as the combined guns of the French and Spanish forces turned on the last remaining target, starting several fires. By 14:00, seeing that continued resistance was futile, he had ordered the colours struck, and the Hannibal's ensign came down. French and Spanish soldiers then stormed the ship, and Hannibal's surgeon later reported that a number of wounded men were trampled to death as the boarding parties sought to extinguish the fires. It has not been established whether what followed was a misunderstanding aboard Hannibal or a deliberate ploy by the French, but Hannibal's ensign was then rehoisted upside down, a recognised international signal of distress. Captain Dundas, who had watched the entire battle from Gibraltar, believed on seeing the flag that it meant that Ferris was still holding out on Hannibal and requesting either support to salvage his battered ship or for it to be evacuated before surrendering. Boats were sent from Gibraltar with carpenters from the dockyards there to effect repairs on Hannibal and Dundas took HMS Calpe back into the bay to provide assistance, coming under heavy fire before withdrawing when his error was realised, although not before several of the boats had been seized by the French as their crews boarded Hannibal.
## Aftermath
Both sides had suffered heavy casualties and damage, the British losing 121 killed, 240 wounded and 11 missing, the missing thought to have drowned when their boats were sunk. As well as the loss of Hannibal, both Pompée and Caesar were heavily damaged, although both Venerable and Spencer had only suffered relatively lightly during the battle. Casualties were heavy throughout the squadron, Hannibal suffering more than 140 men killed and wounded and the rest made prisoner, Pompée more than 80 casualties and none of the other ships less than 30. The French had suffered higher casualties, with 161 killed, including Captains Moncousu and Lalonde and 324 wounded, including Devaux. All three French ships of the line were damaged: Saumarez believed that the French ships "were unserviceable" following the battle, although he was soon proven incorrect. Indomptable and Desaix were particularly damaged, although the frigate Muiron, which had remained in the shallow water of Algeciras harbour, was undamaged. The Spanish reportedly had 11 men killed and an unspecified number wounded, the casualties occurring in the battered forts and on the gunboats, five of which had been destroyed in the battle. The British crews had found during the engagement that their gunnery was affected by the lack of wind, much of their shot flying over the French ships and into the town of Algeciras, which was considerably damaged. The Spanish authorities later accused Saumarez of deliberately targeting the town in his frustration at being unable to capture the French squadron.
On 7 July, Saumarez sent Captain Brenton into Algeciras with a flag of truce and negotiations were held with a view to returning Captain Ferris and his officers to British control under terms of parole. After a brief correspondence between Linois and Saumarez this was agreed, and Ferris, his officers, his wounded men and the officers taken from HMS Speedy were sent to Gibraltar. By August 1801, Ferris and his officers were back in Britain, where a court-martial, standard practice in the case of a ship lost to the enemy, was held. Rear-Admiral John Holloway presided and the court found that Ferris' conduct during the battle was exemplary and he was acquitted of any blame for the loss of his ship. On returning his sword, Holloway remarked that "I feel assured, if ever you have occasion to unsheathe it again, it will be used with the same gallantry which you so nobly displayed in defending his majesty's ship Hannibal."
The immediate reaction in both Algeciras and Gibraltar was devoted to repairing and refitting the damaged warships: it was assumed by all involved that continuation of the action had merely been postponed rather than concluded. At Gibraltar, Saumarez decided to temporarily abandon Pompée and Caesar and reassign their crews to ensuring that the rest of the squadron was ready for battle. This decision was disputed by Captain Brenton of Caesar, and by working continuously for three days Caesar's crew successfully readied their ship in time for Saumarez to sail again. The haste was necessary because Linois, while strenuously repairing his own squadron and readying the captured Hannibal for sea with jury masts, had sent word to Cadiz urging Vice-Admiral Jose de Mazzaredo to send reinforcements before Saumarez was ready to attack again. Urged by French Contre-Amiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley, who was in Cadiz to take occupation of the promised six ships of the line, Mazzaredo ordered Vice-Admiral Juan Joaquin de Moreno [es] to sail with a formidable force which arrived off Algeciras Bay on 9 July. The Franco-Spanish squadron was shadowed by Superb, which then joined Saumarez at Gibraltar. At Algeciras the Spanish squadron intended to collect Linois and convoy his battered squadron to Cadiz with five ships of the line, including two massive 112-gun first rate ships, as escorts. Hannibal proved too damaged for the journey and was anchored in Algeciras harbour, but the remainder of the French and Spanish squadrons sailed for Cadiz on 12 July and were caught that night by Saumarez's repaired squadron in the Second Battle of Algeciras. The Spanish rearguard was overwhelmed, the 112-gun ships both sunk with more than 1,700 lives and another ship was captured, but Linois's force succeeded in reaching Cadiz the following morning. Hannibal was later removed from Algeciras by the French and commissioned as Annibal.
In France, the victory was the cause of celebration, Le Moniteur Universel declaring that "the combat covers the French arms with glory and shows what they are capable of". Linois was proclaimed a national hero and presented with a Sabre d'honneur by Napoleon. The French victory over a significantly stronger British force was an unusual event in the war during which the Royal Navy had dominated at sea. Saumarez publicly represented the battle as a victory, declaring that he had "compleately [sic] succeeded in disabling the Enemy's ships", although in private he acknowledged the defeat. Historian Richard Gardiner commented that "The well trained and led French had fought hard and skillfully and a combination of weather, luck and shore support had given them the victory against a superior force of which they had captured one. It is, however, also significant that this rare British setback occurred close inshore with all the difficulties and chanciness that implied."
## In popular culture
The First Battle of Algeciras is depicted near the end of the 1969 historical novel Master and Commander, the first book in the Aubrey–Maturin series by English author Patrick O'Brian. The main characters also witness the second battle a few days later.
The battle is the tutorial level for naval combat in the 2010 video game Napoleon: Total War. Unlike the real event, the battle in the game takes place at sea, rather than in a harbour, and the British lose their entire fleet of five vessels, rather than one. |
28,744,675 | Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy | 1,166,403,810 | 2011 video game | [
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| Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy (pronounced as ) is a 2011 fighting game published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable as part of the Final Fantasy series. It was developed by the company's 1st Production Department and released worldwide in March 2011. The game is both a prequel and remake of Dissidia Final Fantasy, revealing what occurred before the events of its predecessor.
The game initially focuses on the twelfth war between the gods Chaos and Cosmos who have summoned several warriors from parallel worlds to fight for them. Upon ending the twelfth cycle, the game remakes the thirteenth war from the original Dissidia Final Fantasy and adds multiple sidestories. Fights in Dissidia 012 were given the ability to counteract enemies' strongest attacks by using assisting characters, while navigation is now done through a traditional-styled Final Fantasy world map.
Development of the game started in August 2009 with the Square staff wishing to improve the gameplay from the first game to provide players with more entertaining features as well as balance several parts. Dissidia 012 has been well received, with publications calling it one of the best PlayStation Portable games.
## Gameplay
Gameplay is largely reminiscent of Dissidia Final Fantasy along with a few changes. The game consists primarily of one-on-one battles, taking place on what is known as a battle map where the two characters duel. Players are able to perform two types of attacks: a Bravery attack and an HP attack. Both characters start with a set number of Bravery points, the number of Bravery points being equivalent to the amount of damage dealt by an HP attack. Thus, the player must perform several Bravery attacks to steal Bravery points from the opponent so as to increase the power of their HP attack, as Bravery attacks do not cause any damage.
### Additional mechanics
The mechanics of the battle system include "EX Revenge" and "Assist". EX Mode functions exactly the same as the first game by collecting EX Cores around the battle map to fill up the EX gauge and transform the character into a more powerful state, which allows players to perform a powerful EX Burst attack should an HP attack land during EX Mode. The Assist system is a new element to the game which allows the player to summon an additional ally into battle to either assist in attacking the enemy or defend from an oncoming attack. It is performed using the Assist Gauge, which is built up by using Bravery Attacks. Both modes are supposed to balance each other, because when an EX Burst is executed, the opponent's Assist Gauge is reduced to zero.
The three main countering systems are Assist Breaks, EX Breaks and EX Revenge. An Assist Break is performed by attacking the opponent's Assist character while the player is in EX Mode, causing him/her to be unable to call out the Assist character for a brief period; this also passes the stage's Bravery points to the character. An EX Break is performed by stopping an opponent's EX Mode through the use of an Assist attack which forces the opponent out of EX Mode, additionally passing the stage's Bravery points to the player. Lastly, EX Revenge occurs when trying to activate EX Mode while being attacked. While in the first game it would simply halt the opponent's attack, it now slows down time allowing the player to pummel the opponent instead, though it sacrifices the player's ability to use an EX Burst as it uses up the entire EX Gauge.
### Single-player mode
The biggest addition is within the single-player story mode of the game, taking place on a traditional-styled Final Fantasy world map, with players being able to experience a story while exploring a world with scenarios and events taking place as the story progresses. Players traverse the 3D world map with parties consisting of up to five characters, with players being able to interact in conversations with the characters. When roaming the map, players will encounter enemies known as "Manikins"; when attacked by an enemy, players will be transported to a battle map where battles will take place. There are specially marked shops on the map. The story mode is also party based, similar to the story progression of Final Fantasy VI. In certain scenarios, parties will be predetermined, but in most cases players are free to select their own party. Alongside the game's new story mode, the game also includes the first game's story, which has been remade with the 3D world map as well as additional elements added for the new storyline. Tetsuya Nomura, producer and character designer for the game, has said that both storylines played together would result in approximately 60 hours of gameplay.
## Plot
### Setting and characters
The game's main story revolves around the twelfth cycle of the eternal conflict between the gods Cosmos and Chaos, who have both summoned several warriors from different worlds to fight for them in "World B", a mirror dimension to the realm of World A. It features the entire cast of the original Dissidia with new and tweaked abilities, and introduces nine new playable characters for a total of thirty-one. Six of the new characters are available from the start of the game: Lightning, a former soldier and the protagonist of Final Fantasy XIII; Vaan, a sky pirate and the protagonist of XII; Laguna Loire, the man who appears in Squall's dreams and the secondary protagonist of VIII; Yuna, Tidus's love interest and female protagonist of X; Kain Highwind, Cecil Harvey's childhood friend and rival from IV; and Tifa Lockhart, Cloud Strife's childhood friend from VII. The remaining three characters, which can be unlocked through various means of gameplay, are Prishe, a supporting character from Final Fantasy XI; Gilgamesh, a recurring villain from Final Fantasy V; and an alternate form of Chaos. Final Fantasy VII's Aerith Gainsborough was available as an assist-only character (i.e. not fully playable in the game) through the purchase of Dissidia 012 Prologus Final Fantasy on the PlayStation Network.
### Story
During the twelfth cycle, the war is turning in favor of Chaos. Therefore, Cosmos entrusts her warriors with the task of retrieving the crystals that will help them defeat Chaos. However, Cosmos does not foresee Chaos's forces employing an unworldly army of crystalline soldiers known as Manikins, which pose a threat due to their ability to negate the gods' power to revive the warriors after they are killed. Believing their defeat to be inevitable, Kain and the Warrior of Light defeat most of their own allies to stop them from fighting the Manikins and return in the upcoming cycle. Lightning opposes this plan and leads the other active warriors—Vaan, Yuna, Laguna, and Tifa—to stop the Manikins once and for all by sealing the portal from which they emerge, with Kain eventually joining them as well. Though they succeed, Cosmos is reduced to a weakened state after using much of her power to diminish the Manikin army when they attempt to kill her and the Warrior of Light, while Lightning and her group succumb to the Manikins' power and fade away.
From there, the game retells the events of Dissidia Final Fantasy where returning warriors for Cosmos participate in the thirteenth cycle that ends the conflict between the gods. Once completing the thirteenth cycle, the player also has access to the third and final arc "Confessions of the Creator", in which Shinryu—a powerful entity that absorbs the warriors' memories and experiences following each cycle—traps Cosmos' comrade, Cid of the Lufaine, in a nightmare world where the cycles never end as punishment for saving Cosmos' warriors from the thirteenth cycle following Chaos' defeat. The player selects five characters to fight Feral Chaos, a stronger incarnation of Chaos, and save the imprisoned Cid from the nightmare world.
In addition to the main story is a set of "Reports", most of which follow the other warriors who participate in the thirteenth cycle, explaining their roles before and during that cycle. Prominent characters in these reports include warriors of Cosmos—Terra, Cloud and Tidus—who fight for the side of Chaos during the twelfth cycle, and Chaos's warrior Jecht, who appears on the side of Cosmos, with the reports detailing how these characters came to switch sides. Furthermore, the Reports cover other events such as how the Warrior of Light enters the conflict and meets Cosmos's previous warriors Prishe and Shantotto, along with Gilgamesh's misadventures upon stumbling into World B.
## Development
Ideas for a sequel to Dissidia Final Fantasy were already conceived shortly after its release in Japan with creative producer Tetsuya Nomura wishing to feature Kain Highwind on it. Development of the game started in August 2009 shortly before the release of Dissidia Final Fantasy Universal Tuning, the international version from the predecessor. Director Mitsunori Takahashi said that the team wanted the sequel to have more changes than just new characters. This resulted in changes to gameplay features and the inclusion of new ones. The Assist feature was made to add more entertainment to the fights, as well as to act as a counterbalance to the EX Mode that was the strongest area from the first game. This was done in response to feedback commenting that the EX Mode was too powerful in the original game. The world map was created in order to appeal more the RPG fans. Returning characters had their movesets modified to provide the player with new strategies when fighting. One of the most revised ones was Firion due to feedback from players. Since the original Dissidia had a concrete conclusion, the staff decided to make its story a prequel and encourage players to revisit Dissidia once concluding it.
Choosing new characters proved difficult as the staff chose them based on their popularity and fighting styles. The amount of new characters was restricted due to memory limitations. Vaan's inclusion met several hardships since his Japanese voice actor, Kouhei Takeda, was busy at the time. They decided to replace Takeda with Kenshō Ono as a result of fan response. Battle system director Takeo Kujiraoka made contact with Hiroyuki Ito regarding the character's design and moves based on his Final Fantasy XII appearances, which was well received by Ito. While designed by Tetsuya Nomura, various of the new alternative outfits the characters were given were based on artworks by Yoshitaka Amano, another designer from the Final Fantasy series.
### Downloadable content
Three other Square Enix games, Final Fantasy Trading Card Game, Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix, and The 3rd Birthday, give players access to downloadable content in the form of alternate outfits for Vaan, Cloud Strife, and Lightning, respectively. As of June 2011, the PlayStation Network has featured downloadable content for Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy, including character costumes, avatars, and BGM packs.
## Music
The music for Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto and features multiple rearrangements from previous Final Fantasy themes by other composers. The American band Kidneythieves also sang the second part of the Feral Chaos' boss theme song, "God in Fire". Ishimoto wrote the song and requested Kidneythieves' collaboration with them to which the band stated it was entertaining. Square Enix released the Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy Original Soundtrack on March 3, 2011, featuring a total of three discs with the first one having 44, the second one 20, and the third one seven.
Track list
## Reception
Upon its first week of release Dissidia 012 sold 286,117 units in Japan, topping the Media Create's charts by replacing Phantasy Star Portable 2 Infinity. Although it managed first place, Dissidia 012 performed far below its predecessor. The original sold close to 500,000 units in its first week on December 18, 2008. It has sold 465,198 units in Japan as of January 2012. It has received positive reception. Dissidia 012 was scored a 38/40 by Famitsu, composed of a 10, 9, 10, 9 score by the four reviewers, two points higher than the original. PSM3 gave the game an 8.2, calling it an "improvement on the original, with some great Final Fantasy fan service thrown in". IGN gave the game a 9.0 (one point higher than the original), praising the game's graphics and improved gameplay, but criticizing its story. Game Informer gave the game a 7, saying the game did not improve any of the battle system problems of the previous game, although the assist system was a good addition, saying it added an extra dimension to what was missing in the first game. GamesRadar+ listed it as the ninth best PlayStation Portable game commenting on how it uses elements from famous RPGs, while IGN listed it third with comments aimed towards its gameplay. |
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"Middle Eastern theatre of World War I",
"Military campaigns and theatres of World War I involving Australia",
"November 1917 events",
"Ottoman Empire in World War I"
]
| The Battle of Mughar Ridge, officially known by the British as the action of El Mughar, took place on 13 November 1917 during the Pursuit phase of the Southern Palestine Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War. Fighting between the advancing Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and the retreating Yildirim Army Group, occurred after the Battle of Beersheba and the Third Battle of Gaza. Operations occurred over an extensive area north of the Gaza to Beersheba line and west of the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron.
Strong Ottoman Army positions from Gaza to the foothills of the Judean Hills had successfully held out against British Empire forces for a week after the Ottoman army was defeated at Beersheba. But the next day, 8 November, the main Ottoman base at Sheria was captured after two days' fighting and a British Yeomanry cavalry charge at Huj captured guns; Ottoman units along the whole line were in retreat.
The XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps attacked the Ottoman Eighth Army on an extended front from the Judean foothills across the Mediterranean coastal plain from 10 to 14 November. Beginning on 10 November at Summil, an Ottoman counterattack by the Seventh Army was eventually blocked by mounted units while on 13 November in the centre a cavalry charge assisted by infantry captured two fortified villages and on 14 November, to the north at Ayun Kara an Ottoman rearguard position was successfully attacked by mounted units. Junction Station (also known as Wadi es Sara) was captured and the Ottoman railway link with Jerusalem was cut. As a result of this victory the Ottoman Eighth Army withdrew behind the Nahr el Auja and their Seventh Army withdrew toward Jerusalem.
## Background
After the capture of Beersheba on 31 October, from 1 to 7 November, strong Ottoman rearguard units at Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills, at Hareira and Sheria on the maritime plain, and at Gaza close to the Mediterranean coast, held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting. During this time the Ottoman Army was able to withdraw in good order; the rearguard garrisons retiring under cover of darkness during the night of 8/9 November 1917.
The delay caused by these rearguards may have seriously compromised the British Empire advance as there was not much time to conclude military engagements in southern Palestine. The winter rains were expected to start in the middle of the month and the black soil plain which was currently firm, facilitating the movements of large military units would with the rains become a giant boggy quagmire, impassable for wheeled vehicles and very heavy marching for infantry. With the rains the temperatures which were currently hot during the day and pleasant at night would drop rapidly to become piercingly cold. In 1917 the rains began on 19 November just as the infantry began their advance into the Judean Hills.
The strength of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies, before the attack at Beersheba on 31 October, was estimated to have been 45,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres and 300 guns. This force had been made up of the Seventh Army's incomplete III Corps. The III Corps' 24th Infantry Division was at Kauwukah (near Hareira–Sheria) and its 27th Infantry Division was at Beersheba. Its 3rd Cavalry Division, as well as the 16th, 19th, and 24th Infantry Divisions were also in the area to the east of the Gaza–Beersheba line. The Seventh Army was commanded by Fevzi Çakmak. The Eighth Army's XXII Corps (3rd and 53rd Infantry Divisions) was based at Gaza while its XX Corps (16th, 26th and 54th Infantry Divisions) was based at Sheria in the centre of the Gaza–Beersheba line. Supporting these two corps had been two reserve divisions; the 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions. The Eighth Army was commanded by Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein and at that time had an estimated 2,894 officers; 69,709 men; 29,116 rifles; 403 machine-guns and 268 guns.
## Prelude
During 7–8 November rearguards of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies delayed the advance of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel's Desert Mounted Corps, Major General Edmund Hakewill-Smith's (or Major General J. Hill's) 52nd (Lowland) Division, and Major General Philip C Palin's 75th Division. The Desert Mounted Corps consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division (Major General Edward Chaytor), the Australian Mounted Division (Major General Henry W Hodgson) and the Yeomanry Mounted Division (Major General George Barrow). The 52nd (Lowland) Division and 75th Division formed part of Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin's XXI Corps.
On the coast the 52nd (Lowland) Division was fought a fierce action after crossing the Wadi el Hesi on the coast north of Gaza. By the morning of 8 November, two infantry brigades had crossed the Wadi el Hesi near its mouth and, despite some opposition established themselves on the sand dunes to the north towards Askelon. Sausage Ridge, on their right stretched from Burberah to Deir Sineid, was held in considerable strength, as the ridge covered the road and railway from Gaza to the north. During the afternoon the 155th Brigade moved to attack Sausage Ridge, but it was threatened by a counterattack on the left forcing, the brigade to halt and face north to meet this attack. When the 156th Brigade arrived from Sh. Ajlin on the Wadi el Hesi, the 157th Brigade attacked the southern portion of the ridge, and gained a footing as darkness fell. They lost this precarious position four times to fierce Ottoman counterattacks, before strongly attacking and throwing the defenders off the ridge by 21:00. The two attacking brigades lost 700 men in this action.
The Ottoman rearguards were able to safely get away during the night of the 8/9 November, but during the following day the only infantry unit capable of advancing was the 52nd (Lowland) Division's 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Archibald Herbert Leggett. The division's other brigades were regrouping after the fierce fighting at the Wadi Hesi. The brigade moved to Ashkelon, which was found to be deserted. By evening advance troops had pressed on to Al-Majdal, 16 miles (26 km) from Gaza, where they secured abandoned stores and water. By 9 November the Eighth Army had retreated 20 miles (32 km) while the Seventh Army "had lost hardly any ground."
Most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's infantry divisions were at the end of their lines of communication and were not able to follow up the Ottoman withdrawal. XXI Corps's 54th (East Anglian) Division was forced to rest at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun. In the rear, Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode's XX Corps had transferred its transport to XXI Corps. XX Corps's 60th (2/2nd London) Division (Major General John Shea) was resting at Huj and its 10th (Irish) (Major General John Longley) and 74th (Yeomanry) (Major General Eric Girdwood) Divisions were at Karm. The only units in the field were the 53rd (Welsh) Division (Major General S. F. Mott), corps cavalry, the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe in the foothills of the Judean Hills north of Beersheba.
> Allenby wrote on 8 November: The battle is in full swing. We have driven the Turks N. and N.E. and my pursuing troops are ten miles beyond Gaza, and travelling fast. A lot of Turks are cut off – just N.E. of Gaza. I don't know if they will be caught; but there is no time to waste in catching them. They pooped off a huge explosion this morning – presumably ammunition. My army is all over the place, now on a front of 35 miles ... My flying men are having the time of their lives; bombing and machine gunning the retreating columns ... I fancy that Kress von Kressenstein is nearing the Jaffa-Jerusalem line, himself.
### Mounted troop movements on 9 November
Chaytor's Anzac Mounted Division moved off across the maritime plain towards the coast soon after daylight on 9 November, having watered their horses the previous evening. The advance was led by two brigades—on the left the 1st Light Horse Brigade and on the right the 2nd Light Horse Brigade rode in line, each responsible for their own front and outer flanks; the attached 7th Mounted Brigade formed a reserve.
By about 08:30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade had entered Bureir and around an hour later the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was approaching Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army headquarters at Hulayqat. Here Ottoman soldiers were discovered to be occupying a strong position on high ground north-west of the village; the brigade made a dismounted attack capturing 600 prisoners along with large amounts of supplies, materiel and an abandoned German field hospital. At midday El Mejdel, 13 miles (21 km) north-east of Gaza, was occupied with little difficulty by the 1st Light Horse Brigade, who captured 170 prisoners and found a good well with a steam pump enabling the brigade to water all horses expeditiously. After passing the ancient town of Ashkelon a message was received from the Desert Mounted Corps notifying the Anzac Mounted Division that the British XXI Corps were marching towards El Mejdel and Julis. The main Ottoman road and railway leading north from Gaza were both cut and as a consequence, Chauvel ordered the division to advance towards Bayt Daras. The division duly turned north-east with the 1st Light Horse Brigade entering Isdud close to the Mediterranean Sea. On the right, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured the villages of Suafir el Sharkiye and Arak Suweidan, a convoy and its escort (some 350 prisoners). While the brigade was reorganising, Ottoman guns further north opened fire, shelling both captors and captives alike. Just before dark the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured a further 200 prisoners. The Anzac Mounted Division took up a night battle outpost line along high ground south of the Wadi Mejma, from near Isdud to Arak Suweidan.
During its journey across the maritime plain to Isdud, the Anzac Mounted Division captured many prisoners but met no large organised Ottoman force. As the day progressed, the captured Ottoman units were found to be increasingly disorganised with many soldiers suffering severely from thirst and exhaustion and some from dysentery.
> Allenby wrote on 9 November: Things are going well. I have infantry already in Askalon, and am pushing N., inland of that place. I know of 77 guns having been taken; and 5,000 prisoners at least. I went to Gaza, this afternoon ... [it] was taken by Bulfin, quite easily. The attack, on the 6th inst., went with such a rush that Gaza became untenable. Tomorrow is likely to be a critical day, in our pursuit. If the Turks can't stop us tomorrow, they are done.
Meanwhile, Hodgson's Australian Mounted Division, spent most of 9 November searching for water, which was eventually found at Huj. After most of the horses had been watered, they advanced 16 miles (26 km) to the Kastina–Isdud line capturing prisoners, guns, and transports on the way. This march during the night of 9/10 November was the only night march made through Ottoman territory of the campaign.
The Australian Mounted Division was led by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade as advanced guard, with an artillery battery attached. The 5th Mounted Brigade, two squadrons of which had made the charge at Huj the day before, followed, with the 4th Light Horse Brigade forming the rearguard. To ensure the division maintained its cohesion throughout the night, the advance guard placed pickets along the route every 440 yards (400 m). These were picked up by the following units which in turn dropped pickets to be gathered up by the rearguard. Corps headquarters in the rear was kept informed of the division's movement by signal lamp. Signallers from the two leading brigades intermittently flashed the letters of the divisional call signal in a south-westerly direction from every prominent hilltop along the route. These arrangements worked well and the division arrived intact in the vicinity of Arak el Menshiye and Al-Faluja.
The Australian Mounted Division was followed by the 4th Light Horse Brigade Field Ambulance and the divisional train made up of brigade transport and supply sections carrying rations. The field ambulance set up a dressing station and treated about 40 wounded men before moving through Huj at 16:00. After encountering rugged mountainous ravines and 6 miles (9.7 km) of very rough terrain, at around midnight they set up camp in a wadi bed.
The Yeomanry Mounted Division, (Barrow), had been in hills north of Beersheba fighting in the line at Tel el Khuweilfe with infantry from the 53rd (Welsh) Division, the 1/2nd County of London Yeomanry Regiment (XX Corps, Corps Troops) and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade until Allenby ordered it to rejoin the Desert Mounted Corps, 20 miles (32 km) away on the coast. Meanwhile, the infantry from the 60th (2/2nd London) Division marched to Huj during the afternoon of 9 November, obtaining water there. Infantry in the 10th (Irish) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions remained at Karm.
### Positions of armies on 10 November
The 52nd (Lowland) Division had ended the possibility of an Ottoman stand on the Wadi Hesi and the next natural defensive line was 7–15 miles (11–24 km) to the north, on the Nahr Sukereir. Allenby had issued orders on 9 November to advance to El Tineh–Beit Duras in an attempt to turn the Ottoman Nahr Sukereir line before it could be firmly established. Meanwhile, disorganised and demoralised Ottoman columns were harassed as they retreated by the Royal Flying Corps dropping bombs and firing machine-guns. Aircraft also dropped bombs on El Tineh railway station and detonated the ammunition depot. By 10 November infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions had advanced to the line Beit Duras–Isdud with the leading brigade of the 52nd Division successfully attacking a strong Ottoman rearguard defending Isdud.
Despite these difficulties the Ottoman Army successfully carried out a difficult retreat to establish a new defensive position on an extensive and well chosen position. The new line stretched about 20 miles (32 km) west to east from the mouth of the Nahr Sukereir on the Mediterranean Sea to Bayt Jibrin not far from Tel el Khuweilfe in the Judean Hills. The Ottoman Eighth Army on the coastal sector was still retreating when ordered to form the new line along the north side of the valley of the Nahr Sukereir, more than 25 miles (40 km) from Gaza. Further inland the Ottoman Seventh Army was in relatively good condition having retired 10 miles (16 km) or so without interference and was preparing to launch a counterattack.
Reinforcements, transport and supplies were not a problem for these two Ottoman armies as they were falling back on their lines of communication. Their defensive line ran more or less parallel to and 10 miles (16 km) or so in front of both road links and the railway. The Jaffa to Jerusalem railway, with connections northwards to Damascus and Istanbul, had a line branching southwards to El Tineh which branched again to Gaza and Beersheba. These lines could still be used to transport supplies and reinforcements quickly and efficiently to the Ottoman Army's front line. Indeed, a general strengthening of resistance along the Wadi Sukereir line was concentrated around Qastina, towards which the 2nd Light Horse Brigade advanced, capturing a refugee column between Suafir and Qastina.
#### Infantry capture Isdud and Nahr Sukereir
The series of engagements leading up to the Battle of Mughar Ridge began on 10 November near Isdud. The leading brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, advanced 15 miles (24 km) despite encountering stiff Ottoman resistance around Isdud and was subjected to artillery bombardment from across the Nahr Sukereir. Two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division followed the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade pushing across the Nahr Sukereir at Jisr Isdud, to Hamama. Here they successfully established a bridgehead on the Ottoman right flank. Ample water was found and the bridgehead was enlarged the following day.
#### Mounted advance towards Summil
The Australian Mounted Division, which had left Huj after dark on the night of 9/10 November bound for Tel el Hesi, arrived there at 04:30. They halted until dawn on 10 November when several large pools of good water were found in the wadi. These allowed the horses to drink their fill—some that had missed out on watering before the trek, had been without water for three days and four nights. The division then came up into position on the right. The Anzac Mounted Division reported on the morning of 10 November that the division was "ridden out" and had to halt for water.
Meanwhile, the 12th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) advanced north from Burieh to Al-Faluja arriving at 24:00 on 9/10 November when engineering stores and five burnt out aircraft were captured. The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered at 10:40 on 10 November to threaten the Ottoman force opposing 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the Menshiye–Al Faluja line. Between 08:00 and 10:30, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had occupied the Arak el Menshiye Station while the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Al-Faluja 2 miles (3.2 km) to the north-west.
The Australian Mounted Division was joined a few hours later by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which had left Huj early in the morning. They came up on the right of the Australian Mounted Division and took over Arak el Menshiye extending the line a little further east. By the afternoon of 10 November the whole of the Desert Mounted Corps with the exception of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, (still at Tel el Khuweilfe) were in line from a point a little east of Arak el Menshiye to the sea. Both the Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions reconnoitred the left half of the Ottoman line running from Qastina, roughly through Balin and Barqusya, to the neighbourhood of Bayt Jibrin in the foothills of the Judean Hills.
Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division to move westward to the coast leaving the Australian Mounted Division on the right flank. Neither he nor Hodgson commanding the Australian Mounted Division were aware at that time, that the division was threatened by three or four Ottoman Eighth Army infantry divisions. The 16th and 26th Divisions (XX Corps) and the 53rd Division (XXII Corps) were holding a 6 miles (9.7 km) line between the railway line and Bayt Jibrin, all more or less reorganised and all within striking distance. However, Chauvel's reliance on the steadiness of the Australian Mounted Division was fully justified. With its headquarters at Al-Faluja on 10 and 11 November, the Australian Mounted Division became engaged (during 10 November) in stubborn fighting.
Ottoman trenches had been dug from Summil 4 miles (6.4 km) north of Arak el Menshiye to Zeita, 3 miles (4.8 km) to the north-east, and to the east of the railway line. The three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division ran into this Ottoman rearguard's left flank near the village of Summil. Ottoman forces were advancing from Summil by 12:55 and the 4th Light Horse Brigade was deployed to attack them with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade assisting. At 14:55 patrols reported strong Ottoman positions along the Zeita–Summil–Barqusya line with trenches extending west of Summil village. Two Ottoman guns were seen being placed in a well-sited position with no cover for 3,000 yards (2,700 m) in front, which would require a long dismounted attack. By 15:30 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was approaching Summil when ordered to attack from the north with the 5th Mounted Brigade supported by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade threatening Summil from the west. By 16:30 3rd Light Horse Brigade headquarters were established 870 yards (800 m) south-east of Al-Faluja on the railway line, but owing to darkness at 17:15 the attack was not developed and night battle outpost lines were established at 20:00. By 18:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was holding a line linking to the Anzac Mounted Division at Beit Affen, while the Ottomans were holding a ridge near Barqusya with three cavalry troops, three guns and about 1,500 infantry. The mounted infantry and cavalry brigades were unable to advance further due to intense Ottoman artillery fire which continued throughout the day. However, Summil was occupied unopposed, during the morning of 11 November.
The 4th Light Horse Brigade casualties were one other rank killed, one officer and nine other ranks wounded. These wounded soldiers were probably treated by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance which was in the field a couple of miles past Al-Faluja. The ambulance had itself suffered two casualties when subjected to artillery fire from the hills. But they halted and put up a tent and after dark took in eight more patients all hit by high-explosive shells from the 4th Light Horse Regiment. They were busy until midnight; two seriously wounded soldiers being evacuated to a Casualty Clearing Station and the rest were kept till morning.
> My infantry have, on the coast, got 10 miles N. of Askalon; and my Cavalry, further inland, are ahead of them. The mounted troops took some 15 guns and 700 prisoners yesterday ... This afternoon I went to Khan Yunis and told the head men that they could now go out of the town, to their farms and gardens ... The villagers – some 9000 – have been kept in, by wired enclosures, up to now as the Turks had agents there, and many warm sympathizers.
### Position on 11 November
Allenby decided that an advance on Junction Station could most easily be made from the south-west, by turning the Ottoman Army's right flank on the coast. The 11 and 12 November were days of preparation for battle the following day. The Anzac Mounted Division were resting at Hamama when their supporting Australian Army Service Corps personnel caught up and distributed supplies for man and horse. This task was performed by "B" echelon wagons of brigades' transport and supply sections forming an improvised Anzac Divisional Train. It was here also that the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade rejoined the division at 23:00 on 12 November.
Supplies for the advance were transported over land and by sea but it was only with great difficulty that two infantry divisions of XXI Corps and three mounted divisions of Desert Mounted Corps were maintained in the advance at such distances from base. The Navy transported stores to the mouths of the Wadi Hesi and the Nahr Sukherier as these lines were secured. The railhead was being pushed forward as rapidly as possible, but did not reach Deir Suneid until 28 November. So it was a considerable distance over which the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps worked to bring up supplies.
The Australian Mounted Division occupied Summil unopposed at dawn on 11 November but was unable to advance in the face of gathering opposition from the immediate north-east. Summil had been found deserted at 06:00 by patrols of 3rd Light Horse Brigade (Australian Mounted Division). But by 09:30 the 10th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) reported Ottoman units in strength, holding a high ridge 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north-east of the town. At the same time Ottoman field guns began shelling Summil from a position on high ground about 3 miles (4.8 km) east of the town. Following instructions from Australian Mounted Division received at 14:00, the 10th Light Horse Regiment carried out active patrolling. They made themselves as conspicuous as possible without becoming seriously engaged while the remainder of the division advanced north.
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was ordered to rejoin the Anzac Mounted Division. The brigade left Beersheba at 16:30 on 11 November and made a forced march of 52 miles (84 km). Their Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment, which had been in the front line with the 53rd (Welsh) Division about Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills not far from Hebron, made a forced march of 62 miles (100 km). These treks were estimated to have taken 181⁄2 hours, with a halt to rest and water at Kh. Jemmame early on 12 November. They arrived at Hamama that night at 23:00 some 30 and 1/2 hours later.
### Allenby prepares for battle as Kress counterattacks
The 20 miles (32 km) defensive line, chosen by the Ottoman commanders to rally their 20,000-strong army and stop the invasion, was also designed to protect the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway and the threatened Junction Station. Their choice of position was partly dictated by pressure from the British, Australian, Indian and New Zealand advance, and partly by the terrain. The line north of the Nahr Rubin ran nearly north–south and parallel to, but about 5 miles (8.0 km) to the west of the railway line branching southwards. It ran along a high steep ridge connecting the hillside villages of Al-Maghar and Zernukah (surrounded by cactus hedges) and extended north-westwards to El Kubeibeh. The southern extremity of this ridge commanded the flat country to the west and south-west, for a distance of 2 miles (3.2 km) or more. Prisoners from almost every unit of the Ottoman Army were being captured indicating that rearguards had been driven back in on the main body of the two Ottoman armies. All along their line Ottoman resistance grew noticeably stronger.
The Ottoman line was defended by the Eighth Army's 3rd Division (XXII Corps) to the north, the 7th Division (Eighth Army Reserve) to the east, the 54th Division (XX Corps) near el Mesmiye and the 26th Division (XX Corps) holding Tel es Safi. Erich von Falkenhayn, the overall commander of the Ottoman Armies, had resolved to make a stand in front of Junction Station and succeeded in deploying his forces by the evening of 11 November. He ordered a counterattack against the British right flank which was covered by the Australian Mounted Division. His plan was to overwhelm them, cut their supply lines, outflank and capture all the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's forward units. Originally ordered for 11 November it was postponed until the next day.
Meanwhile, Allenby's plan for 13 November was to turn the right flank of the Ottoman line on the coast despite aircraft and cavalry reconnaissances revealing a considerable Ottoman force further inland on the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's own right flank. He assigned the task of dealing with this immediate threat to the Australian Mounted Division, which was ordered to make as big a demonstration of their operations as possible. This would further focus Ottoman attention away from the coastal sector where the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions would advance northwards to attempt to turn the Ottoman right flank assisted by infantry attacks on the Ottoman right centre the following day.
Allenby's force was deployed with infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division and the 75th Division in the centre, the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank with the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry's left flank. He ordered the 52nd (Lowland) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Ottoman right flank. And, reinforced with two additional brigades, he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Ottoman counterattack.
#### Infantry attack Brown Hill, 12 November
The 52nd (Lowland) Division was to make a preparatory attack near the coast to open the way for the attack on Junction Station the next day. They were to attack north of the Nahr Sukhereir between the villages of Burqa and Yazur with the Yeomanry Mounted Division acting as flank guard. Their objective was an important Ottoman rearguard position which ran from the village of Burqa to Brown Hill. While the village was easily taken it was necessary to make an extremely difficult attack on the steep sided Brown Hill. The hill was topped by a large cairn and commanded a long field of fire over the plain southwards across the Nahr Sukhereir. By the time a battalion of the 156th Brigade, covered by two batteries of the 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery and the South African Field Artillery Brigade of 75th Division, captured the crest it had been reduced to a handful of men. But just 20 minutes after taking Brown Hill the remnants of the Scots battalion (now down to just one officer and about 100 men) was unable to withstand an Ottoman counterattack and was driven off after a fierce struggle at close quarters.
The 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles were then ordered to renew the attack at dusk. Owing to poor light, the artillery was no longer able to give much assistance, but nevertheless the Gurkhas quickly retook the hill with a bayonet charge, suffering 50 casualties, and in the process recovering two Lewis guns. The attacking battalion suffered over 400 killed or wounded, while the defending Ottoman 7th Division must have also suffered heavy casualties; 170 dead Ottoman soldiers were found on the battlefield. The fighting here has been described as equal to the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade's encounter at Sausage Ridge on 8 November. The success of these operations north of the Nahr Sukhereir opened the way for the main attacks the following day, on the Ottoman armies' front line positions.
#### Ottoman counterattack Australian Mounted Division, 12 November
Meanwhile, the Australian Mounted Division advanced in the direction of Tel es Safi to press the left flank of the Ottoman forces as strongly as possible. About 4,000 Australian and British mounted troops of 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades moved northwards in a conspicuous demonstration of aggression. At first it appeared that the Ottoman formations had retired altogether; the 9th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) rode through Barqusya, one troop pressing on to occupy Tel es Safi. The 5th Mounted Brigade also found Balin unoccupied, and rapidly advanced northwards towards Tel es Safi and Kustineh. By 12:00 the Australian Mounted Division was spread over at least 6 miles (9.7 km) facing the north and east when four divisions of the Ottoman 7th Army (about 5,000 soldiers) began their advance southwards from the railway.
The Ottoman infantry divisions began moving south from El Tineh 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Qastina from the Ottoman controlled branch line of the railway line running southwards in the direction of Huj. Here and further north along the railway trains were stopping to allow huge numbers of troops to take to the field. Soon after the 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) was forced to retire from Qastina as Ottoman units occupied the place in strength. Then at 12:00 three separate columns (of all arms) were seen advancing towards Tel es Safi from the north and north-east. Ten minutes later the British Honourable Artillery Company battery opened fire, but was hopelessly out shot, outnumbered, and out ranged by Ottoman guns of greater power and weight.
The approach of the Eighth Ottoman Army's XX Corps (16th, 26th 53rd and 54th Divisions) was at first unknown to the 5th Mounted Brigade in Balin. But at about 13:00 a force estimated at 5,000 Ottoman soldiers suddenly attacked and almost surrounded the mounted brigade. The attack was made by two Ottoman columns, one coming down the track from Junction Station to Tel el Safi and the other by rail to El Tineh Station. It was by far the heaviest counterattack experienced since the break through by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force at Sharia on 7 November. The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and Warwickshire Yeomanry regiments of 5th Mounted Brigade, were pushed back out of Balin before being reinforced by the Worcestershire Yeomanry. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was sent up at a canter from Summil, followed by the remaining two batteries of the Australian Mounted Division. One light horse regiment occupied Berkusie but was forced to retire by an attack from a very strong Ottoman force supported by heavy artillery fire from several batteries. All available troops of the Australian Mounted Division were now engaged and the Ottoman attack continued to be pressed. The counterattack forced the mounted division to concede the territory gained during the day, before fighting the Ottoman Army to a standstill in front of Summil.
The 4th Light Horse Brigade could render no effective aid to the 3rd Light Horse or the 5th Mounted Yeomanry brigades. It was strung out to the west as far as the Dayr Sunayd railway line and was being heavily attacked. Ottoman units managed to advance to within 100 yards (91 m) of the 4th Light Horse Brigade's position; only at the end of the day was this strong Ottoman attack repulsed by machine-gun and rifle fire. Hodgson (commander of the Australian Mounted Division) ordered a slow withdrawal by 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades to high ground on the line Bir Summil–Khurbet Jeladiyeh. The order had only just been given when another Ottoman train was sighted moving to the south. It stopped west of Balin and disgorged a fresh force of Ottoman soldiers who deployed rapidly to advance against the left flank of the 5th Mounted Brigade. Two batteries of Australian Mounted Division were in action on the high ground north-west of Summeil firing on this fresh Ottoman force moving over the open plain in full view of the gunners. The artillery fire was so effective the attacking Ottoman advance was halted, forcing them to fall back a little where they dug trenches. Fighting steadily and withdrawing skilfully, the 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades had reached the edge of Summil village where the Ottoman attack was finally held. The attack ended at 18:00 in darkness.
The Ottoman attackers dug themselves in on a line through Balin and Berkusie while the line taken up by the Australian Mounted Division began with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade facing east on a line running due north from about halfway between Iraq el Menshiye and Summil. The line then turned westward so the 5th Mounted Brigade faced northwards in front of Summil with the 4th Light Horse Brigade to their left in front of Ipseir and connecting with the right of the infantry division; the 75th Division at Suafir esh Sharqiye. A critical situation created by the strong Ottoman attacking forces had been controlled by the coolness and steadiness of the troops, especially the machine-gun squadrons of the 5th Mounted and the 4th Light Horse Brigades. The Australian Mounted Division suffered about 50 casualties mainly from the 5th Mounted Brigade.
To the east von Falkenhayn, held his reserve force of 3rd Cavalry Division (Seventh Army's III Corps) and 19th Division (Eighth Army reserve) in front of Beit Jibrin. They waited throughout the day for the main attack to make progress before beginning their own advance, but the opportunity never eventuated. This powerful Ottoman counterattack had been contained and had not forced any rearrangement of the invading forces, whose preparations and concentration on the plain were now complete. But von Falkenhayn was forced to halt his Seventh Army's attack and then to take away from it the 16th Division plus one regiment.
## Battle
In southern Palestine the wet season was approaching with another thunderstorm and heavy rain on the night of 11 November. The dark cotton soil over which the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was now advancing would not need much more rain to turn it into impassable mud. But 12 November had been fine and the roads had dried out. The rolling maritime plain was dotted with villages on low hill tops surrounded by groves and orchards. These were in turn surrounded by hedges of prickly pear or cactus, making them strong natural places of defence. In the distance to the right the spurs and valleys of the Judean Hills were visible even to the invading British Empire troops near the Mediterranean coast. On 13 November the weather was clear and fine with at first no sign of the Ottoman Army.
The 20,000-strong Ottoman force was deployed to defend the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway along the Wadi al-Sarar and Al-Nabi Rubin. The battlefield was generally cultivated but with winter approaching it was bare and open. Its most prominent feature, the 100-foot (30 m) high ridge which continues north towards Zernukah and El Kubeibeh formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army's 20-mile (32 km) long defensive position. The naturally strong Ottoman line was defended by the Eighth Army's 3rd Division (XXII Corps) to the north, the 7th Division (Eighth Army Reserve) to the east, the 54th Division (XX Corps) near el Mesmiye and the 26th Division (XX Corps) holding Tel es Safi. Benefiting from the terrain two strong defensive positions with commanding views of the countryside were located on the ridge. They were the villages of Qatra and Al-Maghar. These villages were separated by the Wadi Jamus which links the Wadi al-Sarar with the Nahr Rubin.
While the Ottoman counterattack had been in progress on 12 November, Allenby issued orders for the attack on 13 November to the commanders of XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps at the latter's headquarters near Julis. The main attack was to be carried out by the XXI Corps' 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions westwards towards Junction Station between the Gaza road on the right, and El Mughar on the left. On the right flank of the XXI Corps the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades, reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division), the 7th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division) and two cars of the 12th LAM Battery, would attack in line advancing northwards towards Junction Station. The remainder of Desert Mounted Corps; the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions would cover the left flank of XXI Corps, with Yibna as their first objective and Aqir the second. As soon as Junction Station was captured they were to swing north to occupy Ramla and Lod and reconnoitre towards Jaffa.
### In the centre
During the first phase of the attack by infantry in the 75th Division (XXI Corps) were to capture the line Tel el Turmus–Qastina–Yazur and then seize Mesmiye. On their left infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division were to secure the line Yazur–Beshshit and then seize Qatra. After a pause for the artillery to be brought forward, the second phase attacks on the final objectives of Junction Station for the 75th and al-Mansura for the 52nd (Lowland) Divisions were to be made. The first phase was due to start at 08:00 hours on 13 November preceded by one hour's bombardment.
By 10:00 the 2/4th Somerset Light Infantry, 1/5th Devonshire Regiment, 2/5th Hampshire Regiment, 1/4th Wiltshire Regiment, 2/3rd and 3/3rd Gurkha Rifles (from the 232nd and the 233rd Brigades, 75th Division) were advancing along the main road. They occupied the undefended villages of Tall al-Turmus, Qastina and Yazur. The 52nd (Lowland) Division had already occupied Bashshit. The 75th Division proceeded to attack Mesmiye on a lower and southward extension of the ridge on which Qatra and el Mughar were situated with the 52nd (Lowland) Division attacking directly towards these two villages. But these attacks were held up by very strong Ottoman defences.
At Mesmiye the Ottoman Army was strongly posted on high ground in and near the village, and well-sited machine-guns swept all approaches. Infantry in the 75th Division made steady slow progress; the main body of the Ottoman rear guard eventually falling back to a slight ridge 1 mile (1.6 km) to the north-east. The attack by 3/3rd Gurkhas and infantry in the 234th Brigade moved up to Mesmiye el Gharbiye and cleared the place of snipers. One company of 58th Vaughan's Rifles suffered heavy casualties during an Ottoman attack on the flank of infantry in the 233rd Brigade. Towards dusk the final stage of the infantry assault was supported by two troops of 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade), who galloped into action on the infantry's right flank and gave valuable fire support. An infantry frontal attack covered by machine-gun fire drove the Ottoman defenders off the ridge, enabling Mesmiye esh Sherqiye to be occupied soon after. With Ottoman resistance broken infantry in the 75th Division pushed on through Mesmiye where they took 300 prisoners, and although ordered to capture Junction Station they halted short of their objective in darkness.
### On the flanks
The Australian Mounted Division covered the right flank of the infantry divisions. At 10:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade moved forward but was held up by an Ottoman position covering El Tineh. The brigade was ordered at 11:50 to push forward to protect the right of the 233rd Brigade (75th Division) as their attack had succeeded and they advanced to occupy Mesmiye. In order for the 4th Light Horse to move the 7th Mounted Brigade was ordered to relieve them in the line. At 12:00 troops of the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Qazaza 2 miles (3.2 km) south-south-east of Junction Station with the 7th Mounted Brigade on its left then only .5 miles (0.80 km) from the station. By 16:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to push forward to El Tineh as the infantry advance on their left was progressing. It was occupied the following morning.
The Yeomanry Mounted Division, with the Anzac Mounted Division in reserve, covered the infantry's left flank. Yibna was captured by the 8th Mounted Brigade which then advanced northwards against El Kubeibeh and Zernukah. The 22nd Mounted Brigade was held up by Ottoman units defending Aqir while the 6th Mounted Brigade (with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade protecting their northern flank) was directed against el Mughar.
### Charge at El Mughar
At about 11:30 the two leading battalions of the 155th (South Scottish) Brigade (52nd (Lowland) Division) were advancing under heavy shrapnel and machine-gun fire to the shelter of the Wadi Jamus about 600 yards (550 m) from their objective. But every attempt to leave the wadi was stopped by very heavy fire from well placed machine-guns. The reserve battalion was brought up but an attempt to work up the wadi between Qatra and El Mughar was barred by heavy machine-gun fire from the villages. At about 14:30 it was agreed between the GOC 52nd (Lowland) Division and the GOC Yeomanry Mounted Division that the 6th Mounted Brigade should attack El Mughar ridge in combination with a renewed assault on Qatra and El Mughar by the 52nd (Lowland) Division. Half an hour later the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry and the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry, already in the Wadi Jamus, advanced in column of squadrons extended to four paces across 3,000 yards (2.7 km) at first trotting then galloping onto the crest of the ridge. They gained the ridge but the horses were completely exhausted and could not continue the pursuit of the escaping Ottoman units down the far side. The charge cost 16 killed, 114 wounded and 265 horses; 16 per cent of personnel and 33 per cent of horses. However, the Ottoman defenders continued to hold El Mughar village until two squadrons of the Berkshire Yeomanry of the 6th Mounted Brigade fighting dismounted, with two battalions of the 155th (South Scottish) Brigade (52nd (Lowland) Division), renewed the attack. Fighting in the village continued until 17:00 when they succeeded in capturing the two crucial fortified villages of Qatra and El Mughar but at a cost of 500 casualties. Two field guns and 14 machine-guns were captured. The prisoners and dead amounted to 18 officers and 1,078 other ranks and more than 2,000 dead Ottoman soldiers.
## Aftermath
Junction Station was occupied during the morning and during the following days other villages in the area were found to have been abandoned.
Units of the 75th Division supported by several armoured cars occupied Junction Station during the morning of 14 November cutting the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway. Seventeen days of operations virtually without rest, had resulted in an advance of 60 miles (97 km) from Beersheba; major and minor engagements occurring on 13 of those days. Most of the mounted units had covered at least 170 miles (270 km) since 29 October 1917 capturing 5,270 prisoners and over 60 guns and about 50 machine-guns. At Junction Station two train engines and 60 trucks in the station were captured along with an undamaged and fully functioning steam pumping plant which supplied unlimited, easily accessible water. Junction Station, with its branch line running south to El Tineh and extensions southwards towards Beersheba and Gaza was an important centre for both sides' lines of communication.
On 14 November at 06:30 4th Light Horse Brigade entered El Tineh with the rest of the Australian Mounted Division following a couple of hours later. Here good wells containing plenty of water were found but without steam pumps and so watering was not complete until 16:00. The horses had done all that had been asked of them, existing during this time on only 91⁄2 lbs of grain ration (practically no bulk food) and scarce water while all the time carrying about 21 stone (290 lb). That they were able to carry on into the Judean Hills after only a limited period of rest established a remarkable record. Meanwhile, the Australian Mounted Divisional Supply Train followed the fighting units as closely as they could, moving out from Beersheba via Hareira and Gaza on 11 November to Isdud on 14 November; to Mesymie the day after and Junction Station on 16 November.
During 14 November infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions concentrated and reorganised their ranks. The advance was taken over by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which crossed the railway north of Junction Station and the Anzac Mounted Division which pressed the retreating Ottoman Army northwards near the coast.
On 14 November the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (commanded by Brigadier General William Meldrum) ran into a determined and well entrenched Ottoman rearguard near Ayun Kara, which they attacked. Fierce close quarter fighting against the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon. Although severely threatened, the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and went on to occupy Jaffa two days later.
The Anzac Mounted Division had been ordered to cut the road linking Jaffa to Jerusalem by capturing Ramleh and Ludd. This was the only main road from the coast through Ramleh up the Vale of Ajalon to Jerusalem. During the morning Meldrum's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossed the river close to the sand dunes with 1st Light Horse Brigade on its right. By 09:00 El Kubeibeh had been occupied by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade before pushing on towards the Wadi Hunayn. Here Ottoman rearguards were encountered in the orange groves and on the hills between El Kubeibeh and the sand dunes. About noon the 1st Light Horse Brigade drove an Ottoman rearguard from a ridge facing Yibna where the Anzac Mounted Division had bivouacked the night before and occupied the village of Rehovot also called Deiran. At the same time the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade fought off a strongly entrenched rearguard at Ayun Kara. After conceding considerable ground the Ottoman soldiers made a vigorous counterattack but were finally defeated.
### 15–16 November 1917
At midnight on 14 November Falkenhayn ordered a general withdrawal and in the days following the Ottoman Seventh Army fell back into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem while the Eighth Army retreated north of Jaffa across the Nahr el Auja. The Ottoman armies suffered heavily and their subsequent withdrawal resulted in the loss of substantial territory; between 40–60 miles (64–97 km) was invaded by the British north of the old Gaza–Beersheba line. In its wake the two Ottoman armies left behind 10,000 prisoners of war and 100 guns.
The day after the action at Ayun Kara, the 75th Division and the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Latron where the Jaffa to Jerusalem road enters the Judean Hills, while the Anzac Mounted Division occupied Ramleh and Ludd. An Ottoman rearguard above Abu Shusheh blocked the Vale of Ajalon on the right flank of the advance on Ramleh. This rearguard position was charged and overwhelmed by the 6th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division). On 16 November Latron itself was captured and the first British unit to enter Jaffa; the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division) occupied the city, without opposition. They administered Jaffa until representatives of the director of Occupied Enemy Territory arrived. And marking the end of the British Empire's first advance into Palestine, the Ottoman Eighth Army retired to the northern bank of the Auja River some 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Jaffa and the Seventh Army retreated into the Judean Hills. Since the advance from Gaza and Beersheba began very heavy casualties and losses had been inflicted. The invasion had spread 50 miles (80 km) northwards into Ottoman territory while over 10,000 Ottoman prisoners of war and 100 guns had been captured by the victorious Egyptian Expeditionary Force.
### Desert Mounted Corps medical support
The three divisional receiving stations of the Anzac, Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions operated in echelon. As soon as one had evacuated all wounded to the rear, they moved ahead of the other two divisional receiving stations to repeat the process. However, from the beginning there were problems evacuating casualties caused by the lack of linking infrastructure, one receiving station lost all its transport, and the light motor ambulances of another disappeared. The greatest difficulty were of communication and traveling including mechanical breakdowns on the rough roads and tracks which quickly became impassable for motor traffic.
### Advance into Judean Hills
The advance towards Jerusalem began on 19 November and the city was captured during the Battle of Jerusalem on 9 December, three weeks later. |
7,445,620 | Positive Black Soul | 1,169,920,360 | Senegalese hip hop group | [
"Musical groups established in 1989",
"Musicians from Dakar",
"Senegalese hip hop groups"
]
| Positive Black Soul (also known as PBS) is a hip hop group based in Dakar, Senegal, one of the first such collectives in the country. Founded in 1989, the group is composed of Didier Sourou Awadi (alias DJ Awadi) and Amadou Barry (alias Doug E. Tee or Duggy-Tee), both of whom had previously been in other hip hop groups. They perform in the English, French, and Wolof languages and use traditional Senegalese instruments as part of their songs. Political and social activism have played important roles in the group since it was founded.
## History
The two members of Positive Black Soul were born in the city of Dakar, Senegal. As teenagers, Awadi and Barry were involved in the Dakar hip hop scene—Awadi leading his own group, Didier Awadi's Syndicate, a breakdancer as well as a rapper; and Barry performing with the King MCs. Originally Awadi and Barry were rivals, competing with each other in performances and coming from separate neighborhoods of Dakar. During a birthday party held by Awadi to which Barry was invited, however, the two performed together and realized their similarities, founding Positive Black Soul very soon after. Activism and politics are central parts of the group's philosophy—its shortened name (PBS) was a play on the Parti Démocratique Sénégalais initialism "PDS".
In 1992, the group performed at a music festival held by the Dakar French Cultural Center, where the French rapper MC Solaar heard their performance and invited the group to open for him when he debuted in Dakar in October of that year. The rapper was impressed with Positive Black Soul, inviting them to continue performing with him in France. Two years later the group put out its first release, a cassette entitled Boul Falé. The album was followed by more touring in France, as well as in England and Switzerland. In the same year, the Senegalese musician Baaba Maal offered PBS the opportunity to be on his album Firin' in Fouta. Maal was signed to Mango Records and because of this recording with him, Positive Black Soul were signed as well. They released their album debut Salaam on Mango Records. After achieving success in Senegal and some abroad, the group continued touring, including 130 performances in 1997. They also began organizing concerts in Dakar and promoting new groups including Daara J and Pee Froiss.
Positive Black Soul's first international release, New York Paris-Dakar, had been previously released as a cassette in Senegal. However it was only in 1997, six years after its initial appearance, that it was sold outside of the country. The American rapper KRS-One, one of the group's collaborators on the album, shared a similar philosophy and interest in Pan-Africanism with Awadi and Barry.
In 2002, the group appeared on the Red Hot Organization's tribute album to Fela Kuti, Red Hot and Riot. They contributed to a track titled "No Agreement" alongside Res, Tony Allen, Ray Lema, Baaba Maal, and Archie Shepp.
Since about 2002, the group's members have been pursuing solo projects. On August 14, 2009, PBS performed in Dakar for their 20th anniversary effectively ending speculations about whether they have disbanded. Guests at the concert included powerful Senegal music stars such as Youssou Ndour and Ismael Lo.
## Activism
Positive Black Soul has promoted political activity and activism in other areas. The group urged Senegalese people to participate in the country's government and vote in elections. PBS also decries images of Africa in the media, which they view as one-sided. They state: "We want to show the positivity in the black soul. That's our fight. Africa is not only a land of suffering, misery, war and disease. We're proud to live there and we are not suffering." They view their chosen medium of rap as an accessible way to talk about issues such as corruption and politics. AIDS has also been featured in their music: one song, "Écoute Fils" ("Listen Son"), is written about the disease and cautions listeners about its dangers.
## Discography
- Boul Falé (1994)
- Salaam (1995)
- Daw Thiow (1996)
- Wakh Feign (1996)
- New York-Paris-Dakar (1997)
- Revolution (2000)
- Run Cool (2001) |
67,826,963 | Flora Kaai Hayes | 1,100,051,767 | American politician | [
"1893 births",
"1968 deaths",
"20th-century American politicians",
"20th-century American women politicians",
"Hawaii Republicans",
"Kamehameha Schools alumni",
"Members of the Hawaii Territorial Legislature",
"Native Hawaiian women in politics",
"People from Oahu",
"Women territorial legislators in Hawaii"
]
| Flora Kekulalani Kaai Hayes (April 17, 1893 – February 3, 1968) was a Hawaiian-American politician and actor. She served in the Hawaii Territorial House of Representatives for seven terms between 1938 and 1959, representing Oahu as a member of the Hawaii Republican Party. From the 1920s through the early 1930s, Hayes became involved in various Hawaiian organizations. In 1936, she was elected president of the Territory of Hawaii's parent–teacher association (PTA), serving two terms. At the request of John Ford, she stopped in Hollywood while traveling back from a PTA conference in Virginia to play a minor role in the 1937 film The Hurricane.
Hayes first secured a seat as a Territorial Representative in the 1938 election. She served seven terms in the Territorial House of Representatives between 1938 and 1959, in addition to campaigning unsuccessfully to succeed Thelma Akana Harrison in the Territorial Senate in 1952. While in the legislature, she focused on legislation related to schools, parks, and playgrounds. She served as a delegate to the Hawaii Constitutional Convention of 1950, where she ensured that certain areas of land were reserved for Native Hawaiians in the drafted state constitution.
After leaving the legislature, Hayes played a role in the 1961 film Blue Hawaii. Beginning around 1963, she volunteered at Bishop Museum, where she worked with Annie Kanahele to translate letters and documents from Hawaiian to English. She was a candidate for the Hawaii Constitutional Convention of 1968, but died at age 74 in 1968 before the election for delegates was held.
## Early life
Flora Kaai Hayes was born Flora Allen Kaai on April 17, 1893, in Hana, Hawaii. Her father Samuel Webster Kaai, a descendant of Kaʻiana, was a politician and the district judge of Hana. Her mother, Katherine Kahumu Kaai, was a descendant of Keōua. She was the second of her parents' sixteen children and their first daughter. In accordance with Hawaiian tradition, she was sent to live with her maternal grandparents as a child; they lived at Kaupo in a grass hut. Only the Hawaiian language was spoken in her grandparents' home. When she was three years old, she was given a horse; she would later become a proficient equestrian.
After Hayes' grandfather died when she was five years old, she went to live with her immediate family, then living in Kona for her father's health. The family lived on land Kamehameha III gave Hayes' paternal great-great-grandfather during the Great Māhele. During the summers, Liliʻuokalani and her retinue visited the family at their property. Hayes went to public school in Kona, and subsequently attended Kamehameha School for Girls at age 11 and graduating in 1913. While at Kamehameha School, Hayes was punished for her limited skill with the English language and her use of Hawaiian.
In 1914, Hayes married Henry Homer Hayes, a physician employed by the government and working on Molokai. The wedding took place in Kapālama, after which the couple traveled around Hawaii Island by steamship before settling in Pukoo on Molokai. They moved to Honolulu in 1918 with their young son, after which Hayes audited numerous classes at the University of Hawaiʻi with encouragement from her husband. The Hayes family would care for 29 other children, including a family of six orphans whom they fostered until the children became adults. Hayes later cited the presence of helpful girls at home as a factor in the success of her career.
## Early career
In 1922, during a controversy about the perceived immorality of hula, legislation was introduced to outlaw its public performance because of lewdness. Hayes wrote a letter to the editor of The Honolulu Advertiser defending the traditional dance and calling for Hawaiians to support it, so it would not be lost. She argued the real immorality was the "cheek to cheek, bosom to bosom, thigh to thigh dances" seen on passenger steamships and hotel roof gardens. Referring to this letter, a 1978 article in the Advertiser described her as a "Hawaiian activist". The legislation did not pass.
In the 1920s and through the early 1930s, Hayes belonged to various Hawaiian organizations including the Kaʻahumanu Society and the Hawaiian Civic Club. She was a member of the Episcopal Church and represented the Episcopal Diocese of Hawaii at the 1928 National Episcopal Convocation in Washington, D.C., becoming the first Hawaiian delegate to attend.
Hayes was involved with the Territory of Hawaii's parent–teacher association (PTA), becoming its president in 1936 serving two terms in before resigning in 1942. While president of the PTA, she visited every public school in Hawaii and initiated new chapters of the organization, and frequently testified at hearings in the Territorial Legislature. Director John Ford wanted her to play a major role in the 1937 movie The Hurricane, but she was on her way to attend a national PTA convention in Richmond, Virginia. There she gave a presentation about harmony between races in the public schools of Hawaii. Later, however, on her way back to Hawaii she stopped in Hollywood for five weeks and played a minor part in the film as Mama Rua.
## Career in politics
Hayes was urged to run for a seat in the Hawaii Territorial Legislature because of her political activity as PTA president. She won a seat in the 4th District of the Territorial House of Representatives as a Republican in the 1938 election. She became the second Oahu woman elected to the Hawaii Territorial Legislature and the first to the Territorial House. She subsequently campaigned for the Territorial Senate in 1940, but despite being endorsed by the Honolulu Star-Bulletin, she was not elected. She campaigned for re-election to her 4th District seat in the Territorial House in 1942. This time, she was elected and held the seat uninterrupted until 1952.
In 1952, after being endorsed by outgoing senator Thelma Akana Harrison, Hayes began a campaign to pursue Harrison's vacated seat in the Territorial Senate . She was not elected to the Senate in the 1952 election; the three available seats from Oahu went to Herbert K. H. Lee, Joe Itagaki, and Ben F. Dillingham. She worked subsequently as the administrative assistant of the Hawaiian Homes Commission. In 1956, she campaigned unsuccessfully again to represent the 4th District in the Territorial House. Hayes retired from her position on the Hawaiian Homes Commission in 1958 and was elected to her seventh term in the Territorial House, representing Pauoa. She was a candidate to represent the same district in the State House of Representatives in 1959, and succeeded in the primary election. Despite this success, she was not elected to the position.
### Legislative activity
Hayes chaired the Education Committee during each term she served in the Territorial House. A supporter of Hawaii statehood, she was appointed to the Hawaii Statehood Commission in 1947; she chaired the Hawaiian Homes Commission in 1949, and was a delegate to the Hawaii Constitutional Convention of 1950. There she ensured a section reserving certain areas of land for Native Hawaiians was included in the drafted state constitution. The draft was adopted officially upon Hawaii's statehood in 1959.
While in the legislature, Hayes focused on legislation related to schools, parks, and playgrounds and welfare and the budget, giving some people the mistaken impression that she was a teacher. The Honolulu Advertiser reported that her proudest political achievement was the passage of legislation that established kindergartens in Hawaii's public schools. She also supported the establishment of a standardized salary system under which public school teachers were paid based on professional experience rather than the grade level they taught, as well as backing a bill that issued a bond of \$1,500,000 to pay for land and buildings for public schools over the next 20 years.
## Outside the legislature
Hayes served in various positions outside the Hawaii Territorial Legislature, including:
- Alumni association president, Kamehameha Schools
- Hawaiian congregation president, St. Andrew's Cathedral
- National Episcopal Convocation delegate, Episcopal Diocese of Hawaii
- United Thank Offering treasurer, Episcopal Church
- President, Hawaii Congress of Parents and Teachers
- President, Hawaiian Civic Club
- Recreation commission member, City and County of Honolulu
- Welfare board member, City and County of Honolulu
- Member, Native Sons and Daughters of Hawaii
- President, Hawaii State Federation of Women's Republican clubs
- Vice chairperson, World Brotherhood Hawaii chapter
## Later life
After the death of Princess Abigail Kawānanakoa in 1945, the Kalakaua Torah was given to Hayes for safekeeping. Following her death in 1968, she left it to her son, Homer A. Hayes. Homer told Temple Emanu-El member Samuel Landau about the scroll in 1972, and it eventually passed into the Temple's ownership.
Hayes was chosen to play Elvis Presley's grandmother-in-law in the 1961 film Blue Hawaii. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin described the role as "the meatiest part handed out to Islanders". She was selected for the role after she was recognized by a member of the production staff who had worked on The Hurricane, the 1937 film in which Hayes had also played a role.
Around 1963, Hayes began volunteering with Annie Kanahele as a translator for the Bishop Museum, and they translated letters between aliʻi (hereditary nobility) as well as government documents. Hayes would read the letters aloud in Hawaiian, and Kanahele would transcribe them into English. Hayes received an award in 1965 from the National Society of Arts and Letters in recognition of her translation work.
Hayes announced her candidacy as a delegate for the Hawaii Constitutional Convention of 1968 in December 1967. However, she died on February 3, 1968, at The Queen's Medical Center in Honolulu at age 74 before the election for convention delegates.
## Filmography
- The Hurricane (1937), Mama Rua
- Blue Hawaii (1961), Elvis Presley's grandmother-in-law |
194,161 | Harlech Castle | 1,165,839,799 | Castle in Harlech, Gwynedd, Wales | [
"Buildings and structures completed in 1289",
"Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd",
"Castles in Gwynedd",
"Grade I listed buildings in Gwynedd",
"Grade I listed castles in Wales",
"Harlech",
"Hill castles",
"Sieges",
"World Heritage Sites in Wales"
]
| Harlech Castle (Welsh: Castell Harlech; ) in Harlech, Gwynedd, Wales, is a Grade I listed medieval fortification built onto a rocky knoll close to the Irish Sea. It was built by Edward I during his invasion of Wales between 1282 and 1289 at the relatively modest cost of £8,190. Over the next few centuries, the castle played an important part in several wars, withstanding the siege of Madog ap Llywelyn between 1294 and 1295, but falling to Prince Owain Glyndŵr in 1404. It then became Glyndŵr's residence and military headquarters for the remainder of the uprising until being recaptured by English forces in 1409. During the 15th century Wars of the Roses, Harlech was held by the Lancastrians for seven years, before Yorkist troops forced its surrender in 1468, a siege memorialised in the song "Men of Harlech". Following the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, the castle was held by forces loyal to Charles I, holding out until 1647 when it became the last fortification to surrender to the Parliamentary armies. In the 21st century the ruined castle is managed by Cadw, the Welsh Government's historic environment service, as a tourist attraction.
UNESCO considers Harlech, with three others at Beaumaris, Conwy, Caernarfon, to be one of "the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe", and it is classed as a World Heritage Site. The fortification is built of local stone and concentric in design, featuring a massive gatehouse that probably once provided high-status accommodation for the castle constable and visiting dignitaries. The sea originally came much closer to Harlech than in modern times, and a water-gate and a long flight of steps leads down from the castle to the former shore, which allowed the castle to be resupplied by sea during sieges. In keeping with Edward's other castles in the north of Wales, the architecture of Harlech has close links to that found in the County of Savoy during the same period, an influence probably derived from the Savoy origins of the main architect, James of Saint George.
## History
### 13th–14th centuries
In local mythology, the site of Harlech Castle in North Wales is associated with the legend of Branwen, a Welsh princess, but there is no evidence for a native Welsh fortification having been built there. The kings of England and the Welsh princes had vied for control of North Wales since the 1070s and the conflict was renewed during the 13th century, leading to Edward I intervening in North Wales for the second time during his reign in 1282. Edward invaded with a huge army, pushing north from Carmarthen and westwards from Montgomery and Chester. English forces advanced down the Conwy valley and through Dolwyddelan and Castell y Bere, onto Harlech, which Sir Otton de Grandson took with 560 infantry in May.
Edward ordered the construction of a castle at Harlech, one of seven built across North Wales in the wake of the 1282 campaign. Money to pay for the initial phase arrived in mid-May and carpenters and 35 stonemasons were dispatched in June and July to commence work. By the winter of 1283, the first 15 feet (4.6 m) of the inner walls had been constructed, allowing the castle to be defended in the event of an attack, and a small, planned town had been founded alongside the castle. John de Bonvillars was appointed the constable of the castle in 1285; after his death in 1287 his wife, Agnes, took up the role until 1290.
Construction continued under the overall direction of James of Saint George, a Savoy architect and military engineer. In 1286, at the height of the construction, the workforce comprised 546 general labourers, 115 quarriers, 30 blacksmiths, 22 carpenters and 227 stonemasons, and the project was costing nearly £240 a month. The castle was essentially complete by the end of 1289, having cost an estimated £8,190, around 10 percent of the £80,000 that Edward spent on castle-building in Wales between 1277 and 1304.
Harlech was established with a garrison of 36 men: a constable, 30 men, including 10 crossbowmen, a chaplain, a smith, carpenter and stonemason, and Master James was rewarded by being made the constable of Harlech from 1290 to 1293. In 1294, Madog ap Llywelyn began an uprising against English rule that spread quickly through Wales. Several English-held towns were razed and Harlech, along with Criccieth Castle and Aberystwyth Castle, were besieged that winter. Fresh supplies were sent from Ireland by sea, arriving via Harlech's water gate, and the uprising was quashed. In the aftermath of the revolt, additional defences were built around the route down to the sea. Further work was undertaken between 1323 and 1324, following the Despenser War; Edward II was threatened in the region by the Mortimer Marcher Lord family, and ordered his sheriff, Sir Gruffudd Llwyd, to extend the defences leading up to the gatehouse with additional towers.
### 15th–17th centuries
In 1400 a revolt broke out in North Wales against English rule, led by Owain Glyndŵr. By 1403 only a handful of castles, including Harlech, still stood against the rebels, but the castle was under-equipped and under-staffed to withstand a siege, the garrison having just three shields, eight helmets, six lances, ten pairs of gloves, and four guns. At the end of 1404, the castle fell to Glyndŵr. Harlech became his residence, family home and military headquarters for four years; he held his second parliament in Harlech in August 1405. In 1408 English forces under the command of the future Henry V placed Harlech and its commander, Edmund Mortimer, under siege, conducting a bombardment with cannon, probably destroying the south and east parts of the outer walls. When this failed to take the castle, Henry left John Talbot in charge of the siege and moved on to deal with Aberystwyth Castle. Supplies finally ran short, Mortimer and many of his men died of exhaustion, and Harlech fell in February 1409.
In the 15th century, Harlech was involved in the series of civil wars now known as the Wars of the Roses that broke out between the rival factions of the House of Lancaster and House of York. In 1460, following the Battle of Northampton, Queen Margaret of Anjou fled to the castle and between 1461 and 1468 it was held by her Lancastrian supporters, under the command of Dafydd ap Ieuan, against the Yorkist Edward IV. Thanks to its natural defences and the supply route by sea, Harlech held out and as other fortresses fell, eventually became the last major stronghold still under Lancastrian control. The castle became a base for their operations across the region: there were planned operations in 1464, Sir Richard Tunstall mounted attacks from Harlech in 1466 and Jasper Tudor landed there with French reinforcements in 1468, before then raiding the town of Denbigh. Tudor's arrival caused Edward IV to order William Herbert to mobilise an army, possibly up to 10,000 strong, to finally seize the castle. After a month's siege, the small garrison surrendered on 14 August. This siege is credited with inspiring the song Men of Harlech.
The English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and the supporters of Parliament. Harlech apparently had not been repaired following the 1468 siege, and had become completely dilapidated, with the exception of the gatehouse, which was used for the local assizes. In 1644 Prince Rupert appointed a local Royalist, Colonel William Owen, as the castle's constable, and Owen was entrusted with repairing the fortifications. A long siege ensued from June 1646 until 15 March 1647, when the garrison of 44 men surrendered to Major-General Thomas Mytton. The castle was the last mainland royal fortress to surrender in the war, and the date marked the end of the first phase of the war. The castle was no longer required for the security of North Wales and, to prevent any further use by the Royalists, Parliament ordered its slighting, or destruction. The orders were only partially carried out, however, and the gatehouse staircases were destroyed and the castle rendered generally unusable, but it was not totally demolished. Stone from the castle was reused to build houses in the local town.
### 18th–21st centuries
In the late-18th and 19th centuries, the picturesque ruins of Harlech began to attract visits from prominent artists, including John Cotman, Henry Gastineau, Paul Sandby, J. M. W. Turner and John Varley. In 1914 it was transferred from the Merioneth Crown Estate to the control of the Office of Works, who commenced a major restoration project after the end of World War I. In 1969 the castle was transferred to the Welsh Office and then to Cadw, who manage the property in the 21st century as a tourist attraction. Harlech was declared part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site in 1986, UNESCO considering Harlech one of "the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe".
## Architecture
Harlech Castle rests upon part of the Harlech Dome, a spur of rock almost 200 feet (61 m) high; the land falls away sharply on the north and west, and a ditch cut into the rock protects the remaining approaches to the castle. The castle has a concentric design, with one line of defences enclosed by another, forming an inner and outer ward; the outer wall was originally somewhat taller than today. Harlech is built from local grey-green sandstone, with large, regular blocks used for the towers and irregular material, possibly taken from the ditch, used for the walls. A softer yellow sandstone is used for the decorative work in the castle, possibly quarried from around Egryn Abbey near Barmouth.
The main entrance to the castle would have involved crossing a stone bridge between the two easterly ditch bridge towers and the main gatehouse; little remains of the bridge towers today and a timber entrance way to the gatehouse replaces the bridge. A water gate overlooks a protected stairway of 127 steps that runs down to the foot of the cliffs. In the 13th century, the sea came up close to the stairway, allowing resupply by sea, but today the sea has retreated significantly, making it more difficult to envisage the concept in its original setting.
The gatehouse follows the design, sometimes termed the Tonbridge-style, that became popular during the 13th century, with two massive "D-shaped" defensive towers flanking the entrance. The passage into the castle was guarded by three portcullises and at least two heavy doors. The gatehouse has two upper floors, broken up into various rooms. Each floor has three large windows overlooking the inner ward; the second floor has two additional grand windows on the sides of the gatehouse; the gatehouse was fitted with fireplaces and would originally have had prominent chimneys. The use of these rooms has been the subject of academic debate: historian Arnold Taylor argued that the first floor of the gatehouse was used by the constable as living accommodation, with the second floor used by senior visitors; Jeremy Ashbee has since challenged this interpretation, suggesting the high status accommodation may instead have been in the inner ward, and the gatehouse used for other purposes.
The inner ward is guarded by four large circular towers. Over time these acquired various names: in 1343, clockwise from the north-east, they were called Le Prisontour, Turris Ultra Gardinium, Le Wedercoktour and Le Chapeltour, but by 1564 they had been renamed the Debtors', Mortimer, Bronwen and Armourer's Towers respectively. Le Prisontour incorporated a dungeon and the Le Chapeltour may have contained an artillery workshop in the 16th century. Several ranges of buildings were built around the inner ward, including a chapel, kitchen, service buildings, a granary and a great hall. The battlements may originally have been built with triple finials in a similar fashion to Conwy, although little remains of these in the modern era.
The architecture of Harlech has close links to that found in the Savoy in the same period. These include semi-circular door arches, window styles, corbelled towers and positioning of putlog holes, and are usually ascribed to the influence of the Savoy architect Master James. The links between the Harlech and Savoy are not straightforward, however, as in some cases the relevant Savoy structures were built after James had left the region. The similarity in architectural details may, therefore, be the result of the wider role played by Savoy craftsmen and engineers on the Harlech project.
## Gallery
## See also
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in Wales |
31,540,748 | High Seas Fleet | 1,157,922,247 | Imperial German Navy fleet | [
"Military units and formations established in 1907",
"Military units and formations of the Imperial German Navy",
"Naval fleets",
"Naval units and formations of Germany in World War I"
]
| The High Seas Fleet (Hochseeflotte) was the battle fleet of the German Imperial Navy and saw action during the First World War. The formation was created in February 1907, when the Home Fleet (Heimatflotte) was renamed as the High Seas Fleet. Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was the architect of the fleet; he envisioned a force powerful enough to challenge the Royal Navy's predominance. Kaiser Wilhelm II, the German Emperor, championed the fleet as the instrument by which he would seize overseas possessions and make Germany a global power. By concentrating a powerful battle fleet in the North Sea while the Royal Navy was required to disperse its forces around the British Empire, Tirpitz believed Germany could achieve a balance of force that could seriously damage British naval hegemony. This was the heart of Tirpitz's "Risk Theory", which held that Britain would not challenge Germany if the latter's fleet posed such a significant threat to its own.
The primary component of the Fleet was its battleships, typically organized in eight-ship squadrons, though it also contained various other formations, including the I Scouting Group. At its creation in 1907, the High Seas Fleet consisted of two squadrons of battleships, and by 1914, a third squadron had been added. The dreadnought revolution in 1906 greatly affected the composition of the fleet; the twenty-four pre-dreadnoughts in the fleet were rendered obsolete and required replacement. Enough dreadnoughts for two full squadrons were completed by the outbreak of war in mid-1914; the eight most modern pre-dreadnoughts were used to constitute a third squadron. Two additional squadrons of older vessels were mobilized but later disbanded.
The fleet conducted a series of sorties into the North Sea during the war, designed to lure out an isolated portion of the numerically superior British Grand Fleet. These operations frequently used the fast battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group to raid the British coast as the bait for the Royal Navy. These operations culminated in the Battle of Jutland, on 31 May–1 June 1916, where the High Seas Fleet confronted the whole of the Grand Fleet. The battle was inconclusive, but the British won strategically, as it convinced Admiral Reinhard Scheer, the German fleet commander, that even a highly favorable outcome to a fleet action would not secure German victory in the war. Scheer and other leading admirals therefore advised the Kaiser to order a resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. The primary responsibility of the High Seas Fleet in 1917 and 1918 was to secure the German naval bases in the North Sea for U-boat operations. Nevertheless, the fleet continued to conduct sorties into the North Sea and detached units for special operations in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Baltic Fleet. Following the German defeat in November 1918, the Allies interned the bulk of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow, where it was ultimately scuttled by its crews in June 1919, days before the belligerents signed the Treaty of Versailles.
## Creation
In 1898, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz became the State Secretary for the Imperial Navy Office (Reichsmarineamt—RMA); Tirpitz was an ardent supporter of naval expansion. During a speech in support of the First Naval Law on 6 December 1897, Tirpitz stated that the navy was "a question of survival" for Germany. He also viewed Great Britain, with its powerful Royal Navy, as the primary threat to Germany. In a discussion with the Kaiser during his first month in his post as State Secretary, he stated that "for Germany the most dangerous naval enemy at present is England." Tirpitz theorized that an attacking fleet would require a 33 percent advantage in strength to achieve victory, and so decided that a 2:3 ratio would be required for the German navy. For a final total of 60 German battleships, Britain would be required to build 90 to meet the 2:3 ratio envisioned by Tirpitz.
The Royal Navy's "two-power standard", first formulated in the Naval Defence Act of 1889, required a larger fleet than those of the next two largest naval powers combined. The crux of Tirpitz's "risk theory" was that by building a fleet to the 2:3 ratio, Germany would be strong enough that even in the event of a British naval victory, the Royal Navy would incur damage so serious as to allow the third-ranked naval power to rise to preeminence. Implicit in Tirpitz's theory was the assumption that the British would adopt an offensive strategy that would allow the Germans to use mines and submarines to even the numerical odds before fighting a decisive battle between Heligoland and the Thames. Tirpitz believed Germany would emerge victorious from a naval struggle with Britain, as he believed Germany to possess superior ships operated by better-trained crews, more effective tactics, and led by more capable officers.
In his first program, Tirpitz envisioned a fleet of nineteen battleships, divided into two eight-ship squadrons, one ship as a flagship, and two in reserve. The squadrons were further divided into four-ship divisions. This would be supported by the eight Siegfried- and Odin classes of coastal defense ships, six large and eighteen small cruisers, and twelve divisions of torpedo boats, all assigned to the Home Fleet (Heimatflotte). This fleet was secured by the First Naval Law, which passed in the Reichstag on 28 March 1898. Construction of the fleet was to be complete by 1 April 1904. Rising international tensions, particularly as a result of the outbreak of the Boer War in South Africa and the Boxer Uprising in China, allowed Tirpitz to push through an expanded fleet plan in 1900. The Second Naval Law was passed on 14 June 1900; it doubled the size of the fleet to 38 battleships and 20 large and 38 small cruisers. Tirpitz planned an even larger fleet. As early as September 1899, he had informed the Kaiser that he sought at least 45 battleships, and potentially might secure a third double-squadron, for a total of 48 battleships.
### Naval arms race
During the initial period of German naval expansion, Britain did not feel particularly threatened. The Lords of the Admiralty felt the implications of the Second Naval Law were not a significantly more dangerous threat than the fleet set by the First Naval Law; they believed it was more important to focus on the practical situation rather than speculation on future programs that might easily be reduced or cut entirely. Segments of the British public, however, quickly seized on the perceived threat posed by the German construction programs. Despite their dismissive reaction, the Admiralty resolved to surpass German battleship construction. Admiral John Fisher, who became the First Sea Lord and head of the Admiralty in 1904, introduced sweeping reforms in large part to counter the growing threat posed by the expanding German fleet. Training programs were modernized, old and obsolete vessels were discarded, and the scattered squadrons of battleships were consolidated into four main fleets, three of which were based in Europe. Britain also made a series of diplomatic arrangements, including an alliance with Japan that allowed a greater concentration of British battleships in the North Sea.
Fisher's reforms caused serious problems for Tirpitz's plans; he counted on a dispersal of British naval forces early in a conflict that would allow Germany's smaller but more concentrated fleet to achieve a local superiority. Tirpitz could also no longer depend on the higher level of training in both the German officer corps and the enlisted ranks, nor the superiority of the more modern and homogenized German squadrons over the heterogeneous British fleet. In 1904, Britain signed the Entente cordiale with France, Britain's primary naval rival. The destruction of two Russian fleets during the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 further strengthened Britain's position, as it removed the second of her two traditional naval rivals. These developments allowed Britain to discard the "two power standard" and focus solely on out-building Germany. In October 1906, Admiral Fisher stated "our only probable enemy is Germany. Germany keeps her whole Fleet always concentrated within a few hours of England. We must therefore keep a Fleet twice as powerful concentrated within a few hours of Germany."
The most damaging blow to Tirpitz's plan came with the launch of HMS Dreadnought in February 1906. The new battleship, armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch (30 cm) guns, was considerably more powerful than any battleship afloat. Ships capable of battle with Dreadnought would need to be significantly larger than the old pre-dreadnoughts, which increased their cost and necessitated expensive dredging of canals and harbors to accommodate them. The German naval budget was already stretched thin; without new funding, Tirpitz would have to abandon his challenge to Britain. As a result, Tirpitz went before the Reichstag in May 1906 with a request for additional funding. The First Amendment to the Second Naval Law was passed on 19 May and appropriated funding for the new battleships, as well as for the dredging required by their increased size.
The Reichstag passed a second amendment to the Naval Law in March 1908 to provide an additional billion marks to cope with the growing cost of the latest battleships. The law also reduced the service life of all battleships from 25 to 20 years, which allowed Tirpitz to push for the replacement of older vessels earlier. A third and final amendment was passed in May 1912 represented a compromise between Tirpitz and moderates in parliament. The amendment authorized three new battleships and two light cruisers. The amendment called for the High Seas Fleet to be equipped with three squadrons of eight battleships each, one squadron of eight battlecruisers, and eighteen light cruisers. Two 8-ship squadrons would be placed in reserve, along with two armored and twelve light cruisers. By the outbreak of war in August 1914, only one eight-ship squadron of dreadnoughts—the I Battle Squadron—had been assembled with the Nassau and Helgoland-class battleships. The second squadron of dreadnoughts—the III Battle Squadron—which included four of the Kaiser-class battleships, was only completed when the four König-class battleships entered service by early 1915. As a result, the third squadron—the II Battle Squadron remained composed of pre-dreadnoughts through 1916.
Before the 1912 naval law was passed, Britain and Germany attempted to reach a compromise with the Haldane Mission, led by the British War Minister Richard Haldane. The arms reduction mission ended in failure, however, and the 1912 law was announced shortly thereafter. The Germans were aware at as early as 1911, the Royal Navy had abandoned the idea of a decisive battle with the German fleet, in favor of a distant blockade at the entrances to the North Sea, which the British could easily control due to their geographical position. There emerged the distinct possibility that the German fleet would be unable to force a battle on its own terms, which would render it militarily useless. When the war came in 1914, the British did in fact adopt this strategy. Coupled with the restrictive orders of the Kaiser, who preferred to keep the fleet intact to be used as a bargaining chip in the peace settlements, the ability of the High Seas Fleet to affect the military situation was markedly reduced.
## Strategy
The German Navy's pre-war planning held that the British would be compelled to mount either a direct attack on the German coast to defeat the High Seas Fleet, or to put in place a close blockade. Either course of action would permit the Germans to whittle away at the numerical superiority of the Grand Fleet with submarines and torpedo boats. Once a rough equality of forces could be achieved, the High Seas Fleet would be able to attack and destroy the British fleet. Implicit in Tirpitz's strategy was the assumption that German vessels were better-designed, had better-trained crews, and would be employed with superior tactics. In addition, Tirpitz assumed that Britain would not be able to concentrate its fleet in the North Sea, owing to the demands of its global empire. At the start of a conflict between the two powers, the Germans would therefore be able to attack the Royal Navy with local superiority.
The British, however, did not accommodate Tirpitz's projections; from his appointment as the First Sea Lord in 1904, Fisher began a major reorganization of the Royal Navy. He concentrated British battleship strength in home waters, launched the Dreadnought revolution, and introduced rigorous training for the fleet personnel. In 1912, the British concluded a joint defense agreement with France that allowed the British to concentrate in the North Sea while the French defended the Mediterranean. Worse still, the British began developing the strategy of the distant blockade of Germany starting in 1904; this removed the ability of German light craft to reduce Britain's superiority in numbers and essentially invalidated German naval planning before the start of World War I.
## Logistics and personnel
The primary base for the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea was Wilhelmshaven on the western side of the Jade Bight; the port of Cuxhaven, located on the mouth of the Elbe, was also a major base in the North Sea. The island of Heligoland provided a fortified forward position in the German Bight. Kiel was the most important base in the Baltic, which supported the forward bases at Pillau and Danzig. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal through Schleswig-Holstein connected the Baltic and North Seas and allowed the German Navy to quickly shift naval forces between the two seas. In peacetime, all ships on active duty in the High Seas Fleet were stationed in Wilhelmshaven, Kiel, or Danzig. Germany possessed only one major overseas base, at Jiaozhou in China, where the East Asia Squadron was stationed.
Steam ships of the period, which burned coal to fire their boilers, were naturally tied to coaling stations in friendly ports. The German Navy lacked sufficient overseas bases for sustained operations, even for single ships operating as commerce raiders. The Navy experimented with a device to transfer coal from colliers to warships while underway in 1907, though the practice was not put into general use. Nevertheless, German capital ships had a cruising range of at least 4,000 nmi (7,400 km; 4,600 mi), more than enough to operate in the Atlantic Ocean.
In 1897, the year Tirpitz came to his position as State Secretary of the Navy Office, the Imperial Navy consisted of a total of around 26,000 officers, petty officers, and enlisted men of various ranks, branches, and positions. By the outbreak of war in 1914, this had increased significantly to about 80,000 officers, petty officers, and men. Capital ships were typically commanded by a Kapitän zur See (Captain at Sea) or Korvettenkapitän (corvette captain). Each of these ships typically had a total crew in excess of 1,000 officers and men; the light cruisers that screened for the fleet had crew sizes between 300 and 550. The fleet torpedo boats had crews of about 80 to 100 officers and men, though some later classes approached 200.
## History
In early 1907, enough battleships—of the Braunschweig and Deutschland classes—had been constructed to allow for the creation of a second full squadron. On 16 February 1907, Kaiser Wilhelm renamed the Home Fleet the High Seas Fleet. Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia, Wilhelm II's brother, became the first commander of the High Seas Fleet; his flagship was SMS Deutschland. While on a peacetime footing, the Fleet conducted a routine pattern of training exercises, with individual ships, with squadrons, and with the combined fleet, throughout the year. The entire fleet conducted several cruises into the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea. Prince Henry was replaced in late 1909 by Vice Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff, who served until April 1913. Vice Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl, who would command the High Seas Fleet in the first months of World War I, took command following the departure of Vice Admiral von Holtzendorff. SMS Friedrich der Grosse replaced Deutschland as the fleet flagship on 2 March 1913.
Despite the rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June, the High Seas Fleet began its summer cruise to Norway on 13 July. During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy, the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July. The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany, as a result of Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia. On the 27th, the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skudenes before returning to port, where the ships remained at a heightened state of readiness. War between Austria-Hungary and Serbia broke out the following day, and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict.
### World War I
The High Seas Fleet conducted a number of sweeps and advances into the North Sea. The first occurred on 2–3 November 1914, though no British forces were encountered. Admiral von Ingenohl, the commander of the High Seas Fleet, adopted a strategy in which the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper's I Scouting Group raided British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet. The raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby on 15–16 December 1914 was the first such operation. On the evening of 15 December, the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre-dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships. However, skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet. Under orders from the Kaiser to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily, von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the fleet back toward Germany.
Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, the Kaiser removed Admiral von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February. Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet. Admiral von Pohl conducted a series of fleet advances in 1915; in the first one on 29–30 March, the fleet steamed out to the north of Terschelling and returned without incident. Another followed on 17–18 April, where the fleet covered a mining operation by the II Scouting Group. Three days later, on 21–22 April, the High Seas Fleet advanced towards the Dogger Bank, though again failed to meet any British forces. Another sortie followed on 29–30 May, during which the fleet advanced as far as Schiermonnikoog before being forced to turn back by inclement weather. On 10 August, the fleet steamed to the north of Heligoland to cover the return of the auxiliary cruiser Meteor. A month later, on 11–12 September, the fleet covered another mine-laying operation off the Swarte Bank. The last operation of the year, conducted on 23–24 October, was an advance without result in the direction of Horns Reef.
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became Commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill to continue in that post. Scheer favored a much more aggressive policy than that of his predecessor, and advocated greater usage of U-boats and zeppelins in coordinated attacks on the Grand Fleet; Scheer received approval from the Kaiser in February 1916 to carry out his intentions. Scheer ordered the fleet on sweeps of the North Sea on 26 March, 2–3 April, and 21–22 April. The battlecruisers conducted another raid on the English coast on 24–25 April, during which the fleet provided distant support. Scheer planned another raid for mid-May, but the battlecruiser Seydlitz had struck a mine during the previous raid and the repair work forced the operation to be pushed back until the end of the month.
#### Battle of Jutland
Admiral Scheer's fleet, composed of 16 dreadnoughts, six pre-dreadnoughts, six light cruisers, and 31 torpedo boats departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May. The fleet sailed in concert with Hipper's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats. The Royal Navy's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation. The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet, totaling some 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers, to sortie the night before in order to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet.
At 16:00 UTC, the two battlecruiser forces encountered each other and began a running gun fight south, back towards Scheer's battle fleet. Upon reaching the High Seas Fleet, Vice Admiral David Beatty's battlecruisers turned back to the north to lure the Germans towards the rapidly approaching Grand Fleet, under the command of Admiral John Jellicoe. During the run to the north, Scheer's leading ships engaged the Queen Elizabeth-class battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron. By 18:30, the Grand Fleet had arrived on the scene, and was deployed into a position that would cross Scheer's "T" from the northeast. To extricate his fleet from this precarious position, Scheer ordered a 16-point turn to the south-west. At 18:55, Scheer decided to conduct another 16-point turn to launch an attack on the British fleet.
This maneuver again put Scheer in a dangerous position; Jellicoe had turned his fleet south and again crossed Scheer's "T". A third 16-point turn followed; Hipper's mauled battlecruisers charged the British line to cover the retreat. Scheer then ordered the fleet to adopt the night cruising formation, which was completed by 23:40. A series of ferocious engagements between Scheer's battleships and Jellicoe's destroyer screen ensued, though the Germans managed to punch their way through the destroyers and make for Horns Reef. The High Seas Fleet reached the Jade between 13:00 and 14:45 on 1 June; Scheer ordered the undamaged battleships of the I Battle Squadron to take up defensive positions in the Jade roadstead while the Kaiser-class battleships were to maintain a state of readiness just outside Wilhelmshaven. The High Seas Fleet had sunk more British vessels than the Grand Fleet had sunk German, though Scheer's leading battleships had taken a terrible hammering. Several capital ships, including SMS König, which had been the first vessel in the line, and most of the battlecruisers, were in drydock for extensive repairs for at least two months. On 1 June, the British had twenty-four capital ships in fighting condition, compared to only ten German warships.
#### Subsequent operations
By August, enough warships had been repaired to allow Scheer to undertake another fleet operation on 18–19 August. Due to the serious damage incurred by Seydlitz and SMS Derfflinger and the loss of SMS Lützow at Jutland, the only battlecruisers available for the operation were SMS Von der Tann and SMS Moltke, which were joined by SMS Markgraf, SMS Grosser Kurfürst, and the new battleship SMS Bayern. Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area. As a result, the bombardment was not carried out, and by 14:35, Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports. Another fleet sortie took place on 18–19 October 1916 to attack enemy shipping east of Dogger Bank. Despite being forewarned by signal intelligence, the Grand Fleet did not attempt to intercept. The operation was however cancelled due to poor weather after the cruiser München was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E38. The fleet was reorganized on 1 December; the four König-class battleships remained in the III Squadron, along with the newly commissioned Bayern, while the five Kaiser-class ships were transferred to the IV Squadron. In March 1917 the new battleship Baden, built to serve as fleet flagship, entered service; on the 17th, Scheer hauled down his flag from Friedrich der Grosse and transferred it to Baden.
The war, now in its fourth year, was by 1917 taking its toll on the crews of the ships of the High Seas Fleet. Acts of passive resistance, such as the posting of anti-war slogans in the battleships SMS Oldenburg and SMS Posen in January 1917, began to appear. In June and July, the crews began to conduct more active forms of resistance. These activities included work refusals, hunger strikes, and taking unauthorized leave from their ships. The disruptions came to a head in August, when a series of protests, anti-war speeches, and demonstrations resulted in the arrest of dozens of sailors. Scheer ordered the arrest of over 200 men from the battleship Prinzregent Luitpold, the center of the anti-war activities. A series of courts-martial followed, which resulted in 77 guilty verdicts; nine men were sentenced to death for their roles, though only two men, Albin Köbis and Max Reichpietsch, were executed.
In early September 1917, following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga, the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga. The Navy High Command (Admiralstab) planned an operation, codenamed Operation Albion, to seize the Baltic island of Ösel, and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula. On 18 September, the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands; the primary naval component was to comprise its flagship, Moltke, and the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet. The operation began on the morning of 12 October, when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while the IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel. By 20 October, the fighting on the islands was winding down; Moon, Ösel, and Dagö were in German possession. The previous day, the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible.
Admiral Scheer had used light surface forces to attack British convoys to Norway beginning in late 1917. As a result, the Royal Navy attached a squadron of battleships to protect the convoys, which presented Scheer with the possibility of destroying a detached squadron of the Grand Fleet. The operation called for Hipper's battlecruisers to attack the convoy and its escorts on 23 April while the battleships of the High Seas Fleet stood by in support. On 22 April, the German fleet assembled in the Schillig Roads outside Wilhelmshaven and departed the following morning. Despite the success in reaching the convoy route undetected, the operation failed due to faulty intelligence. Reports from U-boats indicated to Scheer that the convoys sailed at the start and middle of each week, but a west-bound convoy had left Bergen on Tuesday the 22nd and an east-bound group left Methil, Scotland, on the 24th, a Thursday. As a result, there was no convoy for Hipper to attack. Beatty sortied with a force of 31 battleships and four battlecruisers, but was too late to intercept the retreating Germans. The Germans reached their defensive minefields early on 25 April, though approximately 40 nmi (74 km; 46 mi) off Heligoland Moltke was torpedoed by the submarine E42; she successfully returned to port.
### Internment at Scapa Flow
A final fleet action was planned for the end of October 1918, days before the Armistice was to take effect. The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet; Scheer—by now the Grand Admiral (Grossadmiral) of the fleet—intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy, in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany, despite the expected casualties. However, many of the war-weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war. On the morning of 29 October 1918, the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day. Starting on the night of 29 October, sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied. The unrest forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation. When informed of the situation, the Kaiser stated "I no longer have a navy".
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, most of the High Seas Fleet, under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, were interned in the British naval base of Scapa Flow. Prior to the departure of the German fleet, Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships, under any conditions. The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff, which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow. The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British, American, and French warships. Once the ships were interned, their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks, and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men on each of the capital ships.
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles. Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919, which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty. Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd, Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships. Out of the interned fleet, only one battleship, Baden, three light cruisers, and eighteen destroyers were saved from sinking by the British harbor personnel. The Royal Navy, initially opposed to salvage operations, decided to allow private firms to attempt to raise the vessels for scrapping. Cox and Danks, a company founded by Ernest Cox handled most of the salvage operations, including those of the heaviest vessels raised. After Cox's withdrawal due to financial losses in the early 1930s, Metal Industries Group, Inc. took over the salvage operation for the remaining ships. Five more capital ships were raised, though three—SMS König, SMS Kronprinz, and SMS Markgraf—were too deep to permit raising. They remain on the bottom of Scapa Flow, along with four light cruisers.
## Legacy
The High Seas Fleet, particularly its wartime impotence and ultimate fate, strongly influenced the later German navies, the Reichsmarine and Kriegsmarine. Former Imperial Navy officers continued to serve in the subsequent institutions, including Admiral Erich Raeder, Hipper's former chief of staff, who became the commander in chief of the Reichsmarine. Raeder advocated long-range commerce raiding by surface ships, rather than constructing a large surface fleet to challenge the Royal Navy, which he viewed to be a futile endeavor. His initial version of Plan Z, the construction program for the Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s, called for large number of P-class cruisers, long-range light cruisers, and reconnaissance forces for attacking enemy shipping, though he was overruled by Adolf Hitler, who preferred a large fleet of battleships.
## See also
- Organization of the High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland.
- Organization of the High Seas Fleet in late October 1918. |
60,276,986 | K-249 (Kansas highway) | 1,081,914,964 | State highway in Kansas | [
"State highways in Kansas",
"State highways in the United States shorter than one mile",
"Transportation in Greenwood County, Kansas"
]
| K-249, also known as Southwest Boulevard, is a 0.680-mile-long (1.094 km) north–south state highway located entirely within Greenwood County in the U.S. state of Kansas. K-249's southern terminus is at K-99 just outside the City of Madison, and the northern terminus is at K-58 in Madison. K-249 was originally a section of K-99 before it was realigned to the west of the city.
## Route description
K-249's southern terminus is at an intersection with K-99 just south of Madison. The highway travels north along the Madison city line as Southwest Boulevard. The highway reaches an intersection with McCurry Street, where it enters the city. K-249 continues north past an intersection with Elm Street before curving slightly northeast. The highway curves back north and reaches its northern terminus at K-58, known as 4th Street and West Lincoln Street.
The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) tracks the traffic levels on its highways. On K-249 in 2020, they determined that on average the traffic was 570 vehicles per day on K-249. The entire length of K-249 is two-lanes and maintained by KDOT. K-249 is not included in the National Highway System. The National Highway System is a system of highways important to the nation's defense, economy, and mobility.
## History
In December 1961, the Kansas State Highway Commission, now known as KDOT, announced a project to reroute K-99 to the west of Madison. The project was needed to bring K-99 above the 25-year flood level and eliminate several curves. The section of K-99 and K-57 from Madison Avenue north out of the city would be abandoned, and instead K-57 would follow Madison Avenue west to the new alignment of K-99. The section of K-99 from Madison south to the new alignment would be assigned a new route number. In Mid July 1964, bids were taken for the new bypass.
The highway was first designated as K-249 in a resolution approved on June 12, 1963. This resolution was updated in a resolution approved on February 11, 1964. In late August 1964, work began on the new bypass route. The roughly \$1 million (equivalent to \$ in dollars) bypass opened to traffic on November 3, 1965. In a resolution approved on September 20, 2004, by Secretary of Transportation Deb Miller, K-57's eastern terminus was truncated to end at K-4 in Dwight. The former section from K-99 east to east to US-169 was renumbered, making K-249's northern terminus K-58.
## Major intersections |
740,603 | Enlightenment (Doctor Who) | 1,060,867,321 | null | [
"1983 British television episodes",
"Fifth Doctor serials",
"Space pirates",
"Venus in television"
]
| Enlightenment is the fifth serial of the 20th season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was originally broadcast in four twice-weekly parts on BBC1 from 1 to 9 March 1983. It was the 127th serial of the series, and was written by Barbara Clegg and directed by Fiona Cumming, making it the first serial to be both written and directed by women.
In the serial, the alien time traveller the Fifth Doctor (Peter Davison) and his companions Tegan Jovanka (Janet Fielding) and Vislor Turlough (Mark Strickson) encounter a group of god-like immortals who are racing historical sailing vessels from Earth through space, crewed by humans they had plucked out of time, in an attempt to win the prize of enlightenment. Turlough is under the control of the Black Guardian (Valentine Dyall), but struggles with the Guardian's orders to kill the Doctor. Enlightenment is the third of three loosely connected serials where the Black Guardian attempts to compel Turlough to kill the Doctor.
The serial's production was beset by problems caused by industrial action taken by electricians at the BBC during filming. It was eventually finished three months behind schedule, but the unavailability of several actors for new filming dates forced the production team to recast their parts at short notice. Enlightenment averaged 6.8 million viewers per episode on its first transmission and received generally positive reviews from critics.
## Plot
Following interference from both the White and Black Guardians, the Fifth Doctor materialises the TARDIS in what appears to be the hold of an Edwardian yacht, though the Doctor senses something is amiss. The human crew have no idea how they got there nor where they are, but know they are taking part in a race. The Doctor and his companions, Tegan and Turlough, discover that the yacht and several other historical Earth ships are competing in a solar sail race through the Solar System. The ship's officers reveal themselves to be "Eternals", in contrast to the Doctor and the humans, whom they somewhat dismissively call "Ephemerals". The Eternals live in the "trackless wastes of eternity" and rely on Ephemerals for their thoughts and ideas. This race is being held by the Guardians and the prize is Enlightenment, the wisdom to know everything. The Doctor finds that the Eternals have made his TARDIS vanish, forcing him and his companions to stay until the race's conclusion.
As the race continues, several of the vessels are destroyed by explosions. The Doctor suspects that the crew aboard the Buccaneer, which is a 17th-century pirate ship, is responsible, as it was the closest vessel at the time of destruction. Turlough, while attempting to escape control of the Black Guardian, ends up aboard the Buccaneer, and meets the Eternal Captain Wrack, professing his desire to join her crew and learning she too is working for the Black Guardian. He finds equipment aboard her ship that appears to be the source of the device destroying the other ships and hears the Black Guardian's voice nearby. Later, Wrack offers the Edwardian officers a reception aboard her ship. During the reception, Turlough demonstrates the Wrack's advantage-providing equipment to the Doctor, while Wrack hypnotizes Tegan and implants Tegan's tiara (Tegan and Marriner attend Captain Wrack's reception in full Edwardian costume) with a red crystal. After the reception and continuation of the race, the Doctor sees the Buccaneer nearing the Edwardian ship, determines that the red crystal is used as a focal point of the weapon, and gets rid of the tiara before Wrack can destroy the ship.
Nearing the end of the race, the solar winds dissipate and the Buccaneer pulls ahead of the Edwardian ship. Not wishing to see Wrack win, the Eternals return the TARDIS to the Doctor, allowing him to travel to the Buccaneer. However, he is captured, and Wrack's first mate suggests that the Doctor be thrown overboard. From the Edwardian ship, Tegan and the others watch as two bodies are ejected from the Buccaneer just before it crosses the finish line.
The ships and their human crews are returned to Earth and the Guardians dismiss the other Eternals. It is revealed that the Doctor won the race, with Wrack and her first mate having suffered "an unfortunate accident". The Doctor refuses the prize, but as Turlough helped the Doctor, he is entitled to a portion of the prize. The Black Guardian reminds Turlough of their bargain, and says that he can give up the diamond, or sacrifice the Doctor to gain both Enlightenment and the TARDIS. Turlough hurls the diamond at the Black Guardian, who vanishes in screams and flames. The Doctor points out that Enlightenment was not the diamond, but the choice itself.
### Continuity
To commemorate the show's anniversary, every story during Season 20 included the return of an enemy from the Doctor's past. During this trilogy (begun in the serial Mawdryn Undead, and concluding with Enlightenment), the enemy was the Black Guardian, who was last encountered by the fourth incarnation of the Doctor at the conclusion of The Key to Time saga in the 1979 serial The Armageddon Factor. The story also saw the return of the White Guardian, who had also not been seen since 1979.
## Production
### Conception and writing
After penning a number of radio and TV scripts, including episodes of Crossroads and Waggoner's Walk, Barbara Clegg submitted a story idea to Doctor Who script editor Eric Saward, an acquaintance from the BBC drama department. Interested in writing for the series, Clegg had been inspired when distant relatives had stayed with her and demanded constant entertainment during their visit, basing the character of the Eternals upon them. Initially titled The Enlighteners, her submission involved ships racing through space that, with the addition of the Black Guardian sub-plot, eventually evolved into the story as screened. Saward and series producer John Nathan-Turner liked Clegg's ideas, and they commissioned the script in September 1981.
The first episode was delivered by Clegg in October and the three following episodes arriving in January 1982. The serial was now scheduled to conclude a three-story trilogy featuring the Black Guardian, and Clegg duly wrote the recurring characters into her scripts. By May 1982 there were problems with a script by Pat Mills, Song of the Space Whale, which had been intended to open the Black Guardian trilogy. Mills' script was eventually dropped and the production team considered moving The Enlighteners forward in the season to replace it, necessitating considerable re-writes. Peter Grimwade was eventually commissioned to write Mawdryn Undead to replace The Song of the Space Whale, and The Enlighteners was confirmed as the fifth serial of the season.
The first draft of Part One did not contain any of the material concerning the Guardians, and Turlough was a peripheral figure, with the script focussing on the relationship between Marriner and Tegan. With pre-production underway, Saward changed the story title to Enlightenment in September 1982, a title he felt was more enigmatic. Saward also rewrote portions of the script pertaining to the story-arc, particularly the final confrontation scenes at the end of Part Four. Peter Moffatt had been originally scheduled as the serial's director, but following the problems with the Space Whale script he was asked to helm its replacement due to his experience, and so Fiona Cumming was asked to take over Enlightenment.
Once production began it became apparent that Part One and Part Two were under-running so more dialogue was written to fill in the time. It was originally intended that the character of Jackson would not reappear after the second episode, but during filming Saward became concerned that it appeared that he had been executed and so he and Clegg rewrote Part Three to include him. Part Three also looked to be under running so scenes from Part Four were brought forward and the final scenes with the Guardians were extended to compensate.
### Casting
Cumming came up with the idea that the Eternals would not blink and cast actors who she believed could provide detached performances. Cumming recalled Peter Sallis had played a similarly detached character in the 1974 BBC drama The Pallisers, and she cast him in the role of Striker. Sallis was present during the rehearsals for the serial but when production was delayed he was unavailable for the new filming dates, being committed to filming Last of the Summer Wine, and was forced to drop out of the production, being replaced by Keith Barron. Lynda Baron was cast as Captain Wrack, having previously participated in Doctor Who in the 1966 serial The Gunfighters as the voice that sings the "Ballad of the Last Chance Saloon" heard throughout that story. Tony Caunter, who had previously played Thatcher in The Crusade and Morgan in Colony in Space, was given the role of Jackson, with Christopher Brown and David Rhule being cast as Marriner and Wrack's sidekick Mansell respectively. Similarly to Sallis, David Rhule was unavailable for the revised filming dates in January, so singer Leee John replaced him at short notice, despite having no previous acting experience.
Valentine Dyall had originally played the Black Guardian in the 1979 serial The Armageddon Factor, the character's first appearance in the series, and reprised the role for season 20, appearing in Mawdryn Undead, Terminus and Enlightenment. Similarly, Cyril Luckham reprised the role of the White Guardian that he had previously played in the 1979 serial The Ribos Operation.
### Design
The interior sets of the boats were not built specifically for the programme, but were pulled together from stock items from various prop warehouses. Cumming had originally hoped to simulate the rocking of the ships by mounting the sets on rollers but the idea was dropped due to costs, with the effect achieved by moving the cameras instead. The photo of Tegan's Aunt Vanessa, one of the items created by Marriner from the contents of her mind, was shot specifically for the filming, requiring Dolore Whiteman (who had played the character in Logopolis) to be contracted for a one-day photoshoot. The models of the boats, used in the racing sequences, were props sourced by visual effects designer Mike Kelt following extensive research at the National Maritime Museum. The ships were mounted on rods for filming, while the oars were battery operated. The model of Davey's ship remained intact, with its explosion being a filmed effect that was edited into the sequence. Kelt was shocked by the dilapidated state of the TARDIS console prop, and was worried about damaging it while filming the explosion from Part One, and asked producer John Nathan-Turner if he could replace it but was told there was no money available.
The anachronistic wetsuits on the Edwardian ship were actually heavy-duty overalls that had been painted black. Janet Fielding struggled with the low-cut ball gown she wore during filming as it threatened to expose her breasts on a number of occasions. The ball gown worn by Baron was made especially for the serial and was the most expensive costume on display. The newspaper found by the Doctor in Part One was a reprint of The Times from September 1901, while the food and drink served during the party scenes was all real.
### Filming
The serial began principal filming in early November 1982, with filming divided into two main blocks. The first block was shot on film at Ealing Studios between 3–5 November and consisted of the deck scenes and a number of model shots. Actor Mark Strickson was injured while filming the scene of Turlough throwing himself overboard, when the Kirby wire he was suspended from broke, leaving him only able to walk with difficulty for several weeks. The studio work was scheduled to run from 6 November until mid December and consisted of all the interior scenes and those in the TARDIS. By mid-November however the electricians union the EEPTU, had begun strike action which disrupted the filming of a number of BBC productions including Enlightenment and potentially meaning the final three serials of the season would have to be abandoned. The electricians dispute was settled by December, but it had badly affected the series recording schedule. The crew were able to shoot the following serial The King's Demons on schedule, meaning that there was only one recording block left for the part-completed Enlightenment and Eric Saward's season finale; The Return. With some filming already completed, and its importance in concluding the Black Guardian story-arc, it was decided that Enlightenment should take precedence and so it had its second production block moved to January 1983, while The Return was abandoned. Due to the delays, the serial only finished filming around a month before its transmission date, meaning that composer Malcolm Clarke only received the first episode for scoring a week before broadcast, having to rely on musical cues he had recorded weeks earlier without having seen any footage.
## Themes and interpretation
Writer Barbara Clegg based the Eternals on a wealthy group of her relatives who, upon visiting her, had demanded constant entertainment, treating other family members almost as "lesser beings". Clegg drew inspiration from the Bible's Book of Genesis, deriving the prize of enlightenment from The Tree of Knowledge within it; also, having read about Solar winds, she decided to use them as the basis of propulsion for space vessels. Clegg highlighted the nature of enlightenment, showing it not to be knowledge, as the Eternals believe, but wisdom, as demonstrated by Turlough's rejection of the Black Guardian.
The episode makes use of a regular science-fiction trope: bored, god-like beings playing with mortals' lives for amusement. In their book About Time, Lawrence Miles and Tat Wood liken this to a prevalent strand of children's fiction, where magical worlds are held together by the rules of the children who visit them. Miles and Wood also highlight the political elements of the story, likening the portrayal of the Eternals to the view of the upper classes as "effete parasites feeding off the labour (and in this case the imagination) of the proles." The Doctor then acts as part of the class struggle, helping the workers gain freedom while the gentry get their comeuppance.
In his essay Love is a Stranger, published in the first volume of the Doctor Who Magazine — Special Edition, David Bailey highlights the central idea that "...the lives of little people are precious, special and worth fighting for... ...the Eternals may have unimaginable power at their fingertips but they lack, and are jealous of, one thing: the ability to live, and die." The hollowness of immortality was a thread that ran through Season 20, with the earlier story Mawdryn Undead showing Mawdryn trapped in an endless cycle of painful regeneration, while in The Five Doctors, Borusa's prize of immortality results in little more than a living death. The horror of eternal life is brought home when the Black Guardian threatens Turlough with immortality as a punishment for failure, something that drives him to try and commit suicide rather than face eternity.
## Broadcast
Enlightenment was first broadcast in a twice-weekly slot on BBC One during the first two weeks of March 1983. The story episodes averaged 6.8 million viewers, with the highest viewing figures being 7.3 million for the final episode. The episodes averaged 67.5% on BARB's Appreciation Index, with Part Four once again achieving the highest figures.
### Archive
The BBC holds all four episodes on D-3 tape, transferred from the original 2" videotapes.
## Reception
Reviewing the story for Doctor Who Magazine's 200 Golden Moments special edition, Jeremy Bentham described it as being epic in scale, suggesting it played to the original strengths of the series; "performance, period set design and claustrophobic mood...". He likens Enlightenment to the work of Stanley Kubrick, saying "...it felt grand, it felt lonely, and yes, it felt epic." On reappraising the story for the same magazine following its release on DVD, Gary Gillatt was equally as effusive, calling it "...one of Doctor Who's finest serials." He highlights the performance of Keith Barron as Captain Striker as being "a master class of under-stated menace" and "pitch perfect", juxtaposing this with the over-the-top pantomime villainy of Lynda Baron as Captain Wrack, with the two captains balancing each other out perfectly.
Writing for the Radio Times, Mark Braxton was less enamoured of some of the performances, suggesting that Baron and Valentine Dyall turn in 'hammy' interpretations of their characters, while Leee John "...makes heavy weather of the simplest activities: helming the ship seems to require the most bizarre posturing." He had mixed views on the story as a whole, saying that "Enlightenment has promising components that come together and briefly create a little magic, then vanish again, like ships that pass in the night." DVD Talk's John Sinnott had similarly mixed views on the serial, although conceding that "...While it doesn't all succeed, they give it a good try and more things work than don't." Sinnott also singled out the performance of Keith Barron for particular praise, along with the relationship between Marriner and Tegan.
In their book About Time, Lawrence Miles and Tat Wood have equally mixed feelings about the serial, praising the setting and the performances of Barron and Brown, and suggesting that it "...carries on the tradition of putting symbols from the world we know into disconcerting environments... ...(it) completes the grand illusion of making the history and the fantasy feel like part of the same continuum." They are less complimentary about other elements however, citing the conclusion as feeling "rushed and tacked on" with too much emphasis on the Guardians and little on the fates of the Eternals. They also dismiss the reveal of enlightenment as being the nature of Turlough's choice, as coming "perilously close to tweeness" and accuse it of being "cod-mythologic moralising".
Enlightenment was placed in 72nd position in Doctor Who Magazine's Mighty 200 reader survey in 2009, which ranked every Doctor Who serial to that point in order of preference.
## Commercial releases
### In print
A novelisation of this serial, written by story author Barbara Clegg, was published by Target Books in May 1984, with a cover by Andrew Skilleter, and was numbered 85 in the ongoing range. It was the first Doctor Who novelisation to be penned by a woman. On its publication Doctor Who Magazine was underwhelmed by the book, claiming in their review that "In many ways, it falls into the familiar Terrance Dicks pitfalls, being a straightforward reworking of the script with "said" following all the speeches. For all its faults, Enlightenment remains a good read, simply because of the strength of the story..." The book was repackaged as part of The Sixth Doctor Who Gift Set later in 1984, along with three other Doctor Who novels; The Dominators, Mawdryn Undead and The Five Doctors.
### Home media
Enlightenment was released on VHS in February 1993. It was subsequently released on DVD as part of the Black Guardian Trilogy, along with preceding stories Mawdryn Undead and Terminus on 10 August 2009. The second disc of the DVD includes a "Special Edition" version of the story; a movie-style edit featuring new CGI graphics throughout, with a newly recorded introduction by director Fiona Cumming. Doctor Who Magazine was not enthusiastic about the new edit suggesting, that "...what is special about it is up for debate." The reviewer disparaged the new special effects, stating that "...this is ironic as there are few Doctor Who stories less in need of replacement effects than Enlightenment. The original model work is gorgeous, while this substitute material is crude and unsophisticated in comparison." Alongside the special edition, the DVD contained a number of extra features, including a Making of... documentary and extended interviews with director Fiona Cumming, writer Barbara Clegg and actor Mark Strickson, a documentary on the Guardians plus an excerpt from the Russell Harty Christmas Party TV special featuring Peter Davison. This serial was also released as part of the Doctor Who DVD Files in issue 57 on 9 March 2011. |
68,555,896 | Evrovidenie | 1,171,952,918 | Russian Eurovision Song Contest preselection | [
"1990s Russian television series",
"1994 Russian television series debuts",
"2000s Russian television series",
"2010s Russian television series",
"2020s Russian television series",
"Channel One Russia original programming",
"Eurovision Song Contest selection events",
"Music competitions in Russia",
"Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest",
"Russia-1 original programming",
"Russian music television series",
"Singing competitions",
"Television series revived after cancellation"
]
| Evrovidenie. Nacionalny Otbor (Russian: Евровидение. Национальный отбор, IPA: [jɪvrɐˈvjidjɪnjɪjɪ nətsɨɐˈnaljnɨj ɐdˈbor], lit. 'Eurovision. National Selection'), Nacionalny Otbor na Evrovidenie (Russian: Национальный отбор на Евровидение, IPA: [nətsɨɐˈnaljnɨj ɐdˈbor nə jɪvrɐˈvjidjɪnjɪjɪ], lit. 'National Selection for Eurovision') or simply Evrovidenie (Russian: Евровидение) was a Russian televised musical competition organized by Russian public broadcasters Channel One (previously ORT) in odd years and Russia-1 (RTR) of VGTRK in even years. The competition is used to select in the Eurovision Song Contest. Since 2005, it has been streamed live online through the respective websites of the broadcasters. Throughout its history, the competition has been held using different names, including Evrovidenie "Pesnya-95" (1995), Pesnya dlya Evropy (1996), Evrovidenie – Vybirayet Rossiya (2005), Kto? (2014), but has been known for most of its history as Evrovidenie. Nacionalny Otbor (1994, 2008–2010, 2012, 2021).
The competition has produced one winner, one runner-up and two top 10 placings for Russia in the contest. The results of the other selected representatives have ranged from 11th place in both 2009 and 2010 to a record low of 27th place in the 1996 qualifying round. At its inception, the winner of Evrovidenie was chosen by panels of jurors, but this changed to a public televoting system for the 2005 edition. The jury structure was then restored for with a combination of jury and televoting used for , , and . In , the contest returned to choosing a winner by public televoting only.
## History
### Early years
To select its debut entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 1994, Russian broadcaster RTR hosted a national final on 12 March 1994 at the Shabolovka Studios in Moscow during the television programme Programma A. National final was hosted by Vadim Dolgachev. Prior to the event, RTR opened a submissions window for Russian citizens to submit their original songs for consideration. By the close of the submissions window, more than 30 songs had been submitted; eleven candidate entries were then selected by a jury panel from the received submissions. Two songs were later disqualified prior to the competition: "Oi oi oi" performed by Alena Apina was disqualified after being performed on Russian TV channel 2x2 prior to the competition and "Kogda vernus v Rossiyu" performed by Vika Tsiganova, which was withdrawn by Tsiganova after she wanted to change her contest song, which was not allowed by the rules. Nine remaining entries competed with the winning song chosen by a 17-member jury panel. At the close of voting, "Vechny strannik" performed by Youddiph received the most votes and was selected as the Russian entry. At the Eurovision Song Contest 1994, Russia finished ninth with 70 points.
For Russia's second participation in the contest, ORT organised a public selection process to select Russian entrant. The competition was held on 19 March 1995 at the Cosmos Hotel in Moscow and was later aired on 30 April 1995 on ORT. Eight songs competed and the winner was selected by the votes of an expert jury panel. At the conclusion of the voting, Oksana Pavlovskaya and Viktoria Vita tied for the first place. In the end, jury came to the conclusion that none of the participants deserves to represent Russia and therefore final ended without a winner. The broadcaster later opted to select their 1995 entry internally, since the jury was unable to select a winner.
In 1996, the right to choose Russia's entrant returned to RTR, which decided to organize the national final to select Russia's representative. The event took place on 2 March 1996 and was hosted by Youddiph, winner of 1994 edition. Fourteen songs took part in the contest. A jury, which was composed of representatives of RTR, music industry professionals and representatives of the public, selected Andrey Kosinsky as winner with the song "Ya eto ya". Kosinsky was subsequently eliminated in the qualifying round for the Eurovision Song Contest 1996, which was used by the European Broadcasting Union in order to reduce the number of participating nations that would compete in the televised Eurovision final. After the non-qualification, RTR decided not to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest, leaving ORT (Channel One) as the only remaining broadcaster willing to take part in future years. The nation was then relegated from the 1998 and 1999 contests, before becoming able to return for 2000. For that contest, ORT opened the application window for a national final to take place on 19 February 2000 in Moscow, returning to the format of a national selection for the first time since 1996. However, financial problems at ORT forced them to cancel the event and instead select the Russian entry internally. In the following years, ORT opted to not hold national selections, switching instead to internally selected entrants.
### 2004–2011
In 2004, Yuri Aksyuta, Head of the Directorate of Music and Entertainment Broadcasting of Channel One, commented on the lack of national selection stating that "It's too early to trust our public". After the Russian discontent with the candidacy of the internally selected Yulia Savicheva in 2004, Channel One decided to change the format of the selection of contestants by holding a national final in 2005 for the first time since 1996. The national final consisted of three semi-finals, with ten songs in both the first and second semi-finals and nine in third; the third semi-final was initially to consist of ten songs as well, but Sergey Mazaev was late for the event and his song was disqualified. Three artists from each semi-final, chosen by televoting, qualified for the final which took place on 25 February. All shows took place in Ostankino Studios in Moscow and broadcast live three times, once in each of the three Russian time zones. All regions participated using televoting and SMS, with the results announced during the final broadcast for Western Russia. The winner of the national final was Natalia Podolskaya with the song "Nobody Hurt No One", receiving 20.2% of the votes. Natalia's victory created a scandal because many people were unable to cast their votes for other contestants, raising doubts about the fairness of the process. According to the company Edmar+, which organised the televoting, the capacity of their lines was limited, and when the mass of connections reached a critical volume, some calls and messages were automatically filtered out. At the Eurovision final, Russia took 15th place out of 24 with 57 points. Among their points was the maximum score of 12 from Belarus, the home country of Podolskaya. Following this result, Channel One decided to return to a internal selection the following year.
In 2008, the selection of Russia's Eurovision entrant returned to RTR, with the broadcaster organising a national selection with twenty-five candidates. Later, this number was increased to 27 after RTR added two participants: Sergey Lazarev and 2006 Belarusian Eurovision entrant Polina Smolova. Other participants included the 2006 Russian Eurovision entrant Dima Bilan, who submitted the song "Por Que Te Amo". The song was disqualified when it was discovered that the song was released in 2006 by Argentinian singer Luciano Pereira, violating the Eurovision rule that barred songs from being commercially released before 1 October 2007. The song was replaced with "Believe", which won the event with 54 points, including the maximum score (27) from both the jury and televoting. Russia won that year's Eurovision Song Contest with 272 points.
After this victory, Channel One announced a national selection in November 2008 and opened a submission period for interested artists and composers to submit their entries. The initial format of the national final consisted of three stages: The first stage was for selecting the song, the second for selecting three artists, and the third for selecting the combination of song and artist. This format was later amended by Channel One, where the artists would instead compete with the songs they had entered with. The broadcaster received over a thousand submissions at the conclusion of the deadline. Fifty of them were shortlisted and a jury panel selected fifteen finalists for the national final. On 5 March 2009, Channel One announced that Anastasia Prikhodko would also participate in the national final with the song "Mamo", increasing the number of participants to sixteen. The national selection took place on 7 March at Ostankino Studios in Moscow and consisted of two stages. According to the results of the televoting, three superfinalists were selected from sixteen contestants: Anastasia Prikhodko, Valeriya, and the band Kvatro. Out of three applicants, a professional jury selected Anastasia Prikhodko's song "Mamo" as the winner. At the Eurovision Song Contest 2009, the song placed 11th with 91 points.
On 9 December 2009, RTR announced a submission period for artists to apply for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. The broadcaster received over a thousand submissions at the conclusion of the deadline. Thirty-five entries were selected from the received submissions to proceed to auditions held on 1 March 2010 at the Vladimir Nazarov's Theater in Moscow. There, a jury panel selected the twenty-five finalists for the national final. The competing acts were announced on 2 March 2010. Ultimately, at the selection which took place on 7 March in Vladimir Nazarov's Theater in Moscow, the musical group of Peter Nalitch won with the song "Lost and Forgotten". For Eurovision, the band was renamed "Peter Nalitch and Friends". Their final placing in the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 held in Oslo was 11th, tying that of Anastasia Prikhodko the previous year. In 2011, Channel One canceled the national selection because of declining interest and the channel's claims that internally selected applicants placed higher than ones selected through the national selection process.
### 2012–2021
After one year of absence, RTR announced on 28 December 2011 that it would reinstate the national selection process, and asked for submissions from artists and composers. The broadcaster received 150 submissions at the conclusion of the deadline, and between thirty-five and forty entries were selected to proceed to auditions. There, a jury panel selected the twenty-five finalists for the national final, which was supposed to take place on 26 February, but was postponed to 7 March. Ultimately, at the selection held in the Akademichesky Concert Hall in Moscow, the winner was the band Buranovskiye Babushki with the song "Party for Everybody", which received 38.51 points. Runner-ups Dima Bilan and Julia Volkova scored 29.25, and third place Timati and Aida Garifullina scored 26.74. The song finished second at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 with 259 points.
Following the 2012 selection, no Russian national selection was held for eight years. In 2014, a national selection was planned to take place, but was ultimately canceled because the broadcaster thought the song submissions were of poor quality. After the cancellation of the 2014 selection, both RTR and Channel One switched to internal selections. In 2020, Channel One internally selected the band Little Big with the song "Uno" to represent Russia at Eurovision Song Contest 2020. The contest was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and Channel One originally planned to re-select Little Big for the . However, the band was unable to submit a suitable song, so Channel One decided to hold a national selection for the first time since 2012.
The selection committee at Channel One created shortlist of several candidates, from which three performers were selected for national final: Therr Maitz, \#2Mashi and Manizha. The artists selected to participate were announced in the evening of the contest on 8 March and the names of participants were leaked via Instagram two hours before the contest began. The contest took place on 8 March in Mosfilm Studios in Moscow and was won by Manizha with her song "Russian Woman". The song caused controversy as many Russian viewers took offense to a singer of Tajik descent singing about Russian women and the singer's activism for LGBT and women's rights; they demanded that she drop out of Eurovision. Several Russian politicians, such as Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Vitaly Milonov, Valentina Matvienko, Pavel Rudchenko and Yelena Drapeko also criticized Manizha's song. Drapeko suggested banning Manizha from performing in Eurovision under the Russian flag, commenting also that Eurovision offered no cultural value and was too politicized and pro-LGBT. The entry still went on to represent the nation at the contest in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and in the final Manizha reached 9th place with 204 points, of which 104 points were from the juries and 100 were from televoting. Following the Eurovision final, on 26 May 2021, Wonderzine published an article that retold reports from other sources that the national selection was staged, and Manizha's victory was a foregone conclusion. According to the article, Manizha's relatives are connected with state corporations. The next day, Manizha stated that she would file a lawsuit against Wonderzine and author of the article Yulia Taratuta.
The 2021 selection was the last Russian national selection to date, as on 25 February 2022, the EBU announced that Russia would not compete at the , stating that "in light of the unprecedented crisis in Ukraine, the inclusion of a Russian entry in this year's Contest would bring the competition into disrepute." The following day, all EBU members from Russia, including RTR and Channel One, announced their withdrawal from the union, according to a statement released by Russian state media, marking the end of Russian participation in Eurovision for the foreseeable future.
## Series overview
Color key
### At Eurovision
## Venues and host(s)
## Voting
## Judges
## Viewing figures
## See also
- Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest |
26,389,174 | Kenneth Strong | 1,120,060,435 | British Army general, later civil servant | [
"1900 births",
"1982 deaths",
"British Army generals of World War II",
"British Army major generals",
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| Major-General Sir Kenneth William Dobson Strong KBE CB (9 September 1900 – 11 January 1982) was a senior officer of the British Army who served in the Second World War, rising to become Director General of Intelligence. A graduate of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Strong was commissioned into the 1st Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1920. After service as an Intelligence Officer with his battalion in Ireland from 1920 to 1922 during the Irish War of Independence, he volunteered for service as an interpreter and was posted to Germany with the British Army of the Rhine. In 1935 he returned to Germany as a member of the International Force supervising the Saarland plebiscite. Afterwards, he joined the German Intelligence Section at the War Office. In 1937 he became Assistant Military attaché in Berlin.
Strong became Head of the German Section at MI14 in August 1939, shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War. He commanded the 4th/5th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1941, before becoming Brigadier General Staff (BGS) for Intelligence at Home Forces in 1942. In March 1943, Strong was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence (G-2) at General Dwight D. Eisenhower's Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ). He attended the Italian peace negotiations. In May 1944 he joined Eisenhower's Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), and played a leading part in the negotiations for the unconditional surrender of Germany in 1945.
In August 1945, Strong became Deputy Director of the Political Warfare Executive, succeeding Sir Bruce Lockhart as its head a month later. He retired from the Army with the rank of major general in 1947 to become a civil servant. He was initially appointed Director General of the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office. He was the first Director of the Joint Intelligence Bureau at the Ministry of Defence from 1948 until 1964, when he became the first Director General of Intelligence at the Ministry of Defence. He retired from the civil service in 1966.
## Early life
Kenneth William Dobson Strong was born in Montrose, Angus, Scotland on 9 September 1900, the only son amongst four children, to John Strong, the rector of Montrose Academy, and his wife Ethel May née Dobson. He was educated at Montrose Academy, Glenalmond College and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.
## Between the wars
Strong was commissioned into the 1st Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1920. He served as an Intelligence Officer with his battalion in Ireland from 1920 to 1922 during the Irish War of Independence. In 1922 he volunteered for service with the British Army of the Rhine. He was trained as an interpreter and posted to Germany from 1926 until the Occupation of the Rhineland ended in 1929. He then served as a Defence Security Officer in Malta and Gibraltar.
In 1935 he returned to Germany as a member of the International Force supervising the Saarland plebiscite. Afterwards, he joined the German Intelligence Section at the War Office. In 1937 he became Assistant Military attaché in Berlin to Noel Mason-Macfarlane. As such, Strong got to know many senior German military officers personally, including Wilhelm Keitel. Like Mason-Macfarlane, he became convinced that war with Germany was imminent and inevitable.
## Second World War
### Allied Forces Headquarters
Strong was appointed Head of the German Section at MI14 in August 1939. He liaised with French intelligence until the Fall of France in June 1940. Thereafter, his section was concerned with the prospect of a German invasion of Britain. In April 1941, he assumed command of the 4th/5th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers, part of the 52nd (Lowland) Division. Then, in March 1942, he became Brigadier General Staff (BGS) for Intelligence at General Alan Brooke's GHQ Home Forces. For his services, Strong was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire.
In March 1943, Strong was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence (G-2) at General Dwight Eisenhower's Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ), replacing Brigadier Eric Mockler-Ferryman, whose over-reliance on Ultra sources had led to a misinterpretation of the enemy's intentions leading up to the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass. Strong got on well with Eisenhower and his chief of staff, Major General Bedell Smith in particular, and Americans in general. Stephen Ambrose wrote:
> Strong had an explosive laugh, an appreciation of the wisecrack, and an easy acceptance of the West Pointers' rough language and casual manner rare in British officers. In his memoirs he endeared himself to all those from the New World side of the Atlantic Ocean who had been put off by British stuffiness and snobbery when he remarked "The best time in a man's life is when he gets to like Americans."
In August 1943, Smith and Strong flew to Lisbon via Gibraltar in civilian clothes, where they met with Generale di Brigata Giuseppe Castellano at the British embassy. While Castellano had hoped to arrange terms for Italy to join the United Nations, Smith was empowered to draw up an armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces, but was unable to negotiate political matters. Smith and Strong subsequently negotiated for the Allies with Castellano in Sicily over the terms over Italian surrender. On 3 September 1943, Smith and Castellano signed the agreed text on behalf of Eisenhower and Pietro Badoglio respectively at Cassibile, Sicily. For his work at AFHQ, Strong was promoted to major general on 11 January 1944, and awarded the Legion of Merit by the United States in March 1944.
### Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
When Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander in December 1943, he naturally wished to take key members of his AFHQ staff, including Strong, with him to his new assignment. On New Year's Eve, Smith met with Alan Brooke, now Chief of the Imperial General Staff, to discuss the transfer of key British staff from AFHQ to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). Brooke made some concessions but refused to transfer Strong, who he believed could not be spared from the Mediterranean. A heated exchange resulted, with Smith demanding Brooke explain how Operation Overlord could be a success if the British Army withheld its best talent. Later Brooke complained to Eisenhower about Smith's behaviour. Accordingly, another AFHQ hand, Brigadier John Whiteley, became G-2 at SHAEF. However Eisenhower and Smith eventually had their way, going over Brooke's head to Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Strong assumed the post on 25 May 1944, with Brigadier General Thomas J. Betts as his deputy.
As it turned out, the relationship between SHAEF and Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery's 21st Army Group was far from cordial, with the Deputy Supreme Commander, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder, and the Deputy Chief of Staff, Lieutenant General Frederick Morgan, both frequently critical of Montgomery. In September 1944 an intelligence crisis similar to Kasserine arose, when the cryptanalysts at Bletchley Park did not locate the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg in the Arnhem area, but information from the Dutch resistance and a consequent photo reconnaissance ordered by Major Brian Urquhart, the Intelligence Officer at I Airborne Corps, confirmed the German presence. Strong and Smith then flew to Brussels to warn Montgomery. However, Montgomery decided to accept the risk rather than alter the plans for Operation Market Garden.
Heavy opposition from the two SS panzer divisions in the area proved to be a critical factor not only in preventing the British 1st Airborne Division from holding the Rhine Bridge at Arnhem, but also imposed serious delays on the capture of the bridges at Nijmegen by the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and the advance of the armoured units of the British XXX Corps. For SHAEF, the outcome meant that attention had to turn to the Battle of the Scheldt to open the approaches to Antwerp and to building up resources for an invasion of Germany in 1945.
In December 1944, Strong identified a large German reserve. The Germans devised an elaborate deception plan, and because the troops were being assembled inside Germany, they relied on secure phone and teleprinter lines rather than radio. Ultra and signal intelligence therefore dried up. Ultra detected German hoarding of fuel, but this was misinterpreted as a response to a critical shortage rather than building up a reserve. However, the withdrawal of armoured units from the front line was duly noted, and by 20 November, using agents, aircraft and prisoner interrogations, SHAEF had located and enumerated the divisions of the Fifth Panzer Army east of Aachen and the Sixth Panzer Army east of the Roer River. Strong informed Smith that the German armoured reserves might be sent to the Eastern Front, or used for a counterattack against an Allied penetration of the front, but might also be used for a counterattack during a period of bad weather. In early December, SHAEF detected tank movements in the Bitburg area, and Strong became worried about a possible counterattack against the Allied lines in the Ardennes or the Vosges. Smith sent Strong to warn Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, the commander of the 12th Army Group, of the danger. Bradley's response was succinct: "Let them come."
The magnitude and ferocity of the German Ardennes Offensive came as a shock and Strong was criticised for failing to predict it. However Smith defended Strong against criticism for failing to sound the alarm, feeling that Strong had given ample warning, which had been discounted or disregarded by himself and others. By 19 December, Strong had become concerned that the Germans were going to split Bradley's armies, and he and Whiteley – who had already received Monty's opinion on the matter – went to Smith, recommending that the armies north of the Ardennes be transferred from Bradley to Montgomery's command. Smith realised the military and political implications of this, and knew that such a recommendation had to come from an American officer. On 20 December, Smith spoke to Eisenhower, who deferred judgement until the morning staff meeting. Eisenhower then phoned Bradley and Montgomery and ordered it. The decision was greatly resented by many Americans, particularly at 12th Army Group.
On 15 April 1945, Nazi governor ('Reichskommissar') of the Netherlands, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, offered to open Amsterdam to food and coal shipments to ease the suffering of the civilian population. Smith and Strong, representing SHAEF, along with Major General Ivan Susloparov, representing the USSR, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, representing the Dutch government, and Major General Sir Francis de Guingand, from 21st Army Group, met with Seyss-Inquart in the Dutch village of Achterveld on 30 April. They successfully negotiated for the provision of food to the starving Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country, and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in the Netherlands that would follow on 5 May.
Another set of negotiations, that of the surrender of German armed forces, were conducted in May 1945. Smith and Strong met with the representatives of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and Generaladmiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg. Once again, Strong acted as translator. Strong was present when, on 7 May, Smith signed the surrender document, along with Suslaparov and the French representative, Major General François Sevez.
For his services at SHAEF, Strong was mentioned in despatches, appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath, and awarded the United States Distinguished Service Medal, and other foreign awards, including the French Croix de Guerre and Légion d'honneur, and the Order of the Red Banner from the USSR.
## Post war
In August 1945, Strong became Deputy Director of the Political Warfare Executive, succeeding Sir Bruce Lockhart as its head a month later. With the elevation of Montgomery to Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1946, the career prospects of officers who had served at SHAEF, like Morgan, Gale, Whiteley and Strong, became dim, and Strong retired from the Army with the rank of major general on 9 May 1947 to become a civil servant.
He was initially appointed Director General of the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office. He was the first Director of the Joint Intelligence Bureau at the Ministry of Defence from 1948 until 1964, when he became the first Director General of Intelligence at the Ministry of Defence. He was knighted on 1 January 1952, and became a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1966. He retired on 9 May 1966.
Strong became a director of Eagle Star Insurance and other companies. He wrote two books, his memoir, Intelligence at the Top (1970), and Men of Intelligence (1970). Unfortunately, both were written before the Ultra secret was revealed in 1974. In 1979 he married a widow, Brita Charlota Horridge. Their marriage produced no children. Strong died at his home in Eastbourne, East Sussex on 11 January 1982. His papers are in the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives.
## Publications |
46,329,824 | 56th Independent Mixed Brigade | 1,067,899,296 | null | [
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| The 56th Independent Mixed Brigade was an Imperial Japanese Army unit of World War II. It was raised in June 1944 to reinforce the defences of Japanese-occupied Borneo, and was initially stationed in the north-east of the island. In early 1945 most of the brigade's units were ordered to move to the Brunei Bay area of west Borneo, with the brigade's personnel subsequently making a difficult march across the centre of the island.
During June and July 1945 the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade saw combat against Australian forces in the Borneo Campaign. Its units were greatly under-strength at this time due to the casualties suffered while moving across Borneo, and the elements which engaged Australian forces were rapidly defeated. The remainder of the brigade withdrew into central Borneo, and surrendered to the Australians following the end of the war.
## History
### Formation
During mid-1944 the Imperial Japanese Army's General Staff decided to reinforce the garrisons of the southern Philippines and Borneo ahead of an expected Allied offensive to liberate these areas. As part of this effort, the 54th, 55th, 56th, 57th and 58th Independent Mixed Brigades were ordered to be formed for service with the Southern Expeditionary Army Group during June. Aside from the 58th Independent Mixed Brigade, which was formed by converting an existing unit, these new brigades were to be organised in forward areas from personnel shipped from Japan. Upon formation, the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade was assigned to the Borneo Defence Force (BDF).
The process of establishing the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade took longer than expected, which delayed its deployment to Borneo. While three battalions worth of personnel departed Japan in mid-July 1944, the first did not arrive at Borneo until September. The final elements of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade reached Borneo in mid-November. The 8,000 personnel allocated to the brigade had not trained together while in Japan, and were organised into fighting units after their arrival in Borneo. They were also shipped to Borneo separately from their weapons and other equipment. Once its organisation was complete, the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade comprised six infantry battalions (the 366th to 371st Independent Infantry Battalions), each with an authorised strength of 997 men, and small artillery, engineer and signal units. Like the other independent mixed brigades raised in mid-1944, the 56th had only 18 trucks and a small number of horses to transport its equipment and supplies. The brigade was commanded by Major General Taijiro Akashi.
The BDF and its superior headquarters, the Seventh Area Army, initially disagreed over where the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade should be deployed. In July 1944 the BDF believed that the Allies were likely to invade northern Borneo in January 1945 or later, and wanted to station the brigade in this area. However, the Seventh Area Army judged that Allied forces were more likely to attack the Brunei Bay region in western Borneo to support a drive on Singapore. Moreover, the area army believed that it would be difficult to transfer units from northern to western Borneo due to the island's rugged terrain. The BDF eventually won the debate, and the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade's units were landed in the Sandakan area of north-east Borneo as they arrived from Japan.
Once the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade arrived in Borneo, the brigade headquarters and all the combat battalions other than the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion were concentrated at Tawau. The 371st Independent Infantry Battalion was stationed in Sandakan and placed under the command of the 41st Independent Garrison Battalion. As of 20 December 1944, the brigade had responsibility for defending the area around Tawau and Tarakan Island.
### Redeployment
In late 1944 the 37th Army (the former BDF) changed its views on likely Allied intentions, and concluded that the expected invasion would probably be focused on the Brunei Bay region. The Southern Expeditionary Army Group agreed with this assessment, and ordered in January 1945 that the 37th Army's forces be concentrated around Brunei Bay. As the Allies had air superiority over Borneo and nearby waters, it was not possible to move the units in north-east Borneo by sea. Instead, they would need to march across the island.
The 56th Independent Mixed Brigade, less its 369th and 370th Independent Infantry Battalions, began to march across Borneo in late January 1945. This proved difficult, with the movement through the mountainous jungle in the centre of the island being hampered by the poor state of the road network, bad weather and food shortages. Many of the brigade's soldiers fell sick during the march, and all four infantry battalions were considerably below their authorised strength by the time they arrived at Brunei Bay between April and June. The 370th Independent Infantry Battalion was transferred to the direct control of the 37th Army and remained at Tawau, and the 369th Independent Infantry Battalion was shipped to Banjarmasin in southern Borneo during March and assigned to the 22nd Special Naval Base Force.
The brigade was widely dispersed following its arrival in the Brunei Bay area. In June 1945, the brigade headquarters and the 366th and 367th Independent Infantry Battalions were stationed in Brunei. The 368th Independent Infantry Battalion was located at the inland town of Beaufort, and the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion formed the main body of the island of Labuan's garrison. Of the support units, the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Artillery Unit was at Brunei and the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Engineer and Signal Units were at Beaufort. All of the brigade's heavy weapons had been left behind at Tawau, and due to the casualties incurred during the march across Borneo its combat units were not fit for battle.
### Battle of North Borneo
Two brigades of the Australian 9th Division with large numbers of support units invaded the Brunei Bay area on 10 June 1945. At this time the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade was the main Japanese combat force in the region, but was in the process of withdrawing inland to defensive positions located around rice-growing areas.
The 371st Independent Infantry Battalion was destroyed on Labuan by the 24th Brigade during 11 days of at times fierce fighting. The 367th Independent Infantry Battalion retreated from Brunei to the Trusan River as a formed unit, and the 366th Independent Infantry Battalion broke up into small groups as it fought a rearguard action against the Australian 20th Brigade. While Beaufort was attacked by the 24th Brigade, the 368th Independent Infantry Battalion was not involved in its defence.
During the last weeks of the war the remnants of the 366th Independent Infantry Battalion were pursued by Australian Army patrols, air attacks and groups of local Dayaks organised by the Australian Services Reconnaissance Department. These attacks led to the disintegration of the unit. Major General Akashi led the remnants of the forces stationed at Brunei as well as a number of Japanese civilians to the inland town of Tenom; this trek took 40 days and involved traversing mountainous and trackless terrain. However, the forces involved suffered heavy casualties, with 50 percent of the 367th Battalion's soldiers being killed between 10 June and the end of the war. The 369th and 370th Independent Infantry Battalions did not see combat, and remained largely intact at the end of the war. Following the Japanese surrender, the survivors of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade were concentrated in locations selected by the Australian forces.
## Structure
The 56th Independent Mixed Brigade comprised the following units:
- Brigade headquarters
- 366th Independent Infantry Battalion
- 367th Independent Infantry Battalion
- 368th Independent Infantry Battalion
- 369th Independent Infantry Battalion
- 370th Independent Infantry Battalion
- 371st Independent Infantry Battalion
- 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Artillery Unit
- 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Engineer Unit
- 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Signal Unit
## See also
- Borneo campaign (1945) order of battle |
45,360,620 | The Girls of the Ghetto | 1,167,632,975 | 1910 American silent short film | [
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| The Girls of the Ghetto is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film focuses on Bella, who works in a sweatshop and save enough money to have her little sisters emigrate to New York. John Magie encounters one of the girls and urges to attend classes. During an outbreak of fever, John is suddenly taken ill and Bella nurses him back to health. At the time of its production, the term "ghetto" was a buzzword and the focus of the hardworking Jewess struggling to survive was a focus of other 1910 productions. The film was released on July 19, 1910, and received criticism for not having the character appear to be Jewish and incorrectly portraying her place of work as a sweatshop. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 23, 1910. It states: "Bella is an immigrant girl doing sweatshop work in the ghetto of a great city. But by saving for some time, she manages to get enough money to send to the old country for her two little sisters. She meets them at Ellis Island and escorts them across Battery Park to their new home. The three girls live with an uncle and aunt in one poor room in a tenement. The smallest of the sisters while playing on the sidewalk one day gets lost and suddenly finds herself in Chinatown. She is dismayed at the entirely strange surroundings, and is weeping bitterly when found by John Magie, a young settlement worker. He dries her tears and takes her safely to her sweatshop home. John is at once attracted by Bella, whom he meets for the first time when he brings the little one back. He does the family many little kindnesses, bringing them flowers and books, and induces the girls to attend the classes at the settlement. While teaching his class one evening, John is suddenly attacked with a fever, which is epidemic at that time. All his pupils flee from him in fear, except Bella, who remains and nurses him back to health. Upon his recovery John makes Bella his wife and they take up together the work of bringing knowledge and happiness to the poor of the East Side [of New York City]."
## Cast
- Marie Eline as an immigrant's child
- Anna Rosemond
## Production
The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. J. Hoberman, author of Bridge of Light: Yiddish Film Between Two Worlds, writes that the Lower East Side had reached a total population of 540,000 and the world "ghetto" became a buzzword. Other 1910 films on the subject included Yankee's The Ghetto Seamstress and D. W. Griffith's A Child of the Ghetto. Patricia Erens, author of The Jew in American Cinema says these films highlight the hard-working Jewess in melodramatic situations that are only resolved with improbable solutions. The setting for the film included scenes in Manhattan's Chinatown and was advertised as "a study of settlement conditions in the great East Side of New York City. It was produced right in the heart of the ghetto to assure a faithful presentation of East Side localities and life. Representatives of all races and nationalities pass through the picture, from the slow-stepping Russian to the gliding Chinee." Some of the details of the production were recorded due to the flaws in the depicting a sweatshop and the fact the Hebrew characters are not recognizable as Hebrews.
The film director and the cameraman are unknown, but the "Thanhouser Kid" Marie Eline and Anna Rosemond are known credits. Members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming. Despite the lack of production details, the quality of the Thanhouser films in general stood out amongst the Independent producers. An editorial by "The Spectator" in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating, "...practically all other Independent American companies, excepting Thanhouser, show haste and lack of thought in their production. Crude stories are crudely handled, giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market. Such pictures, of course, do not cost much to produce, but they are not of a class to make reputation. The Thanhouser company, alone of the Independents, shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile..." The editorial warned that American audiences were not subject to be entertained by the novelty of moving images and cautioned the Independents that there was distinct danger in quantity over quality. The editorial was written by Frank E. Woods of the American Biograph Company, a Licensed company, and like the publication itself had a considerable slant to the Licensed companies.
## Release and reception
The single reel drama, approximately 1000 feet long, was released on July 19, 1910. The film had a wide national release with known advertisements by theaters found in Indiana, Nebraska, Missouri, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Texas.
This production was met with negative attention by film critics. A reviewer in The Moving Picture News wrote, "There isn't a lot to the story, but the acting is of the class which still finds favor with the public. The pictures taken in Chinatown do not go quite far enough in depicting East Side conditions; the photography of these particular scenes is not the ideal of Thanhouser productions..." The New York Dramatic Mirror was more moderate in its criticism by identifying specific faults with the portrayal, but found that the story to be good and the parts well-acted. The Morning Telegraph offered similar criticism, "The story of this picture is fairly good, but the details are wrong. In the first place, the producers evidently never were in a sweatshop, or else they would not have representing a sweatshop a store like a custom tailor shop, doing a thriving business. The people who are supposed to be Hebrews hardly resemble them. The next objection is when the settlement worker falls into a faint, the girl is very slow in picking him up. The story tells of a poor immigrant Hebrew girl who falls in love with a settlement worker, who returns her affection, which finally results in their marriage." Some advertisements would bill the production as seeing the other side of New York City life.
## See also
- List of American films of 1910 |
17,680,830 | 1852 Atlantic hurricane season | 1,152,331,677 | Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean | [
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"Atlantic hurricane seasons"
]
| The 1852 Atlantic hurricane season was one of only three Atlantic hurricane seasons in which every known tropical cyclone attained hurricane status. Five tropical cyclones were reported during the season, which lasted from late August through the middle of October; these dates fall within the range of most Atlantic tropical cyclone activity, and none of the cyclones coexisted with another. Though there were officially five tropical cyclones in the season, hurricane scholar Michael Chenoweth assessed two of the cyclones as being the same storm. There may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season, as meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimated that up to six storms were missed each year from the official database; this estimate was due to small tropical cyclone size, sparse ship reports, and relatively unpopulated coastlines.
## Season summary
Every tropical cyclone in the season was of hurricane status, or with winds at or exceeding 74 mph (119 km/h). In only two other seasons did every cyclone attain hurricane status; those years were 1858 and 1884. All five cyclones affected land; the strongest was the first storm, which caused severe damage and loss of life when it made landfall near the border between Mississippi and Alabama. The second storm of the season struck Puerto Rico, where it caused over 100 deaths, primarily from flooding. In the middle of September, the third storm moved across Florida with strong wind gusts and light rainfall, and a week later the fourth storm passed over or north of the Lesser and Greater Antilles. The last storm hit the Florida Panhandle, though damage was less than expected.
## Timeline
## Systems
### Hurricane One
The Great Mobile Hurricane of 1852 was the first tropical cyclone of the year. It was first observed on August 19 about 140 mi (230 km) north of Puerto Rico. It moved on a west-northwest motion before passing through the Bahamas as it attained hurricane status on August 20. After paralleling the northern coast of Cuba, the storm passed between the Dry Tortugas and Key West, Florida on August 22, and two days later it is estimated the hurricane attained peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). The storm slowed on August 25 before turning northward, and early on August 26 it made landfall near Pascagoula, Mississippi at peak strength, and the hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical storm status as it accelerated east-northeastward. On August 28 it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from South Carolina, and after turning to the northeast, it was last observed on August 30 about 130 mi (210 km) southeast of Cape Cod.
In the Florida Keys, rough waves forced several ships ashore, leaving some damaged. Strong waves created four new channels in the Chandeleur Islands, and the storm's passage also destroyed the island lighthouse; the three keepers were found three days later. Two schooners were also washed ashore along Cat Island. The hurricane produced an estimated storm tide of 12 feet (3.7 m) in Mobile, Alabama, where strong winds damaged much of the city, leaving the majority of the houses destroyed. Trees were downed up to 30 miles (48 km) inland, and coastal areas were flooded. Damage along the coastline was estimated at \$1 million (1852 USD, \$26 million 2008 USD), and several people died. While crossing the southeastern United States, the storm brought light rainfall but moderately strong winds; in Charleston, South Carolina, the storm destroyed several bridges and crop fields.
### Hurricane Two
Hurricane San Lorenzo of 1852
Early on September 5, a hurricane was first observed about 65 mi (105 km) southeast of Christiansted in the Danish Virgin Islands. One meteorologist assessed the hurricane as being located near Antigua on September 3. Tracking steadily west-northwestward, it quickly moved ashore near Ponce, Puerto Rico with winds estimated at 80 mph (130 km/h). After crossing southwestern Puerto Rico, the hurricane emerged into the Mona Passage as a tropical storm. Late on September 5 it made landfall on eastern Dominican Republic; it quickly weakened over Hispaniola, dissipating on September 6 over the northwestern portion of the island. An assessment by scholar Michael Chenoweth in 2006 indicated this storm was the same as the next hurricane, with it continuing northwestward and ultimately reaching the Gulf of Mexico. Due to not being considered the same cyclone in the official hurricane database, this hurricane and the following hurricane are listed separately. There, the passage of the storm caused severe flooding, which destroyed large quantities of crops and damaged several roads. Storm damage was heaviest between Guayanilla and Mayagüez. More than 100 people were killed in Puerto Rico, many of whom died due to flooding.
### Hurricane Three
A hurricane was located in the central Gulf of Mexico on September 9, potentially the same hurricane as the previous storm. It tracked generally eastward toward the coast of Florida, with its hurricane intensity estimation based on two ship reports. At about 0000 UTC on September 12, it moved ashore near Clearwater, Florida as a minimal hurricane, with an estimated minimum barometric central pressure of 985 mbar. Accelerating east-northeastward while crossing the state, the cyclone emerged into the Atlantic Ocean as a weakened tropical storm before regaining hurricane status on September 13. Later that day, it was last observed about 250 mi (400 km) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras.
A post in Fort Meade, Florida reported at least 0.55 in (14 mm) of rainfall during the storm's passage. The hurricane was considered "violent", and gusts were estimated to have reached hurricane force. Rough seas and strong easterly winds beached a vessel near St. Augustine.
### Hurricane Four
On September 22, a tropical storm was located about 200 mi (320 km) east of Guadeloupe. With a steady west-northwest path, the storm moved across the northern Lesser Antilles on September 23, during which it intensified into a hurricane. It passed a short distance north of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic as it reached its peak intensity of 90 mph (150 km). Late on September 26 the hurricane turned northwestward, bringing it through the Turks and Caicos Islands and eastern Bahamas. Recurving north-northeastward, the cyclone moved into open waters, and was last classified as a tropical cyclone on September 30 about 390 mi (630 km) east of Cape Hatteras. However, one hurricane researcher assessed the hurricane as lasting until October 3, with the cyclone turning eastward and dissipating near the Azores.
### Hurricane Five
A moderately strong hurricane with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) was first spotted on October 6 east of Jamaica. Passing a short distance south of the island, the hurricane tracked northwestward and brushed the Yucatán Peninsula before turning north-northeastward into the Gulf of Mexico. Late on October 9, it made landfall a short distance east of Apalachicola, Florida at peak winds with an estimated pressure of 969 mbar. Rapidly weakening to tropical storm status, the cyclone continued northeastward and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina on October 11. Later that day, it was last observed about 250 mi (400 km) southeast of Cape Cod.
Heavy damage was reported in Jamaica. Upon making landfall in Florida, the hurricane produced a 7 ft (2.1 m) storm tide, and in Georgia, hurricane-force winds extended into the southwestern portion of the state, while tropical storm force winds occurred along the coastline. In the state, moderate winds damaged trees and roofs, though the destruction was less than anticipated.
## See also
- Atlantic hurricane
- HURDAT
- Tropical cyclone forecasting |
546,037 | New Model Army (band) | 1,173,141,282 | English rock band | [
"EMI Records artists",
"Eagle Records artists",
"English folk rock groups",
"English post-punk music groups",
"Epic Records artists",
"Musical groups established in 1980",
"Musical groups from Bradford",
"Punk rock groups from West Yorkshire"
]
| New Model Army are an English rock band formed in Bradford, West Yorkshire, in 1980 by lead vocalist, guitarist and principal songwriter Justin Sullivan, bassist Stuart Morrow and drummer Phil Tompkins. Sullivan has been the only continuous member of the band, which has seen numerous line-up changes in its four-decade history. Their music draws on influences across the musical spectrum, from punk and folk to soul, metal and classical. Sullivan's lyrics, which range from directly political through to spiritual and personal, have always been considered as a key part of the band's appeal.
Whilst having their roots in punk rock, the band have always been difficult to categorise. In 1999, when asked about this, Sullivan said, "We've been labelled as punks, post-punks, Goth, metal, folk – the lot, but we've always been beyond those style confines". Following a large turnover of personnel, both permanent and as touring members, as of 2021 New Model Army comprise Sullivan, Dean White (keyboards and guitar), Michael Dean (drums) and Ceri Monger (bass).
## History
### Formation and Vengeance (1980–1984)
The band were formed in Bradford, West Yorkshire in the autumn of 1980, taking their name from the standing army formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians during the First English Civil War, and played their first concert in Bradford in October of that year, playing songs based on their shared love of punk rock and Northern soul.
After a few months in the band, original drummer Phil Tompkins lost interest and quit, to be replaced by Rob Waddington. By the time they began making their first records in 1983, Robert Heaton, a former drum technician for space rock band Hawkwind, had replaced Waddington.
Until the mid-1980s, Sullivan used the alter ego of "Slade the Leveller" (Levellers being a radical political movement of the 1640s), supposedly so that he would not lose his unemployment benefits if the authorities realized he was making money from music. They continued to gig around the United Kingdom with little recognition, but in 1983 released their first singles "Bittersweet" and "Great Expectations" on Abstract Records, and were given airplay by BBC Radio 1's disc jockey (DJ) and radio presenter John Peel.
In February 1984, they were invited to play on popular music television programme The Tube, being introduced by Scottish host Muriel Gray as "the ugliest band in rock and roll". The producers of the show however were concerned about the lyrics of "Vengeance", which the band were due to perform ("I believe in justice / I believe in vengeance / I believe in getting the bastards") and so the band played "Christian Militia" instead.
Following this performance, the band's debut studio album Vengeance reached Number 1 in the UK independent chart in early 1984, pushing the Smiths from that position. After a further single "The Price" also reached a high placing in the independent charts, the band signed a recording contract with major label EMI.
### The major label years (1985–1993)
The band then made four studio albums (plus a live album) for EMI and one studio album for Epic Records, in a period of eight years. 1985's No Rest for the Wicked and associated single "No Rest" both made the mainstream top 30 in the UK, the latter leading to some controversy when the band sported T-shirts with the phrase "Only Stupid Bastards Use Heroin" during an appearance on Top of the Pops. During the "No Rest" tour, bassist Stuart Morrow left the band, and after some delay was replaced by 17-year-old Jason "Moose" Harris. However the band were refused work permits to enter the United States, as the US Immigration Department had said the band's work was of "no artistic merit".
In December 1986, the band finally got permission to tour in the US. By this time The Ghost of Cain, produced by Glyn Johns, had been released, and was named best album of the year for 1986 in The Times by David Sinclair, who said that it "was the best thing to happen to English rock music since the first Clash album". Concerts included the Reading Festival and a gig with David Bowie in front of the Reichstag in Berlin, and the band for the first time expanded their touring line-up to include a second guitarist in the shape of Ricky Warwick, as well as harmonica player Mark Feltham from blues band Nine Below Zero.
Thunder and Consolation was released in February 1989, and saw the band moving towards a more folk rock sound, especially on the tracks including violinist Ed Alleyne-Johnson. Described as the band's "landmark" album, it reached number 20 in the UK charts, the singles "Stupid Questions" and "Vagabonds" making an impression in America, and the band was able to tour the album there with Alleyne-Johnson also providing additional guitar and keyboards. At the end of the year however, Harris left the band, to be replaced by Peter "Nelson" Nice, who would play with the band for more than 20 years. 1990's Impurity continued the folk-driven theme with Alleyne-Johnson still to the fore and Adrian Portas joining the band on guitar.
The next studio album was to be a musical change of direction; as Sullivan later said, "just as this folk-cum-rave-cum-crusty-cum-new-age thing broke and became big in the early 1990s, we went – whoosh – done that – and went and made a very angry hard rock album". The Love of Hopeless Causes, New Model Army's only release on Epic Records, appeared in 1993 and led with the single "Here Comes the War", which spawned controversy when it came packaged with instructions on how to construct a nuclear weapon.
### Hiatus and return to independence (1994–2000)
The band had previously decided to take a year out to concentrate on personal and other musical issues, and reconvened in late 1994 with Dean White, playing keyboards and guitar, replacing Alleyne-Johnson. It became clear that all was not well between Sullivan and Heaton; Sullivan later said, "We wrote Thunder and Consolation and it was brilliant, but very shortly after that, we started falling out, which went on during the making of that album. His life went in one direction and mine went in another". It was agreed that they would go their separate ways after the forthcoming studio album and tour. Strange Brotherhood was released on 13 April 1998 to mixed reviews, but then Heaton was diagnosed with a brain tumour. He suggested that his drum technician Michael Dean take over from him to tour the album. By this time the band had formed their own independent label, Attack Attack, and former tour manager Tommy Tee had returned to manage the band. A live album ...& Nobody Else followed in 1999, and their eighth studio album Eight in 2000.
### Death of Robert Heaton, and Carnival to Today is a Good Day (2001–2009)
After touring Eight (2000), the band again took time out, most notably so that Sullivan could concentrate on his debut solo studio album Navigating by the Stars which was eventually released in 2003, and toured by Sullivan, Dean and White. As the band got together to record their ninth studio album, Robert Heaton died from pancreatic cancer on 4 November 2004. Carnival was finally released in September 2005, and includes Sullivan's reaction to Heaton's death, "Fireworks Night". Dave Blomberg was unable to take part in touring the album, and was replaced by guitarist Marshall Gill.
The band's tenth studio album, High, was produced relatively quickly and was released in August 2007. The tour suffered a slight setback when the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services again denied the band visas; this time the issue was relatively quickly resolved and the dates rescheduled for early 2008. Soon afterwards, the band was again shaken as manager Tommy Tee died unexpectedly at the age of 46. By 2009, though, the band were again back in the studio. Today Is a Good Day was a far more uncompromising album, the heavy rock title track and others directly referencing the stock market crash of 2008. As the tour to promote the studio album came to an end, it was drawing close to 30 years since the band had formed.
### 30th anniversary to Winter (2010–2018)
Towards the end of 2010, the band's 30th anniversary was celebrated with special shows across four continents every weekend from September until early December; in most cities, the shows were across two nights with completely different sets, the band having promised to play at least four songs from each of their eleven studio albums plus Lost Songs (2002) and B-Sides and Abandoned Tracks (1994), their rarities and B-sides collections. The final shows at the Forum Kentish Town in London were collected on a double CD and DVD release containing all 58 songs played over the nights of 3 and 4 December.
After the band had played their traditional Christmas shows the following year, the news was released that Nelson had decided to leave the band for personal reasons, a decision that had been taken some time before. A few days later, on Christmas Eve, a fire destroyed the band's recording studio and rehearsal space in Bradford. Numerous guitars and other instruments were lost along with recording equipment and memorabilia. However, the studio was back in operation within three months, and after a number of auditions, Ceri Monger was announced as the band's new bassist and multi-instrumentalist.
In 2013, the band's twelfth studio album, Between Dog and Wolf, mixed by Joe Barresi, was released and became the band's most successful since The Love of Hopeless Causes (1993) 20 years earlier. The album showed a marked shift away from the band's traditional sounds, including rhythms that were described as "tribal", though Sullivan claimed they were merely different ways of using drums – "We really like complex tom-tom rhythms, we really like that pounding (beat)". A year later, Between Wine and Blood (2014) was released, including six previously unreleased studio tracks from the Between Dog and Wolf (2013) sessions, along with eleven live tracks from that album. In October 2014, a documentary feature film about the band's career, Between Dog and Wolf: The New Model Army Story by director Matt Reid premiered at the Raindance Film Festival in London and the Festival du nouveau cinéma in Montreal. The band's fourteenth studio album, Winter, was released on 26 August 2016. Winter was named the \#1 album of 2016 by The Big Takeover.
### From Here and 40th anniversary (2019–present)
On 23 August 2019, the band's fifteenth studio album, From Here, was released. The band had intended to play a number of shows for their 40th anniversary in 2020, but these were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. They did however play an online show on 23 October to mark the exact 40th anniversary of their first show.
They finally played the 40th anniversary shows towards the end of 2021, although guitarist Marshall Gill was absent for these and the early 2022 shows, the band reverting to a four-piece line-up with Dean White predominantly playing guitar as well as keyboards. On 11 November 2022, Gill indicated in a Facebook post that he had been dropped from the band for refusing a COVID-19 vaccine; at the end of 2021 performers still required proof of vaccination to play in a number of countries that the band were visiting.
### Timeline of major contributors
This is a list of musicians who were (or currently have been) a permanent – not touring – member of the band for a significant amount of time.
## "The Family"
Over the years, New Model Army have gathered a wide selection of fans, many of whom dedicatedly follow the band. Originally calling themselves "The Militia", after the song "Christian Militia", they later universally adopted the term "The Family" for their multi-generational and gendered group. Joolz Denby, long-time collaborator of Sullivan and the band's main artist has referred to the Family as "not a formal, contrived organisation, but a spontaneous sense of fellowship that has developed over the years", whilst elsewhere it has been described as "sanctuary ... and acceptance".
## Influences
Frequently noted for their musical lyricism, Justin Sullivan has noted in interviews that some of the band's (and his own) lyrical inspiration has come from Tom Waits, Bruce Springsteen, Gillian Welch, Joni Mitchell, and Bob Dylan, as well as "lots of country and hip-hop artists, all for their precision and poetry."
## Discography
- Vengeance (1984)
- No Rest for the Wicked (1985)
- The Ghost of Cain (1986)
- Thunder and Consolation (1989)
- Impurity (1990)
- The Love of Hopeless Causes (1993)
- Strange Brotherhood (1998)
- Eight (2000)
- Carnival (2005)
- High (2007)
- Today Is a Good Day (2009)
- Between Dog and Wolf (2013)
- Between Wine and Blood (2014)
- Winter (2016)
- From Here (2019) |
1,940,936 | Lisa's Substitute | 1,160,726,629 | null | [
"1991 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about educators",
"Television episodes about elections",
"The Simpsons (season 2) episodes"
]
| "Lisa's Substitute" is the nineteenth episode of the second season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 25, 1991. In the episode, Lisa's teacher Miss Hoover takes medical leave due to what she thinks is Lyme disease, so substitute teacher Mr. Bergstrom takes over the class. Lisa finds Mr. Bergstrom's teaching methods inspiring and discovers an entirely new love for learning. When Miss Hoover returns to class, Lisa is devastated to lose her most positive adult role model. Eventually, she realizes that while Mr. Bergstrom was one of a kind, she can find role models in other people, including her father Homer. Meanwhile, Bart runs for class president against Martin.
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Rich Moore. It is the first episode of the show to have the opening sequence start at the driveway scene. Dustin Hoffman, using the pseudonym Sam Etic, guest-starred as Mr. Bergstrom, who was modeled on the physical appearance of Mike Reiss, a longtime writer and producer on the show. The episode features cultural references to Mike Nichols's film The Graduate, which starred Hoffman, and the novel Charlotte's Web by E. B. White.
Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 11.1, and was the highest-rated show on Fox the week it aired.
## Plot
Lisa's teacher, Miss Hoover, announces to her class that she has Lyme disease, and is taking a leave of absence. She is soon replaced by a substitute teacher, Mr. Bergstrom. When Mr. Bergstrom shows up for his first day teaching Lisa's class, he is dressed as a cowboy and pretends he is in Texas in 1830, and asks the students to name three historical inaccuracies on his costume. Lisa is the only one who guesses correctly, and Mr. Bergstrom is impressed by Lisa's knowledge of his deliberate anachronisms. He rewards her with his cowboy hat. Due to Mr. Bergstrom's unorthodox teaching methods and friendly nature, Lisa begins to look up to him. When Lisa and Homer are visiting a museum, they run into Mr. Bergstrom, and Lisa becomes embarrassed when Homer displays his ignorance. Sensing a void in Lisa and Homer's relationship, Mr. Bergstrom takes Homer aside to suggest he be a more positive role model.
At Marge's suggestion, Lisa goes to invite Mr. Bergstrom to dinner at their home, but is devastated to find Miss Hoover back (it turns out her Lyme disease was psychosomatic) and Mr. Bergstrom gone. Lisa rushes to Mr. Bergstrom's apartment and learns that he has accepted a new job in Capital City. She rushes to the train station right when Mr. Bergstrom is about to board the train and tearfully tells him that she will be lost without him. Mr. Bergstrom replies that the life of a substitute teacher is transient, and he has to help students who need him most. He writes her a note and tells her that any time she feels alone, its contents are all she needs to know. He boards the train and departs. Lisa looks at the note, which reads, "You are Lisa Simpson."
Meanwhile, Bart's class prepares to elect a class president. Mrs. Krabappel nominates Martin, while Sherri and Terri nominate Bart. During a debate with Martin, Bart tells jokes and wins the class over. Certain of his own victory, Bart holds a premature victory party during recess, but he finds out that the majority of students in his class--including himself--did not vote at all, giving Martin the victory with just two votes.
That night at the Simpsons' dinner table, Lisa is visibly devastated by Mr. Bergstrom's departure. When Homer tells Lisa he does not care about her problems, Lisa lashes out at him, calling him a "baboon". Homer is initially confused and offended until Marge calls Homer out on his insensitivity. Homer makes up with Lisa by claiming he has never lost anyone special, and then cheers her up by mimicking a monkey. Lisa apologizes for calling him a "baboon".
Finding Bart seething over the election result, Homer comforts him by pointing out that being class president would have involved extra work with little reward. Homer then sees that Maggie is crying because she has dropped her pacifier, and returns it to her. When Homer goes back downstairs, Marge begins to ask him if he made up with Lisa, but Homer interrupts her and tells her, "Don't say anything, Marge. Let's just go to bed. I'm on the biggest roll of my life."
## Production
"Lisa's Substitute" was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Rich Moore. According to Vitti, The Simpsons producer James L. Brooks contributed more to this episode than he did to any other in the show's history. Vitti said the episode was "very controversial" when it was being made because it "came at a point when the staff were just beginning to realize the comedy potential of the show, but we were trapped with these love stories, and just as the staff were starting to get frustrated with the love stories, along came 'Lisa's Substitute': the biggest, huggiest, warmest and fuzziest of them all."
Mr. Bergstrom was modeled on the physical appearance of Mike Reiss, a longtime writer and producer on the show. American actor Dustin Hoffman provided the voice of Mr. Bergstrom. Hoffman was not sure if he wanted to be identified with a cartoon show at the time, like many early guest stars on The Simpsons, and therefore used the pseudonym Sam Etic in the closing credits. Sam Etic is a play on the word Semitic, alluding to the fact that both Hoffman and Mr. Bergstrom are Jewish. Brooks was the one who suggested the pseudonym, which Hoffman immediately liked. The cast of the show flew to New York to record the episode with Hoffman and were directed by James L. Brooks. Yeardley Smith, who provides the voice of Lisa, said she grew as an actress after working with Hoffman that day. The Simpsons writer Al Jean said he remembered that when the audio track of the episode came back, Hoffman's voice was too low on the singing parts. The staff were "petrified" that the singing scenes would not show up on air, so they had Hoffman re-record them when he was in Los Angeles. Vitti noted that the note Lisa receives at the end of the episode should have had an exclamation point at the end. He did not notice it in the animatic, and it still "haunts [him] to this day".
## Cultural references
Mrs. Krabappel trying to seduce Mr. Bergstrom is a reference to Hoffman's similar situation in the 1967 film The Graduate. Mr. Bergstrom reads a line from the 1952 novel Charlotte's Web to his class. It is implied that this line is the end of the book, but in reality another chapter follows. Vitti said they could not feature more than a line from the book without being sued. The staff contacted a relative of the author E. B. White, but she would not clear the use of the book. When Lisa arrives at Mr. Bergstrom's apartment building, a list of tenants can be seen. One of the names is J. Vitti, for the episode's writer Jon Vitti, and another is J. Kamerman, for then-animator Jen Kamerman. When Bart unexpectedly loses to Martin in the class president race, a picture of Martin holding up a copy of The Daily Fourth Gradian with the headline "Simpson Defeats Prince" is taken, which in turn ends up on the front page of The Daily Fourth Gradian under the headline "Prince Beats Simpson". This is a reference to the famous picture of former President Harry S. Truman holding up a copy of a prematurely printed edition of the Chicago Tribune that proclaimed "Dewey Defeats Truman", taken the day after his unexpected victory over Thomas E. Dewey in 1948.
## Reception
In its original broadcast, "Lisa's Substitute" finished forty-third in the ratings for the week of April 22–28, 1991, with a Nielsen Rating of 11.1, equivalent to approximately ten million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week.
Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics, with Hoffman's performance being critically lauded. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said "Despite a scene-stealing performance from Ms Krabappel, this is Lisa's show. Mr Bergstrom's last message for Lisa is a delightful touch and adds the finishing touch to a wonderful episode." Former TV Squad blogger Adam Finley named "Lisa's Substitute" as one of his top fourteen most touching The Simpsons episodes, and The Simpsons Archive webmaster Jouni Paakkinen rated the episode as his third favorite.
Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide said that Lisa episodes "tend to be goopy", but "Lisa's Substitute" seemed like "a good show, however". He went on to say, "The show offered many other good moments, and it helped expand the Lisa/Homer relationship neatly. The Bart's election subplot punctured any sappiness that otherwise might have occurred. [...] 'Lisa's Substitute' offered a fairly solid program." Emily VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine picked the episode as the show's second best, praising its emotion and Hoffman's performance.
Hoffman has been praised for his guest appearance as Mr. Bergstrom. Entertainment Weekly named it one of the sixteen greatest guest appearances on The Simpsons. In 2007, Simon Crerar of The Times listed his performance as one of the thirty-three funniest cameos in the history of the show. The episode's reference to The Graduate was named the 20th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film's Nathan Ditum. Ditum also ranked Hoffman's performance as the 16th best guest appearance in the show's history.
"Lisa's Substitute" also received positive reviews from the show's cast and crew. Bart's voice actress, Nancy Cartwright, said it is one of her top three episodes, along with "Bart Sells His Soul" and "Bart the Mother", while writer Al Jean said the episode was his favorite sentimental episode. Yeardley Smith, the voice actress of Lisa, has mentioned this episode is one of her favorite Simpsons episodes of all time. Dan Castellaneta, the voice of Homer, named it his favorite episode of the show together with "Simpson and Delilah" and "Homer the Heretic". Executive producer James L. Brooks said he thinks "Lisa's Substitute" stands out because it is The Simpsons' "best show" with a message behind it. Long time director Mark Kirkland named the episode as his favorite during a Reddit "Ask Me Anything" chat. When The Simpsons began streaming on Disney+ in 2019, former Simpsons writer and executive producer Bill Oakley named this one of the best classic Simpsons episodes to watch on the service. |
33,501,539 | Southampton town walls | 1,144,535,528 | Defensive walls in Southampton, UK | [
"Buildings and structures in Southampton",
"City walls in the United Kingdom",
"Grade I listed buildings in Hampshire",
"Grade I listed walls",
"History of Southampton",
"Tourist attractions in Southampton"
]
| Southampton's town walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the town in southern England. Although earlier Roman and Anglo-Saxon settlements around Southampton had been fortified with walls or ditches, the later walls originate with the move of the town to the current site in the 10th century. This new town was defended by banks, ditches and the natural curve of the river and coastline. The Normans built a castle in Southampton but made no attempts to improve the wider defences of the town until the early 13th century, when Southampton's growing prosperity as a trading centre and conflict with France encouraged the construction of a number of gatehouses and stone walls to the north and east sides of the settlement.
In 1338 Southampton was raided by French forces; the town's defences proved inadequate, particularly along the quays on the west and south of the city. Edward III ordered some immediate improvements to Southampton's town walls but it was not until the 1360s that substantial work began. Over the coming decades the town was entirely enclosed by a 2 km (1.25-mile) long stone wall, with 29 towers and eight gates. With the advent of gunpowder weapons in the 1360s and 1370s, Southampton was one of the first towns in England to install the new technology to existing fortifications and to build new towers specifically to house cannon.
Southampton's town walls remained an important defensive feature during the 15th century, the gatehouses sometimes being used as important civic facilities, including acting as the town's guildhall and housing the town's gaol. From the end of the 17th century their importance steadily declined and the walls were slowly demolished or adapted for other uses throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. This process continued into the early 20th century until, in the post-war years, the walls were recognised as an important historical feature of Southampton. Conservation projects have since occurred and the walls are now promoted as a tourist attraction.
## History
### 1st–10th centuries
Several earlier settlements were built near modern Southampton featuring protective town walls. Following the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43 the fortress settlement of Clausentum was established. It was an important trading port and a defensive outpost for the town of Winchester, located on the site of Bitterne Manor, today a suburb of modern Southampton. Clausentum was defended on its eastern, landwards side by a flint stone wall and two ditches. After the fall of the Roman Empire, in the 7th and 8th centuries the Anglo-Saxons built a planned settlement called Hamwic, close to the current location of Southampton, approximately on the location of the later St Mary's church. At least some parts of this burh town had a ditch dug around it, 3 m (10 feet) wide and 1.5 m (5 feet) deep, and possibly was defended by a bank of earth. In the 10th century, Viking raids prompted the settlement of Southampton to move to its current location.
### 11th–13th centuries
By the time that the Normans conquered England in 1066, the town of Southampton occupied a rectangular area overlooking the mouth of the River Test, an important medieval waterway. It was protected by water on most sides and by protective ditches and banks to the north and east. Southampton at this time was a relatively large town, but not as significant as in the later medieval period. The Normans built a castle within the town on the site of a probable large English hall, and considerable damage was caused to the surrounding local buildings as space was opened up for the new fortification.
During the years of the Anarchy, in which the Empress Matilda and Stephen fought for control of England, Southampton was held by William le Gros, the Bishop of Winchester and a supporter of Stephen. When Henry II came to the throne in 1153, he took back Southampton and carried out improvements to the castle, as part of his attempt to improve the general standard of security in the south. By the second half of the 12th century, Southampton was increasingly important for coastal defence and as a base for operations on the continent. Following the threat of French invasion in the 1170s, Henry II invested modest additional resources in the castle, but no efforts were undertaken to improve the town's ditches and banks.
By the 12th century, Southampton was an important trading port with trade routes to Normandy, the Levant and Gascony. Both the town and castle played an important role in this trade, in part forming a warehouse for the king's imports, this process being managed by a Crown Bailiff. The former castle hall was turned into a subterranean vault in the 13th century, probably for storing wine. Stone houses, often combining accommodation and storage facilities, began to be built in Southampton by the wealthiest merchants, particularly in the prosperous western and southern parts of the town, but these properties could not be easily defended against attack.
The English Channel was contested militarily between England and France during the 13th century, and Southampton was both an important base for naval operations and a tempting target for raiders. At the start of the 13th century additional work was therefore conducted to improve the town's defences; the king granted £100 in 1202 and again in 1203 to help develop the earth banks around the town. By 1217 East Gate had been built, probably of stone. In 1260 a murage grant was given to Southampton by Edward I, allowing the town to tax selected imports to build and maintain new stone walls; these initial murage grants ran from 1260 to 1275 and were then renewed between 1282 and 1285 and from 1286 to 1291. By the end of this work, many of the earth banks in the north and east of the town had been converted to stone. There appears to have been little interest in defending the west and south quays, however, probably because doing so would have hampered Southampton's merchants when they moved their trading goods in and out of the town.
### 14th century
By 1300, Southampton was a major port and a large provincial town, with a population of around 5,000. The raising of money through murage grants began again in 1321, possibly paying for the stone towers of the Bargate and some of the semi-circular wall towers. Work also appears to have begun on some stone walling to the south and west of the town, construction may have begun at the South Gate and a wooden barbican was constructed near the western docks. Later investigations by the Crown would suggest that some of the monies raised in these murage grants had been misspent, however, contributing to the poor standard of town defences, which included large gaps in the walled circuit.
In 1338 there was a successful French attack on Southampton: the town's defences, particularly in the west, proved quite inadequate and the French succeeded in burning numerous buildings down, particularly along the western quays, and damaging the castle. Edward III responded to the raid by taking immediate steps to shore up Southampton's defences and ordering the town to be fully enclosed by stone walls. In 1339 the sheriff conscripted workmen and specialists to improve the defences, and money to pay for the building materials was raised by commuting the prison sentence of a senior official in Southampton to a fine. Murage grants were reinstated in 1345, but the economy of Southampton had been temporarily devastated by the raids and indeed never fully recovered. The king's instructions to fully enclose the town with walls could not be carried out. Nonetheless, by the 1350s, Southampton had mounted mangonel and springald siege engines on the existing walls.
In 1360 the king conducted an inquiry into Southampton's defences and in 1363 he established a wider commission to examine how best to improve them. The commission came to a number of conclusions: the town walls should be better maintained and kept clear of housing and other obstructions; the number of gateways in the walls should be reduced; and a water-filled ditch should be built to further reinforce the walls on the west. The enquiry also concluded that the outer doors and ground floor windows of properties facing the sea should be filled in to form a more defensible line.
The resulting work on Southampton's defences resulted in considerable improvements: by the late 14th century, the town was completely encircled by 2 km (1.25 miles) of stone walls. Some existing buildings, including a dovecote, were reinforced and pressed into service as part of the defences. South Gate was built to protect the southern quays, with a wide archway, complete with parapets and machicolations. The building work proved very expensive, however, and despite the mayor and bailiffs enforcing contributions and assistance from the citizens, Parliament had to be asked several times in the 1370s to assist by remitting arrears of taxes owed by Southampton.
In 1370 the French made a successful attack on Portsmouth, commencing a new sequence of raids along the English coast. In due course first Edward, then Richard II, responded by improving the defences in the south of England. Part of this involved improving the condition of Southampton Castle, where, owing in part to the theft of building materials, including stone and lead, by the citizens of the town, the defences were in a poor condition. Henry Yevele, who oversaw the improvements to the castle, probably also constructed the Arcades along the western walls in 1380: this involved adopting the 1360 proposal to block up the properties along the western quay to form a solid wall, and adding three towers and gunports. Sir John Sondes and John Polymond were appointed by the king in 1386 to further improve the town walls, working with Sir John Arundel, the castle governor – Polymond and Arundel Towers were probably named after these men around this time.
One of the major changes from the 1370s onwards was the adaptation of the town walls to mount gunpowder weapons. At this time cannon were still unreliable, only capable of reaching relatively short ranges and required the construction of specialist gunports. Cannons fired stone cannonballs, which did relatively little damage to stronger stone walls, and so were primarily used in defence of fortifications rather than as an offensive weapon by besiegers. The first gunports in Britain were installed in the 1360s on the Isle of Wight, but Southampton was not far behind. Around 1378 to 1379 the ongoing French threat led to gunports for handguns being built into the western Arcade wall, and by 1382 the town bought its own gun. God's House Tower was built to defend the southern quays around 1417 and the sluices that controlled the level of the town's moats, and equipped with numerous gunports rooftop firing points, and by 1439 Catchcold tower had also been constructed, again designed to accommodate gunpowder weapons.
Another change in the 1370s was the formalisation of the process of guarding and maintaining the walls. During the invasion scare of 1377, Edward instructed the mayor to review these processes; it appears that the four wards of the town were surveyed, and each property was assigned a piece of the wall to maintain, varying according to the size of the property. For these purposes, the walls were measured out in units called loupes, or embrasures. The four wards were also responsible for the security and policing of the town.
### 15th–16th centuries
The threat of French attack continued throughout the 15th century. Instead of relying on murage grants, more funds for the town walls were directly granted by the king in 1400, including an ongoing annual grant of £100. Concerns increased significantly after the invasion scare of 1457, when French troops successfully attacked the town of Sandwich on the south coast. Indeed, the guns on Southampton's walls were fired at French raiding ships the same year. The walls continued to be maintained for the rest of the century, with £40 being allocated annually between 1478 and 1485 for this purpose. By contrast, the castle fell into a rapid decline and its inner bailey became used first as a rubbish tip, then for small-scale agriculture.
Nonetheless, a report on the quality of the walls around 1460 noted that on the north and east sides of Southampton, the walls were still too thin to block a cannon shot or for a man to stand on them; a wood and earth wall-walk had been built behind the walls, but this was proving very expensive to maintain. This contemporary assessment of the weakness of the eastern walls has been confirmed by modern archaeological excavation – in places it was only 0.76 m (2.49 feet) thick, compared to a typical thickness in other English town walls of around 1 m (3.28 feet).
A survey in 1454, undertaken against the background of another French invasion scare, shows that the 1377 system for maintaining the walls was still in operation. A town gunner had also been appointed by the 15th century, earning the highest salary of any local official and was responsible for maintaining the guns and manufacturing gunpowder. As late as the mid-16th century, additional improved rectangular gunports, similar to those on the Device Forts along the Channel, were added to the West Gate by the quays.
Several of the gatehouses played an important part in the administration of the town in the 15th century. South Gate formed the main administrative centre for the port during the period, housing the Clerk of the King's Ships and collecting customs revenue. It was expanded in the 1430s and 1440s, but was in poor condition again by the 1480s, resulting in fresh construction work around the site. Bargate was partially used as a prison from the 15th century, in a similar fashion to many other towns. The first floor of the building had been used as the town's guildhall from at least 1441 onwards, and the treasury was kept in one of the towers. Elaborate feasts were served there on special occasions.
### 17th–20th centuries
The town walls became less important for defence in the 17th century, although in 1633, a footpath was built around the inside of the wall to help the watch and other law officers better pursue vagrants and criminals. The walls fared better than Southampton Castle, which was sold off to property speculators in 1618, but they played no part in the English Civil War. Some of the masonry from the castle was reused to strengthen the town walls in 1650 during the Third English Civil War.
In the 18th century onwards the town walls were often adapted for new uses or simply demolished. As early as 1641, the chapel above East Gate had been leased out to private tenants. By 1707, part of God's House tower was being used as a prison; from 1786 it became the official town gaol. As the century progressed, East Gate was demolished in 1774, South Gate was mostly demolished in 1803 and Biddles Gate shortly afterwards, along with large sections of adjacent wall.
As the 19th century progressed, the destruction and remodelling of the town walls continued. The upper stories of Polymond Tower were demolished in the 1820s, to be rebuilt by 1846 as a shorter, two-storey tower. The remains of the South Gate were turned into a hotel. God's House tower continued to be used as a gaol, but was criticised by inspectors. An 1823 report described it as an "old and very awkward" facility, containing around a dozen prisoners in damp conditions, and where it was hard to separate the male and female prisoners in an appropriate fashion. In 1855 its role as a gaol was concluded, and the building fell into disuse.
In other areas, civic improvements were attempted. In 1853 the "Forty Steps" were built down the side of the west walls to make access to the town easier. Parts of the Arcades were blocked up to prevent homeless people from sleeping under the arches and disturbing the neighbourhood. The Bargate ceased to be used as the guildhall in 1888 and was heavily restored by the town in what was felt to be a more consistent medieval style.
The urban growth of Southampton, as in many English walled towns and cities, put considerable pressure on the older fortifications. In 1898 to 1899, for example, parts of the wall west of Biddles Gate, including a square tower, were demolished to create the Western Esplanade road. By the second half of the century, the Bargate and the surrounding walls were creating serious traffic congestion; various options were considered to relieve this including demolition, but it was not until the 1930s that the decision was made to retain the gatehouse, but to destroy the walls on either side.
Some parts of the Southampton walls were used to mount searchlights and machineguns on during the Second World War; the walls escaped damage, unlike many other areas of the medieval city. In the post-war period the historic importance of the town walls was recognised and considerable conservation work has been conducted on the walls, including reversing the Victorian alterations to the Arcades. The town walls became seen as an important part of Southampton's tourist industry; health and safety concerns, however, prohibit tourists walking along most of the circuit. God's House tower reopened in 1961 as Southampton's Museum of Archaeology. Today the walls are protected as grade I listed buildings and as a scheduled monument.
## Architecture
Around half the length of the 2 km (1.25-mile) long medieval town walls still survives in the 21st century, mainly on the north and west sides of Southampton, together with 13 of the 29 defensive towers and six out of the eight gates. The towers are a combination of circular and square designs, with many showing an "open-gorged" design, similar to those built in North Wales, that could be isolated from the rest of the walls by removing small wooden bridges. In general the town walls at Southampton were poorly built in a somewhat chaotic fashion over several years. By contrast, the surviving gatehouses are sophisticated and well designed, probably as a result of their civic importance. Archaeologists Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham describe the surviving walls as "extremely well preserved" and containing "unique survivals in a British context".
In the south-east corner of the walls is God's House tower. This is architecturally important as it was one of the first urban buildings to be built to hold gunpowder artillery – in this respect, it closely resembles Cow Tower in Norwich. The tower was built alongside God's House Gate and is three storeys high. The gunports designed for handcannon can be seen on the outside, and the roof was designed to hold larger cannon. Adjacent to the tower is God's House Gate, a two-storey building also equipped with a gun-port.
Little remains of the eastern walls, but in the north-east corner several towers still remain largely intact, including Polymond tower, a powerful drum tower largely reconstructed during the Victorian period. Further west is the Bargate; this was originally a simple archway but was expanded with drum towers and arrow slits in the early 14th century, and then expanded again in the early 15th century with battlements and parapets, before being heavily restored in the 19th century. The Bargate remains an elaborate building, taking military symbolism and combining it with rich civic heraldry and decoration above the gateway.
At the north-west corner of the walls stands Arundel tower, another large drum tower that originally overlooked a small cliff. South of this is Catchcold tower which was designed to be defended with guns and has three gunports; the need to support cannon leaves it much heavier in appearance than the other circular towers on the walls. The remains of machine gun mountings fitted to the tower in 1941 can still be seen. The Arcades form part of the surviving west walls and are a unique feature in England; their closest architectural equivalent are in Rouen, France. The West Gate still stands three storeys high and was originally defended by two portcullises; the windows on the west side of the gate are the original medieval designs. Along the south side of the walls one of the twin towers protecting the South Gate still stands, largely intact.
## See also
- List of town walls in England and Wales
- Chester city walls
- York city walls |
20,466,582 | SM U-22 (Austria-Hungary) | 1,143,984,789 | Austro-Hungarian Navy's U-20-class submarine | [
"1917 ships",
"Ships built in Fiume",
"U-20-class submarines",
"U-boats commissioned in 1917",
"World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary"
]
| SM U-22 or U-XXII was a U-20-class submarine or U-boat built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy (German: Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine) during the First World War. The design for U-22 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy's Havmanden class (three of which had been built in Austria-Hungary), and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war.
U-22 was just over 127 feet (39 m) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes, a deck gun, and a machine gun. The submarine was laid down in mid 1915 and launched in January 1917. The still unfinished U-boat sank in the harbor at Fiume in June but was raised, repaired, and relaunched in October. After her commissioning in November, U-22 patrolled off the Po River estuary and, later, in the northern Adriatic out of Trieste.
After undergoing months of repairs for her failed electric motor in mid 1918, U-22 returned to duty and patrolled off the Montenegrin coast out of Cattaro in August. At Cattaro at the end of World War I, U-22 was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. U-22 had no wartime successes.
## Design and construction
When it became apparent to the Austro-Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one, they moved to bolster their U-boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines, three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume. Although the Austro-Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design, which was largely obsolete, it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards. The Austro-Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U-22 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915.
U-22 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Hungarian UBAG yard in Fiume. Due to demands by the Hungarian government, subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms, and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design, resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general.
U-22 was an ocean-going submarine that displaced 173 tonnes (191 short tons) surfaced and 210 tonnes (231 short tons) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18. She was 127 feet 2 inches (38.76 m) long with a beam of 13 feet (4.0 m) and a draft of 9 feet (2.7 m). For propulsion, she featured a single shaft, a single 450 bhp (340 kW) diesel engine for surface running, and a single 160 shp (120 kW) electric motor for submerged travel. She was capable of 12 knots (22 km/h) while surfaced and 9 knots (17 km/h) while submerged. Although there is no specific notation of a range for U-22, the Havmanden class, upon which the U-20 class was based, had a range of 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km) at 10 knots (19 km/h), surfaced, and 23 nautical miles (43 km) at 8 knots (15 km/h) submerged.
U-22 was armed with two 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes. She was also equipped with a 66 mm (2.6 in) deck gun and an 8 mm (0.31 in) machine gun.
U-22 was laid down at Fiume in mid 1915 and launched on 27 January 1917, the last of the four U-20-class boats to be launched. On 10 June, while not yet complete, the U-boat sank in the harbor at Fiume. Raised from her resting point at a depth of 9 meters (30 ft) the following day, U-22 underwent four months of repairs. She was launched again on 6 October.
## Service career
On 18 November 1917 the U-boat sailed for Pola, where she was commissioned as SM U-22 on 23 November under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Josef Holub. The 31-year-old Galician had been assigned to U-22 in February and had been in charge of sister boat U-21 from June 1916 until his assignment to U-22.
Holub led U-22 out on her first patrol when they departed Pola on 5 December for duty off the Po estuary. After returning to Pola on 10 December, Holub led U-22 on another Po estuary tour from 15 to 17 December. On 29 December, Holub was transferred to U-27. His replacement was Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Sterz. It was the first U-boat command of the 25-year-old native of Pergine, Tyrolia (in present-day Italy).
On 3 January 1918, Sterz returned U-22 to the Po estuary for a third patrol there. While in the area, an enemy submarine was spotted but no attack could be made because of bad weather; the same bad weather forced U-22 to put in at Rovigno the following day. Setting out from Rovigno on 5 January, U-22 unsuccessfully attacked an Italian torpedo boat and two steamships. After a return to Rovigno on 6 January, Sterz steered his boat to the submarine base at Brioni. Ten days later, U-22 headed to Trieste, where she conducted patrols in the northern Adriatic. On 5 February, U-22 avoided being hit by seven bombs dropped by an enemy airplane. Departing the northern Adriatic in late April, U-22 was headed for Cattaro when her electric motor failed. After a quick stop at Cattaro, U-22 returned to Pola for three months of repairs.
After returning to service in August, U-22 operated out of Catttaro, patrolling off the Montenegrin coast over the next two months. On 17 October, the boat returned to Cattaro, where she remained until the war's end. She was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. Like all of her sister boats, U-22 had no wartime successes. |
45,633,707 | K-20 (Kansas highway) | 1,066,770,606 | Highway in Kansas | [
"State highways in Kansas",
"Transportation in Brown County, Kansas",
"Transportation in Doniphan County, Kansas"
]
| K-20 is a 37.21-mile-long (59.88 km) west–east state highway in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Kansas. It connects U.S. Route 75 (US-75) in the Kickapoo Nation Indian Reservation with K-7 southwest of Troy. Along the way, K-20 intersects several major highways, including U.S. Route 159 in Horton, and overlaps U.S. Route 73 from Horton to south of Everest. Northeast of Denton, the highway intersects K-120, which travels north to Severance and Highland. K-20 travels through mostly rural farmlands and is a two-lane highway its entire length.
Before state highways were numbered in Kansas, there were auto trails. K-20 overlaps the former Capitol Route near Horton. From Horton to south of Everest, the highway overlaps the former George Washington National Highway and King of Trails. The section from K-120 to Bendena overlaps the former Pikes Peak Ocean to Ocean Highway. K-20 was established by 1928, and at that time ran from US-73E south of Everest east to K-16 south of Troy. On July 11, 1956, it was approved to extend K-20 from US-73 west to US-75 as soon as the county had improved the roadway. Then by August 1956, the county had finished the required projects and it was officially extended.
## Route description
K-20's western terminus is at US-75 north of Holton on the border of the Kickapoo Indian Reservation. The highway proceeds east through mostly open pastures with some small forested areas to a crossing over the Delaware River. K-20 then passes through a group of houses and reaches Goldfinch Road at the Kickapoo Tribal Center. The roadway continues east through rural grasslands and soon reaches an intersection with Hazelnut Drive, which marks the eastern border of the reservation. The highway soon intersects Horned Owl Road, which travels north to Mercier, before reaching a crossing over Grasshopper Creek.
The highway continues a short distance before entering Horton as 15th Street. Within the city, K-20 intersects and begins to overlap with US-73 and US-159. The three highways continue for approximately 420 feet (130 m) where US-159 turns south, as K-20 and K-73 continue east. The two highways then pass Municipal Reservoir and cross Mission Creek, as the highway exits the city. The two routes proceed east through open farmlands to a point where K-20 turns north toward Everest as US-73 continues east. K-20 continues north for a short distance before entering Everest as 5th Street. The highway proceeds through the city to Main Street, where it turns east and crosses a Union Pacific Railway track. The highway then exits the city and curves north at Racoon Road. The roadway curves back east and proceeds through open farmland before entering into Doniphan County.
Just past the county line, the highway intersects K-137 which travels south to Purcell. K-20 continues east to Black Jack Road, where it shifts 0.5 miles (0.80 km) south, before curving back east. It proceeds through rural farmlands to Coronado Road and 115th Street where it curves north. The highway continues north through flat rural farmland with scattered areas of trees to a crossing over the North Branch Independence River. K-20 continues north, passing along the east border of Denton before curving east at 160th Road. The roadway continues east to a junction with K-120, which travels north to Severance. K-20 passes by Doniphan West Elementary School and continues east to Bendena. The highway continues through rural farmland for a short distance before reaching its eastern terminus at K-7 southwest of Troy.
In 2018, the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) determined that on average the traffic varied from 190 vehicles per day near slightly east of Purcell to 2,910 vehicles per day slightly east of Horton along the overlap with US-73. K-20 is not included in the National Highway System, but does connect to it at its western terminus.
## History
### Early roads
Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails, which were an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century. K-20 overlaps the former Capital Route from Horned Owl Road to Horton. From Horton to south of Everest, the highway overlaps the former George Washington National Highway which ran from Savannah to Seattle, and King of Trails which ran from Galveston and San Antonio north to Winnipeg. The section from K-120 to Bendena overlaps the former Pikes Peak Ocean to Ocean Highway, which was formed early in 1912, and travelled from New York City to Los Angeles.
### Establishment and realignments
K-20 was established by the Kansas State Highway Commission, now known as KDOT, by 1928, and at that time ran from US-73E south of Everest east through Denton and Severance to K-16 south of Troy. By 1934, US-73E was renumbered to US-73 and K-16 was decommissioned and became an extension of K-7. The section between Horton and the eastern terminus was paved in 1948. In a meeting on July 11, 1956, it was approved to extend K-20 from Horton west to US-75 as soon as the county had cleared brush and the ditches as well as fixing the slope of the roadway. By August 1956, the county had finished the required projects and in a meeting on August 9, 1956, it was approved and officially extended.
On July 12, 1950, the section of what is now K-20 from US-73 north to the city of Everest was established as K-114. The commission authorized relocations of US-73 from south of Everest to Huron and K-20 east of Everest through a resolution on August 12, 1964. Prior to this, US-73 followed Racoon Road and Douglas Road south to 326th Road, then followed 326th Road east to Huron. Additionally, K-20 ran north–south to the east of Everest along Racoon Road. At this time, K-20 was approved to be relocated to pass through Everest and assume the course of K-114. By 1967, K-114 had been replaced by K-20 when the relocation of US-73 was completed.
## Major intersections
## See also |
23,947,588 | Carpenter House (Norwich, Connecticut) | 1,168,954,039 | Historic house in Connecticut, United States | [
"Georgian architecture in Connecticut",
"Historic American Buildings Survey in Connecticut",
"Historic district contributing properties in Connecticut",
"Houses completed in 1793",
"Houses in Norwich, Connecticut",
"Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut",
"National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut"
]
| The Carpenter House, also known as the Gardiner (Gardner) Carpenter House and the Red House, is a Georgian style house in Norwichtown area of Norwich, Connecticut. A house was previously on the site, but it was removed by Gardner Carpenter to construct the house in 1793. The three-story Flemish bond Georgian house's front facade consists of five bays with a gabled porch over the main entrance and supported by round columns. The gambrel roof and third story addition were added around 1816 by Joseph Huntington. In 1958, a modern one-story rear wing was added to the back of the house. The interior of the house is a center hall plan with 10-foot (3.0 m) high ceilings and has been renovated, but retains much of its original molding, paneling and wrought iron hardware. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and added to the Norwichtown Historic District in 1973.
## History
Historical records for Gardner Carpenter's life are sparse in detail, but the Vital records of Norwich, 1659-1848 Part II provide some information. Gardner Carpenter married Mary Huntington, daughter of Benjamin Huntington Jr., on October 29, 1791. Carpenter was a local business man who operated his mercantile business in a shop that was shared with his brother, Joseph Carpenter, the silversmith. The Carpenters' shared shop is historically significant and is known as the Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop. A 1906 paper titled Norwich: early homes and history identified Gardner Carpenter as the builder of the store and noted that Gardner Carpenter was one of the first traders of Norwich. In 1793, the house which is now known as the Carpenter House was constructed on the property after a previous house on the land was removed. Gardner and Mary Carpenter would have six children together; their first son, George, was born in 1795 and their first and only daughter, Mary Elizabeth, in 1797. Another son, Gardner Carpenter, was born in 1802 and was followed by Henry in 1804, John in 1807 and Charles in 1810. Gardiner Carpenter served as a pay master in the 17th Connecticut Regiment in the American Revolutionary War and he was the postmaster of Norwich from 1799 to 1814, shortly before his death in 1815. His wife, Mary Carpenter, died in 1838. The house was sold to Joseph Huntington after Carpenter's death, who would add a third story around 1816. The house was sold again to Reverend Hiram P. Arms in 1841.
## Design
The Georgian house is built on the north end of the Norwichtown green and faces East Town Street. The walls of the three-story house are made of brick laid in Flemish bond and painted a cranberry red. The front facade consist of five bays with a gabled porch over the main entrance and supported by round columns. The doorway is not original, but has a transom of six lights on top. The windows of the house are double hung six-over-six sash with the windows on the first floor have flat splayed lintels mimicking the gabled porch. The third story is also the attack and has an oversized gambrel roof that over hangs the two stories, the roof was covered with asphalt shingles at the time of its nomination in 1970. This addition of the third story was done about 1816 when the house was owned by Joseph Huntington. A modern one-story rear wing is at the back of the house, the last addition dating to 1958. Four chimneys arise from the roof of the house, with two interior chimneys and a rear chimney on the main house with a smaller fourth chimney on the one-story rear addition. The interior of the house is a typical center hall plan which retains much of its original moldings, paneling and wrought iron hardware. The 1958 addition added a 16-foot (4.9 m) by 26-foot (7.9 m) family room.
The interior of the house comprises 3,200 square feet (300 m<sup>2</sup>) and was renovated sometime after its addition to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. Circa 1980, the home was purchased by the Chassanoff family and underwent a historical restoration. The Chassanoffs' restoration included removing the wallpaper, applying historic paint colors and stripping and refinishing the original floor's wooden planks. The renovations also included using wood shingles to preserve the authenticity of the house. The interior consists of 11 rooms and includes 10-foot (3.0 m) high ceilings. Four rooms are on the second floor, including a 15-foot (4.6 m) by 16-foot (4.9 m) master bedroom. The house has a total of six known fireplaces with another two likely concealed under plaster. The floors were restored and some planks had to be replaced in the process.
## Importance
The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 6, 1970. It was made a part of the Norwichtown Historic District on January 17, 1973, but was unaccredited as a separately listed property at the time. On the district nomination the house is spelled alternatively as the "Gardner House". Luyster writes, "This is a good example of Georgian housing of the colonial period. Its value is increased because of the historical and architectural value of the buildings which surround it since it is located next to the Norwich town green which is the focal point of the historic district in that area." The home was featured as part of a historic house tour in 1993's "More Reflections on the Past." In 2002, the house was available for purchase and remains a private residence as of 2014.
## See also
- National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut |
20,942,959 | Crucibulum | 1,091,717,717 | Genus of fungi | [
"Agaricales genera",
"Fungi of Asia",
"Fungi of Australia",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of New Zealand",
"Fungi of North America",
"Inedible fungi",
"Nidulariaceae"
]
| <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
For the gastropod, see :Crucibulum (gastropod).
</div>
Crucibulum is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of falling drops of rain. The "eggs" inside the bird's nests (technically known as peridioles) are hard waxy shells containing spores, and tend to stick to whatever nearby herbage they land on, thus increasing the odds of being consumed and dispersed by herbivorous animals. Members of this genus are saprobic, obtaining nutrients from dead organic matter, and are typically found growing on decayed wood and wood debris. The three known Crucibulum species (C. laeve, C. parvulum, and C. cyathiforme) are distinguished from other genera of the Nidulariaceae by their relatively simple funiculus – a cord of hyphae that connects the peridiole (the "eggs") to the exterior of the bird's nest.
## History
Bird's nest fungi were first mentioned by Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius in Rariorum plantarum historia (1601). Over the next couple of centuries, these fungi were the subject of some controversy regarding whether the peridioles were seeds, and the mechanism by which they were dispersed in nature. For example, the French botanist Jean-Jacques Paulet, in his work Traité des champignons (1790–3), erroneously suggested that peridioles were ejected from the fruiting bodies by some sort of spring mechanism.
The structure and biology of the genus Crucibulum was better known by the mid-19th century, when the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne published a monograph on the bird's nest fungi. Subsequently, monographs were written in 1902 by Violet S. White (American species),Curtis Gates Lloyd in 1906, Gordon Herriot Cunningham in 1924 (New Zealand species), and Harold J. Brodie in 1975.
The type species for the genus Crucibulum described by the Tulasne brothers was Crucibulum vulgare, an older synonym of the species known today as C. laeve. However, this naming choice was later deemed invalid by rules of fungal nomenclature; the first name validly applied to the species was C. laeve, use by De Candolle, who had based his species upon Nidularia laevis as it appeared in Bulliard's Histoire des Champignons de la France (Paris, 1791). Kambly and Lee published the first taxonomically valid description of the genus in 1936. In their 1844 monograph on the Nidulariaceae, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne used the name Crucibulum vulgare, and the species was known by this name until the International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi (ICTF) changed the starting-point date for the naming of fungi, and C. vulgare was deemed invalid. The etymology of the specific epithet is derived from the Latin laeve, meaning "smooth".
## Description
Crucibulum species have light tan to cinnamon-colored fruiting bodies, known as a peridium, that are cup- or crucible-shaped. Depending on the species, the size of the peridium may range from 2–4 tall by 1.5–3 mm wide at the mouth (for C. parvulum) to 5–10 mm tall by 5–8 mm wide (for C. laeve). Viewed microscopically, the wall of the peridium is made of a single layer of tissue, in contrast to the three-layered peridium wall in Cyathus species. The outer surface of the peridium has hyphae that agglutinate so as to form a texture with visible filaments, a condition known as fibrillose; this outer layers of hairs typically wears off with age to leave a relatively smooth surface. Young specimens have a thin layer of tissue called an epiphragm that covers the top of the peridium; it wears off at maturity to expose the peridioles within. There are usually 4–6 peridioles (up to 15 have been noted for C. laeve) that are disc-shaped, whitish in color, and attached to the endoperidium by a strand called a funicular cord. Made of mycelia, The funicular cord tends to wither away and disappear as the fruiting body ages. Spores from Crucibulum species typically have an elliptical or roughly spherical shape, and are thick-walled, translucent (hyaline) or light yellow-brown in color, with dimensions of 5–15 by 5–8 μm. the spores of C. cyathiforme are notably slightly or strongly curved.
Because the basic fruiting body structure in all genera of the family Nidulariaceae is essentially similar, Crucibulum may be readily confused with species of Nidula or Cyathus, especially older, weathered specimens of Cyathus that may have the hairy ectoperidium worn off. It distinguished from Nidula by the presence of a funiculus, a cord of hyphae attaching the peridiole to the endoperidium. Cyathus differs from genus Crucibulum by having a distinct three-layered wall and a more intricate funiculus.
### Peridiole structure
Derived from the Greek word peridion, meaning "small leather pouch", the peridiole is the "egg" of the bird's nest. It is a mass of basidiospores and glebal tissue enclosed by a hard and waxy outer shell. In Crucibulum, the disc-shaped peridioles are light buff or white; the white colouring is due to a persistent layer of tissue surrounding the peridioles, called a tunica. Inside the peridiole is a spore-bearing tissue (the hymenium) that is made of spore-bearing cells (basidia), sterile (non-reproductive) structures, and spores.
Peridioles are attached to the fruiting body by a funiculus, a structure of hyphae that may be differentiated into three regions: the basal piece, which attaches it to the inner wall of the peridium, the middle piece, and an upper sheath, called the purse, connected to the lower surface of the peridiole. In the purse and middle piece is a coiled thread of interwoven hyphae called the funicular cord, attached at one end to the peridiole and at the other end to an entangled mass of hyphae called the hapteron. In Crucibulum species the peridioles is covered by a whitish tunica. The funiculus of Crucibulum species is markedly different from those of Cyathus species: in Crucibulum, the purse is a rounded knob 0.3–0.5 mm wide, attached to the underside of the peridiole. Attaching the purse directly to the wall of the peridium is a stout yellow-grey cord 0.1 mm wide and about 2.5 mm long.
## Spore dispersal
Spores are dispersed when a peridiole is dislodged by raindrops or water dripping off an over-hanging leaf. The smooth inner walls of the fruiting body consistently form an angle of 70–75° with the horizontal; it has been demonstrated experimentally that the combined effect of the crucible shape and internal wall angle produce a good splash action. The force of the falling water splashes out the peridiole, uncoiling and snapping the funiculus, the cord that connects it to the fruiting body. As the peridiole continues its flight, the funiculus extends to its full length. The sticky end of the funiculus may adhere to a leaf or a twig some distance away, and the peridiole may end up being wrapped around or hanging down the object to which the funiculus is stuck. The spores can germinate when the thick outer wall of the peridiole wears away, or the peridiole may be eaten by a herbivorous animal, and ultimately passed through its digestive system. This method of spore dispersal, first suggested by John Ray in the late 17th century, was tested experimentally by Martin (1927), and more thoroughly by Buller and Brodie in the 1940s.
## Life cycle
The life cycle of Crucibulum, which contains both haploid and diploid stages, is typical of the species of Basidiomycota that can reproduce both asexually (via vegetative spores), or sexually (with meiosis). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruiting bodies.
The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hyphae, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood. These hyphae are homokaryotic, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy. Prerequisites for mycelial survival and colonization a substrate (like rotting wood) include suitable humidity and nutrient availability. Crucibulum laeve is saprobic, so mycelial growth in rotting wood is made possible by the secretion of enzymes that break down complex polysaccharides (such as cellulose and lignin) into simple sugars that can be used as nutrients.
After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions, the dikaryotic mycelia may enter the reproductive stage of the life cycle. Fruiting body formation is influenced by external factors such as season (which affects temperature and air humidity), nutrients and light. As fruiting bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce basidiospores, each containing a single haploid nucleus. The dikaryotic mycelia from which the fruiting bodies are produced is long lasting, and will continue to produce successive generations of fruiting bodies as long as the environmental conditions are favorable.
## Development
The initial studies on the development of the fruiting bodies in Crucibulum were performed by the brothers Tulasne (1844), Sachs (1855), DeBary (1866), Eidam (1877), and Walker (1920). Collectively, these early researchers determined that basidiospores are produced on club-shaped basidia which line the internal cavity of the peridiole. Basidia typically have 4 spores, attached by a short projection (a sterigma); after being detached from the basidia the spores migrate towards the center of the peridiole concurrently with the collapse and gelatinization of the underlying tissues.
## Bioactive compounds
Grown in liquid culture, Crucibulum laeve produces bioactive chemicals called salfredins that are structurally related to benzofuran and chromene, molecules that contain cyclic amide or lactone five-membered ring structures; these compounds are unique to this species. Salfredin B<sub>11</sub> was first identified in 1995, while later research confirmed the presence of additional salfredin-type metabolites. These compounds are inhibitors of aldose reductase, an enzyme that has been implicated in the formation of cataracts in advanced stages of diabetes mellitus. The salfredin compounds may have therapeutic use in the treatment of this disorder.
## Habitat and distribution
Like other bird's nest fungi, Crucibulum species are saprobic and derive their nutrients from decomposing organic matter. They are typically found growing on wood and woody debris such as stems, twigs, wood chips, old nut shells, and old matting; they are sometimes found on "dried manure cakes". Brodie notes (of C. laeve) they are "never" found on soil or large logs. C. parvulum has been found on the roots and stems of old or dead dry land plants such as Juniperus horizontalis and Artemisia species.
C. laeve, the most well-known species of Crucibulum, is a temperate-zone species with a circumpolar distribution. It has been collected in most European countries and the Canary Islands; in North America it has been found from Alaska to Mexico, while South American locations include Chile and Tierra del Fuego. It has also been found in Australia, Iceland, Japan, and New Zealand. C. parvulum has a primarily North American distribution, having been found in Alaska, southern Alberta Badlands, the Canadian Rocky Mountains and in semi-deserts of Idaho; in 2004 it was collected in China. C. cyathiforme is only known from Colombia—where it was discovered growing at an elevation of nearly 7000 feet (2146 metres)— and Armenia.
## Edibility
Species in the family Nidulariaceae, including Crucibulum, are considered inedible, as they are "not sufficiently large, fleshy, or odorous to be of interest to humans as food". However, there have not been reports of poisonous alkaloids or other substances considered toxic to humans.
## Species
Until the 1970s Crucibulum was thought to be monotypic, containing the single species C. laeve (formerly C. vulgaris). This was in part due to the stance that Curtis Gates Lloyd and other mycologists had taken in the early 20th century, believing that the designation of new species was not justifiable due to the existence of intermediate forms in similar habitats and close proximity. In 1970–71, Brodie discovered and reported two variants that differed from C. laeve sufficiently to justify naming them as new species.
### C. cyathiforme
The specific epithet of this species refers to the vase-like or Cyathus-like (obconic) form of the peridia. It differs from Crucibulum laeve in the shape and pink-color of its peridia, as well as its slightly or strongly curved spores (typically 6.5–8 x 11–17 μm). It was found growing on rotten wood and soil in Colombia by mycologist Gastón Guzmán.
### C. laeve
Crucibulum laeve or the white-egg bird's nest have peridia that are 3–7 mm in diameter x 3–8 mm tall, cup-shaped, short and cylindrical with roughly parallel side walls. The tomentose exterior surface is tan to yellow when young and whiter in age. Young specimens have a coarsely tomentose epiphragm (membranous cover) that soon disappears. The peridioles are 1–2 mm broad, tan to white in color, disc-shaped, and wrinkled when dry. This species grows on material like twigs, lignin-rich vegetable debris, wood chips, old matting, or manure.
The immature fruiting body of Crucibulum laeve (technically, the peridium), is roughly spherical in shape, but in maturity the base is narrowed slightly relative to the top, so that it appears like a cup, or crucible. The fruiting bodies are usually 5–8 mm tall and almost as wide at the mouth. When young, the mouth is enclosed by a thin membrane called an epiphragm, which is covered with surface hairs. As the fruiting body matures and the fruiting body expands, the epiphragm ruptures, exposing the internal contents. The wall of the fruiting body is made of a single uniform layer of closely interwoven hyphae (the threadlike filaments that form the mycelium) roughly 0.25–0.5 mm thick; this wall structure is in contrast to species from the bird's nest fungus genus Cyathus, which have a distinctly three-layered wall. Young species have a yellowish velvety cover of fine hairs, but this external surface becomes sloughed off and becomes smooth as the fruiting body matures; the color changes to brown, although some old weathered specimens may be bleached grey or dirty white. The inner surface of the fruiting body is smooth and shiny. The cups contain tiny pale ochraceous or white "eggs," technically termed peridioles, usually 1–2 mm in diameter. In each peridiole is a spore-producing layer of tissue, the hymenium. This layer is largely composed of basidia (spore-producing cells) mixed with paraphyses (non-spore producing elements interspersed between basidia). Peridioles are covered by a thin membrane of loosely woven hyphae known as a tunica; separated from the light-colored tunica, the peridioles are black. The peridioles are attached to the inner wall of the peridium by a thin, elastic cord of mycelium, a funiculus, which can be extended at length when moist.
Crucibulum laeve has spores that are elliptical, hyaline (translucent), and smooth, with dimensions of 7–10 by 4–6 μm.
### C. parvulum
This species, which is also known as the scanty bird's nest, is characterized by its very small peridia (dimensions 1.5–3 mm wide at the mouth x 2–4 mm tall) with a color that may range from white to grey to pale buff, but never yellow – helping distinguish it from C. laeve''. The peridia are obconic, thin-walled (150–180 μm at the lip, approximately 300 μm thick at the edge of the lip), tomentose on the outer side and smooth on the inner side, and taper to a narrow base. The peridioles range in width between 0.5 and 1.25 mm broad. Basidiospores have dimensions of 4–5 by 7–8 μm. |
20,983,142 | Cyclone Erica | 1,143,021,892 | Category 5 South Pacific and Australian region cyclone in 2003 | [
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| Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica of March 2003 was a powerful cyclone that severely affected New Caledonia and was considered the worst to affect the country since Cyclone Beti. The system was the eighth cyclone and the fifth severe tropical cyclone of the 2002–03 South Pacific cyclone season. Cyclone Erica developed from a monsoonal trough on 4 March just off Queensland. Originally, the storm moved slowly towards the east and then north early in its existence. However, increasing wind shear caused the storm to be degenerated into a tropical low. After conditions once again became more favorable for development, the remnants regenerated into a tropical cyclone on 10 March. Steadily intensifying, Erica reached peak intensity on 13 March as a Category 5 equivalent on the Australian intensity scale.
On the same day Erica paralleled the coast of New Caledonia before making landfall on the southern end of the island at L'Île-des-Pins. However, at the same time the cyclone also entered an area with strong wind shear and thus began to weaken. After passing the island, an extratropical transition begun, weakening the cyclone as it moved towards the southeast. On 15 March, Erica completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone and later fully dissipated two days later.
Cyclone Erica severely impacted the island nation of New Caledonia, causing intense winds and heavy rain. An estimated 892 families were affected by the cyclone on the island, and two people were killed. As many as 60% of people on the west coast lost power. On 17 March only 17 of the 66 secondary schools on the island were functioning. After the storm it was feared that the existing dengue fever epidemic on the island would spread. Erica caused \$15 million (2003 USD) in damages, primarily on New Caledonia. Following the deaths and damage, the name "Erica" was later retired.
## Meteorological history
The precursor to Cyclone Erica was an area of low pressure that formed within a monsoon trough north of the Tiwi Islands on 13 February 2003. This low moved into the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf and then ashore Mainland Australia near the border between Western Australia and Northern Territory on 15 February. It remained over the continent for the latter half of February, taking a track south of Alice Springs, Northern Territory, and then towards Queensland. Now taking an eastward trajectory, the centre of the low emerged into the Coral Sea near the Whitsunday Islands on 3 March. Data from the QuikSCAT satellite showed a center of circulation well-removed from the nearest area of strong winds and rain. However, the abating of wind shear resulted in an increase in the system's organisation with convective activity and the system's circulation becoming better developed. At 06:00 UTC on 4 March, the system was designated as Tropical Cyclone Erica by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Brisbane, Australia (TCWC-Brisbane); it was TCWC-Brisbane's first named system of the 2002–03 Australian region cyclone season. At the time, Erica was located 790 km (490 mi) east-southeast of Townsville, Queensland.
Remaining under the conditions of lessened wind shear, Erica continued to strengthen after being named and attained 10-minute maximum sustained winds of 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) at 18:00 UTC on 4 March. While Erica had initially drifted slowly eastward due to a lack of steering influences, a developing ridge of high pressure to the south and west caused the cyclone to curve towards the north. Along this trajectory, Erica once again encountered unfavorable wind shear and consequently weakened with its winds falling below gale-force by 7 March; at this phase the system was classified as a tropical depression. An intensifying monsoonal flow around the remnant circulation caused the storm to move towards the east, just south of the Solomon Islands. On 10 March, it entered an environment more conducive to tropical cyclone development, characterized by low wind shear and coincident with a favourable phase of the Madden–Julian oscillation. The organisation of the system's cloud pattern improved in response. At 18:00 UTC on 10 March, the system was redesignated as a tropical cyclone while located 370 km (230 mi) south-southwest of Honiara, Solomon Islands.
A trough in the upper-troposphere caused the reformed Erica to accelerate towards the southeast. Erica's winds reached hurricane strength at 18:00 UTC on 11 March, classifying the cyclone as a Category 3 on the Australian and Fijian cyclone scale. A day later, the cyclone exited the area of responsibility of TCWC-Brisbane and into the area of responsibility of the Fiji Meteorological Service (FMS) in Nadi, Fiji. A ragged eye began to emerge on satellite imagery with convection quickly developing around Erica's center. With low wind shear and favourable winds aloft, Erica intensified further and reached a peak intensity with sustained winds of 215 kilometres per hour (134 mph) at 06:00 UTC on 13 March while located approximately 500 km (300 mi) west-northwest of Nouméa, New Caledonia. According to the JTWC, Erica's peak 1-minute sustained winds reached 240 kilometres per hour (150 mph), though satellite intensity estimates suggested windspeeds as high as 260 kilometres per hour (160 mph). The FMS estimated that Erica's central air pressure reached a minimum of 915 hPa (mbar; 27.02 inHg). The diameter of Erica's eye shrank and decreased and the eye became symmetrical. Throughout the day, the cyclone paralleled the southwest coast of the principal island of New Caledonia before tracking across the southern end of the island and the Isle of Pines; it made landfall roughly 220 km (140 mph) northwest of Nouméa shortly after 18:00 UTC on 13 March. Prolonged interaction with New Caledonia caused the cyclone's winds to lessen. After clearing New Caledonia, a subtropical ridge to the northeast caused Erica to move into an area of increasing wind shear and accelerate into the mid-latitudes, leading to the storm weakening further and undergoing extratropical transition; this transition was completed by 12:00 UTC on 15 March. The extratropical remnants of Erica passed east of New Zealand on 16–17 March.
## Preparations, impact, and aftermath
### Australia
As a tropical low, Erica brought strong winds to northern Queensland. Several large trees were uprooted, one of which fell on a car in Cape Tribulation and another on a house in Port Douglas. Numerous trees were defoliated and some boats were reported to have been pulling their moorings due to the wind. Power lines were also damaged by the low.
### New Caledonia
On 12 March, officials in New Caledonia issued a pre-alert as Erica was forecast to impact the territory. Evacuation centers were set up in churches and community halls. All schools throughout the island were closed and airports were shut down.
Despite the rapid weakening before landfall, Erica produced intense winds, gusting to a record 202 kilometres per hour (126 mph) in Nouméa. Ten-minute sustained winds were recorded up to 144 kilometres per hour (89 mph) around the center of the storm.
An estimated 892 families were affected by Erica, and Erica was also reported to have caused two deaths and injured 80 people. In addition 1,000 people were estimated to be homeless. Several communication lines were severed, and tribes and farms were devastated. 20% of electricity customers in Nouméa were without power, and 60% of customers on the main island's west coast were also without power. In Yaté, police assessed that half of the population was without shelter, and in Pohé, it was estimated that 90% of the crops were destroyed by Erica. On 17 March 2003, only 17 of the 66 secondary schools in New Caledonia were functioning, with others still closed primarily due to safety concerns. The University of New Caledonia was also badly damaged. However, all primary schools were functioning.
South Province, New Caledonia formed an emergency committee following the storm, led by Jacques Lafleur. The committee assisted in filing damage claims caused by the cyclone. After the storm, 60 French specialists were sent to New Caledonia to help in rebuilding areas hit hard by Erica. Ministry of Overseas France head Brigitte Giradin arrived in Nouméa on 17 March to investigate the damage. Following the visit, Brigitte Giradin announced that US\$17 million would be sent to rebuild 1,000 homes on the island nation, including an additional US\$500,000 in disaster relief to the island country. A transport aircraft stationed in Tahiti brought 1.5 short tons (1,400 kg) of emergency supplies.
Following Erica's heavy rains, it was feared that the already existing dengue fever epidemic would become more widespread. Prior to Erica, there were already 437 cases of dengue fever in 2003 alone. The risk for leptospirosis was also increased by Erica. High winds and strong rains resulted in damages of at least US\$15 million, particularly to schools. Two fatalities total were reported as a result of Erica. The name Erica was retired after the season.
## See also
- Cyclone Beni
- Cyclone Ivy |
4,483,446 | Belle (Beauty and the Beast) | 1,172,968,520 | Fictional character in Disney's 1991 animated film Beauty and the Beast | [
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| Belle is a fictional character in Disney's 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). Voiced by actress and singer Paige O'Hara, Belle, the book-loving daughter of an eccentric inventor, yearns to abandon her predictable village life in return for adventure. When her father Maurice is imprisoned by a cold-hearted beast in an enchanted castle, Belle offers her own freedom in exchange for her father's, and gradually learns to love the Beast despite his outward appearance.
Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg commissioned Beauty and the Beast as an animated musical with a strong heroine, for which he hired first-time screenwriter Linda Woolverton. Basing her on the heroine of the 1740 fairy tale of the same name, Woolverton adapted Belle into a more proactive character for the film, deliberately conceiving her as a feminist to curtail criticisms Disney had long received for purportedly portraying female characters as victims. Inspired by the women's rights movement and actress Katharine Hepburn's performance in the film Little Women (1933), Woolverton created Belle as a unique departure from previous Disney heroines, particularly The Little Mermaid's Ariel. However, some story artists often contested Woolverton's liberated vision for the character. Animated by James Baxter and Mark Henn, the former of whom based the character's graceful gait on those of impressionist Edgar Degas' ballerinas, Belle's European facial features were inspired by those of British actresses Vivien Leigh and Audrey Hepburn. Several additional Hollywood actresses inspired Belle's appearance, including Natalie Wood, Elizabeth Taylor, and Grace Kelly. Disney auditioned 500 candidates for the role, before casting O'Hara based on her mature-sounding voice and Broadway experience.
Belle has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics who appreciated the character's bravery, intelligence, and independence. Reception towards her feminism, however, has been more mixed, with commentators accusing the character's actions of being romance-oriented. The fifth Disney Princess, Belle is often ranked among the franchise's best members. Highly regarded as one of Disney's strongest examples of a feminist character, critics agree that Belle helped spearhead a generation of independent film heroines while changing the reputation of a Disney princess. Also one of Disney's most iconic characters, Belle was the only animated heroine nominated for the American Film Institute's greatest heroes in film ranking. The character also appears in the film's several sequels and spin-offs, as well as her own live-action television series. American actress Susan Egan originated the role of Belle in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. Emma Watson played Belle in the 2017 live-action adaptation of the film.
## Development
### Creation and writing
Shortly after the success of Disney's first feature-length animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Walt Disney himself had attempted to adapt the Beauty and the Beast fairy tale into one of the studio's earliest animated films several times, notably during the 1930s and 1950s. The project was continuously shelved due to the fairy tale's "static" main characters and plot, with Walt Disney expressing particular concern over depicting Belle's imprisonment. Inspired by the success of 1989's The Little Mermaid, Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg green-lit another attempt at adapting the fairy tale under director Richard Purdum. However, Katzenberg was dissatisfied with Purdum's dark, somber interpretation, and ultimately ordered that the project be completely retooled into a Broadway-style musical film starring a strong heroine, similar to The Little Mermaid. Largely in retaliation to critics' negative response towards The Little Mermaid's Ariel regarding her overall character and motivations, Disney opted for a "feminist twist" on the original Beauty and the Beast story, with Katzenberg hiring first-time screenwriter Linda Woolverton to write its screenplay.
Disney traditionally portrayed its female characters as victims prior to Beauty and the Beast, with Belle's lack of empowerment in earlier drafts of the film proving contentious among its writers. While the studio wanted Beauty and the Beast to resemble an old-fashioned film, the writers envisioned Belle as "a woman that was ahead of her time". As the first woman to write a feature-length animated film for Disney, Woolverton decided to use Belle as an opportunity to create a female character who would ultimately be better received than Disney's previous animated heroines, specially Ariel. Aware of the task's daunting nature due to the mermaid's popularity, Woolverton fought relentlessly to create "a new kind of Disney heroine". Inspired by the women's rights movement Woolverton herself had experienced, the screenwriter conceived Belle as a headstrong feminist to avoid creating another "insipid" Disney princess. Woolverton strongly believed contemporary audiences would not identify with Belle unless she was updated appropriately, and thus evolved the character into "a woman of the '90s". Refusing to watch Jean Cocteau's 1946 film adaptation of the fairy tale, Woolverton instead based Belle on actress Katharine Hepburn's portrayal of Jo March in the 1933 film adaptation of Louisa May Alcott's book Little Women. Similarly, story artist Brenda Chapman drew influence from Hepburn's on-screen bickering with actor Spencer Tracy for certain scenes with the Beast.
Beauty and the Beast's story department was predominantly male. Woolverton often argued with the more traditional story artists over Belle's role and personality, but continued to be supported by Katzenberg and lyricist Howard Ashman, the latter of whom also lobbied for "a thinker and a reader" who "wasn’t a victim". Woolverton claims the story team challenged virtually everything she wrote for the character, on one occasion replacing what Woolverton had scripted as Belle indicating where she wishes to travel on a map with the character baking a cake. Arguing that the liberated Belle would not even know how to bake, Woolverton compromised by having the character read a book instead, which ironically some writers considered too passive an activity. To resolve this, Woolverton ultimately scripted Belle walking while reading, an activity in which she herself partook in as a child. Despite constant re-writes she found "regressive", Woolverton's overall vision for Belle generally remained intact.
In the original fairy tale, Belle has two selfish sisters who have their own love interests, all of whom Woolverton omitted to focus on Belle's dynamic with Gaston. The writer also eliminated the subplot surrounding Belle asking her father for a rose. Supporting characters from Purdum's treatment, such as Belle's younger sister Clarice and cruel Aunt Marguerite, were also discarded, the former to emphasize Belle's loneliness, and the latter replaced by Gaston as the film's villain. In Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont's fairy tale, Belle is essentially forced to replace her father as the Beast's prisoner. To emphasize the character's independence, Woolverton re-wrote Belle to willingly venture to the castle in search of her father, where she confronts the Beast and ultimately trades her own freedom in return for Maurice's. To demonstrate that the character is not perfect, Woolverton described "a little wisp of hair that keeps falling in her face," which was the only direction she used to describe Belle's physical appearance. During Gaston's climactic fight with the Beast, the character's line "Time to die!", which had already been animated, was changed to "Belle is mine!" to refocus the story on Belle.
### Voice
Disney auditioned approximately 500 actresses for the role of Belle. They originally considered re-hiring Ariel's voice actress Jodi Benson, but ultimately decided Benson sounded too young and American for the character they had envisioned. Favoring a "more classical ... womanly" tone, the filmmakers wanted Belle to sound closer to a woman than a girl, describing her ideal voice as reminiscent of actress Judy Garland. American actress and singer Paige O'Hara was working on Broadway when she first read about Disney's then-upcoming animated film Beauty and the Beast in The New York Times. Upon learning that the studio was specifically scouting Broadway performers for the lead female role, O'Hara immediately booked an audition through her agent. Familiar with O'Hara's Broadway stint in the musical Show Boat, Ashman had already been eyeing her for the role. O'Hara auditioned five times, first solely interviewing for casting director Albert Taveres. For her next two auditions, she was simply required to mail voice recordings to Disney's studio in Los Angeles, for which she sang "Heaven Help My Heart" from the musical Chess. At her first legitimate in-person audition, O'Hara originally spoke and sang in a higher register than her own in an effort to mimic Snow White, but the filmmakers insisted that she use her own voice. In addition to Katzenberg and Ashman, O'Hara's last few auditions were attended by directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale, producer Don Hahn, and composer Alan Menken. The songwriters initially listened with their eyes closed before finally watching her audition. An hour after her fifth and final audition, Disney telephoned O'Hara to inform her she had been cast as Belle, which happened to occur on her birthday. The actress was fairly confident she had secured the role before she had officially been cast, to which she credits Ashman's enjoyment of her vocal performance on the Show Boat cast recording.
Already 30 years-old by the time of her audition, O'Hara naturally imbued Belle's voice with a mature quality, despite her character's young age. Woolverton appreciated O'Hara for sounding more mature than traditional Disney heroines, while the quality of her voice reminded Wise of Garland. In addition to sharing Belle's love of reading, O'Hara empathized with her character's ostracization by her peers due to her unconventional interests, explaining, "I was into musical theater ... while people were going to Led Zeppelin concerts ... I had a one-track mind, and I think that Belle was like that a lot". The actress worked on the film on-and-off for over two years, and initially found it challenging to soften her voice during recording sessions due to having been trained to project as a stage actress. O'Hara and actor Robby Benson, voice of the Beast, sought permission from Disney to record in the same booth as opposed to separately, which the studio agreed to despite its costliness, ultimately becoming the first voice actors to do so for Disney. O'Hara credited the intimate recording sessions with helping Belle and the Beast's relationship sound more convincing. Although the actress would occasionally ad-lib her dialogue per the directors' encouragement, none of her improvisation was included in the final film because it sounded "too modern". Despite her successful stage career, O'Hara was virtually unknown to Hollywood audiences when she was cast in Beauty and the Beast; she was one of the last obscure actresses to be cast in a feature-length Disney animated film before the studio began casting better-known talent in subsequent animated projects.
Since the film's 1991 release, O'Hara has reprised the role in a variety of follow-up films, tie-in media, and merchandise, including its direct-to-video sequels Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997), Belle's Magical World (1998), and Belle's Tales of Friendship (1999); various video games such as the Kingdom Hearts series; and several music and video releases for the Disney Princess franchise. Additionally, O'Hara performed the song "Belle" at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992, where it had been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. In 2012, O'Hara described Disney as her "main employer for 20 years". In 2011, O'Hara was officially replaced by actress Julie Nathanson, who first voiced Belle in the video game Kinect: Disneyland Adventures (2011). O'Hara revealed to the Las Vegas Review-Journal that news of the replacement greatly upset her to the point of which she was willing to re-record much of Belle's dialogue in an attempt to prove to the company that she is still capable of voicing the character. However, O'Hara eventually admitted that she found the process quite difficult as a result of the way in which her voice has changed over the course of 20 years. O'Hara eventually returned to voice Belle in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018).
### Personality
According to producer Don Hahn, Beaumont's Belle is an "incredibly passive" character, the personality of whom he likened to those of Aurora from Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Cinderella, as well as American actress and animal rights activist Doris Day, describing them as women who are "capable, but filling a role that women might fill in the 1950s and 1960s.” The filmmakers painstakingly reworked Belle into a more three-dimensional character by providing her with goals and aspirations beyond romance and marriage, while expanding her passive role into that of a more inquisitive heroine. Determined to have Belle resemble "an unusual Disney heroine," Woolverton deliberately molded her into an independent character who is not a princess, enjoys books and has little interest in marriage, and worked closely with Ashman to create a proactive heroine "who was a thinker and a reader and she wasn't about what she looked like and she wasn't a victim." Although Belle being well-read is mentioned in the original fairy tale, it is hardly important to its plot. Thus, Belle's passion for reading was vastly expanded upon, borrowing from both the Little Women character Jo March and Woolverton's own love of reading to further demonstrate the character's intelligence and open mind. Both Woolverton and O'Hara encouraged the filmmakers to emphasize the intelligent and book-loving aspects of Belle's personality. However, at times the animators struggled to fulfill Woolverton's vision. Originally, Belle was depicted constantly crying throughout her imprisonment; Woolverton resented this, arguing that the character was much more likely to be either searching for an escape or simply "be intrigued that she was living in an enchanted castle" than crying. "Once everybody realized she wasn't going to be this typical Disney female, they would go to the extreme ... She became bitchy"; the screenwriter argued that Belle would be "too smart" to act this way. A few years older than The Little Mermaid's Ariel, Belle's love of reading makes the character more worldly and mature than her predecessor. Belle is believed by Henn to be "probably" the oldest of Disney's princesses. Although multiple sources have claimed over the years that the character is 17, Henn estimated Belle to be in her early 20’s. In an interview for Vanity Fair, Paige O’Hara stated to believe that Belle was the only Disney princess to be in her 20’s. The official Disney Princesses (which Belle is part of), however, are estimated to be not older than 19, with Cinderella and Tiana being the oldest members in the official Disney Princesses lineup and franchise, being both estimated to be 19.
### Design and animation
Belle's supervising animators were James Baxter and Mark Henn. Wanting Belle to look significantly different from and more European than Ariel, the animators drew Belle with fuller lips, narrower eyes, and darker eyebrows inspired by British actress Vivien Leigh. Appearing more statuesque than traditional Disney princesses, Belle was also inspired by Jennie Garth and Alyssa Milano. According to the Directory of World Cinema: American Hollywood by Lincoln Geraghty, Belle was inspired by actress Judy Garland's role as Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz (1939) and Julie Andrews' performance as Maria von Trapp in The Sound of Music (1965).
Belle was Henn's second Disney heroine, after having previously worked on Ariel. He was specifically assigned to animate scenes from the studio's Florida division, and has since animated several Disney princesses since completing Beauty and the Beast. Henn observed that, unlike Ariel, Belle does not "fall in love at first sight"; instead "there's an actual relationship you see grow". Henn decorated his studio with photographs of famous women, specifically Hollywood actresses Natalie Wood, Elizabeth Taylor, Grace Kelly, and Audrey Hepburn, for reference. Henn claims Belle's appearance started to form once O'Hara was cast and he heard her voice, from which point they married her performance with the designs they had already been conceiving. O'Hara found herself intimated by the photographs of "all these beautiful women", but animator Lorna Cook reassured her that they would reference her own photo as well. Henn hardly met O'Hara apart from rare occasions when he would travel to California for production meetings. Meanwhile, the animators dissuaded O'Hara from seeing drawings of the character until much later into production, encouraging the actress to simply let the animators draw her.
Baxter based his drawings on the work story artists Roger Allers and Brenda Chapman had already done for the character, deciding to draw Belle with a rounder face in addition to making her more European-looking. They decided the character should definitely be a brunette, a hair color Disney had seldom used since Snow White. Baxter studied the art of French impressionist Edgar Degas, a painter known for his portraits of ballerinas, whose work inspired the animator to incorporate "graceful, swan-like movements" into Belle's performance. Belle's ball gown was inspired by a similar costume Audrey Hepburn wore in Roman Holiday (1953). Hahn and a team of male filmmakers designed the gown while consuming pizza and alcohol. Originally, the marketing department ordered that Belle's dress be pink to cater to the female audience, but art director Brian McEntee convinced studio to make the dress gold in order to differentiate her from other Disney princesses, specifically Aurora from Sleeping Beauty. McEntee also suggested that Belle be the only character in her village to wear blue, so as to emphasize the fact that she is different and an outcast. The colors Belle wears also mimic her emotions, blue being associated with sadness and loneliness. Blue was also used to symbolize good, while Gaston's red represents evil.
Animators videotaped O'Hara's recording sessions to capture her mannerisms, expressions, and gestures, such as her hair's tendency to fall into her face, which they incorporated into her character's drawings. O'Hara claims some of her family members immediately recognized O'Hara's physical traits in Belle upon watching the film for the first time. Actress and model Sherri Stoner served as the performance model for Belle, providing live-action reference for the animators as they drew the character. Belle's tendency to constantly brush her hair away from her face was also inspired by both Stoner and O'Hara. The animators also incorporated O'Hara's eyes, cheekbones and the way in which she raises her eyebrow into Belle's face. O'Hara felt that Belle originally looked "too perfect", comparing her to actress Angelina Jolie, although Jolie would not make her film debut until four years later. O'Hara initially feared children would not be able to relate to her until the animators made her appear less perfect. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Charles Solomon observed inconsistencies in Belle's appearance, stating, "The prettiest and liveliest Belle waltzes with Beast in his marble ballroom and weeps over his body before he's transformed into the Prince" while "The Belle who receives the library from Beast has wider-set eyes and a more prominent mouth than the noticeably slimmer Belle who sings 'Something There.'"
## Characterization and themes
Woolverton created Belle as part of "her self-directed mandate to move women and girls forward." The Express-Times described the character as an intelligent young woman who "sings songs about reading and wanting to gain knowledge, rather than falling in love." Woolverton credits Belle's knowledge and love of books with providing the character with a "point of view of her life and that doesn't necessarily involve a man getting her there." One of the film's main themes, Belle is considered an outsider because her love of reading provides her with knowledge of the outside world as opposed to her "narrow-minded" village peers. Writing for Wired.com, Matt Blum dubbed Belle "the geekiest heroine of any Disney animated film", exemplified by an opening number that demonstrates just how much she does not fit in with her peers due to her intelligence and active imagination. Similarly, Boxoffice's Amy Nicholson coined the character "Disney's Smartest Heroine," while Rob Burch of The Hollywood News observed that the character "comes across as arrogant at times" because she "spends much of the first act complaining." In her book Sex, Love and Abuse: Discourses on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault, author Sharon Hayes described Belle as "the quintessential beautiful young ingénue." Comparing Belle's personality to that of the princess in the Brothers Grimm's fairy tale "The Frog Prince," The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast": A Handbook author Jerry Griswold described the character as a similarly "feisty and outspoken" heroine. Writing for St. Francis Xavier University, Dawn Elizabeth England observed that Belle possesses equally as many traditionally feminine as she does masculine traits, citing her bravery, independence and assertiveness as masculine, and her sensitivity and fearfulness as feminine. According to Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era author Susan Jeffords, "Belle's credentials as heroine are established ... when she is the only one of the town's single women not to swoon over Gaston," while the character's love of reading is essentially manipulated "to mark her as better than the rest of the townspeople." Writing for The Statesman, David O'Connor cited Belle's intelligence and bibliophilia as "in stark opposition to the insensitive and significantly dim-witted Gaston." Critics continue to debate over whether Belle or the Beast is the film's protagonist. Susan Jeffords, author of Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era, felt that although Belle appears to be the protagonist in Beaumont's original fairy tale, the character becomes "less the focus of the narrative" in Disney's adaptation and more of a "mechanism for solving the Beast's 'dilemma.'" In her article "The Tangled Evolution of the Disney Princess," Noelle Buffam felt that Belle arrived just in time when Disney's heroines were "in a dire need for some change," awarding her "the red stamp of approval" for her intelligence and spirit.
Analyzing ways in which Disney's heroines have evolved over time due to "the approach to the characterization of the princesses chang[ing]" as the characters gradually transformed from passive young women into heroines who "had ambitions and desires aside from finding true love," critics often divide the Disney Princesses into three separate categories and rank Belle among the middle of the timeline, with Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles.com observing that the character improved upon "the Disney princess archetype" by simultaneously serving as both a "dreamer" and a "doer" in her film, as opposed to exclusively the former. Film historian Paula Sigman Lowery explained to the Daily Express that Belle's personality is a combination of Ariel's spirit and burgeoning independence, and Pocahontas' maturity, while Belle is "a little older [than Ariel] and a little further along in their journey towards independence." About.com's David Nusair believes that Belle belongs to a category of Disney Princesses known as "The Lady Vanishes," in which the heroines, in spite of being brave, outspoken and independent, nonetheless "are forced to behave passively as others help them achieve their respective goals." Michelle Munro, writing for Durham College, felt that even though Belle shares several traits with her more passive predecessors, the character introduced "new possibilities for princesses." Girls in Capes wrote that Belle pioneered a generation of princesses who taught "about ambition, self-discovery and the pursuit of what we want." Additionally, Belle remains Disney's first and only princess to have hazel eyes.
## Appearances
### Film and television
Belle debuted in Beauty and the Beast (1991) as a beautiful bibliophile who, although praised by her fellow villagers for her unrivaled beauty, is at the same time ridiculed for her intelligence and non-conformity. Having grown weary of her uneventful provincial life, in which she is relentlessly romantically pursued by an arrogant hunter named Gaston, Belle longs for adventure. After her father's horse returns without its rider, she willingly ventures into the woods in search of her father. She persuades the Beast that she will trade her own freedom in return for her father's, since her father is ill in the dungeon, promising to remain with the Beast in his castle among his staff of enchanted objects forever. Belle's curiosity leads her to the forbidden west wing where she discovers an enchanted rose without realizing that it is tied to the Beast's fate; and the Beast's rage at her trespassing causes her to flee the castle on horseback. Belle is pursued by wolves in the woods but they are driven off by the Beast, afterwards Belle helps the injured Beast back to the castle and nurses him back to health. Although she initially dislikes her captor, Belle gradually learns to accept the Beast in spite of his appearance and eventually befriends him. Belle and the Beast's strong bond greatly envies Gaston to the point of which he storms the castle and mortally wounds the Beast, though Gaston falls to his own death in the process. However, Belle breaks down and confesses her love for the Beast just in time to break the spell under which he had been placed by an enchantress as punishment for his selfish ways, and the Beast ultimately transforms back into a handsome prince.
In Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997), Belle attempts to reignite the castle's waning spirit by reintroducing and celebrating Christmas, in spite of the Beast's strong resentment towards the holiday. Meanwhile, a solemn pipe organ named Forte grows determined to sabotage Belle and the Beast's burgeoning friendship because he longs to maintain his co-dependent relationship with his master. Tricked by Forte into retrieving a large Christmas tree from a frozen pond, Belle nearly drowns, only to be rescued by the Beast. The Beast, however, having been misinformed by Forte, wrongly accuses Belle of trying to escape again, and locks her in the dungeon as punishment. When the Beast finally discovers the truth, they forgive each other, and Belle helps him thwart Forte's plan to destroy the castle. Belle's Magical World (1998), depicts Belle as she interacts with both the Beast and his enchanted servants in various segments, exploring themes such as forgiveness, friendship, cooperation and respect.
In Belle's Tales of Friendship (1999), a spin-off of the film series, Belle owns a bookshop in which she teaches valuable lessons to children by reading and retelling well-known stories and fairy tales, narrating four Disney animated shorts: The Three Little Pigs (1933), Peter and the Wolf (1946), The Wise Little Hen (1934), and Morris the Midget Moose (1950). For the first time, Belle appears as both animated and live-action versions of herself, voiced and portrayed by actresses Paige O'Hara and Lynsey McLeod, respectively. In the television series Sing Me a Story with Belle (1995–97), Belle, in a role reprised by McLeod, runs her own music and bookshop, where she is visited by children to whom she tells and sings stories.
Belle appeared in the animated television series House of Mouse and its direct-to-video films Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse and Mickey's House of Villains. In the television series, Belle is voiced by American actress and singer Jodi Benson, while O'Hara reprised her role in Magical Christmas.
A live-action version of Belle appears as a main character in the ABC television series Once Upon a Time, where she serves as the love interest of Rumplestiltskin (who is the show's version of the Beast). She is portrayed by Australian actress Emilie de Ravin. Another live-action version of the character appeared in the 2015 television film Descendants, where she was played by Keegan Connor Tracy and serves as the Queen of the United States of Auradon, and along with Beast have a son called Ben. She return in the film's sequels Descendants 2 (2017) and Descendants 3 (2019). The series Sofia the First included a guest appearance by Belle in the episode "The Amulet and the Anthem". British actress Amy Jackson who portrayed as Belle opposite Indian actor Vikram, who being portrayed as Beast for sequences in a dreamy song "Ennodu Nee Irundhal" in the 2015 Tamil language romantic thriller I. The original prosthetic make-up for the characters were provided by Sean Foot (Shaun) and Davina Lamont and additional works were done by National Film Award winners—Christien Tinsley and Dominie Till.
#### Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be portraying Belle in a live-action version of the film, which was released in 2017. Beauty and the Beast was the first of the Disney remakes in which an A-list actress portrays a Disney princess. As a feminist and model, Watson suggested several changes to the character in the live-action film. For the costume design, Watson rejected the traditional "big princess dress" and corset for the golden gown as that would have reduced her mobility, with the gown seen as crucial for marketing the film, while for the village scenes she requested boots instead of ballet slippers to give the character more ruggedness. Nonetheless, Belle's attire in the live-action remake largely stays true to its animated predecessor.
Thanks to Watson's influence, Belle is not only a bookworm but also an inventor like her father – she uses her inventions for everyday chores such as laundry, which in turn provides her with time to pursue her passion for reading. It is also revealed that Belle's mother died of a disease plague during Belle's infancy, consequently Maurice is somewhat overprotective of Belle and does not allow her to leave the village. For instance, Maurice creates "music boxes playing tunes from faraway places, in a bid to sate her thirst for exploration", as he is unwilling to let Belle be adventurous due to her mother's death, although Belle harbors no hard feelings about this. Watson's portrayal of Belle won her the MTV Movie Award for Best Performance at the 2017 MTV Movie & TV Awards and the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Sci-Fi/Fantasy at the 2017 Teen Choice Awards. She also received nominations for the Empire Award for Best Actress, the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award for "Favorite Movie Actress" and the Saturn Award for Best Actress.
### Broadway musical
Belle appeared in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast. The role was originated by actress Susan Egan, who was initially reluctant to audition for Beauty and the Beast because she "thought it was a terrible idea for Disney to put a cartoon on Broadway." However, her agent managed to convince her otherwise, and Egan ultimately turned down callbacks for roles in the musicals My Fair Lady, Carousel and Grease in favor of starring as Belle in Beauty and the Beast because she had always wanted to originate a Broadway role. Egan had never watched Beauty and the Beast prior to her audition, relying solely on "her own creative instincts" instead. Egan's performance earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical at the 48th Tony Awards. A total of seventeen actresses have portrayed Belle in the Broadway musical, among them recording artists Debbie Gibson and Toni Braxton, Tony Award nominees Kerry Butler and Andrea McArdle, The Sopranos' Jamie-Lynn Sigler, and Disney Channel alumnae Christy Carlson Romano and Anneliese van der Pol, the latter of whom became Broadway's final Belle when the show ended its thirteen-year-long run in 2007. Actress Sarah Litzsinger remains Broadway's longest-running Belle.
A best-selling R&B singer, Braxton made her Broadway debut when she was cast as Belle in 1998, turning down actress Halle Berry's role in the film Why Do Fools Fall In Love (1998). Braxton's desire to pursue an acting career stemmed from a series of conflicts with the singer's record label at the time, in turn making her the only African American to portray Belle in the show's history. Belle's ballad "A Change in Me" was written by songwriters Alan Menken and Tim Rice specifically for Braxton. However, the song was ultimately so well-received that it has been included in the musical ever since. During her tenure as Belle, Braxton was stalked by an "obsessed fan." The stalker had reportedly "bombarded" Braxton with threatening e-mails and letters. Several measures were taken to ensure the singer's safety, including forcing Braxton to dress in full disguise when traveling to and from the theater in addition to reducing her total number of weekly performances from eight to seven. The stalker was eventually arrested and charged with "aggravated harassment."
### Video games
She was featured as one of the seven Princesses of Heart in the Kingdom Hearts video game series. She appears in the titles Kingdom Hearts, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, Kingdom Hearts II, Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days, and Kingdom Hearts χ.
Belle appears as a playable character to unlock for a limited time in the video game Disney Magic Kingdoms.
An alternate version of Belle appears as a playable character in the video game Disney Mirrorverse.
### Miscellaneous
Belle, along with Beast and Chip, appeared at the 64th Academy Awards as presenters for Best Animated Short Feature. She also makes a brief cameo appearance in The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996) during the "Out There" musical sequence.
Belle was also the main character in various comic books based on the film, including one set during Belle's stay at the castle published by Marvel Comics, and a prequel set several years before the film distributed by Disney Comics. In the former, the storylines generally have the servants trying to coax Belle into doing something with the Beast, only for it to backfire and nearly ruin their friendship before they make up. In the latter serial, Belle ends up locked up in a cellar by village children after reluctantly playing pirates with them, and later nearly goes down the path leading to Beast's castle. The latter serial also implies that she holds misandric views and refuses to associate herself with the village children, especially the males, due to their not being as well-versed in literature as she is.
Belle and the other characters from the first film appear in the stage show, Beauty and the Beast Live on Stage at Disney's Hollywood Studios, Walt Disney World. Belle, along with the Beast, appears in a meet-and-greet attraction at Magic Kingdom's Fantasyland called Enchanted Tales with Belle, along with meet-and-greets in all of the other parks worldwide.
Belle, alongside the other Disney Princesses, appeared in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet, as was announced at the 2017 D23 Expo, with Paige O'Hara returning to the role after seven years.
H.E.R. portrayed Belle in a live-action/animation special Beauty and the Beast: A 30th Celebration that aired on ABC on December 15, 2022.
## Reception
### Critical response
Belle has received largely positive reviews from film critics, who praised her bravery, intelligence, independence, and maturity. Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail described Belle as a "smart, courageous ... 'take-charge kind of gal'", crowning her the film's "main attraction". Both Emma Cochrane of Empire and Annlee Ellingson of Paste enjoyed the character's feminism, with the former hailing Belle as "more rounded than previous Disney characters". According to Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun, Belle is "no passive fairy tale princess, but a real live girl, with a spunky personality and her own private agenda". A reviewer for TV Guide felt the film's familiar plot was improved by Belle's confidence and independence, concluding, "Unlike Disney heroines ... Belle is smart, knows what she wants, and doesn't spend her time pining away for the love of a handsome prince". Marc Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly dubbed Belle "the hero" of Beauty and the Beast, while the same publication's Christian Blauvelt opined, "Unlike previous Disney heroines who needed to be rescued by a prince themselves, Belle not only saves the Beast's life, she saves his soul". TLC's Vicki Arkoff reviewed Belle a "smart" and "sharp-tongued", crediting the character with "break[ing] Disney's passive-princess mold". About.com's David Nusair described Belle as an "admirable" heroine. AllMovie's Don Kaye and Perry Seibert echoed each other's reviews of the character, with Kaye describing both Belle and the Beast as "three-dimensional ... complex individuals who defy stereotyping and change over the course of the story", and Seibert calling Belle a "strong female character" who "sidesteps most of the clichés surrounding Disney heroines". Common Sense Media hailed Belle as "one of Disney's smartest, most independent heroines".
Several critics also voiced their preference for the character over her immediate predecessor, Ariel. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post described Belle as a "compelling" character who is "more mature, more womanly and less blandly asexual" than Ariel, as well as "a more worldly girl", describing her as "a bookworm, with gumption and a mind of her own". Similarly comparing Belle to Ariel, John Hartl of The Seattle Times wrote that, in Beauty and the Beast, "there's rarely a sense of déjà vu, perhaps because the heroine is so different from 'Mermaid's' dependent Ariel, and her dilemma is more poignant", while Boxoffice scribed, "Undoubtedly in response to criticism that the cute little 'Mermaid' Ariel was nothing more than a precocious sexpot, the idea-people behind this beauty—aptly named Belle ... chose to make her an icon of self-reliance and a voracious reader with a curiosity and love for everything around her".
Meanwhile, Belle's relationship with the Beast has also been met with positive reviews. About.com's David Nusair wrote that "the palpable chemistry between Belle and The Beast ensur[es] that Beauty and the Beast lives up to its reputation as one of the most memorable romances of all time." Describing it as an "unconventional romance," Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times opined, "The idea of a young woman learning to love a gentle heart hidden beneath a baleful exterior represented a major break with tradition." Likewise, critics enjoyed O'Hara's performance. According to Variety, Belle was "magnificently voiced by O’Hara." The Star-Ledger's Stephen Whitty enjoyed O'Hara's "pretty soprano." John Hartl of The Seattle Times wrote, "O'Hara does a spirited job of investing the character with warmth, intuition and maturity," while the Sun-Sentinel's Candice Russel felt that O'Hara "does a good job of creating Belle as intellectual, wisely feminine and disarmed by the stirrings of her heart."
One of the character's few negative reviews was written by Ethan Alter of Television Without Pity, who opined:
> [T]he movie ... present[ed] audiences with a willful female protagonist that was firmly in control of her romantic destiny and regularly placed reading books above chasing after boys. And it's true that in that respect at least, Belle stood in stark contrast to past Disney heroines ... Still, the filmmakers didn't do the character any favors by swapping out that boy crazy trait for a pronounced maternalistic streak that comes across as a little creepy. Besides being utterly devoted to her father, Belle's relationship with the Beast possesses a distinctly mother/toddler dynamic ... Their romance also lacks spark because – due to the fundamental set-up of the narrative ... it's always clear that he needs her far more than she needs him. Particularly when compared to some of the dynamic animated heroines that came after her ... today Belle can't help but seem ... bland.
Emma Watson's portrayal as Belle in the 2017 film was generally well received by critics. A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that Watson "perfectly embodies Belle’s compassion and intelligence." The Washington Post's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn" while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done." Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times also lauded Watson's performance writing that she "is all pluck and spunk and sass and smarts and fierce independence as Belle." Stephen Whitty of the New York Daily News described Watson's portrayal of Belle as "breakthrough." While Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph did not find Watson to be "a flawless Belle," he did overall say that "she’s good: that girl-next-door winsomeness and a sweet, clear singing voice see her through." He also remarked her portrayal of Belle as "dazzles" and "ideal." For her performance as Belle, Watson won the MTV Movie Award for Best Performance as well as the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Sci-Fi/Fantasy. She also received nominations for the Empire Award for Best Actress, the Saturn Award for Best Actress, and the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Movie Actress.
### Feminist analysis
Feminist critics have argued both for and against whether Belle should be considered a positive depiction of a feminist character, with Disney affirmatively promoting the character as a feminist since 1991. Jezebel determined that Belle "is often held up as the standard of the 'feminist' Disney princess". According to Tales, Then and Now: More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults author Anna E. Altmann, Disney heavily promoted Beauty and the Beast as "a feminist fairy tale" due to Belle's characterization and role in the film. In his book Hearing a Film, Seeing a Sermon: Preaching and Popular Movies, author Timothy B. Cargal agreed that the character indicated "Disney's ... continued efforts to reshape their heroines for a more feminist age." According to Girl Culture: An Encyclopedia author Claudia Mitchell, Belle's feminism was influenced by third-wave feminism and the relatively new concept of Girl power during the 1990s. Critics have been generally mixed in their analyzes of Belle, arguing over whether or not the character is in fact "feminist enough". Although Beauty and the Beast was initially lauded upon release for starring a "forward thinking and feminist" heroine, critics tend to agree that, in spite of Belle's independence and resentment towards Gaston, Beauty and the Beast essentially remains a romance about a girl who finally "meets her ideal man." Acknowledging that Belle "represented significant change from [her] sweet, mop-wielding predecessors," Twilight and History author Nancy Reagin observed that "the end result of fulfillment through marriage has been maintained." Kathleen Maher of The Austin Chronicle cited Belle as an example of "pseudo-feminism" because she rejects one man, Gaston, in favor of another, a prince. While commending Belle for "seeing past the beast's appearance," Judith Welikala of The Independent in the end accused the character of "melting back into the role of wife when he turns back into a handsome prince." Fairy Tale author Andrew Teverson referred to Belle as Disney's attempt to address "feminist criticism of its representation of women in earlier films," but ultimately criticized the character's curiosity for "extend[ing] only to romance," additionally accusing her of being "a zealous individualist with a pathological hostility to common men and women". Meanwhile, Stylist ranked Belle among the most feminist Disney characters, describing her as an "incredibly intelligent" woman who "doesn't stand for a man who considers her as just a piece of meat ... she wants someone who loves her for her mind too." Acknowledging the character's "feminist longings," Daniel Eigen, author of America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, cited Belle as Disney's "modern-day corrective to Snow White." Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works author Phyllis Frus wrote that, initially, Beauty and the Beast does not seem "remotely feminist." However, the author did acknowledge Belle as "an appealing character with a noticeable feminist streak," but in the end criticized Disney's Consumer Products of reversing what the film had nearly accomplished by inducting the character into the Disney Princess franchise. In Refinery29's "Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses As Feminist Role Models," author Vanessa Golembewski ranked the character eighth but described her personality and ambitions as "confusing." Complex's Tara Aquino described Belle as "a kinda feminist ... who's well-read, self-sufficient, and with standards high enough that she doesn't fall for the town's brain-dead pretty boy."
Commentators have generally reacted more cynically towards Belle's relationship with the film's male characters, particularly the Beast, questioning its morality. Writing for the University of Central Florida, Faith Dickens felt that after Belle's introduction, the character becomes little more than "a vehicle for exploring the Beast's dilemmas," while her initial pining for adventure is replaced by romance. Dickens went on to criticize the fact that while Belle appears to be "perfect the way she is," the Beast "need[s] to be reformed." Anna E. Altmann, author of Tales, Then and Now: More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults, disliked the fact that Belle appears to share a motherly relationship with both the Beast and Maurice. Altman also panned the fact that Belle's interest in reading appears to be limited to fairy tales, ultimately dismissing the character as little more than "a feisty North American version of" Beaumont's heroine. Orange Coast writer Henry A. Giroux felt that Belle serves as little more than "a prop for resolving the Beast's problems." Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Belle the sixth-most feminist Disney Princess, writing that, unlike Ariel, "Belle's sass doesn't come from teenage rebellion, but rather from intellectual acuity." Saraiya commended Belle for resisting "her village's expectations of what her life should look like," crediting her with being "the first princess to express some skepticism about married life." While calling Belle's sacrifice "brave," the author also labeled it "not much of a step for womankind," in the end accusing her of falling "for a domineering man." Similarly, Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles.com expressed concern over the "abusive undercurrents running through Belle and Beast’s relationship." Meanwhile, Bustle's Mary Grace Garis also commended Belle's aspirations and love of reading, but criticized her relationship with the Beast, concluding, "Though the ’90s showed a move toward princesses wanting to buck conventions and free themselves from their fathers (or the town misogynist) the endgame is the still the same, elaborating, "When the movie ends, they’re still solidly with a man, their dreams of adventure abandoned. Therefore, the Disney renaissance is characterized more by theoretical want of adventure rather than a genuine pursuit."
## Impact and legacy
Deemed an "iconoclast" by Boxoffice Pro, Belle has been established as a cultural icon for her role in Beauty and the Beast. According to Time and Harper's Bazaar, the character holds the distinction of being Disney's first feminist princess. Commentators believe the character's reputation as one of Disney's first strong female characters is responsible for changing the way in which women would be depicted in subsequent animated films. According to Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast, before Belle "being a Disney princess meant singing songs about how much you love combing your hair with a fork and giving away your voice if it meant you got to marry the guy with that dreamy chiseled jaw." Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times considers Belle to be among four Disney Princesses responsible for breaking "the bonds of convention". About.com's David Nusair agreed that Belle successfully "updated the princess formula for an entirely new generation". The Atlantic's Lindsay Lowe echoed Nusair's sentiment, citing Belle as the character responsible for ending Disney's "history of ... docile heroines". Cathy Schmidt of The Daily Campus recognized Belle and Ariel as "the beginnings of the more modern Disney princesses". Writing for Virgin Media, Limara Salt believes that the character "proved that audiences could fall in love with a brown-haired intellectual". A survey conducted by Disney after the film's release determined that Belle's love of books inspired young women to read. Justin Humphreys of The Hook expressed, "Belle remains a most successful princess because people can relate" to her. Elina Bolokhova of Parenting believes that Belle's "bravery and independence helped redefine the meaning of a Disney princess".
Belle is the fifth member of the Disney Princess franchise, and one of its most popular and celebrated characters. According to Tyler B. Searle of Collider, who ranked the character the second best protagonist of the Disney Renaissance, Belle is often considered to be "one of if not the best Disney princesses". According to Justine McGrath of Teen Vogue, Belle has "become one of the most popular classic Disney princesses of all time". According to a 2020 poll conducted by PlayLikeMum, as reported by Marie Claire, Belle was voted the most popular Disney Princess in nine countries. Commending her intelligence and humility, the character was placed at number one on E!'s ranking of the Disney Princesses, while Cosmopolitan ranked her fourth. In the magazine's "Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses", Seventeen ranked Belle fifth. Similarly, BuzzFeed also ranked the character fifth, praising her love of reading. A reader poll conducted by BuzzFeed also determined that Belle is the most popular Disney Princess, having garnered 18% of votes. A similar poll conducted by ComingSoon.net also ranked Belle as the best Disney Princess, with 17% of the vote. Belle is the fifth most successful Disney Princess in terms of box office revenue, with Beauty and the Beast having grossed over \$350 million. However, Belle was the lowest-selling Disney Princess on eBay in 2013, with sales of less than \$7,000 despite the fact that she is often cited as a customer favorite.
Belle is considered to be one of Disney's most beloved animated heroines and princesses. In 2023, The A.V. Club ranked Belle the 10th greatest animated Disney character of all-time. Chhavi Puri of Pinkvilla reported that Belle "is often regarded as one of the best female Disney characters". Business Insider readers voted Belle the 15th most iconic female film character of all-time. In 2016, Scott Huver of People said the character's "popularity remains a force to be reckoned with" over 25 years after the film's release. Belle was the only animated heroine nominated for the American Film Institute's greatest film heroes ranking, from which only eight female characters were included on the final list. CNN ranked Belle one of Disney's greatest heroines. According to the Daily Mirror, Belle is Disney's second most iconic character, behind only Mickey and Minnie Mouse, describing her as a "portrait of bravery, teaching us to look beyond appearances and stand up for what we believe in". Meanwhile, PopMatters ranked Belle Disney's second best hero. Considered to be both a sex symbol and fashion icon, the character was ranked 64th on UGO's list of the most attractive female cartoon characters, while being ranked 14th on Complex's "25 Hottest Cartoon Women of All Time". E! ranked Belle the second best-dressed Disney Princess, crowning her "the most couture of all the Disney princesses". Belle's golden ball gown is widely considered to be one of the most famous dresses in film history. Belle appeared on Stylist's list of the "Best beauty looks in Disney" twice, both for the character's hairstyles. As of 2022, Entertainment Weekly ranked Belle's hair seventh in the magazine's "Disney Princesses: Ranking Their Hairdos – and Don'ts!"
Belle helped establish Woolverton as a prolific screenwriter, who has since been commended for her dedication to creating strong female characters. Ever since Belle, the majority of Woolverton's female characters have been headstrong, independent women, namely Nala from The Lion King (1994), Mulan from Mulan (1998), Alice from Alice in Wonderland (2010), and Maleficent from Maleficent (2014). Susan Wloszczyna of IndieWire wrote that Woolverton's Belle "set a new standard for fully fleshed-out fairy-tale heroines", in turn paving the way for Katniss Everdeen from The Hunger Games series, and Anna and Elsa from Frozen (2013). Woolverton remains protective of Belle, explaining, "[she] was my first-born child, so there’s a little bit of possessiveness, which really I had to let it go". In Beauty and the Beast, Belle performs the film's opening number, "Belle," which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992. In 1998, O'Hara was nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in a Feature Production for reprising her role as Belle in the second of Beauty and the Beast's three direct-to-video sequels, Belle's Magical World. To commemorate her work on Beauty and the Beast and various contributions to Disney, O'Hara was honored with a Disney Legends award on August 19, 2011. Disney hired Spanish actress Penélope Cruz to pose as Belle in photographer Annie Leibovitz's Disney Dream Portrait Series. |
18,811,446 | Paul Gondjout | 1,105,996,818 | Gabonese politician (1912–1990) | [
"1912 births",
"1990 deaths",
"French Senators of the Fourth Republic",
"Gabonese Democratic Party politicians",
"Gabonese politicians",
"Gabonese prisoners and detainees",
"Leaders ousted by a coup",
"Presidents of the National Assembly of Gabon",
"Prisoners and detainees of Gabon",
"Senators of French Equatorial Africa"
]
| Paul Marie Indjendjet Gondjout (4 June 1912 – 1 July 1990) was a Gabonese politician and civil servant, and the father of Laure Gondjout, another prominent Gabonese politician. Gondjout was a member of the Mpongwe ethnic group, and served in the French colonial administration from 1928, and founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des évolués de Port-Gentil in 1943. He was a delegate to the French Senate from 1949 to 1958, and founded the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG). In 1954, Léon M'ba joined the party and eventually overthrew Gondjout as leader.
In 1960, then President M'ba reshuffled the government without consulting Parliament. When Gondjout filed a motion of censure he was charged with attempting a coup d'état and sentenced to two years in prison. Following his release, M'ba appointed him to the largely symbolic post of President of the Economic Council, in part to silence the threat he represented.
Gondjout served as Minister of State during the abortive 1964 Gabon coup d'état but was acquitted of all charges during his subsequent trial. He lived outside public view from his 1966 acquittal to his death on 1 July 1990 and there is little record of his life during this period.
## Early life and political career
Gondjout was born on 4 June 1912, to a Mpongwe family. He had a younger brother named Edouard. The elder Gondjout began his service in the French colonial administration in 1928. In 1943 he founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des évolués de Port-Gentil (roughly translated as Mutual Friends for the Evolution of Port-Gentil), an organization that encouraged and utilised the talents of educated Gabonese. With the assistance of Mpongwe businesspeople, In 1945 he established the Gabonese Democratic Party alongside Emile Issembe.
Gondjout was elected to the Senate of France on 24 July 1949 and re-elected on 18 May 1952—both times as an independent candidate—serving until the end of his term on 7 June 1958. On 18 December 1953, he became the father of Laure Gondjout. She would later become a prominent politician as would his son, Vincent de Paul Gondjout, and nephew, Georges Rawiri.
In August 1953 Gondjout's PDG merged with the Gabonese Mixed Committee to form the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG). Over the course of the following seven years, the party published a newspaper which caught the eye of the aspiring politician Léon M'ba, whom Gondjout had earlier helped to elect to the Gabonese council of government. The two formed an alliance supported by the Mpongwe business community, the wealthy coastal Fangs (like M'ba), and the French, which managed to overpower Jean-Hilaire Aubame and fellow members of the Gabonese Democratic and Social Union. Gondjout, the self-appointed secretary of the BDG, decreed M'ba to be the secretary-general. He and M'ba both believed that Gabon should not have full political independence, stating shortly before it was obtained:
> I affirm my belief that it would be premature now for Gabon to achieve total independence, for this would precipitate it irreparably into anarchy or, what would be even worse, into a sort of neocolonialism.
M'ba overthrew Gondjout as head of the BDG and Goundjout aligned with Aubame on several issues, such as opposing M'ba's amount of power. Nonetheless, when Gabon gained its independence on 17 August 1960 Gondjout was named President of the National Assembly by the new President of Gabon, Leon M'ba. In November 1960 or 1961, Gondjout called for a constitutional amendment to allow him more executive power. When M'ba reshuffled his cabinet without consulting Parliament, Gondjout filed a motion of censure. He supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage, and to model Gabon after the Western democracies. M'ba, who did not share these ideas, reacted repressively.
On 16 November, under the pretext of a conspiracy, M'ba declared a state of emergency, ordering the internment of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after. Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961. Gondjout himself was sentenced to two years in prison. He was imprisoned in a remote village under house arrest, where he was supplied, according to U.S. ambassador to Gabon, Charles Darlington, "with all the whisky and beer he [could] drink and all the girls he want[ed]". Unable to fulfill his position, it was given to Louis Bigmann. Upon Gondjout's release, M'ba appointed him to the mostly symbolic post of President of the Economic Council, in part to silence any threat to M'ba's power.
## 1964 Gabon coup d'état
During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 members of the Gabonese military, gendarmerie, and police, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, seized the presidential palace. They arrested President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann, French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer, several ministers, and President M'ba, who was dragged from his bed at gunpoint. On Radio Libreville, the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d'état had taken place, asked for technical assistance, and told the French not to interfere in this matter. M'ba was forced to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat, in which he said, "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits. It came to a boil."
No blood was shed during the event, and when the Gabonese people did not respond violently the military interpreted this as a sign of approval. Aubame was offered the presidency of the newly formed provisional government. The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Gondjout. During the coup, he served as Minister of State. The coup's leaders were content at restoring security for the civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.
Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Ndjolé, Aubame's electoral stronghold. However, due to heavy rain, the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village. The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné. Several hours later, they returned to Libreville. The new head of government contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals would be protected and to request against French military intervention. In Paris, President Charles de Gaulle decided against the plea.
M'ba was one of France's most loyal African allies, and during a visit to France in 1961, declared, "all Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon." Moreover, under his regime, Europeans were particularly well treated. The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government. Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon. Since M'ba was imprisoned, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, Paul-Marie Yembit, who had not been arrested. However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter confirming their intervention, that Yembit would later sign. Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville landed in Libreville and restored M'ba to power. During the operation, a French soldier and 15 to 25 Gabonese died.
## Post coup d'état
Aubame and Gondjout fled Libreville, but were captured sometime before 20 February. In August a trial of the rebels and provisional government was opened in Lambaréné. A "state of precations" was imposed, which decreed that local government keep surveillance on suspected troublemakers and, if necessary, order curfew, and special permits were required to travel through the town. The trial was held in a school building overlooking the Ogooue River, which was near Albert Schweitzer's hospital. Space at the hearing was limited, so members of the public were disallowed from attending. Permits were required to attend the trial, and family members were restricted to one permit each. Press coverage was limited, and journalists were allowed only if they represented a high-profile news agency. In addition, there were restrictions on the defence of the accused.
During a trial which carried the death sentence as a maximum, the prosecution called 64 separate witnesses. Aubame claimed he had formed his provisional government in a constitutional manner; at the request of members of the "putschists". He argued that the French intervention was effectively an illegal act of interference; a belief shared by both Gondjout and the former education minister, Jean Mare Ekoh. On 9 September, without consulting M'ba, Leon Auge handed down a verdict acquitting both Ekoh and Gondjout of all charges.
Little is known of Goundjout's life between his 1966 acquittal and death on 1 July 1990, in Libreville. He is buried in Libreville near his wife Odette (d. 2006), a former fashion model. A secondary school has been established in his name. |
55,491,875 | 1992 Football League Second Division play-off final | 1,172,539,959 | null | [
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"Football League Second Division play-off finals",
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| The 1992 Football League Second Division play-off Final was an association football match, which was played on 25 May 1992 at Wembley Stadium, London, between Blackburn Rovers and Leicester City. The match was to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from the Football League Second Division, the second tier of English football, to the inaugural season of the Premier League. The top two teams of the 1991–92 Football League Second Division season gained automatic promotion to the Premier League, while the clubs placed from third to sixth place in the table took part in play-off semi-finals; Leicester City had ended the season in fourth position, two places ahead of Blackburn Rovers. The winners of these semi-finals competed for the final place in the Premier League. Derby County and Cambridge United were the losing semi-finalists.
The match was played in warm conditions in front of a Wembley crowd of 68,147 spectators and was refereed by George Courtney who was officiating his final league match. Neither team dominated the early stages of the match and the only goal of the game came moments before half-time when Blackburn's record signing Mike Newell scored from the penalty spot. David Speedie was brought down in the Leicester City penalty area by Steve Walsh and Courtney awarded the spot kick having adjudged the challenge as a foul. In the second half, both sides created numerous chances; with five minutes remaining, Leicester City goalkeeper Carl Muggleton brought down Mark Atkins to concede the second penalty of the match. This time, however, Muggleton saved Newell's strike. Despite late pressure from Leicester City, they failed to score and the match ended 1–0 to Blackburn, and they were promoted to the Premier League.
Blackburn Rovers finished their following season in fourth place in the Premier League. Leicester City ended their next season in sixth place in the 1992–93 Football League First Division, and qualified for the play-off final where they lost 4–3 to Swindon Town.
## Route to the final
Leicester City finished the regular 1991–92 season in fourth place in the Football League Second Division – the second tier of the English football league system – two places and three points ahead of Blackburn Rovers. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the Premier League and instead took part in the play-offs, along with Derby County and Cambridge United, to determine the third promoted team. Leicester City finished three points behind Middlesbrough (who were promoted in second place) and seven behind league winners Ipswich Town.
Blackburn Rovers' opposition in their play-off final semi-final were Derby County, with the first leg taking place at Ewood Park, Blackburn, on 10 May 1992. Within fifteen minutes, the visitors were two goals ahead: Marco Gabbiadini scored the opener with a header past Bobby Mimms from a Paul Simpson free kick. Soon after, Tommy Johnson doubled Derby's lead, having been put clear by Simpson with a chip. Scott Sellars then halved the deficit with a free kick which took a significant deflection before beating Steve Sutton in the Derby goal, before Mike Newell levelled the match just before half time. Midway through the second half, David Speedie put the home side ahead for the first time after he capitalised on a defensive mistake from Andy Comyn, before going on to double the lead minutes later, with the match ending 4–2. The second leg took place three days later at the Baseball Ground in Derby. Comyn put the home side ahead with a header from a Johnson cross only for Kevin Moran to equalise from a corner. With fifteen minutes remaining, Ted McMinn scored Derby's second, making it 2–1 on the evening, but with no further goals, it meant that Blackburn won 5–4 on aggregate to qualify for the final. Speedie was attacked by a number of Derby supporters after the final whistle who had encroached onto the pitch.
In the second semi-final, Leicester City faced Cambridge United, the first leg being played at the Abbey Stadium, Cambridge, on 10 May 1992. The visitors took the lead late in the first half: Dion Dublin headed down a cross from a short corner to Kevin Russell who struck a left-footed volley into the far corner of the Cambridge goal. With fifteen minutes of the match remaining, Cambridge's captain Danny O'Shea headed in a equaliser to see the match end in a 1–1 draw. The return leg, at Filbert Street, took place three days later. Mick Heathcote hit the bar for the visitors and Dublin volleyed wide in an opening period dominated by Cambridge, but it was Leicester who took the lead. In the 29th minute, Tommy Wright scored after taking advantage of a Richard Wilkins defensive miskick and seven minutes later Steve Thompson made it 2–0. Three goals in five second-half minutes settled the match: Russell headed Leicester's third goal in the 59th minute, then Wright scored from a Ian Ormondroyd pass before Ormondroyd scored the fifth of the game. It ended 5–0 and Leicester progressed to the final 6–1 on aggregate.
## Match
### Background
Leicester City had not participated in the second tier play-offs before the 1991–92 season, and had played at that level since being relegated in the 1986–87 season. It was also their first trip to Wembley Stadium for 23 years and had failed to win at the national stadium in four attempts. Blackburn Rovers had featured in the play-offs for three consecutive seasons between 1988 and 1990, including a 4–3 defeat by Crystal Palace in the two-legged 1989 final. They had played in the second tier of English football since the 1980–81 season when they were promoted from the Third Division as runners-up, and had not played at the highest level since the 1965–66 season. Leicester City had won both matches between the sides during the regular season: a 3–0 victory at Filbert Street in September 1991 was followed by a 1–0 win at Ewood Park the following April. The leading scorer during the regular season for Leicester City was Tommy Wright with 17 (12 in the league, 2 in the League Cup and 5 in the Full Members' Cup), followed by Paul Kitson (10 goals in all competitions) and Steve Walsh (8 goals in all competitions). Speedie was Blackburn's top goalscorer with 24 goals, 23 in the league and 1 in the League Cup. The teams were competing to become the first play-off winners to be promoted to the newly-formed Premier League, a move which caused Division Two to be renamed Division One, Division Three to be renamed Division Two and so on. Leicester City's manager Brian Little declared that the play-off final was "the biggest game in the club's history" and as a result of a new television deal, victory could have been worth up to £3 million (equivalent to £ million in ).
Businessman Jack Walker had bought a 62% controlling stake in Blackburn Rovers in 1991. He convinced former Liverpool and Scotland international Kenny Dalglish to come out of retirement to take the position of manager at the club in October 1991, replacing Phil Parkes who had been caretaker manager since Don Mackay had left the previous month. David Lacey in The Guardian reported that Dalglish spent £5.5 million (equivalent to £ million in ) on transfers during the season. This included a club-record £1.1 million (equivalent to £ million in ) for Newell from Everton in November 1991, who became the club's first million-pound player, and a similar sum for Roy Wegerle the following March. Other signings included Alan Wright, Colin Hendry, Gordon Cowans, Tim Sherwood, Chris Price, Matt Dickins and Duncan Shearer. Dalglish's counterpart, Brian Little, had been appointed as manager of Leicester City in June 1991, replacing Gordon Lee who had led the club to survival the previous season. Little had led Darlington to back-to-back promotions, as champions of the 1989–90 Football Conference and subsequently the 1990–91 Football League Fourth Division. He signed eight players for Leicester early in the season, including three former Darlington players in Gary Coatsworth, Paul Willis, and Michael Trotter. Before the transfer window closed, Little also brought in Ormondroyd and Phil Gee from Derby County in exchange for Kitson, along with Simon Grayson and Mike Whitlow.
The referee for the final was 50-year-old George Courtney from Spennymoor; he was officiating his fourteenth game at Wembley and last league match before retirement. Parkes, who had remained with Blackburn Rovers as an assistant manager after Dalglish's arrival, led the team out at Wembley. Bookmakers were unable to pick a clear favourite for the match. Blackburn Rovers lined up in a 4–4–2 formation with one change in their starting line-up from their previous game, Price coming in for Lee Richardson in midfield. Wegerle was selected as a substitute in favour of Shearer. Leicester City were unchanged from their semi-final second leg match, adopting a 5–2–3 formation. Blackburn wore all-yellow, while Leicester were in their regular home kit of blue shirts, white shorts and blue socks.
### First half
Leicester City kicked off the final in warm conditions in front of a Wembley crowd of 68,147. Neither side dominated the early period of the game with the first opportunity falling to Leicester City in the fourth minute: a cross-field ball from Gary Mills found Tommy Wright deep on the left wing, whose high cross was caught by Mimms ahead of Ormondroyd and Russell. On seven minutes, Price was fouled by Tommy Wright around 15 yards (14 m) outside the Leicester City penalty area. The resulting direct free kick from Mark Atkins was pushed around the post by Carl Muggleton after it bounced in front of him. Four minutes later, a long pass from May was headed out by Tony James but fell to Atkins whose shot from the edge of the penalty area was blocked by Walsh. In the 14th minute, Newell was brought down by Walsh and the quick free kick found Sellars whose shot went high over the Blackburn crossbar. Ten minutes later, Blackburn's Speedie was fouled by James and Russell deep in Leicester City's half but the free kick from Cowans was cleared. A minute later, a one-two between Price and Newell saw the former's subsequent cross float off the end of the pitch.
In the 28th minute, a long pass from Colin Hill inside his own half found Tommy Wright who was fouled on the edge of the Blackburn penalty area by Alan Wright, but Thompson's free kick came to nothing. Three minutes later Tommy Wright made a run down the left wing and crossed the ball into the Blackburn box but it was gathered by Mimms ahead of Ormondroyd. On 36 minutes, a long pass out of defence by Alan Wright found Newell on the left who ran into the penalty area. He cut inside, wrong-footing two defenders before his goal-bound shot struck Leicester's Walsh in the face and the ball was cleared. Almost immediately, a long pass from Russell from the left was brought under control by Mills on the edge of the Blackburn box but his left-footed strike went wide of the post. A corner from Thompson in the 39th minute was met by James whose header was nodded over the Blackburn crossbar by Ormondroyd. A cross-field pass from Mills was then won by Ormondroyd as May tried to shepherd the ball out for a throw-in. Ormondroyd then beat Hendry in the penalty box and fell, but no penalty was awarded and Blackburn cleared the ball. With less than five minutes of the half remaining, Sellars received the ball just inside his own half and ran deep into the Blackburn half before releasing Alan Wright whose cross was plucked out of the air by Muggleton in the Leicester goal, ahead of Speedie. In the last minute of the first half, a long ball from Hendry was headed back by Newell to Speedie who was brought down by Walsh in the area to win a penalty. Newell took the spot kick, striking the ball to the bottom-right corner of the goal past Muggleton to make it 1–0.
### Second half
Neither side made any changes at half time and Blackburn kicked off the second half, and dominated the early stages. In the 47th minute, the referee played advantage after Tommy Wright was fouled by May, allowing the ball to finally run to Russell on the right wing whose cross was gathered by Mimms. Two minutes later a goal kick from Mimms was headed by Hendry but fell to Thompson who struck it high and wide from around 25 yards (23 m). A 50th minute corner from Whitlow bounced around in the box before being cleared over the crossbar by Alan Wright. Four minutes later Tommy Wright was brought down by May deep in the Blackburn half which was adjudged a foul. Mimms got a hand to Whitlow's outswinging free kick but the ball fell to Grayson on the edge of the area: his off-target first-time shot was deflected by James then Newell towards his own goal before the ball was cleared off the line by Hendry. On 56 minutes, a free kick from Whitlow was headed towards the Leicester City goal by Ormondroyd before being cleared by Cowans. Five minutes later, a clearance from Hendry fell to Speedie and Blackburn found themselves with a three-on-one situation: instead of passing to Cowans, Speedie opted to try to beat the last man, Mills, who brought him down illegally. The foul earned Mills the first yellow card of the afternoon, but the free kick from Sellars was caught by Muggleton. In the 65th minute, a long pass from Moran deep in his own half was collected by Walsh but his shot was off-target. Seconds later, a misplaced pass in the Leicester defence was worked to Sellars whose chipped shot went high over the crossbar.
Leicester made the first change of the afternoon in the 67th minute when Gee came on to replace James. Atkins became the second player to be booked a minute later when he pulled back Mills. In the 71st minute, Blackburn cleared a long through but the ball fell to Thompson who passed the ball back to Grayson who struck wide of the left-hand post from around 20 yards (18 m). A minute later, Mills picked up a loose ball around the half-way line and ran into the Blackburn half unchallenged until Hendry brought him down outside the penalty area: the Blackburn defender was shown a yellow card for the foul. The resulting free kick from Thompson was headed over the bar by Walsh. Gee then headed the ball directly into the arms of Mimms from 8 yards (7.3 m). On 76 minutes, Atkins made a long pass which found Newell on the left flank in an advanced position: Newell ran on with the ball and his attempted chip was pushed away by Muggleton. On 77 minutes, a cross-field pass from Speedie was collected by Price on the edge of the Leicester City penalty area, but Muggleton gathered his low cross. Two minutes later May's long ball forward found Atkins in space but his diagonal shot was caught in the Leicester goal. With eleven minutes to go, Speedie was brought down by Grayson after being sent free down the left wing by a pass from Sellars. Speedie was then booked for pushing Grayson to the ground. Leicester's Gee then crossed from the corner of the Blackburn penalty area and Ormondroyd's header back across the face of goal was cleared by Hendry just ahead of Russell. With six minutes remaining, Newell passed to Atkins who ran into the area and was fouled by Muggleton who conceded the second penalty of the match. Sellars was then replaced by Richardson. Newell's spot kick was straight at Muggleton who deflected it onto the post, to keep the score at 1–0. Newell then received a goal kick from Mimms deep in Leicester territory, his cross was nudged on by Speedie to Atkins whose shot was tipped just past the post low to Muggleton's left. In the 89th minute, Tommy Wright's shot from inside the box went just over the Blackburn crossbar. Despite late pressure from Leicester City who were pushing for the equaliser, it was to no avail as the match ended 1–0 and Blackburn Rovers secured promotion.
### Details
## Post-match
Walsh accused Speedie of diving: "Speedie's team will be delighted with him. He did what all strikers should do. Took a dive." Speedie defended his actions: "I got the ball in the box, turned him and the fellow pushed me. As far as I'm concerned, it was a penalty." Defeated manager Little was disappointed but said "there is no way [he] would point the finger at anyone." His counterpart Dalglish said: "Speedie had a clear shot at goal. The referee has given the penalty, we took it and we scored." Courtney said that he believed made the correct decision, noting that he thought "Walsh took [Speedie] out and that is what [he] gave." Walker immediately made European football the next target for Dalglish declaring "we want Europe now".
Blackburn Rovers finished their following season in fourth place in the inaugural Premier League, the highest league position achieved by a play-off winner and scoring more goals than any other team in the division. Two years later, in the 1994–95 season, they became the first club promoted through the play-offs to win the Premier League. Leicester City ended their next season in sixth place in the 1992–93 Football League First Division, and qualified for the play-off final where they lost 4–3 to Swindon Town. |
40,245,457 | Drink You Away | 1,163,660,682 | null | [
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| "Drink You Away" is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his fourth studio album, The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2 (2013). It was written and produced by Timberlake, Timothy "Timbaland" Mosley and Jerome "J-Roc" Harmon, with additional writing from James Fauntleroy. It was sent to US country radio stations on November 23, 2015 as the fourth and final single from the album. Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre song including classic rock, country pop, gospel blues and Memphis soul. Lyrically, on the track, Timberlake compares love to alcoholism while making references to several alcoholic brands including Jack Daniel's and Jim Beam. As of May 2016, the song has sold over 600,000 copies in the US.
"Drink You Away" received generally positive response from contemporary critics, with some of them labeling the song as a highlight and one of the most impressive moments on the album. Timberlake performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards and it was part of the set list of The 20/20 Experience World Tour (2013–15). In November 2015, the singer together with Chris Stapleton gave a rendition of track at the 2015 Country Music Association Awards; following it, "Drink You Away" sold 76,000 digital copies and debuted at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart. It also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart.
## Production and release
"Drink You Away" was written by Timberlake, Timothy "Timbaland" Mosley, Jerome "J-Roc" Harmon and James Fauntleroy. The song was produced by Timbaland, Timberlake and Harmon while Jones provided additional production. It was recorded the Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood, Los Angeles. Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals. Harmon provided keyboards for the song, while Ives played the guitar. The track was engineered by Chris Godbey and mixed by Jimmy Douglass, Godbey and Timberlake; for the process they were assisted by Alejandro Baima. The keyboards were provided by Harmon. It was sent to country radio in the United States on November 23, 2015, as the fourth and final single from The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2 (2013). Regarding the single release, Sony Music Nashville executive vice president, promotion/artist development Steve Hodges stated, "we received several requests from key programmers and we decided to get them a shortened version [of "Drink You Away"] so they didn't have to air the longer cut from the album," adding "our promotion staffs will not be actively working the single, we simply wanted to make the song easily accessible for country radio. Now they have it and can play it if they'd like" in an interview for Billboard.
## Composition and lyrical interpretation
"Drink You Away" runs for a duration of five minutes and thirty-one seconds, while its radio edit lasts for four minutes and fifteen seconds. Chris Bosman of Time magazine described the track as a country-pop. On the other hand, Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune thought that it was a gospel-blues song, while according to The A.V. Clubs Annie Zaleski it is a classic-rock "homage". Kira Willis of Starpulse.com noted that "Drink You Away" is an "unabashed" Memphis soul song, "steeped in a gritty country riff." Its instrumentation includes organ and acoustic guitar; elements of pop and rock music can be heard in the song's guitar.
Lyrically, the song features references to several alcoholic drinks which can be seen in the lyrics, "I can't drink you away. I've tried Jack, I've tried Jim... Now, tell me baby, do they make a medicine for heartbreak." Brad Stern of MTV News described it as a "plethora of alcohol references, and a whole lot of bluesy sorrow." According to Stacy-Ann Ellis of Vibe magazine, the song's lyrics continue the "druggy love analogy" which Timberlake started with some of the lyrical themes on The 20/20 Experience (2013) most particularly on, "Pusher Love Girl"; she noted that he is "trying to drown a bitter memory of her by opening up a bar tab and taking Tennessee whiskies to the head." Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine described "Drink You Away" as a "honky-tonking" song on which the singer compares his love to alcoholism.
## Reception
### Critical
HitFix's Melinda Newman gave "Drink You Away" an A grade and called it "the best" and "the most captivating track" on The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2, "with potential to be '2 of 2's'" "Mirrors". Similarly, Stern of MTV News thought that the song was one of the biggest surprises and one of the most impressive tracks on the album. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy labeled it as a "highlight" on the album and encouraged Timberlake to further explore the "Tennessee swagger" present on the track.
PopMatters''' Brice Ezell called the song a "hat trick" on the album and also described it as one of its most "weirdest" and "successful" moments. According to him, the way Timberlake lists the beverages in the lyrics it's an unorthodox style for the singer and in addition it differs musically from the rest of the material on the album, however, "for whatever reason, though, it works". He also noted that the song would suit better on a Montgomery Gentry LP. Kory Grow of Rolling Stone described it as a "a big genre-bending, feel-good sing-along that really actually does feels good." Jason King for Spin called the song "organ-laced" and thought it was "a surefire hit, a country twanger lifted to heaven by Timberlake’s quilted, hermetic harmonies."
Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media thought that "his heartbrokenness falls flat" on the song which he further described as "plastic blues" and compared it to the works of the American country singer, Kid Rock. Varietys Andrew Barker described "Drink You Away" as one of the "lows" on the album and compared it to the music of Rock and Lynyrd Skynyrd. Stephen Carlick of Exclaim! concluded that the track, "relies too heavily on repetition".
### Commercial
Following Timberlake's performance at the Country Music Association Awards, for the issue dated November 21, 2015, the song sold 76,000 digital copies and appeared at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart. It has since peaked at number 5. For the chart dated February 6, 2016, the song debuted at number 60 on Billboard's Country Airplay chart and climbed 38–36 on the Mainstream Top 40 radio airplay chart. The single is his 26th entry on the latter as a solo artist. It has also peaked at number 17 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. As of May 2016, it has sold 609,085 copies in the United States.
"Drink You Away" also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. In South Korea, following the release of the parent album, the song sold 2,358 digital copies and peaked at number 96 on the Gaon Digital Chart.
## Live performances and covers
Timberlake performed "Drink You Away" for the first time at the 2013 American Music Awards held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles; Rolling Stone's Grow ranked the performance at number five out of 16 performances that night. The song was part of the setlist of The 20/20 Experience World Tour (2013–15). Timberlake and Chris Stapleton performed the song together along with the latter's "Tennessee Whiskey" at the Country Music Association Awards on November 4, 2015. Rolling Stone magazine praised it as "the best performance of the entire show", while The New York Times editor Katie Rogers highlighted Timberlake's crossover appeal. Entertainment Weekly declared it as one of the best performances of 2015 and wrote, "In an unapologetic display of talent, Nashville met Motown during country music’s biggest night for a hands-in-the-air, take-us-to-church mash-up that was everything you hope for from an all-star duet."
American country music artist Craig Morgan has performed the song at several of his concerts. David Fanning's cover of "Drink You Away" peaked at number 58 on the Country Airplay chart.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2''.
Locations
- Vocals recorded and mixed at Larrabee, North Hollywood
Personnel
- Justin Timberlake — vocals, mixing, production, vocal production, vocal arrangement, guitar
- Timothy "Timbaland" Mosley — production
- Jerome "J-Roc" Harmon — keyboards, production
- Chris Godbey — engineering, mixing
- Jimmy Douglass — mixing
- Elliot Ives — guitar
- Alejandro Baima — additional mixing
## Charts
## Certifications
## Release history |
53,160,284 | LiAngelo Ball | 1,167,438,569 | American basketball player (born 1998) | [
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| LiAngelo Robert Ball (born November 24, 1998) is an American professional basketball player for the Greensboro Swarm of the NBA G League. Ball played for Chino Hills High School in California, where he won a state championship and achieved national success as a junior with his brothers Lonzo, and LaMelo, who are both current NBA guards. A three-star recruit and UCLA signee, he decided to forgo college basketball after being suspended for shoplifting in China before the 2017–18 season. In turn, Ball signed with Lithuanian professional team Prienai. He later played in the Junior Basketball Association (JBA), a league founded by his father, before joining the G League at the end of 2019–20. He was briefly signed to the Detroit Pistons in late 2020, but was waived prior to the start of the 2020–21 season. Ball joined the Greensboro Swarm in 2021.
Ball and his brothers have attracted national attention since playing together in high school. His father, LaVar, also grew into a media personality in 2017. Ball has a signature shoe by his father's company, Big Baller Brand, and a role on his family's Facebook Watch reality show Ball in the Family.
## Early life
Ball is the second son of LaVar and Tina (née Slatinsky) Ball, who are both former college basketball players. LaVar, who stands 6-foot-6 (1.98 m), played for Washington State and Cal State Los Angeles. Tina, who stands 6-feet (1.83 m), also played with the latter school. His father later played professional football as a tight end for the London Monarchs of the World League of American Football.
In his childhood, Ball often played basketball against older opponents, facing teams of fourth and fifth-graders while in kindergarten. He started working out and training by age four and first competed with both of his brothers, Lonzo and LaMelo, at age six. As a seven-year-old, he also began playing flag football with his brothers. While Lonzo was a quarterback, LiAngelo and LaMelo caught passes. On the basketball court, LiAngelo grew up playing with his brothers on Big Ballers VXT, an Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) under-17 team created by their father and coached by both parents.
## High school career
### Freshman and sophomore seasons
Ball played basketball for four years at Chino Hills High School in Chino Hills, California. As a freshman, he started alongside his older brother, Lonzo. Ball helped Chino Hills reach its first-ever CIF Southern Section Open Division championship game. Chino Hills fell in overtime to Centennial High School at the Southern California Regional Division I final. As a sophomore, Ball was teammates with his brother, Lonzo, and his cousin, Andre Ball. He suffered a foot injury before the season and missed a tournament at Fairfax High School in June 2014. On September 14, he scored 35 points with seven three-point field goals to win the Ron Massey Memorial Fall Hoops Classic. In December 2014, Ball scored 53 points in a 111–80 win over Dorsey High School. At the end of the season, Ball was sidelined for four games with an ankle sprain but returned for the playoffs. His team lost at the CIF State Division I championship game. After the season, on April 21, he verbally committed to play college basketball for UCLA.
### Junior season
In his junior season, Ball played with both of his brothers, Lonzo and LaMelo. In December 2015, Ball scored 32 points to upset top-ranked Montverde Academy in the City of Palms Classic quarterfinals. He scored 40 points in a semifinal win over High Point Christian Academy and won the tournament. Against Jonesboro High School at the MaxPreps Holiday Classic, Ball scored 41 points. On February 11, he led all scorers with 32 points against Etiwanda High School, as Chino Hills finished the regular season with a 27–0 record. On March 5, 2016, he scored 31 points to win the CIF Southern Section Open Division title over Sierra Canyon School. On March 26, he had 18 points to win the Open Division title over De La Salle High School. As a junior, Ball averaged 27.4 points per game, which led his team. His team finished 35–0 and was named mythical national champion by MaxPreps, who also labeled their title run "perhaps the best brother act in high school basketball history."
### Senior season
On November 29, Ball scored 56 points in a 121–89 win over Lutheran High School of Orange County. In his following game, which was played on the next day, Ball scored a career-high 72 points with 13 three-pointers in a 128–108 victory over Rancho Christian School, the tenth-most points scored in a single game in California high school history. On December 26, he scored 65 points in a Rancho Mirage Holiday Invitational win over Foothill High School. On January 20, 2017, Ball scored 60 points in a 136–93 win over Los Osos High School. Seven days later, he registered 52 points and 10 three-pointers in a victory against Damien High School. His team fell in the CIF Southern Section Open Division semifinals to Bishop Montgomery High School. After a 30–3 season, he was named All-Area Player of the Year by The San Bernardino Sun and Inland Valley Daily Bulletin. Ball was also a first-team All-State and honorable mention All-American selection by MaxPreps. In addition, he averaged 33.8 points per game as a senior, leading the state of California in scoring.
## College career
Ball was a consensus three-star recruit. 247Sports.com ranked him outside of their top-200 recruits nationally and as the 50th best shooting guard in his class. Having already committed to play for the UCLA Bruins as a high school sophomore, Ball signed a letter of intent on November 2, 2016, and enrolled at the University of California, Los Angeles on June 1, 2017. He was projected to be a reserve for during his 2017–18 freshman season for UCLA. He played his only game with the Bruins in the preseason on November 1, 2017, against NCAA Division II team Cal State Los Angeles, scoring 11 points.
On November 7, 2017, days before UCLA's regular season opener against Georgia Tech in Shanghai, China, Ball and two other freshman teammates were arrested in Hangzhou for allegedly stealing sunglasses from a Louis Vuitton store at a high-end shopping center near their team hotel. The trio potentially faced a fine and three to ten years in prison but were soon released from custody. Ball was suspended indefinitely from the UCLA basketball program. On December 4, he announced that he planned to withdraw from UCLA; his father LaVar had grown frustrated over the length of the suspension. Had Ball stayed at UCLA, he would have remained suspended for the rest of the season.
## Professional career
### Prienai (2018)
Although Ball was not considered a prospect at the time for the National Basketball Association (NBA), he planned on preparing for the 2018 draft with his father after leaving UCLA. On December 11, 2017, he signed with Prienai of the Lithuanian Basketball League (LKL), along with his younger brother LaMelo, who left Chino Hills before his junior season. The brothers' move to Lithuania was heavily reported by American sports media. Prienai withdrew from the Baltic Basketball League upon their arrival and took part in various exhibition games sponsored by his family's sports apparel company, Big Baller Brand.
In his professional debut on January 13, 2018, Ball went scoreless in a 95–86 loss to Lietkabelis. On February 11, he made his first start, recording 13 points in a 97–95 victory over Šiauliai. On March 25, Ball scored a season-high 28 points with six three-pointers in a loss to Nevėžis. On March 27, 2018, he announced that he would enter the 2018 NBA draft, even though most analysts believed that he was a long shot to be selected. On April 19, Ball injured his ankle and left early versus Juventus Utena. On April 25, Ball left Prienai with his family, with their father being critical of head coach Virginijus Šeškus. He finished the LKL season averaging 12.6 points and 2.7 rebounds per game, shooting 41.5% from the three-point line. Ball was not selected at the 2018 NBA draft.
### Los Angeles Ballers (2018)
On July 9, 2018, Ball signed with the Los Angeles Ballers of the Junior Basketball Association, a league founded by his father as an alternative to college basketball. He joined in the middle of the season and made his debut on July 14, tallying 53 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists. Ball was named to the West roster for the JBA All-Star Game and was named co-MVP of the game after scoring 39 points. Ball recorded 39 points, 15 rebounds, 7 assists, and 3 steals in a 202–189 win to claim the All-Star Game MVP award. In his first playoff game, he scored a season-high 58 points in a 157–134 win over the Philadelphia Ballers. On August 12, Ball matched his season high of 58 points, 11 rebounds, and 6 assists in a Finals victory over the Seattle Ballers and was subsequently named Finals MVP. At the end of the season, Ball was among 14 players in the league named to the JBA USA select Team, which faced several European teams on an international tour.
### Greensboro Swarm (2021–present)
In July 2019, Ball underwent surgery for an ankle injury and missed the NBA Summer League. On December 29, he signed with the Oklahoma City Blue of the NBA G League as a practice player. On March 9, 2020, he signed with the Blue by waiver claim. The Blue played just one game, which Ball did not play in, before the remainder of the season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
On December 2, 2020, Ball was signed to a training camp contract by the Detroit Pistons. On December 13, 2020, he was waived without playing in a pre-season game.
In the summer of 2021, Ball was invited by his brother LaMelo to work out with his team, the Charlotte Hornets. The Hornets allowed their players to bring in one workout partner. The Charlotte staff was impressed observing Ball, and he earned a spot on their Summer League team. In his summer league debut, he had five 3-pointers in 16 minutes. On October 14, 2021, Ball was signed by the Hornets. However, he was waived the next day.
On October 23, 2021, Ball was selected by the Greensboro Swarm 14th overall in the 2021 NBA G League draft. He scored 22 points in his G League debut.
Ball joined the Charlotte Hornets for the 2022 NBA Summer League. On September 26, 2022, Ball signed a non-guaranteed contract with the Hornets. He was waived on October 15, 2022.
On October 23, 2022, Ball rejoined the Greensboro Swarm roster for training camp.
## Career statistics
### NBA G League
#### Regular season
\|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2021–22 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Greensboro \| 28 \|\| 6 \|\| 13.2 \|\| .395 \|\| .357 \|\| .667 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 0.3 \|\| .4 \|\| .1 \|\| 4.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2022–23 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Greensboro \| 3 \|\| 0 \|\| 11.7 \|\| .250 \|\| .111 \|\| .000 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 0.0 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.3
#### G League Showcase Cup
\|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2021–22 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Greensboro \| 8 \|\| 0 \|\| 14.0 \|\| .622 \|\| .536 \|\| .500 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 0.6 \|\| .4 \|\| .0 \|\| 9.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2022–23 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Greensboro \| 11 \|\| 2 \|\| 19.0 \|\| .390 \|\| .375 \|\| .500 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 0.9 \|\| .7 \|\| .1 \|\| 5.7
### LKL
\|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2017–18 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Prienai \| 14 \|\| 6 \|\| 21.6 \|\| .425 \|\| .415 \|\| .633 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 0.9 \|\| .6 \|\| .1 \|\| 12.6
## Personal life
Ball's older brother, Lonzo, is a point guard for the Chicago Bulls and was the second-overall pick in the 2017 draft, while his younger brother LaMelo is a point guard for the Charlotte Hornets and was drafted third-overall in the 2020 draft. His cousin, Andre Ball, played college basketball for Pepperdine.
Ball is expecting his first child with reality television personality Nikki Mudarris. Their son, LaVelo, was born July 19, 2023. |
163,647 | Aldus Manutius | 1,161,965,177 | Italian printer and humanist (1449/1452–1515) | [
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| Aldus Pius Manutius (/məˈnjuːʃiəs/; Italian: Aldo Pio Manuzio; c. 1449/1452 – 6 February 1515) was an Italian printer and humanist who founded the Aldine Press. Manutius devoted the later part of his life to publishing and disseminating rare texts. His interest in and preservation of Greek manuscripts mark him as an innovative publisher of his age dedicated to the editions he produced. His enchiridia, small portable books, revolutionized personal reading and are the predecessor of the modern paperback.
Manutius wanted to produce Greek texts for his readers because he believed that works by Aristotle or Aristophanes in their original Greek form were pure and unadulterated by translation. Before Manutius, publishers rarely printed volumes in Greek, mainly due to the complexity of providing a standardized Greek typeface. Manutius published rare manuscripts in their original Greek and Latin forms. He commissioned the creation of typefaces in Greek and Latin resembling the humanist handwriting of his time; typefaces that are the first known precursor of italic type. As the Aldine Press grew in popularity, Manutius's innovations were quickly copied across Italy despite his efforts to prevent the piracy of Aldine editions.
Because of the Aldine Press's growing reputation for meticulous, accurate publications, Dutch philosopher Erasmus sought out Manutius to publish his translations of Iphigenia in Aulis.
In his youth, Manutius studied in Rome to become a humanist scholar. He was friends with Giovanni Pico and tutored Pico's nephews, the lords of Carpi, Alberto and Leonello Pio. While a tutor, Manutius published two works for his pupils and their mother. In his late thirties or early forties, Manutius settled in Venice to become a print publisher. He met Andrea Torresano in Venice and the two co-founded the Aldine Press.
Manutius is also known as "Aldus Manutius the Elder" to distinguish him from his grandson, Aldus Manutius the Younger.
## Early life
Aldus Manutius was born close to Rome in Bassiano between 1449 and 1452. He grew up in a wealthy family during the Italian Renaissance and in his youth was sent to Rome to become a humanist scholar. In Rome, he studied Latin under Gaspare da Verona and attended lectures by Domizio Calderini in the early 1470s. From 1475 to 1478, Manutius studied Greek in Ferrara with Battista Guarino as his teacher.
Most of Manutius's early life is rather unknown. According to John Addington Symonds, writing in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Manutius was granted citizenship of the town of Carpi on 8 March 1480 where he owned local property, and in 1482 he travelled to Mirandola for a time with his longtime friend and fellow student, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, where he stayed two years to study Greek literature. Pico recommended Manutius to become the tutor of his nephews, Alberto and Leonello Pio, princes of the town of Carpi. In Carpi, Manutius shared a close bond with his student, Alberto Pio. At the end of the 1480s, Manutius published two works addressed to his two pupils and their mother, Caterina Pico—both works were published in Venice by Baptista de Tortis: Musarum Panagyris with its Epistola Catherinae Piae (March/May 1487 to March 1491) and the Paraenesis (1490).
Giovanni Pico and Alberto Pio's families funded the starting costs of Manutius's printing press and gave him lands in Carpi. Manutius determined that Venice was the best location for his work, settling there in 1490. In Venice, Manutius began gathering publishing contracts, at which point he met Andrea Torresano, who was also engaged in print publishing. Torresano and Manutius became lifelong business partners, and for their first contract together Manutius hired Torresano to print the first edition of his Latin grammar book the Institutiones grammaticae, published on 9 March 1493.
## Aldine Press
The Aldine Press, established in 1494, had its first publication in March 1495: Erotemata cum interpretatione Latina by Constantine Lascaris. Andrea Torresano and Pier Francesco Barbarigo, nephew of the Doge, Agostino Barbarigo, each held fifty per cent of the press. Of Torresano's fifty per cent, Manutius was given one-fifth, but accounts are unclear as to whether Manutius's one-fifth refers to ten per cent of the Aldine Press or ownership exclusively to one-fifth of Torresano's share.
The press's first great achievement was a five-volume folio edition of Aristotle. Manutius started the first volume of his Aristotle edition in 1495. Four more volumes were published together in 1497 and 1498. The Aldine Press produced nine comedies of Aristophanes in 1498, and Pietro Bembo edited Petrarch's poems that Manutius published in July 1501. In addition to editing Greek manuscripts, Manutius corrected and improved texts originally published in Florence, Rome, and Milan.
The Second Italian War suspended the press for a time. During that time, Desiderius Erasmus asked Manutius to publish his translations of Hecuba and Iphigenia in Aulis through the Aldine Press. Erasmus's original letter to Manutius inquires about the printer's proposed plans: a Greek Plato and a polyglot bible. Through correspondence, the two came to an agreement. In December 1507, the Aldine Press published Iphigenia in Aulis in an 80-page octavo with Erasmus's translation from Greek into Latin. With the success and accuracy of their first collaboration, Manutius agreed to publish the expanded version of the Adagiorum collectanea Erasmus was working on. Erasmus travelled to Venice, where he spent his first ten months working at the Aldine Press. He lived in Manutius and Torresano's home, where he shared a room with Girolamo Aleandro. His research using Manutius's resources and Greek scholars enabled him to expand his collection of proverbs from 819 entries to 3,260 entries. The Aldine press published this newly expanded collection of proverbs, Adagiorum Chiliades, in 1508. After the publication of Adagiorum Chiliades, Erasmus helped Manutius proofread a Greek edition of Plutarch's Moralia along with many other Aldine Press publications.
Manutius relied on Marcus Musurus, Ioannis Grigoropoulos, and other Greek collaborators to translate for the Aldine Press. He published an edition of minor Greek orators (1508) and the lesser works of Plutarch (1509). Printing work halted again while the League of Cambrai tried to lessen Venice's influence. Manutius reappeared in 1513 with an edition of Plato that he dedicated to Pope Leo X in a preface that compares the miseries of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects of the student's life.
With the Aldine Press's increasing popularity, people would come to visit the shop, interrupting Manutius's work. Manutius put up a sign that read, "Whoever you are, Aldus asks you again and again what it is you want from him. State your business briefly and then immediately go away."
Manutius strove for excellence in typography and book design while publishing lower-cost editions. This was carried out under continual difficulties, including problems arising from strikes among his workmen, unauthorized use of Manutius's materials by rivals, and frequent interruptions by war.
### Greek classics
Before Manutius, there were fewer than ten Greek titles in print, most of which had to be imported from the Accursius Press of Milan. Only four Italian towns were authorized to produce Greek publications: Milan, Venice, Vicenza, and Florence, and they only published works by Theocritus, Isocrates, and Homer. Venice printer John Speyer produced Greek passages but required the minimal Greek letters to be left blank and later filled in by hand.
Manutius desired to "inspire and refine his readers by inundating them with Greek." He originally came to Venice because of its many Greek resources; Venice held Greek manuscripts from the time of Constantinople and was home to a large cluster of Greek scholars who travelled there from Crete. Venice was also where Cardinal Bessarion, in 1468, donated his large Greek manuscript collection. To preserve ancient Greek literature, the Aldine Press commissioned a typeface based on classical Greek manuscripts so that readers could experience the original Greek text more authentically.
While publishing Greek manuscripts, Manutius founded the New Academy, a group of Hellenist scholars, in 1502 to promote Greek studies. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition writes that the New Academy's "rules were written in Greek, its members spoke Greek, their names were Hellenized, and their official titles were Greek." Members of the New Academy included Desiderius Erasmus, Pietro Bembo, and Scipio Fortiguerra. M.J.C. Lowry, a lecturer in history at the University of Warwick, has a different view, regarding the New Academy as a hopeful dream rather than an organized institute.
Manutius spoke Greek in his household and employed thirty Greek speakers at the Aldine Press. Greek speakers from Crete prepared and proofed manuscripts and their calligraphy was a model for the casts used for Greek type. Instructions for typesetters and binders were written in Greek, and the prefaces to Manutius's editions were also in Greek. Manutius printed editions of Hero and Leander by Musaeus Grammaticus, the Galeomyomachia, and the Greek Psalter. He called these "Precursors of the Greek Library" because they served as guides to the Greek language. Under Manutius's supervision, the Aldine Press published 75 texts by Classical Greek and Byzantine authors.
### Latin and Italian classics
Along with Greek classics, the Aldine Press published Latin and Italian authors. Manutius launched Pietro Bembo's career as a writer by publishing De Aetna in 1496, which was the Aldine Press's first Latin publication by a contemporary author. The Bembo family hired the Aldine Press to produce accurate texts of Dante and Petrarch using Bernardo Bembo's personal manuscript collection. Pietro Bembo worked with Manutius from 1501 to 1502 to provide an accurate edition of Dante and Petrarch and also introduced punctuation. Bembo later made a diagram of sins to illustrate the 1515 Aldine edition of Dante.
Manutius did not hold the same power of innovation over Latin classics as with Greek classics because the publication of these works started 30 years before his time. To promote the Aldine editions in Latin, Manutius promoted the quality of his publications through his prefaces. Manutius was on the lookout for rare manuscripts, but often found instead missing parts of previously published works. Cuspinianus let Manutius publish the missing parts of Valerius Maximus's work, which Cuspinianus "had found in a manuscript in Vienna." Francesco Negri let Manutius publish the missing text of Julius Firmicus, which Negri found in Romania, and "a manuscript from Britain made an improved edition of Prudentius possible."
The press printed first editions of Poliziano's collected works, Pietro Bembo's Asolani, Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, and Dante's Divine Comedy. The 1501 publication of Virgil introduced the use of italic print and was produced in higher-than-normal print runs (1,000 rather than the usual 200 to 500 copies).
### Imprint and motto
Manutius adopted the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor as his publisher's device in June 1502. The dolphin-and-anchor symbol is associated with the phrase festina lente, meaning "make haste slowly," indicating quickness combined with firmness in the execution of a great scheme. The symbol and phrase were taken from a Roman coin minted during Emperor Vespasian's reign that was given to Manutius by Pietro Bembo.
Manutius's editions of the classics were so highly respected that the dolphin-and-anchor device was almost immediately pirated by French and Italian publishers. Many modern organizations use the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor. The device has been used by the nineteenth-century London firm of William Pickering, and by Doubleday. The international honour society for library and information science, Beta Phi Mu, uses the dolphin and anchor as its insignia.
### Enchiridia
Manutius described his new format of books as "libelli portatiles in formam enchiridii" ("portable small books in the form of a manual"). Enchiridion, described in A Legacy More Lasting than Bronze, also refers to a handheld weapon, a hint that Aldus intended the books in his Portable Library to be the weapons of scholars. It was for these pocket-sized classics Aldus designed the italic font.
Manutius converted to the smaller format in 1501 with the publication of Virgil. As time went on, Manutius self-advertised his portable format through the dedication pages he published.
Many scholars consider the development of the portable book as Manutius's most celebrated contribution to printing and publishing. These mobile books were the first known appearance of an editio minor, a straightforward text. During the 15th century, books were often chained to a reading platform to protect valuable property, requiring the reader to stay stationary. Publishers often added commentary to their published classics. Thus, pages became overloaded with scholarship and serious material which produced a large book that was difficult to transport. The Aldine Press removed these inconveniences; Manutius's books were "published without commentary and in smaller sizes, usually octavos of five by eight or four by six inches." His famous octavo editions are often regarded as the first prototype of the mass-market paperback.
The octavos were moderately priced considering the known average salaries of the time, but they were not cheap. Manutius priced his Latin octavos at 30 soldi, which was a fourth of a ducat. His Greek octavos were double the price at 60 soldi. For context, a master mason would earn about 50 soldi a day to make between 50 and 100 ducats a year.
### Typefaces
Everyday handwriting in Venice was in cursive, but at the time, printed works imitated formal manuscript hands, either blackletter or the humanistic littera antica. Manutius commissioned typefaces designed to look like the handwriting of humanists both in Latin and Greek in order to uphold the manuscript tradition. In the New Aldine Studies, Harry George Fletcher III, Pierpont Morgan Library's curator for printed books and bindings, writes that Manutius intended "to make available in type a face comfortable for its readers" with the cursive typeface.
Manutius commissioned the punchcutter Francesco Griffo of Bologna to create the new typeface. The handwriting reproduced for the many Aldine Press typefaces is a topic of conflicting opinions by scholars; Symonds (1911) suggests Petrarch's handwriting, while the New Aldine Studies presumes the handwriting of scribes Pomponio Leto and Bartolomeo Sanvito was the inspiration for the typeface. Other scholars believe the first Greek typeface was derived from the handwriting of Immanuel Rhusotas, another scribe during the time of Manutius. The Aldine Press commissioned the first Greek script designed "with accents and letters cast separately and combined by the compositor." The typeface was first used in publishing Erotemata by Constantine Lascaris in 1495. The Roman typeface was finished later the same year and Pietro Bembo's De Aetna was the first book published in the new Roman script.
Manutius and Griffo's original typeface is the first known model of italic type and was used by Manutius until 1501. Five italic words were printed in St. Catherine of Siena in 1500 and in 1501 an Opera by Virgil was the first completed book in italic type. A falling out between Manutius and Griffo brought Griffo to leave and supply other publishers with the italic type originally commissioned by the Aldine Press. Griffo only made one set of punches for the Aldine Press, which were used until 1559. Griffo's original italic type did not include capital letters, so many of the Aldine Press publications forwent capital letters.
The 1502 publication of the Metamorphoses included Manutius's privilege from the Doge of Venice indicating that any use or imitation of Manutius's Greek and Italic typefaces was forbidden. Despite trying to have the typeface protected legally, Manutius could not stop printers outside of Venice from using his work, which led to the typeface's popularity outside of Italy.
### Counterfeits and piracy
As the Aldine Press grew in popularity, Aldine counterfeits also increased. Manutius acquired privileges for his printing press from the Venetian Senate, specifically, for "his types, his pioneering octavo format, and even individual texts." Pope Alexander VI in 1502 and Pope Julius II in 1514 granted Manutius printing privileges from the papacy. This did not stop Aldine Press counterfeits, as there was little penalty for piracy at the time.
Manutius attempted to discourage piracy with blunt warnings at the end of his publications, as in Sylvarum libri quinque, by Publius Papinius Statius, where he warned "no one is allowed to print this without penalty." In the Bibliothèque du Roi on 16 March 1503, Manutius tried to warn off those who plagiarized his content, "it happens that in the city of Lyon our books appeared under my name, but full of errors... and deceived unwary buyers due to the similarity of typography and format....Furthermore, the paper is of poor quality and has a heavy odour, and the typography, if you examine it closely, exudes a sort of (as one might phrase it) 'Frenchiness'." He described the counterfeit's typographical errors in detail so that readers might distinguish a real Aldine from a fake. In spite of his efforts, the Lyonese printers were quick to use Manutius's critique to improve their counterfeits.
### Illuminated manuscripts and prefaces
Before the printing press and during the Italian Renaissance, illuminated manuscripts were individually created by a credited artist. When print publishing became popular, woodcuts were used to mass-illuminate works. The woodcuts were often reused in several editions, thereby decreasing their value. These woodcuts soon came to Venice and were viewed as part of the "new humanist manuscript." The woodcut images "included aspects of both continuity and discontinuity that involved the activity of Manutius, who was called upon to wholly explicate the new potential of the printed book and deal with the crisis of the illumination." Many of the Aldine Press's publications contained illumination, but Manutius let patrons decide the illumination details while he worked to translate and publish.
Prefatory letters, popular in first editions of Latin works years before, were also common for Aldine editions. Manutius used the Aldine editions to ask scholarly questions and provide information for his readers. In the preface of Ovid's Metamorphoses (1502), he argues that Heroides 17, 19, and 21 (the letters of Helen, Hero, and Cudippe, respectively) were the work of the poet Sabinus, whom Ovid refers to as Amores. In another preface Manutius explains how a sundial works.
## Personal life
In 1505, Manutius married Maria, the daughter of Andrea Torresani of Asola. Torresani and Manutius were already business partners, but the marriage combined the two partners' shares in the publishing business. After the marriage, Manutius lived at Torresani's house. Shrinking in popularity, in 1506 the Aldine Press was moved to a house now covered by a bank building in the Venice square, Campo Manin.
In March 1506, Manutius decided to travel for six months in search of new and reliable manuscripts. While travelling with a guide, Manutius was stopped by border guards of the Marquisate of Mantua who were looking for two criminals. Manutius's guide ran in fear, taking with him all of Manutius's personal effects. This suspicious activity led the guards to arrest Manutius. Manutius knew the Marquis of Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga, and wrote letters to him to explain the situation, but it took six days until Manutius's imprisonment was brought to Gonzaga's attention. While waiting, Manutius spent five days in jail in Casal Romano and another night in Canneto. He was eventually released by Geoffroy Carles, president of the Milanese Senate. A new, improved edition of Horace (after 30 March 1509) with an accompanying work by Manutius on Horatian metrics dedicated to Carles was contingent on this experience and Manutius's connection with Carles.
Manutius wrote his will on 16 January 1515 instructing Giulio Campagnola to provide capital letters for the Aldine Press's italic type. He died the next month, 6 February, and "with his death, the importance of Italy as a seminal and dynamic force in printing came to an end." Torresani and his two sons carried on the business during the youth of Manutius's children, and eventually Paulus, Manutius's son, born 1512, took over the business. Paulus won a lawsuit against his Torresani relatives for sole ownership of Manutius' italic typeface and in 1539 led the press with the Sons of Aldus imprint alongside his brothers until his death in 1574. The publishing symbol and motto were never wholly abandoned by the Aldine Press until the expiration of their firm in its third generation of operation by Aldus Manutius the Younger.
Manutius dreamed of a trilingual Bible but never saw it come to fruition. However, before his death Manutius had begun an edition of the Septuagint, also known as the Greek Old Testament translated from Hebrew, the first-ever to be published; it appeared posthumously in 1518.
## Modern influence
1994 marked the 500th anniversary of Aldus Manutius's first publication. On Manutius, Paul F. Grendler wrote, "Aldus ensured the survival of a large number of ancient texts and greatly facilitated the diffusion of the values, enthusiasms, and scholarship of Italian Renaissance Humanism to the rest of Europe". "He jettisoned commentary because he felt that it prevented the dialogue between author and reader that the Renaissance prized."
### Legacy
The Aldine Press produced more than 100 editions from 1495 to 1505. The majority were Greek classics, but many notable Latin and Italian works were published as well.
Erasmus was impressed by Manutius; "in a long passage he extols the 'tireless efforts' of Manutius in restoring ancient learning, truly 'a Herculean task,' and he announces that 'Aldus is building up a library which has no other limits than the world itself'."
The Palazzo dei Pio chapel in Carpi has a painted mural that includes Aldus Manutius along with Alberto and Leonello Pio. In Bassiano, Manutius's birthplace, a monument was erected to commemorate the 450th year since Manutius's death. The inscription is Manutius's own words: "for the abundance of good books which, we hope, will finally put to flight all ignorance."
The quality and popularity of Manutius's work made it more expensive in the 20th century than others published around the same time. In 1991, Martin Lowry found that an auction in New York took place where "initial prices of \$6,000 – \$8,000 and \$8,000 – \$12,000 were quotes on copies of Decor Puellarum and Aulus Gellius in Jenson's editions: Aldus' Hypnerotomachia Polifili started at \$25,000 – \$30,000."
## Publications
A partial list of works translated and published by the Aldine Press under Manutius's supervision.
### Greek editions
Greek editions published during Manutius's lifetime:
- Galeomyomachia, c. 1494–1495
- Hero and Leander, Musaeus, c. 1495
- Psalter, c. 1497
- Rules of the New Academy, c. 1501
- Epitome of the Eight Parts of Speech, Lascaris, 1495
- Organon, Aristotle, 1495
- Grammar, Theodorus Gaza, 1495
- Idylls, Theocritus, 1495–1496
- Thesaurus, Corn of Amalthea and Gardens of Adones, 1496
- Historia Plantarum, Theophrastus, 1497
- Dictionarium Graecum, I. Crastonus, 1497
- Hours of the Virgin, 1497
- Institutiones Graecae Grammatices, U. Bolzanius, 1497/1498
- Physics, Aristotle, 1497
- History of animals, Aristotle, 1497
- Prolegomena to the Deipnosophists, Athenaeus, 1498
- Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle, 1498
- Nine Comedies, Aristophanes, 1498
- Catalogues of Aldus's editions
- Epistolae diversorum philosophorum oratorum..., 1499
- De materia medica, Dioscorides, 1499
- Phaenomena, Aratus, 1499
- Metabole [Paraphrase of John], Nonnus of Panopolis, 1501
- Bibbia, 1501
- Poetae Christiani Veteres, first volume, 1501
- Poetae Christiani Veteres, second volume, 1502
- De octo partibus orationis, Constantine Lascaris, 1501–1503
- De urbibus, Stephanus Byzantius, 1502
- Onomasticon, Julius Pollux, 1502
- History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, 1502
- Tragedies, Sophocles, 1502
- Historiarum libri novem, Herodotus, 1502
- Tragoediae septendecim, Euripides, 1503
- Complete works, Lucian, 1503
- De interpretatione, Ammonius Hermiae, 1503
- Prolegomena, Ulpian, 1503
- Paralipomena, Xenophon, 1503
- Anthology of Epigrams, M. Planudes, 1503
- Commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, Ioannes Grammaticus (Philoponus), 1504
- Life of Apollonius of Tyana, Flavius Philostratus, 1504
- Carmina ad bene..., Gregorius Nazianzenus, 1504
- Homer, 1504
- Orations, Demosthenes, 1504
- Horae in Laudem..., 1504
- Posthomerica, Quintus Smyrnaeus, 1504–1505
- Aesop, 1505
- Adagiorum, Erasmus, 1508
- Greek Orators (2 volumes), 1508–1509
- Opuscula, Plutarch, 1509
- Erotemata, M. Chrysoloras, 1512
- Epitome, C. lascaris, 1512
- Pindar, 1513
- Orators' Speeches, 1513
- Greek Orators, 1513
- Complete works, Plato, 1513
- Commentary On the Topics of Aristotle, Alexander of Aphrodisias, 1513/1514
- Suda, 1514
- Lexikon, Hesychius, 1514
- Deipnosophists, Athenaeus, 1514
- Grammar, Aldus Manutius, 1515
### Latin classics
Partial list of Latin editions published during his lifetime:
- Astronomica, Julius Firmicus, October 1499. & Astronomica, Manilius (October 1499)
- Lucretius (December 1500)
- Christian Poets, Volume 1, Prudentius, Prosper, John of Damascus (January 1501)
- Vergil (April 1501)
- Horace (May 1501)
- Juvenal & Persius (August 1501)
- Martial (December 1501)
- Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius (January 1502)
- Letter to Friends, Cicero (April 1502)
- Lucan (April 1502)
- Christian Poets, Volume 2, Sedulius, Iuvencus, Arator (June 1502)
- Statius (August 1502)
- Valerius Maximus (October 1502)
- Metamorphoses, Ovid (October 1502)
- Heroides, Amores, Ars amandi, Remedia amoris, etc., Ovid (December 1502)
- Fasti, Tristia, Ex Ponto, Ovid (February 1503)
- Homilies, Origen (after 4 April 1503)
- Vergil (December 1505)
- Letters, Pliny the Younger (November 1508)
- Horace (after 30 March 1509)
- Sallust (April 1509)
- Letters to Atticus, Brutus and his brother Quintus, Cicero (June 1513)
- On the Meaning of Archaic Words, Festus (June 1513)
- Julius Caesar (December 1513)
- Rhetorical Works, Cicero (March 1514)
- On Agriculture, Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius (May 1514)
- Quintilian (August 1514)
- Vergil (October 1514)
- Lucretius (January 1515)
### Humanist works
Partial list of Humanist authors translated and published by the Aldine Press under Manutius's supervision:
- Instructional Principles of Latin Grammar, Aldus Manutius (5 March 1493)
- Gleanings in Dialectics, Lorenzo Maioli (July 1497)
- Complete Works, Angelo Poliziano (July 1498)
- Cornucopiae, Niccolò Perotti (July 1499)
- Rudiments of Latin Grammar, Aldus Manutius (February–June 1501)
- On Imagination, Gianfrancesco Pico (April 1501)
- The Land and Customs of the Zygians call Circassians, Giorgio Interiano (October 1502)
- Urania, Meteora, The Gardens of the Hesperides, etc., Giovanni Pontano (May–August 1505)
- On Hunting, Adriano Castellesi (September 1505)
- Adages or Adagiorum Chiliades, Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (September 1508)
- Poems, Tito and Ercole Strozzi (January 1513)
- Arcadia, Jacopo Sannazaro (September 1514) |
4,401,319 | Broadhurst Theatre | 1,161,565,690 | Broadway theater in Manhattan, New York | [
"1917 establishments in New York City",
"Broadway theatres",
"New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan",
"New York City interior landmarks",
"Shubert Organization",
"Theater District, Manhattan",
"Theatres completed in 1917"
]
| The Broadhurst Theatre is a Broadway theater at 235 West 44th Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Opened in 1917, the theater was designed by Herbert J. Krapp and was built for the Shubert brothers. The Broadhurst Theatre is named for British-American theatrical producer George Broadhurst, who leased the theater before its opening. It has 1,218 seats across two levels and is operated by The Shubert Organization. Both the facade and the auditorium interior are New York City landmarks.
The neoclassical facade is simple in design and is similar to that of the Schoenfeld (formerly Plymouth) Theatre, which was developed concurrently. The Broadhurst's facade is made of buff-colored brick and terracotta and is divided into two sections: a stage house to the west and the theater's entrance to the east. The entrance is topped by fire-escape galleries and contains a curved corner facing east toward Broadway. The auditorium contains an orchestra level, a large balcony, a small technical gallery, and a flat ceiling. The space is decorated in the classical Greek and Adam styles, with Doric columns and Greek friezes. Near the front of the auditorium, flanking the flat proscenium arch, are box seats at balcony level.
The Shubert brothers developed the Broadhurst and Plymouth theaters following the success of the Booth and Shubert theaters directly to the east. The Broadhurst Theatre opened on September 27, 1917, with Misalliance; its namesake had intended to use the theater for his own productions. The Shuberts acquired full control of the Broadhurst in 1929 and have operated it since then. The theater has hosted not only musicals but also revues, comedies, and dramas throughout its history. Long-running shows hosted at the Broadhurst have included Hold Everything!, Fiorello!, Cabaret, Grease, Kiss of the Spider Woman, Les Misérables, and Mamma Mia!.
## Site
The Broadhurst Theatre is on 235 West 44th Street, on the north sidewalk between Eighth Avenue and Seventh Avenue, near Times Square in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The rectangular land lot covers 10,695 square feet (993.6 m<sup>2</sup>), with a frontage of 106.5 feet (32.5 m) on 44th Street and a depth of 100.42 ft (31 m). The Broadhurst Theatre shares the city block with the Row NYC Hotel to the west. It adjoins six other theaters: the Majestic to the west, the John Golden and Bernard B. Jacobs to the northwest, the Gerald Schoenfeld to the north, the Booth to the northeast, and the Shubert to the east. Other nearby structures include the Music Box Theatre and Imperial Theatre one block north; One Astor Plaza to the east; 1501 Broadway to the southeast; and the Sardi's restaurant, the Hayes Theater, and the St. James Theatre to the south.
The Broadhurst is part of the largest concentration of Broadway theaters on a single block. The Broadhurst, Schoenfeld (originally Plymouth), Booth, and Shubert theaters were all developed by the Shubert brothers between 44th and 45th Streets, occupying land previously owned by the Astor family. The Broadhurst and Schoenfeld were built as a pair, occupying land left over from the development of the Shubert and Booth, which were also paired. The Broadhurst/Schoenfeld theatrical pair share an alley to the east, parallel to the larger Shubert Alley east of the Shubert/Booth pair. The Broadhurst/Schoenfeld alley was required under New York City construction codes of the time but, unlike Shubert Alley, it was closed to the public shortly after its completion. The Shuberts bought the land under all four theaters from the Astors in 1948.
## Design
The Broadhurst Theatre was designed by Herbert J. Krapp and constructed in 1917 for the Shubert brothers. The Broadhurst and Plymouth were two of Krapp's first theatrical designs as an independent architect after he left the firm of Herts & Tallant. While the facades of the two theaters are similar in arrangement, the interiors have a different design both from each other and from their respective facades. The Broadhurst is designed to complement the Shubert/Booth theatrical pair, with a simple neoclassical facade compared to the Shubert's and Booth's "Venetian Renaissance" designs. The Broadhurst is operated by the Shubert Organization.
### Facade
Krapp designed the Broadhurst and Plymouth theaters with relatively simple brick-and-stone facades, instead relying on the arrangement of the brickwork for decorative purposes. The Broadhurst and Plymouth contain curved corners at the eastern portions of their respective facades, facing Broadway, since most audience members reached the theaters from that direction. The use of simple exterior-design elements was typical of Krapp's commissions for the Shubert family, giving these theaters the impression that they were mass-produced. The Broadhurst and Plymouth theaters' designs contrasted with Henry Beaumont Herts's earlier ornate designs of the Shubert and Booth theaters. Nevertheless, the use of curved east-facing corners was common to all four theaters. The Broadhurst's facade is divided into two sections: the auditorium to the east and a stage house to the west. The facade is generally shorter than its width.
#### Auditorium section
The ground floor of the auditorium contains a water table made of granite, above which are vertical blocks of architectural terracotta. The rest of the facade is made of buff brick in Flemish bond, laid in a diaper pattern. Along the ground floor on 44th Street, there are glass-and-bronze double doors with aluminum frames and transoms. There are display boxes on either side of these doors, and a marquee extends above the doors. The southeastern corner of the facade is curved and contains an entrance to the ticket lobby. This entrance contains a double door, above which is a glass transom panel with the word "Broadhurst" inscribed on it. The corner entrance is topped by a broken pediment, which is supported by console brackets on either side and contains an escutcheon at the center.
Along 44th Street, the auditorium's second and third floors contain a fire escape made of cast iron and wrought iron. There are doors and windows on both levels, leading to the fire escape. In addition, the fire escape's third-floor railing contains cast-iron depictions of ribands and shields. A canopy originally shielded the fire escape at the third floor. Above the center of the third floor, on 44th Street, is a terracotta cartouche containing depictions of swags. The curved corner contains a third-floor window, topped by an oval escutcheon decorated with swags and fleur-de-lis. A terracotta cornice and a brick parapet runs above the auditorium facade. The parapet is stepped and contains a coping made of sheet metal.
#### Stage house
The stage house is five stories high. The ground floor of the stage house contains a granite water table with terracotta blocks above it. On this story, there are two metal doors and three windows. The stage house has five sash windows on each of the upper stories. These windows are placed within segmental arches made of brick. There is a metal fire escape in front of the stage house, which leads to the fire escape in front of the auditorium's third story. A parapet with corbels runs above the fifth story of the stage house.
### Auditorium
The auditorium has an orchestra level, one balcony, boxes, and a stage behind the proscenium arch. The auditorium has about the same width and depth, and the space is designed with plaster decorations in relief. According to the Shubert Organization, the theater has 1,218 seats; meanwhile, The Broadway League gives a figure of 1,186 seats and Playbill cites 1,163 seats. The physical seats are divided into 733 seats in the orchestra, 429 on the balcony, and 24 in the boxes. There are 32 standing-only spots. The theater contains restrooms in the basement and concessions in the lobby. The orchestra level is wheelchair-accessible and contains an accessible restroom; the balcony is not wheelchair-accessible.
#### Seating areas
The rear or eastern end of the orchestra contains a promenade, with four paneled piers supporting the balcony level. The promenade's ceiling is surrounded by a Doric-style cornice as well as a frieze designed in the Adam style. There are also plasterwork panels on the promenade ceiling, which contain chandeliers suspended from medallions. Two staircases with metal railings lead from the promenade to the balcony. The orchestra level is raked, sloping down toward an orchestra pit in front of the stage. The orchestra and its promenade contain walls with plasterwork panels. Doorways on the south (left) wall lead from the lobby, while those on the north (right) and east (rear) walls lead to the exits. The tops of the doorways are flanked by console brackets, which support an entablature and a pediment with anthemia. When the theater was built, the orchestra had a movable floor; half the seating could be removed overnight to accommodate smaller productions.
At the rear of the balcony are four paneled piers (corresponding to those at orchestra level), which are topped by Doric-style capitals. The side walls contain plasterwork panels with swags. There are also doorways with pediments, similar to those on the orchestra. Low-relief panels and air-conditioning vents are placed on the balcony's underside. In front of the balcony is a Panathenaic frieze, based on that of the Parthenon, which is mostly hidden behind light boxes. There is a small technical gallery above the rear of the balcony, the front railing of which contains moldings of swags. A Doric-style cornice runs above the balcony walls, wrapping above the boxes and proscenium.
On either side of the stage is a wall section with three boxes at the balcony level. The boxes step downward toward the stage; the front box curves forward into the proscenium arch, while the rear box curves backward into the balcony. At the orchestra level, there are three rectangular openings, corresponding to the locations of former boxes on that level. The front railings of the boxes contain sections of a Panathenaic frieze, separated by fasces made of plaster; the frieze contained depictions of horsemen. The underside of each box is decorated with a medallion containing a light fixture; this is surrounded by a molded band. Doric-style columns separate the boxes from each other, supporting a molding and panel at the top of each wall section.
#### Other design features
Next to the boxes is a flat proscenium arch, which consists of Doric pilasters on either side of the opening, as well as an entablature above. The entablature contains a central relief panel with a frieze of horsemen. The theater was also designed with a false proscenium opening, which gave the impression of a smaller stage suitable for dramas and comedies. The proscenium opening measures about 25 feet (7.6 m) tall and 40 ft (12 m) wide. The depth of the auditorium to the proscenium is 31 ft (9.4 m), while the depth to the front of the stage is 33 ft 2 in (10.11 m). The ceiling is flat, containing plasterwork moldings, friezes, and medallions, as well as air-conditioning vents. Chandeliers are suspended from the medallions.
## History
Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. Manhattan's theater district had begun to shift from Union Square and Madison Square during the first decade of the 20th century. From 1901 to 1920, forty-three theaters were built around Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, including the Broadhurst Theatre. The Broadhurst was developed by the Shubert brothers of Syracuse, New York, who expanded downstate into New York City in the first decade of the 20th century. After the death of Sam S. Shubert in 1905, his brothers Lee and Jacob J. Shubert expanded their theatrical operations significantly. The brothers controlled a quarter of all plays and three-quarters of theatrical ticket sales in the U.S. by 1925.
### Development and early years
The Shubert brothers had constructed the Shubert and Booth theaters as a pair in 1913, having leased the site from the Astor family. Only the eastern half of the land was used for the Shubert/Booth project; following the success of the two theaters, the Shubert brothers decided to develop another pair of theaters to the west. Herbert Krapp was hired as the architect, while Edward Margolies was the builder. Krapp filed plans for a new theater at 235 West 44th Street with the New York City Department of Buildings in January 1917; he revised these plans in March. That August, British-American theatrical producer George Broadhurst leased the theater from the Shuberts, and the venue was renamed for Broadhurst. At the time, Broadhurst was a busy playwright; he staged nearly 30 Broadway and West End plays from 1907 to 1924. He leased the Shubert's new 44th Street venue because he wanted a theater to showcase his own work.
The Broadhurst opened on September 27, 1917, with George Bernard Shaw's comedy Misalliance; the show lasted 52 performances. Despite his early intentions, George Broadhurst did not only stage his own shows at the theater; for example, the Broadhurst hosted a revival of R. C. Carton's Lord and Lady Algy in December 1917. This was followed in 1918 by the musical Maytime with Peggy Wood and the play Ladies First with Nora Bayes and William Kent. Rachel Crothers's comedy 39 East opened at the Broadhurst in 1919, and Jane Cowl and Allan Langdon Martin's collaboration 'Smilin' Through' at the end of that year.
George Broadhurst's adaptation of the play Tarzan of the Apes, with real animals, ran for 13 performances in 1921. The Claw featuring Lionel Barrymore opened the same year. Peggy Wood returned to the Broadhurst for Hugo Felix's Marjolaine in 1922, which had 136 performances. The Broadhurst's productions in 1923 included The Dancers with Richard Bennett and Florence Eldridge, as well as the revue Topics of 1923 with Alice Delysia. In early 1924, the Broadhurst staged Marc Connelly and George S. Kaufman's play Beggar on Horseback with Roland Young, which lasted for 224 performances. This was followed the next year by Michael Arlen's The Green Hat with Katharine Cornell; it had 237 performances.
The Broadhurst next hosted the revue Bunk of 1926, which was forced to close in June 1926 due to an injunction against it. Shortly afterward, Alexander A. Aarons and Vinton Freedley leased the Broadhurst Theatre for several years. Jed Harris's version of the George Abbott and Philip Dunning play Broadway opened that September; it continued for 603 performances, ultimately relocating at the end of 1927. It was immediately followed by Winthrop Ames's version of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, featuring George Arliss and Peggy Wood. The Lew Brown/B. G. de Sylva/Ray Henderson musical Hold Everything! opened later in 1928 and lasted for 413 performances. The Broadhurst's last hit of the 1920s was George S. Kaufman and Ring Lardner's play June Moon, which opened in 1929 for a 273-performance run. That year, the Shuberts took over the theater's operation from George Broadhurst.
### 1930s and 1940s
In 1931, the Broadhurst staged Herbert Fields and Rodgers and Hart's musical America's Sweetheart, which continued for 135 performances. Aarons and Freedley gave up their lease on the theater that August, and Norman Bel Geddes produced a short-lived revival of Shakespeare's Hamlet that November. This was followed in 1932 by Philip Barry's comedy The Animal Kingdom; the drama The Man Who Reclaimed His Head; and Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur's play Twentieth Century. Next, the Group Theatre occupied the Broadhurst during the 1933–1934 season with a production of Sidney Kingsley's play Men in White. Eve Le Gallienne's Civic Repertory Company presented several shows at the Broadhurst later in 1934. This included L'Aiglon with Ethel Barrymore, as well as Hedda Gabler and Cradle Song.
The Broadhurst hosted Robert E. Sherwood's play The Petrified Forest with Humphrey Bogart and Leslie Howard, in 1935. Victoria Regina, featuring Helen Hayes and Vincent Price, opened at the end of that year. It ran for 517 performances through 1937, with a hiatus mid-run. Subsequently, Ruth Gordon's version of the Henrik Ibsen play A Doll's House moved to the Broadhurst in 1938. This was followed in 1939 by Dodie Smith's Dear Octopus; the musical The Hot Mikado, an all-Black version of The Mikado with Bill Robinson; and the revue Streets of Paris.
During the 1940s, the Broadhurst hosted numerous musicals and revues. These included Boys and Girls Together with Ed Wynn, Jane Pickens, and the DeMarcos in 1940, as well as High Kickers with George Jessel and Sophie Tucker the next year. The drama Uncle Harry with Eva Le Gallienne, Joseph Schildkraut, and Karl Malden ran at the Broadhurst in 1942. Further hits at the Broadhurst included Fats Waller's revue Early to Bed in 1943; the Agatha Christie play Ten Little Indians in 1944, and a transfer of the revue Follow the Girls with Jackie Gleason and Gertrude Niesen in 1945. Morgan Lewis and Nancy Hamilton's revue Three to Make Ready transferred to the Broadhurst in 1946, and Helen Hayes returned the same year in Anita Loos's Happy Birthday, which ran for 564 performances. Four revues were staged during 1948 and 1949: Make Mine Manhattan, Along Fifth Avenue, Lend an Ear, and Touch and Go.
### 1950s to 1970s
The 1950s saw several long-running shows, though the earliest shows of the decade were short-lived. For example, Martin Balsam and Walter Matthau starred in The Liar, which lasted only 12 performances in May 1950. Douglass Watson and Olivia de Havilland starred in a 49-performance revival of Romeo and Juliet in 1951, while the musical Flahooley ran just 40 performances afterward. Conversely, the musical Seventeen ran for 180 performances later in 1951. Next was the revival of the Rodgers and Hart musical Pal Joey in 1952, featuring Vivienne Segal and Harold Lang, which at 542 performances ran longer than the original production. The Spanish Theatre performed several plays in repertory at the Broadhurst in 1953, followed thereafter by The Prescott Proposals with Katharine Cornell. This was followed by long runs of Anniversary Waltz (1954) with Macdonald Carey and Kitty Carlisle; Lunatics and Lovers (1954) with Sheila Bond, Buddy Hackett, and Dennis King; and The Desk Set (1955) with Shirley Booth.
The Broadhurst hosted Auntie Mame in 1956, starring Rosalind Russell in her last Broadway appearance; it ran for 639 performances. This was followed in 1958 by the play The World of Suzie Wong with France Nuyen and William Shatner, which lasted for 508 performances. Next, Jerry Bock and Sheldon Harnick's musical Fiorello! opened at the Broadhurst in November 1959, relocating over a year later in May 1961. Noël Coward's musical Sail Away opened at the Broadhurst in October 1961 with Elaine Stritch, running for 167 performances. The next year, the Broadhurst briefly hosted the long-running musical My Fair Lady, and Richard Rodgers's musical No Strings finished its 580-performance run there. The Tom Jones/Harvey Schmidt musical 110 in the Shade opened in 1963 with Robert Horton, Will Geer, Lesley Ann Warren, and Inga Swenson. The next year, the theater hosted the West End musical Oh, What a Lovely War!.
The musical Kelly was a flop in 1965, with just one performance before it closed. It was followed the same year by the West End musical Half a Sixpence with Tommy Steele, which ran for 512 performances. Afterward, in late 1966, the Broadhurst premiered John Kander and Fred Ebb's Cabaret, which only stayed a short time at the Broadhurst but ultimately lasted for about 1,165 performances. More Stately Mansions, the last play by Eugene O'Neill, opened at the Broadhurst in 1967 and featured Ingrid Bergman, Arthur Hill, and Colleen Dewhurst. You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running occupied the Broadhurst for several months in 1968, during the middle of that play's run. The next year, The Fig Leaves Are Falling flopped after four performances, and Woody Allen, Tony Roberts, and Diane Keaton starred in Play It Again, Sam.
The Broadhurst was increasingly hosting musicals, dramas, and comedies by the 1970s, with the decline of revues. George Furth's Twigs, featuring Sada Thompson, opened at the theater in 1971. Next, Grease had a short run at the Broadhurst during 1972; after transferring elsewhere, the show became Broadway's longest-running musical. It was followed at the end of the year by Neil Simon's The Sunshine Boys. Herb Gardner's play Thieves was performed at the Broadhurst in 1974, and the Royal Shakespeare Company's revival of Sherlock Holmes opened that year, with John Wood. Productions shown at the Broadhurst in 1976 included Enid Bagnold's drama A Matter of Gravity, with Katharine Hepburn and Christopher Reeve; a brief run of the musical Godspell, which had been an off-Broadway hit; and A Texas Trilogy, a set of plays by Preston Jones. At the end of the year, the theater hosted Larry Gelbart's farce Sly Fox, starring George C. Scott, which ran for 495 performances.
### 1980s and 1990s
Bob Fosse's musical Dancin , starring Ann Reinking and Wayne Cilento, had opened in March 1978. When Dancin''' relocated in December 1980, it had had the longest continuous run at the Broadhurst. Immediately afterward, the Broadhurst hosted Peter Shaffer's Amadeus, with Ian McKellen, Tim Curry, and Jane Seymour; it ran until October 1983. The Tap Dance Kid opened that December, running for three months before transferring. Next was a revival of Death of a Salesman with Dustin Hoffman, which opened in March 1984 and ran until the end of that year. The Broadhurst was then closed for six months, and the firm of Johansen-Bhavnani renovated the venue as part of a project that cost \$2 million. The project entailed rebuilding the stage, redecorating the lobby, enlarging a lounge and restrooms, and modifying the seating areas. This was part of a restoration program for the Shubert Organization's Broadway theaters.
The Broadhurst reopened in June 1985 with a gender-swapped version of Neil Simon's play The Odd Couple; it lasted until February 1986. The Eugene O'Neill play Long Day's Journey into Night opened at the theater in April 1986, with Bethel Leslie and Jack Lemmon, followed later that year by the Royal Shakespeare Company's production of The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, with Roger Rees. At the end of 1986, Neil Simon's Broadway Bound opened at the Broadhurst with Jason Alexander, Linda Lavin, and Phyllis Newman; it ran for 756 performances over the next two years. Another Simon play, Rumors, opened at the Broadhurst in November 1988 and ran for just over a year.
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started considering protecting the Broadhurst as an official city landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC designated the facade as a landmark on November 10, 1987, followed by the interior on December 15. This was part of the LPC's wide-ranging effort in 1987 to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters. The New York City Board of Estimate ratified the designations in March 1988. The Shuberts, the Nederlanders, and Jujamcyn collectively sued the LPC in June 1988 to overturn the landmark designations of 22 theaters, including the Broadhurst, on the merit that the designations severely limited the extent to which the theaters could be modified. The lawsuit was escalated to the New York Supreme Court and the Supreme Court of the United States, but these designations were ultimately upheld in 1992.
The Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Aspects of Love opened at the Broadhurst in April 1990; despite running for 377 performances, the show lost its entire investment of \$8 million. Several short-lived shows followed, including André Heller's Wonderhouse in 1991, as well as a revival of Private Lives with Joan Collins and the play Shimada in 1992. The next hit was Terrence McNally, John Kander, and Fred Ebb's musical Kiss of the Spider Woman, which opened in May 1993 with Anthony Crivello, Brent Carver, and Chita Rivera; it ran for 906 performances. Next, the New York Shakespeare Festival presented The Tempest in November 1995, starring Patrick Stewart, for 71 performances. The play Getting Away with Murder flopped in March 1996 after 17 performances, and the musical Once Upon a Mattress opened that December with Sarah Jessica Parker, running for 187 performances. In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld performed an original stand-up act at the Broadhurst; his final performance, I'm Telling You for the Last Time, was aired live on HBO. This was followed by Fosse, a revue featuring Bob Fosse shows, which opened in January 1999 and ran for two and a half years.
### 2000s to present
The Broadhurst hosted a revival of the August Strindberg play Dance Of Death in late 2001, featuring Ian McKellen and Helen Mirren. The next year, the theater revived Stephen Sondheim's musical Into the Woods with Vanessa Williams, which ran for 279 performances. Two short runs followed in 2003: Urban Cowboy, with 60 performances, and Never Gonna Dance, with 84 performances. As part of a settlement with the United States Department of Justice in 2003, the Shuberts agreed to improve disabled access at their 16 landmarked Broadway theaters, including the Broadhurst. Billy Crystal's solo show 700 Sundays, which opened in December 2004, ran for 163 performances and at one point was Broadway's highest-grossing non-musical show. The musical Lennon then had 49 performances at the Broadhurst in 2005, followed the next year by Alan Bennett's play The History Boys.
A revival of the musical Les Misérables opened in November 2006, just three years after the long-running original production had closed; it had 463 performances. More revivals followed in 2008, with an all-Black cast in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, as well as a revival of Equus starring Daniel Radcliffe and Richard Griffiths. Next in 2009 was a production of Friedrich Schiller's Mary Stuart, starring Janet McTeer and Harriet Walter, and a West End transfer of Hamlet, starring Jude Law. Meanwhile, the Shuberts sold 54,820 sq ft (5,093 m<sup>2</sup>) of unused air development rights above the Broadhurst to a developer in 2007; this allowed the firm to profit from the site, since the theater was landmarked and could not be further developed. A further 9,480 sq ft (881 m<sup>2</sup>) above the Broadhurst and Booth theaters was sold in 2009, and some 1,800 sq ft (170 m<sup>2</sup>) was sold in 2012. The Shuberts sold a further 58,392 sq ft (5,424.8 m<sup>2</sup>) of air rights above the Majestic and Broadhurst in 2013.
Lucy Prebble's play Enron flopped at the Broadhurst with 16 performances in 2010, despite critical acclaim on the West End. More successful was the Public Theatre's transfer of The Merchant of Venice, starring Al Pacino, the same year. This was followed in 2011 by Floyd Mutrux's musical Baby It's You!, as well as Hugh Jackman's concert special Back on Broadway. A revival of A Streetcar Named Desire with Blair Underwood and Nicole Ari Parker occupied the Broadhurst in 2012, followed the next year by Nora Ephron's Lucky Guy, with Tom Hanks in his Broadway debut. In 2013, the musical Mamma Mia! transferred from the Winter Garden Theatre to the Broadhurst for the final two years of its 14-year run. The next shows at the Broadhurst were the play Misery in 2015, as well as the musicals Tuck Everlasting and The Front Page in 2016.
The musical Anastasia opened at the Broadhurst in 2017 and ran there for nearly two years. It was followed in May 2019 by Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune and in December 2019 by Jagged Little Pill. The theater closed on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It reopened on October 21, 2021, with performances of Jagged Little Pill, which closed at the end of 2021 due to further pandemic-related issues. It was followed in November 2022 by a limited run of A Beautiful Noise, The Neil Diamond Musical.
## Notable productions
Productions are listed by the year of their first performance.
- 1917: Misalliance
- 1917: Lord and Lady Algy
- 1918: Maytime
- 1918: The Melting of Molly
- 1919: 39 East
- 1919: Smilin' Through
- 1921: Macbeth
- 1921: The Servant in the House
- 1921: Tarzan of the Apes
- 1922: The Faithful Heart
- 1923: The Dancers
- 1924: Beggar on Horseback
- 1925: The Green Hat
- 1926: Broadway
- 1928: The Merchant of Venice
- 1928: Here's Howe
- 1928: Hold Everything!
- 1929: June Moon
- 1931: America's Sweetheart
- 1931: Hamlet
- 1932: The Animal Kingdom
- 1932: The Man Who Changed His Name
- 1932: The Man Who Reclaimed His Head
- 1932: Twentieth Century
- 1933: Men in White
- 1934: L'Aiglon
- 1935: The Petrified Forest
- 1935: Victoria Regina
- 1937: Madame Bovary
- 1938: A Doll's House
- 1938: The Fabulous Invalid
- 1939: Dear Octopus
- 1939: The Hot Mikado
- 1940: Night Music
- 1940: Keep Off the Grass
- 1941: Old Acquaintance
- 1944: Ten Little Indians
- 1945: Lady in Danger
- 1945: Follow the Girls
- 1946: Happy Birthday
- 1948: Make Mine Manhattan
- 1949: Lend an Ear
- 1950: The Liar
- 1950: Detective Story
- 1950: Burning Bright
- 1950: An Enemy of the People
- 1951: Romeo and Juliet
- 1951: Flahooley
- 1951: Seventeen
- 1952: Pal Joey
- 1953: The Love of Four Colonels
- 1953: Spanish theater in repertory (8 productions)
- 1956: Auntie Mame
- 1958: The World of Suzie Wong
- 1959: Fiorello!
- 1961: Sail Away
- 1962: My Fair Lady
- 1962: Bravo Giovanni
- 1962: No Strings
- 1963: 110 in the Shade
- 1964: Oh, What a Lovely War!
- 1965: Kelly
- 1965: Half a Sixpence
- 1966: Luv
- 1966: Cabaret
- 1967: More Stately Mansions
- 1968: Weekend
- 1968: The Only Game in Town
- 1968: You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running
- 1969: The Fig Leaves Are Falling
- 1969: Play It Again, Sam
- 1970: Cry For Us All
- 1970: Private Lives
- 1970: Four on a Garden
- 1971: 70, Girls, 70
- 1971: Twigs
- 1972: Vivat! Vivat Regina!
- 1972: Grease
- 1972: The Sunshine Boys
- 1973: Rachael Lily Rosenbloom and Don't You Ever Forget It
- 1974: Thieves
- 1974: Sherlock Holmes
- 1976: A Matter of Gravity
- 1976: The Heiress
- 1976: Godspell
- 1976: A Texas Trilogy
- 1976: Sly Fox
- 1978: Dancin
- 1980: Amadeus
- 1983: The Tap Dance Kid
- 1984: Death of a Salesman
- 1985: The Odd Couple
- 1986: Long Day's Journey into Night
- 1986: The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby
- 1986: Broadway Bound
- 1988: Rumors
- 1990: Aspects of Love
- 1992: Private Lives
- 1992: A Christmas Carol
- 1993: Kiss of the Spider Woman
- 1995: The Tempest
- 1996: Getting Away with Murder
- 1996: Once Upon a Mattress
- 1997: Proposals
- 1999: Fosse
- 2002: Into the Woods
- 2003: Urban Cowboy
- 2003: Never Gonna Dance
- 2004: 700 Sundays
- 2005: Lennon
- 2006: The History Boys
- 2006: Les Misérables
- 2008: Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
- 2008: Equus
- 2009: Mary Stuart
- 2009: Hamlet
- 2010: Enron
- 2010: The Merchant of Venice
- 2011: Baby It's You!
- 2011: Hugh Jackman, Back on Broadway
- 2012: A Streetcar Named Desire
- 2013: Lucky Guy
- 2013: Mamma Mia!
- 2015: Misery
- 2016: Tuck Everlasting
- 2016: The Front Page
- 2017: Anastasia
- 2019: Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune
- 2019: Jagged Little Pill
- 2022: A Beautiful Noise''
## See also
- List of Broadway theaters
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets |
1,091,223 | Al-Mu'tamid | 1,171,603,005 | 15th Abbasid caliph (r. 870–892) | [
"840s births",
"892 deaths",
"9th-century Abbasid caliphs",
"9th-century Arab people",
"Prisoners and detainees of the Abbasid Caliphate",
"Sons of Abbasid caliphs",
"Year of birth uncertain"
]
| Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Jaʿfar (Arabic: أبو العباس أحمد بن جعفر; c. 842 – 14 October 892), better known by his regnal name al-Muʿtamid ʿalā ’llāh (المعتمد على الله, 'Dependent on God'), was the caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from 870 to 892. His reign marks the end of the "Anarchy at Samarra" and the start of the Abbasid restoration, but he was largely a ruler in name only. Power was held by his brother al-Muwaffaq, who held the loyalty of the military. Al-Mu'tamid's authority was circumscribed further after a failed attempt to flee to the domains controlled by Ahmad ibn Tulun in late 882, and he was placed under house arrest by his brother. In 891, when al-Muwaffaq died, loyalists attempted to restore power to the Caliph, but were quickly overcome by al-Muwaffaq's son al-Mu'tadid, who assumed his father's powers. When al-Mu'tamid died in 892, al-Mu'tadid succeeded him as caliph.
## Life
The future al-Mu'tamid was a son of Caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) and a Kufan slave girl called Fityan. His full name was Ahmad ibn Abi Jaʿfar, and was also known by the patronymic Abu'l-Abbas and from his mother as Ibn Fityan. After al-Muhtadi was deposed by the Turkish commanders Bayakbak and Yarjukh, he was selected by the military as his successor and proclaimed Caliph with the regnal name al-Muʿtamid ʿAlā ’llāh on 16 or 19 June 870. On 21 June, al-Muhtadi was executed.
### Reign and relationship with al-Muwaffaq
The accession of al-Mu'tamid brought an end to the turmoils of the "Anarchy at Samarra", which had begun with the murder of al-Mutawakkil in 861. Caliphal authority in the provinces collapsed during that period, with the result that the central government lost effective control over most of the Caliphate outside the metropolitan region of Iraq. In the west, Egypt had fallen under the control of the ambitious Turkish soldier Ahmad ibn Tulun, who also had designs on Syria, while Khurasan and most of the Islamic East had been taken over by the Saffarids under Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, who replaced the Abbasid's loyal governor, Muhammad ibn Tahir. Most of the Arabian peninsula was likewise lost to local potentates, while in Tabaristan a radical Zaydi Shi'a dynasty took power. Even in Iraq, a rebellion of the Zanj slaves had begun and soon threatened Baghdad itself, while further south the Qarmatians were a nascent threat. In addition, al-Mu'tamid's position was undermined from within, as during the coups of the previous years real power had come to lie with the elite Turkish troops, and with al-Mu'tamid's brother Abu Ahmad Talha, who, as the Caliphate's main military commander, served as the chief intermediary between the caliphal government and the Turks. When Caliph al-Mu'tazz died in 869, there was even popular agitation in Baghdad in favour of his elevation to Caliph.
In contrast to his brother, al-Mu'tamid appears to have lacked any experience of, and involvement in, politics, as well as a power base he could rely on. At the time al-Muhtadi was killed by the Turks, Abu Ahmad was at Mecca. Immediately he hastened north to Samarra, where he and Musa ibn Bugha effectively sidelined al-Mu'tamid, and assumed control of the government. Al-Mu'tamid was thus quickly reduced to a figurehead ruler, which remained the case for the remainder of his reign. Within a short time, Abu Ahmad was conferred an extensive governorate covering most of the lands still under caliphal authority: western Arabia, southern Iraq with Baghdad, and Fars. To denote his authority, he assumed an honorific name in the style of the caliphs, al-Muwaffaq bi-Allah. As one of the few vestiges of actual power, al-Mu'tamid retained the right to appoint his own viziers, originally choosing the experienced Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, who had already served al-Mutawakkil. During his caliphate, the Caliph retained some freedom of action, but after his death in 877, he was replaced by al-Muwaffaq's secretary, Sulayman ibn Wahb. Ibn Wahb was soon disgraced and replaced as vizier by Isma'il ibn Bulbul. Real power however lay again with al-Muwaffaq's new secretary, Sa'id ibn Makhlad, until his own disgrace and downfall in 885, after which Ibn Bulbul became the sole vizier to both al-Mu'tamid and al-Muwaffaq.
On 20 July 875, al-Mu'tamid formally arranged for the governance of the state and his succession: his underage son Ja'far was given the honorific name al-Mufawwad ila-llah, was named heir-apparent and assigned the western half of the Caliphate—Ifriqiya, Egypt, Syria, the Jazira and Mosul, Armenia, Mihrajanqadhaq and Hulwan— while al-Muwaffaq received the eastern provinces and was named second heir, except for the event that the Caliph died while al-Mufawwad was still a minor. In practice, al-Mufawwad never exercised any real authority, and al-Muwaffaq continued to exercise control over the western provinces as well through his trusted lieutenant Musa ibn Bugha, who was named al-Mufawwad's deputy. Al-Muwaffaq's power was strengthened by the military threats the Caliphate faced on all fronts, since he commanded the loyalty of the army. In April 876, al-Muwaffaq and Musa ibn Bugha defeated Ya'qub ibn al-Layth's attempt to capture Baghdad at the Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul and saved the Caliphate from collapse. The repulse of the Saffarids then allowed the Abbasids to concentrate their resources in suppressing the Zanj Revolt in the south. The Zanj rebels had managed to capture much of lower Iraq, and inflicted several defeats on the Abbasid troops. In 879, al-Muwaffaq's son Abu'l-Abbas, the future Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902), was given the command against the Zanj, and in the next year, al-Muwaffaq himself joined the campaign. In a succession of engagements in the marshes of southern Iraq, the Abbasid forces drove back the Zanj towards their capital, Mukhtara, which fell in August 883.
### Ibn Tulun and al-Mu'tamid's attempted flight to Egypt
At the same time, al-Muwaffaq also had to contend with the ambitions of Ahmad ibn Tulun in the western provinces. Ibn Tulun and the Abbasid regent fell out in 875/6, on the occasion of a large remittance of revenue from Egypt to the central government. Counting on the rivalry between the Caliph and his over-mighty brother to maintain his own position, Ibn Tulun forwarded a larger share of the taxes to al-Mu'tamid instead of al-Muwaffaq: 2.2 million gold dinars went to the Caliph and only 1.2 million dinars to his brother. Al-Muwaffaq, who in his fight against the Zanj considered himself entitled to the major share of the provincial revenues, was angered by this, and by the implied machinations between Ibn Tulun and his brother. Al-Muwaffaq nominated Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Egypt and sent him with troops to Syria, but a lack of funds led to the expedition's failure before even reaching Egypt. In a public gesture of support for al-Mu'tamid and opposition to al-Muwaffaq, Ibn Tulun assumed the title of "Servant of the Commander of the Faithful" (mawlā amīr al-muʾminīn) in 878. With the support of al-Mu'tamid, in 877/8 Ibn Tulun managed to be assigned responsibility for the entirety of Syria and the Cilician frontier zone (Thughur) with the Byzantine Empire.
In 881, Ibn Tulun added his own name to coins issued by the mints under his control, along with those of the Caliph and heir apparent, al-Mufawwad. In the autumn of 882, the Tulunid general Lu'lu' defected to the Abbasids, and the cities of the Thughur rejected Tulunid rule, forcing Ibn Tulun to go once again in person to Syria. Al-Mu'tamid used the moment to escape from his confinement in Samarra, and with a small entourage made for Tulunid domains. Messengers from the Caliph reached Ibn Tulun at Damascus, and the ruler of Egypt halted and awaited the Caliph's arrival with great anticipation: not only would the sole source of political legitimacy in the Muslim world reside under his control, but he would also be able to pose as the "rescuer" of the Caliph from his overreaching brother. In the event, however, Sa'id ibn Makhlad managed to alert the governor of Mosul, Ishaq ibn Kundaj, who overtook and defeated al-Mu'tamid and his escort at al-Haditha on the Euphrates. Al-Mu'tamid was brought back to Samarra (February 883), where he was placed under virtual house arrest in the Jawsak Palace. In May/June, he was even moved south to Wasit, where al-Muwaffaq could keep an eye on him in person. Only in March 884 was the powerless Caliph allowed to return to Samarra. In the meantime, he was obliged to denounce Ibn Tulun, and appoint—nominally at least—Ishaq ibn Kundaj as governor of Syria and Egypt.
In 886/7, the Caliph conferred the title of "king" on the long-time ruler of Armenia, Ashot I (r. 862–890). Although the Armenian king continued to pay tribute to the Abbasid court and recognize its suzerainty, both he and the various minor Armenian princes were de facto independent monarchs.
### Rise of al-Mu'tadid and death
In 889, al-Muwaffaq fell out with his son, Abu'l-Abbas, for reasons that are unclear, and had him imprisoned. Al-Muwaffaq spent the next two years on campaign in the Jibal in what is now western Iran. By the time he returned to Baghdad in May 891, al-Muwaffaq was already nearing death. The garrison commander of Baghdad, and the vizier Isma'il ibn Bulbul, hatched a plot to keep Abu'l-Abbas imprisoned and allow power to pass to al-Mu'tamid. Therefore, they invited the Caliph and his son to come the city, which they did. In the event, however, the attempt to sideline Abu'l-Abbas failed, due to his popularity with the soldiers and the common people: the soldiers set him free, and when al-Muwaffaq died on 2 June, Abu'l-Abbas immediately assumed his father's position. Abu'l-Abbas assumed the title of al-Mu'tadid bi-llah and took his father's position in the line of succession after the Caliph and al-Mufawwad. The powerless al-Mufawwad was pushed aside on 30 April 892, and when al-Mu'tamid died on 14 October 892, "apparently as a result of a surfeit of drink and food" (Hugh N. Kennedy), al-Mu'tadid took power as caliph.
Also, Ali al-Hadi, the tenth Imam of shiites was killed on orders of al-Mu'tamid. |
643,752 | Paul Waner | 1,169,430,083 | American baseball player | [
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| Paul Glee Waner (April 16, 1903 – August 29, 1965), nicknamed "Big Poison", was an American professional baseball right fielder who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for four teams between 1926 and 1945, most notably playing his first 15 seasons with the Pittsburgh Pirates. The greatest Pirate outfielder up to his retirement, he won the 1927 NL Most Valuable Player Award in his second season, collecting a team record 237 hits that year. Waner set the team record for doubles in a season three times, including 1932, when he set the NL record for doubles in a season with 62. In the only postseason appearance of his career, he hit .333 in the Pirates' 1927 World Series loss against the New York Yankees. Waner won three National League (NL) batting titles, led the NL in hits twice and collected over 200 hits each season from 1926 to 1934.
On June 19, 1942, Waner became the seventh member of the 3,000 hit club, with a single off Rip Sewell. He led the NL in putouts four times and holds the career record for most putouts by a right fielder. Waner's 191 triples are 10th all time, and his 605 doubles are 14th all time. A career .333 hitter, he was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1952. When Waner's younger brother Lloyd was elected to the Hall of Fame, they became the second pair of brothers in the National Baseball Hall of Fame, after Harry and George Wright. Paul and Lloyd also hold the record for the most hits recorded by brothers (5,611). On July 21, 2007, Waner's No. 11 was retired by the Pittsburgh Pirates.
## Early life
Waner was born in Harrah in the Oklahoma Territory, four years before the region became a state. He was the third child of five of Ora and Etta Waner. His younger brother Lloyd Waner is also a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame; Ora had once been offered a contract by the Chicago White Stockings but declined it, instead settling a 400-acre farm. Waner was born with the middle name of John but his middle name was changed from John to Glee after an uncle named Glee gave him a shotgun at the age of 6. He stated that he learned batting from hitting corncobs on his father's farm, learning the way to follow the ball by seeing the movement of the cobs. Waner had an astigmatism; he did not like wearing glasses on the field as it made the ball appear smaller and in focus, but without glasses the ball looked grapefruit sized. With the larger apparent size of the baseball he was able to hit the center more often.
Waner played baseball at East Central State Teachers College (now known as East Central University) in Ada, Oklahoma; he pitched to a 23–4 record with a 1.70 earned run average in 1922. Waner's father had wanted him to be a teacher, but Waner wanted to play pro baseball and dropped out of college as a result. He signed with the team in Joplin, Missouri in the Class A Western League. Then, Waner was sent to the Southwestern League (equivalent to Rookie League) in Muskogee before being sold again to the Class AA San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League in 1923, the manager of which was former Pirate, John "Dots" Miller. He only pitched one game for the Seals, in 1924 before he was moved to the outfield. With the Seals, Waner hit .378 over his three seasons, including .401 in their 1925 championship season.
## Major League Baseball career
### Pittsburgh Pirates
In October 1925, the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League purchased Waner and teammate Hal Rhyne from the Seals for \$100,000. On April 17, 1926, against the Cincinnati Reds, he collected his first major league hit. On August 26, Waner collected six hits in six at-bats during a game against the Giants, and he accomplished this feat using six different bats from six different players. He ended his first season with a .336 batting average and led the NL in triples with 22. He also finished 12th in MVP voting as the Pirates finished in third place, 4.5 games behind the St. Louis Cardinals. By Waner's second season with the Pirates he and younger brother Lloyd had become stars; combined, they accumulated 460 hits in the 1927 season. The 1927 season was a standout year for Paul. He played in a career-high 155 games (which led the league), and led the NL in hits (237), a team record, triples (18), batting average (.380) and RBIs (131). He set the major league record for consecutive games with an extra-base hit, with 14 (June 3–19, 1927); since then this feat has also been accomplished by Chipper Jones in 2006. Aided by the contributions of the Waner brothers, Pittsburgh advanced to the 1927 World Series. In the only postseason appearance of his career, Paul went 5-for-15 with 3 RBIs and a .333 batting average, but the Pirates were swept by the New York Yankees. In recognition for his performance during the 1927 season, the National League awarded him the NL Most Valuable Player Award.
Waner hit .370 and led the NL in runs scored (142, a career high) and doubles (50) in 1928. His 223 hits in 1928 were tied (with his younger brother Lloyd) for second most in team history. He set a career high with 15 home runs in 1929. He also collected at least 200 hits for the third season in a row and hit .336 with 43 doubles and 100 RBIs for the second place Pirates. Playing in only 145 games (the fewest since his rookie year) during the 1930 season, he still recorded 217 hits with a .368 batting average and 117 runs. By his measure, 1931 was a disappointing year for Waner, who was injured and missed time during spring training. Nonetheless, he still hit .322 with 180 hits in 150 games. The Pirates finished below .500, with a 75–79 record, for the first time in Paul's career.
Coming off a down year, Waner hit .341 in 1932 with 215 hits (his fifth season with over 200 hits). He played in all 154 games, and set the National League record for doubles in a season with 62. During a game on May 12, Waner hit four doubles, which tied a major league record for doubles hit in a game. In 1933, he hit for a career low .309, the first time his average dipped below .320, and recorded 191 hits. The 1933 season was also the first year that Major League Baseball hosted the inaugural MLB All-Star Game, for which Waner was selected as a reserve outfielder. The Pirates finished second in the NL in both 1932 and 1933, first four games behind the Chicago Cubs and then five games behind the New York Giants.
Waner won his second NL batting title in 1934, hitting .362 and leading the league in hits (217), his sixth time collecting 200 or more hits, and runs (122). He finished second in MVP voting and was selected to his second MLB All-Star Game. In 1935, it was suggested by manager Pie Traynor that Waner give up hard liquor and switch to beer, and this resulted in Waner only hitting .242 on May 18. Traynor and Waner went to a bar before playing the Giants on May 19, and when Waner ordered a beer Traynor said, "He will like Hell. Give him a shot of whiskey." Waner hit .331 in the remaining games to finish the season with a batting average of .321, with 78 RBIs and 176 hits in 139 games. In 1935, he was selected to his third MLB All-Star Game. In 1936, Waner won his third NL batting title with a batting average of .373, the second highest of his career, while collecting 94 RBIs (his third highest in his career), 53 doubles (second highest), and 218 hits. He collected over 200 hits for the final time in 1937, when he had a .354 batting average, while driving in 74. The 1937 season was the eighth time he collected 200 or more hits in a season; at the time, only Hall of Famer Ty Cobb had more 200 hit seasons (nine). It was also his fourth and final MLB All-Star Game selection.
Famous for his ability to hit while hung over, when Waner gave up drinking in 1938 at management's request, he hit only .280—the first of only two times that he failed to hit .300 as a Pirate. That year, he had 69 RBIs, 31 doubles and 175 hits in 148 games. As Casey Stengel said in complimenting his base-running skills, "He had to be a very graceful player, because he could slide without breaking the bottle on his hip." Waner bounced back to a .328 average in 1939, with 45 RBIs and 151 hits in 125 games; this was the last season he collected over 100 hits. He had 1,959 of his 3,152 career hits in the 1930s, with five seasons during the decade with over 200 hits. During that decade, he garnered votes for MVP five times, finishing fourth in 1932, second in 1934, 24th in 1935, fifth in 1936, and eighth in 1937. The 1940 season was Waner's last as a Pirate. He hit .290 while having 32 RBIs and 69 hits in 89 games, having pulled the ligaments in his right knee after stepping awkwardly on a base, missing three weeks along with playing time after healing up. Waner was released on December 5, 1940. In his 15-year career with the Pirates, he had 2,868 hits, 1,177 RBIs, 558 doubles, 187 triples, and a .340 batting average in 2,154 games. The Pirates only finished with a losing record three times while Waner was on the team, and finished as one of the top three teams in the NL a total of seven times from 1926 to 1940.
### Later career
On January 31, 1941, Waner was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers and would patrol the outfield with Hall of Famer Joe Medwick. After an impressive spring training he was offered the starting right field spot. After 11 games he was released by the Dodgers after only hitting .171 with 6 hits. He was signed by the Boston Braves two weeks later, and he hit for .267, collected 50 RBIs, and had 88 hits in 106 combined games during the season. He spent the next season with the team, recording a .258 average, 39 RBIs and 86 hits in 114 games. Waner got his 3,000th hit off old Pirate teammate Rip Sewell on June 19, 1942, becoming the seventh hitter (after Ty Cobb, Tris Speaker, Honus Wagner, Eddie Collins, Nap Lajoie, and Cap Anson) to do so. He was released by Boston on January 19, 1943. Two days later, the Dodgers signed him again. A spike injury to his foot meant that he missed time once again, but he still hit for .311 in 82 games while having 36 RBIs and 70 hits, a career low for a whole season played. The 1944 season was his last full season. He played 92 total games, 83 with the Dodgers and nine with the Yankees after being released by the former on September 1, batting .280 with 17 RBIs and 40 hits. He played one game for the Yankees in 1945, making one plate appearance as a pinch hitter in which he drew a walk.
## Later life and legacy
Waner led the National League in batting on three occasions and accumulated over 3,000 hits during his 20-year baseball career. He hit 605 doubles, which at the time of his retirement was fifth-most all-time. He collected 200 or more hits on eight occasions, collected 50 or more doubles in three seasons, was voted the NL's Most Valuable Player in 1927, and had a lifetime batting average of .333, tied for fifth highest (with Eddie Collins) for anyone in the 3,000 hit club. His 191 triples are 10th most all time. Waner recorded one six-hit game, 5 five-hit games, and 55 four-hit games in his career. Stengel once stated that Waner was the best right fielder in National League history. Russo said, "Paul was a speedy outfielder who possessed perhaps the strongest arm in a Pittsburgh outfield until the arrival of Roberto Clemente." At the plate, Waner had a reputation for being fearless. He said, "I never let them [pitchers] get the better of me. If you flinch and show any fear, you're done."
Waner (3,152) and his younger brother, Lloyd (2,459), hold the career record for hits by brothers (5,611), outpacing the three Alou brothers (5,094): Felipe (2,101), Matty (1,777) and Jesús (1,216), and the three DiMaggio brothers (4,853): Joe (2,214), Dom (1,680) and Vince (959), among others. For most of the period from 1927 to 1940, Paul patrolled right field at Forbes Field while Lloyd covered the ground next to him in center field. On September 15, 1938, the brothers hit back-to-back home runs against Cliff Melton of the New York Giants. The origin of the nicknames "Big Poison" and "Little Poison" that were given to Paul and his younger brother Lloyd, respectively, is from a game at the Polo Grounds during the 1927 season when a fan pronounced "person" as "poison" as he called out to the brothers.
After his retirement, he kept active by fishing, hunting, golfing and being a part-time hitting coach of the Phillies, Cardinals, and Braves. Ted Williams credited Waner with advising him to move away from the plate to successfully combat the "Williams" shift. However, Russo noted that "Like Babe Ruth, [Waner's] distaste for discipline made him an inappropriate candidate for managing." A proficient golfer, Waner could shoot in the 70's. He was one of the people instrumental in starting the National Baseball Players Golf Tournament. In his spare time, he enjoyed reading Seneca, and he once authored a comedy skit that he and Heinie Manush acted in.
Waner was named to the National Baseball Hall of Fame on July 21, 1952. "Gee. It's what I've been looking for a long time, but I had almost given up hope of making it," he said. "In fact, I guess you can say I've achieved my life's ambition. Any baseball player's ambition." With the induction of his brother Lloyd in 1967, they became the second brother combination to be inducted into the Hall of Fame (with Harry and George Wright being the other). Waner was interviewed for the 1966 book The Glory of Their Times. He died on August 29, 1965, in Sarasota, Florida after a respiratory arrest from emphysema complicated by pneumonia at the age of 62.
In 1999, he was ranked number 62 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was nominated as a finalist for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Separate efforts by the Waner family and two longtime Pirates fans, who repeatedly petitioned Pirates then-owner Kevin McClatchy to honor Waner by retiring his uniform number, were eventually successful. The Pirates retired Waner's No. 11 in a ceremony before their game vs. the Astros on July 21, 2007, 55 years to the day of his induction into the Hall of Fame. A plaque was placed in the interior of PNC Park to commemorate the retiring of Waner's jersey.
## See also
- 3,000 hit club
- List of Major League Baseball hit records
- List of Major League Baseball doubles records
- List of Major League Baseball triples records
- List of Major League Baseball career batting average leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career extra base hits leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
- List of Major League Baseball batting champions
- List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders
- List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders |
40,517,783 | Dareka no Manazashi | 1,095,306,105 | 2013 anime short film directed by Makoto Shinkai | [
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| Dareka no Manazashi (Japanese: だれかのまなざし, lit. Someone's Gaze), is a Japanese anime short film written and directed by Makoto Shinkai. It was initially screened at the Tokyo International Forum on February 10, 2013, though it was also shown alongside Shinkai's film The Garden of Words during its Japanese premier on May 31, 2013. It was later posted on YouTube from September 2013 to January 2014. Dareka no Manazashi is a slightly futuristic story about the maturation of a recently independent young woman and her changing relationship with her father. The story develops through reminiscent scenes of their family life and the connection the girl and her father share with the family's cat.
The film was produced by CoMix Wave Films, NEST, and TYO M1 Production in collaboration with The Answer Studio Co., Ltd. The voice cast includes Fumi Hirano, Satomi Hanamura, and Shinji Ogawa. Hirano's narration was crucial in helping Shinkai structure the film. Other leading staff included Makoto Taiga, Miho Suzuki, and Takumi Tanji. Akihisa Matsuura directed the music, and Kazusa wrote and sang the theme song, "Sore de Ii yo" (それでいいよ, lit. It's all fine), which was aimed at matching the tastes of a younger generation.
Online reviews and comments universally praised the film as heartfelt and artistically vibrant, though it was criticized for its brevity. It was described as "deeply emotional", particularly for older viewers due to its emphasis on family bonds as a family changes over time.
## Plot
Set in the near future, the story focuses on a recently independent daughter Aya Okamura (岡村綾, Okamura Aya), her parents, and their pet cat Mii (ミ一). Aya had recently taken a job that allowed her to move away from home, and her father, Kōji (浩司), lives at home alone with their cat while Aya's mother, Minako (美菜子), is working overseas. Mii is an old cat, originally obtained as a kitten by Aya's father to help his young daughter cope with her mother's absence, and is now in poor health. The story is narrated from the cat's perspective.
The story begins with Aya returning home from a rough day at work. After relaxing on her bed, she receives a phone call from her father, who wants to have dinner with her; however, she declines by lying about still being at work. The narrator then reminisces about Aya's childhood and family life, particularly dwelling upon how her maturity and independence had created distance between her and her father, who is increasingly lonely yet happy for her. Later that night, Aya awakes to another phone call from her father. Having learned of Mii's death, she visits her father and has lunch with him, an experience that brings the two closer together. Aya later visits her father to see the new kitten he buys. At the same time, her mother rings the doorbell and the family is reunited, their happiness renewed.
## Production
Dareka no Manazashi was written and directed by Makoto Shinkai, who directed Voices of a Distant Star and 5 Centimeters Per Second. It was produced by CoMix Wave Films, NEST, and TYO M1 Production in collaboration with The Answer Studio Co., Ltd. The assistant director was Makoto Taiga, the animation director and character designer was Miho Suzuki, and the art director was Takumi Tanji. The music was directed by Akihisa Matsuura, and the theme song, "Sore de Ii yo" (それでいいよ, lit. It's all fine), was performed by the singer-songwriter Kazusa. Shinkai said he chose Kazusa to perform the theme song because she could provide "the sort of music that the young encounter", fitting with the film's theme. The voice cast includes Fumi Hirano as Mii, Satomi Hanamura as Aya Okamura, and Shinji Ogawa as Kōji Okamura. The short film is 6 minutes 40 seconds in length.
The short film was made with the support of Nomura Real Estate Group for its "Proud Box Appreciation Festival" (プラウドボックス感謝祭), a home living exposition at the Tokyo International Forum. According to Shinkai, the greatest challenge in the project was to keep the animation both short and entertaining while also covering the two main themes: family bonds and the future. Hirano's narration, which provided character background and insight into their personalities, helped Shinkai structure the film.
## Release
Dareka no Manazashi was announced on Shinkai's official website on January 10, 2013. On January 23, Nomura Real Estate Group streamed the trailer, and announced plans to screen the short film on February 10, during the "Proud Box Appreciation Festival". On May 22, 2013, Shinkai tweeted that he would also include the short with the Japanese premiere of The Garden of Words on May 31, 2013. The two films were also screened together for the Italian cinematic release on May 21, 2014.
The entire film was uploaded to YouTube through Nomura Real Estate Group's ProudChannel on September 5, 2013, and was streamed starting September 9. English subtitles were added on September 11. It was originally scheduled to be taken down on January 12, 2014, but remained available until January 21. During the four months it was available, it was viewed more than 745,000 times. On March 28, 2014, Dareka no Manazashi was included with the "Extras" on the limited edition The Garden of Words DVD distributed by Kazé in Germany (subtitled in German).
## Reception
Dareka no Manazashi was positively received in Japan, and attracted particular interest once available on YouTube. Megumi Sawai of RocketNews24 quoted what she called typical online comments on the film, all of which described the emotional impact it had: "It was very good, and deeply emotional." "Hopelessly, I was reduced to tears." Sawai herself credited the film for the high quality of the art, and its message, saying it reminded her of the "bonds between family members, which remain unchanged even as the form of a family changes". ASCII.jp said that "even young viewers can be moved by sympathy" after watching it, but that its greatest emotional impact might be for older audiences.
According to Curtis Stone at Geekenstein, the artwork was "vibrant and meticulous" and story was "exceptional", and along with its execution and character development, he felt that Dareka no Manazahshi was "utterly enrapturing" despite its shortness. Stone was most impressed by how people could so easily relate to the characters emotionally, despite the film's brevity. His only minor criticism was that the ending left open tantalizing questions about the family's future, though he noted that this did not detract from the film's message. UKAniFest called the short film "heartstringy" and characterized it as one of those hard-to-find "little gems". |
3,186,407 | The Beverly Hills Hotel | 1,162,433,820 | Famous California hotel | [
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| The Beverly Hills Hotel, also called the Beverly Hills Hotel and Bungalows, is located on Sunset Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California. One of the world's best-known hotels, it is closely associated with Hollywood film stars, rock stars, and celebrities. The hotel has 210 guest rooms and suites and 23 bungalows and the exterior bears the hotel's signature pink and green colors.
The Beverly Hills Hotel was established in May 1912, before the city itself was incorporated. The original owners were Margaret J. Anderson, a wealthy widow, and her son, Stanley S. Anderson, who had been managing the Hollywood Hotel. The original hotel was designed by Pasadena architect Elmer Grey in the Mediterranean Revival style. From 1928 to 1932, the hotel was owned by the Interstate Company. In 1941, Hernando Courtright, the vice president of the Bank of America, purchased the hotel with friends including Irene Dunne, Loretta Young, and Harry Warner. Courtright established the Polo Lounge, which is considered to be one of the premier dining spots in Los Angeles, hosting entertainers ranging from the Rat Pack to Humphrey Bogart and Marlene Dietrich. The hotel was first painted its famous pink color during a 1948 renovation to match that period's country club style. The following year, architect Paul Williams added the Crescent Wing.
The strict resident owner of the Beverly Hills Hotel from 1958 until his death in 1979 was former Detroit real estate magnate Ben L. Silberstein. In 1986, Marvin Davis bought the hotel from Silberstein's sons-in-law Burt Slatkin and Ivan F. Boesky. On December 30, 1992, the hotel closed for a complete restoration, reopening on June 3, 1995. Since 1996, it has been run as part of the Dorchester Collection owned by the Sultan of Brunei. In 2012, the hotel was named the first historic landmark in Beverly Hills, and two new Presidential Bungalows were added.
The song "Hotel California" by the American rock band the Eagles is slightly based on the folklore behind the hotel. The cover of the band's album of the same name features a photo of the hotel itself.
## History
### Early history
In early 1911, Margaret J. Anderson, a wealthy widow, and her son, Stanley S. Anderson, who had been managing the Hollywood Hotel, ordered the construction of the Beverly Hills Hotel, in close proximity to the Burton Green mansion. Burton Green, an oil tycoon and real estate developer, President of the Rodeo Land and Water Company, had purchased land in the foothills of the Santa Monica Mountains, which had once been owned by the Mexican government. He had begun building mansions on the land, including his own residence, investing some \$500,000, but was having difficulty selling them. He hired Anderson to build a hotel, which he named Beverly Farms, after his home in Massachusetts, believing that it would attract people to the area, billing it as "halfway between Los Angeles and the sea". The Hollywood film industry was taking off at the time, and investors were looking to develop the area. A May 11, 1911 edition of the Los Angeles Times announced the news that a "huge Mission-style hotel" was to be built by Anderson, with the motto that "her guests were entitled to the best of everything regardless of cost".
The hotel opened May 12, 1912, before the city's existence. Margaret and Stanley took up residence within the hotel grounds. By 1914, Hollywood directors, actors, and actresses, such as Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, Charlie Chaplin, Gloria Swanson, Buster Keaton, Rudolph Valentino, and Will Rogers, had purchased homes in the area, "transforming bean fields surrounding The Beverly Hills Hotel into prime real estate". The city of Beverly Hills was established in 1914. The first five bungalows of the hotel were built in 1915. In 1919, Douglas Fairbanks and his wife, Mary Pickford, bought and expanded a lodge above the hotel, which they named Pickfair. According to one publication, a star would know they would have finally "made it" when they received an invitation to dine at Pickfair. Gloria Swanson resided in one of the bungalows of the hotel during her divorce. In 1915, the Andersons donated a portion of the hotel's original grounds to the community of Beverly Hills. It was used to create the community's first public park. Originally known as Sunset Park, it is now Will Rogers Memorial Park. An early tradition was the annual Easter egg hunt, put on for the children of the guests and employees. Silent film star Harold Lloyd was an early hotel patron, and in 1921, he decided to film a scene at the hotel for A Sailor-Made Man. From 1928 to 1932, the hotel was owned by the Interstate Company. Interstate had to close the hotel during the Great Depression years, although the company leased the bungalows out as rental properties. With Bank of America funding, the hotel reopened in 1932.
### The glamour years
During the 1930s, the Beverly Hills Hotel became increasingly popular with Hollywood film stars. Fred Astaire took a shine to the hotel and enjoyed reading the Daily Variety and the Hollywood Reporter by the pool. Cesar Romero and Carole Lombard were pictured together at the hotel in 1937. In 1938, the Sand and Pool Club was established at the hotel. It proved extremely popular, with white sand imported from Arizona, which made the pool area look like a beach. The following year, it began hosting fashion shows sponsored by local department stores, such as Bullock's Wilshire. In 1940, one of the hotel's long-time patrons, Marlene Dietrich, was instrumental in bringing about a change in policy in the Polo Lounge, which had made it compulsory for women to don skirts, which she refused to wear.
In 1941, Hernando Courtright, the vice president of the Bank of America, purchased the hotel with friends. Irene Dunne, Loretta Young, and Harry Warner also became owners of the hotel as a result of their investment with Courtright. Courtright established the Polo Lounge "in honor of a celebrity band of polo players who toasted victories at the restaurant after matches in the bean fields". In 1942, Howard Hughes bought up half a dozen of the bungalows and lived there on several occasions throughout the decades. The hotel accommodated his eccentricities, including his request for "roast beef sandwiches delivered to a nook in a tree". The Beverly Hills Hotel underwent significant renovation in the late forties when the porte cochere was expanded and painted in stripes. In 1947, Courtright opened the Crystal Room and the Lanai Restaurant, later called The Coterie. The building was first painted its famous pink color in 1948 to match the country club style of the period, and it became known as "the Pink Palace". The following year, architect Paul Williams added the Crescent Wing. The Fountain Coffee Shop also opened at this time.
In 1954, Detroit real estate magnate Ben L. Silberstein offered to buy the hotel for \$4 million. The deal finally completed in 1958 for a reported \$6 million. Courtright later became the hotelier at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel. The reputation of the Beverly Hills Hotel, as a leading luxury hotel with glamorous patrons, took off during the 1950s and attracted eminent guests, such as the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Princess Margaret and Lord Snowdon, King Albert of Belgium, the Crown Prince of Monaco and Grace Kelly, John Wayne, and Henry Fonda. Elizabeth Taylor, one of the hotel's best-known guests, would stay with her numerous husbands in the bungalows and spent six of her eight honeymoons there. Her father owned an art gallery on the ground floor of the hotel. The Polo Lounge became associated with Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, and the Rat Pack, where they held heavy drinking bouts. In 1956, the pool of the hotel and cabana club was a filming location for Designing Woman, starring Gregory Peck and Lauren Bacall. Marilyn Monroe and Yves Montand stayed at the hotel during the production of George Cukor's Let's Make Love. Monroe's favorite bungalow was No. 7. George Hamilton and Rex Harrison enjoyed sunbathing at the hotel; Harrison would sunbathe in the nude in Cabana One and answer the door wearing "just a handkerchief over his private parts".
In 1963, the comedy picture Who's Been Sleeping in My Bed?, starring Dean Martin, Elizabeth Montgomery, Jill St. John, and Carol Burnett, was shot at the hotel. In the 1970s, John Lennon and Yoko Ono hid out in one of the bungalows for a week. Richard M. Nixon's chief of staff, H.R. Haldeman, and presidential aide John Ehrlichman were eating breakfast in the Polo Lounge when they were informed of the Watergate burglary in 1972. In January 1977, Peter Finch died of a sudden heart attack while sitting in the hotel lobby. Two months later, he was posthumously awarded the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Howard Beale in the film Network. His costar Faye Dunaway stayed at the hotel after winning the Academy Award for Best Actress for the same film; in one memorable photograph, she was seated by the hotel pool lounging back in a chair surrounded by newspapers and her Oscar trophy. The exterior of the hotel was featured on the album cover art of the Eagles' album Hotel California that same year. Two years later, California Suite was filmed at the hotel.
### Later history
Owner Ben Silberstein died in 1979 and passed the hotel to his two daughters, Muriel Slatkin and Seema Boesky, wife of stock trader Ivan Boesky. Boesky bought the outstanding 5% of stock for a reported fortune and decided to sell, despite Slatkin's desire to keep the hotel. In 1986, Marvin Davis bought the hotel from Boesky. Less than a year later, Davis sold the hotel to the Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah, for \$110 million.
On December 30, 1992, the hotel closed for a complete restoration, said to be in the region of \$100–125 million. The project lasted two and a half years with the hotel reopening on June 3, 1995, with upgrades to furniture and fittings. The hotel is now managed and owned by the Dorchester Collection, organized in 1996 to manage the hotel interests of the Brunei Investment Agency. In 2011, the West Coast regional director for the Dorchester Collection, Edward Mady, became the general manager of the Beverly Hills Hotel, as well as the Hotel Bel-Air. Mady was awarded the 2011 Hospitality Professional of the Year Award from the Food and Beverage Association and Hotels Magazine's 2017 Hotelier of the World award. In 2012, the hotel celebrated its 100-year anniversary and began to remodel its lobby, with the Polo Lounge, pool cabanas and Cabana Cafe, and guest-rooms and suites to be renovated by 2014. The hotel was also named the first historic landmark in Beverly Hills in September 2012. In 2022, John Scanlon became the hotel's general manager.
### Controversy and boycott
A boycott of the hotel began in April 2014, when the Sultan of Brunei, part owner of the hotel, began changing Brunei's complex legal system to include aspects of Sharia law, and in particular, codifying the persecution of homosexuals. In protest, a United States national LGBT advocacy organization, the Gill Action Fund, canceled its reservation to hold a conference of major donors at the Beverly Hills Hotel and demanded a refund of its deposit. The hotel management responded by asserting that it does not discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation.
Fashion designers Brian Atwood and Peter Som subsequently called for wider protests, urging the fashion industry to boycott all the hotels owned by the Dorchester Collection. Meanwhile, the boycott had attracted support from Sir Richard Branson of Virgin Group, as well as numerous Hollywood executives and stars, including Jay Leno and Ellen DeGeneres. A string of organizations joined the boycott, cancelling reservations to hold conferences and other high-profile events at the establishment; travel industry firms signed on to a boycott of all Dorchester Collection hotels. Others, including Russell Crowe and Kim Kardashian, spoke out against the boycott. Crowe said that despite his disapproval of the new laws in Brunei, it is unfair to punish the hardworking employees of the hotel. Similarly, Kardashian published a blog post voicing her criticism of the boycott and expressing her sympathies for the hotel workers. HR Magazine said that the protests are "misguided" and will not affect the government policy of Brunei when the Dorchester Collection's annual revenue is \$300 million, while the BIA has over \$30 billion in assets from oil and gas.
In May 2014, the Beverly Hills City Council passed a resolution urging the Sultan of Brunei to sell the hotel. Lili Bosse, the then-mayor of Beverly Hills, welcomed the resolution and added that she had made a "personal decision" not to return to the hotel until the situation had been solved. The decision was lauded by Rabbi Laura Geller of Temple Emanuel, where Bosse is a congregant. By then, the Jewish Journal reported that "more than \$2 million worth of events have been canceled at the Beverly Hills Hotel by dozens of groups." Dorchester Collection Chief Executive Officer Christopher Cowdray asked the public to consider that many brands are backed by foreign investors. Sharia law exists alongside other normative systems and has been adopted by many other Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia, which has major investments in the American hospitality industry, including the Four Seasons and Fairmont hotel chains.
Adweek declared that "the bad press and protests have tarnished the glamorous image of the Beverly Hills Hotel, one of the most famous hotels in the world", and added that "such extreme brand damage will be difficult to repair".
The hotel and other Dorchester properties faced renewed calls for boycott in April 2019, when Brunei made gay sex and adultery punishable by death by stoning. The boycott has attracted support from LA City Comptroller Ron Galperin and more celebrities, including George Clooney and Elton John. The LA City Council passed a resolution to bar the city from conducting business at the hotel and urging city residents not to patronize it. The Dorchester Collection responded by saying they "do not tolerate any form of discrimination." In May 2019, the Sultan of Brunei said that his country's "de facto moratorium" on capital punishment would apply to cases under the new laws, and promised to ratify the UN Convention against Torture. Despite this, LA City Councilman Paul Koretz asked the city to continue its boycott of the hotel.
### Covid-19 response
Working within the Covid-19 pandemic, the hotel has remained open, but was forced to reschedule the events it had planned for the summer and fall of 2020. The hotel engaged in multiple donation campaigns to various organizations, such as the Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Hollywood Food Coalition. The hotel also fed frontline healthcare workers at L.A. hospitals via the Polo Lounge, an idea stemming from the hotel's general manager, Edward Mady. The hotel also redesigned its sign for the first time in 70 years to honor those same frontline healthcare workers.
## Architecture
### Exterior
Judith Kirkwood of Orange Coast Magazine has stated that "The Beverly Hills Hotel is such an icon that my friend, Gretchen, and I wondered if it was a mirage when the taxi pulled up in the porte cochere and deposited us on a red carpet, but realized that it was "more like a peachy pink dream dusted with gold — and green and white striped accents". The original main building of the Beverly Hills Hotel was designed by Pasadena architect Elmer Grey, in the Mediterranean Revival style. Built on a prominence above the main road below, it resembled a white colonial palatial mansion or mission, with verandas and arches fitted with wicker furniture, and at the time was set in the countryside. High above the main entrance are three domes, two flanking the center, which are smaller and lower in height, with flags hoisted on them. A trolley-stop pavilion was situated on the western side. The iconic signage and the addition were designed by architect Paul Williams.
The extensive gardens, covering 12 acres (4.9 ha), were designed by landscape architect Wilbur David Cook. They contain bougainvillea, banana plants, hibiscus, and other tropical flora. Svend Petersen, the Danish-American pool manager at the hotel for forty-two years, became a Hotel Ambassador in 2002. He had notably opened up the pool after hours for the Beatles and taught Faye Dunaway to swim a 1940s freestyle crawl for her appearance in the film Mommie Dearest.
### Interior
The sunroom of the hotel, containing Californian craftsman furniture, provides vistas of the Pacific Ocean. A room, known as the Crystal Room, was allocated for small private dinner parties. The principal dining room could accommodate up to 500 people. The children's dining room, which became the El Jardin Restaurant, is now the iconic Polo Lounge. The Polo Lounge is seen as the premier power dining spot in all of Los Angeles. The lounge was renovated in 1974 and given a softer design with table lamps and flowers. It is fashioned in peachy pink with dark green booths, each featuring a plug-in phone. The photograph behind the bar depicts Will Rogers and Darryl F. Zanuck, two lounge regulars, playing polo. The menu offers a classic Neil McCarthy salad, named after the polo-playing millionaire. The hotel has its own bakery and herb garden, makes its own vinegar, and smokes meats. The chef in 2003 was Katsuo Sugiura, who cooked "oak-grilled food with an Asian flair". In 2007, one large suite was converted into the Bar Nineteen12. The fireplace in the hotel's lobby has a fire going every day of the year.
A new wing was added to the east side of the main building along Crescent Drive in the late 1940s. The "Crescent Wing", as it became known, features mature plantings on the balconies.
#### Rooms and bungalows
Many of the rooms have their own balcony and are designed in the Beverly Hills Hotel colors of peachy pinks, greens, apricots, and yellows. Several of the more expensive rooms have private patios, Jacuzzis, and their own kitchens.
Five bungalows were originally added to the gardens in 1915 to provide for families who could return each year with their own staff. As of 2015, the hotel has 23 bungalows set out across the gardens. Bungalows 14-21 are known as "Bachelor's Row", due to their association with film stars and their affairs, including Warren Beatty and Orson Welles. In 1990, a private pool and Jacuzzi were added to Bungalow No. 5 to accommodate businessman Walter Annenberg. No.5 had been a favorite of Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton, who had "a standing room service order for two bottles of vodka at breakfast, and two more at lunch". Taylor also liked No. 3, where she stayed during her marriage to Eddie Fisher. Marilyn Monroe favored No. 1 and No. 7. No.1, the most secluded of the bungalows, features an interior described by CNN as "creamy, lush and traditional, decorated in the manner of one's wealthy grandparents". No. 7 has become known as "the "Norma Jean". Dietrich ordered a 7 feet (2.1 m) by 8 feet (2.4 m) bed added to No. 10, the bungalow where John Lennon and Yoko Ono stayed in the 1970s. Bungalow 22 was favored by Frank Sinatra and later, by Donald Trump. In 2011, two Presidential Bungalows were established, replacing the tennis courts, with each containing three bedrooms and a private swimming pool and shower. As of 2018, a one-night stay at a bungalow may cost as much as \$10,000.
Howard Hughes permanently kept a bungalow at the hotel, but it was a secret whether he was on the premises or not. Often, the only person who knew Hughes was at the Beverly Hills Hotel was the hotel's chef. Hughes would awaken him in the middle of the night to prepare food for him. It has been alleged that several of the bungalows are haunted. Guests have reported hearing what is believed to be Harpo Marx playing the harp and seeing an apparition of Sergei Rachmaninoff.
## Gallery of historic images
## See also
- Dorchester Collection
- Hotel Bel-Air
- Van Noy Railway News and Hotel Company |
48,225,201 | Long War (mod) | 1,145,207,430 | 2015 mod for XCOM: Enemy Unknown | [
"2013 video games",
"Alien invasions in video games",
"Construction and management simulation games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Tactical role-playing video games",
"Turn-based tactics video games",
"Unreal Engine games",
"Video game mods",
"XCOM"
]
| Long War is a fan-made partial conversion mod for the turn-based tactics video game XCOM: Enemy Unknown and its expansion, XCOM: Enemy Within. It was first released in early 2013, and it exited beta at the end of 2015. Almost every aspect of the original game is altered, creating a longer, more complex campaign that presents players with more strategic choices and customization options. Long War adds a significant number of new soldier classes, abilities, weapons, armors, and usable items, and also introduces new features, including soldier fatigue and improvements to alien units over the course of the game.
The mod was developed by Long War Studios, a team that came to include four core members, with assistance from 29 contributors, 20 voice actors, and three members of Firaxis Games, the developer of Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within. According to one of the mod's core developers, Amineri, the mod started as a series of changes to the base game's configuration file, and grew more expansive as the team's capabilities grew. By the end of the mod's development, the team was working directly with the Unreal Development Kit and had created a Java-based tool to help manage the changes that the mod was making.
Long War has received praise from both video game journalists and from the developers at Firaxis. It has been downloaded over 1,000,000 times, by almost 400,000 different users. Firaxis pointed to the popularity of Long War as a reason they added built-in support for modding into the sequel XCOM 2, and used Long War Studios to provide initial add-ons for the game at release. On 19 January 2017, the core team that released Long War, now going by the name Pavonis Interactive, released Long War 2 for XCOM 2, and has created their own independent game, Terra Invicta.
## Long War
### Background and development
XCOM: Enemy Unknown is a turn-based tactics video game developed by Firaxis Games and released in October 2012. In XCOM: Enemy Unknown, the player assumes the role of the commander of a secret multinational military organization, XCOM, as it fights off an invasion by a numerically and technologically superior invading alien force. The player directs the organization's research and development, manages its finances, and controls its soldiers in combat. XCOM: Enemy Within is an expansion of Enemy Unknown, and was released in November 2013. Enemy Within added two additional ways for players to upgrade their soldiers - through genetic modification and through cybernetic combat suits called MECs - as well as new alien units and a new enemy faction, a secret paramilitary organization called EXALT.
Long War is a partial conversion mod for XCOM: Enemy Unknown and XCOM: Enemy Within. It was first uploaded to NexusMods on 4 January 2013, and exited beta with the release of version 1.0 on 28 December 2015. The developers announced in July 2015 with beta 15f2 that they had finished adding new features, and that any future releases would only correct bugs or balance issues. At the time that it exited beta, the mod's development was led by four core members, JohnnyLump (John J. Lumpkin), Amineri (Rachel Norman), XMarksTheSpot, and Ellatan (Alex Rozenfeld). They were joined by four senior contributors, 20 voice actors, and 29 contributors assisting with programming, art, sound engineering, translations, research, and porting the mod to Mac and Linux. Three members of Firaxis Games also provided assistance. The team released separate versions for Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within until the end of 2013, and thereafter only released versions for Enemy Within. Long War has been downloaded from NexusMods over 1,090,000 times by over 395,000 separate users.
The aim of the Long War mod is, in the words of its developers, to create "much deeper strategic and tactical play and a greater variety of problems to throw at the player". The mod makes changes to many of the game's existing features, adds new concepts, and brings back concepts from the first game in the franchise, Julian Gollop's UFO: Enemy Unknown. As the mod's name implies, a campaign in Long War takes significantly longer than a campaign in the unmodified game, with Eurogamer's Chris Bratt estimating it at around 150 hours. However, the mod does have an option that significantly shortens the campaign.<sup>(at 3:20)</sup>
According to Amineri, one of the mod's core developers, initial versions of Long War used changes to the game's configuration file to change content in the game. After other mod makers that were not part of the Long War project discovered how to make changes to the game by directly working with its Unreal Engine, more significant game alterations became possible, and the forums of NexusMods became a hub where such changes were exchanged. Many of the mod's key features, including the increased number of soldiers and the lengthened campaign, first appeared in version beta 1.9, which was released in mid 2013. Shortly after Enemy Within released, Amineri and XMarksTheSpot completed development of a Java-based tool called upkmodder that allowed the team to more effectively manage and implement the changes made by the mod. In the late stages of the mod's development, the team worked directly with the Unreal Development Kit.
### Gameplay differences
Long War introduced several new concepts into the game. Soldiers that are sent on missions come back fatigued. If they are sent back out on another mission before resting off their fatigue, they return from the second mission with injuries. The combination of fatigue and much longer injury times requires players to maintain a larger number of soldiers.<sup>(at 2:10)</sup> The mod also adds improvements over time for the enemy forces. Over the course of the game, both the aliens and the EXALT paramilitary group introduced in Enemy Within conduct their own research, granting their units new abilities. The player has the opportunity to slow down this research by defeating the aliens or EXALT when they launch missions, and conversely, the research happens faster when the player is unable to stop missions and when members of the council of nations that fund the player pull out of the council. It is difficult to halt their research completely, as the aliens capture a council nation early in the game and will occasionally launch missions with vastly superior forces that the player does not have a reasonable chance to defeat. The mod does add special missions that the player can launch to re-take council nations that have fallen under alien control.<sup>(at 3:45)</sup>
In the original game, players can initially field four soldiers at a time, which can be upgraded to six soldiers later in the game. In the mod, players begin the game able to deploy six soldiers, which can be upgraded to eight, with certain missions allowing the player to bring as many as twelve soldiers. The number of classes that the soldiers can be is doubled from four to eight, with each original class being split into two in the mod. Each class has a corresponding class of cybernetic MEC soldier that they can be upgraded into. The mod also adds new classes of weapons including battle rifles, carbines, marksman rifles, and sub-machine guns. These choices affect soldiers' damage and movement compared to the assault rifle from the base game.<sup>(at 0:45)</sup> New usable items and armor types are also added. The mod increases the number of soldier abilities and gives players three choices instead of two when selecting new abilities each time a soldier levels up. Additionally, some of the abilities that were only available to one class in the base game became available to other classes in the mod. The mod increases psionic abilities, and gives players access to psionics earlier than in the base game. Underpinning all of these changes is a larger technology tree. Research also takes longer and has a higher cost.<sup>(at 1:20)</sup>
Each campaign in Long War also takes much longer than in the original game. This is because of the new tiers of research Long War adds which must be completed before the game's objectives can be completed. Also, the total amount of missions per month is much higher so the player will have to go on more missions, increasing the time it takes to beat the campaign.
### Reception
The developers of the base game have been effusive in their praise for Long War. XCOM 2 lead producer Garth DeAngelis said "It's unbelievable what they did" and called it his "go-to recommendation" for hardcore fans. Jake Solomon, the lead designer of XCOM: Enemy Unknown and XCOM 2, and Ryan McFall, the lead engineer for XCOM 2, praised the technical skill of the team behind Long War in a panel discussion at Firaxion. Solomon, who recommended the mod in a tweet in 2014, also praised the mod for adding so much content and for answering a desire within the player community. He called the base game "basically a 20-hour tutorial for The Long War", which Chris Bratt of Eurogamer considered an exceptionally strong recommendation for the mod.<sup>(at 0:00)</sup>
The mod has also been warmly received by video game journalists. Wired praised the amount of content added by the game and called it "the absolute best way to play XCOM". In a video explaining the mod, Eurogamer's Chris Bratt also praised the amount of new content, but was especially appreciative that the mod forced players to develop new strategies instead of relying on the tactics they used in the base game.<sup>(at 1:20)</sup> Alec Meer of Rock, Paper, Shotgun complimented the mod for keeping the game fresh and capturing the feeling of surviving impossible odds, and gave the mod his strongest possible recommendation. The mod was profiled in PC Gamer's "Mod of the Week" feature in late 2014, and in a separate piece a year later, the publication praised how much the team behind the mod was able to accomplish considering that the base game was not built to support modding. Rock, Paper, Shotgun's Adam Smith, in an article announcing that the Long War team were in "pre-Kickstarter development" of their own game, called Long War "one of the best mods of all time".
As of January 2017, the mod has been downloaded from Nexus Mods over 844,000 times.
### Legacy
In his article recommending the mod, Alec Meer of Rock, Paper, Shotgun speculated that the Long War mod influenced the development of XCOM 2. One area where Long War's influence was acknowledged was in the decision to support modding. The development team recognized that Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within were exceptionally difficult to mod, and aimed to make modding more accessible in the sequel. At a panel with XCOM 2 developers, Ryan McFall remarked that "we kind of watched in morbid fascination the Long War crew kind of hacking our game apart" before going on to provide a list of features and assets that would be available to people interested in modding XCOM 2. Jake Solomon pointed to the successes of Long War and mods to games in the Civilization franchise in explaining the decision to support modding.
## Long War 2
### Development
Around mid-2016, the team behind the Long War mod adopted the name "Long War Studios", and assisted Firaxis in providing some of the day-one add-ons for XCOM 2.
By January 2017, Long War Studios announced they have changed their name to Pavonis Interactive, and among other projects, are working with Firaxis to bring a new mod, Long War 2, in the same vein as the original Long War, to XCOM 2. The Long War 2 mod was released on January 19, 2017.
### Gameplay differences
Long War 2 makes significant changes to the XCOM 2 game. The campaign becomes much longer, running for 100 to 120 missions on average. The mod increases the number of soldiers the commander can take on each mission, allowing for more rapid promotions, and adds a number of classes, some based on the add-ons previously developed by Pavonis. Several new mechanics are added to the game, including infiltration missions that require you to send out multiple squads at once, and managing resistance havens and their members. Two new weapon tiers, lasers and coilguns, as well as a number of new enemies, are also added. Finally, the mod overhauls the enemy's AI to create more responsive, challenging encounters. |
7,507,707 | Sd.Kfz. 10 | 1,163,741,733 | null | [
"Half-tracks of Germany",
"Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s",
"World War II half-tracks"
]
| The Sd.Kfz. 10 (Sonderkraftfahrzeug – special motorized vehicle) was a German half-track that saw widespread use in World War II. Its main role was as a prime mover for small towed guns, such as the 2 cm Flak 30, the 7.5 cm leIG, or the 3.7 cm Pak 36 anti-tank gun. It could carry eight troops in addition to towing a gun or trailer.
The basic engineering for all the German half-tracks was developed during the Weimar-era by the Reichswehr's Military Automotive Department, but final design and testing was farmed out to commercial firms with the understanding that production would be shared with multiple companies. Demag was chosen to develop the smallest of the German half-tracks and spent the years between 1934 and 1938 perfecting the design through a series of prototypes.
The chassis formed the basis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier. Approximately 14,000 were produced between 1938 and 1945, making it one of the most widely produced German tactical vehicles of the war. It participated in the Invasion of Poland, the Battle of France, the Balkans Campaign and fought on both the Western Front and the Eastern Front, in North Africa and in Italy.
## Description
The Sd.Kfz. 10 was unique among German half-track designs as it used a hull rather than a frame. Power was at first provided by a military version of a Maybach 6-cylinder water-cooled gasoline engine. It had a semi-automatic Maybach Variorex-transmission SRG 102128H (Schaltreglergetriebe 102 128 H) with seven forward and three reverse gears. The driver selected the desired gear and initiated the shift by depressing the clutch. It could attain 65 km/h (40 mph), while the cruising speed was 45 km/h (28 mph). In 1942 the Luftwaffe limited its vehicles to a non-tactical speed of only 30 km/h (19 mph) to extend the life of the rubber track pads (Gummipolster).
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering. The steering system was set up so that gentle turns used just the steerable front wheels, but brakes would be applied to the tracks the farther the steering wheel was turned. The drive sprocket had the track-saving but more complicated rollers rather than the more common teeth. The rear suspension consisted of five double roadwheels, overlapping and interleaved in the Schachtellaufwerk layout, mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars. An idler wheel, mounted at the rear of the vehicle, was used to control track tension. The front axle had transversely mounted leaf springs and shock absorbers – the only ones on the vehicle.
The upper body had a baggage compartment separating the driver's compartment from the crew compartment. Bench seats on the sides of the vehicle, with under-seat storage, could accommodate six men. The windshield could fold forward and was also removable. A convertible canvas top was mounted at the upper part of the rear body. It fastened to the windshield when erected. Four side pieces could be mounted to protect the crew from the weather.
## Design and development
Preliminary design of all the German half-tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the Military Automotive Department (Wa Prüf 6) before the Nazis took power in 1933. His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing. Demag was assigned to develop the "Liliput" Kleinster geländegängiger Kettenschlepper (smallest cross-country tracked towing vehicle) with the first D ll 1 prototype produced in 1934. It had a six-cylinder, 28 horsepower (28 PS) BMW Type 315 engine mounted in the rear and only had three roadwheels per side. The D ll 2 followed in 1935 and kept the same engine, but added an extra roadwheel. It weighed 2.56 tonnes (2.52 long tons; 2.82 short tons).
While the first two vehicles were only automotive prototypes, the 3.4 tonnes (3.3 long tons; 3.7 short tons) D ll 3 had a 42 horsepower (43 PS) BMW Type 316 engine mounted in the front, 5 roadwheels and a troop compartment that could fit six. The D 4 prototype never left the drawing board. There was no D 5. It was succeeded by eight trial series (Versuchs-Serie) D 6 prototypes in 1937. This weighed 3.85 tonnes (3.79 long tons; 4.24 short tons), had a 90 metric horsepower (89 hp) Maybach NL 38 TRK engine and a different transmission, but otherwise differed only in detail from the D ll 3. Several D 6s and the D ll 3 were used as prototypes for the models intended for service with the Chemical Troops (Nebeltruppen) and the Air Defense Troops (Luftschutztruppen). A series of 60 pre-production (0-serie) D 6s were ordered in 1937 from Demag, Adler and Mechanische Werke Cottbus (MWC) which differed only in details from the trial series. They were all delivered by November 1938. On 17 March 1937 the vehicle was renamed as the leichter Zugkraftwagen 1 to (Sd.Kfz. 10) (light 1 ton semi-tracked towing vehicle).
The D 7 was the mass-production model and differed mainly from the D 6 by having different tracks and a Maybach NL 38 TRKM engine. The NL 38 TRK had proven to have too much compression for the 74 octane (OZ 74) gasoline decreed for use after 1 October 1938, and had to be modified with a new cylinder head and shorter pistons, but this did not change the engine's power. Deliveries began in October 1938 with one of the first machines off the production line demonstrated for the army on 11 October 1938. Early machines had two fuel tanks: one of 58 litres (15 US gal) and the other of 32 litres (8.5 US gal), but they were replaced by a single 110 litres (29 US gal) at the end of 1939. Also the NL 38 TRKM engine was replaced in late 1939 by the HL 42 TRKM, for which the stroke had been increased to 110 mm, thereby increasing the displacement from 3.8 litres (230 cu in) to 4.2 litres (260 cu in) and the power from 90 metric horsepower (89 hp) to 100 metric horsepower (99 hp). From the beginning of 1940, stronger road wheels came into use, and during 1940 the hull rear was reinforced to allow the vehicle to tow heavier loads like the 7.5 cm PaK 40 anti-tank gun, 15 cm sIG 33 infantry gun and the 10.5 cm leFH 18 howitzer. An air compressor was added later for loads equipped with air brakes. These were designated as Model (Ausführung - Ausf.) B. In 1943 the semi-automatic transmission was replaced by a manual transmission.
The D 7p chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier was based on that of the D 7 with a shortened suspension.
Demag was contracted to design a new version of the Sd.Kfz. 10 in 1944 with ten road wheels, a strengthened front axle, a strengthened idler crank arm, an improved track tensioner and increased ground clearance. Three prototypes were completed; two were delivered in September 1944, but the third was retained at the factory. Development, however, did not proceed any further. Yet another new version of the Sd.Kfz. 10 was proposed in the Emergency Development Program (Entwicklungs-Notprogramm) of 20 February 1945 with armored engine and driver's compartments that was to have had its development completed in June 1945.
## Production
Seven factories assembled the various models of the Sd.Kfz. 10. Demag built approximately 1,075 from 1938 to November 1942. Adler-Werke completed 3,414 between 1938 and December 1943. Büssing-NAG built 750 between 1938 and December 1942. MWC assembled 4,750 between 1939 and November 1944. Mühlenbau und Industrie A.G. (MIAG) completed 324 between 1939 and 1941. Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen Hannover (MNH) built about 600 between 1939 and November 1942. Österreichische Saurerwerke completed about 3,075 from 1940 to December 1943. Both Demag and MWC were producing the D 7p chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light APC in 1945 when a shortage of armored bodies meant that 276 had to be completed with wooden upper bodies. Eighty of these are known to have been delivered by 1 March 1945. These numbers may include 310 chassis built for Sd.Kfz. 252 armored ammunition carriers and Sd.Kfz. 253 observation vehicles.
## Variants
### Sd.Kfz. 10/1
The Sd.Kfz. 10/1 was a chemical detection vehicle. Before the outbreak of World War II only ninety were intended to be delivered in 1940–42 to equip the Chemical Troops (Nebeltruppen), but the 3 May 1940 production plan mentions that was to be produced at a rate of thirty per month until 400 have been built and thereafter at ten per month. The last mention is a report that MWC was to complete ten vehicles by 15 January 1943. Production may have continued after that, but definitely not after 1943.
### Sd.Kfz. 10/2
The Sd.Kfz. 10/2 was a chemical decontamination vehicle fitted with a 200 kg (440 lb) capacity spreader and space for eight 50 kg (110 lb) barrels of decontamination chemicals. This left room for only two crewmen, who had a bench seat between the barrels in front of the rear chassis wall. Each barrel could cover an area of 1 by 160 metres (1.1 by 175.0 yd). The barrels were stowed on platforms over the tracks with foldable outer rails. The 10/2 had a significant number of differences from the standard model, including two fuel tanks totaling 86 litres (23 US gal), one of which had a tunnel to accommodate the auxiliary driveshaft which powered the spreader. This reduced the road range to only 250 kilometres (160 mi). The 10/2 was 4.83 metres (15.8 ft) long, 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) wide, and 1.95–1.7 metres (6.4–5.6 ft) high, depending if the top was up or down. It weighed 3,890 kilograms (8,580 lb) empty and 4,900 kilograms (10,800 lb) loaded. While spreading, its top speed was only 10–20 km/h (6.2–12.4 mph). Sixty to seventy were built in 1938–39.
### Sd.Kfz. 10/3
The Sd.Kfz. 10/3 was equipped with a 500 litres (130 US gal) tank and spray system to lay down poison gas barriers. The spray nozzle swung back and forth to cover a width of 16 metres (52 ft). Approximately 67 were built in 1938–39. On 15 April 1942, the Army High Command (Oberkommando des Heeres – OKH) ordered the tanks on the 65 vehicles in storage dismounted, the spray system disabled and the vehicles modified to carry 216 rounds of anti-tank ammunition. The vehicles were to be issued to rebuilding Nebeltruppen units. By this stage of the war, they were equipped with Nebelwerfer rocket launchers and had organic anti-tank guns.
### Sd.Kfz. 10/4 and 10/5
The Sd.Kfz. 10/4 carried the 2 cm FlaK 30 mount on a special platform with fold-down side and rear panels. This platform was specifically designed for the Flak 30 mount and could not readily accept a Flak 38 mount or vice versa. To accommodate the gun mount the vehicle was both wider and taller than normal, namely 2.02 metres (6.6 ft) wide and 2 metres (6.6 ft) and weighed 4,075 kilograms (8,984 lb) empty. Four folding seats were fitted on the platform for the crew. Some of these gun mounts had a gun shield fitted. The ready ammunition bins fastened to the side and rear panels (four on each side and two in the rear) contained one 20-round magazine each. It usually towed an ammunition trailer (Sd.Ah. 51 - Sonderanhänger—special single-axle trailer) with 640 more rounds, the gun's sights and its rangefinder.
Vehicles built in 1940 (only) were fitted with removable loading ramps, cable rollers to act as pulleys, and a reinforced tail gate to allow a Flak 30, mounted on a Sd.Ah. 51 trailer, to be quickly dismounted. From 1940 they were fitted with rifle racks over the front fenders and from 1942 these were given sheet metal covers as protection from the weather. Flak 38s were mounted on 10/4s beginning in 1941 although the platform was not widened until later. As the war progressed the guns were more often fitted with gun shields.
The Sd.Kfz. 10/5 carried the 2 cm FlaK 38 whose mount was wider, and lighter, than that of the Flak 30, and the platform was enlarged to accommodate it from 1942. Vehicle width increased to 2.156 metres (7.07 ft), but the height returned to that of the normal vehicle. Initially, vehicles modified with the wider platform for the Flak 38 did not have a special designation, but they were given one sometime in 1943. The earliest known use is 1 September 1943, but the older name lingered until 1 December 1944. The Luftwaffe ordered 293 sets of armor plate (Behelfspanzerung) for its vehicles in 1943. These plates covered the radiator, windshield and both sides of the driver's compartment and were fitted to both versions.
Production began in 1939 for deliveries to the Army and Luftwaffe, although the exact numbers will never be known as they were often not broken out separately in the production reports. At any rate, Adler built 1054 between 1939 and February 1943, although some of these were completed as 10/5s beginning in 1942. MWC was awarded two contracts for 975 10/5s to be delivered in 1943–44, but 13 of these were delivered as ordinary Sd.Kfz. 10s in 1944.
### Field modifications
Some vehicles were fitted with a 3.7 cm PaK 36 or 5 cm PaK 38 anti-tank gun. Sometimes they had the cab and engine compartment armored as well. The Pak 36 was usually carried complete, but the Pak 38 was usually mounted without its wheels on a pivot mount. At the end of the war, some vehicles were equipped with a triple-mount ("Drilling" in German) of MG151 autocannon on a conical pivot. It was the same mount as was used in Sd.Kfz. 251/21.
## Deployment and use
Initially, it was planned to use the Sd.Kfz. 10 as a towing vehicle for various light guns and trailers, but it was authorized as a substitute for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier in 1939. The Ausf. B model saw its use broadened to tow heavier weapons like the 5 cm PaK 38 as well as their ammunition trailers. They also served in the maintenance and supply companies of motorized and tank units. Nine were delivered to Romania in 1942 as tractors for anti-tank guns.
For the Chemical Troops (Nebeltruppen) each decontamination battery (Entgiftungs-Batterie) was authorized six Sd.Kfz. 10/1 and six Sd.Kfz. 10/2. Eighteen Sd.Kfz. 10/3 were held at the battalion level for issue to the batteries in lieu of their Sd.Kfz. 10/2s if needed. If necessary they could be substituted for Sd.Kfz. 11s of the appropriate type. When the decontamination units were authorized to be re-equipped with heavy rocket launchers in November 1941, seven Sd.Kfz. 10/1s were used to tow the 28/32 cm Nebelwerfer 41 launchers and another was used by the platoon leader to tow an anti-tank gun. Similarly, decontamination units usually retained their Sd.Kfz. 10/2s and used them just like the 10/1s after removing their special equipment. However, it seems that the 10/3s were turned in when the unit was reorganized.
An early-war Army anti-aircraft company (Flugabwehr-Kompanie) was organized in three platoons with a total of eighteen Sd.Kfz. 10/4s, twelve with guns and six carrying ammunition. When the four-barrel 2 cm Flakvierling 38 was fielded in 1941, each platoon had four Sd.Kfz. 10/4s towing the guns and another for ammunition. Later, these companies were reorganized with a total of eight Sd.Kfz. 10/4s carrying guns, two towing Flakvierlings and three carrying ammunition. These are just examples of some of the Army organizationsm which differed depending on the unit and the period. Sd.Kfz. 10/5s were substituted for 10/4s on a one for one basis. Detailed records do not survive for the Luftwaffe light anti-aircraft units, but they appear to have been organized into batteries of nine or twelve guns.
### Usage in Sweden
When war broke out in September 1939, Sweden maintained a policy of neutrality. To support this policy, a rapid upgrade of aging military equipment was necessary. Guns, vehicles and aircraft was both manufactured domestically and purchased abroad. Artillery guns, 10.5 cm leFH 18 and towing vehicles was purchased from Germany in the winter of 1939/1940 and deliveries started in 1940. The towing vehicles were partly Klöckner-Deutz A330 4x4 trucks and some Demag D7 halftracks. The halftracks would be used in sub-arctic climate and all twelve Demags were, in the autumn of 1940, delivered along with twelve guns to the 8th Artillery regiment (A8) in the northern city of Boden, close to the arctic circle. Noteworthy is that the 10.5 cm leFH 18 ("Haubits m/39" in Swedish terms) is a significantly heavier gun than the ones the German army towed with this vehicle. In Sweden, the Demag was called "Artilleritraktor m/40" or "Arttrak m/40" for short.
In 1941, Sweden tried to purchase more Demags, but the ongoing war made this impossible. Orders then went to Volvo to make a "copy" (the "Artilleritraktor m/43" or "Volvo HBT"), where the only specific requirement from the Swedish army was that the track links had to be interchangeable with the Demag. This Volvo was never in use at A8.
After the war, another twelve Sd.Kfz. 10, bought as surplus from Norway and elsewhere, were delivered to A8. The total of 24 Sd.Kfz. 10 were used in training gun crews all through the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1966, all were sold to the highest bidders at Kalix airfield and they ended up in the villages surrounding Kalix and Boden. In the mid 1970s - 1980s, they were traced down and sold abroad. The last known one left Sweden in 1992. Of the 24 sold in 1966, as of 2014 fourteen have known locations with collectors and in museums all over the world.
## In popular culture
Two Sd.Kfz. 10 light halftracks, one towing a 7.5 cm Pak 40 anti-tank gun and the other a field kitchen (Gulaschkanone), are featured in the opening scenes of the 1983 British Horror film The Keep, set in Romania in 1941. |
11,416,741 | Nig Clarke | 1,160,356,648 | Canadian baseball player (1882-1949) | [
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| Jay Justin "Nig" Clarke (December 15, 1882 – June 15, 1949) was a Canadian professional baseball player. A catcher, Clarke played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for nine seasons with the Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Naps, St. Louis Browns, Philadelphia Phillies, and Pittsburgh Pirates. In 506 career games, Clarke recorded a batting average of .254 and accumulated 20 triples, six home runs, and 127 runs batted in (RBI).
Born in Canada and raised in Michigan, Clarke began his baseball career in 1902, when he reportedly hit eight home runs in one game while playing for the Corsicana Oil Citys of the Texas League. From there, he spent two more seasons in the minor leagues before the Cleveland Naps signed him to a contract. Aside from a loan to the Detroit Tigers, he played for the Naps for six seasons. Clarke was then traded to the St. Louis Browns, where he played for one season. After several years in the minor leagues, Clarke joined the United States Marine Corps. He returned to the major leagues and played there until 1920, then continued playing for minor league teams until 1927. Clarke then retired from the game, rejoined the Marines, and moved to River Rouge, Michigan, where he lived until his death in 1949.
## Early life
Clarke was born in 1882 at Anderdon Township (now Amherstburg, Ontario), Canada. He was a member of the Wyandot of Anderdon First Nation. He moved to Detroit, Michigan as a child in April 1888. He began playing semi-pro baseball in Adrian, Michigan, while studying at Assumption College in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Early in his career, he was given the nickname of "Nig" by newspapers due to his dark complexion.
## Professional baseball
### Early career
Clarke began his professional career in 1902 with the Corsicana Oil Citys in the Texas League. On June 15, he hit eight home runs in ten at bats in a 51–3 victory over the Texarkana Casketmakers. Because Corsicana's blue laws forbade Sunday baseball (or, according to The Sporting News, due to poor attendance in Corsicana), the game was played in Ennis, Texas, in a facility that has a right field fence estimated to be 210 feet from home plate along the foul line. While some cast doubt on Clarke's eight home run game, the feat was later attested to by the official scorer (under oath) and by others who observed the game. In a 1940 interview with The Sporting News, one of Clarke's Corsicana teammates claimed:
"The right field fence at Ennis wasn't more than 40 feet [12 m] back of first base. Nig just pulled eight short flies around and over that wall. I'm not taking anything away from old Nig's batting prowess—he was the one of the best hitters I ever saw. But that's the way he hit eight homers that day. Didn't have to send the ball more than 140 feet [43 m] at the most."
In 1903, Clarke played for the Little Rock Travelers in the Southern Association, and had a batting average of .254 in 41 games. While with Little Rock, he clashed with owner Mike Finn, who refused to trade him throughout the season despite Clarke's demands and trade offers by other teams. After the 1903 season ended, he was traded to the Atlanta Crackers of the same league. With Atlanta, Clarke started off the first half of the season with a .400 batting average before cooling down in the second half. He finished the season with a .264 average in 135 games.
### Cleveland Naps
At the end of the 1904 season, the Cleveland Naps purchased Clarke from Atlanta. The plan was for Clarke to be the third catcher on the roster behind Harry Bemis and Fritz Buelow, and as a result, he only played in a few games during the first half of the season. In August 1905, Clarke briefly joined the Detroit Tigers after the Cleveland team traveled to Boston without him. He was loaned to Detroit with the understanding that the Naps could reclaim him on one day's notice. Clarke appeared in only three games for Detroit, compiling a .429 batting average and a home run before being recalled by the Naps. In 45 games between both teams on the season, he had a .208 batting average.
Clarke began the 1906 season as the third string catcher. A month into the season, Naps manager Nap Lajoie changed the roster around partially due to Clarke's hitting, which had improved greatly from last season. To end the year, Clarke compiled a career high batting average of .358, tying him with George Stone for the American League batting championship. However, Stone was recognized as the batting champion because Clarke had only appeared in only 57 games with 195 plate appearances. Clarke began to wear shin guards early in his career, and was one of the first ballplayers to adopt this layer of protection.
After spending the offseason playing winter baseball in Florida with several other major leaguers, Clarke became the everyday catcher for the 1907 season. He started off hitting well, and had a batting average of .381 through the first month of the league, which was second in the American League. He started nearly every game for the Naps until his finger was hit by a foul ball in a game in June, causing him to miss two weeks. By the end of the season, he had stopped playing well, finishing the season with a .269 batting average and six triples in 120 games, as well as a league-leading 25 passed balls. During the offseason, Clarke played winter baseball in Cuba, then returned to Cleveland in March.
Clarke spent the 1908 season splitting time at the catcher position with Bemis, as both struggled in spring practice. In September, Clarke sustained an injury in a game against Detroit when the bone of a finger on his right hand was split and he was unable to grow a nail. On October 2, he caught a perfect game thrown by Addie Joss, which was only the fourth perfect game in MLB history. He finished the year with a .241 batting average and six triples in 97 games. On Thanksgiving night in 1908, Clarke was married to Mary A. Smith at the home of the bride's parents in Sandwich, Ontario, Canada. His wife did not like the "Nig" nickname that sports reporters used, and wanted them to simply call him Jay in newspapers.
The signing of Ted Easterly and Grover Land gave the Naps four catchers entering spring training. Easterly became the starting catcher and Bemis the backup due to Clarke's "lack of ambition", which led to speculation that he could be traded during the season. He finished the season with a .274 batting average in 55 games. During the offseason, St. Louis Browns player-manager Jack O'Connor attempted to trade for Clarke, but a deal never materialized. Clarke saw little playing time in 1910 due to a bout of typhoid fever, which landed him in the hospital for most of the season. He played 21 games that season, batting .155.
### St. Louis Browns and minor leagues
On December 14, 1910, Cleveland traded Clarke to the St. Louis Browns in exchange for Art Griggs. Clarke split time with Jim Stephens at catcher for the Browns, and appeared in 82 games for the team in 1911, compiling a .215 batting average. After the 1911 season, was released on waivers to the Washington Senators. The Senators, however, had no interest in him and tried to undo the acceptance, which was overruled by American League president Ban Johnson. Shortly afterwards, he was sold to the Indianapolis Indians in the American Association, where he played from 1912 to 1913. In 1912, he hit .266 in 92 games, and the following year he hit .282 in 28 games.
Partway through the 1913 season, Clarke was sold to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League, where he played from 1913 to 1915. With San Francisco, he hit .281 and .222 in 1913 and 1914, respectively. He also played parts of the 1915 season with the Houston Buffaloes of the Texas League and the Memphis Chickasaws of the Southern Association, playing in 81 total games for the three teams. In 1916, Clarke was traded by Houston to the Mobile Sea Gulls of the Southern Association for Hub Northen. That season, he batted .149 in 20 games before being released.
### Later career
On August 1, 1917, Clarke enlisted in the United States Marine Corps. While serving, he attained the rank of corporal and served in Brest, France. In 1918, while serving in the Marine Corps, Clarke filed a military naturalization petition and became a United States citizen; a year later he was discharged. While serving in the Marines, Clarke stated that he wished he "joined the marine corps twelve years ago and never played ball."
In 1919, he returned mid-season to the major leagues with the Philadelphia Phillies. He appeared in 26 games, compiling a .242 batting average. He led the National League with a 58.8% caught stealing percentage. Prior to 1919, only three catchers in major league history had ever compiled a higher caught stealing percentage. In November 1919, Clarke was selected off waivers by the Pittsburgh Pirates from the Phillies. He appeared in three games for the Pirates and had no hits in seven at bats. He appeared in his final major league game on April 24, 1920.
After his brief stay in Pittsburgh, the Pirates sent Clarke to Greenville in 1920. He played next for Toledo and Winston-Salem, and then for the Reading Aces in the International League during the 1922 and 1923 seasons. In 1924, he played for both Reading and Harrisburg. In 1925, he played for the Salisbury Indians in the Eastern Shore League. In the spring of 1925, The Sporting News wrote: "Nig Clarke not only led the league with the bat and the mitt and the arm, he was the very picture of a baseball player. I rather suspect that Nig put away as much corn juice as the next man. In the days of his greatness he was wont to take a couple of snifters every morning before breakfast. Never seemed to hurt Nig any." At the end of the season, he was given most valuable player honors for his performance with Salisbury. Clarke concluded his professional baseball career in 1927 with Tulsa.
## Later life
At the time of the 1920 U.S. Census, Clarke and his wife were living in Detroit. In June 1929, Clarke rejoined the Marine Corps, serving until August 1932 still in rank of Corporal. At the time of the 1930 U.S. Census, Clarke was stationed at the Quantico Marine Barracks in Quantico, Prince William County, Virginia.
After being discharged from the Marine Corps, Clarke built a house in River Rouge, a suburb of Detroit, where he lived with his wife and mother. In June 1949, Clarke was found dead at his home in River Rouge.
He was named to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame, in St. Marys, Ontario, in the Class of 1996. |
41,074,867 | 1935 Jérémie hurricane | 1,170,503,636 | Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 1935 | [
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| The 1935 Jérémie hurricane, commonly referred to as the 1935 Haiti hurricane, was a highly destructive and catastrophic tropical cyclone that impacted the Greater Antilles and Honduras in October 1935, killing well over 2,000 people. Developing on October 18 over the southwestern Caribbean Sea, the storm proceeded to strike eastern Jamaica and southeastern Cuba while overwhelming southwestern Haiti in a deluge of rain. The hurricane—a Category 1 at its peak—completed an unusual reversal of its path on October 23, heading southwestward toward Central America. Weakened by its interaction with Cuba, the storm soon regained strength and made its final landfall near Cabo Gracias a Dios in Honduras on October 25. The cyclone weakened upon moving inland and dissipated two days later.
Flooding and landslides in Jamaica took their toll on property, agricultural interests, and infrastructure; fruit growers on the island sustained about \$2.5 million (1935 USD) in losses. Just off the coast, an unidentified vessel went down with her entire crew in the hostile conditions. Strong winds buffeted coastal sections of Cuba, notably in and around Santiago de Cuba. There, the hurricane demolished 100 homes and filled streets with debris. Only four people died in the country, thanks to the extensive pre-storm preparations. The storm did the most damage along the Tiburon Peninsula of southwestern Haiti, where catastrophic river flooding took the lives of up to 2,000 individuals, razed hundreds of native houses, and destroyed crops and livestock. The heaviest destruction took place around the towns of Jacmel and Jérémie; one early report estimated that 1,500 had been killed at the latter. Entire swaths of countryside were isolated for days, delaying both reconnaissance and relief efforts.
The hurricane later created devastating floods in Central America, chiefly in Honduras. Reported at the time to be the worst flood in the nation's history, the disaster decimated banana plantations and population centers after rivers flowed up to 50 ft (15 m) above normal. Torrents of floodwaters trapped hundreds of citizens in trees, on rooftops, and on remote high ground, requiring emergency rescue. The storm left thousands homeless and around 150 dead in the country, while monetary losses totaled \$12 million. Flooding and strong winds reached into northeastern Nicaragua, though damage was much less widespread than in neighboring Honduras.
## Meteorological history
The hurricane originated over the southwestern Caribbean Sea, where, on October 17, a broad and immature low pressure system was noted. The hurricane forecast center in Jacksonville, Florida issued its first advisory on the storm late on October 20, following ship reports of winds approaching and exceeding gale-force. Contemporary reanalyses of the storm have determined that it organized into a tropical depression on October 18, then drifted toward the east, turning north-northeastward as it strengthened into a tropical storm early the next day. Due to low environmental air pressures and the large size of the cyclone, intensification was gradual as the storm approached Jamaica, eventually making landfall on the eastern side of the island, just west of the Morant Point Lighthouse, at 13:00 UTC on October 21. The system came ashore with a central pressure of 995 hPa (29.4 inHg), suggesting maximum winds of 60 mph (100 km/h). After emerging into the waters between Jamaica and Cuba, the storm slowed in forward speed, continued to intensify, and curved northwestward toward southeastern Cuba. The storm attained the equivalent of Category 1 hurricane status on the current-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale early on October 22, while meandering just off the coast of Cuba.
At around 18:00 UTC on October 22, the hurricane made landfall near Santiago de Cuba at its initial peak intensity, with winds of 85 mph (140 km/h). It started weakening early the next day after encountering the Sierra Maestra mountain range and moving southwestward, away from the coast. Steered by persistent high-pressure ridging over the eastern United States and western Atlantic, the cyclone would maintain this highly unusual path for the remainder of its duration in open waters. It brushed Cuba's Cape Cruz and deteriorated to a tropical storm before passing relatively close to the western tip of Jamaica. On the morning of October 24, the barometer aboard a ship in the storm's eye fell to 988 hPa (29.2 inHg), its lowest recorded pressure. The ship measured winds outside of the lull only up to 46 mph (74 km/h), but the storm was reintensifying, and once again achieved hurricane strength later in the day. It matched its previous peak intensity at 12:00 UTC on October 25 as it approached Cabo Gracias a Dios on the border of Honduras and Nicaragua. Shortly thereafter, the hurricane crossed the Honduran coast for its final landfall. The mountainous terrain of Central America worked to diminish the storm, which curved westward and steadily lost force, though observation of its decay was minimal. The cyclone likely dissipated on October 27 over Guatemala.
## Impact
The hurricane affected Jamaica, Haiti, Cuba, Honduras, and North Nicaragua along its unusual path, killing an estimated 2,150 people.
### Jamaica
Parts of eastern Jamaica began to experience strong northeasterly winds early on October 20, and the parishes of Saint Thomas, Portland, and Saint Mary ultimately bore the brunt of the storm. Heavy rainfall swelled rivers and triggered landslides; the ensuing floods destroyed bridges, inundated many homes, and necessitated the rescue of trapped individuals. With telegraph communications cut to the hardest-hit areas and roads left impassable, the degree of destruction was initially uncertain, though it was described as "extensive". The storm took a heavy toll on agriculture (already compromised from the effects of another hurricane less than a month earlier), with banana plantations in particular sustaining heavy damage. Losses to fruit crops in the nation totaled an estimated \$2,500,000.
The storm reportedly killed three people on the island. An unidentified schooner capsized off Port Antonio with all hands lost, in spite of efforts to rescue the imperiled crew. One modern source recounts that the crew numbered 31, but this figure was not widely reported. The USS Houston, underway with President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt, averted its course after encountering adverse conditions.
### Cuba and Haiti
In advance of the hurricane's landfall in Cuba, businesses were closed. Railways worked to secure non-essential trains, and residents of vulnerable coastal towns, including Caimanera, fled their homes in search of safer ground. The hurricane subjected eastern parts of the island to intense gales, measured at over 70 mph (110 km/h) at Santiago de Cuba before the anemometer failed. The northern coast of the island around Nipe Bay also endured strong winds as high as 58 mph (93 km/h). Winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) were recorded at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, though the effects there were generally light. Closer to the hurricane's center, in Santiago de Cuba, about 100 homes sustained complete structural failures. The prolonged nature of the storm hampered search and rescue efforts amid the rubble. Winds strew debris around the city, blocking its streets. A hospital and a power plant both suffered roof failure. Electricity in Santiago de Cuba was preemptively turned off as conditions worsened, contributing to regional power outages.
Significant flooding occurred after the Cauto River overflowed it banks, making driving impossible. The storm severed communications between towns in eastern Cuba after bringing down telephone and telegraph wires. Apart from seven structures ruined in the Guantánamo area, there was less destruction in many locations than initially feared. There were reports of three fatalities in Caimanera, and one person died in Santiago de Cuba. At least 29 individuals were treated for storm-related injuries. Damage assessments in the immediate aftermath of the storm placed monetary damages in Cuba at \$500,000. In the aftermath, a public curfew was issued for Santiago de Cuba, forcing residents to remain indoors after 8 pm. To prevent looting, troops patrolled streets and vulnerable locations, such as banks. Supplies of bread and milk ran short following the hurricane.
The greatest disaster occurred in southern Haiti, where as many as 2,000 people died, possibly more. The towns of Jacmel and Jérémie—both on the Tiburon Peninsula—were devastated by catastrophic freshwater flooding after days of torrential rains. The entire peninsula, already remote in its own right, was isolated for a time, ensuring only scant detail of the disaster reached the outside world. Information was initially relayed to the capital city of Port-au-Prince by a single aircraft.
The hurricane crippled infrastructure, blocking roads throughout the area and destroying a hydroelectricity plant in Jacmel. The town was left without power and drinking water. In Jérémie, the flooding was so severe as to sweep away a large metal bridge. Hundreds of poorly constructed native houses were destroyed on the Tiburon Peninsula, leaving thousands of survivors without homes. Property damage in Haiti amounted to over \$1 million. Meanwhile, thousands of livestock were killed and crops were completely destroyed, prompting fears of impending famine.
Several days after the storm, the bodies of drowning victims had been recovered by the hundreds, and it was suspected many of the deceased had been washed into the sea. One preliminary estimate placed the number of dead in the Jérémie area alone at 1,500, suggesting the worst of the tragedy occurred there. Indeed, some modern sources have unofficially referred to the storm as Hurricane Jérémie. The Haitian government worked to bring emergency supplies and relief workers, at least partially by way of ship, to the flood-stricken region. As little was known about the extent of losses, officials rushed to restore communications with the disaster area.
### Central America
After clearing the Greater Antilles, the hurricane ravaged parts of Honduras. Banana plantations suffered extensively, causing the United Fruit Company about \$6 million in losses. As in Haiti, the hardest hit areas of Honduras were cut off from the nation's capital of Tegucigalpa. Severe river flooding wrought widespread destruction, especially around La Ceiba and throughout the Cortés Department. Many towns were inundated by up to 7 ft (2.1 m) of water. According to one source, the Ulúa River "officially" rose some 50 ft (15 m) from its normal height near Chamelecón, where the flood left 800 families homeless. Many hundreds of individuals were stranded by raging flood waters in the Cortés region, clutching to trees and rooftops as they awaited uncertain rescue. Even after rescue boats brought many residents of Chamelecón to safety, a third of the population remain trapped.
The rampant Cangrejal River reportedly obliterated an entire suburban community further east, near La Ceiba, while the Aguán River burst its banks at Trujillo and killed numerous plantation workers. By October 29, the bodies of 70 flood victims had been recovered at Corocito in Colón. Torrential rains extended into Tegucigalpa, causing urban flooding. Just to the northeast, in San Juancito, a large landslide took the lives of at least three people. Overall, the hurricane inflicted about \$12 million in damage across Honduras (including the agricultural impacts), resulted in about 150 deaths, and destroyed the homes of thousands of residents. The floods were considered to be among the worst in the country's history. Almost immediately after the passage of the storm, a wide area of Honduras experienced strong earthquake activity.
Damaging, but less expansive, floods also occurred in parts of extreme northeastern Nicaragua around the Mosquito Coast. The Coco River, which constitutes a large portion of the Honduras–Nicaragua border, swelled 40 ft (12 m) as observed about 140 mi (230 km) upstream of its mouth. Banana farms were heavily damaged around Cabo Gracias a Dios, occupied by both nations, and according to early reports in that area, all but a handful of dwellings were destroyed. In spite of the flooding and hurricane-force winds, timely warnings prevented fatalities locally.
## See also
- List of Cuba hurricanes
- Hurricane Gordon (1994), which killed 1,000–2,000 in Haiti
- Hurricane Mitch (1998), which created unprecedented flooding in Honduras
- Hurricane Lenny (1999), notable for its atypical path
- List of deadliest Atlantic hurricanes |
288,001 | Kanon (video game) | 1,172,437,648 | 1999 Japanese adult visual novel | [
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| Kanon is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key, a brand of Visual Arts. It was released on June 4, 1999, for Windows as an adult game. Key later released versions of Kanon without the erotic content, and the game was ported to the Dreamcast, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and Nintendo Switch. The story follows the life of Yuichi Aizawa, a high school student who returns to a city he last visited seven years prior, and he has little recollection of the events from back then. He meets several girls and slowly regains his lost memories. The gameplay in Kanon follows a branching plot line which offers pre-determined scenarios with courses of interaction, and focuses on the appeal of the five female main characters by the player character. The game once ranked as the second best-selling PC game sold in Japan, and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards. Kanon has sold over 300,000 units across several platforms.
Following the game's release, Kanon made several transitions into other media. Two manga series were serialized in Dengeki Daioh and Dragon Age Pure. Comic anthologies, light novels and art books were also published, as were audio dramas and several music albums. Toei Animation produced a 13-episode anime television series in 2002 and an original video animation (OVA) episode in 2003. Kyoto Animation produced a 24-episode anime series in 2006. The 2006 anime was licensed and dubbed in English by ADV Films in 2008, but the license was given to Funimation after ADV's closure. The 2006 anime plays on the association between Kanon and the musical term canon by using Pachelbel's Kanon D-dur, or Canon in D major, as a background piece at certain instances throughout the series.
## Gameplay
Kanon is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Yuichi Aizawa. Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story's narrative and dialogue. Kanon follows a branching plot line with multiple endings, and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game, the plot will progress in a specific direction.
There are five main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience, one for each of the heroines in the story. Throughout gameplay, the player is given multiple options to choose from, and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made. To view all plot lines in their entirety, the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction. After Mai's scenario is completed, a replay of her route will offer an additional choice to play through Sayuri's back-story. Jun Maeda, who worked on the scenario for Kanon, commented in March 2001 that the Japanese public may have fallen under the impression that Key makes soothing games because of Kanons influence, but Maeda affirmed that there was not one person who worked on Kanon who thought that.
In the adult versions of the game, there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Yuichi and a given heroine having sex. Later, Key released versions of Kanon without the erotic content. The versions that include the adult content have one explicit sex scene in each of the five main story routes, in addition to one fantasy scene. Outside of these, there are two scenes with nudity. Yūichi Suzumoto, a scenario writer who worked on later Key titles, commented that the sex scenes in Kanon are very self-contained, and can be easily removed without altering the story. Maeda remarked that the sex scenes were not written with reproduction in mind.
## Plot
### Setting and themes
There are several important locations featured in the Kanon story, though the location names are seldom mentioned explicitly in Key's works. The events of the story occur during winter, and since it often snows periodically over the course of the entire story, the city is always presented covered in a layer of snow. The shopping district is featured throughout the story when the characters go into town, and especially whenever Ayu appears in the early story. The high school where Yuichi and the other main characters attend, including the school grounds, is shown predominantly in Shiori's and Mai's stories, and is otherwise a general setting where Yuichi interacts with other characters.
There are recurring themes that appear throughout the story. A music theme is present, as the episode titles from the 2006–2007 anime have parts in their titles related to music, such as overture and introit. Miracles play a large part in the story; Kanon's plot line and characters are influenced by various instances where miracles occur. The act of promising and keeping promises is found throughout the story. Yuichi eventually makes important promises to the five main girls while at the same time fulfilling past promises he had made with four of them when he used to visit the city as a kid.
One of the motifs in the story is amnesia, or memory loss; three of the main characters—Yuichi, Ayu and Makoto—suffer from amnesia in varying degrees; this is used as a plot device to advance the story. Another motif deals with the favorite foods of the five main heroines. Newtype USA stated in an article on Kanon that "it's when the characters are eating something really tasty that they seem most beautiful and alive", despite the somber setting and overall tone of the series. These five foods of choice are: taiyaki (Ayu), strawberries (Nayuki), nikuman (Makoto), ice cream (Shiori), and gyudon (Mai).
### Principal characters
The player assumes the role of Yuichi Aizawa, the protagonist of Kanon. He is a cynical 17-year-old high school student, and is known to play jokes on the girls his age he knows and interacts with throughout the story. Despite this, Yuichi is very loyal and will go to great lengths to please others, even at the expense of his own time and money. He generally has a selfless personality and does not ask much from others in return for what he does for them. Ayu Tsukimiya, the main heroine of Kanon, is a short, strange, and mysterious girl immediately recognizable by her winged backpack, red hair band, and tendency to refer to herself with the masculine first-person pronoun boku (僕). She has a fondness for eating taiyaki, and is notorious for her catchphrase, "ugū" (うぐぅ), which she mutters as an expression of various negative emotions such as frustration, pain, and fear. Yuichi's first cousin Nayuki Minase, another of Kanons heroines, has been in love with him since childhood, and must learn how to deal with her feelings, especially with the threat that he may fall in love with one of the other girls. Nayuki talks noticeably slower than those around her, and has constant trouble waking up in the morning except on a few occasions when she is up before Yuichi, much to his surprise.
Yuichi is accosted a few days after arriving in the city by Kanon'''s third heroine Makoto Sawatari, a young girl who has lost her memories, but despite this she is sure that she holds a grudge against Yuichi from when he last visited the city. Makoto has a mischievous side and constantly plays pranks on Yuichi. She has an affinity towards the spring and once wished that it would stay spring forever. Yuichi coincidentally runs into Shiori Misaka, another heroine and first-year high school student suffering from an unexplained illness since birth. Her affliction has caused her to become very physically weak, and she is almost always absent from school because of it. She tries to be strong in the face of her condition, and gets along well with others, even though she does not know very many people her age due to her condition. The fifth and final heroine in Kanon is Mai Kawasumi, a third-year student of the same high school that Yuichi attends. She has a cold attitude towards almost everyone, but despite this, she is actually a very kind and caring person; she "punishes" someone who makes a playful joke about her by giving them a light karate chop to the head.
### Story
Kanon's story revolves around a group of five girls whose lives are connected to the same boy. Yuichi Aizawa is a second-year high school student who had visited the city where the story takes place seven years prior to Kanons beginning. The story opens on Wednesday January 6, 1999 when Yuichi arrives in the city and is very detached from it and its inhabitants. Prior to his return, it is decided that he is to stay with his first cousin, Nayuki Minase, and her mother, Akiko. After his long absence, Yuichi has forgotten almost everything except minor details of what happened seven years before and is in need of being reminded of what he left behind. Nayuki initially tries repeatedly to jog his memory, but is unsuccessful. Throughout the story, as he learns about the supernatural undertones of the city, Yuichi is reminded of the events of seven years ago.
On the day after Yuichi's return, he is out with Nayuki who is showing him around the city. Nayuki remembers that she has to buy things for dinner, but Yuichi is reluctant to go into the store with her. Moments after Nayuki leaves him waiting on the sidewalk, a strange girl named Ayu Tsukimiya collides with him with little warning. Upon recovering, she drags him away to a nearby café and confesses to inadvertently stealing a bag filled with taiyaki after being accidentally scared away by the salesman before she had a chance to pay. They decide to meet up again another day and Ayu scampers off. A few days after he has been in the city, Yuichi is accosted by a girl named Makoto Sawatari who has lost her memories, though still remembers that she has a grudge against him from when he last visited the city. After she collapses in the street, he takes her home and learns about her situation. Akiko gives her permission to live with them for the time being, which is against Yuichi's plan to hand her over to the police.
Another girl who is connected to Yuichi's past is Mai Kawasumi who attends his high school as a third-year. She takes it upon herself to fight and defeat demons at night while the school is deserted. Due to this, she is constantly blamed for accidents because she never denies them, being too sincere to say anything and knowing that no one will believe that there are demons in the school. Yuichi coincidentally meets a fifth girl named Shiori Misaka who he gets to know along with the other four heroines in the story. She has suffered from an unexplained affliction since birth which makes her weak to the point of missing school because of it. Yuichi starts to talk with her more after noticing her in the school courtyard one day. It turns out that Shiori stands outside on the school grounds nearly every day because she wants to meet someone dear to her.
## Development
Most of Kanon's development staff originally worked for the visual novel publisher Nexton under the brand Tactics. After the release of the brand's third game One: Kagayaku Kisetsu e, most of Tactics' staff left Nexton to pursue work in another publishing company where they could have the freedom to produce their next game. Itaru Hinoue, who had previously worked at Visual Arts once before, introduced Key's founding members to the president of Visual Arts, Takahiro Baba. Baba gave the developers the freedom they desired, and they officially transferred to Visual Arts where they formed Key on July 21, 1998, and started production on Kanon. The planning for the visual novel was headed by Naoki Hisaya who was also one of two scenario writers with Jun Maeda. Hisaya wrote the scenarios for Ayu, Nayuki and Shiori, while Maeda wrote the routes for Makoto and Mai. Art direction was headed by Key's artist Itaru Hinoue who worked on the character design and computer graphics. Further computer graphics were split between three people—Dinn, Miracle Mikipon, Shinory—and background art was provided by Torino. The music in the game was composed by OdiakeS, Shinji Orito and Jun Maeda. Kanon was the first and last visual novel developed by Key that two of the main staff—Naoki Hisaya, and OdiakeS—worked on before pursuing a similar line of work in other visual novel studios.
### Release history
Kanon was released as an adult game on June 4, 1999, in limited and regular editions, playable on a Windows PC as a CD-ROM. The limited edition came bundled with the remix album Anemoscope remixing background music tracks featured in the visual novel. Key released an all ages version on January 7, 2000, for Windows. An updated adult version called the Kanon Standard Edition was released on November 26, 2004, with added support for Windows 2000/XP as a DVD-ROM. The Standard Edition incorporates the extra graphics added to the earlier all ages version of the game, and other technical changes such as more save slots. An all ages version of the Standard Edition was released on January 28, 2005. An updated all ages version of Kanon compatible for Windows Vista PCs was released by Key on July 31, 2009, in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box. Another all ages updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs called Kanon Memorial Edition was released on April 30, 2010.
The first consumer console port of the game was released for the Dreamcast on September 14, 2000, by NEC Interchannel. A PlayStation 2 (PS2) version was released on February 28, 2002, also by NEC Interechannel. The PS2 version was re-released as a "Best" version on December 22, 2004. The PS2 version was bundled in a "Key 3-Part Work Premium Box" package together with the PS2 versions of Air and Clannad released on July 30, 2009. An adult version playable as a Blu-ray Disc was released on December 16, 2011, by Asoberu! BD-Game, a brand of Visual Arts.
Prototype through VisualArt's Motto released a version playable on SoftBank 3G mobile phones on October 27, 2006, and another version playable on FOMA mobile phones in December 2006. A PlayStation Portable (PSP) version of the game was released in Japan on February 15, 2007, by Prototype. The first release of the PSP version came with a special DVD featuring a message from five of the voice actors and a recompiled opening video from the video game version. The five voice actors on the DVD included: Mariko Kōda as Nayuki Minase, Akemi Satō as Shiori Misaka, Mayumi Iizuka as Makoto Sawatari, Yūko Minaguchi as Akiko Minase, and Tomokazu Sugita as Yuichi Aizawa. Yui Horie as Ayu Tsukimiya voiced the short introduction of the DVD, but was not featured in the contents of the DVD itself. A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on November 9, 2009. A version playable on Android devices was released on November 30, 2011. An adult version for Android devices was released in January 2013. A version playable on iOS devices was released on April 4, 2013. In the original release, there was no voice acting for the characters, but in the later versions produced for the Dreamcast and PS2, full voice acting was included. The only exception was Yuichi, who was not voiced in either version. However, the PSP release features voice acting for Yuichi, provided by Tomokazu Sugita. Prototype will release a Nintendo Switch version in Japan on April 20, 2023.
## Adaptations
### Light novels
Five adult light novels written by Mariko Shimizu and published by Paradigm were released in Japan between October 1999 and August 2000. The cover art and internal illustrations were drawn by Itaru Hinoue, the artist who drew the artwork in the visual novel. The basis for each novel was one of each of the five heroines and had titles that were taken from the musical themes pertaining to each character in the original game. The first two released were Yuki no Shōjo (雪の少女, Girl in the Snow, Nayuki) and Egao no Mukougawa ni (笑顔の向こう側に, Beyond the Smile, Shiori) in December 1999. The third was Shōjo no Ori (少女の檻, Girl's Prison, Mai) released in April 2000 and the fourth novel was titled The Fox and the Grapes (Makoto), released two months later. The final novel titled Hidamari no Machi (日溜りの街, A Sunny City, Ayu) was released in August 2000. Paradigm re-released the five novels in conjunction with Visual Arts under their VA Bunko imprint, which removed the erotic scenes, starting with Yuki no Shōjo on June 27, 2009, and ending with Hidamari no Machi on December 26, 2009. To make up for the missing erotic content, Shimizu wrote additional content for each volume. A sixth novel titled Kanojotachi no Kenkai (彼女たちの見解, The Girls' Opinions) for the supporting character Sayuri Kurata written by Shimizu and illustrated by Zen was released on March 31, 2011.
### Trading card game
Following the release of the original visual novel, Key collaborated with TI Tokyo to release the Kanon Trading Card Game. The game was showcased through Comiket, with the original beta cards and promotional materials appearing in winter 1999. This release would also be expanded to include the Air Trading Card Game, based on Key's followup visual novel, Air, alongside several expansions to the core game.
### Drama CDs and radio shows
A set of five drama CDs were released between September 29, 2000, and April 27, 2001, with each volume focusing on a different heroine. A set of five anthology drama CDs were released between December 22, 2001, and May 25, 2002, with each volume again focusing on a different heroine. A radio show to promote the Dreamcast port of Kanon titled Kanon: The Snow Talk Memories Yuki Furu Machi no Monogatari (Kanon -The snow talks memories- 雪降る街の物語) broadcast 13 episodes between October 6 and December 29, 2000. The show, produced by Movic, was hosted by Yukari Tamura and Tomoko Kawakami, the voices Mai Kawasumi and Sayuri Kurata, respectively. A radio drama titled Minase-sanchi (水瀬さんち) broadcast 53 episodes between October 6, 2001, and October 5, 2002. The show, which was broadcast on TBS Radio and Radio Kansai, was hosted by Yūko Minaguchi, the voice of Akiko Minase, and narrated by Atsushi Kisaichi. The voice actors from Kanon were also featured as guests. Five CD compilation volumes containing all of the show's broadcasts were released between August 30, 2002, and April 26, 2003.
### Manga
The first Kanon manga illustrated by Petit Morishima was serialized in MediaWorks' manga magazine Dengeki Daioh between the February 2000 and July 2002 issues. The individual chapters were later collected into two separate tankōbon volumes published by MediaWorks under their Dengeki Comics imprint released in September 2000 and on July 27, 2002. There are six chapters in total, three in each volume. Aside from the prologue in volume one and the epilogue in volume two, the other four chapters concern four of the main heroines. From chapters one through four, the main heroines presented are: Shiori Misaka, Makoto Sawatari, Mai Kawasumi and Ayu Tsukimiya. To make up for Nayuki not getting a chapter of her own, the story is altered in that Nayuki is in most of the scenes Yuichi is in. The first manga is different from the visual novel in that Shiori's, Makoto's, and Mai's stories are not told in their entirety. Near the end of each of these girls' stories were originally intended to give the viewer the remaining answers, but the manga version ends these girls' stories prematurely. This was due to the manga putting more focus on Ayu's story.
The second manga illustrated by Kinusa Shimotsuki, under the main title Kanon: Honto no Omoi wa Egao no Mukōgawa ni (Kanon ホントの想いは笑顔の向こう側に, Kanon: The Real Feelings of the Other Side of the Smiling Face) with the subtitle each regret of Kanon, was serialized between volumes two and seven of Fujimi Shobo's Dragon Age Pure magazine sold between June 29, 2006, and October 20, 2007, respectively. The first volume was released in Japan on April 1, 2007, and focused on Nayuki's story. The second volume was released on December 8, 2007, and focused on the other four heroines. There are nine chapters in total, five in volume one and four in volume two.
There have also been many releases of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists. The first volume of the earliest anthology series, released by Ichijinsha under the title Kanon Comic Anthology, was released in November 2000 under their DNA Media Comics label. Volumes for this series continued to be released for another two years, ending in December 2002 with the 14th volume; an additional 15th volume was released later in February 2007. Ichijinsha also released two more volumes of anthology collections of four-panel comic strips titled Kanon 4-koma Kings in April and June 2001. Softgarage released an anthology in a single volume in December 2002 titled Kanon Anthology Comic. In April 2004, Ohzora released an anthology composed of works based on both Kanon and Air titled Haru Urara: Kanon & Air.
Between June and August 2004, Ohzora also released five separate volumes of manga based on Kanon drawn by five separate artists. Ohzora later collected some of the previously published manga anthologies into two volumes titled Kanon Anthology Comics Best Selection released in December 2006 and January 2007. Additionally, Ohzora released another 13 volumes of an anthology series titled Kanon under their Twin Heart Comics label. The now-bankrupt publisher Raporto also released 21 manga anthology volumes titled Kanon under their Raporto Comics label between November 2000 and October 2002. The last manga anthology, a collection of four-panel comic strips released in a single volume by Enterbrain titled Magi-Cu 4-koma Kanon, was released in January 2007 under their MC Comics label. Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume.
### Anime
The first Kanon anime was produced by the Japanese animation studio Toei Animation and directed by Naoyuki Itō. Thirteen episodes were produced and aired in Japan on Fuji TV between January 31 and March 28, 2002. The series also later aired on Kansai TV. Later, a single original video animation (OVA) episode titled "Kanon Kazahana" was released in March 2003. The anime series and OVA used the songs "Florescence" and "Flower" for the opening and ending themes, respectively. While it does not appear as the ending theme in the first 12 episodes or in the OVA, the game's ending theme "Where the Wind Reaches" is used as the ending theme for the series in episode 13. Additionally, the game's opening theme "Last regrets" is played near the end of episode 13 during the flashback scene.
Starting in 2006, Kyoto Animation, the animators of another Key game-turned-anime, Air, decided to animate a new adaptation of Kanon. This version, directed by Tatsuya Ishihara and written by Fumihiko Shimo, aired between October 5, 2006, and March 15, 2007, on BS-i, containing 24 episodes. The series was later rebroadcast on TBS. ADV Films announced on September 21, 2007, at the Anime Weekend Atlanta anime convention that they have officially licensed the second Kanon anime series. ADV had previously posted a trailer for the series in August 2007, but was soon taken offline once the news had been spread on the Internet. The first English-dubbed episode was made available via streaming online at Anime News Network between December 23 and December 30, 2007. In July 2008, the licensing rights of the second Kanon anime were transferred from ADV to Funimation Entertainment (now known as Crunchyroll as of 2023) who continued to produce the series in North America. MVM Entertainment released Kanon on DVD in the United Kingdom on April 14, 2022.
The second TV Kanon animation features updated animation quality, and uses the same voice acting cast as the first anime, with the exception of Yuichi and Kuze. Unlike the first anime, the actual theme songs from the Kanon game are used for the second anime's opening theme, ending theme and soundtrack. There is one song featured as an insert song in episode 16 that did not come from the visual novel titled "Last regrets (X'mas floor style)" by Eiko Shimamiya from I've Sound's first album Regret. Other songs are used from the arrange albums released over the years, which include Anemoscope, Recollections, Re-feel, and Ma-Na.
## Music
The visual novel has two main theme songs, the opening theme "Last regrets", and the ending theme "Kaze no Tadoritsuku Basho" (風の辿り着く場所, Where the Wind Reaches), both sung by Ayana. The lyrics for both songs were written by Jun Maeda, and arranged by Kazuya Takase of I've Sound. The five heroines have leitmotifs. Ayu's theme is "Hidamari no Machi" (日溜りの街, A Sunny City); Nayuki's theme is "Yuki no Shōjo" (雪の少女, Girl in the Snow); Makoto's theme is "The Fox and the Grapes"; Shiori's theme is "Egao no Mukōgawa ni" (笑顔の向こう側に, Beyond the Smile); lastly, Mai's theme is "Shōjo no Ori" (少女の檻, Girls' Prison).
The first music album released was Anemoscope which came bundled with the original release of Kanon in June 1999. The next release was a single, "Last regrets/Place of wind which arrives", which contained the opening and ending themes plus arranged versions of three background music tracks and a male vocal version of the opening theme. A compilation album containing tracks from the two albums was released in December 2001 called Recollections. The game's original soundtrack was released in October 2002 containing 22 different tracks along with short versions of the two theme songs. A piano arrange album was released in December 2003 called Re-feel which contained five tracks from Kanon and five from Air. Excluding the first two albums, each of the albums released for the visual novel version were released on Key's record label Key Sounds Label; this is due to the first two albums being released before the label was formed.
The first anime's first original soundtrack was released in May 2002, and a second followed in July 2002. The first anime's opening theme is "Florescence" and the ending theme is "Flower", both sung by Miho Fujiwara; the maxi single containing the anime's opening and ending themes was released in June 2002. An album containing music box arranged tracks of music from the first anime was released in July 2003 called Orgel de Kiku Sakuhin Shū. The albums released for the first anime were produced by Frontier Works and Movic. A single was released in commemoration for the second anime called "Last regrets/Kaze no Tadoritsuku Basho" which contained the game's original opening and ending themes in original, short, and remixed versions; the album was produced by Key Sounds Label.
## Reception and legacy
According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan, the original Kanon release for Windows achieved its highest rank at number two in the ranking. Three years later in June 2002, the original release ranked in again at 45, and then again at 46 the following two weeks. The original release also made the ranking after that at number 41 in early July 2002. The Kanon Standard Edition premiered at number 16 in the rankings. The Kanon Standard Edition remained on the top 50 list for the next two months, achieving the rankings of 47 and 35. The all ages version of the Kanon Standard Edition premiered at number 42 on the national ranking, went up to 35 the next month, and did not appear on the rankings after that. The Dreamcast port sold 42,379 units in the first week and was the fourth top selling console game in Japan for that week. Kanon has sold over 300,000 units across several platforms, not counting the PSP release.
Five days before the first PS2 release for Kanon, a PS2 printer called Tapis MPR-505 went on sale which enabled the user to print out game screens. Kanon was one of the three games supported at launch, the other two being America Ōden Ultra Quiz from DigiCube and Marle de Jigsaw from Nippon Ichi Software. The first PS2 release in 2002 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu where the game received an overall score of 29/40 (out of the four individual review scores of 7, 8, 7, and 7). Yūichi Suzumoto commented in an interview in March 2001 that he felt the end of Kanons story could be summed up as "the prince and princess live happily ever after. The end," resulting in an ending that does not expand on what could possibly happen afterwards. In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine, poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released. Out of 249 titles, Kanon ranked fifth with 71 votes.
Characters from Kanon have appeared in several dōjin games not directly based on the Kanon series such as the Eternal Fighter Zero game by Twilight Frontier where most of the playable characters either came from Kanon or from One: Kagayaku Kisetsu e. The dōjin game Glove on Fight featured at least two Kanon characters: Ayu Tsukimiya and Akiko Minase in a fighting style game along with various other characters taken from other media. The character Ayu Tsukimiya in particular is known to appear in works outside Kanon, such as in strip 67 of the webcomic Megatokyo where Ayu is shown eating taiyaki.
The second Kanon anime series was reviewed at Anime News Network where Theron Martin commented how the series is a "formulaic moe haremfest", and how the moe aspects of the series may make viewers "feel like they're drowning in a vat of gooey cuteness". The series is described as being similar to the anime television adaptation of Air, saying "Like Air, the first four episodes can be simply summarized as 'male lead arrives in town and kills time interacting with cute girls.' Unlike Air, however, these interactions can occasionally be very funny." Martin also compares Kanon to the anime adaptation of Shuffle! which is described as "bombing" where Kanon "works". The reviewer chalks this up to the characters "endear[ing] themselves to the viewer...far better than what Shuffle!'s do." Martin cites the transition between humor and serious content as a defining feature of the series. However, Martin comments how one of the series' flaws is how it "overplays the mundane cutesiness and moe cards at times" causing little to happen with the plot. Yuichi is described as being "too erratic to be fully credible" or easily believable. Despite the series' drawbacks, Martin still describes the series as "one of the best moe-centric series to date" and lauds Kyoto Animation's production values making Kanon "one of the prettiest-looking anime series of the past year". Martin adds another series comparison, citing Kanon as the "polar opposite of Gurren Lagann''", which deals primarily in its action-oriented content. |
1,104,899 | HMS Zubian | 1,134,999,470 | 1917 destroyer from Britain | [
"1917 ships",
"Royal Navy ship names",
"Ships built in Chatham",
"Tribal-class destroyers (1905)",
"World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom"
]
| HMS Zubian was a First World War Royal Navy Tribal-class destroyer constructed from the forward end of HMS Zulu and the rear and mid sections of HMS Nubian. These two destroyers had been badly damaged in late 1916, and rather than scrapping both hulls at the height of World War I, the Admiralty ordered that they be rebuilt as the composite Zubian and put back into service. She was commissioned into the fleet in June 1917. The name Zubian is a portmanteau of the names of the original ships.
Zubian saw extensive service in the final two years of the war as part of the Dover Patrol. She sank the German U-boat UC-50 in February 1918, while she was on patrol in the English Channel. In late April, she participated in the First Ostend Raid as an escort for the bombardment force. After the war, Zubian was sold for scrap and broken up by December 1919.
## Design
Zubian was 85.4 metres (280 ft) long overall, with a beam of 8.2 m (27 ft) and a draught of 3 m (9.8 ft). She displaced 1,040 long tons (1,060 t). The ship's propulsion system consisted of three Parsons steam turbines, which were powered by six oil-fired Thornycroft boilers. These provided 14,000 shaft horsepower (10,000 kW) and a top speed of 33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph). She was armed with two QF 4-inch Mk V guns and two 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes. One gun was mounted on the forecastle and the other on the stern, with the two torpedo tubes amidships. Her crew numbered 68 officers and ratings.
## Service history
In late 1916, two British destroyers of the 6th Flotilla in the Dover Patrol—Nubian and Zulu—were badly damaged by German attacks in the English Channel. Nubian's bow had been destroyed by a torpedo from a German torpedo boat on 27 October in the Battle of Dover Strait, while Zulu had her stern blown off by a mine in the Channel on 8 November, and was towed to Calais. Both wrecks were then towed to Chatham Dockyard, where a complete destroyer was constructed by joining the foreparts of Zulu with the stern of Nubian, and despite a 3.5 inches (89 mm) difference in beam, the unique operation was successful. The ship was renamed Zubian by Admiral Reginald Bacon, the commander of the Dover Patrol. The hybrid destroyer was commissioned on 7 June 1917. The choice of name caused confusion among the German Imperial Admiralty Staff, who knew of no such ship under construction.
Zubian joined the 6th Flotilla and served there until the end of the war. During this period, Zubian and the rest of the Flotilla rotated through nighttime patrols of the Dover Strait in groups of four, supported by flotilla leaders; these patrols were intended to catch German torpedo boats that were conducting night bombardments of Allied positions in the Channel. While in the Dover Strait on 4 February 1918, she encountered the mine-laying U-boat UC-50, which was surfaced about 400 yards (370 m) off Zubian's port bow with her radio antennae up. Zubian attempted to ram the submarine but the Germans managed to submerge. The destroyer then dropped depth charges over the submerged U-boat and a significant amount of oil and wreckage was observed thereafter. Zubian marked the location with a buoy and an hour later, the patrol vessel HMS P12 dropped additional depth charges there. Trawlers later located an object that divers confirmed was UC-50.
Zubian also participated in the First Ostend Raid two months later on the night of 23–24 April. The attack was intended to close the German-held ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge, which were being used as bases for the U-boats. Zubian was assigned to the bombardment force, and along with the destroyers Mentor and Lightfoot, provided the close escort for a group of six monitors. The bombardment unit was covered by the Harwich Force in the Channel. The bombardment force was tasked with suppressing the German coastal defences, while a pair of old cruisers attempted to steam into the harbour entrances, where they would be sunk as blockships. The effort failed when both cruisers ran aground far outside of the harbour.
Worn out by heavy wartime use, Zubian was sold in the immediate post-war draw down and broken up for scrap by December 1919. |
48,354,745 | Davis v. Ayala | 1,168,702,209 | null | [
"2015 in United States case law",
"Batson challenge case law",
"Capital punishment in California",
"History of San Diego",
"United States Supreme Court cases",
"United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court",
"United States death penalty case law"
]
| Davis v. Ayala, 576 U.S. 257 (2015), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States upheld a death sentence of a Hispanic defendant despite the fact that all Blacks and Hispanics were rejected from the jury during the defendant's trial. The case involved a habeas corpus petition submitted by Hector Ayala, who was arrested and tried in the late 1980s for the alleged murder of three individuals during an attempted robbery of an automobile body shop in San Diego, California in April 1985. At trial, the prosecution used peremptory challenges to strike all Black and Hispanic jurors who were available for jury service. The trial court judge allowed the prosecution to explain the basis for the peremptory challenges outside the presence of Ayala's counsel, "so as not to disclose trial strategy". Ayala was ultimately sentenced to death, but he filed several appeals challenging the constitutionality of the trial court's decision to exclude his counsel from the hearings.
In a 5–4 opinion written by Justice Samuel Alito, the Supreme Court held that even if the trial court committed error, the error was harmless and that Ayala did not suffer any actual prejudice. Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote a dissenting opinion in which she argued that Ayala's sentence should be reversed because the exclusion of Ayala's counsel from the hearings "substantially influenced the outcome" of the case. Additionally, Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he questioned the propriety of Ayala's placement in solitary confinement. In response, Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a one-paragraph concurring opinion in which he stated that Ayala's accommodations were "far sight more spacious than those in which his victims ... now rest".
Commentators have described the case as "important" and note that will likely have a "significant effect" on similar cases in the future. However, some analysts have described the outcome as "particularly unjust". Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion also received significant coverage from the media, and some analysts suggested that solitary confinement may become a "new battleground" for Justice Kennedy. One commentator described Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion as "the single most surprising and heartening development of the term".
## Legal Background
### Batson challenges
In Batson v. Kentucky, the Supreme Court of the United States held that a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution occurs when prosecutors use peremptory challenges to exclude jurors on the basis of race. If a defendant alleges that a prosecutor challenged a prospective juror on the basis of that juror's race (a process known as a "Batson challenge"), trial courts will conduct a three-part analysis of the peremptory challenge in question: "[f]irst, a defendant must make a prima facie showing that a peremptory challenge has been exercised on the basis of race; second, if that showing has been made, the prosecution must offer a race-neutral basis for striking the juror in question; and third, in light of the parties’ submissions, the trial court must determine whether the defendant has shown purposeful discrimination." A court will only sustain a Batson challenge if all three elements of this test are satisfied. On appeal, a trial court's findings with respect to a Batson challenge will only be reversed if a trial court judge committed clear error. Additionally, the Supreme Court of the United States has held that findings with respect to a prosecutor's explanation of the reasons for their use of peremptory challenges is "entitled to 'great deference'".
### The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus under federal law
When individuals are convicted for crimes under state law, those individuals have the right to challenge the constitutionality of their convictions in federal court by petitioning for a writ of habeas corpus. This right was codified by the Habeas Corpus Act of 1867, and in 1953, the United States Supreme Court held that even when a state court rules against a prisoner, that individual still has the right to seek de novo review of their constitutional claims in federal court. However, in the wake of the Oklahoma City bombing, congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act ("AEDPA") in 1996 to modify federal habeas corpus procedures. Under the AEDPA's new standards, when a prisoner's claim has been adjudicated in state court, that individual's petition for habeas corpus shall not be granted unless the state court decision "was contrary to, or involved an unreasonable application of, clearly established Federal law, as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States". In 2007, the United States Supreme Court held that, as a "precondition" for relief under the AEDPA, habeas petitioners must demonstrate evidence that a state court's error resulted in "actual prejudice".
### Federal harmless error doctrine
The Supreme Court of the United States has identified a narrow range of errors that require automatic reversal; for all other errors, the decision of a lower court will be upheld if the error was harmless. In 1967, the Supreme Court ruled in Chapman v. California that a constitutional error will only be considered harmless when the court is "able to declare a belief that it was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt". Additionally, when reviewing federal habeas corpus petitions, a petitioner must demonstrate that an error "had substantial and injurious effect or influence in determining the jury's verdict". The Supreme Court has also ruled that when reviewing a determination of harmlessness under Chapman, the AEDPA mandates that the reviewing court may not grant a petition for habeas corpus "unless the harmlessness determination itself was unreasonable". According to the Supreme Court, the rationale underlying this doctrine is the public policy concern that states courts should not be forced to undertake the "arduous task" of retrying criminal defendants "based on mere speculation that the defendant was prejudiced by trial error".
## Arrest and Trial of Hector Ayala
Hector Ayala was charged with three counts of murder that allegedly occurred during an attempted robbery of an automobile body shop in San Diego, California in April 1985. During jury selection, the prosecution used peremptory challenges to strike all Black and Hispanic jurors who were available for jury service. Ayala, who was of Hispanic descent, filed a series of Batson challenges to contest the prosecution's use of peremptory challenges. The trial judge permitted the prosecution to explain the basis of their peremptory challenges in a closed hearing, outside the presence of Ayala's counsel, "so as not to disclose trial strategy". The trial court ultimately concluded that the peremptory challenges were based on race-neutral criteria, and Ayala was convicted of the three counts of murder in August 1989. The jury returned a sentence of death for the three murder convictions, and the trial judge entered a judgment consistent with the jury's sentence. On direct appeal, the California Supreme Court upheld Ayala's conviction and sentence, noting that even if the trial judge committed an error when considering the defense's Batson challenges, that error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt. Ayala subsequently filed a petition for habeas corpus, which was denied by a district court judge in 2006. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit granted Ayala's habeas petition in 2013, holding that Ayala was denied due process at trial and that the trial court's error was not harmless. In 2014, the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari to review the Ninth Circuit's ruling.
## Opinion of the Court
In his majority opinion, Justice Samuel Alito held that the exclusion of Ayala's counsel during the Batson hearings was harmless error. Justice Alito emphasized that under federal law, prisoners are not entitled to habeas relief unless they can demonstrate "actual prejudice". Additionally, Justice Alito noted that under the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, federal courts should be "highly deferential" to state courts "when a prisoner's 'claim' has been 'adjudicated on the merits' in state court". Applying these standards to the facts of this case, Justice Alito ruled that Ayala did not suffer any actual prejudice and that the California Supreme Court's opinion "represented an entirely reasonable application of controlling precedent". Consequently, Justice Alito held that the Ninth Circuit's ruling should be reversed and that the case should be remanded for reconsideration in light of the Supreme Court's decision.
### Concurring opinions
Although he noted that his support for the majority's opinion was "unqualified", Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he questioned the propriety of solitary confinement. Justice Kennedy observed that since 1989, Ayala had spent more than twenty five years in solitary confinement. Although the conditions of Ayala's confinement were not established in the record, Justice Kennedy wrote that "it is likely [he] has been held for all or most of the past 20 years or more in a windowless cell no larger than a typical parking spot for 23 hours a day; and in the one hour when he leaves it, he likely is allowed little or no opportunity for conversation or interaction with anyone". Justice Kennedy wrote that "[t]he human toll wrought by extended terms of isolation long has been understood, and questioned, by writers and commentators" and that solitary confinement "bears a further terror and peculiar mark of infamy". Justice Kennedy conceded that "in some instances temporary, solitary confinement is a useful or necessary means to impose discipline and to protect prison employees and other inmates", but that courts should ultimately determine "whether workable alternative systems for long-term confinement exist, and, if so, whether a correctional system should be required to adopt them".
Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a separate, one-paragraph concurring opinion to respond to Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion. He wrote that the "accommodations in which Ayala is housed are a far sight more spacious than those in which his victims, Ernesto Dominguez Mendez, Marcos Antonio Zamora, and Jose Luis Rositas, now rest". Justice Thomas also noted that because Ayala's victims were all 31 years of age or younger, "Ayala will soon have had as much or more time to enjoy those accommodations as his victims had time to enjoy this Earth".
### Justice Sotomayor's dissenting opinion
Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote a dissenting opinion in which she was joined by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Justice Stephen Breyer, and Justice Elena Kagan. Justice Sotomayor argued that the exclusion of Ayala's counsel from the Batson hearings "substantially influenced the outcome" of the case and that "grave doubt exists as to whether [the exclusion] was harmless". She critiqued Justice Alito's methodological approach, arguing that "[t]he proper inquiry is not whether the trial court’s determination can be sustained, but whether it may have been different had counsel been present". Considering the evidence presented in this case, Justice Sotomayor concluded that there "is neither a factual nor a legal basis for the Court’s confidence" that the prosecution's use of peremptory challenges was race neutral. She argued that in light of "the strength of Ayala’s prima facie case", the Court should have upheld the Ninth Circuit's ruling.
## Commentary and analysis
Following the release of the Court's opinion, commentators described Davis v. Ayala as "an important case raising claims about jury selection and harmless error". Steve Vladeck wrote that "[g]oing forward, the dispute between the majority and dissent will have an especially significant effect on cases in which trial courts conduct Batson proceedings ex parte". Hadar Aviram wrote that "[t]he Court was willing to accept, as a basic premise, that Ayala's constitutional rights were violated; but that is not enough to merit a reversal". In his review of the case for The New Yorker, Lincoln Caplan described the Court's opinion as "particularly unjust" because the Court "had the opportunity to hold a state prosecutor to account for using trumped-up reasons to justify racial discrimination in a jury selection" but failed to do so.
### Commentary about Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion
Much of the initial commentary about the case focused on Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, David G. Savage described Justice Kennedy's opinion as "unusual" and "a rare instance of a Supreme Court justice virtually inviting a constitutional challenge to a prison policy". Marty Lederman described Justice Kennedy's concurring opinion as "the single most surprising and heartening development of the term". Matt Ford wrote that "Kennedy’s critique of solitary confinement in Davis came without warning or fanfare" and that "[s]olitary confinement is a new battleground for the Court’s second-longest serving justice, but not a surprising one".
Although he suggested Justice Kennedy's concurrence may be "more consequential" than Justice Harry Blackmun's dissent in Callins v. Collins, Mark Joseph Stern described Justice Kennedy's concurrence as "myopic", noting that "large chunks of the 'legal academy' in the 'public' were aware—and outraged—by the practice long before Kennedy condemned it". Dahlia Lithwick wrote that even though "Kennedy may not come around on the death penalty" and rule it unconstitutional, "after reading his own words in Ayala—he probably should". In an interview with Harvard Law School dean Martha Minow, Justice Kennedy explained that when he was in the Army, he was locked in a cell for four hours and "slightly tortured". Justice Kennedy remarked that "[a]fter four hours in a cell, I was going mad. These people are in, some for 40 years. It drives people mad and we don’t even think about it. We’ve got to do something about it".
## See also
- List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 576
- List of United States Supreme Court cases
- Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
- List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court |
5,501,025 | Diaphoneme | 1,129,413,660 | Concept in dialectology analyzing phonemes across dialects of a language | [
"Dialectology",
"Linguistics terminology",
"Phonology"
]
| A diaphoneme is an abstract phonological unit that identifies a correspondence between related sounds of two or more varieties of a language or language cluster. For example, some English varieties contrast the vowel of late () with that of wait or eight (). Other English varieties contrast the vowel of late or wait () with that of eight (). This non-overlapping pair of phonemes from two different varieties can be reconciled by positing three different diaphonemes: A first diaphoneme for words like late (), a second diaphoneme for words like wait (), and a third diaphoneme for words like eight ().
Diaphonology studies the realization of diaphones across dialects, and is important if an orthography is to be adequate for more than one dialect of a language. In historical linguistics, it is concerned with the reflexes of an ancestral phoneme as a language splits into dialects, such as the modern realizations of Old English .
The concept goes back to the 1930s. The word diaphone was originally used with the same meaning as diaphoneme, but was later repurposed to refer to any of the particular variants, making the relationship between diaphoneme and diaphone analogous to that between phoneme and allophone.
## Usage
The term diaphone first appeared in usage by phoneticians like Daniel Jones and Harold E. Palmer. Jones, who was more interested in transcription and coping with dialectal variation than with how cognitively real the phenomenon is, originally used diaphone to refer to the family of sounds that are realized differently depending on dialect but that speakers consider to be the same; an individual dialect or speaker's realization of this diaphone was called a diaphonic variant. Because of confusion related to usage, Jones later coined the term diaphoneme to refer to his earlier sense of diaphone (the class of sounds) and used diaphone to refer to the variants.
A diaphonemic inventory is a specific diasystem (a term popularized by Uriel Weinreich) that superimposes dialectal contrasts to access all contrasts in all dialects that are included. This consists of a shared core inventory and, when accounting for contrasts not made by all dialects (whether they are historical contrasts that have been lost or innovative ones not made in all varieties ), only as many contrasts as are needed. The diaphonemic approach gets away from the assumption that linguistic communities are homogeneous, allows multiple varieties to be described in the same terms (something important for situations where people have abilities in more than one variety), and helps in ascertaining where speakers make diaphonic identifications as a result of similarities and differences between the varieties involved.
The linguistic variable, a similar concept presented by William Labov, refers to features with variations that are referentially identical but carry social and stylistic meaning. This could include phonological, as well as morphological and syntactic phenomena. Labov also developed variable rules analysis, with variable rules being those that all members of a speech community (presumably) possess but vary in the frequency of use. The latter concept met resistance from scholars for a number of reasons including the argument from critics that knowledge of rule probabilities was too far from speakers' competence. Because of these problems, use of variable rules analysis died down by the end of the 1980s. Nevertheless, the linguistic variable is still used in sociolinguistics. For Labov, grouping variants together was justified by their tendency to fluctuate between each other within the same set of words. For example, Labov presented the variants (among New York speakers) of the vowel of bad or dance:
The different phonetic values were assigned numerical values that were then used in an overall score index.
Overdifferentiation is when phonemic distinctions from one's primary language are imposed on the sounds of the second system where they are not required; underdifferentiation of phonemes occurs when two sounds of the second system are not maintained because they are not present in the primary system.
## Dialectology
Inspired by , Uriel Weinreich first advocated the use of diasystems in structural dialectology, and suggested that such a system would represent a higher level of abstraction that can unite related dialects into a single description and transcription. While phonemic systems describe the speech of a single variety, diaphonemic systems can reflect the contrasts that aren't made by all varieties being represented. The way these differ can be shown in the name New York. This word may be transcribed phonemically as in American English, as many varieties thereof do not allow the cluster as a syllable onset; in Received Pronunciation, syllable-final doesn't occur so this name would be transcribed to reflect that pronunciation. A diaphonemic transcription such as (with both the and the ) would thus cover both dialects. Neither is described exactly, but both are derivable from the diaphonemic transcription.
The desire of building a diasystem to accommodate all English dialects, combined with a blossoming generative phonology, prompted American dialectologists to attempt the construction of an "overall system" of English phonology by analyzing dialectal distinctions as differences in the ordering of phonological rules as well as in the presence or absence of such rules. even went so far as to claim that principled description of interdialectal code-switching would be impossible without such rules.
An example of this concept is presented in with a phonological difference between Castilian and Uruguayan Spanish:
Without the use of ordered rules, Uruguayan Spanish could be interpreted as having two additional phonemes and morphophonemic vowel alternation with its plural marker. Attempting to construct a diasystem that encodes such a variety would thus represent all Spanish varieties as having seven vowel phonemes (with contrasts only in final position). Due to both varieties having closed allophones of mid vowels in open syllables and open allophones in closed syllables, using ordered rules minimizes the differences so that the underlying form for both varieties is the same and Uruguayan Spanish simply has a subsequent rule that deletes at the end of a syllable; constructing a diaphonemic system thus becomes a relatively straightforward process. suggests that the rules needed to account for dialectal differences, even if not psychologically real, may be historically accurate.
The nature of an overall system for English was controversial: the analysis in was popular amongst American linguists for a time (in the face of criticism, particularly from Hans Kurath); James Sledd put forth his own diaphonemic system that accommodated Southern American English; both and modified the scheme of The Sound Pattern of English by focusing on the diaphoneme, believing that it could address neutralizations better than structuralist approaches; and The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States (PEAS) by Kurath and McDavid combined several dialects into one system transcribed in the IPA. More recently, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language makes use of a diaphonemic transcription of Standard English so that examples can be expressed concisely without favoring any particular accent.
`argued that fell short in accurately representing dialects because their methodology involved attempting to create a diasystem before establishing the relevant component phonemic systems. argues a similar problem occurs in the study of Hopi where transfer of training leads phoneticians to fit features of a dialect under study into the system of dialects already studied.`
Beginning with linguists attempting to account for dialectal differences have generally distinguished between three types:
- Phonological: the phonemic inventories and phonotactic restrictions
- Phonetic: how a given phoneme is realized phonetically (RP and Australian English, for example, have almost the same exact phoneme system but with notably different realizations of the vowels). This distinction covers differences in the range of allophonic variation.
- Incidence: one phoneme rather than another occurs in a given word or group of words (such as grass, which has the same vowel of farce in RP but not in GA.)
Wells expanded on this by splitting up the phonological category into "systemic" differences (those of inventory) and "structural" differences (those of phonotactics).
In addition, both Wells and Weinreich mention realizational overlap, wherein the same phone (or a nearly identical one) corresponds to different phonemes, depending on accent. Some examples:
- Autistic in Canadian English overlaps with the way speakers of Received Pronunciation say artistic:
- Impossible in General American overlaps with RP impassable:
`notes a similar phenomenon in Western Pennsylvania, where occurs either as the vowel of ashes or as the vowel of tiger but no speaker merges the two vowels (i.e. a speaker who says will not say ).`
Realizational overlap occurs between the three dialects of Huastec, which have the same phonological system even though cognate words often do not have the same reflexes of this system. For example, while the Central and Potosino dialects both have ch and ts-type sounds, the words they are found in are reversed:
Yuen Ren Chao created a diaphonemic transcription of major Chinese varieties, in both Latin and Chinese character versions, called "General Chinese". It originally (1927) covered the various Wu dialects, but by 1983 had expanded to cover the major dialects of Mandarin, Yue, Hakka, and Min as well. Apart from a few irregularities, GC can be read equally well in any of those dialects, and several others besides.
Qur'anic Arabic uses a diaphonemic writing system that indicates both the pronunciation in Mecca, the western dialect the Qur'an was written in, and that of eastern Arabia, the prestige dialect of pre-Islamic poetry. For example, final was pronounced something like in Mecca, and written ي , while it had merged with in eastern Arabia and was written as ا . In order to accommodate both pronunciations, the basic letter of Meccan Arabic was used, but the diacritic was dropped: ى. Similarly, the glottal stop had been lost in Meccan Arabic in all positions but initially, so the Meccan letters were retained with the eastern glottal stop indicated with a diacritic hamza.
## Bilingualism
Einar Haugen expanded the diaphonic approach to the study of bilingualism, believing diaphones represented the process of interlingual identification wherein sounds from different languages are perceptually linked into a single category. Because interlingual identifications may happen between unrelated varieties, it is possible to construct a diasystem for many different language contact situations, with the appropriateness of such a construction depending on its purpose and its simplicity depending on how isomorphic the phonology of the systems are. For example, the Spanish of Los Ojos (a small village in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico) and the local variety of Southwestern English are fairly isomorphic with each other so a diaphonic approach for such a language contact situation would be relatively straightforward. makes use of a diaphonic approach in discussing the phonology of the pidgin English used by Japanese immigrants on Hawaiian plantations.
Both Haugen and Weinreich considered the use of phonemes beyond a single language to be inappropriate when phonemic systems between languages were incommensurable with each other. Similarly, , argues that phonemic representations may lead to confusion when dealing with phonological interference and remarks that narrow phonetic transcription can be cumbersome, especially when discussing other grammatical features like syntax and morphology. Allophones, which phonemic systems don't account for, may be important in the process of interference and interlingual identifications.
### Borrowing
Similarly, the term diaphone can be used in discussions of cognates that occur in different languages due to borrowing. Specifically, used the term to refer to phonemes that are equated by speakers cross-linguistically because of similarities in shape and/or distribution. For example, loanwords in Huave having "diaphonic identification" with Spanish include àsét ('oil', from Spanish aceite) and kàwíy ('horse', from Spanish caballo). This perception of sameness with native phonology means that speakers of the borrower language (in this case, Huave) will hear new features from the loaner language (in this case, Spanish) as equivalent to features of their own and substitute in their own when reproducing them. In these interlanguage transfers, when phonemes or phonotactic constraints are too different, more extreme compromises may occur; for example, the English phrase Merry Christmas, when borrowed into Hawaiian, becomes mele kalikimaka.
## Pidgins and creoles
The process of diaphonic identification occurs when pidgins are fashioned; although lexical and morphosyntactic patterns are shared, speakers often use the phonological systems of their native language, meaning they must learn to recognize such diaphonic correspondences in the speech of others to facilitate the mutual intelligibility of a working pidgin. proposes that rule differences can be used to determine the distance a particular utterance has between a post-creole continuum's acrolectal and basolectal forms. points out that mesolectal varieties often have features not derivable from such rules.
## Cognitive reality
The status of panlectal and polylectal grammars has been subject to debate amongst generative phonologists since the 1970s; one of the foremost areas of contention in regards to diaphonemes and diasystems is whether they reflect the actual linguistic competence of speakers. William Labov, although warm to the construction of a panlectal grammar, argued that it should be based in speakers' linguistic competence. Peter Trudgill argues against the formation of diasystems that are not cognitively real and implies that polylectal grammars that are not part of native speakers' competence are illegitimate. Similarly, cautions that polylectal grammars are only appropriate when they "result in claims about speaker-hearer's capabilities..."
Although no linguists claim that panlectal grammars have psychological validity, and polylectal diasystems are much more likely to be cognitively real for bilingual and bidialectal speakers, speakers of only one dialect or language may still be aware of the differences between their own speech and that of other varieties. Take, for example, the word house, which is pronounced:
- in Buffalo
- in Toronto and Washington, D.C.
- in Philadelphia
- in Charlottesville.
Native speakers are able to calibrate the differences and interpret them as being the same. A similar issue occurs in Chinese. When a "general word," is shared across multiple mutually unintelligible dialects, it is regarded as the same word even though it is pronounced differently depending on a speaker's region. Thus a speaker from Beijing and Nanking may pronounce 遍 ('throughout') differently, ( and , respectively), though they still regard the differences as minor and due to unimportant accentual differences. Because speakers aren't normally able to hear distinctions not made in their own dialect (for example, a speaker from the Southern United States who does not distinguish between pin and pen won't hear the distinction when it's produced by speakers of other dialects), speakers who can hear such a contrast but don't produce it may still possess the contrast as part of their linguistic repertoire.
In discussing contextual cues to vowel identifications in English, note that controlling for dialect is largely unimportant for eliciting identifications when vowels are placed between consonants, possibly because the /CVC/ structure often forms lexical items that can aid in identification; identifying vowels in isolation, which don't often carry such lexical information, must be matched to the listener's set of vowel prototypes with less deviation than in consonantal contexts. In the first chapter of , Peter Trudgill makes the case that these semantic contexts form the basis of intelligibility across varieties and that the process is irregular and ad hoc rather than the result of any sort of rule-governed passive polylectal competence.
`argues that a child's language acquisition process includes developing the ability to accommodate for the different varieties they are exposed to (including ones they would not actually employ) and the social significance of their use. point out that there may be critical periods for this similar to those for language learning. This competence in multiple varieties is arguably the primary vehicle of linguistic change.`
John Wells argues that going past the common core creates difficulties that add greater complexity and falsely assume a shared underlying form in all accents:
> "Only by making the diaphonemic representation a rather remote, underlying form, linked to actual surface representations in given accents by a long chain of rules–only in this way could we resolve the obvious difficulties of the taxonomic diaphoneme."
Wells gives the example of straight, late and wait, which rhyme in most English varieties but, because some dialects make phonemic contrasts with the vowels of these words (specifically, in parts of the north of England), a panlectal transcription would have to encode this contrast despite it being absent for most speakers, making such a system "a linguist's construct" and not part of the grammar present in any native speaker's mind (which is what adherents of such a system attempt to achieve).
`argues that such constructs are appropriate but only when they are removed before the final formulation of grammatical analysis. Wells puts even more weight on the phonotactic difference between rhotic and non-rhotic accents—the former have an underlying in words like derby and star while the latter, arguably, do not—and to the unstressed vowel of happy, which aligns phonetically with the vowel of KIT in some varieties and that of FLEECE in others.`
Hans Kurath, particularly prominent in comparative analysis of British and American regional features, makes the case that the systematic features of British and American English largely agree but for a handful of divergences, for example:
- postvocalic
- ingliding and upgliding varieties of
- New England short
- coalescence of and
- variation of and in a few lexical items
- the vowel of poor, door, and sure
- variations in and
Despite downplaying the divergences, Kurath argued that there is no "total pattern" (a term from ) that can be imposed on all English dialects, nor of even American ones:
> "The linguist must analyze the system of each dialect separately before he can know what systematic features are shared by all dialects, or by groups of dialects. He must distinguish between the systematic features and sporadic unsystematized features of each dialect, since every dialect has elements that are not built into the system. To regard unsystematized features as part of a 'system' and to impose an 'over-all pattern' are spurious notions that must be rejected.
The description of a cognitively real polylectal grammar came with 's set of rules for the speech of Norwich that, presumably, could generate any possible output for a specific population of speakers and was psychologically real for such speakers such that native residents who normally exhibited sound mergers (e.g. between the vowels of days and daze) could accurately and consistently make the distinction if called upon to imitate older Norwich speakers.
`argues that comprehension across varieties, when it is found, isn't sufficient enough evidence for the claim that polylectal grammars are part of speakers' linguistic competence. argues that an extrapolated panlectal (or even broadly polylectal) grammar from "idiosyncratic" grammars, such as those found in , would still not be part of speakers' linguistic competence; argues that attempting a polylectal grammar that encodes for a large number of dialects becomes too bizarre and that the traditional reconstructed proto-language is more appropriate for the stated benefits of polylectal grammars. , notable for advocating the construction of polylectal grammars, says that the generative rules of such grammars should be panlectal in the sense that they are potentially learned in the acquisition process, though no speaker should be expected to learn all of them.`
Although question remains to their psychological reality, the usefulness of diaphonemes is shown in with the loss of the front rounded vowel phoneme in Greek words like ξύλο and κοιλιά; this vowel merged with in most words and in the rest, though the distribution varies with dialect. A diasystem would thus have to present an additional underlying diaphoneme with generative rules that account for the dialectal distribution. Similarly, the diaphonemic system in goes beyond the common core, marking contrasts that only appear in some varieties; Geraghty argues that, because of Fijian marriage customs that prompt exposure to other dialects, speakers may possess a diasystem that represents multiple dialects as part of their communicative competence.
## Representation
There are a number of ways diaphones are represented in literature. One way is through the IPA, this can be done with slashes, as if they are phonemes, or with other types of brackets:
- double slashes:
- exclamation points:
- vertical bars:
- curved brackets: }
The concept does not necessitate the formation of a transcription system. Diaphones can instead be represented with double slashes. This is the case, for example in and where diaphonemes are represented with bracketing:
$\bigg/ \bigg/ \frac{RP, GA \qquad \mathrm{k}}{SSE, KA \qquad \mathrm{k}~vs. \mathrm{x}} \bigg/ \bigg/$
In this scheme, Scottish Standard English and the accent of Kirkwall are shown to make a phonemic contrast between and while RP and GA are shown to possess only the former so that lock and loch are pronounced differently in the former group and identically in the latter.
Diaphonemic systems don't necessarily even have to utilize the IPA. Diaphones are useful in constructing a writing system that accommodates multiple dialects with different phonologies. Even in dialectology, diaphonemic transcriptions may instead be based on the language's orthography, as is the case with Lee Pederson's Automated Book Code designed for information from the Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States. and the diaphonemic transcription system used by Paul Geraghty for related Fijian languages uses a modified Roman script.
## See also
- Comparative method
- Diasystem
- Ernst Pulgram
- International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects
- Lexical set
- Morphophonology
- Phonological history of English vowels
- Robert A. Hall, Jr. |
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