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7,622,139 | Jo Harvelle | 1,165,924,113 | Fictional character in the TV series Supernatural | [
"Female characters in television",
"Female soldier and warrior characters in television",
"Fictional characters from Nebraska",
"Fictional characters who can turn invisible",
"Fictional characters with air or wind abilities",
"Fictional demon hunters",
"Fictional empaths",
"Fictional ghosts",
"Supernatural (American TV series) characters",
"Television characters introduced in 2006"
]
| Joanna Beth Harvelle is a fictional character on The CW Television Network's drama/horror television series Supernatural portrayed by Alona Tal. Aspiring to be a hunter of supernatural creatures like her parents, she was introduced in the second season in order to explore a mother-daughter relationship in the hunting world. She was ultimately removed from the series by the end of the second season—Kripke admitted the conception of the character was flawed from the beginning—but returned in the fifth and seventh seasons.
## Plot
Jo first meets Sam and Dean Winchester in the second season episode "Everybody Loves a Clown". The brothers look for her mother Ellen at Harvelle's Roadhouse—a saloon frequented by hunters of supernatural creatures—after she leaves a voice mail message on the phone of their deceased father, John Winchester. Throughout the second season, Jo appears to have romantic feelings for Dean, but Dean does not have feelings for her, it seems to him that she is like a sister to him.
` Wanting to be a hunter like her late father, Bill, to feel connected to him, Jo slips away from the Roadhouse against her mother's wishes to help the brothers on a hunt in "No Exit", but they ultimately have to rescue her from a vengeful spirit. An angry Ellen reveals to her that John's recklessness caused Bill's death, which strains Jo's friendship with Sam and Dean. Jo soon leaves the Roadhouse to live the life of a hunter. When the demon that once possessed Meg Masters possesses Sam in "Born Under a Bad Sign", it finds and captures Jo, planning to threaten her life to force Dean to kill his brother. While holding Jo hostage, the demon plays cruel mind games with her by first telling her that Dean doesn't return her feelings for him and then by telling her that John actually killed Bill to "put him out of his misery" after he incurred fatal wounds, despite Bill's pleas to see his wife and daughter one more time. Dean rescues Jo without harming Sam, but when Jo attempts to join him in capturing the demon, he refuses to allow her to come; he tells Jo he will call her, but as he leaves, she mutters, "No, you won't."`
In the fifth season episode "Good God, Y'All!", Jo reappears with her mother Ellen in a small Colorado town called River Pass. They plan to help Rufus, a demon hunter and one of Bobby's friends, kill the demons that have laid siege to the town. However, Jo and Ellen are separated in the chaos. Jo later finds and joins up with Rufus and other townspeople. Eventually, they attack Sam and Ellen, both of them appearing to be possessed by demons. Jo joins in with Rufus to torture the supposed "demon" out of a captured Sam with holy water and salt, but becomes doubtful when no demonic effects are present on Sam. Dean and Ellen arrive and, after a brief struggle, convince Jo and Rufus that War, one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, is responsible for making all the townspeople turn against each other by thinking that both sides are demons. Jo and Ellen team up with the Winchesters again in "Abandon All Hope...", where they help the brothers reacquire the Colt — a mystical gun rumored to be capable of killing anything — in order to kill Lucifer. Upon tracking his location to an abandoned town, they are confronted by Meg, accompanied by a pack of hellhounds. The group of hunters flee, but Jo is injured when saving Dean from the hellhounds. Knowing that her wounds are fatal and that Lucifer must be stopped, Jo convinces the others to build a bomb and to use her as bait for a trap. Ellen stays behind and opens the front doors while the Winchesters escape onto the roof. After Jo dies in her arms, Ellen blows up the building, killing the hellhounds and herself in the process.
Jo is mentioned but not seen in the sixth season episode "My Heart Will Go On", in which she is temporarily restored to life as a result of the angel Balthazar saving the Titanic from its destined sinking. She makes an on-screen return in the seventh season episode "Defending Your Life" as a ghostly witness called by the Egyptian god Osiris when he is judging Dean's guilt. Jo's ghost instead testifies that Dean was not responsible for her fate. Osiris declares him guilty anyway and forces her to try to kill Dean, but she is able to take her leave in peace when Sam kills Osiris and thereby frees her from the god's control. Supernatural executive producer Robert Singer confirmed that the apparition was Jo's ghost and not an illusion created by Osiris.
## Characterization
Series creator Eric Kripke initially described Jo as an "innocent girl who wanted to be a hunter" and who tends to look before she leaps; she is also "enthusiastic" and very "girl-next-door" in her approach to hunting the supernatural. He later regretted writing Jo in this way, as he felt that it was the wrong characterization for a female character on Supernatural. However, Jo grows throughout the second season as she rebels against her mother by running away to be a hunter, which Kripke believed made her harder and tougher. Regarding her character's capture by a vengeful spirit in "No Exit", actress Alona Tal felt that Jo was a "badass" who handled the situation well. Tal commented, "She fought and risked her life and stayed there as bait. It took a lot of guts."
The actress noted that Jo matures during her hiatus between the second and fifth season. Having found out the hard way that "banter doesn't always work", she becomes quieter and "not as mouthy". The character "called the shots" in her final appearance, and was the "bigger person" by forcing everyone to accept the reality of the situation. After years of hunting together, the relationship between Jo and Ellen also develops; Tal came to view them more as equals rather than daughter and mother. Although Jo's feelings for Dean remain the same, Tal liked the fact that she does not easily give in to Dean's advances in "Abandon All Hope...". She believed that Jo resists her urge to "go crazy [with him]" due to the dire circumstances, which "gave it a little more meaning". When asked about the kiss that Dean gives to Jo when she is dying, Tal explained that she interpreted the kiss as Dean "really seeing [Jo] and thanking [her] and appreciating [her]. For him, at that particular moment, there was no other way to express it but with a kiss."
With the character now a spirit in her seventh season appearance, Tal felt that Jo's death brought her "clarity" and "a different level of comfortability". Noting that the afterlife is a "completely different world", the actress described Jo as "just relaxed and not angry". She confirmed that Jo doesn't hold Dean accountable for her death, pointing out that Jo had chosen to become a hunter because of her father, not because of Dean. However, series writer and co-executive producer Adam Glass felt that Dean still has "some real guilt" over Jo's death because the character feels that he "could have pushed [her] away from this life, not pulled [her] more into it."
## Development
Due to the father-son dynamics of the hunting world depicted in the series' first season with the Winchesters, the writers decided to explore a mother-daughter relationship. This resulted in the introduction of the character Jo Harvelle and her mother Ellen, though the Alex character was eventually renamed Jo. Tal had been a fan of the show, and decided to audition for the role. Since the character was not fully explored during her first few appearances on the show, Tal did not know what her personality would be. Because of the way Jo is introduced—threatening Dean with a rifle—Tal was under the impression that the character was an experienced hunter. With this in mind, she decided to portray her as "somewhat confident and cool" by making use of her experience in the Israeli army, where she served for two years. Tal commented, "When I was in the army I was holding my gun and feeling all dangerous and badass. It's an attitude, it's a different kind of walk, and the way you hold yourself, the way you look at things. I tried to put that in there because she didn't say much."
Kripke felt that she came across as more of a "girl-next-door" than the dangerous type of character Dean would be attracted to, like Sydney Bristow of Alias. Tal also noted the tension between Jo and Dean. Kripke admits that, even before Jo's debut, he had doubts about the way the character was conceived. Because of these factors, the character was eventually phased out of the second season altogether.
During the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con International, Kripke announced that Jo would return in the series' fifth season. The opportunity to return surprised Tal due to the character's negative fan reaction and the large time span since her previous appearance. She was later alerted about Jo's demise in "Abandon All Hope..." by director Phil Sgriccia. Though unhappy, Tal was "all for it" because she felt it benefited the show, and found it "grand" that Jo "went out in a blaze of glory". Jo was one of many deceased characters the writers considered to have appear in the alternate reality of the sixth season episode "My Heart Will Go On", but they ultimately settled on Ellen. Although executive producer Robert Singer stated that Jo would not be appearing in the sixth season, he noted that it was possible she could return in the next season.
Tal's return for the seventh season was announced at the 2011 Comic-Con. On the choice to bring Jo back for "Defending Your Life", writer and co-executive producer Adam Glass explained, "Knowing the history there, knowing the emotion that Dean would feel for her, we knew it'd be great. Jo's a favorite, too, so we wanted to see her back on the show." Tal was happy to return to the show, saying, "I didn't care that it took me over a season to come back. Just to be back at all was a blessing." Feeling that she herself had grown as a person since her appearance in the fifth season, Tal tried to mirror that in her performance. She noted, however, "Obviously, [Jo] died. So there’s been some issues." Singer called her work in the episode "terrific."
On the possibility of another return to the series in the future, Tal said, "Whenever it works out and they do want me back, I’m always game, and I’m always excited to go back there. It’s a fun place to go back to."
## Reception
Critical reception to Jo has been generally positive. Diana Steenbergen of IGN favored Jo from the beginning, deeming her "tough and direct, and also female, something the boys don't have a lot of in their lives right now". reappearance in the fifth season. However, Steenbergen was confused by Jo's anger at Sam and Dean over John Winchester's involvement in her father's death, feeling that the show's producers may have added it to the story as an excuse for Jo's removal from the series. While Tina Charles of TV Guide was at first unsure about the character, she wrote that by the episode "No Exit," "Tal did step things up and kinda won me over." She believed that while Jo did not make a good lascivious interest for Dean, she was good in a "sisterly or friendly fellow-ghostbuster way," deeming her as "someone they can count on in a pinch." Overall, Charles felt that Jo "fit into that world, whether she was a little overzealous or not."
On the other hand, Sean Elliott of IFMagazine disliked the "Scrappy-Doo qualities of the character". He compared Jo to Dawn Summers of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, feeling that she "is always trying to help and always gets in the way." Fan reaction to the character was generally negative as well. Ackles summed up the response as, "No, no, we just want this to be about the boys." Though Kripke believed that Tal was a "terrific actress" who "did valiantly and beautifully with the part [they] gave her," he felt that introducing her as a lascivious interest was a mistake and came to believe that women should only be introduced into the series as antagonists. The failure with Jo prompted the series writers to introduce Ruby the following season in an attempt to "course-correct". |
25,161,536 | Howard Knox Ramey | 1,122,814,651 | United States Army Air Forces general | [
"1896 births",
"1943 deaths",
"Air Corps Tactical School alumni",
"People from Waynesboro, Mississippi",
"Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)",
"Recipients of the Legion of Merit",
"United States Army Air Forces generals",
"United States Army Air Forces generals of World War II",
"United States Army Air Forces personnel killed in World War II",
"United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni",
"Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1943",
"Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Australia"
]
| Howard Knox Ramey (28 June 1896 – 26 March 1943) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II. Ramey learned to fly in 1918 during World War I and served as an instructor at the Air Corps Advanced Flying School and as a staff officer with the 1st Bombardment Wing between the wars. He was commander of the IV Bomber Command from 12 August 1942 to 8 November 1942, and was promoted to brigadier general on 17 September 1942. In November 1942, he became deputy commander of the Seventh Air Force in Hawaii. In January 1943 he became the commander of the V Bomber Command in Australia and Papua, which he led during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea. In March 1943 he disappeared on a reconnaissance flight over the Torres Strait. Neither his aircraft nor his body has ever been found.
## Early life
Howard Knox Ramey was born in Waynesboro, Mississippi on 28 June 1896. He attended Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College from 1915 to 1917. In December 1917 he enlisted as a private first class in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, in which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 20 April 1918.
## Between the wars
In July 1920, Ramey received a permanent commission as a first lieutenant in the United States Army Air Service. He attended the Air Service Photography School in 1921, and became commander of the 6th Photo Section at Camp Nichols in the Philippines from January to October 1925. He then served as intelligence officer there until he returned to the United States in February 1927. He commanded the 22nd Photo Section at Kelly Field, San Antonio, Texas from 1927 to 1928, and was an instructor at the Air Corps Advanced Flying School there from 1928 to 1931.
After more than ten years as a first lieutenant, Ramey was finally promoted to captain on 1 March 1932. On 26 March 1934, Ramey was one of 35 American World War I military pilots who founded the Order of the Daedalians, a fraternal order of military pilots.
He attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, Alabama, graduating in 1934, and then the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, graduating in 1936. Shortly afterwards, he was promoted to major on 16 June 1936. Ramey served as operations officer and assistant chief of staff for intelligence of the 1st Bombardment Wing at March Field, California from 1936 to 1941. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 30 December 1940.
## World War II
Ramey was deputy chief of staff for operations (G-3) of the Fourth Air Force from January to August 1942, with the rank of colonel from 5 January 1942. He was commander of the IV Bomber Command from 12 August 1942 to 8 November 1942, and was promoted to brigadier general on 17 September 1942. In November 1942, he became deputy commander of the Seventh Air Force.
Following the death of the commander of the V Bomber Command, Brigadier General Kenneth Walker, in an air raid over Rabaul in January 1943, the commander of the Fifth Air Force, Lieutenant General George Kenney asked Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold, the chief of Army Air Forces to send Ramey to Australia as a replacement. The two men had known each other for years and Ramey had recently been on Kenney's staff when Kenney was commander of the Fourth Air Force. "I had a lot of confidence in him," Kenney later wrote, "and believed he would do a real job for me. Arnold replied the next day that I could have him." Ramey assumed command of V Bomber Command in January 1943. After the arguments over bombing tactics with Walker, Kenney was pleased that Ramey liked the skip bombing tactics the Fifth Air Force was developing. These tactics were put in practice with devastating effect at the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943.
## Death and legacy
On 26 March 1943, Ramey took off from Port Moresby in the B-17 Flying Fortress \#41-24384, "Pluto", to carry out a scheduled seven-hour reconnaissance flight to Merauke and Horn Island. A message from the radio operator twenty minutes after take-off was the last that was ever heard from the aircraft. An extensive air search was conducted but no sign was found of the aircraft or the twelve men on board. Ramey was declared dead on 19 November 1945. He left behind a wife and two daughters. Ramey Air Force Base in Puerto Rico was named in his honour.
In February 2007, diver Ben Cropp reported that he had found the wreckage of the plane. However, the plane turned out to have been a misidentified C-47. The location of the wreck of "Pluto" remains unknown. |
4,341,989 | Al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah | 1,173,738,572 | Imam and Fatimid Dynasty Caliph from 1154 to 1160 | [
"1149 births",
"1160 deaths",
"12th-century Fatimid caliphs",
"Deaths from epilepsy",
"Egyptian Ismailis",
"Egyptian people with disabilities",
"Hafizi imams",
"Medieval child monarchs",
"Monarchs who died as children",
"Neurological disease deaths in Egypt",
"Royalty and nobility with disabilities",
"Royalty and nobility with epilepsy",
"Sons of Fatimid caliphs"
]
| Abūʾl-Qāsim ʿĪsā ibn al-Ẓāfir (Arabic: أبو القاسم عيسى بن الظافر; 1149–1160), better known by his regnal name al-Fāʾiz bi-Naṣr Allāh (الفائز بنصر الله), was the thirteenth and penultimate Fatimid caliph, reigning in Egypt from 1154 to 1160, and the 23rd imam of the Hafizi Ismaili branch of Shi'a Islam. Al-Fa'iz was raised to the throne at the age of five after the murder of his father by the vizier Abbas ibn Abi al-Futuh, and spent his entire life as a puppet of Abbas' successor, Tala'i ibn Ruzzik. Experiencing epileptic seizures, al-Fa'iz died from an episode at the age of eleven, and his nephew, al-Adid, the final Fatimid caliph, succeeded him.
## Life
The future al-Fa'iz was born as Abu'l-Qasim Isa, the son of the twelfth imam–caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate, al-Zafir. Isa was raised to the throne on 16 April 1154 at the age of five, after the murder of his father and two of his uncles, by the vizier, Abbas ibn Abi al-Futuh, and his son, Nasr. He was given the regnal name al-Fāʾiz bi-Naṣr Allāh, 'Victorious with God's Help'. The sight of his uncle's corpses, and the loud cries of acclamation from the assembled troops of the Fatimid army frightened the young boy. Throughout his life, the common belief was that his subsequent epileptic seizures and tremors were a result of these traumatic experiences. For the same reason, his role in public ceremonies was limited; the annual ceremony celebrating the flooding of the Nile was even held at night during his reign.
The bloody events soon resulted in Abbas' own downfall. Terrified women in the Fatimid family called upon the Armenian-born governor of Asyut, Tala'i ibn Ruzzik, for assistance, reportedly sending their own cut hair in supplication. Ibn Ruzzik readily agreed and marched on Cairo. Abbas tried to resist, but faced general opposition: most of the troops were reluctant to support him or defected outright, and the remainder found themselves under attack by the populace with stones. In the end, on 29 May Abbas had to force his way out of the capital with his son and a handful of followers. The party made for Syria but was intercepted on 6 June by the Crusaders near the Dead Sea. Abbas was killed, and Nasr was sold to the Fatimids; he was mutilated and beaten to death by the palace women.
Ibn Ruzzik was named vizier with plenipotentiary powers on 17 June, while the underage al-Fa'iz was placed under the tutelage of his aunts, headed by al-Zafir's sister Sitt al-Qusur ('Lady of the Palaces'), who had played a leading role in securing revenge against Abbas and Nasr for the murder of her brothers. Outside the walls of the Great Fatimid Palaces, Ibn Ruzzik was the actual ruler of the state, and al-Fa'iz was virtually his prisoner. A Twelver Shi'ite, he actively sponsored the Alid ashraf in the Hijaz and Iraq, but he made no attempt to depose the Fatimid dynasty, instead ruling on its behalf as a de facto king in the style of the all-powerful and illustrious Armenian viziers Badr al-Jamali and al-Afdal Shahanshah, whom he attempted to emulate.
Ibn Ruzzik's position was not without its challenges: in 1155, and again in 1157, he faced uprisings against him by provincial governors. Seeking to bolster his legitimacy, Ibn Ruzzik returned to an aggressive policy against the Crusaders in Palestine. He scored some successes with a naval attack on Tyre in 1155 and with raids at Gaza and Hebron in 1157 and 1158, but his efforts to secure Egypt through an alliance with the Zengids of Syria under Nur al-Din Zangi failed. When Baldwin III of Jerusalem prepared an invasion of Egypt in 1160, he had to be bought off. Ibn Ruzzik's reputation as a holy warrior, a poet, and a patron of culture was counterbalanced by his despotic rule, resorting to confiscations to address the by now chronic shortfalls of revenue, exacerbated by the active pursuit of the war against the Crusaders.
Al-Fa'iz died during an epileptic seizure on 22 July 1160. Ibn Ruzzik chose another underage child to succeed him: al-Fa'iz's nine-year-old cousin al-Adid, who was wed to one of the vizier's daughters for good measure. He was to be the last Fatimid caliph.
## See also
- List of rulers of Egypt |
37,987,929 | Government in early modern Scotland | 1,145,068,014 | Political history topic | [
"Early Modern Scotland",
"Early Modern politics",
"Government of Scotland",
"Political history of Scotland"
]
| Government in early modern Scotland included all forms of administration, from the crown, through national institutions, to systems of local government and the law, between the early sixteenth century and the mid-eighteenth century. It roughly corresponds to the early modern era in Europe, beginning with the Renaissance and Reformation and ending with the last Jacobite risings and the beginnings of the industrial revolution. Monarchs of this period were the Stuarts: James IV, James V, Mary Queen of Scots, James VI, Charles I, Charles II, James VII, William III and Mary II, Anne, and the Hanoverians: George I and George II.
The crown remained the most important element of government throughout the period and, despite the many royal minorities, it saw many of the aspects of aggrandisement associated with "new monarchy" elsewhere in Europe. Theories of limited monarchy and resistance were articulated by Scots, particularly George Buchanan, in the sixteenth century, but James VI advanced the theory of the divine right of kings, and these debates were restated in subsequent reigns and crises. The court remained at the centre of political life, and in the sixteenth century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic patronage. The Privy Council and the great offices of state, remained central to the administration of the government, even after the departure of the Stuart monarchs to rule in England from 1603, but they were often sidelined and was abolished after the Act of Union of 1707, with rule direct from London. Parliament was also vital to the running of the country, providing laws and taxation, but it had fluctuating fortunes and never achieved the centrality the national life of its counterpart in England before it was disbanded in 1707.
Revenue remained a continual problem for Scottish government, even after the introduction of regular taxation from the 1580s, with receipts insufficient for the business of government and, after 1603, much of the costs being paid out of English revenues. In local government, attempts were made increase its effectiveness, with the creation of Justices of Peace and Commissioners of Supply. The continued existence of courts baron and introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. In law there was an expansion of central institutions and professionalisation of lawyers as a group. Scottish law was maintained as a separate system after the union in 1707 and from 1747 the central courts gained a clear authority over local institutions.
## Crown
James V was the first Scottish monarch to wear the closed imperial crown, in place of the open circlet of medieval kings, suggesting a claim to absolute authority within the kingdom. His diadem was reworked to include arches in 1532, which were re-added when it was reconstructed in 1540 in what remains the Crown of Scotland. The idea of imperial monarchy emphasised the dignity of the crown and included its role as a unifying national force, defending national borders and interests, royal supremacy over the law and a distinctive national church within the Catholic communion. New monarchy can also be seen in the reliance of the crown on "new men" rather than the great magnates, the use of the clergy as a form of civil service, developing standing armed forces and a navy.
Major intellectual figures in the Reformation included George Buchanan (1506–82), whose works De Jure Regni apud Scotos (1579) and Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582) were among the major texts outlining the case for resistance to tyrants. Buchanan was one of the young James VI's tutors and although they succeeded in producing a highly educated Protestant prince, who would publish works on subjects including government, poetry and witchcraft, they failed to intellectually convince him of their ideas about limited monarchy and he would debate with Buchanan and others over the status of the crown and kirk. James asserted the concept of "Divine right", by which a king was appointed by God and thus gained a degree of sanctity. These ideas he passed on to Charles I, whose ability to compromise may have been undermined by them, helping to lead to his political difficulties. When he was executed in 1649, the Scottish Covenanters objected, but avoided advancing the sanctity of kings as a reason. In 1689, when the Scottish Estates had to find a justification for deposing James VII they turned to Buchanan's argument on the contractual nature of monarchy in the Claim of Right.
## Court
The royal court consisted of leading nobles, office holders, ambassadors and supplicants who surrounded the king or queen. At its centre was the monarch and members of the Privy Chamber. Gentleman of the chamber were usually leading nobles or individuals with kinship links to the leading noble families. They had direct access to the monarch, with the implication of being to exert influence, and were usually resident at the court. Although increasingly based at the royal palace of Holyrood in Edinburgh, the monarch and the court were often itinerant, spending time at one of the royal palaces, such as Linlithgow, Stirling and Falkland, or undertaking a royal progress or "justice ayre" to a part of the kingdom to ensure that the rule of law, royal authority or smooth government was maintained.
In the sixteenth century, the court was central to the patronage and dissemination of Renaissance works and ideas. It was also central to the staging of lavish display that portrayed the political and religious role of the monarchy. This display was often tied up with ideas of chivalry, which was evolving in this period from a practical military ethos into a more ornamental and honorific cult. Tournaments provided one focus of display and were also pursued enthusiastically by James V, proud of his membership of international orders of knighthood. During her brief personal rule Mary, Queen of Scots brought many of the elaborate court activities that she had grown up with at the French court, with balls, masques and celebrations, designed to illustrate the resurgence of the monarchy and to facilitate national unity. Under James VI the court returned to being a centre of culture and learning and he cultivated the image of a philosopher king, evoking the models of David, Solomon and Constantine. Court spectacles included the coronation of Anne of Denmark and the baptism of Prince Henry. After James VI inherited the English throne in 1603 the Scottish court effectively ceased to exist, ending its role as a centre of artistic patronage, political display and intrigue.
## Officers of state
The Chancellor was effectively the first minister of the kingdom. His department, the chancery, was responsible for the Great Seal, which was needed to process the inheritance of land titles and the confirmation of land transfers. His key responsibility was to preside at meetings of the privy council, and on those rare occasions he attended, at meetings of the court of session. The second most prestigious office was the Secretary, who was responsible for the records of the Privy council and for foreign policy, including the borders, despite which the post retained its importance after the Union of Crowns in 1603. The Treasurer was the last of the major posts and, with the Comptroller, dealt with the royal finances until the Comptroller's office was merged into the Treasurer's from 1610.
The Lord President of the Court of Session, often known simply as the Lord President, acted as a link between the Privy Council and the Court. The king's advocate acted as the legal council. The post emerged in the 1490s to deal with the king's patrimonial land rights and from 1555 there were usually two king's councillors, indicating the increase in the level of work. From 1579 they increasingly became a public prosecutor. After the union most of the offices remained, but political power was increasingly centred in London. John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe, became the first Secretary of State for Scotland until the post was abolished in 1746 after the Jacobite Rising of 1745.
## Privy council
The Privy Council developed out of the theoretically larger king's or queen's council of leading nobles and office holders in the sixteenth century. "Secret Councils" had been maintained during the many regencies of the later medieval era, but the origins of the Privy Council were in 1543, during the minority of Mary, Queen of Scots. After her majority it was not disbanded, but continued to sit and became an accepted part of government. Until 1707, while in session in Edinburgh, the Privy Council met in what is now the West Drawing Room at the Palace of Holyroodhouse. When the monarch was at one of the royal palaces or visiting a region of the kingdom on official business, the council would normally go with them and as a result of being away from its servants, records and members, its output tended to decrease. While the monarch was away on a holiday or hunting trip, the council usually stayed in session in Edinburgh and continued to run the government.
The Privy Council's primary function was judicial, but it also acted as a body of advisers to the king and as a result its secondary function was as an executive in the absence or minority of the monarchy. Although the monarch might often attend the council, their presence was not necessary for the council to act with royal authority. Like parliament, it had the power to issue acts that could have the force of law. After James VI's departure to England in 1603, it functioned as a subservient executive carrying out his instructions from London. Although the theoretical membership of the council was relatively large, at around 30 persons, most of the business was carried out by an informal inner group, consisting mainly of the officers of state. Before 1610 the council was presided over by the Lord Chancellor, but in 1610 James VI decreed that the President of the College of Justice should preside in the Chancellor's absence, and by 1619 the additional title of President of the Privy Council had been added. The two presidencies were separated in 1626 as part of Charles I's reorganisation of the Privy Council and Court of Session. The Lord President of the Council was accorded precedence as one of the King's chief officers in 1661. After the Restoration, Charles II nominated his own privy councillors and set up a council in London through which he directed affairs in Edinburgh, a situation that continued after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–9. The council was abolished after the Act of Union on 1 May 1708.
## Parliament
In the sixteenth century, parliament usually met in Stirling Castle or the Old Tolbooth, Edinburgh, which was rebuilt on the orders of Mary Queen of Scots from 1561. King Charles I ordered the construction of Parliament Hall, at the expense of the Edinburgh burgesses, which was built between 1633 and 1639 and remained the parliament's home until it was dissolved in 1707. By the end of the Middle Ages the Parliament had evolved from the King's Council of Bishops and Earls into a 'colloquium' with a political and judicial role. The attendance of knights and freeholders had become important, and burgh commissioners joined them to form the Three Estates. It acquired significant powers over particular issues, including consent for taxation, but it also had a strong influence over justice, foreign policy, war, and other legislation, whether political, ecclesiastical, social or economic. Much of the legislative business of the Scottish parliament was carried out by a parliamentary committee known as the Lords of the Articles, chosen by the three estates to draft legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed. Like many continental assemblies the Scottish Parliament was being called less frequently by the early sixteenth century and might have been dispensed with by the crown had it not been for the series of minorities and regencies that dominated from 1513. The crown was also able to call a Convention of Estates, which was quicker to assemble and could issue laws like parliament, making them invaluable in a crisis, but they could only deal with a specific issue and were more resistant to the giving of taxation rights to the crown.
Parliament played a major part in the Reformation crisis of the mid-sixteenth century. It had been used by James V to uphold Catholic orthodoxy and asserted its right to determine the nature of religion in the country, disregarding royal authority in 1560. The 1560 parliament included 100 lairds, who were predominantly Protestant, and who claimed a right to sit in the Parliament under the provision of a failed shire election act of 1428. Their position in the parliament remained uncertain and their presence fluctuated until the 1428 act was revived in 1587 and provision made for the annual election of two commissioners from each shire (except Kinross and Clackmannan, which had one each). The property qualification for voters was for freeholders who held land from the crown of the value of 40s of auld extent. This excluded the growing class of feuars, who would not gain these rights until 1661. The clerical estate was marginalised in Parliament by the Reformation, with the laymen who had acquired the monasteries sitting as 'abbots' and 'priors'. Catholic clergy were excluded after 1567, but a small number of Protestant bishops continued as the clerical estate. James VI attempted to revive the role of the bishops from about 1600. They were abolished by the Covenanters in 1638, when Parliament became an entirely lay assembly. A further group appeared in the Parliament from the minority of James IV in the 1560s, with members of the Privy Council representing the king's interests, until they were excluded in 1641. James VI continued to manage parliament though the Lords of the Articles, who deliberated legislation before it reached the full parliament. He controlled the committee by filling it with royal officers as non-elected members, but was forced to limit this to eight from 1617.
Having been officially suspended at the end of the Cromwellian regime, parliament returned after the Restoration of Charles II in 1661. This parliament, known disparagingly as the 'Drunken Parliament', revoked most of the Presbyterian gains of the last thirty years. Subsequently Charles' absence from Scotland and use of commissioners to rule his northern kingdom undermined the authority of the body. James VII's parliament supported him against rivals and attempted rebellions, but after his escape to exile in 1689 William's first parliament was dominated by his supporters and, in contrast to the situation in England, effectively deposed James under the Claim of Right, which offered the crown to William and Mary, placing important limitations on royal power, including the abolition of the Lords of the Articles. Rosalind Mitchison argues that the parliament became a focus of national political life, but it never reached the position of a true centre of national identity attained by its English counterpart. The new Williamite parliament would subsequently bring about its own demise by the Act of Union in 1707. The English and Scottish parliaments were replaced by a combined Parliament of Great Britain, but it sat in Westminster and largely continued English traditions without interruption. Forty-five Scots were added to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the 190 members of the House of Lords.
## Taxation and revenue
For the early part of the era, the authority of the crown was limited by the large number of minorities it had seen since the early fifteenth century, with every monarch coming to the throne as a minor between 1406 and 1625. This tended to decrease the level of royal revenues, as regents, lacking the royal authority to create support, often alienated land and revenues, with Margaret Tudor reducing royal income from about £30,000 Scots to £13,000 in the minority of James V. James V was able to extract the heaviest taxation every levied on the Scottish church in exchange for his continued loyalty to the papacy, taking £72,000 in four years. Regular taxation was adopted from 1581 and afterwards was called on with increasing frequency and scale until a demand of £240,000 in 1612 resulted in serious opposition. A new tax on annual rents amounting to five per cent on all interest on loans, mainly directed at the merchants of the burghs was introduced in 1621, but the 1621 levy was still being collected over a decade later. Under Charles I the annual income from all sources in Scotland was under £16,000 sterling and inadequate for the normal costs of government, with the court in London now being financed out of English revenues. The sum of £10,000 a month from the county assessment was demanded by the Cromwellian regime, which Scotland failed to fully supply, but it did contribute £35,000 in excise a year. Although Parliament made a formal grant of £40,000 a year to Charles II, the rising costs of civilian government and war meant that this was inadequate to support Scottish government. Under William I and after the Union, engagement in continental and colonial wars led to heavier existing taxes and new taxes, including the Poll and Hearth Taxes.
## Local government
From the sixteenth century, the central government became increasingly involved in local affairs. The feud was limited and regulated, local taxation became much more intrusive and from 1607 regular, local commissions of Justices of the Peace on the English model were established to deal with petty crimes and infractions. Greater control was exerted over the lawless Borders through a joint commission with the English, set up in 1587. James VI was much more hostile to the culture and particularism of the Highlands than his predecessors. He sent colonists from Fife to parts of the region and forced the Highland chiefs to accept Lowland language and culture through the Statues of Iona of 1609. From the seventeenth century the responsibilities of shires expanded from judicial functions into wider local administration. In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were appointed in each sheriffdom or shire to collect the cess land tax.
The parish also became an important unit of local government after three major pieces of legislation, in 1574, 1579 and 1592, established what would become known as "the Old Poor Law". Pressured by Justices, the parish became responsible for taking care of the destitute in periods of famine, to prevent the impoverished from taking to the roads and causing general disorder. By the mid-seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands, but was limited in the Highlands. It was able to cope with the general level of poverty and minor crises, helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost, but was overwhelmed in major subsistence crisis like that of the "seven ill years" of the 1690s. Behaviour could be regulated through kirk sessions, composed of local church elders, which replaced the church courts of the Middle Ages, and which dealt with moral and religious conduct. The local court baron remained important in regulating minor interpersonal and property offences. They were held at the behest of the local baron when there was a backlog of cases and could appoint birleymen, usually senior tenants, who would resolve disputes and issues. The combination of kirk sessions and courts baron gave considerable power to local lairds to control the behaviour of the populations of their communities.
## Law
In the late Middle Ages, justice in Scotland was a mixture of the royal and local, which was often unsystematic with overlapping jurisdictions, undertaken by clerical lawyers, laymen, amateurs and local leaders. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, with a royal Court of Session meeting daily in Edinburgh to deal with civil cases. In 1514 the office of justice-general was created for the earl of Argyll (and held by his family until 1628). The study of law was popular in Scotland from the Middle Ages and many students travelled to Continental Europe to study canon law and civil law. In 1532 the Royal College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of an emerging group of career lawyers. The Court of Session placed increasing emphasis on its independence from influence, including from the king, and superior jurisdiction over local justice. Its judges were increasingly able to control entry to their own ranks. In 1605 the professionalisation of the bench led to entry requirements in Latin, law and a property qualification of £2,000, designed to limit the danger of bribery, helping to create an exclusive, wealthy, powerful and professional caste, who also now dominated government posts in a way that the clergy had done in the Middle Ages. In 1672 the High Court of Justiciary was founded from the College of Justice as a supreme court of appeal. The Act of Union in 1707 largely persevered the distinct Scottish legal system and its courts, separate from English jurisdiction. The major reform to Scottish law came as a result of the Heritable Jurisdictions Act 1747, which was part of the government reaction to the Jacobite rising of 1745 and which limited the powers of burgh courts, abolished hereditary offices and made the barony and regality courts obsolete, strengthening the reach of the central judicial courts.
This period also saw widespread attempts to codify and comment on the Scottish legal system. The first substantive account of Scottish law was the Practicks of Bishop John Sinclair (d. 1566), senator of the College of Justice. This was followed by James Balfour's (c. 1525–83) Practicks, who with Sir John Skene of Curriehill (c. 1543–1617), was a major figure in the move to codification. Skene produced an edition of the Acts of Parliament and a legal dictionary, De Verborum Significatione and edited Regiam Maisestatem, a history of the Scottish law, which attributed much of its creation to David I. Thomas Craig of Riccarton (c. 1538–1608) produced two large works, Jus Feudale, which examined feudal law, and De Unione Regnorum Britanniae, which explored the possibilities of unifying the English and Scottish legal systems. Often seen as the beginning of modern Scottish legal study is James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair's (1619–95) The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1681). |
12,284,526 | Interstate 29 in Iowa | 1,170,582,269 | Highway in Iowa | [
"Interstate 29",
"Interstate Highways in Iowa",
"Transportation in Fremont County, Iowa",
"Transportation in Harrison County, Iowa",
"Transportation in Mills County, Iowa",
"Transportation in Monona County, Iowa",
"Transportation in Pottawattamie County, Iowa",
"Transportation in Woodbury County, Iowa"
]
| In the US state of Iowa, Interstate 29 (I-29) is a north–south Interstate Highway which closely parallels the Missouri River. I-29 enters Iowa from Missouri near Hamburg and heads to the north-northwest through the Omaha–Council Bluffs and the Sioux City areas. It exits the state by crossing the Big Sioux River into South Dakota. For its entire distance through the state, it runs on the flat land between the Missouri River and the Loess Hills.
I-29 was built in sections over a period of 15 years. When there was a shortage of male workers, female workers stepped in to build a 20-mile (32 km) section near Missouri Valley. Between Council Bluffs and Sioux City, I-29 replaced U.S. Highway 75 (US 75) as the major route in western Iowa. As a result of I-29's creation, US 75 south of Sioux City was relocated into Nebraska.
## Route description
I-29 enters Iowa south of Hamburg. The Interstate heads northwest, where it meets Iowa Highway 333 (Iowa 333) at a diamond interchange. From Hamburg, I-29 continues to the northwest for seven miles (11 km) where it meets Iowa 2 three miles (4.8 km) east of Nebraska City, Nebraska. North of the Iowa 2 interchange, the Interstate straightens out to the north; interchanges serving Percival, Thurman, and Bartlett are spaced out every 4.5 miles (7.2 km). At the US 34 interchange near Glenwood, I-29 is joined by US 275.
North of Glenwood, I-29/US 275 continue north toward Council Bluffs. Near Lake Manawa, US 275 splits away from I-29 at the Iowa 92 interchange. The Interstate meets I-80 0.75 miles (1.21 km) north of the split. The two Interstates head west together through southern Council Bluffs for three miles (4.8 km) on separate carriageways. Just before I-80 crosses the Missouri River into Nebraska, I-29 immediately turns to the north. Two miles (3.2 km) to the north is a modified Y interchange with US 6 and the eastern end of I-480.
North of Council Bluffs, I-29 passes the eastern terminus of I-680 near Crescent. I-29 travels north for nine miles (14 km) before intersecting with the western terminus of I-880 near Loveland. I-29 continues north for four miles (6.4 km) to Missouri Valley, where it intersects US 30. North of Missouri Valley, the Interstate turns to the northwest toward Modale and then straightens out again south of Mondamin, where I-29 meets the western end of Iowa 127. From Mondamin, it travels north for 23 miles (37 km) to the Iowa 175 interchange at Onawa, passing Little Sioux and Blencoe.
North of Onawa, I-29 continues northwest for 15 miles (24 km) toward Sloan, where it meets the western end of Iowa 141. As it approaches the Sioux City metro area, it passes the Sioux Gateway Airport at Sergeant Bluff. At the Singing Hills Boulevard interchange, northbound is joined by southbound U.S. Highway 75 Business (US 75 Bus.). One mile (1.6 km) later, US 75 Bus. ends at the cloverleaf interchange with US 20/US 75, which is also the eastern end of I-129.
For the next three miles (4.8 km) north of the I-129 interchange, I-29 runs closely, as close as 200 feet (61 m), to the Missouri River. The Interstate follows the curve of the river and turns to the west. It meets Gordon Drive, which carries US 20 Bus. US 20 Bus. traffic is directed onto the Interstate for 0.5 miles (0.80 km) before it exits via a volleyball interchange, which represents the national northern end of US 77. I-29 continues west along the Missouri River, and, after the Big Sioux River converges into the Missouri, I-29 follows the Big Sioux. Shortly before it crosses the Big Sioux into South Dakota, Iowa 12 splits away to the north.
## History
Construction of I-29 began in the late 1950s in the Sioux City area. The first section to open, a three-mile-long (4.8 km) stretch from the Big Sioux River to the then–US 20/US 77 bridge across the Missouri River opened around October 1, 1958. In September 1961, I-29 was extended across the Big Sioux River to South Dakota. On April 1, 1962, some of the northbound directional spans collapsed into the Big Sioux River at the South Dakota state line as a result of flooding and bridge scour.
North of Council Bluffs, a 20-mile (32 km) section to Missouri Valley opened in November 1958. By December 1967, the two sections were connected, creating 100 miles (160 km) of continuous interstate highway. Due to a shortage of male workers, at least 20 women were enlisted to help build this section of I-29. The women were paid \$2.00 hourly (equivalent to \$ hourly in ), the same wage as men would have earned.
Construction of I-29 in the Council Bluffs area was completed in 1970, and the route was open to Glenwood in the same year. Additional interchanges were added in the Sioux City and Council Bluffs areas between 1970 and 1971. The last 30 miles (48 km) of Interstate were constructed and opened in sections over the next two years; the last section opened on December 15, 1972.
In 1973, US 34 was expanded to four lanes near Glenwood, which resulted in US 34 being rerouted onto I-29 for three miles (4.8 km). In 2003, US 275 was rerouted onto I-29 from the same interchange near Glenwood northward to Iowa 92 at Council Bluffs. The former US 275 alignment was turned over to Mills and Pottawattamie counties.
Much of I-29 was built next to existing highways, most notably US 75. When the section of I-29 opened between Council Bluffs and Missouri Valley, US 75 was rerouted onto I-29. When construction connecting the Sioux City and Council Bluffs segments was completed, US 75 was again rerouted onto I-29. In the mid-1980s, US 75, from Council Bluffs to Sioux City, was completely rerouted out of Iowa, instead extending up the former US 73 corridor in Nebraska.
## Exit list |
6,517,501 | Swiss peasant war of 1653 | 1,099,538,786 | Failed peasant revolution in Switzerland | [
"1653 in Europe",
"17th century in the Old Swiss Confederacy",
"17th-century rebellions",
"Canton of Lucerne",
"Conflicts in 1653",
"History of the canton of Bern",
"Peasant revolts",
"Tax resistance",
"Wars involving Switzerland"
]
| The Swiss peasant war of 1653 (German: Schweizer Bauernkrieg) was a popular revolt in the Old Swiss Confederacy at the time of the Ancien Régime. A devaluation of Bernese money caused a tax revolt that spread from the Entlebuch valley in the Canton of Lucerne to the Emmental valley in the Canton of Bern and then to the cantons of Solothurn and Basel and also to the Aargau.
The population of the countryside demanded fiscal relief from their ruling authorities, the city councils of these cantons' capitals. When their demands were dismissed by the cities, the peasants organized themselves and threatened to blockade the cities. After initial compromises mediated by other cantons had failed, the peasants united under the treaty of Huttwil, forming the "League of Huttwil". Their movement became more radical, going beyond the initially purely fiscal demands. The Huttwil League considered itself a political entity equal to and independent from the city authorities, and it assumed full military and political sovereignty in its territories.
The peasants laid siege to Bern and Lucerne, whereupon the cities negotiated a peace agreement with the peasant leader Niklaus Leuenberger, the so-called peace on the Murifeld. The peasant armies retreated. The Tagsatzung, the federal council of the Old Swiss Confederacy, then sent an army from Zürich to definitively end the rebellion, and after the Battle of Wohlenschwil, the Huttwil League was forcibly disbanded in the peace of Mellingen. The last resistance in the Entlebuch valley was broken by the end of June. After their victory, the city authorities took drastic punitive measures. The Huttwil League and the peace of the Murifeld were declared null and void by the city council of Bern. Many leaders of the insurrection were captured, tortured, and finally received heavy sentences. Niklaus Leuenberger was beheaded and quartered in Bern on September 6, 1653.
Although the military victory of the absolutist city authorities was complete, the war had also shown them that they depended very much on their rural subjects. Soon after the war, the ruling aristocrats instituted a series of reforms and even lowered some taxes, thus fulfilling some of the peasants' original fiscal demands. In the long term, the peasant war of 1653 prevented Switzerland from an excessive implementation of absolutism as occurred in France during the reign of Louis XIV.
## Background
The Old Swiss Confederacy in the 17th century was a federation of thirteen largely independent cantons. The federation comprised rural cantons as well as city states that had expanded their territories into the countryside by political and military means at the cost of the previously ruling liege lords. The cities just took over the preexisting administrative structures. In these city cantons, the city councils ruled the countryside; they held the judicial rights and also appointed the district sheriffs (Landvögte).
Rural and urban cantons had the same standing in the federation. Each canton was sovereign within its territory, pursuing its own foreign policy and also minting its own money. The diet and central council of the federation, the Tagsatzung, held no real power and served more as an instrument of coordination. The reformation in the early 16th century had led to a confessional division amongst the cantons: the central Swiss cantons including Lucerne had remained Catholic, while Zürich, Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen, and also the city of St. Gallen had become Protestant. The Tagsatzung was often paralysed by disagreements between the equally strong factions of the Catholic and Protestant sides.
Territories that had been conquered since the early 15th century were governed as condominiums by the cantons. Reeves for these territories were assigned by the Tagsatzung for a period of two years; the posts changed bi-annually between the cantons. The Aargau had been annexed in 1415. The western part belonged to Bern, while the eastern part comprised the two condominiums of the former County of Baden in the north and the Freie Ämter ("Free Districts") in the south. The Free Districts had been forcibly recatholized after the Reformation in Switzerland, and the Catholic cantons, especially Lucerne, Zug, and Uri considered these districts part of their sphere of influence and the reeves typically came from these cantons. The Thurgau, which had been annexed in 1460, was also a condominium of the Confederacy.
## Causes of the conflict
At its root, the peasant war of 1653 was caused by the rapidly changing economic circumstances after the end of the Thirty Years' War. The Swiss Confederacy had been spared from all belligerent action; the Swiss peasants generally had profited from the wartime economy as they had been able to export their agrarian products at higher prices than before. After the Peace of Westphalia, the southern German economy recovered quickly, the Swiss exports dwindled, and the prices for agrarian products dropped. Many Swiss peasants, who had raised mortgages during the boom at wartime, suddenly faced financial problems.
At the same time the war had since the 1620s caused significant expenses for the cities, e.g. for building better defenses such as new bastions. A significant source of income for the cantons ran dry: their financial means exhausted by the war, France and Spain no longer paid the Pensions, the agreed sums in return for the cantons providing them with mercenary regiments. The city authorities tried to compensate for this and to cover their expenses on the one hand by increasing the taxes or inventing new ones and on the other hand by minting less valuable copper coins called Batzen that had the same face value as the previously minted silver money. The population began hoarding the silver coins, and the cheap copper money that remained in circulation continually lost in purchasing power. Zürich, Basel, and the central Swiss cantons therefore began already in 1623 to mint more valuable coins again. Bern and also Solothurn and Fribourg set a compulsory fixed exchange rate between copper and silver money instead, but this measure did not break the de facto devaluation. At the end of the war, the population thus faced both a postwar depression and a high inflation, combined with high taxes. This financial crisis led to a series of tax revolts in several cantons of the Confederacy, for instance 1629–36 in Lucerne, 1641 in Bern, or 1645/46 in Zürich. The uprising in 1653 continued this series, but would take the conflict to an unprecedented level.
Since the 15th century, the political power in the city cantons had become more and more concentrated in the hands of a few urban families, who increasingly saw their public offices as hereditary positions and who developed aristocratic and absolutist attitudes. Slowly, an urban oligarchy of magistrates had formed. This concentration of power in the city cantons in a small urban élite caused a veritable "participatory crisis" (Suter). The rural population increasingly was subject to decrees issued without their consent that restricted their rights of old and also their social and cultural freedom.
## Outbreak of the rebellion
At the beginning of December 1652, Bern devalued its copper Batzen by 50% to adjust its face value to its intrinsic value to combat the inflation. The authorities set a term of only three days to exchange the copper coins at the old rate against more stable gold or silver money. Not many people could thus take advantage of this exchange offer, and for most—and in particular the rural population—half their fortunes just vanished. The other cantons soon followed suit and similarly devalued the Bernese copper money. The situation was most dire in the Lucerne Entlebuch valley, where the Bernese Batzen were in widespread usage. The financial situation of many a peasant became unsustainable. Insider deals of the ruling magistrates of Lucerne furthered the unrest among the population. The peasants of the Entlebuch valley, led by Hans Emmenegger from Schüpfheim and Christian Schybi from Escholzmatt, sent a delegation to Lucerne to demand remedies, but the city council refused to even hear them. The enraged peasants organized a general assembly (Landsgemeinde) of the population of the valley at Heiligkreuz, in spite of such assemblies being illegal as the authorities' laws of the time denied the freedom of assembly. The assembly, which took place after the mass on February 10, 1653, decided to suspend all tax payments until the authorities in Lucerne fulfilled their demands by reducing taxes and abolishing some of them altogether, such as the taxes on salt, cattle, and horse trades.
The authorities of Lucerne were not willing to grant the population's demands, but neither did they manage to subdue this insurrection. The large majority of the rural districts of the canton of Lucerne sided with the peasants of the Entlebuch valley in an alliance concluded at Wolhusen on February 26, 1653. At the beginning of March, the people of the neighbouring Bernese Emmental valley joined their cause, addressing similar demands at the Bernese authorities. Both cantons called upon the other uninvolved members of the Old Swiss Confederacy to mediate in the conflict, but at the same time, the Tagsatzung, the diet of the cantons' governments, also began to prepare for a military resolution. Troops from Schaffhausen and Basel were sent towards the Aargau, but this immediately solicited an armed resistance amongst the population such that the troops had to withdraw.
On March 18, 1653, the mediating Catholic central Swiss cantons proposed in Lucerne a resolution that fulfilled most of the peasants' demands, especially the fiscal ones. In Bern, a similar compromise was proposed by a Protestant delegation from Zürich under the direction of the mayor of Zürich, Johann Heinrich Waser, on April 4, 1653. The Bernese Emmental and most of the districts of the canton of Lucerne accepted these resolutions and their representatives swore new oaths of fealty. But the people in the Entlebuch valley did not accept the authorities' terms, as these—besides offering some tax reliefs—criminalized the insurrection and called for the punishment of the leaders. At a meeting at Signau on April 10, 1653, the delegates from the Entlebuch convinced their neighbours in the Emmental: the assembly decided not to honor the new oaths its representatives had sworn in Bern.
## Formation of the Huttwil League
The negotiations between the city authorities and the peasants were not continued. While the authorities debated at the Tagsatzung how to deal with the insurrection, the peasants worked to gain support for their cause amongst the rural population of other regions and lobbied for a formal alliance. A peasant delegation sent to Zürich was turned back promptly: the city authorities, who had put down local unrests in their territory already in 1645 and again in 1646, had already recognized the danger of the agitation. On April 23, 1653, representatives of the people of the countryside of Lucerne, Bern, Basel, and Solothurn met at Sumiswald and concluded an alliance to help each other to achieve their goals. A week later, they met again at Huttwil, where they renewed that alliance and elected Niklaus Leuenberger from Rüderswil in the Emmental as their leader.
On May 14, 1653, the peasants met again at a Landsgemeinde at Huttwil and formalized their alliance as the "League of Huttwil" by signing a written contract in the style of the old Bundesbriefe of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The treaty clearly established the league as a separate political entity that considered itself equal to and independent from the cities. The tax revolt had become an independence movement, based ideologically on the traditional Swiss founding legends, especially on the legend of William Tell. Legally, the peasants justified their assemblies and their union by the rights of old and in particular the Stanser Verkommnis of 1481, one of the important coalition treaties of the Old Swiss Confederacy.
The peasants by then had assumed full sovereignty over the territory they controlled. They refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the city authorities and also had the military control over the area. The Huttwil League openly declared its intention to expand until it encompassed the rural population in the whole Confederacy. The majority of the rural population supported the rebellion; the dissenting minority was silenced by threats of violence and sometimes violence indeed. Communications between the cities were interrupted, official envoys were shaken down and ships on the rivers were captured. The peasants even sent a letter to the French ambassador at Solothurn assuring the French king Louis XIV of their good intentions.
The confessional conflicts that dominated the relations between the ruling city authorities were only secondary to the peasants of the Huttwil league. The peasant alliance bridged the confessional divide, uniting Catholic people from the Entlebuch and from Solothurn with Protestant peasants from the Emmental and from Basel. The treaty of Huttwil explicitly recognized this biconfessionalism. The cities remained in all their manoeuvring and negotiations for military support within their respective confessional spheres: Catholic Lucerne had requested mediation and then military help from the Catholic central Swiss cantons, while Protestant Bern had turned to Protestant Zürich for help. The distrust between the authorities of the Catholic and Protestant cantons was so deep that none would allow troops of the other confession to operate on their territories.
## Military confrontation
Both sides began to prepare openly for an armed conflict. The cities faced the problem that their armies were militias, recruited from the rural population of their subject territories, but that precisely this rural population had turned against them. Bern began raising troops in the Vaud and the Bernese Oberland, two regions unaffected by the uprising. The authorities of Bern and Lucerne were supported by the other cantons at the Tagsatzung. In a dispatch from Zürich, the uprising was termed for the first time a "revolution".
On May 18, 1653, the peasants delivered ultimatums to Bern and Lucerne and raised 16,000 troops. When the city of Bern replied with a protest note, the peasants marched to Bern under the leadership of Leuenberger, arriving on May 22, 1653. A second army led by Emmenegger laid siege to Lucerne. The city authorities were unprepared for an armed conflict and immediately engaged in negotiations. Within days, peace agreements were concluded. In the peace on the Murifeld (Murifeldfrieden, named after the field just outside Bern where the peasant army's camp lay) signed by Leuenberger and the mayor of Bern, Niklaus Dachselhofer, the city council of Bern promised on May 28, 1653, to fulfill the peasants' fiscal demands in return for the dissolution of the Huttwil League. In view of this development, the city of Lucerne and the besieging peasants agreed on a truce. Leuenberger's army lifted the siege of Bern and retreated, but the people refused to follow their leaders and objected to dissolving the Huttwil League.
On May 30, 1653, following an earlier resolution of the Tagsatzung and earlier Bernese demands, Zürich assembled an army with recruits from its own territories, from the Thurgau, and from Schaffhausen under the command of Conrad Werdmüller with the task to break any armed resistance once and for all times. Some 8,000 men with 800 horses and 18 cannons marched towards the Aargau. Already three days later, Werdmüller's army controlled the important crossing of the river Reuss at Mellingen. In the hills around the nearby villages Wohlenschwil and Othmarsingen a peasant army of some 24,000 men assembled, led by Leuenberger and Schybi. A peasant delegation tried to negotiate with Werdmüller, showing him the peace treaty concluded on the Murifeld. Werdmüller, who had been until then unaware of this treaty that had been signed only days before, refused to acknowledge the validity of the contract and demanded the unconditional surrender of the peasants. Thus rebutted, the peasants attacked Werdmüller's troops on June 3, 1653, but being poorly equipped and lacking any artillery, they were defeated decisively in the Battle of Wohlenschwil. The peasants were forced to agree to the peace of Mellingen, which annulled the Huttwil League. The peasant troops returned home and an amnesty was declared, except for the leaders of the movement.
Bernese troops under the command of Sigmund von Erlach then advanced from Bern to the Aargau to meet the forces of Zürich. Under this double pressure, the peasants' resistance collapsed. Von Erlach's troops numbered about 6,000 men and 19 cannons. The operation was a veritable punitive expedition: the troops plundered the villages along their way and even razed the defenses of the small town of Wiedlisbach, which lost its town privileges and was declared a village again. On June 7, 1653, the Bernese army met with a troop of about 2,000 men of Leuenberger's army who were on their way back from Wohlenschwil. The peasants retreated to Herzogenbuchsee, where they were defeated by von Erlach's troops; the little town went up in flames in the course of the battle. Niklaus Leuenberger fled and went hiding, but he was betrayed by a neighbour and was apprehended by the Bernese district sheriff Samuel Tribolet on June 9, 1653.
The Entlebuch valley, where the revolt had begun, resisted a little longer. Peasant troops under the command of Schybi tried in vain on June 5, 1653, to gain the bridge at Gisikon, held by a joint army of the city of Lucerne and the central Swiss cantons commanded by Sebastian Peregrin Zwyer of Uri. In the following weeks, Zwyer's troops slowly advanced through the valley, until they controlled it completely by June 20, 1653. Schybi was captured a few days later and incarcerated at Sursee.
## Aftermath
The city authorities proceeded to punish severely the leaders of the Huttwil League. Bern did not accept the terms of the peace of Melligen with its amnesty, claiming the treaty was invalid on its territory, and cracked down hard on the rural population. The peasants were fined large sums and were made to cover the expenses for the military operations. The peace of the Murifeld was declared null and void by the Bernese city council, as was the Huttwil League. The rural population was disarmed. Many of the exponents of the movement were incarcerated, tortured, and finally sentenced to death or to hard labour on galleys, or exiled. Christian Schybi was executed at Sursee on July 9, 1653. Niklaus Leuenberger was beheaded and quartered at Bern on September 6, 1653; his head was nailed at the gallows together with one of the four copies of the Bundesbrief of the Huttwil League. Punishment was hardest in the canton of Bern, where 23 death sentences were handed down and numerous other prominent peasants were executed in courts-martial by von Erlach's army, compared to eight and seven death sentences in Lucerne and Basel, respectively.
Although the authorities had won a total military victory, they refrained from inflicting further draconian measures on the general population. The whole affair had clearly demonstrated that the cities depended on the support of their rural subjects. Putting down the insurrection had been achieved only with difficulties, and only with the help of troops from Zürich and Uri. Had the peasants succeeded to extend the Huttwil League to encompass the countryside of Zürich, the outcome of the conflict might have been different. The city authorities were well aware of their essentially lucky escape, and their actions in the following years reflect it. While they took steps to disempower the rural population politically, they also fulfilled many of the peasants original fiscal demands, alleviating the economic pressure on them. Tax reforms were passed, to the point that for instance in the canton of Lucerne the overall taxation of the population decreased in the second half of the 17th century.
Suter even concludes that the peasant war of 1653 thwarted a further advancement of absolutist trends in Switzerland and prevented a development similar to that which occurred in France following the Fronde. The authorities of the Swiss cantons had to act much more carefully and were forced to respect their rural subjects. The Bernese for instance instructed their district sheriffs to employ a far less pompous and less authoritarian attitude to minimize the conflict potential. The city council even opened legal procedures against a few of its district sheriffs against whom there were many complaints from the rural population, accusing them of corruption, incompetence, and unjustified enrichment. The district sheriff of Trachselwald, the same Samuel Tribolet who had captured Niklaus Leuenberger, was dismissed, tried, and exiled in early 1654. Abraham Stanyan, who had been ambassador of England in Bern from 1705 to 1713, published in 1714 an extensive treatise entitled An account of Switzerland, in which he described the authorities' rule as particularly mild, mentioning explicitly the low taxation in comparison to other European states and giving as the reason for the comparatively soft-gloved government the fear of rebellions.
## Historiography
In the decades following the peasant war the city authorities tried to suppress the memory of this nearly successful revolt. Resistance symbols like the flags or the weapons used by the peasants, in particular their typical clubs with nails on the hitting end (called (Bauern-) Knüttel), were outlawed, confiscated, and destroyed. Documents such as the Bundesbriefe of Huttwil were stashed away in the vaults of the city archives. Any public remembrances or pilgrimages to the places where the leaders had been executed were forbidden and carried the death penalty, as did the singing of the peasants' war songs. Bern was particularly active in trying to censor the memories of the event and also tried to suppress images of the peasant leaders. Historic texts written during the Ancien Régime of Switzerland generally follow the official diction and mention the peasant war, if they do so at all, only briefly and in negative terms. Works with differing viewpoints were often prohibited. The censorship was not entirely successful; in private, the rural population kept the memories of 1653 alive, and various accounts of the events were printed in Germany.
In the 19th century, the official view was increasingly questioned. The aristocratic Ancien Régime had been weakened severely during the Napoleonic Wars, when the Confederacy had been a French satellite state. The episode of the Helvetic Republic, short-lived as it had been, had instilled democratic ideals in the population. The restauration of the Ancien Régime after the end of the Napoleonic era proved to be only temporary, until Switzerland became a federal state in 1848 when its first democratic constitution was passed. During the restoration, democratic publishers instrumented and interpreted the history of the peasant war as an allegory on the then current struggle for democracy, seeing the peasant war of 1653 as an early precursor of their own efforts to overcome the authoritarian regime. Well-known examples are the illustrations by Martin Disteli from 1839/40, who used scenes from the peasant war in such allegoric ways.
The official view remained ambivalent at best, though. A scene devoted to the peasant war of 1653 in a theatre production for the Swiss sexacentennial celebrations in 1891, for instance, was cut on the demands of the organizers. The first statues to honor the peasants of 1653 and their leaders were erected in 1903 on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of the peasant war. A monument honoring Schybi and Emmenegger was unveiled at Escholzmatt on July 26, 1903, at Rüderswil, a statue in honor of Leuenberger was erected the same year, and at Liestal an obelisk honoring the peasant victims of the war was inaugurated on September 25, 1904. More statues and plaques were installed in various other places at the tricentennial of the war in 1953, for instance a relief showing Schybi in a chapel at Sursee, where the peasant leader had been incarcerated.
Ideological instrumentalizations of the peasant war occurred even in the 20th century. Hans Mühlestein, a Swiss Marxist historian, interpreted the events of 1653 in the 1940s and 1950s as an early bourgeois revolution of a progressive bourgeoisie, fitting the Marxist concept of "class struggle"; a view considered untenable by many later historians.
Modern historians generally agree that the peasant war was an important event in Swiss history, and also in comparison to other popular revolts in late medieval Europe. Such revolts were rather common at the time and often were motivated by excessive taxation. The peasant war of 1653 stands out as a culminative end point in Switzerland for three reasons:
1. The revolt spread quickly to cover several cantons, whereas previous uprisings in the Confederacy had invariably been local affairs.
2. The peasants were well organized and for the only time mobilized veritable armies against their rulers, which hadn't happened before. The peasant leaders had clearly learned from previous unsuccessful smaller revolts they had been involved in.
3. The peasants' goals for the first time went beyond a pure restoration of rights of old and tax relief: the Huttwil League radically denied the authorities' hitherto unquestioned entitlement to rule.
In 2003, the city of Bern celebrated the 650th anniversary of its adherence to the Old Swiss Confederacy with many events, including a dedicated exposition at the Historical Museum that ran for several months and the publication of the history schoolbook Berns mutige Zeit. The simultaneous 350-year anniversary of the peasant war was reflected in the city only in a few newspaper articles, but it was widely celebrated in the countryside with speeches, colloquia, and an ambitious and very successful open-air theatre production at Eggiwil in the Emmental. |
1,017,595 | Émile Bouchard | 1,171,408,531 | American ice hockey player | [
"1919 births",
"2012 deaths",
"Canadian ice hockey defencemen",
"Hockey Hall of Fame inductees",
"Ice hockey people from Montreal",
"Knights of the National Order of Quebec",
"Members of the Order of Canada",
"Montreal Canadiens players",
"Montreal Junior Canadiens players",
"National Hockey League players with retired numbers",
"Providence Reds players",
"Stanley Cup champions"
]
| Joseph Émile Alcide Bouchard CM CQ (4 September 1919 – 14 April 2012) was a Canadian ice hockey player who played defence with the Montreal Canadiens in the National Hockey League from 1941 to 1956. He is a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, won four Stanley Cups, was captain of the Canadiens for eight years and was voted to the NHL All-Star team four times. Although having a reputation as a clean player, he was also one of the strongest players and best body-checkers of his era. He excelled as a defensive defenceman, had superior passing skills and was known for his leadership and mentoring of younger players. In his early years in the NHL, Bouchard, among other players, made a major contribution to reinvigorating what was at the time an ailing Canadien franchise.
He was born in Montreal, Quebec, and at the time his death resided in Saint-Lambert, Quebec. In retirement Bouchard was active with several business interests and contributions to his community. In 2008, he received the National Order of Quebec. On 4 December 2009, Bouchard's No. 3 was retired by the Canadiens as part of their 100th anniversary celebrations. On 30 December 2009, Michaëlle Jean, Governor General of Canada, announced Bouchard as among the appointments to the Order of Canada.
## Youth and learning the game
Bouchard was born 4 September 1919, in Montreal the son of Regina Lachapelle and Calixte Bouchard. Growing up poor during the depression, Bouchard did not begin skating until he was 16 and had to learn on rented skates, before borrowing \$35 from his brother for a complete set of hockey equipment which included his own pair of skates. Bouchard opted for a career in hockey over banking when he was offered \$75 a week to play senior hockey and the bank paid \$7. In the minors Bouchard played with the Verdun Maple Leafs, Montreal Junior Canadiens and Providence Reds. It was Verdun teammate Bob Fillion who gave Bouchard the nickname "Butch". It originated due to the resemblance of his last name to the English word "butcher". Bouchard was determined, strong and developed enough skills to impress coach Dick Irvin in the Canadiens' 1940–41 training camp after which he was signed as a free agent. Bouchard had arrived at training camp in peak condition, which was unusual for National Hockey League (NHL) players of the time. To attend this first training camp he rode a bike 50 miles (80 km), which also allowed him to pocket the travel expenses the Canadiens had allotted.
In an era when hockey players were regarded by hockey management as rural and unsophisticated, Bouchard had already developed his entrepreneurial skills. While still in high school he was working alongside an inspector with the Department of Agriculture when he came across a bee ranch owned by a priest who had just died. Borrowing \$500 from his brother he bought the business. He turned it into an apiary of 200 hives which was so successful he earned enough to buy his parents a home. It was due to this business acuity that prior to signing with the Canadiens he uncovered what Ken Reardon and Elmer Lach, already playing with the Montreal, were currently earning. Then, over the course of ten days he negotiated a larger contract than either player had been receiving, \$3,750 (\$ in dollars).
## NHL career
### Arrival to the Canadiens
Along with a strong work ethic and keen intellect, Bouchard was physically imposing. At 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) and 207 pounds (94 kg) he was considered a giant compared to NHL players of the 1940s, when the average height was 5 ft 11 in (1.80 m) and average weight was 165 pounds (75 kg). Moreover, since he also practiced heavy weight training in an era before NHL players were concerned about upper body strength he became a very effective defensive presence. Hockey Hall of Fame leftwinger and teammate Dickie Moore said of Bouchard: "He appeared to have been chiseled out of stone."
By the time of Bouchard's arrival to the Montreal Canadiens the club had not won the championship for 10 years and attendance at the Forum was very low, often less than 3,000 a game, and there was talk of folding the franchise. A few years earlier, in 1935, Canadien owners had seriously considered an offer to sell the team to be moved to Cleveland. After finishing last or near the bottom of the league for several years, apathy of the fans was matched by the players themselves who had accepted losing as way of hockey life. In his first training camp, he showcased his physical play by body-checking players, including veterans, with abandon. When the season started other teams discovered that with Bouchard in the lineup they could no longer push Canadien players around. Bouchard's presence reinvigorated the Canadiens and he is credited with playing an important part in keeping the franchise from leaving Montreal.
However, Bouchard was more than just a physical presence. He learned to play good positional hockey and became skilled at passing the puck. He also possessed a flair for judging the flow of the game and knew when to join the attack and when to retreat. Despite his role as a stay-at-home defenceman, due to his skills for the long breakout pass, he was a contributor to the style of firewagon hockey for which the Canadiens exemplified.
Though he had an immediate impact on the team, Bouchard had not scored many points for the team; in his first season, 1941–42, he collected six points in the regular season and scored the first NHL goal of his career in the Canadiens' first-round playoff loss to the Detroit Red Wings.
### NHL star
The 1942–43 season was Bouchard's breakthrough year as he finished leading all Canadien defencemen in points and was key to the Canadiens' first season in several years without a losing record. They finished in fourth place with a record of 19 wins, 19 losses and 12 ties. Although they lost in the first round of the playoffs, the team was building in the right direction.
The 1943–44 season was Maurice Richard's first full season with the Canadiens. Richard was not just an exciting player to watch which served to increase attendance, but also had the offensive skills needed to turn the Canadiens into an exceptional team. The Canadiens proceeded to dominate the regular season finishing well ahead of second-place Detroit. In the playoffs in the first round against Toronto, after losing the opening game, they won the next four straight to win the series. Then, in the final they swept Detroit in four games to win their first Stanley Cup in thirteen years. While the "Punch Line" of Richard, Toe Blake and Lach provided the offensive power it was Bouchard and goal-tender Bill Durnan who kept the goals out. During the regular season Montreal had allowed only 109 goals, 68 less than second-place Detroit. Bouchard along with Richard and Lach were named to the NHL All Stars' second team and goaltender Bill Durnan made the first team and won the Vezina. Bouchard had become one of the most reliable defencemen in the league. He would be named to the NHL First All Star team, as one of the best defencemen in the league, for the next three seasons. He won his second Stanley Cup in 1945–46.
As physical on the ice as Bouchard was, he was also regarded as a clean player and only rarely participated in hockey fights. Immensely strong, most players avoided engaging him in fights and Bouchard more often would be the person to break up combatants. However, it was a fight involving Bouchard which led to a significant change in the role of referees. During the 1946–47 season, Bouchard became involved in a prolonged and one-sided fight with Boston's Terry Reardon. Due to the fight, Clarence Campbell, president of the NHL, added to the duties of referees; for the first time they had the responsibility of breaking up fights. Then there was the time in March 1947, in a game in Boston, as the Canadiens were coming back onto the ice for the beginning of the third period, a female fan attacked Bouchard spearing him with a hat pin. Bouchard responded by pushing the woman away forcefully. A few moments later, Boston police were leading Bouchard out to a police car. According to Bouchard, Pat Egan of the Boston Bruins, interceded and talked the police out of the arrest.
For the 1947–48 season, defenceman Doug Harvey joined the team. Within a couple years Harvey would become the best offensive-oriented defenceman in the NHL and he and Bouchard would form a long-time and very effective defensive pairing. Whenever Harvey undertook one of the offensive rushes for which he became famous, he was confident in the knowledge that Bouchard was backing him up if he was to lose the puck.
### Leader and mentor
In 1948, Bouchard became the first Quebec-born captain of the Canadiens, a position he retained for eight years until his retirement. At the time of his retirement no player had served more years as captain of the Canadiens than Bouchard. Hall of Famer Jean Béliveau, a teammate of Bouchard for Beliveau's early years with the Canadiens, said Bouchard was the model for his time as captain in the 1960s. Bouchard was a well-respected leader and played a role in supporting and mentoring the younger players. Never afraid to speak up to management, in 1950 on Bouchard's recommendation to Selke to "give the kid a shot", Bernie Geoffrion was given a tryout and eventually joined the Canadiens. Geoffrion won the Calder for rookie of the year and would be near the top of league scoring for years to come. Bouchard commenting on the fact that he was nominated for captain by his teammates: "I don't agree with management nominating you. I can respond to players, not be a yes-man for the proprietor." He missed a large part of the 1948–49 season after a severe knee injury which threatened his career. Despite medical opinion that he might not be able to continue to play he trained hard and was able to strengthen the knee enough to return to the Canadiens.
In 1951, Bouchard was involved in a legal first when he was a defendant in a lawsuit brought by a New York Rangers fan. The fan claimed Bouchard had struck him with his stick when he was waving to a friend watching the game on TV. Bouchard said the fan had actually raised his fist towards a fellow Canadiens player who was being taken off the ice with an injury and his stick hit the fan accidentally as he tried to ward off the blow. In what may have been the first time in legal history, evidence was taken during a trial from someone witnessing an event on a television as the fan's friend testified he had seen Bouchard strike the blow. Bouchard won the case when Otis Guernsey, president of Abercrombie and Fitch, who was at the game, testified he heard "vile language" and saw the fan raise his fist and not wave.
On 28 February 1953, the Canadiens had a "Bouchard Night at the Forum". Bouchard was honoured in a ceremony during the second intermission in a game against the Detroit Red Wings. It was presided over by Montreal Mayor Camillien Houde and broadcast nationally live over the CBC. Among the gifts Bouchard received was a Buick automobile which was driven out onto the ice. The organizer's plan was to have Bouchard drive off in the car at the end of the ceremony. However, sitting in the car Bouchard discovered the keys were missing. To the roar of the crowd Ted Lindsay, captain of the Red Wings, returned the keys he had stolen and congratulated Bouchard on behalf of the Red Wings.
In 1952–53, Montreal and Detroit battled for first place with Detroit coming out on top by the end of the season. In the first round of the playoffs the heavily favoured Detroit Red Wings were upset by the Boston Bruins and Montreal won a close seven-game series over the Chicago Black Hawks. The Canadiens then defeated Boston in five games and Bouchard won his third Stanley Cup.
Eventually injuries began to take their toll and at the conclusion of the 1954–55 season he considered retirement. Toe Blake, who had taken over as coach, talked him into playing one more season to assist the younger players. Bouchard recognized Blake's value as a "player's coach" and used his leadership as captain to ease the transition and encourage Blake's acceptance by the Canadiens players. Due to physical problems Bouchard was forced to miss the last half of the season and the playoffs. However, in the deciding game of the Stanley Cup final against Detroit, Blake dressed Bouchard. As the final seconds counted down, with Montreal up 3–1, Blake put Bouchard on the ice and he was able to end his career with one more Stanley Cup celebration.
## Personal life
In 1947, Bouchard married Marie-Claire Macbeth, a painter. They had five children, Émile Jr., Jean, Michel, Pierre and Susan.
In the 1970s, his son Pierre Bouchard, also a defenceman, played for the Montreal Canadiens. While father Émile participated in the birth of the Montreal Canadiens' dynasty, thirty years later son Pierre played a part in continuing the Canadien dynasty into the 1970s. With Butch's four and Pierre's five they have the distinction of winning the most Stanley Cups of any father-son combination in NHL history. Bobby and Brett Hull are the only other father and son to have won the Cup.
In retirement Bouchard remained as active as he was during his NHL career. He received coaching offers soon after his retirement, but his business interests prevented him from leaving Montreal. Bouchard owned a popular restaurant Chez Émile Bouchard which operated for many years in Montreal. On 22 March 1953, while Bouchard was travelling to Detroit for the last game of the season, the restaurant was gutted by a fire started in a basement at 3:22am soon after employees and patrons had left. He was also president of the Montreal Royals Triple-A baseball club, elected to the Longueuil municipal council, on the board of directors of Ste. Jeanne-d'Arc Hospital, president of the Metropolitan Junior "A" Hockey League among other activities.
Bouchard was unafraid to speak his mind when he felt the occasion demanded. In 1957, after an International League game in Toronto between his Montreal Royals and the Maple Leafs baseball team President Bouchard complained about Toronto's excessive conference trips to the mound. He called the Leafs "showspoilers" and then said, for the entire press room to hear, "They're a lot of punks, just like in hockey!"
Bouchard was a tough opponent even outside of hockey. When the Mafia of the day in Montreal attempted to intimidate him into hiring their people for his restaurant, Bouchard invited the head man to Chez Butch Bouchard for dinner. Bouchard's wife, Marie-Claire, recalled he told them, "Il lui a dit over my dead body. Je n'embaucherai jamais un de tes hommes." which translates "Over my dead body, I will never hire one of your men."
A reporter once asked the canny Bouchard what he thought of coaching methods in the NHL. He replied, "Hockey should be more like football, with a coach for the defence, one for the offence and maybe one for the goalies." Indicative of his usual foresight it would be many years before such practices would become common in the NHL.
He died in 2012 at the age of 92.
## Honours and recognition
Bouchard was one of nine players and one builder elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966. On 15 October 2008, the Montreal Canadiens celebrated their 100th season by unveiling the Ring of Honour, an exhibit along the wall of the upper deck of the Bell Centre, paying tribute to their 44 players and 10 builders who are members of the Hockey Hall of Fame. Bouchard along with Elmer Lach, the two oldest surviving members, were on hand to drop the ceremonial puck at centre ice.
In 2008, a grass roots movement had begun to pressure Canadien management to retire Bouchard's \#3. During the Quebec provincial election Independent candidate Kevin Côté made one of his platforms to force Canadiens into retiring the number. By March 2009 it reached the Quebec National Assembly where a motion was presented and carried "That the National Assembly support the steps taken and supported by the population of Québec in order that Montreal Canadiens management retire the sweater of Émile "Butch" Bouchard eminent defenceman from 1941 to 1956."
On 4 December 2009, as part of an 85 minute pre-game ceremony celebrating the Canadiens' 100th anniversary, Bouchard's No. 3 and Elmer Lach's No. 16 were retired. They become the 16th and 17th Canadien players to have their numbers retired.
On 18 June 2008, Bouchard received the National Order of Quebec (L'Ordre national du Québec) presented to him by the Premier of Quebec Jean Charest. On 30 December 2009, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada "for his contributions to sports, particularly professional hockey, and for his commitment to his community".
## Awards and achievements
- Member of the Order of Canada (2009)
- National Order of Quebec Chevalier (2008).
- Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966.
- Stanley Cup champion: 1944, 1946, 1953, 1956
- NHL first All-Star team: 1945, 1946, 1947
- NHL second All-Star team: 1944
- The QMJHL's Defenceman of the Year Trophy (Emile Bouchard Trophy) is named in his honour.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
Career statistics from Total Hockey
## See also
- List of NHL players who spent their entire career with one franchise |
11,033,862 | Battle of Arachova | 1,157,773,665 | Battle in 1826 between Ottoman Empire and Greek rebels | [
"1826 in Greece",
"Battles involving Greece",
"Battles involving the Ottoman Empire",
"Battles of the Greek War of Independence",
"Central Greece in the Greek War of Independence",
"Conflicts in 1826",
"History of Boeotia",
"November 1826 events"
]
| The Battle of Arachova (Greek: Μάχη της Αράχωβας), took place between 18 and 24 November 1826 (N.S.). It was fought between an Ottoman Empire force under the command of Mustafa Bey and Greek rebels under Georgios Karaiskakis. After receiving intelligence of the Ottoman army's maneuvers, Karaiskakis prepared a surprise attack in vicinity of the village of Arachova, in central Greece. On 18 November, Mustafa Bey's 2,000 Ottoman troops were blockaded in Arachova. An 800-man force that attempted to relieve the defenders three days later failed.
On 22 November Mustafa Bey was mortally wounded and Ottoman morale plunged, as cold weather and heavy rainfall plagued the hunger-stricken defenders. At midday on 24 November the Ottomans made a disastrous attempt at breaking out. Most were killed in the fighting or perished from the cold. The Greek victory at Arachova gained the rebels valuable time before the Great Powers came to their assistance a year later.
## Background
In February 1821, Filiki Eteria launched the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. By 1826, the First Hellenic Republic had been severely weakened by infighting and Ibrahim's invasion of Mani. Ibrahim's well-trained Egyptian army pillaged much of Morea, turning the tide of the war in the favor of the Ottomans. Following the decisive Ottoman victory at the Third Siege of Missolonghi on 10 April 1826, fighting was restricted to the Siege of the Acropolis. The Ottomans seemed to have gained the upper hand in Central Greece, with many Greek rebels accepting Grand Vizier Mehmed Reshid Pasha's amnesty in order to take a break from the hardships of the war. Defeatism affected a number of Moreote Christian notables (kodjabashis) who began advocating for peace in return for a limited autonomy such as the one granted by the Ottomans to Wallachia after the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1806.
In October 1826, Greek general Georgios Karaiskakis took a number of fighters who managed to break out from Missolonghi, heading south-east towards Morea. On 27 October he arrived at Domvrena, besieging the 300-man Ottoman garrison who had taken refuge in tower houses. On 14 November, Karaiskakis broke off the siege after receiving news that Mustafa Bey's 2,000-man army (including 300 cavalrymen) had begun its descent from Livadeia towards Amfissa, in order to relieve the latter's garrison and protecting the Ottoman gunpowder dump at Atalanti; putting the Greek forces in the area in grave danger. On the early morning of 16 November, Karaiskakis reached the Hosios Loukas monastery, spending the rest of the day there. Shortly before the dawn of 17 November, Greek troops set camp at Distomo. On the same day Mustafa Bey dispersed Greek pickets at Atalanti, later camping at the Agia Ierousalim monastery outside Davleia.
There he questioned the monastery's hegumenos about Karaiskakis' whereabouts and whether he knew of his intention to relieve Amfissa. The hegumenos lied, claiming that Karaiskakis had yet to leave Domvrena and that he was oblivious to the Ottoman maneuvers. Mustafa Bey believed him, nevertheless ordering his soldiers to keep an eye on the monks and promising to execute them should one of them try to betray his presence at the monastery. As Mustafa Bey and his lieutenant (kehaya) were discussing their future plans while dining, a monk who was fluent in Turkish overheard their conversation. The monks convened in secret, deciding to dispatch one of their number to Distomo and inform Karaiskakis of the route the Turks were to take. A young monk named Panfoutios Charitos managed to evade the Turkish sentries, inform Karaiskakis, and, again evading the Turkish guards, return to his bed before the Turks recounted the number of the monks present in the next morning.
Karaiskakis immediately ordered his officers Georgios Hatzipetros, Alexios Grivas and Georgios Vagias to occupy the church of Agios Georgios in Arachova and the surrounding houses. They were to strike the Turks with a force of 500 men once their enemies emerged from the passes of Mount Parnassus. Small bands were stationed between Arachova and Distomo in order to signal the outbreak of hostilities, at which point the main force would come to their aid. Christodoulos Hatzipetros and his unit of 400 men covered a passage south of Arachova. Karaiskakis' secretary then sent messages to all known guerrilla bands in the surrounding areas, informing them of the impending battle.
## Battle
At 10:00 on 18 November, Greek lookouts signaled that the Turks were approaching Arachova from the north–east. An advanced column of Turks arrived at the village and was waiting for the rest of the army when Albanian soldiers in Ottoman service noticed that several houses had freshly carved loopholes. Taking cover behind huge rocks standing inside the village they initiated a firefight with the Greeks. This came as a surprise to the majority of the villagers who had remained oblivious of the situation until the last minute; they now fled in panic in fear of future reprisals. The Turks continued to funnel fresh troops into the village, steadily approaching the Greek positions which were the source of continuous volleys of shots. In the meantime Christodoulos Hatzipetros' troops redeployed to the Kumula hill overlooking the village from the south. Karaiskakis' troops appeared on the outskirts of Arachova around midday, and rebels from the surrounding areas gathered west of the village, thus completely encircling the Turks. Mustafa Bey reacted by sending a detachment of 500 infantrymen to hold Karaiskakis' advance. The rest of the Turkish army occupied a hill overlooking the village, while the detachment barricaded themselves inside the nearby houses.
Upon descending the Mavra Litharia hillock the Greeks under Karaiskakis were engaged by the Turkish detachment that had stayed behind in the village. A quarter of an hour later the Turks had successfully repelled the attack from the hillock, moreover the Greek right flank broke ranks and fled. The situation was reversed when a unit of Souliotes under Georgios Tzavelas mounted a second offensive, killing a Turkish officer and rallying deserters to return to the battlefield. Morale in the Turkish right flank plunged, those who managed to escape were intercepted west of the village and annihilated. Yet the Ottoman center and left flank held fast and Karaiskakis sought other ways to break the stalemate. 300 Greeks under Giotis Danglis passed west of the Zervospilies hill, taking a hill which overlooked the one the main Turkish force had occupied. This came as a complete surprise to Mustafa Bey, who led a Turkish counter attack, sword in hand. Being favored by the terrain, the Greeks crushed three waves of attackers within half an hour. In the meantime Karaiskakis overcame the resistance that faced him, joining his comrades in arms at the Agios Georgios church. The Turkish camp was surrounded and besieged just as night fell and hostilities were suspended.
On 19 November, the two sides exchanged fire, causing only minor damage to each other's barricades. The rest of the day was uneventful. In the early hours of 20 November, the Greeks received 450 men in reinforcements, most of them were sent on guard duty to the roads leading to Arachova. On 21 November, 800 soldiers under Abdullah Agha appeared outside Davleia where they broke into two forces. The smaller marched down to the Agia Ierousalim monastery while the larger headed towards Zemeno. Zemeno was to be the point where Abdullah Agha would strike the Greek rear, enabling Mustafa Bey to break out of the encirclement. The first formation was to act as a distraction.
Mustafa Bey's troops hurriedly attacked Zemeno before Abdullah Agha's arrival and were pushed back. In the meantime, Abdullah Agha's vanguard was ambushed at a narrow passage leading to Zemeno. 30 Turks were killed and many were wounded before a disorganized retreat was conducted; the rebels captured 80 animals packed with supplies. The situation in the Turkish camp was desperate, as cold weather and heavy rainfall plagued the hunger-stricken defenders. His soldiers pressured Mustafa Bey into negotiations. Karaiskakis demanded that the Turks hand over all their weapons and money, give the kehaya'''s and Mustafa Bey's brother as hostages, and abandon Livadeia and Amfissa, promising safe passage in return. The terms were rejected, by a messenger who exclaimed "War!" three times. In the morning of 22 November, Karaiskakis ordered salvos to be fired on the Turkish camp from all sides.
Mustafa Bey, who had emerged from his tent to encourage his troops, was mortally wounded in the forehead. On the following day the kehaya assumed command, as a snowstorm swept through the area. Once Mustafa Bey's condition became known to his officers, the Albanian officers threatened to lay down arms unless the terms of the Greeks were satisfied. On the midday of 24 November, 700 Ottomans charged at a small picket guarding the road towards the Agia Ierousalim monastery. At the same time, Abdullah Aga ordered the retreat of his forces. Although the initial breakout was successful, the Greeks regrouped, splitting the Turks in half. The 500 Turks who still held the camp were surrounded and slain, as were most of those who broke out. The soldiers who encountered the kehaya ignored his pleas for mercy as they did not speak Turkish, killing him.
## Aftermath
Out of the initial force of 2,000 only 300 Turks survived the onslaught, escaping with the help of a Greek turncoat named Zeligiannaios; most of them perished in the snowstorm. The Greeks took 50 prisoners, most of whom also died from the effects of hypothermia. Greek losses amounted to 12 killed and 20 injured. The Greeks also captured all the pack animals that were still alive, 23 flags and large amounts of weaponry and ammunition. Karaiskakis ordered the construction of a pyramid of 300 severed heads, in accordance with Ottoman tradition. A stone was placed in front of the pyramid bearing the inscription "Tropaion of Greek victory over the barbarians", while the heads of Mustafa Bey and the kehaya'' were placed on its sides. The severed ears of the slain Ottomans were cured and shipped to the Greek capital of Nafplio, mimicking another Ottoman practice of celebrating significant victories. The victory was widely celebrated in liberated areas of Greece and became the subject of a folk song that was recorded in Karaiskakis' journals.
With this victory at Arachova Karaiskakis kept the revolution alive in eastern Greece. He then sought to disrupt Mehmed Reshid Pasha's supply lines between Thessaly and Attica. On 5 December 1826, his troops destroyed a large Turkish supply convoy at Tourkochori in the vicinity of Atalanti. In the meantime, the Ottomans continued to transfer troops towards south central Greece, aiming at breaking the Greek siege of Amfissa the reinforcing the Ottoman force blockading Acropolis. The victory at Arachova won Greece valuable time before the persistence of the Greek revolutionaries and the war crimes of their adversaries, led the Great Powers to sign the 1827 Treaty of London which resulted in their intervention into the war on Greek side; decisively turning the tide of the war against the Ottomans. |
65,425,357 | HMS Linnet (1913) | 1,117,572,662 | Laforey-class destroyer | [
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"Laforey-class destroyers (1913)",
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| HMS Linnet was a Laforey-class destroyer that served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. Launched on 16 August 1913 as HMS Havock, the ship was renamed on 30 September under an Admiralty order to become one of the first destroyers in a class named alphabetically. This convention subsequently became the norm. On commissioning, the vessel joined the Third Destroyer Flotilla and operated as part of the Harwich Force. The destroyer was first commanded by Commander Loftus Jones who named his daughter Linnette after the ship. During the War, the destroyer took part in the Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1914, and escorted minelayers on missions to lay mines. It was during one the latter missions that the ship was nearly hit by a gun hurled from the stricken minelayer Amphion. With the cessation of hostilities, the ship was placed in reserve and sold to be broken up on 4 November 1921.
## Design and development
Linnet was one of twenty-two L- or Laforey-class destroyers built for the Royal Navy, and one of four ordered from Yarrow. The design followed the preceding Acasta-class but with improved seakeeping properties and armament, including twice the number of torpedo tubes.
The destroyer had a length overall of 268 feet 8 inches (81.89 m), a beam of 27 feet 8 inches (8.43 m) and a draught of 10 feet 6 inches (3.20 m). Displacement was 970 long tons (990 t) normal and 1,150 long tons (1,170 t) deep load. Power was provided by three Yarrow boilers feeding two Brown-Curtis steam turbines which had a combined rating of 24,500 shaft horsepower (18,300 kW) and driving two shafts, to give a design speed of 29 knots (54 km/h; 33 mph). Two funnels were fitted. A total of 268 long tons (272 t) of oil was carried, giving a design range of 1,720 nautical miles (3,190 km; 1,980 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The ship's complement was 73 officers and ratings.
Armament consisted of three QF 4 in (102 mm) Mk IV guns on the ship's centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft and one between the funnels. The guns could fire a shell weighing 31 pounds (14 kg) at a muzzle velocity of 2,177 feet per second (664 m/s). One single 7.7 mm (0.3 in) Maxim gun was carried. A single 2-pounder 40 mm (2 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft gun was later added. Torpedo armament consisted of two twin mounts for 21 in (533 mm) torpedoes mounted aft. Capacity to lay four Vickers Elia Mk.4 mines was included, but the facility was never used. A chute and two launchers for depth charges were later added, and were successfully tested simultaneously in June 1917.
## Construction and career
Originally named Havock, the destroyer was laid down by Yarrow at Scotstoun on the River Clyde on 28 June 1912 alongside the similar HMS Haughly and allocated the yard number 1333. The ship was launched on 16 August 1913 and renamed Linnet by Admiralty order on 30 September 1913. Built under the 1912–1913 Programme as part of a class named after characters in Shakespeare's plays and the Waverley novels by Sir Walter Scott, the destroyer joined what was to be the first alphabetical class, with each successive class of destroyers named after a letter of the alphabet. The name of Linnet, recalling the bird in the finch family, was first used by the Royal Navy in 1797, with this vessel the tenth of the name.
On commissioning, the newly renamed Linnet joined the Third Destroyer Flotilla as part of the Harwich Force. Command was given to Commander Loftus Jones, who later went on to receive the Victoria Cross at the Battle of Jutland. He named his daughter Linnette after the ship.
After the British declaration of war and the start of the First World War on 4 August 1914, the destroyer accompanied the minelayer Amphion on a mission to intercept the German auxiliary SMS Königin Luise. The German vessel was sunk, but had already laid its own minefield. Amphion struck a mine on 6 August and, despite efforts by the destroyer's crew to tow the crippled ship to safety, the ship was abandoned. Shortly afterwards, it exploded, one of the guns flying through the air and narrowly missing Linnet.
Later that month, on 26 August, the flotilla was ordered to attack German torpedo boats on their patrol as part of a large Royal Navy fleet in what was to be the Battle of Heligoland Bight. On 28 August, the destroyer formed part of the second flotilla, led by sistership Lark, which attacked the German light cruisers Mainz and Strassburg. The destroyer, along with ten other vessels, attacked the ships at short range with both shells and torpedoes. However, the limitations of technology at the time, particularly the difficulty in hitting a lone target with unguided torpedoes and the lack of effective fire control for the guns, meant that the impact of the attack was small. In all, the ship expended 227 rounds of ammunition in the battle.
By the start of the following year, the vessel had moved to the Ninth Destroyer Flotilla. The destroyer remained at Harwich, undertaking a number of escort roles during the rest of the War. For example, on 20 March 1916, the destroyer formed part of the escort for four British minelayers, including HMS Princess Margaret, while also providing support for a bombing mission against the seaplane sheds at Zeebrugge. The destroyer was attacked by a German force, including the torpedo boat V47, but managed to escape without casualties.
After the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the war, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of strength and both the number of ships and the amount of personnel needed to be reduced to save money. Linnet was initially placed in reserve at Nore alongside over sixty other destroyers. On 4 November 1921, the vessel was sold to Rees of Llanelli and broken up.
## Pennant numbers |
32,367,419 | Edward Stanley (cricketer) | 1,156,701,144 | English cricketer (1852–1896) | [
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| Major Edward Stanley (29 June 1852 – 7 April 1896) was an English military officer who played one first-class cricket match for Somerset County Cricket Club as an emergency stand-in in 1884. Somerset had arrived in Manchester a player short for their fixture against Lancashire, and had to seek special permission to include Stanley in their team. Stanley lived in Manchester, but had been born in Somerset, and thus qualified for the county. His only first-class appearance was not successful; he did not bowl, and scored no runs in either innings of the match.
## Life and career
Edward Stanley was born in Charlton Horethorne, a village between Sherborne and Wincanton in south-east Somerset, on 29 June 1852. He was the son of Edmond Stanley Stanley, a vicar. Due to his father's position, he moved often during his childhood, spending time in Pembroke and then Saint Saviour, Jersey. Stanley attended Victoria College, Jersey, a private school, where he played cricket for the school's first team from 1868 until 1870. He was also a keen athlete, and won a mile-race in a time of 5:45.
Stanley became an assistant master in a Herefordshire school, but left this job to join the British Army. He lived a nomadic lifestyle after this, travelling around the world with his military postings. Initially serving in the 2nd West India Regiment, he spent time in British Guiana and Ipswich before transferring to the 2nd Regiment of Foot which took him to Ireland and Manchester. A subsequent transfer to the North Staffordshire Regiment sent him to the West Indies, before domestic appointments to Lichfield, Plymouth and Portsmouth. He retired from the army in 1888 as a major. Two years later, he joined the Colonial Service and was posted in 1892 as Inspector General of the Houssa Force in Lagos, Nigeria. He had been in the role for four years when he was taken ill with malaria. While sailing home to England from Lagos, he died on 7 April 1896, when the boat put into Accra in Ghana.
## County cricket appearance
In late August 1884, Somerset County Cricket Club had just lost to Kent to record their fourth loss in five matches during 1884. Most of the team travelled from Tunbridge Wells, where that match had been played, to Manchester to play the next day. They were due to be met in Manchester by three members of the Somerset team that had not been able to make it to Kent; John Challen, Bill Roe and Herbert Fowler. Unfortunately for Somerset, Fowler was taken ill and had to withdraw from the match. Newspaper reports on the first day's play either listed ten players, omitting Fowler, or included him as 'absent'; no mention was made of Stanley.
Despite these reports, Somerset had managed to get permission from Lancashire for Edward Stanley to play for them. Stanley was posted to Manchester at the time as a captain in the 2nd Regiment of Foot, and was qualified to play for Somerset on the basis of his birth in the county. He did come out to bat in the first innings at number eleven, but had to retire hurt after being hit by the second delivery he faced. In the second innings, he once again batted eleventh, but was dismissed first ball. By the end of the second day, he was correctly listed on newspaper scorecards, though some listed him as 'absent' for the first innings. Somerset lost the match by ten wickets.
Stanley did not appear in first-class cricket again, meaning that his 'career' featured one match, in which he scored no runs, and took no wickets or catches. He was a keen club cricketer, and appeared for Lichfield Cricket Club amongst others.
## See also
- Harry Winter (cricketer), an almost parallel case |
206,165 | Leslie Morshead | 1,153,554,372 | Australian general | [
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"People from Ballarat",
"Presidents of the Bank of New South Wales",
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| Lieutenant General Sir Leslie James Morshead, KCB, KBE, CMG, DSO, ED (18 September 1889 – 26 September 1959) was an Australian soldier, teacher, businessman, and farmer, whose military career spanned both world wars. During the Second World War, he led the Australian and British troops at the Siege of Tobruk (1941) and at the Second Battle of El Alamein, achieving decisive victories over Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps. His soldiers nicknamed him "Ming the Merciless", later simply "Ming", after the villain in the Flash Gordon comics.
When the First World War broke out in August 1914, Morshead resigned his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps to travel to Sydney and enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in September. He landed at Anzac Cove, Gallipoli on 25 April 1915, and his battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day. Invalided to Australia, he became commander of the 33rd Infantry Battalion, which he led on the Western Front at Messines, Passchendaele, Villers-Bretonneux, and Amiens.
Between the wars Morshead made a successful business career with the Orient Steam Navigation Company, and remained active in the part-time Militia, commanding battalions and brigades. In 1939, he was appointed to command the 18th Infantry Brigade of the 6th Division in the Second Australian Imperial Force. In 1941, he became commander of the 9th Division, which he led in the Siege of Tobruk and the Second Battle of El Alamein. He returned to Australia in 1943, where he was appointed to command II Corps, which he led during the New Guinea campaign. In 1945, he commanded I Corps in the Borneo campaign.
## Early life
Morshead was born on 18 September 1889 in Ballarat, Victoria, the sixth of seven children of William Morshead, a gold miner who had emigrated from Cornwall via Canada, and his wife Mary Eliza Morshead, formerly Rennison, the Australian-born daughter of a fellow Cornish immigrant. William died when Morshead was six years old. He was educated at Mount Pleasant High School, where he was appointed a junior teacher in 1906.
In 1909, he became a student at the Melbourne Teachers Training College to obtain formal teaching qualifications. After his graduation in December 1910, he was awarded a scholarship to complete an education diploma at the University of Melbourne, but decided to defer for a year in order to teach at schools in country Victoria. He became a schoolteacher, teaching first at Tragowell in the Swan Hill district, and then at Fine View State School in the Horsham district. In 1911 he entered Trinity College at the University of Melbourne. After failing an exam in deductive logic, he decided to quit the state school system, and in 1912 took up a position at The Armidale School in the New England district of New South Wales. In 1914 he moved to the prestigious Melbourne Grammar School.
Morshead had been commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Army Cadets in 1908. At Armidale, he was appointed commander of the school cadet unit, and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Militia on 10 February 1913. He was promoted to captain in September. At Melbourne Grammar he commanded a company in that school's much larger cadet unit. While at Melbourne Grammar, he met Myrtle Catherine Woodside, the daughter of a Happy Valley, Victoria, grazier, and the sister of one of Morshead's pupils.
## First World War
### Gallipoli
Morshead's teaching career was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. He resigned both his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps and travelled up to Sydney to enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) because it was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Braund, whom Morshead knew well from his time teaching in Armidale. Morshead's time in the ranks was brief, as he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the AIF on 19 September. He embarked for Egypt on the transport Suffolk on 18 October 1914. While his battalion was in training there, he was promoted to captain on 8 January 1915.
The 2nd Infantry Battalion landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. Morshead's platoon transferred from the transport Derfflinger to the destroyer HMS Usk, which took it to within 500 yards (460 m) of the shore. They then transferred to wooden boats which were towed to the shore, arriving at around 09:30. The battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day, reaching the slopes of Baby 700, but was driven back by a Turkish counter-attack in the afternoon. It beat off further counter-attacks over the next three days. Morshead assumed command of C Company on 28 April. The battalion defeated major Turkish attacks on its position on 18 May and 8 June.
Promoted to major on 8 June, Morshead distinguished himself in the Battle of Lone Pine on 6 August. So intense was the fighting that of the 22 officers in the battalion, Morshead was the only one who did not become a casualty. However, on 16 September, like many others, he succumbed to dysentery and paratyphoid fever. He was evacuated to the 3rd General Hospital on Lemnos, and then to England on the hospital ship Aquitania, where he was admitted to the 3rd London General Hospital in Wandsworth, England. For his services in the Gallipoli campaign, he was mentioned in despatches.
### Western Front
Morshead returned to Australia on 22 January 1916 where he was treated at the 4th General Hospital at Randwick, New South Wales. After he recovered, he was posted to the 33rd Infantry Battalion, which was being raised in Armidale as part of the 3rd Division. He became its commander on 16 April, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel three days later. He embarked for England again with his battalion on 4 May 1916.
The 33rd Infantry Battalion trained at Larkhill on Salisbury Plain in England until November 1916, when it embarked at Southampton for France. On 7 December it relieved a British battalion in the quiet "nursery" sector of the Western Front around Armentières. Morshead was mentioned in despatches, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order. His citation, written by his division commander, Major General John Monash, read:
> This officer has displayed conspicuous ability in administration and organisation of his battalion, which has attained a high standard of fighting efficiency. His energetic attention to the training of his officers and men prior to embarkation was responsible for the smoothness and despatch with which his battalion relieved a British battalion in the line a few days after arriving at the front. Since the battalion has taken its place in the line it has proved itself to be an efficient fighting unit due to this officer's personality and marked capacity for command. He organised and controlled two raids on the enemy's trenches and carried them out successfully. His courage and strong personality has created an excellent spirit in all ranks of the battalion. This officer previously served at Gallipoli.
Official historian Charles Bean described Morshead as:
> a dapper little schoolmaster, only 28 years of age, in whom the traditions of the British Army had been bottled from his childhood like tight-corked champagne; the nearest approach to a martinet among all the young Australian colonels, but able to distinguish the valuable from the worthless in the old army practice; insistent on punctiliousness throughout the battalion as in the officers’ mess, with the assistance of a fine adjutant, Lieutenant Jones: and an imperturbable second-in-command, Major White, and with his own experience of fighting as a junior captain of the 2nd Battalion upon Baby 700 in the Anzac Landing, he had turned out a battalion which anyone acquainted with the whole force recognised, even before Messines, as one of the very best.
Morshead subsequently led the 33rd Infantry Battalion through the Battle of Messines in June 1917, and the disastrous Battle of Passchendaele in October, where the 3rd Division suffered heavy losses. In March 1918, the 3rd Division was sent to the Somme sector to help halt the German Spring Offensive. The 9th Infantry Brigade, of which the 33rd Infantry Battalion was a part, was detached from the 3rd Division and sent to Villers-Bretonneux. On 30 March, the 9th Infantry Brigade's commander, Brigadier General Charles Rosenthal, ordered Morshead to restore the front around Aubercourt. With the aid of the British 12th Lancers, the battalion was able to restore the line, although it was unable to advance as far as Rosenthal hoped. The 33rd Infantry Battalion was then relieved, and withdrawn to Villers-Bretonneux to rest. However, on 4 April, Morshead was astonished to find that the line had again been broken and Villers-Bretonneux threatened. In the First Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, the battalion participated in halting the advance, and prevented the Germans from capturing the town. On 18 April, the 33rd Infantry Battalion was still in the town when it was heavily shelled with poison gas. Many men, including Morshead, became mustard gas casualties. He did not return to his unit until June.
Morshead again led the 33rd Infantry Battalion in the Battle of Amiens. For the fighting in August 1918, he was awarded the French Légion d'honneur in the grade of Chevalier. His citation, written by his new division commander, Major General John Gellibrand, read:
> For gallantry, initiative and ability in action during the operations on SOMME in August 1918. On 8 August 1918, during the attack east of Hamel, Lieutenant Colonel Morshead was in command of the special force for the purpose of clearing Accroche Wood. He executed this task with great skill, and then fought his battalion to its objectives, capturing 500 prisoners, many guns and a large quantity of materiel at very little cost to his own force.
>
> Subsequently during the advance north of Bray on 22 to 24 August 1918, when the situation on his left flank was uncertain, Lieutenant Colonel Morshead gallantly maintained his position refusing his left flank, thus enabling the remainder of his brigade to maintain its position.
>
> On 30/31 August, north of Cléry, he again fought his battalion with great ability and success.
>
> His military ability, fine fighting spirit and cheerfulness under all circumstances had a most inspiring effect upon all ranks and contributed greatly to the success of the operation.
For his service on the Western Front, Morshead was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in December 1919, and was mentioned in despatches three more times.
## Between the wars
Morshead returned to Australia in November 1919 and his AIF appointment was terminated in March 1920. He considered applying for a regular army commission, but found that these were reserved for graduates of the Royal Military College, Duntroon. He tried farming, accepting a soldier settlement block of 23,000 acres (9,300 ha) near Quilpie, Queensland, but this venture was a failure, and he returned to Melbourne, where he married Myrtle at Scots Church, on 17 November 1921. They had a daughter, Elizabeth in 1923.
After working in odd jobs he joined the Orient Line in Sydney on 24 October 1924. He was appointed passenger manager of the Sydney office in 1926. Many Orient Line appointments followed. He became publicity manager in January 1927, acting manager of the Melbourne office in May 1928, passenger and publicity superintendent, and then temporary business manager of the Brisbane office in April 1931. He returned to Sydney, and then moved to the Melbourne office, where he became temporary office manager, a position which became permanent in December 1933; in 1937 he went back to the Sydney office.
All this time, he remained active in the part-time Militia, commanding the 19th Infantry Battalion from 1921 to 1925. He became commander of the 36th Infantry Battalion on 1 August 1926. He was promoted to colonel in 1933, and was appointed to command the 14th Infantry Brigade on 1 January 1933. When he moved to Melbourne in 1934, he transferred to command of the 15th Infantry Brigade, then part of the 3rd Division under Major General Sir Thomas Blamey. On returning to Sydney in 1937 he assumed command of the 5th Infantry Brigade. During a visit to England in 1937 as part of his duties with the Orient Line, he had occasion to observe the British Army on manoeuvres in East Anglia, and was impressed by the pace of modern mechanised forces. He also realised that the Australian Army was lagging a long way behind in both human and technical resources. He was promoted to brigadier in 1938. Known for his right-wing views even before the war, he was also a member of the clandestine far-right wing paramilitary organisation the New Guard.
## Second World War
### Britain
On 6 October 1939, Morshead was selected by Blamey to command the 18th Infantry Brigade in the new 6th Division. This brigade was composed of four battalions from the smaller states, and would have been a natural assignment for a regular officer had Prime Minister Robert Menzies not restricted commands to senior posts to Militia officers, few of whom had much experience of the Army outside their home states. Morshead met with Blamey on 13 October to select officers for the new brigade. Like the other brigadiers, he was given a regular officer as brigade major, in this case Major Ragnar Garrett.
Morshead formally enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on 10 October 1939 and was given the AIF serial number NX8. He was given the rank of colonel and made temporary brigadier three days later. A delay in preparing 18th Infantry Brigade's camp in the Hunter Region meant that it was not concentrated there until December. In the meantime its battalions trained in their home states. After the 16th Infantry Brigade departed for Palestine in January 1940, the 18th Infantry Brigade moved into its vacated accommodation at Ingleburn, New South Wales. As a consequence, its training proceeded more slowly than that of the 16th and 17th Infantry Brigades.
The 18th Infantry Brigade finally embarked from Sydney on the Mauretania on 5 May 1940 but en route was diverted to the United Kingdom owing to the dangerous military situation there following the Battle of France. It moved into camps on Salisbury Plain, where the 3rd Division had trained back in 1916. The Australian force there under Major General Henry Wynter was poorly equipped but the 18th Infantry Brigade was nonetheless given an important role in the defence of Southern England. In September 1940, Wynter was informed that his force would become the nucleus of a new 9th Division, which he was appointed to command. Morshead and his 18th Infantry Brigade embarked for the Middle East on 15 November, reaching Alexandria on 31 December. Morshead was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1941. Before his other two brigades could arrive from England and Australia, Wynter became seriously ill. Blamey decided to send him home and appointed Morshead to command the 9th Division on 29 January 1941.
According to Official historian Barton Maughan:
> Morshead was every inch a general. His slight build and seemingly mild facial expression masked a strong personality, the impact of which, even on a slight acquaintance, was quickly felt. The precise, incisive speech and flint-like, piercing scrutiny acutely conveyed impressions of authority, resoluteness and ruthlessness. If battles, as Montgomery was later to declare, were contests of wills, Morshead was not likely to be found wanting.
### Tobruk
In February 1941, the 9th Division was completely reorganised, with its 18th and 25th Infantry Brigades transferred to the 7th Division. In return, it received the 20th and 24th Infantry Brigades, the latter short one battalion which was on garrison duty in Darwin. The 9th Division, less its partly trained and equipped artillery, was ordered to move to the Tobruk–Derna area where it would relieve the 6th Division, so that formation could participate in the Battle of Greece. The half-trained and half-equipped 9th Division was pitched into the thick of the action almost immediately, steadying the retreat of Commonwealth forces from the newly arrived German Afrika Korps, under General Erwin Rommel, and occupying the vital port of Tobruk. Morshead was given command of the Tobruk garrison which, as the retreat (known to the Australians as the "Benghazi handicap") continued, became surrounded, hundreds of miles behind enemy lines. Lieutenant General John Lavarack determined that Tobruk could be held and ordered Morshead to defend it. He also ordered the 18th Infantry Brigade to reinforce the garrison, bringing it up to four brigades, with British artillery and tank units brought up to provide support.
General Sir Archibald Wavell instructed Morshead to hold the fortress for two months while the rest of Wavell's forces reorganised and mounted a relief mission. With the 9th Division, 18th Infantry Brigade and supporting forces from various Allied nations, Morshead's force decisively defeated Rommel's powerful initial assaults, and retained possession of the fortress. His strategy for the defence of Tobruk is still mentioned in officer training colleges around the world as an example of how to arrange and conduct in-depth defences against a superior armoured force. An important part of Morshead's tactics was conducting offensive operations when these were possible. His attitude was summed up in a reported remark, made when his attention was drawn to a British propaganda article entitled "Tobruk can take it!" Morshead commented: "we're not here to take it, we're here to give it."
Aggressive use of snipers, artillery and counter-attacks achieved surprise at crucial junctures, and kept Rommel's forces off balance. The Axis troops learned to fear the aggressive patrolling of the Australian infantry who dominated no-man's-land and made constant raids on enemy forward positions for intelligence, to take prisoners, to disrupt attack preparations and minelaying operations, even to steal supplies that were not available in Tobruk. The troops were backed up by well-sited artillery and mobile reserves. The 9th Division held Tobruk not for eight weeks, but for eight months, during which time three separate relief campaigns by the main Allied force in Egypt failed. Axis propagandists described Morshead as "Ali Baba Morshead and his 20,000 thieves", and branded the defenders of the port as the "Rats of Tobruk", a sobriquet that they seized on and wore as a badge of pride. Morshead's men referred to him humorously as "Ming the Merciless", and later simply as "Ming", after the villain in Flash Gordon comics.
By July 1941, Morshead had become convinced that his troops were becoming tired. Their health was deteriorating and, in spite of his efforts, their morale and discipline were slipping. He informed Generals Blamey and Auchinleck that they should be relieved. Auchinleck arranged for the 18th Infantry Brigade to be relieved by the Polish Carpathian Brigade so that it could rejoin the 7th Division in August but baulked at relieving the 9th Division. At this point, political considerations came into play. The newly installed government of Prime Minister John Curtin in Australia, on Blamey's advice, took up the matter with Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who protested that the relief would cause a postponement of Operation Crusader. As it turned out, the operation had to be postponed anyway. In October 1941, Morshead and most of the 9th Division was replaced by the British 6th Division. This account is contradicted, in terms of the commander's views, in the documentary 'Narrow Escapes of World War 11' (2012) 'Morshead Holds Tobruk' with a statement that Morshead objected to the withdrawal. This information is recorded here merely to advise that a contrary account exists in the only documentary account. The documentary also adds important information on this stage of the siege. A description, with footage, is given of the extraordinary replacement operation which was undertaken entirely by sea over many nights, and was completed without the Axis becoming aware of it; according to the documentary. The 9th Division moved to Syria to serve as an occupation force, as well as resting, re-equipping and training reinforcements.
The Battle of Tobruk marked a rare defeat for German armoured forces at this stage of the war. For his part in the battle, Morshead was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 6 January 1942. He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari by the Polish government in Exile and was decorated by Generał broni Władysław Sikorski on 21 November 1941.
### El Alamein
The outbreak of war with Japan in December 1941, and the imminent threat of invasion saw the 6th and 7th Divisions transferred to the Far East in early 1942. In March, Morshead was given command of all Australian forces in the Mediterranean theatre, and was promoted to lieutenant general, while still remaining commander of the 9th Division.
Morshead was one of only a few Allied divisional commanders with a distinct record of success at this stage of the war and had been acting commander of the British XXX Corps, a formation largely composed of Commonwealth troops, on two occasions. He had hopes that he might be given command of a corps, as Harry Chauvel had been in the Great War. Many war correspondents, including Gavin Long, thought that Morshead would be an excellent choice, but disagreements with Auchinleck had led to the latter labelling Morshead "a difficult subordinate", who, while an excellent division commander, was not up to the demands of commanding a corps. Moreover, while Chauvel had been an Australian, he had been a regular officer, while Morshead was not. The new commander of the British Eighth Army, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery felt that a reservist could not "possess the requisite training and experience" to command a corps. Morshead was passed over in favour of Oliver Leese, a British regular officer, who was junior to him and had never commanded a division in action.
At the Second Battle of El Alamein, the 9th Division was given responsibility for clearing a corridor through the German and Italian forces in the North and threatening to cut off those between the coastal road and the sea. In the initial assault the division hacked its way through the enemy defences but failed to clear the minefields. As the British attack faltered, the main effort switched to the 9th Division, which punched a massive dent into the German and Italian position over the next five days at great cost, "crumbling" the Afrika Korps in the process, and ultimately forcing Rommel to retreat. "I am quite certain", Leese informed Morshead, "that this breakout was made possible by Homeric fighting over your divisional sector." During the El Alamein Campaign, the 9th Division suffered 22% of the British Eighth Army's casualties; 1,177 Australians were killed, while 3,629 were wounded, 795 were captured and 193 were missing. Morshead received yet another mention in despatches in June 1942, and in November 1942 he was also created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath.
### New Guinea Campaign
After El Alamein, Morshead and the 9th Division were recalled to the South West Pacific Area (SWPA). Morshead arrived in Fremantle on 19 February 1943 where he was welcomed home by Lieutenant General Gordon Bennett, who had been his divisional commander in Sydney between the wars. Morshead then flew to Melbourne where he was met by Lady Morshead, Sir Winston Dugan and Sir Thomas Blamey, who informed Morshead that he would take over command of a corps. In March 1943, Morshead became commander of II Corps, handing over command of the 9th Division to Major General George Wootten. The association between Morshead and the 9th Division was not entirely broken however, as it formed part of his corps, along with the 6th and 7th Divisions, all three of which were undergoing jungle warfare training on the Atherton Tableland for upcoming battles in New Guinea. It was Blamey's intention that Morshead would spend some time learning the art of jungle warfare before his II Corps replaced Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring's I Corps in New Guinea. Morshead's chief of staff at II Corps was Brigadier Henry Wells, who had been his chief of staff at El Alamein.
In late September 1943, Morshead was summoned to New Guinea to relieve Herring by Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay, the commander of New Guinea Force, which he did on 7 October 1943. Morshead found a difficult situation. The Japanese not only held the high ground overlooking the Australian beachhead at Finschhafen, they were rapidly reinforcing their position and were about to mount a major counter-attack. Morshead demanded and got critical reinforcements, including Matilda tanks of the 1st Tank Battalion. The Japanese counter-attack was crushed. Morshead relieved Brigadier Bernard Evans of command of the 24th Infantry Brigade, replacing him with Brigadier Selwyn Porter, who had commanded a brigade in the Kokoda Track campaign. Unlike most reliefs of senior officers in SWPA this relief, while controversial at the time, has attracted little attention since.
Adjusting to jungle warfare was a challenge for both Morshead and his men. Gavin Long recalled that
> Morshead picked up the day's Intelligence Summary and read something like: "The gun at 965476 is now identified as a light AA gun. A Jap was killed by a booby trap at 543267", and gestured as much as to say what kind of war is this? He has come back from a war in which divisions fought divisions, and artillery barrages on the maximum scale were used to one in which it is news that there is one Jap gun in a certain area, and a scout is killed at a certain point.
On 7 November 1943, Morshead became acting commander of New Guinea Force and Second Army on Mackay's departure to become the Australian High Commissioner to India. This became permanent on 20 January 1944. Major General Frank Berryman became commander of II Corps. Because of some sensitivities concerning the relative seniority of Berryman and Major General George Alan Vasey, Blamey placed Vasey's 7th Division directly under Morshead's command. Vasey soon chafed under Morshead's command, feeling that "he has too many favourites both individually and collectively", with men who had served at El Alamein receiving preferential treatment. Morshead was in overall charge of the forces in New Guinea in the battles of Sattelberg, Jivevaneng, Sio and Shaggy Ridge. His perseverance was rewarded with the capture of Madang in April 1944.
### Borneo campaign
Morshead handed over command of New Guinea Force to Lieutenant General Stanley Savige on 6 May 1944, and returned to Australia, where he remained the commander of the Second Army. Despite the fact that Morshead had been in command in an active area, some critics of the government picked up on the public announcement in November that Morshead would command Second Army, and charged that he had been "shelved". On the contrary, Blamey had recommended to Curtin that Morshead should succeed him as commander-in-chief in the event that he became incapacitated. However, dealing with the politicians held little appeal for Morshead, and while he was pleased at the recognition, hoped that this would not occur.
In the event, this was not the end of Morshead's wartime service, just a respite. In July 1944, Morshead was appointed as commander of I Corps on the Atherton Tableland. Although nominally a lesser command, it would be the spearhead of the Australian Army in subsequent operations. The staff was that of Morshead's former II Corps, as the I and II Corps headquarters had exchanged names. In February 1945, Morshead received word that his objective would be Borneo. General Douglas MacArthur placed I Corps under his direct command for the operation. Morshead had to make a series of landings at Tarakan, North Borneo and Balikpapan on the east and north west coasts of the island. These were carried out with great efficiency, achieving their objectives with low casualties.
The British government proposed that British Lieutenant General Sir Charles Keightley be given command of a Commonwealth Corps for Operation Coronet, the proposed invasion of Honshu, the main island of Japan, but the Australian government had no intention of concurring with the appointment of an officer with no experience fighting the Japanese, and counter-proposed Morshead for the command. The war ended before the issue was resolved.
## Postwar life
After the war Morshead returned to civilian life, becoming the Orient Steam Navigation Company's Australian general manager on 31 December 1947. He continued to receive honours for his military service, including a further mention in despatches in 1947 and the American Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm. He was president of the Bank of New South Wales, the chairman of David Jones, and director of several companies. From 1950 Morshead headed 'The Association', a secret organization similar to the New Guard movement with which he had been involved in the mid-1920s, and which was prepared to oppose communist attempts at subversion. It was quietly disbanded in 1952.
In later life, Morshead turned down various offers of military and diplomatic posts, as well as the governorship of Queensland. He did serve as president of the Boy Scouts Association of New South Wales and the Big Brother Movement, a British youth emigration support scheme, and was a trustee of the Gowrie scholarship trust fund, which provided assistance to the descendants of Second World War veterans. In 1957 he was appointed chairman of a committee which reviewed the group of departments concerned with defence. The Menzies government accepted the committee's recommendation that Supply and Defence Production be amalgamated, but dropped the key proposal that the Department of Defence absorb the Departments of Army, Navy and Air. This reform was finally carried out by the Whitlam government in 1975.
Morshead died of cancer on 26 September 1959 at St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney. He was given a military funeral at which former soldiers of the 9th Division paid their respects, after which his body was cremated. He was survived by his wife and daughter.
## Legacy
Morshead was commemorated in several ways. Morshead Drive, which runs past the Royal Military College, Duntroon, in Canberra is named after him. In the Canberra suburb of Lyneham is the Morshead War Veterans Home, with high-dependency care and associated self-care two-bedroom houses. His portrait by Ivor Hele is held by the Australian War Memorial, as are his wartime papers. A memorial fountain to Morshead stands opposite the State Library of New South Wales, at the entrance to Sydney's Royal Botanic Gardens, designed by Robert Woodward, who also designed the El Alamein Fountain in Kings Cross. |
33,378,375 | Cindy Shatto | 1,156,600,690 | Canadian diver | [
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"2011 deaths",
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"Canadian people of American descent",
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| Cynthia "Cindy" Shatto (June 19, 1957 – October 3, 2011) was a Canadian diver. She won a gold medal in the 1974 British Commonwealth Games 3 metre springboard event and competed in the women's 10 metre platform event at the 1976 Summer Olympics, where she finished fifth following controversy over the judges' scoring.
Shatto began competitive diving when she was 8 years old and won nearly all diving events of her age group. To further develop her skills, in 1970 she and fellow diver Linda Cuthbert moved into the family home of her coach Don Webb, where she would train for up to five hours a day, six days a week, only taking rest on Sunday. Around the age of 14, she was admitted to hospital in the early 1970s and needed her gall bladder removed due to eating too much greasy food, leaving her weak and unable to train during the winter of 1971–1972. During the mid-1970s in-between competing at the 1974 Commonwealth Games and the 1976 Olympics, she lost interest in the sport and her attitude changed when she compared her lifestyle to that of others who did not have the pressures of international competitions, but was encouraged by fellow diver Beverly Boys to reflect positively on the sport and thereafter began serious practising again from around August 1975.
Shatto retired from competitive diving in 1978 after growing tired of a nomadic lifestyle and in summer 1990 moved with her family to Binghamton, New York, where she became a diving coach at Binghamton University. She died of lung cancer in October 2011 at the age of 54.
## Career
### Childhood and early development
Born in June 1957, Shatto began roller skating at the age of 2 and later took up acrobatics, modern dance and learnt to play the violin. She started competitive diving at the age of 8 in her family's backyard pool in Willowdale, Toronto. Her father would play diving games with her, using a long garbage sweeping pole for her to run and leap over "like a porpoise". Under the early coaching of John Dickinson, Shatto won "just about every age-group meet she entered". Among her first recognised competitions was the Ontario under-10s 1-metre diving championships, where at the age of 8 she scored 84.20 points and won in her age group. At the age of 9, she practised 33 feet (10 m) platform diving at the open-air pool in Summerville, occasionally being blown by wind from the tower due to its location near the edge of Lake Ontario. Despite the extreme cold weather conditions, she persevered. A few weeks after her ninth birthday, she became the Ontario diving champion in the girls under-10 age category with a score of 132.75 and followed it up by becoming the United States diving champion in her age group.
By the age of 10, she had experience with playing the violin, acrobatics, contemporary dancing and baton twirling. Her mother described her as persistent, saying that "if she discovered something she couldn't master, she'd get mad, sulk, but stick it out until she got better." Shortly before turning 11, as a member of the Etobicoke Diving Club, she won the under-14 tower event in the Ontario open championships, which brought her competitive record to 26 first place finishes, two second placed finishes and one third place finish across 29 events. Shortly before her 12th birthday, she finished runner-up in the 1969 Ontario open 3-metre diving championships in the girls' under-15 category. At the age of 13, she was invited to train with national coach Don Webb, requiring her to live with Webb's family for around three years, the first two years being in Winnipeg.
During her earlier years, she frequently ate excessive amounts of chips and gravy, with other children using it as her nickname. Having been admitted to hospital with constant stomach pains due to excessive greasy food, her gallbladder was removed which left her weak and unable to train during the winter of 1971–1972.
### Competitive diving
By 1973, she had been living with Don Webb's family for three years, training up to five hours a day, six days a week, or longer when preparing for a competition. Alongside Linda Cuthbert, another diver living with the Webbs, Shatto trained for an hour at lunchtime and had a heavier workload on Saturdays, with a rest day on Sundays. Diving was everything to Shatto at that point, and she loved the competition, traveling and meeting new people. She would show little emotion during competitions, except when winning, and did not like her father watching her diving as they would both get nervous. In the same year, she represented her country at the world championships held in Yugoslavia. Under Webb's coaching in 1974, Shatto won a gold medal in the British Commonwealth Games in Christchurch in the 3 metre springboard diving event, establishing herself as the likeliest contender in Canada to win a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics. According to Webb, Shatto was a natural diver with class, possessing the style and determination that other divers had to learn.
#### Depression
Prior to the 1976 Olympics, Shatto went through a depressive period around 1974 and 1975, losing her motivation for competitive diving and developing a poor attitude. Her performances during this time barely reflected her talent as a top three diver in Canada. She even considered retiring from the sport to live a more traditional lifestyle, like her sister Becky, who was recognized as a "female athlete of the year" in high school. She started comparing her life to her sister's and felt envy. Shatto's father, a perfectionist, couldn't understand her change in attitude or lack of interest in diving. After reflecting on the positive aspects of diving, including international travel and the people she had met, Shatto was offered advice by fellow diver Beverly Boys, which helped her regain her motivation and confidence. She began serious practicing again around August 1975 and accepted that if she performed poorly, it would be due to lack of practice, not attitude.
#### Olympics and beyond
She had taken a year out of high school in 1976 to train for the Olympics full time. Shortly after turning 19, Shatto competed in the 1976 Olympics and was in second place in the women's 10 metre platform after five of eight dives, but dropped to fifth position following a sixth dive that was scored controversially. The Montreal Gazette at the time suggested that she had been "cheated out of at least a bronze," alleging bias from the Soviet and Swedish judges, although Shatto felt that finishing fifth in the world was still an accomplishment. After the Olympics, she took a six-month sabbatical, feeling “physically let down” by not winning anything in the competition, which was longer than the three-week breaks she usually took. Shatto returned to training in July 1977 to prepare for the world championships in 1978, practicing diving for four to five hours a day.
### Retirement
On the eve of the 1978 Commonwealth Games, Shatto announced her retirement from competitive diving at the age of 21, citing the "nomadic life of a world-class athlete" as being the primary factor in her loss of interest. She admitted that her Olympic controversy two years prior was a contributing factor as well as losing motivation, instead preferring to get a job and earn her own money.
## Later life
In later life, she was an executive secretary with Xerox around 1987 and later an assistant to the owner of Mundial International. In June 1990, she relocated with her family to Binghamton, New York where her husband grew up, having grown tired of Florida. It was the first time Shatto had lived in a small town, which she liked due to being "family-oriented". She answered an advertisement in September 1990 for a job as a diving coach and was successful at securing the role at Binghamton University, which her husband later noted had a positive effect on her. During a 1977 interview she had expressed reluctance to enter coaching, believing that she did not have the "outgoing personality" that was needed to get divers to do the dives she would want them to.
## Personal
Born as Cynthia Shatto in June 1957, her father, Dick Shatto, was a professional Canadian football player and member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. and her mother was Lynne Shatto (nee Garlough). Cindy was the third of five children and attended Rideau High School. During her diving career, Shatto measured 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 m) tall and weighed around 126 pounds (57 kg).
A long-term resident of Florida, Shatto was married to William "Bill" Weingartner in February 1985, having first met in 1979 when she entered a restaurant in Tarpon Springs that Weingartner managed, in search of a job following her retirement from diving. He recalled that he "instantly fell in love", at the time unaware of her sporting achievements until their relationship developed. They had two sons born in the 1980s, Richard who also took up diving and Christopher.
She died of lung cancer in October 2011 at the age of 54, following a two year battle. |
24,472,823 | Atheniella adonis | 1,155,736,601 | Species of fungus | [
"Fungi described in 1792",
"Fungi of Asia",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of North America",
"Taxa named by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard"
]
| Atheniella adonis, which has the recommended name of scarlet bonnet in the UK, is a species of agaric in the family Cyphellaceae. Found in Asia, Europe, and North America, it produces small orangish to reddish mushrooms with caps up to 1.2 cm (0.5 in) in diameter and thin pinkish-white stems reaching 4 cm (1.6 in) long. The fungus typically grows in conifer woods and peat bogs, suggesting a preference for acidic environments. The appearance of several atypical fruitings on deciduous wood in the Netherlands in the late 1970s was attributed to increases in atmospheric pollution that raised the acidity of the wood substrate.
## Taxonomy
The species was first named Agaricus adonis in 1792 by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard, and placed in Mycena by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821. Rolf Singer successively moved it to Hemimycena (1943), then Marasmiellus (1951). Singer later changed his mind about these placements, and his 1986 Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, he considered the species a Mycena.
Recent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has shown that the species is not closely related to Mycena and belongs in the Cyphellaceae in the genus Atheniella.
### Etymology
The species epithet refers to the handsome youth Adonis in Greek mythology. Samuel Frederick Gray called it the "Adonis high-stool" in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British Plants, while Mordecai Cubitt Cooke named it the "delicate Mycena".
## Description
The cap initially has a sharply conic shape, but expands to a narrow bell-shape or a broad cone in maturity, typically reaching 0.5 to 1.2 cm (0.2 to 0.5 in) in diameter. The cap margin, which is initially pressed against the stem, is opaque or nearly so at first. It is scarlet red when fresh and moist, becoming orange or yellowish orange before losing moisture. The mushroom is hygrophanous, and fades to an orange buff when dry. The flesh is thin, the same color as the cap, fragile, and without any distinctive taste or odor. The gills are ascending-adnate (the gills attach at much less than a right angle, appearing to curve upward toward stem) or attached by a tooth, subdistant to close, with 14–16 gills reaching the stem. Additionally, there are two or three tiers of lamellulae—short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem. The gills are narrow, and yellowish or with a reddish tinge at first; the margins are paler and the same color as the faces. The stem is 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) long and 1–2 mm (0.0–0.1 in) thick, and roughly equal in width throughout. It is tubular, fragile, initially pruinose (covered with a fine powder), polished and smooth with age, pale yellow, becoming whitish, with the base often dirty yellow or brownish.
### Microscopic characteristics
The spores are narrowly ellipsoid, inamyloid, and measure 6–7 by 3–3.5 μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored and measure 20–22 by 6–7 μm. The cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia (cystidia found on the edges and faces, respectively, of the gills) are abundant and similar in shape and markings, 40–58 by 10–15 μm, tapering somewhat on either end and usually with a long needle-shaped neck (which is branched in some). The cystidia are generally smooth, but when dried material is mounted in potassium hydroxide for observation under light microscopy, an amorphous substance apparently holds spores and debris around the neck or apex, making them appear encrusted. The flesh of the gill is very faintly vinaceous-brown when stained in iodine. The cap flesh has a thin, poorly differentiated pellicle with a region of slightly enlarged cells beneath it; the remainder is filamentous, and the filamentous portion stains vinaceous-brown in iodine.
### Similar species
Mycena acicula is typically smaller with a deep orange-red cap rather than the typical bright salmon-pink of A. adonis. Since the colors and sizes of M. acicula and A. adonis are similar, a microscope is needed to reliably distinguish between them, with spore size and shape being different. Mycena strobilinoides can be distinguished by its orange cap and amyloid spores. Atheniella aurantiidisca can be distinguished by its lack of scarlet to pinkish tones in the cap and lack of gelatinized cortical hyphae. Mycena oregonensis is differentiated by its orange to yellow cap and lack of scarlet to pinkish tones. Mycena roseipallens has a smaller fruit body, wider spores, a less intensely colored and less conical cap, and grows on the decaying wood of elm, ash, and alder.
## Ecology, habitat and distribution
The fruit bodies of A. adonis grow solitarily or in groups in conifer forests and heaths, and appear in the spring and autumn. The fruit bodies grow in groups or scattered on needle beds under spruce and hemlock in wet coastal conifer forests, or in the higher mountains, where it is not uncommon in the spring and autumn months. In one instance, fruit bodies were found growing on the deciduous trees Spanish Maple (Acer granatense) and willow (Salix alba) near Amsterdam. It was hypothesized that the bark of these trees had become more acid in recent years because of increasing atmospheric pollution (specifically, increases in the levels of sulfuric and nitric acid from industrial smoke), providing a more suitable substrate for the fungus.
The fungus is found in Europe and in western North America, where Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith found the species in Washington, Oregon, and California. In 2007, it was reported from the valley of the Ussuri River in the northeast of China. |
1,955,393 | LaTroy Hawkins | 1,172,537,331 | American baseball player (born 1972) | [
"1972 births",
"2009 World Baseball Classic players",
"20th-century African-American sportspeople",
"21st-century African-American sportspeople",
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"New York Yankees players",
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"San Francisco Giants players",
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"World Baseball Classic players of the United States"
]
| LaTroy Hawkins (born December 21, 1972) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. In his 21-year Major League Baseball (MLB) career, he played for the Minnesota Twins, Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, Baltimore Orioles, Colorado Rockies, New York Yankees, Houston Astros, Milwaukee Brewers, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, New York Mets, and Toronto Blue Jays. Through the 2020 season, his 1,042 games pitched were the 10th-most of any major league player. He has also registered saves against all 30 MLB teams.
Born and raised in Gary, Indiana, Hawkins was a seventh-round draft pick of the Twins out of high school. He debuted with the team in 1995 and reached the major leagues for good in 1997. After posting some of the worst earned run averages (ERA) in the American League (AL) in 1998 and 1999, Hawkins was moved to the bullpen in 2000. He struggled as the Twins' closer in 2001 but found better success thereafter in a setup role, posting a career-low 1.86 ERA in 2003 and reaching the playoffs in 2002 and 2003 with Minnesota.
In 2004, the Cubs signed Hawkins to setup for closer Joe Borowski, but he blew several saves and became unpopular with the team's fans. He was traded to the Giants in 2005 and served as a setup man again for various teams for the next few seasons. He reached the World Series with the Rockies in 2007, though the team was swept by the Boston Red Sox in four games. Hawkins joined the Yankees in 2008, struggled, and was traded to the Astros, where he was very effective. In 2009, he filled in for an injured José Valverde as the Astros' closer and posted a 2.13 ERA. He signed a two-year contract with the Brewers after the season and reached the playoffs with Milwaukee again in 2011.
After spending a year with the Angels in 2012, Hawkins had to sign a minor league contract with the Mets in 2013. He made their roster and had become their closer by the end of the year. In 2014, as the oldest player in the NL, he served as Colorado's closer. In 2015, he reached the playoffs with the Blue Jays before retiring at the end of the year.
## Amateur career
Hawkins was born and raised in Gary, Indiana. Hawkins' father was absent, and he was raised primarily by his mother, Debra, and his maternal grandparents. Growing up, he played baseball with broom handles, not getting to use a glove until he started playing Little League Baseball. Hawkins attended West Side High School. At West Side, he competed in basketball against Glenn Robinson and received a full scholarship offer to play college basketball at Indiana State. Hawkins also participated in track and field and the 1600 meters relay while in high school. Initially, he favored basketball over baseball, but Hawkins chose to pursue a baseball career after his grandfather told him that the latter was his better sport.
## Professional career
### Minnesota Twins (1995–2003)
Hawkins was drafted straight out of high school by the Minnesota Twins in the seventh round of the 1991 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft and received a \$47,500 signing bonus. He spent the next four years in the Twins' minor league system before making the team's starting rotation out of spring training in 1995. His MLB debut on April 29, 1995, was a disastrous start against the Baltimore Orioles, where he gave up seven earned runs on seven hits in only 1+2⁄3 innings of work. After losing his first three starts, Hawkins was demoted to the Salt Lake Buzz of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League in May when the Twins had to shrink their roster. Promoted again in September, he won for the first time in the second game of a doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals on September 18. Altogether, Hawkins made six starts with a 2–3 record and an 8.67 earned run average (ERA). He began 1996 in the Twins' rotation as well, and struck out 10 batters in a win over the Detroit Tigers on April 25. However, he was demoted to the Buzz in May after posting an 8.20 ERA in seven starts for the Twins. This time, he was not promoted in September.
For the 1997 season, Hawkins started out pitching in Salt Lake City. Though his ERA with the Buzz was 5.45, his record was 9–4. He was promoted to the Twins in June, spending the rest of the season in their rotation. In 20 starts, he compiled a 6–12 record and a 5.84 ERA. Though his first start had not come until June 17, his 12 losses tied him with 11 other pitchers for 10th in the American League (AL).
1998 was the first year that Hawkins spent an entire season in the Twins' rotation. On May 17, he was the opposing starting pitcher during David Wells' perfect game. Hawkins led the team with 33 starts but sported a 7–14 record, leading the team in most runs allowed (126) and walks (70). He had the worst walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) figure among Twins starters, with a 1.53 mark. His 5.25 ERA ranked him 88th out of 97 pitchers who threw enough innings to qualify for the MLB ERA title, and his 14 losses tied him with four other pitchers for eighth in the AL.
In 1999, for the second year in a row, Hawkins made 33 starts. He won 10 games this time but lost 14 again, and his 6.66 ERA was the worst among MLB starters who pitched enough innings to qualify for the ERA title. Hawkins led the AL in earned runs allowed (129), and his 14 losses were tied with four other pitchers for fourth in the AL.
Hawkins was moved to the bullpen in 2000. Twins manager Tom Kelly, unable to decide who he wanted as his full-time closer, used both Hawkins and Bob Wells in the role throughout the year. Hawkins appeared in 66 games, posting a 2–5 record and an ERA of 3.39. After never having recorded a save before, he converted 14 without blowing any chances.
By 2001, Hawkins was the everyday closer. He converted his first nine save opportunities, stretching his streak of consecutive saves recorded to 23 before he finally blew a save on May 5, against the Royals. As the season wore on, however, his ERA climbed to almost 6.00, and he was replaced as the closer by Eddie Guardado. He led the Twins in saves (28) but recorded a 5.96 ERA and a 1.91 WHIP in 61 games.
Over the next two seasons, Hawkins served as a setup man for Guardado. In 2002, Hawkins was used mainly in the seventh and eighth innings. He appeared in 65 games, winning all six of his decisions, posting a 2.13 ERA, and striking out 63 hitters in 80+1⁄3 innings pitched. The Twins won the AL Central Division title, and Hawkins made three appearances in the AL Division Series (ALDS) against the Oakland Athletics, striking out five batters in 2+1⁄3 scoreless innings as the Twins defeated Oakland in five games. He appeared in four games in the AL Championship Series (ALCS) against the Anaheim Angels as well, but his ERA was 20.25 this time, and the Angels defeated the Twins in four games. The next season, he was primarily used in the eighth inning. He posted a 9–3 record and struck out 75 hitters in 77+1⁄3 innings. His 1.86 ERA was fifth-lowest among AL pitchers who threw at least 60 innings, and his 74 appearances were fifth-highest among AL pitchers. For the second year in a row, the Twins won the AL Central Division title, this time facing the New York Yankees in the ALDS. In Game 1, Hawkins was awarded the win after pitching a scoreless seventh and eighth innings. However, he would post a 6.00 ERA in three appearances in the series, which the Yankees won three games to one. Hawkins became a free agent after the 2003 season.
### Chicago Cubs (2004–2005)
In December 2003, Hawkins signed a three-year, \$11.2 million contract with the Chicago Cubs. He began the year as the eighth-inning setup man for Cubs closer Joe Borowski, but Borowski was sidelined with an injury in early June, and Hawkins took over closing duties. On September 11, Hawkins threw an immaculate inning, striking out the side on only nine pitches in a game against the Florida Marlins. He posted an ERA of 2.63 and recorded 25 saves in 75 games for the Cubs in 2004. However, Hawkins also blew nine saves, including two (against the New York Mets on September 25 and the Cincinnati Reds on September 29) during a late-season losing streak that cost the Cubs the wild card. The blown saves earned him the ire of Cubs fans, who made a habit of booing him loudly at Wrigley Field when he came on in relief. Hawkins feuded with fans and media, and his relationship with both deteriorated.
Hawkins converted four saves early in the 2005 season but blew an equal number of opportunities. In early May, the Cubs replaced him as closer with Ryan Dempster, who was moved out of the starting rotation. Through 21 games with the team that season, Hawkins had a 1–4 record and a 3.32 ERA. On May 28, the Cubs traded Hawkins to the San Francisco Giants in exchange for pitchers Jerome Williams and David Aardsma.
### San Francisco Giants (2005)
With the Giants, Hawkins assumed an eighth inning setup role, frequently preceding closer Tyler Walker. When Hawkins returned to Wrigley Field in late July, he was booed again by the Cubs fans. He suffered another blown save during the series on July 26, but the Giants won the game 3–2. In 45 games with the Giants, Hawkins had a 1–4 record and a 4.10 ERA. Between the Cubs and Giants, Hawkins's record was 2–8 in 66 games, with an ERA of 3.83. He allowed 58 hits in 56+1⁄3 innings pitched and posted a WHIP of 1.46. On December 6, Hawkins was traded along with cash considerations to the Baltimore Orioles for left-handed reliever Steve Kline.
### Baltimore Orioles (2006)
With the Orioles in 2006, Hawkins served as the eighth inning setup man for closer Chris Ray. He spent one season with the Orioles, going 3–2 with a 4.48 ERA and no saves in 60 games. After the season, he became a free agent. Following his departure from Baltimore, he criticized the negative atmosphere that plagued the losing team's clubhouse. "Yeah, it was bad," he stated. "I don't want to knock the Orioles, but it was just bad. Bad."
### Colorado Rockies (2007)
On December 5, 2006, Hawkins signed a one-year, \$3.25 million contract with the Colorado Rockies, who wanted him to serve as the eighth inning setup man in 2007 for closer Brian Fuentes. From April 24 to May 22, Hawkins was on the disabled list due to right elbow inflammation. On July 8, when the Philadelphia Phillies helped the Coors Field groundskeepers get the tarp placed on the field during a heavy storm, Hawkins was the only member of the home team to join them in assisting. In 62 games, Hawkins had a 2–5 record, a 3.42 ERA, and zero saves. At the end of the regular season, the Rockies forced a tie-breaker game against the San Diego Padres to determine the NL wild card team. Hawkins pitched a scoreless seventh inning, and the Rockies eventually won the game 9–8 in 13 innings to reach the playoffs for the first time in their history. He made three appearances for the Rockies in the NLDS (Game 1) and NLCS (Games 2 and 4), pitching a scoreless seventh inning each time as the Rockies won seven straight games to earn a trip to the World Series. There, he pitched the last inning of Games 1 and 3 against the Boston Red Sox, allowing Mike Lowell to score on a sacrifice fly hit by Jason Varitek in the latter as Colorado lost four straight games. After the season, he became a free agent.
### New York Yankees (2008)
On December 9, 2007, Hawkins signed a one-year, \$3.75 million contract with the New York Yankees. Previously, he had worn uniform No. 32 with the Rockies. However, since the Yankees had retired that number in honor of Elston Howard, Hawkins switched to No. 21 in 2008. He became the first Yankee to wear that number since outfielder Paul O'Neill in 2001. However, after returning from a road trip on April 16, Hawkins switched to No. 22 in response to the fans' booing, yelling, and calling O'Neill's name when he took the field.
On May 20, during a game against the Baltimore Orioles, Hawkins threw a head-high pitch over left fielder Luke Scott. Hawkins was ejected by home plate umpire Chuck Meriwether, and Scott accused him of deliberately throwing the ball over his head, though Hawkins said he was just pitching inside. Hawkins was suspended by MLB for three games and fined an undisclosed amount.
Hawkins pitched unimpressively with the Yankees in 2008, going 1–1 with a 5.71 ERA in 33 relief appearances. On July 26, he was designated for assignment.
### Houston Astros (2008–2009)
On July 30, 2008, the Houston Astros acquired Hawkins from the Yankees for minor leaguer Matt Cusick. The trade was made because the Astros needed someone to help Doug Brocail in late-inning setup situations. Hawkins pitched 21 innings out of the bullpen and allowing just one earned run over that span (good for an ERA of 0.43). "No one could have imagined Hawkins would respond with a nearly perfect two-month run with his new team," praised Alyson Footer of MLB.com. Hawkins signed a one-year deal with the Astros to return for the 2009 season.
Just before the 2009 World Baseball Classic began in March, Hawkins was added to the roster for the United States national baseball team when Joe Nathan had to drop out because of a sore shoulder. He pitched in four games in the tournament, winning one and posting a 7.36 ERA. The United States was eliminated by Japan in the semifinals.
From late April through the middle of June 2009, Hawkins served as Houston's closer, as regular closer José Valverde was sidelined with a calf injury. While Valverde was out, Hawkins was 9-for-11 in save opportunities. When Valverde returned, Hawkins again assumed an eighth-inning setup role. From July 28 through August 12, 2009, Hawkins was on the disabled list because of back pain caused by shingles. "Hugs were completely out of the question," he described the pain. In 65 games, Hawkins sported an ERA of 2.13 in 65 games, the lowest ERA he had since 2003. He had a 1–4 record and saved 11 games. After the 2009 season, Hawkins became a free agent.
### Milwaukee Brewers (2010–2011)
On December 16, 2009, Hawkins signed a two-year contract with the Milwaukee Brewers that was worth \$7.5 million. Shoulder soreness prevented him from pitching for Milwaukee from May 6 through July 30, and after appearing in only five further games through August 10, he was placed back on the disabled list with shoulder weakness, never to pitch again that season. All told, the injuries limited him to 18 games in 2010. He was 0–3 with an 8.44 ERA.
Hawkins served as the eighth-inning setup man for John Axford in 2011. From April 25 through July 1, he did not allow a run in 22 straight games (20 innings pitched). He was 3–1 with a 2.42 ERA in 52 games as the Brewers won the NL Central. Facing the Arizona Diamondbacks in the NLDS, he pitched a scoreless inning in Game 2. The Brewers won that series in five games. In the NLCS against the Cardinals, he was not charged with a run in three appearances, but he did allow two inherited runners to score in Milwaukee's 12–6 loss in Game 6. The Cardinals defeated the Brewers in six games. After the season, he became a free agent.
### Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (2012)
On January 6, 2012, Hawkins agreed to a one-year, \$3 million contract with the Los Angeles Angels for the 2012 season. From May 7 through June 9, he was on the disabled list with a broken right pinkie finger. He led Angel relievers with a 1.63 ERA through August 2 but posted a 7.71 ERA thereafter, losing the distinction to Ernesto Frieri by season's end. Frieri posted a 2.32 ERA, compared to Hawkins's 3.64. Hawkins appeared in 48 games, going 2–3. After the season, he became a free agent.
### New York Mets (2013)
Unable to get a major league contract in 2013, Hawkins signed a minor league deal with invitation to spring training with the Mets on January 31. He considered retiring rather than accepting the minor league contract, but his agent told him to reconsider for 24 hours, and Hawkins decided ""Next time I leave this game, I'm gonna leave on my own terms." At the end of spring training, he earned a spot on the Mets roster. In August, he became the team's closer after Bobby Parnell was shut down for the season with a herniated disc in his back. After blowing a save against the Padres on August 14, he converted 10 straight save opportunities to end the year. Hawkins appeared in 72 games, amassing a 3–2 record and 13 saves (his most since the 2004 season with the Cubs) while posting a 2.93 ERA. After the season, he became a free agent.
### Second stint with the Colorado Rockies (2014–2015)
In November 2013, Hawkins signed a one-year, \$2.5 million contract to return to the Colorado Rockies. By 2014, the 41-year-old Hawkins was the oldest active player in the NL and the oldest active MLB pitcher.
Hawkins served as the Rockies' closer for the 2014 season. He converted his first 10 save opportunities of the year before blowing one on May 18 against the Padres. The streak of 20 (dating back to 2013) was his longest since he converted 23 straight saves from 2000 to 2001. He finished the year with a 3.31 ERA. On September 27, Hawkins made his 1,000th career appearance in a game against the Los Angeles Dodgers and promptly got Darwin Barney to fly out to right field. Though he converted only 23 saves, he only blew three opportunities and served as Colorado's closer for the entire season. Adam Ottavino was the only other Rockie to record a save in 2014; Colorado's 24 saves were the lowest total among the 15 NL teams.
On December 12, 2014, during an interview on MLB Network, Hawkins announced that 2015 would be his last MLB season. He opened 2015 as the closer but was removed from the role on April 13 after blowing saves in two of his first three appearances. From April 22 through June 15, he was on the disabled list with right biceps tendinitis. After posting a 2–1 record, two saves, and a 3.63 ERA in 24 games, he and teammate Troy Tulowitzki were traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for José Reyes, Jeff Hoffman, Miguel Castro, and Jesús Tinoco on July 28.
### Toronto Blue Jays (2015)
On August 5, Hawkins became the 13th player in MLB history to record a save against all 30 teams, closing out a 9–7 win over the Minnesota Twins, the team he started his professional career with. He also surpassed Darren Oliver as the oldest Blue Jay to record a save. He finished the game against the Orioles on September 30 that clinched the AL East division championship, pitching an inning and striking out Ryan Flaherty to end the game and give Toronto its first AL East championship since 1993. Hawkins made 18 regular season appearances for the Blue Jays, pitching to a 1–0 record, 2.76 ERA, and 14 strikeouts in 161⁄3 innings.
In Game 2 of the ALDS, Hawkins entered the game at the beginning of the 14th inning, retiring the first two hitters for the Texas Rangers before allowing three straight singles. Two runners scored, and Hawkins took the loss in the 6–4 defeat. It was his only appearance of the series, but Toronto rallied from a 2–0 deficit to win the series in five games. He made two appearances in the ALCS but allowed five runs in one inning pitched as the Blue Jays were eliminated in five games by the Royals.
Through the 2020 season, his 1,042 games pitched were the 10th highest in all-time MLB history. Bob Nightengale of USA Today voted for Hawkins in the 2021 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting. In an article addressing critics of the vote, Nightengale explained that he was so distraught when Hal McRae, a player he greatly admired, failed to get any votes, that he vowed to cast his ballot for anyone else he greatly admired again, even if their statistics did not seem Hall-of-Fame worthy. "Really, Hawkins epitomizes the character clause for the Baseball Writers' Association of America," Nightengale pointed out. The clause reads, “Voting shall be based upon the player’s record, playing ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character and contribution to the team(s) on which the player played.” Though Nightengale was unaware of it at the time, Hawkins garnered a second Hall of Fame vote from someone else, but this was not enough for him to be eligible for future ballots.
## Pitching style
In a 1995 scouting report for the Chicago White Sox, Ed Pebley wrote that Hawkins had just an average fastball which travelled only 88 miles per hour (142 km/h)–91 miles per hour (146 km/h). He also threw a curveball, a slider, and a changeup, all of which travelled in the 70 miles per hour (110 km/h) range. However, his fastball velocity improved, averaging around 95 miles per hour (153 km/h) later in the decade. Eventual Hall of Famer Ken Griffey Jr. was so impressed with the pitch, he asked to see Hawkins once when the Seattle Mariners were playing the Twins at the Metrodome. Griffey asked Hawkins why, with a fastball as good as the one he had, he would ever bother throwing a slow changeup. "I learned a lot by him telling me that,” Hawkins said. “I used it to my advantage after that, that’s for sure.” Later in his career, he relied more on the slider and a split-finger fastball.
## Personal life
Hawkins and his wife Anita have two children, a son named Dakari and a daughter named Troi. They live in Prosper, Texas, a well-to-do suburb of Dallas. Hawkins' half-brother, Ronald Sewood, was sentenced to prison in 1996 at the Federal Correctional Institution, Milan. Hawkins visited Sewood whenever he played against the nearby Detroit Tigers. As of 2013, Hawkins estimated he spent \$10,000 on books and magazine subscriptions for Sewood. Hawkins is the godfather of his Minnesota Twins teammate Pat Mahomes' son, Patrick II who is a quarterback for the Kansas City Chiefs. Hawkins is good friends with Torii Hunter, his teammate for several years with the Twins. Another godson of Hawkins's, Elijah Johnson, played college basketball for the University of Kansas Jayhawks.
After the 2016 season, Hawkins was hired as a special assistant to the Minnesota Twins organization. The team announced that he would, among other things, be "contributing to the development of our organizational pitching philosophies used in the selection and development of all players. Additionally, he will contribute to the amateur scouting process and trade deadline preparation meetings."
On a number of occasions, Hawkins has contributed to charitable efforts. After Hurricane Katrina, Hawkins went to Mississippi and Alabama, working in trailer park hospitals and helping with house rebuilding efforts as part of the Major League Baseball Players Association's relief efforts. He also offered financial help to a young mother with two children whose home had been ruined by the hurricane. Hawkins has given nearly \$30,000 to Gary Youth Baseball, which runs the city's Little League teams. In January 2021, Hawkins and his wife paid for a woman who caught a home invasion on TikTok to move into an apartment with better security. |
65,819,527 | Blue & Grey (song) | 1,171,678,208 | 2020 song by BTS | [
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"2020s ballads",
"BTS songs",
"Pop ballads",
"Songs written by J-Hope",
"Songs written by RM (musician)",
"Songs written by Suga",
"Songs written by V (singer)"
]
| "Blue & Grey" is a song by South Korean boy band BTS from their fifth Korean-language studio album, Be (2020). The song was written by Suga, RM, J-Hope, Metaphor, and its producers Park Ji-soo, Levi, V, and Hiss Noise. Originally intended to be included on V's solo mixtape, the song was released on November 20, 2020, as the third track on the album. A slow, tender pop ballad, its lyrics reflect on depression, burnout, anxiety, and pandemic-induced loneliness using the colors blue and grey.
"Blue & Grey" received generally positive reviews from music critics, who praised its vulnerability, production, and BTS' vocal performance. Some critics picked the song as a standout track on Be. Commercially, the song became a successful album track, reaching number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 9 on the Billboard Global 200, becoming the top-selling song globally that week. It further entered the charts of 10 countries, including Hungary and South Korea.
## Background and release
On November 10, 2020, BTS posted the track list of their fifth Korean-language studio album Be via social media, which revealed "Blue & Grey" as a track on the album. The song was written by Suga, RM, J-Hope, Metaphor, and its producers Park Ji-soo, Levi, V, and Hiss Noise. Hiss Noise and Park Ji-soo played the drums; the latter also played the guitar, piano, strings, and clarinet. V provided backing vocals for the track and Pdogg handled the vocal arrangement. The song was recorded by J-Hope, RM, Suga, and Pdogg, while Yang Ga mixed it at Big Hit Studios in Seoul.
"Blue & Grey" was initially slated to be a part of band member V's solo mixtape. It was originally in English and was first teased during BTS' reality show In the Soop in September 2020. In an interview with Korea JoongAng Daily, the song's co-producer Park Ji-soo (NIve) revealed that he got to know V through South Korean singer Paul Kim, with whom he had worked as a producer on Kim's song "The Reason for My Spring" (2020). V and NIve scheduled songwriting sessions at the latter's studio, where they decided to create "a good song" together; "Blue & Grey" was one of the songs conceived during these sessions. The track was included on Be after BTS listened to and liked it. It was released on November 20, 2020, as the third track on Be.
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "Blue & Grey" is a slow, melancholic, soft pop ballad, with a length of four minutes and 14 seconds. It is written in the key of G# major with a tempo of 122 beats per minute. The song is set in a "cinematic" arrangement of minor chords and relies on a "sparse-yet-tender" production that includes acoustic guitar, twinkling pianos, and wistful strings. The song contains "spoken-word" and "rapping segments" interspersed with "breathy", "crooning", "eerie whale-call" vocals, and "chilly" chords. The song uses the colors blue and grey to illustrate depression and anxiety.
Lyrically, the song explores the themes of fear, depression, burn-out, and pandemic-induced loneliness. In the opening verse of the track, V confesses dejectedly, as indicated in the lines: "Someone come and save me, please/ only the sighs of an exhausting day." It is followed by an audible exhalation from Jungkook who leads the breathy verse, reflecting on the blues. A similar "weighty exhalation" from Suga takes place before his rap verse, which he delivers in a "laidback" rhyming pattern. Jimin lends a "plaintive" and "cheery" tenor to the song. Kat Moon from Time magazine noted that an "h" sound is repeated in both Korean and English throughout the track, which she associated with the "motif of sighing deeply from exhaustion." Meanwhile, Aja Romano of Vox rendered the breathy vocal touches as "comfort pop" sounds, noting them being used to create "intimacy between artist and listener" in the song. In the lyrics, BTS also plead for happiness and aching loneliness: "I just want to be happier, is this too much greed?", and remind the listener to be hopeful: "If, in a far-flung future, I'm able to smile / I'll tell you that I did."
## Critical reception
"Blue & Grey" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. In the Los Angeles Times, August Brown named it as "one of the exemplary songs of the 'pandemic-pop' era" that acts as "a ribbon of immaculate bedroom emo, gorgeously harmonized but never show-offy or overpowering." Jochan Embley of the Evening Standard called the song "the schmaltziest moment on the album, ticking all the boxes for all the feels." Reviewing for NME, Rhian Daly raved about BTS' vocal delivery and chose "Blue & Grey" as the "most devastating song on the album [..] in terms that are crushingly vulnerable," writing that the song's "redemptive arc is longer, lower and harder to spot." Lenika Cruz of The Atlantic labelled the track a "midnight-colored lullaby" and wrote that it "speak[s] to BTS's stylistic omnivorousness." Stereogum reviewer Chris DeVille called the song "the only true slow jam" on Be, praising the "compositional and production details," and opined that it is akin to "Linkin Park and Sigur Rós teaming up to write a Boyz II Men song." Romano lauded the "confessional quality" of the song and hailed BTS' "gorgeous" and emotional vocal delivery, which he found similar to "the melodic equivalent of an ASMR session."
Moon deemed the song as "the most emotionally raw number on the album." Raisa Bruner from Time called it "the most poetic–and introspective–track off of Be," complimenting the balance created by band members Suga and J-Hope who "modulate their rapping to fit the slower, more gentle tone" of the song. In The Quietus, Verónica A. Bastardo wrote that the song is "a cosy approach to anxiety where whispering voices sing rawly about depression while a bright piano plays at the back, reminiscing hopefully." Emma Saletta of MTV News described it as a "fresh spin on a ballad," acknowledging both BTS' honesty and the blend of their vocals with acoustic guitar. Writing for The Independent, Annabel Nugent dubbed the track as "an apt anthem for the sad and sexy [..] moods of lockdown." Exclaim! writer Eva Zhu labelled the song "heartbreaking" and commended the lyrical themes as "too relatable." Similarly, AllMusic's Neil Z. Yeung called the song "crushing" while praising BTS' "vulnerability and intimacy." In a review published by The Arts Desk, Peter Quinn considered the song "touching" and said that it "offers a moment of plaintive, pandemic-related reflection." Lexi Lane from NBC News wrote that the track is "the band's way to show millions of fans worldwide that everyone has been having negative thoughts, too." Slant Magazine's Sophia Ordaz called it a "pretty" ballad.
## Commercial performance
"Blue & Grey" debuted at number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming BTS' sixth highest-charting entry on the chart. In its opening week, the song sold over 69,000 units in the United States, becoming the second top-selling song of the week dated December 5, 2020, only behind BTS' "Life Goes On". It also reached number two on both the US Digital Songs Sales and the World Digital Song Sales charts. In Canada, the song reached number 64 on the Canadian Hot 100, while ranking at number 5 on the Digital Song Sales chart. In the United Kingdom, "Blue & Grey" opened at number 66 on the UK Singles Chart, becoming the third song from the album to enter the chart, following "Life Goes On" and "Dynamite". On the UK Indie Chart, the song ranked number nine. In Ireland, it charted at number 76 on the Irish Singles Chart. In South Korea, the song peaked at number 6 on Billboard K-pop Hot 100 and number 24 on the Gaon Digital Chart. The song arrived at number 98 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 on the issue dated November 30, 2020, and peaked at number 52 the following week. It also attained top five positions in Malaysia and Singapore.
On the Billboard Global 200, which tracks the most streamed and digitally sold songs in over 200 territories, "Blue & Grey" arrived at number nine, earning 26.8 million streams and 87,000 units sold globally, becoming the top-selling song of the tracking week. It became BTS' third top 10 hit on the chart and also became the third song from Be to enter the top 10. The song also entered at number 15 on the Billboard Global Excl. U.S. chart, which tracks the same metrics with the exclusion of the US.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from Tidal and the liner notes of Be.
- BTS – primary vocals
- V – songwriting, production
- Park Ji-soo – songwriting, production, guitar, piano, strings, clarinet, drums
- Hiss Noise – songwriting, production, drums, digital editing
- Levi – songwriting, production
- RM – songwriting, rap arrangement, recording
- Suga – songwriting, rap arrangement, recording
- J-Hope – songwriting, rap arrangement, recording
- Metaphor – songwriting
- Pdogg – vocal arrangement, recording
- Yang Ga – mixing
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales |
63,114,473 | Shake the Room | 1,142,895,809 | 2020 song by Pop Smoke featuring Quavo | [
"2020 songs",
"Pop Smoke songs",
"Quavo songs",
"Songs written by 808Melo",
"Songs written by Pop Smoke",
"Songs written by Quavo"
]
| "Shake the Room" is a song by American rapper Pop Smoke, featuring fellow rapper Quavo, from the former's second mixtape, Meet the Woo 2 (2020). The two artists wrote the song with its producer 808Melo. It was released as the mixtape's second single on March 28, 2020. The song was solely produced by the latter of the three. A drill track, it sees Pop Smoke and Quavo rap about someone who understands the streets.
"Shake the Room" received generally positive reviews from music critics, with several of them praising it as a highlight of the mixtape. The song peaked at number 93 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 76 on the UK Singles Chart. It was certified gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). An accompanying music video was released on March 28, 2020, and was directed by Virgil Abloh, making it Pop Smoke's first posthumous video since he was shot and killed at the age of 20. The visual features the latter and Quavo taking part in several activities in Paris; such as doing donuts in a red Ferrari.
## Background and composition
The song was written by Pop Smoke, known as Bashar Jackson, alongside Quavo, who has the real name of Quavious Marshall, and 808Melo, who has the real name of Andre Loblack. The track was produced and programmed by the latter of the three. Mastering and mixing were both handled by Jess Jackson, while Corey Nutile was the song's recording engineer and Corey Nutile was credited as an assistant recording engineer. On February 7, 2020, "Shake the Room" was released as the second track on Pop Smoke's second mixtape Meet the Woo 2. It was later released as the mixtape's second single on March 28, 2020.
Writing for Revolt, Jon Powell described the song as a drill track. Dominiq R. of HotNewHipHop said the song is "led by a harmonious vocal and bass-driven woodwind instrumentation", and that "Quavo incorporates his own patented melodies to the beat adding another layer of elements while a thunderous 808 drives the drum sequencing". He continued, commenting that Pop Smoke "kicks off the song with the chorus before Quavo takes off on the instrumental delivering bars about controlling the energy of any room he's in". He concluded, saying Quavo raps "his verse in another direction, spittin' braggadocios bars about his new-found wealth". Erin Lowers of Exclaim! mentioned that the song establishes "someone who understands the streets but still has a witty attitude to play with music and show his personality".
## Reception
"Shake the Room" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. Writing for Pitchfork magazine, Reed Jackson described the song as "haunting" and "meditative", and said it demonstrates "[808Melo's] beatmaker's sonic growth". Dhruva Balram of NME opined that Pop Smoke easily outshines Quavo on the song, and praised it as one of the mixtapes highlights. Writing for Billboard magazine, Michael Saponara stated "Shake the Room" was quickly "tabbed a fan-favorite off Meet the Woo 2", and that it continues to pick up steam. Danny Schwartz of The Ringer lauded the song as the "colossal centerpiece" of Meet the Woo 2. Essence's writer Brooklyn White viewed "Welcome to the Party", Dior", and "Shake the Room" as anthems of Brooklyn, New York. Bernadette Giacomazzo of HipHopDX commented that Pop Smoke and Quavo did "just fine" on the song, but said "there are absolutely zero reasons for these two to be in the studio together".
"Shake the Room" peaked at number 93 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on March 7, 2020. The song has also peaked at number 43 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It further peaked at number 98 on the Canadian Hot 100 and number 76 on the UK Singles Chart. "Shake the Room" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting track-equivalent sales and streams of 500,000 units in the United States.
## Music video
### Background and synopsis
Off-White founder and Louis Vuitton artistic director Virgil Abloh reached out to Pop Smoke on Instagram for the creation of a music video for "Shake the Room". Abloh revealed on how the video for the song was created: "[Pop Smoke's] impact will live on thru the art he left us. In this case, it was the night after the [Louis Vuitton] show while we had the cameras rolling inside & outside a typical French restaurant in my neighborhood." The music video was released on March 28, 2020. It was directed by Abloh's Off-White International Rap Video Production Studio in Paris during Paris Fashion Week. It marked Pop Smoke's first posthumous music video after he was shot and killed at the age of 20 during a home invasion in Los Angeles, California.
The video begins with an intro, reading: "This video is real life footage. This is barely a 'video shoot'." It features Pop Smoke and Quavo enjoying their lives in the City of Light while driving in front of the Hôtel des Invalides. The scene then switches to them being in a fancy Parisian restaurant, with both rappers eating expensive meals and drinking wine, while Pop Smoke blows out some candles on top of a birthday cake. They bring life to the quiet area and due to their presence, a small party happens within the restaurant. Pop Smoke and Quavo later cause chaos in the streets of Paris as they spin around in their red Ferrari Pista, doing donuts. The video ends with the final credits cut out. It goes on for a minute, featuring a moment of silence for Pop Smoke. It has a still frame that reads: "In Loving Memory, Pop Smoke Forever".
### Critical reception
The music video was met with positive reviews from critics. Nicholas Li of Hypebeast stated that the video mixes "lo-fi and hi-def clips with quick cuts and trippy edits". Michael Love of Paper magazine, and the staff of Rap-Up, described the visual as "grainy". Dazed writer Thom Waite labeled the clips in the video as "candid". Writing for Billboard magazine, Hilary Hughes opined that Paris provides a "stunning backdrop for [Pop Smoke and Quavo]". She continued, saying "Pop Smoke and Quavo are all smiles as they trade verses on the track while hyping up themselves". L'Oréal of WQHT called the video "fast" and "fun".
## Live performances
Quavo performed "Shake the Room" and "Aim for the Moon" live at the 2020 BET Hip Hop Awards in October. The rapper performed the song in a futuristic styled white room, as on video billboards outside the room's window, Pop Smoke's verses and choruses would be displayed. Quavo wore a jean jacket with "Shoot for the Stars" on the front and "Aim for the Moon" on the back while performing.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from Tidal.
- Bashar Jackson – vocals, songwriter
- Quavious Marshall – vocals, songwriter
- Andre Loblack – producer, programming, songwriter
- Jess Jackson – mixing engineer, mastering engineer
- Corey Nutile – recording engineer
- Sage Skofield – assistant mixing engineer
## Charts
## Certifications |
1,627,866 | Mykola Leontovych | 1,166,955,732 | Ukrainian composer, conductor, ethnomusicologist and teacher (1877–1921) | [
"1877 births",
"1921 deaths",
"19th-century classical composers",
"19th-century conductors (music)",
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"Academic staff of Kyiv Conservatory",
"Classical composers of church music",
"Male classical composers",
"Male conductors (music)",
"People from Bratslavsky Uyezd",
"People from Vinnytsia Oblast",
"People murdered in Ukraine",
"Ukrainian classical composers",
"Ukrainian conductors (music)"
]
| Mykola Dmytrovych Leontovych ( – 23 January 1921; Ukrainian: Микола Дмитрович Леонтович (); also Leontovich) was a Ukrainian composer, conductor, ethnomusicologist and teacher. His music was inspired by the Ukrainian composer Mykola Lysenko and the Ukrainian National Music School. Leontovych specialised in a cappella choral music, ranging from original compositions, to church music, to elaborate arrangements of folk music.
Leontovych was born and raised in the Podolia province of the Russian Empire (now in Ukraine). He was educated as a priest in the Kamianets-Podilskyi Theological Seminary and later furthered his musical education at the Saint Petersburg Court Capella, and by means of private lessons with Boleslav Yavorsky. With the independence of the Ukrainian state in the 1917 revolution, Leontovych moved to Kyiv, where he worked at the Kyiv Conservatory and the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama. He composed "Shchedryk" in 1904 (premiered in 1916), now known to the English-speaking world as "Carol of the Bells". He was murdered by a Soviet agent in 1921, and is known as a martyr in the Eastern Orthodox Ukrainian Church, where he is also remembered for his liturgy, the first liturgy composed in the vernacular, specifically in the modern Ukrainian language.
During his lifetime, Leontovych's compositions and arrangements became popular with musicians across the Ukrainian region of the Russian Empire. Performances of his works in western Europe and North America earned him the nickname "the Ukrainian Bach". Apart from "Shchedryk", Leontovych's music is performed primarily in Ukraine and by the Ukrainian diaspora.
## Biography
### Early life
Mykola Leontovych was born on in Monastyrok, near the village of Selevyntsi [uk], in the Podolia province of Ukraine (then a part of the Russian Empire), the eldest of five surviving children (Mykola, Oleksandr (born in 1879), Maria (born in 1885), Victoria (born in 1886), and Olena). His father, grandfather, and great grandfather were village priests. Both his mother, Mariya Yosypivna Leontovych, and his father, Dmytro Feofanovych Leontovych, were singers.
Leontovych received his first musical lessons from his father, who directed a school choir, and was skilled at playing the cello, double bass, harmonium, violin, and guitar. Mykola's other siblings also grew up to have careers in music. His brother Oleksandr was a professional singer, his sister Mariya studied singing in Odesa, his sister Olena studied fortepiano at the Kyiv Conservatory, and his sister Victoriya could play several musical instruments.
In 1879, Dmytro Leontovych was moved to serve as a priest in the village of Shershni [uk]. In 1887, Mykola was admitted to a school at Nemyriv. Due to financial problems a year later, his father transferred him to the Sharhorod Spiritual Beginners School, whose pupils received full financial support. At the school, Leontovych mastered singing, and was able to freely read difficult passages from religious choral texts.
### Theological seminary
In 1892, Leontovych began his studies at the Podolia Theological Seminary [uk] in Kamianets-Podilskyi, which both his father and grandfather had attended. His younger brother Oleksandr was enrolled as well, graduating after his older brother.
During his studies there, Leontovych continued to advance his skills on the violin and learnt to play other instruments, including the flute and the harmonium. He participated in the seminary's choir, and when an orchestra was formed during his third year of study, Leontovych joined, Leontovych studied music theory under Y. Bogdanov and started writing choral arrangements, including "Oy z-za hory kamʺyanoyi ("Oh, from the stony mountain"), Oy pidu ya v lis po drova" ("Oh, I’ll go to a forest for firewood"), and, Mala maty odnu dochku ("A mother has one daughter").
Leontovych conducted the seminary's orchestra and choir. Without his seminary teachers knowing, he attended the opera in Kamianets-Podilskyi. One of the last performances conducted by Leontovych was a concert on 26 May, 1899, when his friends wrote on a photograph: "To the future glorious composer". After graduating from the seminary in 1899, he broke the family tradition by becoming a school teacher, instead of a priest.
### Early musical career and marriage
Leontovych's first teaching post, which commenced in September 1899, involved working as a teacher of singing and arithmetic at a secondary school in the village of Chukiv [uk] (present-day Vinnytsia Oblast). Later, when recalling his time at the school, he wrote: "I cannot complain that the students and villagers treated me unfavourably; due to my inexperience and youth, I was not a good school teacher. Certainly, my mistakes and errors in general educational activities were compensated to some extent by my musical teaching." He would later write a book about this as a professor at the Kyiv Conservatory, titled Yak ya orhanizuvav orkestr u silʹsʹkiy shkoli (How I Organised an Orchestra in a Village School).
On 4 March, 1901, after disagreements arose with the school's administration, Leontovych got a new job teaching church music and calligraphy at the Theological College in Tyvriv. Besides working with the college choir, he organised the college's amateur orchestra. He included arrangements of folk songs among the usual religious works sung in theological schools. These included arrangements by Lysenko, his own choral arrangements of folk songs, and entirely original works. One such work was based on a poem by Taras Shevchenko, Zore moya vechirnyaya (Oh My Evening Star). He organized a choir and a small orchestra at the school, which performed some of his works, as well as others by Russian and European composers. Whilst working at the school, he began to collect songs from Polissia. The first set was not published, but The Second Collection of Songs from Polissia was published in Kyiv in 1903. Leontovych was however dissatisfied with it, and bought back all 300 copies, commenting as a joke, "Let me go to the Dnipro."
Leontovych met a Volhynian girl named Claudia Feropontovna Zholtkevych, whom he married on 22 March 1902. The young couple's first daughter, Halyna, was born in 1903. They later had a second daughter named Yevheniya.
Financial hardships prompted Leontovych to accept an offer to move to Vinnytsia to instruct at the Church-Educators' College. Again, he organised a choir and, later, a concert band, with which he performed both secular and spiritual music.
During 1903/04, Leontovych attended lectures held at the St. Petersburg Court Capella. He studied music theory, harmony, and polyphony, and choral performance. On 22 April 1904, he earnt his credentials as a choirmaster of church choruses. In the autumn of 1904, M. Leontovych began working as a singing teacher in Grishino (now Pokrovsk, Ukraine), a railway town in the Donetsk region. Leontovych organised a choir of workers, who sang arrangements of Ukrainian, Jewish, Armenian, Russian, and Polish folk songs. He created a small orchestra that accompanied the soloists, prepared a repertoire consisting of works by Mykola Lysenko and P. Nischynskyi [uk]. Leontovych's activity caused a deterioration in his relationship with the authorities, and in the spring of 1908, he was forced to move back to Tulchyn.
### Tulchyn period
Leontovych moved to Tulchyn in 1907, a move that marked the beginning of a prolific period of composing. There, he taught vocal and instrumental music at the Tulchyn Eparchy Women's College to the daughters of village priests. He developed a lasting friendship with the composer Kyrylo Stetsenko, who went on to influence his musical style. Stetsenko praised his friend's compositions, saying, "Leontovych is a famous music expert from Podolia. He recorded many folk songs... These songs are harmonised for mixed choir. These harmonisations have revealed the author to be a great expert of both choral singing and theoretical studies". Leontovych's choir performed works by Russian composers Mikhail Glinka, Alexey Verstovsky, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, as well as music by Stetsenko, Lysenko, and the Ukrainian composer Petro Nishchynsky.
From 1909, Leontovych studied under the musicologist Boleslav Yavorsky, whom he was to visit in Moscow and Kyiv over the next 12 years. He became involved with the theatrical music scene in Tulchyn, and took charge of the local branch of the Prosvita, a Ukrainian society dedicated to preserving and developing its culture and education.
Leontovych wrote choral arrangements of Ukrainian folk songs, including Piyutʹ pivni (The Roosters are Singing) In 1914, Stetsenko convinced Leontovych to have his music performed by the student choir of the Kyiv University under the leadership of Alexander Koshetz. In December 1916, the performance of his arrangement of "Shchedryk" brought Leontovych great success amongst Kyiv's music lovers.
### Career in Kyiv
During the October Revolution and the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1918, Leontovych relocated without his family to Kyiv, where he was active as both a conductor and composer. Several of his pieces gained popularity among professional and amateurs groups alike, who added them to their repertoire. At one of the concerts, the "Legend" of Mykola Voronoi in Leontovych's arrangement was a great success. After the arrival of the Bolsheviks, Leontovych worked in the music committee of the People's Commissariat of Education, and taught at the Music and Drama Institute, and, together with the composer and conductor Hryhoriy Veryovka, was employed to produce preschool education courses, and organise choir groups.
During this period, he taught choral conducting at the Kyiv Conservatory, and also taught at the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama. He participated in the founding of the Ukrainian Republic Capella of which he was the commissioner. When Kyiv was captured by the White Army on 31 August 1919, the authorities began to persecute the city's Ukrainian intelligentsia. To avoid being arrested, Leontovych was forced to flee to Tulchyn.
### Death
Upon his return to Tulchyn with his family, Leontovych started the city's first music school, since the college where he had worked was closed down by the Bolsheviks, and began to work on an opera, Na Rusalchyn Velykden ("The Mermaid's Easter"), based on the fairy tale by Borys Hrinchenko.
During the night of 22/23 January 1921, Leontovych was murdered by a chekist (Soviet state security agent) Afanasy Hrishchenko. Leontovych was staying at the home of his parents, whom he was visiting for the Eastern Orthodox Feast of the Nativity. The undercover chekist had asked to stay the night at the house, and shared a room with Leontovych. At 7.30 in the morning he shot the composer, and robbed the family. By the time a doctor had arrived, Leontovych had died of blood loss.
## Music
### Works
Mykola Leontovych specialised in a cappella choral music, and composed over 150 choral compositions, generally inspired by Ukrainian folk songs. These range from artistic arrangements of folk songs, religious works (including his liturgy), cantatas, and compositions set to the words of Ukrainian poets. His most famous works are the choral miniatures "Schedryk" and "Dudaryk". His choral compositions feature rich harmony, vocal polyphony, and imitation. His earlier choral arrangements of folk songs were primarily strophic arrangements of the melody. As the composer gained more experience, the structure of his choral compositions and arrangements of folk songs became strongly connected with the text.
As a person with a professional theological education, Leontovych kept up with the movement of the establishment and recognition of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, which was reestablished in 1918. The composer's output during this period became rich in new sacred music, following the examples of Stetsenko (a close friend of Leontovych's, also an orthodox priest and composer) and Koshetz. Leontovych's works form this time included На воскресіння Христа (On the Resurrection of Christ), Хваліте ім’я Господнє (Praise ye the Name of the Lord), and Світе тихий (Oh Quiet Light), among others. A milestone in the development of Ukrainian spiritual music was the composition of his liturgy, which was first performed in the St. Nicholas Military Cathedral at the Kyiv, Pechersk on 22 May 1919.
Mykola Leontovych was highly critical of himself. According to his first biographer Oles' Chapkivskyi, a contemporary of the composer, Leontovych would sometimes work on one choral setting without letting anyone else see it for up to four years. Leontovych compiled his "First collection of songs from Polissia", which remained unpublished His "The Second Collection of Songs from Polissia" (Kyiv, 1903) was dedicated to Lysenko. Leontovych was dissatisfied with the work, bought up all 300 published copies, and had them destroyed.
Leontovych commenced work on an opera Na rusalchyn velykden (On the Water Nymph's Easter), based on Ukrainian myths and the works of the Ukrainian author Borys Hrinchenko. By the end of 1920, he had finished the first of three acts, but he was murdered before he could complete the opera. Attempts to complete and edit the opera were made by Ukrainian composer Mykhailo Verykivsky. The Ukrainian composer Myroslav Skoryk and the poet Diodor Bobyr collaborated to turn the unfinished opera into a one-act operetta, which premiered in 1977 at the Kyiv State Opera and Ballet Theatre, 100 years after Leontovych's birth. The North American premiere was held in Toronto on 11 April 2003.
Lysenko was one of Leontovych's largest influences. Leontovych, who had admired his music since his student days, would perform it in concerts wherever he worked.
### "Shchedryk"
Mykola Leontovych's song "Shchedryk" is his most well-known piece. "Shchedryk" is generally said to have been first performed on 25 December 1916, at St. Volodymyr's Kyiv University. However, it was first performed on 29 December 1916 in the Kyiv Merchants' Assembly Hall, now part of the National Philharmonic of Ukraine.
The Ukrainian National Choir's performance of "Shchedryk" during a tour of Europe in 1920/21. caused the song to become popular worldwide. The first recording was made in New York in October 1922 by Brunswick Records.
#### "Carol of the Bells"
"Shchedryk" was performed during a concert in Carnegie Hall, where the American composer and conductor Peter J Wilhousky heard it. In 1936, he published the song to Leontovich's music as a Christmas carol, with his own text in English that bears no resemblance to the original Ukrainian words of the song. The English version, known as "Carol of the Bells", has been arranged over 150 times since 2004.
The carol is one of the 25 most frequently performed Christmas songs of the 20th century. As listed by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), it ranked number 15.
### Reception and popularity
Leontovych's best critic was his friend, and fellow priest and composer Stetsenko, who described him as "a great expert of both choral singing and theoretical studies". He convinced Leontovych to publish his music and have it performed by Kyiv University students.
"Shchedryk"'s success led to Leontovych becoming popular in Kyiv with music specialists and fans of choral music alike. At the Kyiv Conservatory, Yavorsky reacted positively to his new works. During a concert, Leontovych's Lehenda, set to lyrics by the Ukrainian poet Mykola Voronyi, gained great popularity. After reviewing the composer's Second Compilation of Songs from Podolia, Lysenko wrote:
> Leontovych has an original, illustrious gift. In his arrangements I found separate passages, movement of voices, which later developed in an ingeniously weaved musical network.
The increase in popularity of Leontovych's music was aided by the head of the Ukrainian National Republic, Symon Petliura, who created and sponsored two choirs to promote awareness of the culture of Ukraine. Stetsenko's choir toured across Ukraine, while the Koshetz's Ukrainian Republic Capella toured Europe and the Americas. Performances by the Ukrainian Republic Capella made Leontovych known throughout the western world—in France, Leontovych earned the nickname, "Ukrainian Bach". On 5 October 1921, the Capella performed "Shchedryk" in the Carnegie Hall in New York.
Leontovych's music is currently performed mostly in Ukraine, and few recordings are dedicated exclusively to him.
The Ukrainian diaspora remember him and perform his works. The Canadian Oleksandr Koshyts Choir, based in Winnipeg, performs music by Leontovych and other Ukrainian composers, and has made a recording of his works.
## Commemoration
On 1 February 1921, nine days after Leontovych's death, artists, academics, and students of the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama in Kyiv gathered to commemorate him. They established the Committee for the Memory of Mykola Leontovych, which later became the Leontovych Music Society, and which promoted Ukrainian music until 1928.
A number of musical groups are named in honour of the composer. The Leontovych Bandurist Capella was a male choir whose members accompanied themselves using a Ukrainian bandura. The choir was established in a displaced persons camps in Germany in 1946, and continued until 1949. The Vinnytsia College of Arts and Culture [uk] is named after him. There is a memorial museum dedicated to him in the city of Tulchyn, and another was established in 1977 in the village of Markivka [uk], where he was buried. The museum was rebuilt after the premises became dilapidated, and reopened in 2016. In 2018, a statue of the composer was unveiled in Pokrovsk.
In 2002, to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the composer's birth, Kamianets-Podilskyi held an all-Ukrainian scientific conference entitled "Mykola Leontovych and Modern Education and Science," with guests from the Ukrainian ministry of education and science, the Ukrainian composers' Union, and many local authorities. During this event, the city held a ceremonial opening of a memorial plaque to the composer, placed next to the old building formerly used by the Podollia Theological Seminary. |
5,671,098 | Gliese 876 c | 1,170,108,308 | Gas giant orbiting Gliese 876 | [
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| Gliese 876 c is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 876, taking about 30 days to complete an orbit. The planet was discovered in April 2001 and is the second planet in order of increasing distance from its star.
## Discovery
At the time of discovery, Gliese 876 was already known to host an extrasolar planet designated Gliese 876 b. On January 9, 2001, it was announced that further analysis of the star's radial velocity had revealed the existence of a second planet in the system, which was designated Gliese 876 c. The orbital period of Gliese 876 c was found to be exactly half that of the outer planet, which meant that the radial velocity signature of the second planet was initially interpreted as a higher eccentricity of the orbit of Gliese 876 b.
## Orbit and mass
Gliese 876 c is in a 1:2:4 Laplace resonance with the outer planets Gliese 876 b and Gliese 876 e: for every orbit of planet e, planet b completes two orbits and planet c completes four. This leads to strong gravitational interactions between the planets, causing the orbital elements to change rapidly as the orbits precess. This is the second known example of a Laplace resonance, the first being Jupiter's moons Io, Europa and Ganymede.
The orbital semimajor axis is only 0.13 AU, around a third of the average distance between Mercury and the Sun, and is more eccentric than the orbit of any of the major planets of the Sun's Solar System. Despite this, it is located in the inner regions of the system's habitable zone, since Gliese 876 is such an intrinsically faint star.
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Gliese 876 c is that only a lower limit on the planet's mass can be obtained. This is because the measured mass value depends on the inclination of the orbit, which is not determined by the radial velocity measurements. However, in a resonant system such as Gliese 876, gravitational interactions between the planets can be used to determine the true masses. Using this method, the inclination of the orbit can be determined, revealing the planet's true mass to be 0.72 times that of Jupiter.
## Characteristics
Based on its high mass, Gliese 876 c is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface. Since it was detected indirectly through its gravitational effects on the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium, the planet is predicted to have a cloudless upper atmosphere.
Gliese 876 c lies at the inner edge of the system's habitable zone. While the prospects for life on gas giants are unknown, it might be possible for a large moon of the planet to provide a habitable environment. Unfortunately tidal interactions between a hypothetical moon, the planet, and the star could destroy moons massive enough to be habitable over the lifetime of the system. In addition it is unclear whether such moons could form in the first place.
This planet, like b and e, has likely migrated inward.
## See also
- Appearance of extrasolar planets
- Eccentric Jupiter
- Gliese 581
- List of nearest stars |
42,017,770 | Threes | 1,170,507,204 | null | [
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| Threes (stylized as Threes!) is a puzzle video game by Sirvo, an independent development team consisting of game designer Asher Vollmer, illustrator Greg Wohlwend, and composer Jimmy Hinson. The game was released on February 6, 2014, for iOS devices and later ported to Android, Xbox One, and Windows Phone. In Threes, the player slides numbered tiles on a grid to combine addends and multiples of three. The game ends when there are no moves left on the grid and the tiles are counted for a final score.
The basic game was prototyped in a single night, but the team spent over half a year iterating through variations on the idea with visual themes such as sushi and chess. By the end of the game's 14-month development, the team returned to the game's simple principles and numbers theme.
The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as "universal acclaim". Reviewers found the game "charming" and "addictive" and compared it to Drop7, Stickets, and Triple Town. Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores, with the latter calling Threes "about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game". Other developers released similar games and clones within weeks of the game's launch. Apple Inc. named Threes the best iPhone game of 2014.
## Gameplay
`The player slides numbered tiles on a four-by-four grid to combine addends and multiples of three. For example, ones and twos merge to become a single "three" tile, two threes merge into "six", and two sixes merge into "12". Swiping the screen up, down, left, or right moves all of the tiles one square (if possible) on the grid in that direction and adds a new tile to the grid in the same direction. The color of the incoming tile is shown onscreen. Players can preview moves by sliding the grid without letting go. Each kind of number tile has its own personality, and new kinds of number tiles are introduced with a screen full of confetti when first unlocked.`
Games of Threes typically last several minutes and end when no moves remain on the grid (usually when gridlocked with a single high number tile and many low number tiles). When a game is finished, there is no "game over" screen, but players receive a final score based on the rarity of the tiles (rather than the tile number values). The object of the game is to earn a high score. Outside of the game, players can review their scores and set Game Center challenges.
There are a total of 2 kinds of colored tiles, valued 1 and 2, and 12 kinds of "threes" tiles in the game with values from 3 through 6,144. Color tiles are worth nothing, while the point value of "threes" tiles start at 3 and grows exponentially.
There is also a 13th character that is unlocked when two 6,144 tiles are combined; this character is marked by a triangle rather than the number 12,288. When this character is revealed, the game ends immediately even if the player have moves available, and points are totaled as usual. This feat was achieved and documented by Twitter user Threesporn in 2017 and publicly acknowledged by developer Asher Vollmer.
## Development
`Threes was conceived by game designer Asher Vollmer, who worked on the game with artist Greg Wohlwend and composer Jimmy Hinson. The three, as Sirvo LLC, had previously collaborated on the 2012 iOS word game Puzzlejuice. Wohlwend had worked on games including Ridiculous Fishing and Hundreds. Threes development began before Ridiculous Fishing's March 2013 release. Vollmer presented an idea similar to the final product in its simplicity: pair tiles as multiples of three. Vollmer considered Drop7 an inspiration for the game, and played it for two years before making his game. The first Threes prototype was written in a single night. With Wohlwend, the two-man development team spent at least half a year of the game's 14-month development iterating on this main idea.`
Some of the iterations included new numberless visual themes and new game mechanics such as a monster who ate tiles and a wall that blocked certain movements. Early Threes designs had no inclination towards minimalism: the pair felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players. Wohlwend sent Vollmer designs including sushi-themed tiles that paired fish and rice, a chess theme that paired chess pieces, themes about animals, broccoli and cheese soup, military insignia, hydrogen atoms, and textile patterns. Their test audiences were confused by the close to two dozen themes tested in total. Vollmer commented that these ideas made the game feel "unwieldy and unnatural" and that he always preferred the game when the changes were reverted. They received a "wake-up call" from fellow game designer Zach Gage, who encouraged them to return from their foray into complexity. The final game returned to its original theme of numbers. Speaking in retrospect, Wohlwend said the game "always wanted to be simple". He noted that players "think math" upon seeing the game's numbers, though the game is more about "spatial relationships" and just happens to have a "number theme".
`When returning to the fundamental and original game conceptpairing tiles as multiples of threethe developers felt their experiments informed their final game development decisions. The theme of individual tile personalities extended to the final version, as tiles have faces and express emotions when paired. For example, the 384 tile has a pirate personality with a large tooth and a pirate eyepatch. Wohlwend has said that the number tiles grow in character with their size. The idea for character faces beneath the cards remained from previous theme iterations, and the character voices were provided by indie game developers. Of the development process, Wohlwend called it "tough and frustrating and sometimes hard to see if it was worth it". Vollmer credited thatgamecompany for teaching him applicable lessons of restraint during his time there.`
The game was released by Sirvo for iOS on February 6, 2014, and ported by indie developer Hidden Variable Studios for Android on March 12, 2014. The team chose to release for iOS first due to the small team's difficulty testing across Android platforms. Hidden Variable also developed an Xbox One version, which was originally announced at Microsoft's E3 2014 press conference, and released on December 5, 2014. The release supports the console's "snap mode" (to play in the corner of the screen while the player watches something else) as well as online leaderboards and a "night mode" darker palette option. A free Windows Phone version was released on April 27, 2015, and a free web browser version in December 2015. The browser release does not include advertisements, unlike the free smartphone releases. In a post-release infographic, Sirvo wrote that the average game length was 20 minutes, even though they designed the game's sessions to not last longer than 10 minutes. They also reported that 93 percent of players in China used unlicensed copies of the game.
## Reception
The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as "universal acclaim", with a 92% rating based on 19 reviews. Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores, with the latter calling Threes "about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game". It was an honorable mention in the 2014 Independent Games Festival's Excellence in Design category. The game reached the top of the Apple App Store paid app sales chart shortly after its release. Re/code reported that it "dominated" the chart in the following weeks and became one of the 25 highest grossing apps on the App Store. It later won a 2014 Apple Design Award and was named Apple's best iPhone game of 2014. Reviewers found the game "charming" and "addictive". They compared the game with the luck of Drop7, the challenge of Stickets, and the "match-by-combining" mechanics in Triple Town. Reviewers also praised the simplicity of the tutorial and noted how their attention on combining large number tiles contrasted with their need to watch the board's movements as a whole.
Ben Kuchera of Polygon wrote that the game was "a brilliant little puzzler" and commented on the difficulty of designing such an accessible minimalist game. Dan Ryckert of Game Informer noted that the game had all of the qualities of a successful mobile game: accessibility of short game sessions, easy to learn and tough to master gameplay, room to make and try strategies, and gameplay mechanics suited for touchscreens. He added that his progressive play strategy adaptations for higher scores made the game joyful. Ars Technica's Kyle Orland wrote that he expects the game to join Drop7 and Super Hexagon on his phone for the rest of his life and Crypt of the Necrodancer designer Ryan Clark called Threes the best iOS game he had ever played.
Mark Sorrell of Eurogamer compared the game's "profoundly and offensively banal" aesthetic to a "hipster restaurant" with good food but a smug ambiance, citing the soundtrack's "whimsy" and the art style's similarity to iOS game Letterpress. He praised the game's mechanics. TouchArcade compared the game's scaffolding mechanics to the turn-based roguelike Hoplite, and The Verge's Andrew Webster compared the game's addictive mechanics to Sudoku and its style to Letterpress and Spelltower. Nick Statt of CNET thought the game had Tetris's beauty and Dots's visual appeal. He cited the game as an example of "flow" design principles at work, where the game is designed for players to enter a state of focus and self-awareness. Re/code's Eric Johnson called the game a descendant of Sudoku, Dots, and Rush Hour. Pocket Gamer's Mark Brown thought the game's randomness kept its gameplay interesting and MAME creator Nicola Salmoria wrote an artificial intelligence to play the game.
Edge wrote that the game "can feel a little insubstantial" in its lack of gameplay variety, though its "charm and craft" will make players return. They wrote that the soundtrack is cheerful and memorable with an "indie romcom feel". TouchArcade added that the soundtrack "fits the game perfectly" and recommended playing the game with sound activated so as to hear the tiles' personalities. CNET thought the music became repetitive, but that the tile voices were "a little creepy" without the soundtrack. Garrett Martin of Paste wrote that he heard the influence of Jon Brion and alluded to Paul Thomas Anderson's early films. Comparing Threes to Hundreds as the "quirky American cousin" to Hundreds's "European art film", Martin found Threes more whimsical in nature and extended Ian Bogost's statements in The Atlantic about video games as "haute couture ... design objects" to Threes.
## Legacy
`Outside developers released games that closely resembled Threes within weeks of its release, including a browser-based version, an "unofficial sort-of-knockoff" Android app (Fives), and another iPhone game, 1024, which advertised itself as "No need to pay for Threes" and was later ported to a browser version. A March 2014 clone of 1024, the browser game 2048, became popular and spawned "dozens of parodies". Journalists, including those at the Los Angeles Times, did not acknowledge the game's connection to Threes.`
The Threes team was "puzzled" by the popularity of these releases, especially those that did not credit their game for the idea. They criticized 2048's game design and compared the game as the Commander Keen to their Super Mario Bros. in a 45,000-word post outlining their full 14-month development process. Gamasutra's Leigh Alexander described the situation as a "unique tragedy". Threes designer Vollmer would try to remove the clones from online stores but ultimately accepted that the game would be copied and resolved that his future games would not share the same fate.
Eurogamer listed Threes as one of the top 10 games of the generation. Tom's Guide listed Threes as one of the top 30 games of the 2010s. |
39,811,576 | Blood on the Leaves | 1,167,831,499 | null | [
"2013 songs",
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"Songs written by Mike Dean (record producer)"
]
| "Blood on the Leaves" is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West from his sixth studio album Yeezus (2013). In the song, West presents his thoughts on how fame can cause the destruction of relationships, while making comparisons of contemporary times to the lynching of African Americans in the United States during the pre-civil rights era. West delivers his vocals through an Auto-Tune processor, like on his 2008 album 808s & Heartbreak. It contains samples of both singer Nina Simone's 1965 rendition of Billie Holiday's song "Strange Fruit", and "R U Ready" by the duo TNGHT, who co-produced the track.
The song received universal acclaim from music critics, with many commenting on its lyrical message and praising its samples. It was named one of the best tracks of 2013 by multiple publications. Pitchfork later placed the track on their list of the 200 best songs of the 2010s. Despite not being released as a single, the song managed to enter charts in the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Australia in 2013. A music video was set to be directed by American filmmaker David Lynch, but plans were abandoned. Since its release, West has performed the song live on multiple occasions, including at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards and on the 2016 Saint Pablo Tour.
## Background and composition
The song features production by the musical duo TNGHT, consisting of Scottish producer Hudson Mohawke and Canadian producer Lunice. Mohawke had previously worked with West on the 2012 GOOD Music collaboration "Mercy", along with other tracks on the compilation album Cruel Summer (2012). After working on Yeezus, Mohawke was introduced to an entirely new approach to songwriting. According to Mohawke, the duo's song "R U Ready", which is sampled in "Blood on the Leaves", was one of the first songs the two recorded together and was also one of the first pieces of music the duo sent to West to sample.
West had previously sampled the work of Nina Simone on the 808s & Heartbreak track "Bad News" and the Watch the Throne collaborative track "New Day" with Jay-Z. Rapper Travis Scott viewed West as "a genius" and the only person who would think of combining "Strange Fruit" with a Hudson Mohawke beat in the "crazy-ass song". When he first heard the combination, Travis Scott "was jumping on niggas' backs and shit, like, 'Ahhhh!'".
"Blood on the Leaves" is a hip hop song in which West delivers his vocals through an Auto-Tune processor, similar to his 2008 album 808s & Heartbreak. The song begins with a sample of singer and civil rights activist Nina Simone's 1965 rendition of "Strange Fruit" by Billie Holiday over rolling piano chords, after which West's vocals begins. After one minute, the song unleashes horns taken from musical duo TNGHT's song "R U Ready", along with animal growls that play sporadically throughout the rest of the song. He later interpolates the hook of rapper C-Murder's 2000 song "Down for My N's." West's verses center around the perils of fame, conspicuous consumption and drug-addled romance. He raps lyrics which have been speculated as a possible reference to Jay-Z being unfaithful to his wife Beyoncé.
## Release
"Blood on the Leaves" was released on June 18, 2013, as the seventh track on West's sixth studio album Yeezus. According to Mohawke, "Blood on the Leaves" was originally intended to be the album's opener instead of "On Sight", but was changed "at the last minute" due to "the message ["On Sight"] puts across that [Yeezus] is a very different record." In November 2013, Mohawke announced via Twitter that the song was to-be released as the next single for the album, after "Bound 2" in August 2013. That same month, West subsequently announced the release during an appearance on 92.3 NOW. David Lynch stated his intentions to direct a music video for "Blood on the Leaves" due to his fondness for the song, but plans were abandoned after Lynch "never got [any] ideas."
## Critical reception
The song received universal acclaim from music critics, with many commenting on its lyrical message and praising its samples. When reviewing the album for HipHopDX, Justin Hunte wrote that "Blood on the Leaves" is "[the] one song [from Yeezus] that must be heard immediately." The staff of Popdust rated the song three and a half out of five, describing it as "an epic Yeezy tale about a relationship gone sour over issues of money and celebrity and bad timing and possibly even an unwanted child, depending on how you interpret the final verse." The song was branded by Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone as being "a buzzing, bluesy, static-y track." The song impressed director David Lynch: "I think it's one of the most modern pieces and so minimal, so powerful but at the same time so beautiful. It's a great, great song." Gil Kaufman of MTV called "Blood on the Leaves": "a churning anthem about conspicuous consumption" and: "[an] example of West's signature dichotomy in which he melds the sacred and profane." The original version of Nina Simone's "Strange Fruit" recorded by Billie Holiday in 1939 has been deemed: "shorthand for music that deals with racial injustice."
Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork called the song the "album pinnacle" and "a nightmarish story of divorce and betrayal," while Jody Rosen of Vulture stated that: "[West is] well aware how audacious to interpolate that sacred song into a monstrously self-pitying ... a melodrama about what a drag it is when your side-piece won't abort your love child." Nicholas Troester of conservative magazine First Things labeled the song as an "anti-abortion anthem" and thought the focus of the song is: "the tremendous selfishness of adults who cannot understand the importance of families or children."
### Accolades
The song was named among the best tracks of 2013 by multiple publications. Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 20 on their list of the 100 Best Songs of 2013. Pitchfork ranked the song at number 11 on their list of the 100 Best Songs of 2013, writing: "Blood on the Leaves", more than anything else on Yeezus, melds repulsive content and magnetic music into a strike that leaves the taste of real blood in your mouth" and calling it "a conceptual enigma." XXL magazine ranked the song at number 24 on their list of the 25 best songs of 2013, writing: "Mixing personal memories of a menacing relationship with the horrors of lynching for a record is often looked at as a blasphemous feat at first—but Kanye West made the combination work. Sampling Nina Simone's 'Strange Fruit', West's 'Blood on the Leaves'...was a gorgeous metaphor of a failed relationship touted with bass, towering horns, and auto-tune effect reminiscent of '808s & Heartbreak'." Spectrum Culture named it the 23rd best song of 2013, commenting;"it’s singles like “Blood on the Leaves” that offer fans a glimpse into the fears and insecurities of an artist who seems to always put forth a confident demeanour." Time Out listed "Blood on the Leaves" as West's 12th greatest song in March 2018. In 2019, Pitchfork ranked "Blood on the Leaves" at number 155 on their list of the 200 best songs of the 2010s, writing, "[The song] is a microcosm of what made Kanye both great and awful this decade", praising its beat, samples, vocals, and lyrics. Rolling Stone placed it at 75 on its list of the 100 best songs of the 2010s.
## Commercial performance
Upon the album's release, the track charted at number 91 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and disappeared from the chart afterwards until making a re-entry at its peak position of number 89 on September 14, 2013. The track charted at number 28 on the US Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart initially, then went on to peak at number 27 in the same week as reaching its peak position on the Hot 100 and spent a total of five weeks on the chart. "Blood on the Leaves" was certified Gold in the United States in 2015, despite West releasing no album that year. It was later certified Platinum in the United States in 2018. In France, the track debuted at number 131 on the SNEP chart upon the release of Yeezus. It entered at number 174 on the UK Singles Chart.
## Live performances
West performed the song live at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards. He was originally supposed to perform "Black Skinhead", though changed to performing "Blood on the Leaves" instead shortly before the show. The performance was notable for its minimal lighting and forest-themed backdrop. Moments before taking the stage, West posted a photo of the backcloth on Twitter with the caption; "it's a tree that was used for lynching." Later he posted a message on his website, "This tree was used for lynching. Those who were murdered are buried in the ground around the tree. Blood on the leaves." The song was performed live by West on Later... with Jools Holland in September 2013; this performance was singled out for praise by Bruce Springsteen during an interview with NPR, who called it "fantastic". West omitted Jay-Z's name from the song's lyrics when performing it live at the X Games Austin 2014 Music Festival, where his name was also omitted from the lyrics of "Cold". Other live performances include Glastonbury in June 2015 and on the Saint Pablo Tour in August 2016.
## Cover version and remixes
American musician Raury covered the song during his appearance on Hot 97 in September 2014. A version titled "Blood on the Leaves (DOGMA remix)" was released in June 2013, which includes Nina Simone's vocals being mashed. American rapper Waka Flocka Flame freestyled over the song's instrumental in May 2014 as part of his weekly series of freestyles every Monday, leading up to the release of his third studio album Flockaveli 2. A remix of the song was shared by Nicolas Jaar in February 2016. American rapper YvngxChris used a similar chop of this sample for his song of the same name as Ye's song, which blew up on TikTok and would eventually get a remix with SSGKobe, Kashdami, UnoTheActivist, and Ken Carson.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the Yeezus liner notes.
- Kanye West – songwriter, producer
- Ross Birchard – songwriter, producer
- Elon Rutberg – songwriter
- Malik Jones – songwriter
- Tony Williams – songwriter
- Cydel Young – songwriter
- Mike Dean – songwriter, additional producer
- Lewis Allen – songwriter
- Lunice – producer
- Carlos Broady – co-producer
- 88-Keys – additional producer
- Arca – additional producer
- Noah Goldstein – engineer, mixer at Shangri-La Studios, Malibu, CA
- Anthony Kilhoffer – engineer
- Marc Portheau – assistant engineer
- Khoi Huynh – assistant engineer
- Raoul Le Pennec – assistant engineer
- Nabil Essemlani – assistant engineer
- Damien Prost – assistant engineer
- Keith Parry – assistant engineer
- Kenta Yonesaka – assistant engineer
- David Rowland – assistant engineer
- Sean Oakley – assistant engineer, assistant mixer
- Eric Lynn – assistant engineer, assistant mixer
- Dave "Squirrel" Covell – assistant engineer, assistant mixer
- Josh Smith – assistant engineer, assistant mixer
## Charts
## Certifications |
46,309,716 | New Glow | 1,148,504,938 | null | [
"2015 albums",
"Albums produced by Jesse Shatkin",
"Matt and Kim albums"
]
| New Glow is the fifth studio album by American duo Matt and Kim, consisting of singer and keyboardist Matt Johnson and drummer Kim Schifino. Following the self-recorded Lightning (2012), New Glow features production and engineering contributions from Jesse Shatkin, Andrew Dawson, and Lars Stalfors, who produced the duo's self-titled debut. It is a dance-pop record that contains more cues from mainstream styles than previous releases, and is lyrically about Johnson and Schifino's relationship. Released by Harvest Records on April 7, 2015, it reached the top 40 of the American Billboard 200 chart and the top five on the Top Rock Albums and Independent Albums charts. Critical reviews were mixed. Although certain journalists enjoyed New Glow as a fun album, it was generally considered their weakest release due to its move towards a mainstream polished sound and drying-out of a simple formula.
## Background and composition
New Glow was written and recorded in a year-and-a-half process, which started in December 2013 with Matt & Kim not intending to create another album. Johnson explained in an interview with The Aquarian Weekly, "We just thought, 'Hey, let’s make one cool song.' Then it turned into, 'Let’s make another song!' And then eventually it turned into an album I guess." The tracks were planned to be released separately, but Johnson became too impatient and wanted the public to hear them at the same time. Of the 60 songs the duo worked on, only the last ten encompass New Glow. Although their previous album Lightning (2012) was self-produced, Matt & Kim had assistance from three professionals for New Glow: Lars Stalfors, who previously produced the duo's self-titled debut LP, Jesse Shatkin, and Andrew Dawson.
With New Glow, Matt & Kim intended to capture their love of various popular musical styles that they felt they successfully did in their live shows but never in recording format. New Glow is a dance pop record that takes cues from punk, hip hop, and electronic dance music; although the high-pitched shouty singing and energetic synthesizer lines typical of Matt & Kim are prevalent, it embraces much more mainstream styles than Matt and Kim's previous punk-influenced works. The A.V. Club categorized it as a mixture of the slick club sound of Sidewalks with the indie dance stylings of the group's other work. "Get It" is an amalgamation of electronic rock with trap and trip-hop, where Johnson sings about partying until the morning starts.
Lyrically, New Glow deals with Johnson and Schifino's relationship and is the first Matt & Kim record to detail it heavily. Johnson described "Hey Now" as a "celebration" of Schifino's inspiration on him, and the features the line "If I died I’d die right by your side". "I See Ya" is about the difficulty of keeping friendships and family relationships together while having a busy touring schedule.
## Release and promotion
On January 13, 2015, New Glow and a supporting tour was announced, and the album's cover art was revealed; "Get It" also premiered that day. "Get It" and "Make a Mess" were performed live on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on April 20, 2015. A lyric video for "Hoodie On", released on February 24, 2015, depicts the Johnson and Schifino wearing hoodies and skateboarding throughout Los Angeles, including a restaurant from It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia (2005–present) named Paddy’s Pub. The video for "Can You Blame Me?" premiered on December 15, 2015. It was created with the help of the group's fans; Johnson and Schifino filmed headshots of themselves lip-syncing to the song, and fans recorded themselves performing various activities while holding an iPad playing the headshot footage near their faces. Harvest Records released New Glow on April 7, 2015, and its nationwide tour ran from April 15 to May 22, 2015.
## Reception
Johnson reported that New Glow gained Matt & Kim "our largest audience yet and it's definitely had the most radio plays of all our albums in the States". It reached number 33 on the American Billboard 200 chart, number three on the Independent Albums chart, and number five on the Top Rock Albums chart. Additionally, "Get It" reached number 25 on the Alternative Airplay chart and 46 on the Hot Rock Songs chart.
However, the album received mixed reviews from critics upon release, garnering an aggregate 52/100 from Metacritic based on nine reviews. Jon Dolan, writing for Rolling Stone, enjoyed it as the duo's catchiest record yet, but also stated that "their all-smiles assault can be adorable, at least in moderate doses", but gets tiring after repeat listens. Corey Henderson of Exclaim! and Hays Davis of Under the Radar also called it a fun record, although Henderson argued it suffered from a monotonous sound.
Several reviewers found New Glow weaker than previous Matt & Kim albums. One reason was the polished mainstream sound that departed from the energy and spirit of their past releases, with reviewers considered signature to Matt & Kim's quality. Others considered it their worst record for the re-use of their simplistic compositional and lyrical style, to the point where it lost its luster and made the material sound amateur. Evan Rytlewski's review for Pitchfork concluded with an appeal to both opinions: "New Glow may be Matt & Kim’s most polished album, but their songwriting has never been more amateurish." Chris Mincher of The A.V. Club suggested that "the duo's well of shallow melodies has finally dried up" and summarized that "on New Glow, they've either finally dumbed things down too much, or simply reached the end of where this rudimentary songwriting can take them". As Katherine Flynn of Consequence of Sound advised, "Matt and Kim should maybe question the wisdom of eschewing the richness of their own wealth of experience in favor of whatever the kids are listening to these days."
Although, the sound and style were given positive comments. Davis highlighted the amount of detail, "Not Alone" in particular showcasing the "full range of Johnson’s palette, with sections of keys, string accents, and bass fuzz, and drummer Kim Schifino tearing along beside him". Mincher felt New Glow successfully combined the popular styles and Matt & Kim's indie style.
## Track listing
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of New Glow.
Locations
- All tracks except "Get It" were mixed and engineered at Infrasonic Sound in Los Angeles, California
- "Get It" was recorded and mixed by Andrew Dawson at SoundEQ Studios in Los Angeles, California and The Rib Cage, Los Angeles, California
- Mastered at Sterling Sound in New York City, New York
Matt & Kim
- Matt Johnson – producer
- Kim Schifino – artwork and design
Other
- Lars Stalfors – producer, mixer and engineer
- Jesse Shatkin – producer on "Get It"
- Andrew Dawson – producer and mixer on "World is Ending"
- Mike Malchicoff – assistant engineer
- Jack Becerra – assistant engineer
- Joe LaPorta – mastering
- Sydney Nichols – layout
- Kalani Fujimori – band design logo
## Charts |
45,386,662 | Jenks' Day Off | 1,167,171,470 | null | [
"1910 comedy films",
"1910 films",
"1910 lost films",
"1910s American films",
"1910s English-language films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American comedy short films",
"American silent short films",
"Lost American comedy films",
"Silent American comedy films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
]
| Jenks' Day Off is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film follows Mr. Jenks who drafts a telegram to himself as an excuse to get a reprieve from boredom and his wife's requests. He walks along the beach and finds a secluded spot to go swimming. A convict in women's clothing swaps his clothes with Jenks and Jenks has no choice to but to wear the discarded clothes. On his way back, he answers a call for help and is mistaken for the robber. He is captured and has to explain the circumstances which lead to an awkward situation. Production and casting credits for the film are unknown, but likely Thanhouser staff offer possible identities of the writer and actors. The film was released on August 2, 1910 and was met with approval by the trade publication. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 6, 1910. It states: "Mr. Jenks and his family are spending the summer in a fashionable summer hotel, and Mr. Jenks is kept bored and busy performing the many services demanded by his wife. He hits upon the bright idea of sending himself a business telegram which would necessitate his immediate presence in the city, then starts out on a little vacation on his own account. Walking on the beach he discovers a secluded spot, and leaving his clothes on the beach he takes a swim. In the meantime, a convict, who has escaped from a nearby penitentiary, has entered a house nearby in search of a change of clothes, his stripes being too conspicuous. The convict locks a woman of the house up and ransacks the house, but the only garments he can find are women's clothes, and, deciding that they are better than stripes, he dons them. As the convict in his new disguise is walking along the beach he sees Jenks' clothes lying there and promptly makes another change. There is nothing for Jenks to do when he comes out except to array himself as a woman. On his way back to the hotel he passes the house that has been robbed and is unlucky enough to hear the woman's cry for help. When she gets out of the closet, through his aid, she naturally believes that he is the convict, and screams for help. Jenks, frightened, runs away, but is captured after a chase in which the entire village takes part. His wife and daughter witness humiliation, and it's almost impossible for them to 'square things.'"
## Production
The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. The comedy of the situation derives from Jenks' own attempts to manufacture some free time to enjoy himself, only to regret the action because of the resultant circumstances. Advertising for the film confirms this by stating, "Jenk's day off was a day of woe instead of the day of joy he meant it to be. It taught him to never, never leave his wife's side - not even for a day!" Jenks' swimming in a secluded spot, inferring swimming in the nude through the lack of a swimming suit, sets the stage for the comedy when his clothes are swapped for those of the cross-dressed convict. With no other option, Jenks dons the clothes and responds to the call for help. The lady identifies Jenks as the convict, wearing her clothes, and the film concludes with a chase that leads to the arrest and humiliation of Jenks. This comedy predates the well-known cross-dressing antics of Fatty Arbuckle and Charlie Chaplin by a few years. The film director is unknown, but it may have been Barry O'Neil. Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production, but at least two possible candidates exist. Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The cast is uncredited because their identities are unknown. Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions. Known and more prominent members of the cast to appear in productions include the leading ladies, Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming, and the leading man was Frank H. Crane.
## Release and reception
The one reel comedy, approximately 960 feet long, was released on August 2, 1910. An alternative title for the production, Jenk's Day Off, was included in several known Thanhouser advertisements. This would appear to be in error because the character's name is Jenks and not Jenk. Theaters advertising the film included those in Missouri, Indiana, Nebraska, and Arizona. The Morning Telegraph gave a positive review to the film, stating that it was a "pretty good story". The Moving Picture World mirrored this assessment with a bit more detail and referred to the story as being within the realm of reality which makes it funnier. The New York Dramatic Mirror provided the most detailed review of the film and praised the ingenuity of the plot and the acting with the exception of Jenks' wife. The reviewer also pointing out that Jenks wrote out the telegram too quickly.
## See also
- List of American films of 1910 |
15,394,859 | Project Chanology | 1,171,374,121 | Protest movement against the practices of the Church of Scientology | [
"2008 protests",
"4chan",
"Anonymous (hacker group)",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Critics of Scientology",
"Internet censorship",
"Internet-based activism",
"Organizations established in 2008",
"Scientology and the Internet"
]
| Project Chanology (also called Operation Chanology) was a protest movement against the practices of the Church of Scientology by members of Anonymous, a leaderless Internet-based group. "Chanology" is a combination of "4chan" and "Scientology". The project was started in response to the Church of Scientology's attempts to remove material from a highly publicized interview with Scientologist Tom Cruise from the Internet in January 2008.
The project was publicly launched in the form of a video posted to YouTube, "Message to Scientology", on January 21, 2008. The video states that Anonymous views Scientology's actions as Internet censorship, and asserts the group's intent to "expel the church from the Internet". This was followed by distributed denial-of-service attacks (DDoS), and soon after, black faxes, prank calls, and other measures intended to disrupt the Church of Scientology's operations. In February 2008, the focus of the protest shifted to legal methods, including nonviolent protests and an attempt to get the Internal Revenue Service to investigate the Church of Scientology's tax-exempt status in the United States.
Reactions from the Church of Scientology regarding the protesters' actions have varied. Initially, one spokesperson stated that members of the group "have got some wrong information" about Scientology. Another referred to the group as a group of "computer geeks". Later, the Church of Scientology started referring to Anonymous as "cyberterrorists" perpetrating "religious hate crimes" against the church.
Detractors of Scientology have also criticized the actions of Project Chanology, asserting that they merely provide the Church of Scientology with the opportunity to "play the religious persecution card". Other critics such as Mark Bunker and Tory Christman initially questioned the legality of Project Chanology's methods, but have since spoken out in support of the project as it shifted towards nonviolent protests and other legal methods.
## Etymology
The word "Chanology" is a portmanteau of 4chan (the site where the project originated) and "Scientology."
## Background
The Church of Scientology has a history of conflict with groups on the Internet. In 1995, attorneys for the Church of Scientology attempted to get the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology (a.r.s.) removed from Usenet. This attempt backfired and generated a significant amount of press for a.r.s. The conflict with a.r.s led the hacker group Cult of the Dead Cow to declare war on the Church of Scientology. The Church of Scientology mounted a 10-year legal campaign against Dutch writer Karin Spaink and several Internet service providers after Spaink and others posted documents alleged to be secret teachings of the organization. The Church of Scientology's efforts ended in a legal defeat in a Dutch court in 2005. This series of events is often referred to as "Scientology versus the Internet".
### Tom Cruise video
On January 14, 2008, a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Tom Cruise was posted on YouTube. In the video, music from Cruise's Mission: Impossible films play in the background, and Cruise makes various statements, including saying that Scientologists are the only people who can help after a car accident and that Scientologists are the authority on getting addicts off drugs. According to The Times, Cruise can be seen in the video "extolling the virtues of Scientology". Australian newspaper The Daily Telegraph characterized Cruise as "manic-looking" during the interview, "gush[ing] about his love for Scientology".
The Church of Scientology asserted that the video material that had been leaked to YouTube and other websites was "pirated and edited" and taken from a three-hour video produced for members of Scientology. YouTube removed the Cruise video from their site under threat of litigation. The web site Gawker.com did not take down their copy of the Tom Cruise video, and other sites have posted the entire video. Lawyers for the Church of Scientology sent a letter to Gawker.com requesting the removal of the video, but Nick Denton of Gawker.com stated: "It's newsworthy and we will not be removing it."
### Formation
Project Chanology was formulated by users of the English-speaking imageboards 711chan.org and 4chan, the associated partyvan.info wiki, and several Internet Relay Chat channels, all part of a group collectively known as Anonymous, on January 16, 2008, after the Church of Scientology issued a copyright violation claim against YouTube for hosting material from the Cruise video. The effort against Scientology has also been referred to by group members as "Operation Chanology". A webpage called "Project Chanology", part of a larger wiki, is maintained by Anonymous and chronicles planned, ongoing and completed actions by project participants. The website includes a list of suggested guerrilla tactics to use against the Church of Scientology. Members use other websites as well to coordinate action, including Encyclopedia Dramatica and the social networking site Facebook, where two groups associated with the movement had 3,500 members as of February 4, 2008. A member of Anonymous told the Los Angeles Times that, as of February 4, 2008, the group consisted of "a loose confederation of about 9,000 people" who post anonymously on the Internet. A security analyst told The Age that the number of people participating anonymously in Project Chanology could number in the thousands: "You can't pin it on a person or a group of people. You've thousands of people engaged to do anything they can against Scientology."
Members of Project Chanology say their main goal is "to enlighten the Church of Scientology (CoS) by any means necessary." Their website states: "This will be a game of mental warfare. It will require our talkers, not our hackers. It will require our dedicated Anon across the world to do their part." Project Chanology's stated goals include the complete removal of the Church of Scientology's presence from the Internet and to "save people from Scientology by reversing the brainwashing". Project Chanology participants plan to join the Church of Scientology posing as interested members in order to infiltrate the organization.
Andrea Seabrook of National Public Radio's All Things Considered reported Anonymous was previously known for "technologically sophisticated pranks" such as spamming chat rooms online and "ordering dozens of pizzas for people they don't like". Ryan Singel of Wired appeared on the program on January 27, 2008, and told Seabrook that members of Anonymous were motivated by "the tactics the Church of Scientology uses to control information about itself" rather than the "controversial nature of Scientology itself".
## Activities
### Internet activities
Project Chanology began its campaign by organizing and delivering a series of denial-of-service attacks against Scientology websites and flooding Scientology centers with prank calls and black faxes. The group was successful in taking down local and global Scientology websites intermittently from January 18, 2008, until at least January 25, 2008. Anonymous had early success rendering major Scientology websites inaccessible and leaking documents allegedly stolen from Scientology computers. This resulted in a large amount of coverage on social bookmarking websites.
The denial-of-service attacks on Scientology.org flooded the site with 220 megabits of traffic, a mid-range attack. Speaking with SCMagazineUS.com, a security strategist for Top Layer Networks, Ken Pappas said that he thought that botnets were involved in the Anonymous operation: "There are circles out there where you could take ownership of the bot machines that are already owned and launch a simultaneous attack against [something] like the church from 50,000 PCs, all at the same time".
In response to the attacks, on January 21, 2008, the Scientology.org site was moved to Prolexic Technologies, a company specializing in safeguarding web sites from denial-of-service attacks. Attacks against the site increased, and CNET News reported that "a major assault" took place at 6 p.m. EST on January 24, 2008. Anonymous escalated the attack on Scientology on January 25, 2008, and on January 25, 2008, the Church of Scientology's official website remained inaccessible.
On January 21, 2008, Anonymous announced its goals and intentions via a video posted to YouTube entitled "Message to Scientology", and a press release declaring "War on Scientology", against both the Church of Scientology and the Religious Technology Center. In the press release, the group stated that the attacks against the Church of Scientology would continue in order to protect freedom of speech and to end what they characterized as the financial exploitation of church members.
The Tom Cruise video is referred to specifically at the start of the Anonymous YouTube video posting, and is characterized as a "propaganda video". The video utilizes a synthesized voice and shows floating cloud images using a time lapse method as the speaker addresses the leaders of Scientology directly: "We shall proceed to expel you from the Internet and systematically dismantle the Church of Scientology in its present form..." The video goes on to state: "We recognize you as serious opponents, and do not expect our campaign to be completed in a short time frame. However, you will not prevail forever against the angry masses of the body politic. Your choice of methods, your hypocrisy, and the general artlessness of your organization have sounded its death knell. You have nowhere to hide because we are everywhere... We are Anonymous. We are Legion. We do not forgive. We do not forget. Expect us." By January 25, 2008, only four days after its release, the video had been viewed 800,000 times, and by February 8, 2008, had been viewed over 2 million times. Author Warren Ellis called the video "creepy in and of itself" and a "manifesto, declaration of war, sharp political film".
In a different video posted to YouTube, Anonymous addresses news organizations covering the conflict and criticizes media reporting of the incident. In the video, Anonymous criticizes the media specifically for not mentioning objections by the group to certain controversial aspects of the history of the Church of Scientology, and cited past incidents including the death of Lisa McPherson: "We find it interesting that you did not mention the other objections in your news reporting. The stifling and punishment of dissent within the totalitarian organization of Scientology. The numerous, alleged human rights violations. Such as the treatment and events that led to the deaths of victims of the cult such as Lisa McPherson." Lisa McPherson was a Scientologist who died in 1995 under controversial circumstances. The Church of Scientology was held responsible and initially faced felony charges in her death. The charges were later dropped and a civil suit brought by McPherson's family was settled in 2004. This second video was removed on January 25, 2008, YouTube citing a "terms of use violation". Organizers of the February 10, 2008, Project Chanology protests against the Church of Scientology told the St. Petersburg Times the event was timed to coincide with the birthday of Lisa McPherson.
In addition to DDoS attacks against Church of Scientology websites, Anonymous also organized a campaign on one of their websites to "begin bumping Digg", referring to an attempt to drive up Scientology-related links on the website Digg.com. On January 25, 2008, eight of the top ten stories on Digg.com were about either Scientology-related controversies or Anonymous and attempts to expose Scientology. Digg CEO Jay Adelson told PC World that Anonymous had not manipulated the site's algorithm system to prevent artificial poll results, stating: "They must have done a very good job of bringing in a diverse set of interests ... It just happened to hit a nerve that the Digg community was interested in." Adelson said two other instances which similarly have dominated the Digg main page in the past were the Virginia Tech Massacre in the aftermath of the incident and the "7/7" London bombings in 2005. Adelson commented on the popularity of Scientology theme within the Digg community: "In the history of Digg, there's no question that the topic of Scientology has been of great interest to the community ... I can't explain why."
On January 29, 2008, Jason Lee Miller of WebProNews reported that a Google bomb technique had been used to make the Scientology.org main website the first result in a Google search for "dangerous cult". Miller wrote that Anonymous was behind the Google bomb, and that they had also tried to bump Scientology up as the first result in Google searches for "brainwashing cult", and to make the Xenu.net website first result in searches for "scientology". Rob Garner of MediaPost Publications wrote: "The Church of Scientology continues to be the target of a group called Anonymous, which is using Google bombs and YouTube as its tools of choice."
In a February 4, 2008, article, Scientology spokeswoman Karin Pouw told the Los Angeles Times that Church of Scientology's websites "have been and are online." Danny McPherson, chief research officer at Arbor Networks, claimed 500 denial-of-service attacks had been observed on the Scientology site in the week prior to February 4, some of which were strong enough to bring the website down. Calling Anonymous a "motley crew of internet troublemakers", Wired blogger Ryan Singel said that, while attempting to bypass the Prolexic servers protecting the Church of Scientology website, users of a misconfigured DDoS tool inadvertently and briefly had targeted the Etty Hillesum Lyceum, a Dutch secondary school in Deventer. Another hacking group associated with the project, calling themselves the "g00ns", mistakenly targeted a 59-year-old man from Stockton, California. They posted his home telephone number, address and his wife's Social Security number online for other people to target. They believed that he was behind counter-attacks against Project Chanology-related websites by the Regime, a counter-hack group who crashed one of the Project Chanology planning websites. The group allegedly attempted to gain personal information on people involved in Project Chanology to turn that information over to the Church of Scientology. After discovering they had wrongly targeted the couple, one of the members of the g00ns group called and apologized.
### Protests planned
A new video entitled "Call to Action" appeared on YouTube on January 28, 2008, calling for protests outside Church of Scientology centers on February 10, 2008. As with the previous videos, the two-minute video used a synthesized computer voice and featured stock footage of clouds and sky. The video was accompanied by a text transcript with British English spelling. The video denied that the group was composed of "super hackers", stating: "Contrary to the assumptions of the media, Anonymous is not 'a group of super hackers.' ... Anonymous is everyone and everywhere. We have no leaders, no single entity directing us." The video said that Project Chanology participants include "individuals from all walks of life ... united by an awareness that someone must do the right thing." Specific controversies involving the CoS were cited in the video as the explanation for actions by Anonymous.
In an email to CNET News, Anonymous stated that coordinated activities were planned for February 10, 2008, in many major cities around the world. Anonymous hoped to use "real world" protests to rally public opinion to their cause. According to the Associated Press, the protests were meant to draw attention to what the group refers to as a "vast money-making scheme under the guise of 'religion'". By January 30, 2008, 170 protests had been planned outside Church of Scientology centers worldwide. A video posted to YouTube called "Code of Conduct" outlined twenty-two rules to follow when protesting, and urged protestors to remain peaceful.
### February 2008
#### February 2
On February 2, 2008, 150 people gathered outside a Church of Scientology center in Orlando, Florida to protest the organization's practices. Small protests were also held in Santa Barbara, California (during the Santa Barbara International Film Festival), and Manchester, England. Protesters in Orlando carried signs with messages "Knowledge is Free" and "Honk if you hate Scientology". According to WKMG-TV, the protesters called the Church of Scientology a "dangerous cult" and said the organization is responsible for crimes and deaths. The Orlando Sentinel reported that the protest was "part of a worldwide campaign by a group that calls itself Anonymous", and an unnamed organizer who spoke to the paper stated that the group was protesting "a gross violation of the right to see free church material", referring to the Tom Cruise video that was pulled from YouTube.
Protesters at the demonstration wore masks, and said they were attempting to inform the public about what they believed to be "restrictions of free speech and profiteering through pyramid schemes" by the Church of Scientology. They asserted they were not protesting the doctrine of Scientology, but rather alleged actions of individual Scientologists. One protester stated that he had created a Facebook group to organize the protest, explaining "It started online with a group called Anonymous ... They got upset with Scientology because the church hides important documents that are supposed to be released to the public."
#### February 10
On February 10, 2008, about 7,000 people protested in at least 100 cities worldwide. Within 24 hours of the first protest, a search for "Scientology" and "protest" on Google Blog Search returned more than 4,000 results and more than 2,000 pictures on the image-sharing site Flickr. Cities with turnouts of one hundred or more protesters included Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, Australia; Toronto, Canada; London, England; Dublin, Ireland; and Austin, Dallas, Boston, Clearwater, and New York City, United States.
150 people protested at the Church of Scientology building in Sydney, Australia, carrying signs and wearing costumes. Participants were masked to maintain their anonymity and avoid possible retaliation from the Church of Scientology. Protesters chanted "Church on the left, cult on the right" (in reference to the Church that was beside the Church of Scientology building), "Religion is free" and "We want Xenu". Scientology staff locked down the building and set up a camera to record the event. After the protest in Sydney, a surge in online Internet traffic due to individuals attempting to view pictures from the protest crashed hundreds of websites when a server was overloaded. The Sydney protest was one of the first worldwide, and after the first images of the protest went online a surge in traffic drove the hosting company's bandwidth usage up by 900 percent. The hosting company Digitalis temporarily prevented access to hundreds of its clients' sites, and customer support representative Denis Kukic said the surge was unexpected: "We had no advance notice that there was going to be a sudden surge of traffic or that there would be more than 100 times the average traffic that this customer's website normally consumes."
Masked protesters in Seattle, Washington, United States congregated in front of the Church of Scientology of Washington. Protesters were quoted as saying, "We believe in total freedom of belief. We have nothing against the people of Scientology, however the Church of Scientology has committed crimes. They're vehemently anti-opposition. Anyone who opposes them, must go down." A protester in Santa Barbara emphasized that their opposition was against the organization, not the belief system, and that they supported the Scientology split-off group known as the Free Zone. Protesters turned out in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania despite unusually cold weather. The masked crowd consisted mainly of college students, including some who had travelled from as far as Penn State University.
Protesters in Boston, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Toronto, Edinburgh, London, and other cities worldwide, wore Guy Fawkes masks modeled after the 2005 film V for Vendetta. Guy Fawkes was an English Catholic executed for a 1605 attempt to destroy the House of Lords. In V for Vendetta, a rebel against a near-future fascist regime uses the mask in his public appearances and distributes many of its copies to the population to enable mass protests. The Boston Globe characterized usage of the Guy Fawkes masks as "an allusion to the British insurgent and a film depicting an antigovernment movement". Aaron Tavena of College Times wrote that the Guy Fawkes masks provided a "dramatic effect" to the protests, and Nick Jamison of The Retriever Weekly wrote: "During the February 10 protests, Anonymous was informative, Anonymous was peaceful, and Anonymous was effective. After seeing all of the pictures from the 10th with everyone in disguise, many sporting Guy Fawkes masks, I wanted to be a part of that." Scott Stewart of University of Nebraska at Omaha's The Gateway wrote: "Many participants sported Guy Fawkes masks to draw attention both to their identity as Anonymous and the Church of Scientology's abuse of litigation and coercion to suppress anti-Scientology viewpoints."
The Internet meme Rickroll, where a link is given to a seemingly relevant website only to be directed to a music video of singer Rick Astley's pop single "Never Gonna Give You Up", has been used as a theme in the protests against Scientology. At February 10 protests in New York, Washington, D.C., London and Seattle, protesters played the song through boomboxes and shouted the phrase "Never gonna let you down!", in what The Guardian called "a live rick-rolling of the Church of Scientology". In response to a website created by Scientologists showing an anti-Anonymous video, Project Chanology participants created a website with a similar domain name with a video displaying the music video to "Never Gonna Give You Up". In a March 2008 interview, Astley said that he found the rickrolling of Scientology to be "hilarious"; he also said that he will not try to capitalize on the rickroll phenomenon with a new recording or remix of his own, but that he'd be happy to have other artists remix it.
Following the protests, there were reports that YouTube was freezing the view counts on videos criticizing Scientology, including clips from the protests themselves, potentially preventing them from being displayed on YouTube's front page. Similarly, the original "Message to Scientology" video had received nearly 2.5 million views and yet failed to be featured as a "most-watched". The net neutrality activist group movieLOL strongly criticized YouTube for a "display of the decay of internet freedom". YouTube's official response stated: "There was an issue with video view counts not increasing that has now been resolved. The correct number of views should be displayed in the next 24 hours. Thanks for your patience."
Jonathan Holmes, the presenter of the Australian watchdog program Media Watch, reported on two cases of media censorship of the protests. News.com.au pixelated a poster carried by a protester which was revealed, through a Today Tonight segment, to have displayed the word "CULT". The Advertiser erased Tom Cruise's name from a protest placard, rendering the placard's message meaningless, without informing its readers. The Advertiser'''s editor, Melvin Mansell, stated that the alteration had "slipped by" and that he was opposed to the publication of doctored photographs.
### March–December 2008
#### March 2008
According to NBC11, a woman from Anonymous contacted them and stated that protests were planned against Scientology each month through May 2008; and that a large protest was planned for two days after Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard's birthday, March 15. Carlos Moncada of The Tampa Tribune reported that an "open letter to the press from Anonymous" was sent out via e-mail, and states that a protest is planned for March 15, 2008. The e-mail refers to the Ides of March: "We, too, wish to celebrate this event, albeit in our own special way ... Beware the Ides of March, Church of Scientology!" The March protests were titled "Operation Party Hard".
Protests began in Australia on March 15, 2008, and were followed by protests in major cities worldwide including Brussels, London, Seattle, Phoenix, Manchester, and Los Angeles. Approximately 7,000 to 8,000 people protested in about 100 cities worldwide. The protests took place in locations in Australia, Europe, Canada, and the United States.
Approximately 200 masked protesters gathered outside the Church of Scientology's headquarters in Adelaide, Australia. An anonymous spokesman told News.com.au that Scientology should lose its tax-exempt status. About 150 protesters came to the Yonge Street headquarters of Scientology in Toronto, Canada; sang "Happy Birthday" and chanted "we want cake". During the Los Angeles protests, a plane flew overhead trailing a large sign that read "Honk if you think Scientology is a cult." 150 protesters demonstrated in Clearwater, Florida, and a local organizer for Anonymous told The Tampa Tribune, "We feel that we have an obligation to educate the public about the things that have gone on and hopefully make the Church of Scientology understand that they have to change."
Two people were arrested by DeKalb County, Georgia, police for using megaphones while stepping onto the surrounding street opposite of the church during a protest. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported that five protesters were cited for "causing 'hazardous' or 'offensive' conditions", and that eight motorists were pulled over by police and ticketed for excessive use of horns, after they honked while driving past the protest. The American Civil Liberties Union and Amnesty International investigated the reaction of the police at the Atlanta protest. In contrast, a Los Angeles Police Department officer at the Los Angeles protest was widely praised after a video was uploaded to YouTube showing him acknowledging the demonstrators' right to protest and encouraging them to stay on the sidewalk for their own safety.
#### April 2008
Anonymous held its third international protest against Scientology on April 12, 2008. Named "Operation Reconnect", the protest focused on increasing awareness of the Church of Scientology's disconnection policy. Protesters around the world gathered in over 50 cities, including Toronto, London, Sydney, and Berlin. A subsequent international protest was planned for May 10, 2008, according to The University Register it was titled "Operation Battletoad Earth", and an additional protest was planned for June 2008. According to John DeSio of The Village Voice, the May 10, 2008 protests were referred to as "Operation : Fair Game : Stop", and National Nine News has reported that the full title of the May 10 protests is "Battletoad Earth: Operation Fairgame Stop". The May 10 date was chosen as May 9 is the anniversary of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard's book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. Over 400 people were present at the May 10, 2008, protests in cities in Australia. Wen Hsing, a member of Anonymous, commented to scopical.com.au about the Church of Scientology's denial of its "fair game" policy: "Even if the name 'fair game' is not in use, the Church of Scientology is an organization that continues to practice a vicious policy of retribution against perceived enemies, and it teaches its members that extreme measures are morally justified if they aid the Church."
#### May 2008
On May 10, a teenager who went to the protests in front of the Queen Victoria Street Church of Scientology in London was issued a court summons after being asked to take down a sign that read "Scientology is not a religion, it is a dangerous cult". Posting anonymously on a forum, the teenager stated "Within five minutes of arriving ... I was told by a member of the police that I was not allowed to use 'that word'". He said that the police told him he had 15 minutes to take down the sign. The teenager did not, citing a 1984 High Court ruling by Mr Justice Latey in which he described the Church of Scientology as a "cult" that was "corrupt, sinister and dangerous". The sign was then confiscated. Shami Chakrabarti, the director of Liberty, a human rights group, said that, "They will be banning words like 'war' and 'tax' from placards and demonstrations next. This is just barmy". On May 23, 2008, the legal action against the boy was dropped. A Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) spokesman said: "In consultation with the City of London Police, we were asked whether the sign was abusive or insulting. Our advice is that it is not abusive or insulting and there is no offensiveness (as opposed to criticism), neither in the idea expressed nor in the mode of expression." Anonymous also held a protest in Budapest, Hungary, atat the same time and location as a program of the local Scientology church.
#### June–October 2008
A protest was held June 14, 2008 titled "Sea Arrrgh" (a satirical reference to the Church of Scientology's Sea Org). Protesters dressed up as pirates. According to Macquarie National News, members of Anonymous highlighted the controversial practices of the Sea Org, including what the protesters believe to be forced contracts where Scientologists work below a livable wage, that female Sea Org members who become pregnant are pressured to have abortions, and that children of families in the organization are made to perform difficult physical labor. An international protest held on July 12, 2008, titled: "Spy vs. Sci" highlighted the Church of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs. A press release by the group posed the question: "Why does something that describes itself as a religion need an intelligence agency that aggressively persecutes critics?" The group posted a video in early August 2008 calling for renewed activity in their protest efforts, and planned a subsequent international protest for August 16, 2008. About 35 protesters gathered twice in September 2008 during the first preview and premiere of Arthur Miller's play All My Sons. They encouraged Scientologist Katie Holmes, wife of Tom Cruise, to leave the Church. The most recent international organized protest was held October 18, 2008. Members of Anonymous dressed as zombies, and highlighted what they described as questionable deaths and suicides of Scientologists.
#### December 2008
The film Valkyrie, starring and produced by Tom Cruise, premiered in New York City on December 17. Entertainment reporter Roger Friedman noted that it was held "in the private screening room at the Time Warner Center. Not the Ziegfield [sic] or Loews Lincoln Square, where most premieres are held in public." The venue was chosen in part to minimize the exposure to Scientology protestors gathered at the Time Warner Center. There were also Scientology protests at the European premiere in Berlin, where one protester got his V for Vendetta mask autographed by Tom Cruise. Chanology participants shared the limelight with a person in a bunny suit protesting against the hero worship of Claus von Stauffenberg.
### 2009
#### January–February 2009
On January 8, 2009, an 18-year-old male member of Anonymous ran into the New York Scientology building shirtless and covered with Vaseline, pubic hair, and toenail clippings. He then proceeded to toss books around and smear the mixture on objects in the building. The man, identified by police as Mahoud Samed Almahadin, was charged with burglary, criminal mischief, and aggravated harassment as hate crimes. Two weeks later, 21-year-old film student and Anonymous member Jacob Speregen was charged with aggravated harassment and criminal mischief as hate crimes after he filmed Almahadin carrying out his prank. According to his mother and the video, Speregen was filming the event from behind the barricade. Scientology critics Mark Bunker and Jason Beghe disagreed with the individual's actions.
Anonymous organized a 12th global protest against Scientology for January 10, 2009, to coincide with the Chanology movement's first anniversary. On February 10, 2009, Anonymous released a statement: "Scientology operatives still continue to paint Anonymous in a negative light as a means of distracting attention from Scientology operations and attempting to discredit those who bring truth to the issues at hand. It just isn’t working." The group claimed credit for leaks of internal Scientology documents that appeared on the website WikiLeaks, and announced further global protests for subsequent weekends in February 2009. Members of Anonymous continued to celebrate the one-year anniversary of the Chanology movement during February 2009, with protests held in locations including Hemet, California.
#### March–May 2009
On March 3, 2009, the Board of Supervisors in Riverside County, California, voted to approve an ordinance which restricts residential picketing there to 30 ft (9.1 m) or further from an individual's residence. The ordinance was originally introduced by Supervisor Jeff Stone, board chairman, in November 2008, and went through multiple changes. Critics of the ordinance stated that Stone proposed the measure due to favor for Scientology, which has its Hemet compound located in Riverside County. "The whole ordinance is tainted. The reasons behind it are tainted," said county resident Lirra Bishop. Stone stated the measure was intended for all residents of the county, though he cited protests at Scientology's Gold Base facility which houses residences and Scientology's Golden Era Productions as an example of why the ordinance is needed. Protesters at Gold Base have included members of Anonymous, and Scientology officials claimed they were "threatened with violence". Protesters told the Board of Supervisors that due to the lack of sidewalk near Gold Base, the anti-picketing ordinance would severely hamper the ability to protest outside the Scientology compound.
After stating on October 17, 2008, that he would plead guilty to involvement in the January 2008 DDoS attacks against Church of Scientology websites, an 18-year-old self-described member of Anonymous entered a guilty plea related to hacking charges in May 2009. A release from the US Justice Department said that the individual, a resident of New Jersey, "participated in the attack because he considered himself a member of an underground group called 'Anonymous'". Thom Mrozek, a spokesman for the Justice Department, said that the Church of Scientology had cooperated in the investigation. The individual faced a sentencing scheduled for August 2009.
In May 2009, members of Anonymous told WSMV-TV that they were bullied by off-duty security guards while protesting at a Scientology event in April in Nashville, Tennessee. According to WSMV-TV, a protester stated he was assaulted by three Scientology security guards while on public property, 400 yd (370 m) away from the Scientology building. The Church of Scientology had previously informed the security guards that the protesters were "dangerous people". A protester was issued three citations by the Scientology security guards, but these were all dismissed by the district attorney. On May 8, 2009, WSMV-TV reported that "laws appear to have been broken" in the manner in which the Scientology security guards handled the protesters. The Scientology security guards were not clearly identified as off-duty police officers, and permits for the Scientology event attended by the Anonymous protesters were for the wrong day. "The armed people from the other county are not identified police officers. You're looking for a problem", said John M. L. Brown, a Fraternal Order of Police attorney.
#### November 2009
On November 13, 2009, Independent Australian Senator Nick Xenophon used parliamentary privilege to accuse the Church of Scientology of being a criminal organization.
### Campaign against Scientology's tax-exempt status
A woman who stated she was a member of Anonymous told KNTV that the group has shifted strategy to activities which fight Scientology but are not deemed illegal by the United States government, including an attempt to get the Internal Revenue Service to investigate the Church of Scientology's 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status. Another woman from Anonymous told Newsweek that the group plans to accomplish this through a lobbying campaign. United States tax authorities removed the Church of Scientology's tax-exemption status in 1967, stating that the organization's auditing techniques served as a for-profit operation for L. Ron Hubbard. In 1984, the United States Tax Court ruled that the Church of Scientology was guilty of "manufacturing and falsifying records to present to the IRS, burglarizing IRS offices and stealing government documents, and subverting government processes for unlawful purposes." The Church of Scientology's tax-exempt status in the United States was reinstated in 1993.
A member of Anonymous calling herself "Envie" told Today Tonight that the group has longer-term plans against the Church of Scientology: "We are incredibly determined ... There are those of us who have been talking about plans for the next 12 to 18 months." A member of Anonymous calling herself "Sarah" spoke with Radar magazine about a letter-writing campaign: "We're sending letters to senators and congresspeople requesting that their tax-exempt status be looked at."
## Church of Scientology response
In a January 25, 2008, statement, a spokesman for the Church of Scientology said, "These types of people have got some wrong information about us." In Toronto, a Canadian spokesperson for the Church of Scientology said she didn't "give a damn" if the group Anonymous was responsible for disrupting access to the Scientology site. Church spokeswoman Yvette Shank told Sun Media that she thought the Anonymous members were a "pathetic" group of "computer geeks". On January 26, 2008, CNET News reported that Karin Pouw, public affairs director for the Church of Scientology, did not address their specific request for a comment about the denial-of-service attacks but instead only stated that the Tom Cruise video on YouTube consisted of "pirated and edited" excerpts of Cruise from a 2004 Scientology event.
On January 28, 2008, Radar Online reported that the Church of Scientology asked the U.S. Attorney General's office in Los Angeles, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Los Angeles Police Department to start a criminal investigation of possible criminal activity related to the DDoS attacks. Radar also reported that in statements to law enforcement the Church of Scientology emphasized its status as a religious organization in the United States in order to assert that the DDoS attacks can be classed as hate crimes. The day after the Church of Scientology complained to law enforcement about the DDoS attacks, one of the main Project Chanology sites was down, and a message on the site said that their site crashed due to attacks from Scientologists.
Lee Sheldon of the Church of Scientology of Orlando and Lee Holzinger of the Church of Scientology of Santa Barbara issued similar statements regarding the February 2, 2008 protests in Florida and California, respectively. Both representatives also expressed concerns regarding the spread of "hate speech."
### Accusations by the Church of Scientology
The Church of Scientology released a statement regarding the February 10, 2008 worldwide protests, which was published February 7, 2008 in the St. Petersburg Times. In the statement, the Church of Scientology called the organizers of the protests "cyberterrorists." The statement also referred to the actions of members of Project Chanology as "hate crimes" and "religious bigotry", and in a media release said that the group is guided by Communist Manifesto and Mein Kampf; one of the organizers of the protest responded to the latter allegation by stating: "I don't know where they got that from, but I don't think that's true considering that I am a capitalist and a Jew". Pat Harney, spokeswoman for the Church of Scientology in Clearwater, Florida told the St. Petersburg Times: "We are dealing with a worldwide threat ... This is not a light matter."
The Church of Scientology posted a YouTube video claiming that Anonymous are "terrorists" and alleging that Anonymous is perpetrating "hate crimes" against the church. The video does not provide any evidence supporting their claims, and the FBI has not named any suspects for several of the threats mentioned. Anonymous has denied involvement in the more severe accusations. The church also released a DVD containing the YouTube video. The DVD called Anonymous a "dangerous" group and accused them of making threats against Scientology. Men claiming to be from the law firm Latham and Watkins delivered the DVD to family members of at least one person who protested.
YouTube user "AnonymousFacts", which Radar Online described as an associate of Scientology, displayed the names and personal information of several supposed Anonymous members and accused the group of violent threats and terrorism. YouTube quickly took the video down and suspended the "AnonymousFacts" account.
The Church of Scientology sought an injunction and a restraining order to prevent Anonymous from protesting on March 15, 2008, citing threats allegedly made by Anonymous. Both the injunction and the restraining order were denied. On March 31, 2008, Radar Online reported that representatives of law firms delivered legal letters to suspected Anons, often at their homes. The Church filed complaints of trespassing and criminal harassment against Boston organizer Gregg Housh, who was charged with disturbing an assembly of worship, disturbing the peace, and harassment. The District Attorney's office dropped the harassment charge, and Judge Thomas Horgan issued a continuance without finding for the remaining charges.
In a May 8, 2008 appearance on CNN, Church of Scientology spokesman Thomas W. Davis said that Scientology was "dealing with ninety-six death threats, bomb threats, acts of violence, vandalism" from the group Anonymous. CNN's John Roberts responded, stating that the Federal Bureau of Investigation found nothing connecting Anonymous to the Church of Scientology's accusations of violence: "You are leveling these accusations at this group, the F.B.I., which is looking into it, says it has found nothing to connect this group Anonymous with what you're talking about, or death threats against members of the church, the F.B.I. at this point says - it has no reason to believe that charges would be leveled against this group."
## Reaction
Andreas Heldal-Lund, founder of the Scientology-critical website and non-profit organization Operation Clambake, released a statement criticizing the digital assault against Scientology. Heldal-Lund commented, "People should be able to have easy access to both sides and make up their own opinions. Freedom of speech means we need to allow all to speak – including those we strongly disagree with. I am of the opinion that the Church of Scientology is a criminal organization and a cult which is designed by its delusional founder to abuse people. I am still committed to fight for their right to speak their opinion." He also stated that "Attacking Scientology like that will just make them play the religious persecution card ... They will use it to defend their own counter actions when they try to shatter criticism and crush critics without mercy."
Mark Bunker, an Emmy Award-winning journalist and Scientology critic who runs the website XenuTV.com, posted a video to YouTube and asked Anonymous to tone down their campaign against the Church of Scientology. According to NPR's Morning Edition, Bunker has "become a revered voice to many members of Anonymous", and they refer to him as "Wise Beard Man". Bunker told Newsweek that he was pleased to see a large group of young individuals acting against Scientology, but stated he was also concerned for their safety: "I know the way Scientology works: they're going to get these people in trouble ... I'm very concerned about their safety, and I'm concerned about the Scientologists' safety, too." Bunker stated that he has received 6,000 emails from individuals who say they are part of Anonymous. Bunker attended the February 10, 2008 protest against Scientology in Los Angeles.
Tory Christman, a critic of Scientology and former Scientologist from 1969 to 2000, stated she disapproved of illegal tactics but felt encouraged by the new influx of critics of Scientology. Christman told Morning Edition: "It feels like we've been out in this desert, fighting this group one-on-one by ourselves, and all of a sudden this huge army came up with not only tons of people, thousands of people, but better tools..." Scientology critic Arnaldo Lerma told the St. Petersburg Times he was impressed by a video of a protest against Scientology which took place in Orlando, Florida: "I've never seen anything like that before. This is incredible. I wouldn't have believed it if I didn't see it on a Web cam."
In a February 4, 2008 appearance on the G4 television program Attack of the Show!, Mark Ebner, journalist and author of the book Hollywood, Interrupted, and Nick Douglas of Gawker.com commented on Project Chanology. Ebner stated that "Hacking their site is not really the best way to go about taking them (the Church of Scientology) down. Most critics you talk to want the Scientology site to be up there so that people who are interested can see the stupidity they have on the web and at the same time they can go – they are a few keystrokes from getting a thousand other opinions." Nick Douglas explained that the group decided to shift their strategy away from the attacks to Scientology websites: "Anonymous even decided that they were going to stop that attack, that it was a bad idea. It's the usual thing they used to do when they really hadn't had a thought out plan, and here they're realizing they actually have to figure out some real plan against a real enemy."
University of Alberta professor Stephen A. Kent weighed in on the issue, and said "I think these disruptions probably are illegal. At the very least, they’re forms of harassment ... We now have three parties involved. Anonymous, Scientology and law enforcement." Kent stated that "The hacker community has been angry at Scientology for (their) attempts to block free speech on the Internet." Reaction to the denial of service attack on the Church of Scientology websites was mixed in message board forums for PC World. Some readers praised the actions of Anonymous, while others commented that the DDoS attacks bring more attention to Scientology. The Economist likened the DDoS attacks used by Project Chanology to "cyberwarfare techniques normally associated with extortionists, spies and terrorists", and referred to Anonymous as "internet activists".
Dan Schultz of PBS's MediaShift Idea Lab commented that the movement "is a really fascinating case study of how current technologies and information dissemination via digital media can snowball into something that actually results in real world action". In a follow-up piece, Schultz discussed the tools used by digital media to achieve community impact, including lower barriers to entry and greater efficiencies through the use of information systems. Schultz wrote "For members of Anonymous I'm betting most of these things are already unspoken understandings", and pointed to their use of memes and cited the forums of the website enturbulation.org as an example of the group's ability to collaborate effectively to accomplish goals.
In a May 8, 2008, report on the recent actions of Anonymous against Scientology, CNN reporter Kareen Wynter commented: "Legal experts say the church may be facing its biggest challenge yet – trying to protect its image, in a loosely policed medium seen by millions of people. In a July 2008 interview with Entertainment Weekly, Alan Moore had this to say about the use of the Guy Fawkes motif, adopted from his comic V for Vendetta'': "I was also quite heartened the other day when watching the news to see that there were demonstrations outside the Scientology headquarters over here, and that they suddenly flashed to a clip showing all these demonstrators wearing V for Vendetta [Guy Fawkes] masks. That pleased me. That gave me a warm little glow."
## See also
- Hacktivism
- Operation Leakspin
- Operation Payback
- Scientology and the Internet
- Scientology and the legal system
- Scientology controversies
- Streisand effect |
56,435,778 | Huang Zongying | 1,145,956,347 | Chinese writer and actress (1925–2020) | [
"1925 births",
"2020 deaths",
"20th-century Chinese actresses",
"20th-century Chinese women writers",
"20th-century Chinese writers",
"21st-century Chinese actresses",
"21st-century Chinese women writers",
"21st-century Chinese writers",
"Actresses from Beijing",
"Chinese film actresses",
"Chinese television actresses",
"Chinese women journalists",
"Chinese women screenwriters",
"Screenwriters from Beijing"
]
| Huang Zongying (Chinese: 黄宗英; 13 July 1925 – 14 December 2020) was a Chinese actress and writer. She starred in many black-and-white films such as Rhapsody of Happiness (1947), Crows and Sparrows (1949), Women Side by Side (1949), and The Life of Wu Xun (1950), all co-starring her third husband Zhao Dan.
She began writing film scripts in the mid-1950s, and later became an acclaimed writer of reportage literature. She was a three-time winner of the National Award for Outstanding Reportage Literature, for "The Flight of the Wild-Geese", "Mandarin Oranges", and "The Wooden Cabin".
Huang married four times. Her marriage with actor Zhao Dan lasted 32 years until his death in 1980. In her later years she married writer Feng Yidai. She had two stepchildren from Zhao's previous marriage, and adopted the two orphaned sons of singer-actress Zhou Xuan.
In 2005, Huang Zongying and Zhao Dan were both named among the "100 best actors of the 100 years of Chinese cinema". Their love story was adapted by Peng Xiaolian into two feature films including Shanghai Rumba (2006).
## Early life
Huang was born in 1925 to a prominent scholar-official family in Beijing, originally from Rui'an, Zhejiang Province. Her grandfather and great-grandfather were both holders of the jinshi degree, the highest degree of the imperial examination. Her father Huang Cengming was an engineer who studied in Japan, and her mother Chen Cong was a well-educated housewife. Both her parents held liberal values and allowed their children to pursue their own interests. However, her father died when she was nine and her family fell into poverty.
Strongly influenced by her eldest brother, Huang Zongjiang (黄宗江), who would become an accomplished playwright, Huang Zongying developed a passion in arts and literature. When she was nine years old, she was moved by Bing Xin's essay "To Young Readers". In response, she wrote an essay entitled "Under a Big Tree", which was published in the weekly magazine Huangjin Shidai, edited by her brother.
## Career
### 1940s: acting career
In 1941, Huang followed her brother Zongjiang to Shanghai where she became a stage actress in Huang Zuolin's theatre company. She debuted in Cao Yu's play Metamorphosis and rose to fame in the comedy Sweet Child.
In 1947, she made her screen debut in Shen Fu's film Pursuit before starring in her breakthrough film Rhapsody of Happiness, by the famous director Chen Liting and writer Chen Baichen. In the film she portrayed the heroine, a woman forced into prostitution and drug dealing in war-torn China. Her performance was said to be "of unprecedented artistic quality, capturing with authenticity, naturalness, and control" both the degeneracy and kindness of the character's complex nature. The male lead was her future husband Zhao Dan, China's most celebrated male actor of the time.
Soon after their marriage in 1948, Huang and Zhao both joined the Kunlun Film Studio, run by the underground Communist Party of China. In less than two years, she acted in several acclaimed films including Women Side by Side and Crows and Sparrows, portraying a diverse range of roles including a revolutionary, a teacher, a prostitute, and a mistress of a government official. Huang and her husband were at the forefront of an era that has been recognized as the Second Golden Age of Chinese cinema.
### Early Communist China: acting and writing
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Huang switched to writing as her main career, which was also her childhood passion. She published her first prose collection, Onward Moves the Peace Train, in 1951, followed by two more collections, Stories of Love and A Girl. She did not play a major role after the 1953 film Bless the Children. Under Mao Zedong's directive that "the arts must serve the workers, peasants and soldiers", Chinese films became dominated by stereotypical proletarian "heroes" with few roles suitable for her. Beginning in 1954 she wrote the film scripts for An Everyday Occupation (1955) and The First Spring of the 60s.
### Cultural Revolution
During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), Mao's wife Jiang Qing, who had been an actress in the 1930s, launched a campaign to persecute former Shanghai colleagues who were familiar with her past. Many of Huang and Zhao's friends in the film and drama industry were driven to death, including Zheng Junli, Cai Chusheng, and Wang Ying. Zhao Dan, among the first to be targeted, was imprisoned for five years, during which Huang had no idea whether he was still alive. She remained free, but was frequently targeted by the Red Guards for physical abuse. Her family, with more than ten people, lived in one small room and had to survive on only 30 yuan a month. Her own children denounced her and Zhao Dan as "counterrevolutionaries".
### Post-Cultural Revolution: reportage writing
After the Cultural Revolution ended in 1976, Zhao Dan was politically rehabilitated and returned home. Huang resumed her writing and was elected to the executive committee of the China Writers Association. She focused on the reportage genre, which she had begun writing in 1963 before being interrupted by the Cultural Revolution. Instead of the famous and the successful, she chose her subjects mainly among the common people, especially intellectuals who quietly struggled for their ideals but were belittled and denounced by society. In 1977, she published her work Heart in the journal People's Literature commemorating her colleague and friend Shangguan Yunzhu, who had been persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution. Shangguan's son Wei Ran credited the work with expediting her posthumous political rehabilitation.
Huang often applied scriptwriting techniques, such as switches and flashbacks, to her reportage, and enriched her writing with poetic lyricism. She won the National Award for Outstanding Reportage Literature three times, for her works "The Flight of the Wild-Geese", "Mandarin Oranges", and "The Wooden Cabin". Her story "The Flight of the Wild-Geese" (大雁情) has been translated into English by Yu Fanqin and Wang Mingjie.
In a 2002 article, Huang revealed a conversation she had overheard between Mao Zedong and his biographer Luo Jinan, in which Mao told Luo that if Lu Xun, the leading Chinese writer of the 1930s, had still been alive in the 1950s, he would have had to toe the official line or be held in prison.
## Filmography
### Film
### TV series
## Personal life
### Marriages
Huang Zongying was married four times. She married her first husband, the conductor Yi Fang (异方), when she was 18, without knowing he suffered from congenital heart disease. He died of a heart attack only 18 days after the wedding.
In 1946, she married the playwright Cheng Shuyao, who was from a rich but old-fashioned family which Huang found repressive. Forbidden by her husband and mother-in-law to act, she fled the family in Beijing to pursue her acting career in Shanghai. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Zhao Dan was arrested by the Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai in Xinjiang in 1939, and imprisoned until the end of the war in 1945. Believing the widespread rumour that he had been killed by Sheng, his wife remarried. Huang and Zhao fell in love when filming Rhapsody of Happiness and wedded on New Year's Day of 1948. Numerous filmmakers and actors attended their wedding, which was presided over by the prominent director Zheng Junli. Cheng later married the actress Shangguan Yunzhu, and the two couples remained close friends.
Huang considered her 32-year marriage to Zhao Dan the most important of her life, and raised Zhao's two children from his previous marriage. According to her stepdaughter Zhao Qing, she treated her stepchildren like her own. Zhao Dan died from cancer in 1980.
In 1993, when she was 68, Huang married for the fourth time, to the writer Feng Yidai (1913–2005).
### Adoption of Zhou Xuan's sons and lawsuit
In September 1957, the famous actress and singer Zhou Xuan died at the age of 39, leaving behind two young sons, Zhou Min and Zhou Wei. Huang Zongying adopted the two boys and raised them to adulthood. In November 1986, however, Zhou Wei sued Huang for his mother's inheritance worth about 120,000 yuan, which was a huge sum in 1980s China. Zhou Min, on the other hand, sided with Huang and condemned his brother, even questioning whether he was truly Zhou Xuan's son, as she had suffered mental illness before her death and the circumstances surrounding Zhou Wei's birth and the identity of his father were murky. According to Huang's court statements, she had kept Zhou Xuan's property in safe custody and did not distribute it to the brothers because of the dispute between them.
In December 1988, the Shanghai Intermediate People's Court ruled that Zhou Wei was Zhou Xuan's biological son and entitled to half of her inheritance. It also ruled that Huang had violated Zhou Wei's rights when she failed to distribute to him Zhou Xuan's property or disclose details about the property when he reached adulthood. The court ordered Huang to pay Zhou Wei 80,000 yuan.
### Death
Huang died of illness at Huadong Hospital on the morning of 14 December 2020.
## Legacy
In 2005, the centenary of Chinese cinema, the China Film Association organized a vote for China's best actors in history. Huang Zongying and her husband Zhao Dan were both named among the "100 best actors of the 100 years of Chinese cinema".
In 2006, Peng Xiaolian directed the film Shanghai Rumba which is loosely based on the love story of Huang Zongying and Zhao Dan, starring Yuan Quan and Xia Yu. In 2017, Peng directed another feature titled Please Remember Me which also highlights their relationship. Huang Zongying appears as herself in this film.
Actress Yu Hui portrayed Huang Zongying in the 2010 TV series Zhao Dan.
## General bibliography |
939,789 | Deep Throat (The X-Files) | 1,163,425,587 | Character in The X-Files | [
"Fictional Federal Bureau of Investigation personnel",
"Fictional Vietnam War veterans",
"Fictional murdered people",
"Television characters introduced in 1993",
"The X-Files characters"
]
| Deep Throat is a fictional character on the American science fiction television series The X-Files. He serves as an informant, leaking information to FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder to aid Mulder's investigation of paranormal cases, dubbed X-Files. Introduced in the series' second episode, also named "Deep Throat", the character was killed off during the first season finale "The Erlenmeyer Flask"; however, he later made several appearances in flashbacks and visions. In the season 11 episode "This", his real name is ostensibly revealed to be Ronald Pakula.
The character of Deep Throat was portrayed by Jerry Hardin in all his appearances. After the character was killed, Steven Williams was introduced in the second season episode "The Host" to portray his successor, X. The creation of Deep Throat was inspired by the historical Deep Throat, Mark Felt, who leaked information on the Watergate scandal, and by Donald Sutherland's character X in the film JFK.
## Conceptual history
Series creator Chris Carter has stated that the character of Deep Throat was "of course" inspired by the historical Deep Throat. The real Deep Throat was an informant leaking information on the FBI's investigation of the Watergate scandal to journalists Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward. After the conclusion of The X-Files, this Deep Throat was later revealed to be FBI Associate Director Mark Felt. Also cited as an influence on the fictional Deep Throat was X, the character portrayed by Donald Sutherland in the 1991 Oliver Stone film JFK. In the film, Sutherland's X reveals information about the possibility that the assassination of John F. Kennedy was orchestrated by elements within the American government. Carter felt he needed to create a character who would bridge the gap between FBI agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) and the shadowy conspirators who were working against them; he conceived of a character "who works in some level of government that we have no idea exists".
Carter was drawn to actor Jerry Hardin after seeing him in 1993's The Firm. Hardin believed his initial appearance would be a one-time role, although he soon found himself regularly commuting to the series' Vancouver filming location on short notice. Producer Howard Gordon has spoken of the elusiveness of the character's allegiances, stating that during production, it was often left ambiguous whether he was "ally or foe". After filming the character's death in the first season finale, "The Erlenmeyer Flask", Hardin was toasted with champagne, and told by Carter that "no one ever really dies on X-Files". As such, Hardin made several more appearances as Deep Throat after this—seen in visions in the third season's "The Blessing Way" and the seventh season's "The Sixth Extinction II: Amor Fati", in flashbacks in the fourth season's "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man", and as one of the guises assumed by a shapeshifting alien in the third season's finale, "Talitha Cumi".
## Character arc
During the first season of The X-Files, Deep Throat provided Mulder and Scully with information they would have been otherwise unable to obtain. As a member of the then-unseen Syndicate, he was in a position to know a great deal of information. Deep Throat felt that the truth the Syndicate kept secret from the public needed to be known, and believed Mulder to be the one person capable of exposing this knowledge. However, in "E.B.E." Deep Throat provided Mulder with false information in order to divert him, later explaining that he believed the public was just not ready to know some truths.
During the Vietnam War, Deep Throat worked for the Central Intelligence Agency. When a UFO was shot down over Hanoi by US Marines, the surviving extraterrestrial was brought to Deep Throat, who executed it (depicted in flashback for the fourth season episode "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man"). He later claimed that assisting Mulder was his way of atoning for his actions. He also stated that he was "a participant in some of the most insidious lies and witness to deeds that no crazed man could imagine".
In the first season finale of The X-Files, "The Erlenmeyer Flask", Mulder was taken hostage by a group of Men in Black operatives, following his investigation into an alien-human hybrid program. Fearing for Mulder's life, Deep Throat helped Scully gain access to a high containment facility, where she managed to secretly remove a cryogenically-preserved alien fetus for use as collateral in saving Mulder. In the subsequent meeting between the operatives and Deep Throat, he was gunned down by an assassin, the Crew Cut Man. Deep Throat was buried at the Arlington National Cemetery. The character later appeared in dreams and visions experienced by Mulder during his recuperation on a Navajo reservation, and again years later while being experimented on by The Smoking Man.
## Reception
The character of Deep Throat has been well received by critics and fans. Entertainment Weekly described Hardin's performance as "world-weary and heavyhearted", and listed his appearance in the character's eponymous début episode as the 37th greatest television moment of the 1990s. However, they felt at times that his presence in episodes such as "Ghost in the Machine" seemed "gratuitous". Reviewing the character's début episode, the San Jose Mercury News called Deep Throat "the most interesting new character on television". Chris Carter has stated that Hardin's performance gave the series an element of "believability" that it needed; and felt that the episode "E.B.E." was a great opportunity to expand the character's role. Writing for The A.V. Club, Zack Handlen called Deep Throat's death "a shocking moment, even when you know it's coming", praising the "desperation" evident in Hardin's performance, although lamenting the "curse of continuity" that led to the character being quickly replaced with Steven Williams' X. Ben Rawson-Jones, writing for Digital Spy, felt that Deep Throat's tenure on The X-Files was "arguably the show's peak", and praised Hardin's acting in the role. Brian Lowry, in his book The Truth Is Out There, has noted that the character "helped establish a tone and undercurrent of gravity on The X-Files that was to provide the spine of the series". A.J. Black, writing on The Companion, about the influence of the Watergate scandal on The X-Files, observes: "While Deep Throat’s involvement in The X-Files, ostensibly easy to consider as a narrative cheat for Mulder’s investigations, in truth serves to further enhance the series’ deeper connections to the conspiratorial history of the 1970s." |
57,887,837 | 2017 YE5 | 1,118,532,163 | Binary near-Earth asteroid | [
"Apollo asteroids",
"Binary asteroids",
"Minor planet object articles (unnumbered)",
"Near-Earth objects in 2018",
"Radar-imaged asteroids"
]
| '''' is a binary pair of asteroids of approximately equal size and mass, each about 0.9 km (0.56 mi) in diameter. Classified as a near-Earth asteroid and potentially hazardous object of the Apollo group, was discovered by amateur astronomer Claudine Rinner at the Oukaïmeden Observatory on 21 December 2017. On 21 June 2018, the pair of asteroids passed within 15.5 lunar distances or approximately 6 million km (3.7 million mi) from Earth. During the close encounter, was resolved in high detail by concurrent radar observations by the Arecibo and Green Bank observatories, along with individual observations by the Goldstone Solar System Radar. is likely an extinct or dormant comet due to its distant elliptical orbit and dark red surface.
## Discovery
`was discovered on 21 December 2017, by French amateur astronomer Claudine Rinner at the Oukaïmeden Observatory in Marrakesh, Morocco. The discovery formed part of the Morocco Oukaïmeden Sky Survey (MOSS) directed by Zouhair Benkhaldoun at the Cadi Ayyad University. The MOSS survey was designed for searching and characterizing the orbits of small Solar System bodies such as near-Earth asteroids and comets. As the sixth near-Earth asteroid discovered by the MOSS survey, was found in images taken by the Oukaïmeden Observatory's 0.5-meter reflecting telescope, which was remotely operated by Rinner. At the time of discovery, was about 1.1 AU (160 million km; 100 million mi) away from Earth, located in the constellation of Gemini at an apparent magnitude of 19.8.`
The discovery of was subsequently reported to the Minor Planet Center's Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page (NEOCP), where a preliminary orbit was calculated from additional observations conducted at multiple observatories. Follow-up observations of spanned six days starting from its discovery, and the object was formally announced in a Minor Planet Electronic Circular issued by the Minor Planet Center on 27 December 2017.
Precovery observations of were first identified and reported to the Minor Planet Center in February 2018. These observations were from the Mount Lemmon Survey, which had observed on 14 December 2017, seven days prior to its discovery by the Oukaïmeden Observatory. Earlier precovery observations by the Pan-STARRS1 survey on 12 December 2017 were later identified in May 2018, and are now known to be the earliest reported observations of .
## Nomenclature
Upon discovery, the asteroid was given the temporary internal designation tltv005''. After follow up observations confirming the object, it was then given the provisional designation by the Minor Planet Center on 27 December 2017. The provisional designation signifies the object's discovery date and year, with the second letter and numbers indicating that it is the 130th object discovered during the second half of December 2017. has not yet been issued a permanent minor planet number by the Minor Planet Center due to its short observation arc of 270 days, which is insufficient for an orbit to be accurately determined. is expected to receive a minor planet number once it has been observed for over at least four oppositions, which would take several years. Once it receives a minor planet number, it will be eligible for naming.
## Orbit and classification
`orbits the Sun at an average distance of approximately 2.82 astronomical units (0.422×10^`<sup>`9`</sup>` km; 0.262×10^`<sup>`9`</sup>` mi), taking 4.73 years to complete one orbit. The orbit of is slightly inclined to the ecliptic plane by 6.2 degrees, with its farthest apsis oriented below the ecliptic. has a highly elongated orbit with an orbital eccentricity of 0.71. Over the course of its orbit, approaches 0.82 AU from the Sun at perihelion and recedes 4.82 AU from the Sun at aphelion, beyond the outer extent of the asteroid belt.`
At aphelion, approaches close to Jupiter's orbit, with a minimum orbital intersection distance (MOID) of 0.42 AU. At such close proximity to Jupiter's orbit, has likely been gravitationally perturbed by Jupiter, indicated by its Tisserand parameter of 2.877, which is considered to be characteristic of comets. Because of its comet-like Tisserand parameter and relatively large orbit for a near-Earth object, has been suspected to be an extinct or dormant Jupiter-family comet. Additional evidence for its cometary origin was found by optical and infrared spectroscopy in 2018, which revealed a reddish and low-albedo surface, consistent with the D-type spectral classification.
As a near-Earth object, the orbit of crosses that of Earth's, which leads to occasional close approaches to the planet. It has a semi-major axis (orbital distance) greater than 1 AU and a perihelion distance within that of Earth's, therefore it is formally classified under the Apollo group of near-Earth asteroids. 's Earth MOID is approximately 0.021 AU (3.1 million km; 2.0 million mi), or about 8 lunar distances. Given a small Earth MOID, is considered a potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA) by the Minor Planet Center, under the definition that PHAs have Earth MOIDs less than 0.05 AU and absolute magnitudes brighter than 22.
Despite being considered potentially hazardous, there is no risk of impact by , as it will not make any close Earth encounters within 12 lunar distances or 0.03 AU (4.5 million km; 2.8 million mi) over the next 200 years. was removed from the JPL Sentry Risk Table on 6 January 2018, after extensive observations and refinements of its orbit ruled out future possibilities of Earth impacts.
### 2018 Earth approach
On 21 June 2018 at 20:53 UTC, made its closest approach to Earth from a distance of 0.03986 AU (5.96 million km; 3.71 million mi), or 15.52 lunar distances. During the encounter, approached Earth at a rate of 15.5 km/s (35,000 mph) and its apparent visual brightness peaked around magnitude 15, too faint to be seen with the naked eye. At closest approach, 's apparent motion in the sky was 0.51 degrees per hour and was in the constellation of Andromeda, with an apparent magnitude of 16.6 and an angular separation of 66 degrees from the Sun. After the close encounter with Earth, continued its approach to aphelion, passing by Mars from a distance of 0.0441 AU (6.6 million km; 4.1 million mi) on 30 July 2018.
#### Observations
The June 2018 encounter with provided an opportunity for radar observatories to study the asteroid's characteristics in detail. On 17 June 2018, the first radar observations of were attempted by the monostatic Goldstone Solar System Radar (GSSR) in California, but failed to detect the asteroid due to uncertainties in the radar pointing position. was later successfully imaged and observed with the GSSR on 21 June 2018, revealing the asteroid's binary nature. Led by radar astronomer Marina Brozović, GSSR observations of spanned four days, lasting until 24 June 2018. During these observations, the GSSR's preliminary findings were alerted to astronomers at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico for further study.
Arecibo radar observations of began on 23 June 2018. The binary system was observed using a bistatic radar system where the Arecibo Observatory transmitted a radar signal to the pair of asteroids while the Green Bank Observatory in West Virginia received the signal reflected from the asteroids. Led by Arecibo radar astronomers Anne Virkki, Flaviane Venditti, Sean Marshal, along with Patrick Taylor at the Green Bank Observatory, bistatic radar observations resolved at a resolution of 7.5 meters per pixel. Radar observations of ended on 26 June 2018 after it had moved out of Arecibo's view. Concurrently, optical observations were also carried out by various observatories in order to compile a light curve of the binary system. Optical observations of continued after the June 2018 encounter and detected possible mutual events or eclipses occurring between the components of the binary system.
### Future approaches
Over the course of its orbit in the next 200 years, will continue to pass by Earth, though it will not make any approaches as close as the June 2018 encounter. The next Earth encounter by will be on 15 April 2037, when it will pass by Earth from a nominal distance of approximately 0.238 AU (35.6 million km; 22.1 million mi). In the next 100 years, will make three Earth encounters within 0.2 AU (approximately 80 lunar distances), which will occur in February 2051, July 2088, and May 2107. The expected nominal approach distances for these dates are 0.123 AU, 0.179 AU, and 0.145 AU, respectively.
## Binary system
The secondary component of was discovered in Goldstone radar observations conducted by Marina Brozović on 21 June 2018. From the first Goldstone radar images, the two components appeared to be contact binary lobes as the components were viewed in front of each other. Additional radar observations by the Arecibo and Green Bank observatories resolved the system in high resolution, confirming that the two components were indeed separate objects. Under satellite naming conventions by the International Astronomical Union, the satellite would be provisionally designated .
### Physical characteristics
`is an equal-mass binary asteroid consisting of two components approximately 0.9 km (0.56 mi) in diameter. Equal-mass binary systems are relatively rare among the population of binary near-Earth asteroids as they constitute less than 1% of radar-observed near-Earth asteroids larger than 200 m (660 ft) in diameter. is one of only four systems of that kind known; the other three are , 69230 Hermes, and .`
From their mutual orbit and measured diameters, both components are calculated to have low bulk densities less than 1 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, indicating a significant macroporosity of their internal structures. Given their measured diameters and absolute magnitudes, the optical albedos of their surfaces are calculated to be as dark as charcoal, reflecting less than 3% of incident light. Unlike other binary asteroid systems observed by radar, the components of appear to display a distinct difference in their shape, surface brightness and radar reflectivity. These differences imply that the two components may also have different densities, compositions, and surface roughnesses.
### Orbit and rotation
The pair of asteroids orbit each other around a common center of mass (barycenter) between them. Their mutual orbital period is 22 hours (0.92 days), with an orbital separation of 1.8 km (1.1 mi) or 4 times the component radii. It is uncertain whether both components rotate synchronously with their mutual orbital period, as there is evidence of non-principal-axis rotation (or rotational precession) and axial misalignment of both components. Light curve measurements of taken between June and August 2018 show a secondary period of 14.88 hours and radar images suggest that the obliquities of the components are misaligned by a few degrees. |
17,423,274 | Mutiny of the Matoika | 1,160,643,491 | Complaints regarding the 1920 Princess Matoika model | [
"1920 Summer Olympics",
"Maritime incidents in 1920",
"United States at the Summer Olympics"
]
| Mutiny of the Matoika is the common name for the events in July 1920 involving a large portion of the 1920 United States Olympic team while on board the U.S. Army transport ship , headed to Antwerp for the 1920 Summer Olympics. Princess Matoika was a last-minute substitute for another ship and, according to the athletes, did not have adequate accommodations or training facilities on board. Near the end of the voyage, the athletes published a list of grievances and demands and distributed copies of the document to the United States Secretary of War, the American Olympic Committee (AOC) members, and the press. The incident received wide coverage in American newspapers at the time and was still being discussed in the popular press years later. The event was not an actual mutiny, but has been called that since the mid-1930s.
The conditions on the Princess Matoika were terrible, as the hold reeked of formaldehyde from the dead bodies of the recently deceased American World War I soldiers, and there was no place to train. Furthermore, the athletes were dissatisfied with the quality of food and huge numbers of rats present on the ship. Near the end of the voyage, the athletes published a list of grievances and demands and distributed copies of the document to the United States Secretary of War, the American Olympic Committee members, and the press. Among these were the demands for better accommodations in Antwerp, cabin passage home, and railroad fare from New York to their home cities. The incident received wide coverage in American newspapers at the time.
## Background
In 1920, the number of ocean liners carrying passengers on the North Atlantic gradually increased, but was still far below the pre-war years; arrivals at Atlantic ports in the United States were still down some 60% from pre-war numbers. With the fewer ships and sailings available, the AOC made arrangements with both the U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy to transport the United States Olympic team to Antwerp. The Navy agreed to carry team members who were affiliated with their branch of the service, and the Army, to carry civilian and Army-affiliated competitors. The Olympic trip got off to a bad start when the Army's scheduled ship, , was declared unseaworthy, requiring a last-minute substitution. The hurried selection of the Matoika meant the original planned departure date, July 20, had to be pushed back by six days to ready the liner to sail.
The Matoika had been in the service of the U.S. Army as a transport ship since September 1919, and, until the time of her selection, had been returning American soldiers from Europe and repatriating the remains of Americans killed during the war. Before World War I, the Matoika had been a passenger liner for North German Lloyd by the name of Princess Alice. After the United States joined the conflict in 1917, the liner had been pressed into service for the U.S. Navy carrying American troops to Europe; she was renamed Princess Matoika, after one of the given names for Pocahontas, as part of an order to replace Germanic names of seized ships with American names.
## Voyage
On the afternoon of July 26, the athletes attended a farewell reception at the Manhattan Opera House presided over by Gustavus T. Kirby, chairman of the American Olympic Committee (AOC), who read congratulatory telegrams to the team from the governors of eleven states. At the end of the reception, the 230 civilian and U.S. Army-affiliated team members marched from the Opera House to the Hudson Pier and ferried to Hoboken, New Jersey, and the waiting Matoika. (The 101 U.S. Navy-affiliated athletes and coaches were carried on cruiser USS Frederick, a frequent convoy escort of Princess Matoika during World War I.)
When female team members, AOC members, and U.S. Army athletes and officials accompanying the team were assigned first-class cabins and the balance of the male athletes were relegated to troop quarters on lower decks, grumbling from team members quartered belowdecks began almost immediately. Before the Matoika even sailed, runner Joie Ray, a competitor in the 1500 meters in 1920, complained about the conditions declaring that "if those in charge had deliberately tried to create a psychology of depression and resentment among the members of the team, they couldn't have done anything more effective". Two days after sailing, some of the first-place winners at the Olympic tryouts were moved to the sick bay to escape the sweltering heat on the lower decks, but the majority remained below. Fencer Joseph B. B. Parker—who, as an Army athlete, was bunked in a cabin—commented that the troop accommodations were all right for troops but "not conducive to bringing men to the games in the pink of condition."
Training conditions aboard the ship were less than ideal throughout the voyage. Rough seas for parts of the journey hampered training and contributed to widespread seasickness. Although the long distance runners were able to practice by making multiple circuits of the ship, the sprinters and hurdlers were provided only a 70-yard (64 m) cork track—two-thirds the length of the shortest track event at the games—on which to practice. Javelins were tethered by rope and aimed by their throwers at the sea, and, when thrown, would often come down in unexpected locations. The only facility for swimmers was a canvas saltwater tank set up on the lower deck; the tank split when filled for the first time. Even after it was repaired, the best the swimmers could do was to practice strokes while tied to the corner of the tank with a rope, and divers, with no other facilities available, were allocated just a few minutes a day in the tank. Conditions on the ship contributed to several injuries to athletes. During foggy weather, American decathlete Everett Ellis fell on the slippery deck, suffering a bad sprain, and shot putter Pat McDonald sprained his thumb while tossing a medicine ball on the pitching deck.
Despite the problems encountered by some of the team, others were able to work out adequately. Fencers, wrestlers, and boxers were all able to work out in close-to-usual routines. But perhaps the most impressive training feat was a high jump by Richmond W. Landon who cleared a 5-foot-10-inch (1.78 m) high jump on the rolling deck. He later achieved a gold-medal-winning (and Olympic record) jump of 6 feet 4.2 inches (1.935 m).
## The "mutiny"
By the time the ship neared Antwerp, the team members had had enough of the "rusty old troop carrier". The team initially threatened to boycott the games if the conditions in the host city were not better than those aboard the Matoika, but quickly rescinded that. The group, with McDonald and Norman Ross serving as ringleaders, drafted a resolution in which they condemned the AOC and outlined their grievances and demands:
- the quarters aboard the ship were unlivable
- the food on board was terrible
- they requested better accommodation in Antwerp
- they requested cabin passage on the way home
- and they requested train fare to their homes from New York after returning.
They were careful to give credit to the crew of Princess Matoika who, in the athletes' assessment, did "everything possible to improve conditions". The document was signed by 150 of the athletes; some of the U.S. Army athletes agreed with the resolution but could not sign it. They had 200 copies of the resolution printed and addressed copies to Secretary of War Newton Diehl Baker, the members of the AOC, and members of the press.
## Aftermath
After the Olympics were over, fencer Joseph B. B. Parker summarized the situation by saying that all who made the trip would want to compete for the United States in future Olympics, but "never again ... under the management of the Executive Committee of the Olympic team of 1920". In 1922, author Newton Fuessle brought up the specter of the 1920 Olympic passage on the Matoika when discussing the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and his hopes that the NCAA would take over the functions of the Amateur Athletic Union in controlling American Olympic teams in the future.
By the mid-1930s, the events on board were known as the "Mutiny of the Matoika". Sportswriter John Kieran, in his 1936 book The Story of the Olympic Games: 776 B.C. to 1936 A.D., related the story of the mutiny by that name. |
73,069,411 | Luck and fate in Middle-earth | 1,164,079,099 | Theme of providence in Middle-earth | [
"Themes of The Lord of the Rings"
]
| The lives of the characters in J. R. R. Tolkien's world of Middle-earth appear variously to be driven by luck or by fate. This is arranged in such a way that the characters' free will is never compromised; they must rely on their own courage, just like Old English heroes like Beowulf and figures from Norse mythology. The text of The Lord of the Rings, while never Christian on the surface, hints at the working of higher powers, which the cosmology in The Silmarillion presents as the angelic or godlike Valar, who in turn carry out the will of the creator, the one God Eru Ilúvatar.
## Context
J. R. R. Tolkien was an English author and philologist of ancient Germanic languages, specialising in Old English; he spent much of his career as a professor at the University of Oxford. He is best known for his novels about his invented Middle-earth, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and for the posthumously published The Silmarillion which provides a more mythical narrative about earlier ages. A devout Roman Catholic, he described The Lord of the Rings as "a fundamentally religious and Catholic work", rich in Christian symbolism. The cosmology of Middle-earth includes the Valar, who are "angelic powers" or "gods". They are subordinate to the one God, Eru Ilúvatar, who created the world as described in the Ainulindalë. Scholars have noted that the Valar resemble angels in Christianity, but that Tolkien presented them rather more like pagan gods, such as the Æsir in Norse mythology.
## Higher powers
The Episcopal priest and Tolkien scholar Fleming Rutledge writes that in The Lord of the Rings, and especially at moments like the wizard Gandalf's explanation to Frodo in "The Shadow of the Past", there are clear hints of a higher power at work in events in Middle-earth:
> There was more than one power at work, Frodo. The Ring was trying to get back to its master ... Behind that there was something else at work, beyond any design of the Ring-maker. I can put it no plainer than by saying that Bilbo was meant to find the Ring, and not by its maker. In which case you also were meant to have it. [Tolkien's italics]
Rutledge writes that in this way, Tolkien repeatedly hints at a higher power "that controls even the Ring itself, even the maker of the Ring himself [her italics]", and asks who or what that power might be. Her reply is that at the surface level, it means the Valar, "a race of created beings (analogous to the late-biblical angels)". At a deeper level, as both Rutledge and the Catholic philosopher Peter Kreeft write, it means "the One", Eru Ilúvatar, or in Christian terms, divine Providence.
## Luck, courage, and providence
The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey discusses the connection between the Valar and "luck" on Middle-earth, writing that as in real life, "People ... do in sober reality recognise a strongly patterning force in the world around them" but that while this may be due to "Providence or the Valar", the force "does not affect free will and cannot be distinguished from the ordinary operations of nature" nor reduce the necessity of "heroic endeavour". He states that this exactly matches the Old English view of luck and personal courage, as Beowulf's "wyrd often spares the man who isn't doomed, as long as his courage holds."
In addition, the leapfrogging of the timeline by the multiple interlaced story threads in The Lord of the Rings allows Tolkien to make hidden connections that can only be grasped retrospectively, as the reader realises on reflection that certain events happened at the same time. Shippey gives as an instance the moment when Frodo sits on Amon Hen, the Seat of Seeing, puts on the One Ring, and feels the Eye of Sauron pressing towards him; at the same time, Frodo hears a voice urging him to take the Ring off, giving him just enough time to make up his mind and save the quest by complying. Interlace, West notes, can "show purpose or pattern behind change". This can appear, Shippey writes, as luck, where in daily life it is uncertain whether this is "something completely humdrum and practical or something mysterious and supernatural", just like wyrd. In this case, the reader has to wait from book 2, chapter 10 ("The Breaking of the Fellowship") until book 3, chapter 5 ("The White Rider") for Gandalf to reveal that the voice that Frodo heard was his.
The scholar of humanities Paul H. Kocher similarly discusses the role of providence, in the form of the intentions of the Valar or of the creator, in Bilbo's finding of the One Ring and Frodo's bearing of it; as Gandalf says, they were "meant" to have it, though it remained their choice to co-operate with this purpose.
## Free will and fate
The medievalist Elizabeth Solopova comments that the evil monster Gollum had an important part to play, providing in her view the clearest testament to the role of fate in The Lord of the Rings. Beyond Gandalf's words, the story is structured in such a way that past decisions have a critical influence on current events. For instance, because Bilbo and Frodo spare Gollum, Gollum is able to destroy the Ring by falling into the Cracks of Doom while Frodo fails to destroy it. Thus Frodo, who is overpowered by the evil of the Ring, is saved by what seems to be luck. The role of fate in The Lord of the Rings is contrasted sharply with the prominent role that Tolkien gives to personal choice and will. Frodo's voluntary choice to bear the Ring to Mordor is central to the plot of the whole story. Also important is Frodo's willing offer of the Ring to Gandalf, the hero Aragorn, and the Elf-lady Galadriel, and their conscious refusal of it, not to mention Frodo's final inability to summon the will to destroy it. Thus, both free will and fate play out throughout the story: from Sam's vision of old Gaffer Gamgee's wheelbarrow and the Scouring of the Shire in the Mirror of Galadriel, to Arwen Evenstar's choice of mortality.
The Tolkien scholar Helen Lasseter Freeh notes that the longer version of the tale of Túrin Turambar in Unfinished Tales (the Narn i Hîn Húrin) contains a dialogue between the Dark Lord Morgoth, who is a fallen Vala, and the heroic but mortal Man Húrin about fate and providence. Despite his imprisonment, Húrin insists that Morgoth cannot control everything, and while Morgoth does not directly contradict this, he says he will spread a "cloud of Doom" on everyone Húrin loves, and "wherever they go, evil shall arise". Túrin lives a life of disaster, in which Freeh sees the hand of fate, which threatens to overwhelm Túrin's free will. Shippey comments that Morgoth is one of the Valar, whose power in the world appears as luck, or chance, or fate. Terrible things in the Narn seem to be coincidences; but, writes Shippey, Tolkien often gives "double explanations" of these events, one fate, one just accident.
## Proverbs and providence
Shippey writes that the numerous proverbs in The Lord of the Rings lend weight to the subtle implications of the text's interlaced structure, which for much of the time leaves the reader, like the characters, unaware of what else is going on in Middle-earth. While the real-world proverbs are broadly neutral, although some remain optimistic or gloomy, the invented proverbs are, he suggests, closer to Tolkien's thought. So Théoden's "Oft evil will shall evil mar", Aragorn's "The hasty stroke goes oft astray", or Gandalf's "A traitor may betray himself", all contribute to Tolkien's portrayal of what he believed was the character of reality. The implied message is that what appears as luck to the protagonists is indeed a higher purpose, and that all can work out well. But all the same, they must keep up their courage, and ignore, in a similar manner as Frodo and Sam, "their bewilderments, infatuations, [and their] sense of being lost and abandoned". The scholar of literature Randel Helms writes that the "significance" of the destruction of Saruman's realm of Isengard is summarized by a pair of similar proverbs, Théoden's maxim, and Gandalf's "Often does hatred hurt itself"; the action of the Ents taking revenge on Saruman then shows just how providential control and cause-and-effect morality work out in practice. |
12,440,403 | Whitehead's broadbill | 1,169,636,198 | Species of bird endemic to Borneo | [
"Birds described in 1888",
"Birds of Malaysia",
"Calyptomena",
"Endemic birds of Borneo",
"Fauna of the Borneo montane rain forests",
"Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot"
]
| Whitehead's broadbill (Calyptomena whiteheadi) is a species of bird in the family Calyptomenidae. It is endemic to the mountain ranges of north-central Borneo, where it mainly inhabits montane forests and forest edges at elevations of 900–1,700 m (3,000–5,600 ft). It is 24–27 cm (9.4–10.6 in) long, with males weighing 142–171 g (5.0–6.0 oz) and females weighing 150–163 g (5.3–5.7 oz). Males are vivid green and have a black throat patch, black spots on the and back of the neck, and black markings and streaking all over the body. The tails and flight feathers are also blackish. Females are smaller and lack the black markings on the head and . Juveniles look similar to adults but have fewer black markings.
Described by the British ornithologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1887, Whitehead's broadbill is named after the British explorer John Whitehead. It mainly feeds on fruit and supplements its diet with insects. Breeding probably occurs from March to June, with clutches containing one or two eggs. Although it is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, it is threatened by habitat destruction and its population is thought to be decreasing.
## Taxonomy and systematics
Whitehead's broadbill was described as Calyptomena whiteheadi by the British naturalist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1887 based on specimens from Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. The name of the genus, Calyptomena, is from the Ancient Greek words kaluptos, meaning covered, and mēnē, meaning moon. The specific name, whiteheadi, is in honour of the British explorer John Whitehead, who collected the specimens based on which the species was described. Whitehead's broadbill is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. Other names for the species include Whitehead's green broadbill, black-throated broadbill, and black-throated green broadbill.
Whitehead's broadbill is one of three species in the genus Calyptomena, a genus of three bright green broadbills found in Southeast Asia. Calyptomena is one of two genera in the family Calyptomenidae, the other being Smithornis, a genus of three rather dull-coloured species found in Africa. Although species-level relationships within the family are unclear, both the genera are monophyletic (including all descendants of a common ancestor) taxa that are sister (most closely related) to each other.
## Description
The largest species in the genus Calyptomena, Whitehead's broadbill is 24–27 cm (9.4–10.6 in) long, with males weighing 142–171 g (5.0–6.0 oz) and females weighing 150–163 g (5.3–5.7 oz). Males are vivid green, with some black on the top of the head, black spots on the and back of the neck, and a large black patch on the lower throat and upper breast. They also have extensive black markings on the wings and upper back, conspicuous streaking on the , and blackish tails and flight feathers. The iris is dark brown, the feet are olive to greyish-green, and the bill is black with a pale lower . The forehead has a large tuft of feathers that nearly covers the bill. Females are smaller than males, with a smaller forehead tuft, no black marking on the head, and duller green underparts that lack black streaking. Juveniles are similar to adults but have fewer black markings.
Whitehead's broadbill can be told apart from the other species in its genus by its larger size, black throat, and more extensive black markings on the body.
### Vocalisations
Snoring, grinding, and wheezing two-syllable calls such as toc-trrr are characteristic of Whitehead's broadbill. Groups of 3–4 males make a rough, harsh kerrrrrr or kh-khrrrrrr, along with a chek, rrrrt-rrrrt and teek-waaaaarrr. Other calls include a staccato eek-eek-eek, a harsh tzip followed by a 2–3 second long rattle, and a fast series of harsh notes given in flight, all of which are similar to those made by woodpeckers. A hissing ee-ooo may be the species' alarm call. It also makes a flat, low-pitched go-up similar to that of a trogon (which attracts individuals when mimicked), a high saaat, a loud, grating call like that of a jay, a snore-like wheeze, and other hissing and grating sounds.
## Distribution and habitat
Whitehead's broadbill is endemic to Borneo, where it is found in the northern and central parts of the island. It is likely found throughout the entire range of mountains that runs down the centre of the island from Mount Kinabalu to Kayan Mentarang and Mount Batu Timbang, although it is locally absent from some areas.
It inhabits primary montane forest and forest edge, preferring areas with taller growth. It is most common at elevations of 900–1,700 m (3,000–5,600 ft), although it can be found at elevations as low as 600 m (2,000 ft) and as high as 1,980 m (6,500 ft). It does not migrate, but does move locally depending on the fruiting seasons of the trees it feeds on. Individuals have also been seen at 75 m (246 ft) during severe droughts.
## Behaviour and ecology
Whitehead's broadbills usually perch silently, but are sometimes loud and conspicuous. Their generation length is 4.2 years.
### Feeding
The species mainly feeds on fruit, supplementing its diet with insects. The fruits eaten vary from small berries to large drupes, with fruits up to 15 mm × 20 mm (0.59 in × 0.79 in) in size found in stomachs. It has also been observed feeding on the strong-smelling fruit of Litsea cubica. In Kinabalu Park, the species has been observed hunting moths near lights at dawn.
Whitehead's broadbills usually forage alone, but can sometimes be found in small, noisy flocks near fruiting trees. They also occasionally join mixed-species foraging flocks, which can also contain Sunda cuckooshrikes, chestnut-hooded laughingthrushes, Sunda laughingthrushes, and Whitehead's trogons.
### Breeding
The breeding season of Whitehead's broadbill probably lasts from March to June. Nests are suspended from slender branches around 15 m (50 ft) above the ground, with the outside made of fresh green moss. The inside is firm and lined with dry bamboo leaves, forming a well-sheltered cavity. A long extending "tail" made of lichen and moss helps camouflage the nest. Clutches contain one or two eggs, which are glossy and pale yellow in colour. The eggs measure 1.26 in–1.45 in × 1 in (32 mm–37 mm × 25 mm). Nothing is known about the incubation and fledging period.
## Status
Whitehead's broadbill is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to its sufficiently large range and population and a lack of significant population decline. It is fairly common in appropriate habitat and occurs in several protected areas, such as Gunung Mulu National Park and Kinabalu Park. However, its population is currently thought to be declining due to habitat destruction. |
31,630,860 | Fest i hela huset | 1,173,725,910 | null | [
"2011 singles",
"2011 songs",
"Basshunter songs",
"Big Brother (Swedish TV series)",
"Song recordings produced by Basshunter",
"Songs written by Basshunter",
"Swedish-language songs",
"Warner Music Sweden singles"
]
| "Fest i hela huset" (transl. "Party in the house") is a song by Swedish musician Basshunter, recorded during the fifth season of the Swedish edition of the reality television franchise Big Brother. It was released as a single on 20 April 2011 by Warner Music Sweden and included on Basshunter's 2013 studio album Calling Time. The song was written by Basshunter and Big Brother contestants Simon Danielsson, Gurkan Gasi, Sara Jönsson and Sonia Kamau. Basshunter also produced. It peaked at number five on the Swedish singles chart and was number 70 on the year-end chart. The Big Brother episode featuring Basshunter was watched by 202,000 viewers.
## Background and release
Big Brother is a reality competition television franchise in which contestants live in a house, continuously monitored and isolated from the outside world. On 8 April 2011, it was announced that Basshunter would appear on Swedish Big Brother to record a song with the show's contestants. Basshunter had previously appeared as a contestant on the seventh season of the British series Celebrity Big Brother.
Before Basshunter entered the Big Brother house on 11 April, his manager stated that he liked contestant Gurkan Gasi. When Basshunter entered the house, he identified Gasi as an "obvious" candidate to sing. The assignment room was transformed into a studio where Basshunter conducted auditions and asked contestants about their creativity, strengths, and weaknesses. None of the contestants had worked with music professionally. Basshunter said the contestants impressed him, though he was initially unsure about their ability to succeed. After Basshunter selected the contestants, the song was scheduled to be released on 14 April. The song was written by Basshunter and Big Brother contestants Simon Danielsson, Gurkan Gasi, Sara Jönsson, and Sonia Kamau; Basshunter was responsible for the production. Simon Danielsson became the winner of Big Brother after 106 days.
The title of the song, "Fest i hela huset", was revealed on 12 April. The song premiered during the 17 April episode of Big Brother. The show's organisers planned for Basshunter to appear in the Big Brother house for the song's premiere, but Basshunter cancelled due to a scheduling conflict.
The song, which has a runtime of 2:50, was released commercially in Sweden on 20 April for digital download and streaming. This was followed by a two-track CD single released on 11 May. A three-track digital-only version that included the track alongside an instrumental version and ClubKid remix was then released to various countries on 23 May. "Fest i hela huset" was Basshunter's first single since "Saturday", which was released on 5 July 2010. The song was followed in Basshunter's singles chronology by "Northern Light" on 21 May 2012, and both tracks were included in Basshunter's 2013 studio album Calling Time.
## Reception and chart performance
The Big Brother episode featuring Basshunter was watched by 202,000 viewers, an increase of 20,000 compared to the previous week. One of the vocalists, Annie Almén, praised the song's danceable beat, while Big Brother press officer Erik Sidung described the song as fantastic. On 6 May 2011, "Fest i hela huset" entered the Swedish singles chart at number 16, spending 18 weeks on the chart and peaking at number five. The song also entered the Swedish year-end chart for 2011 at number 70.
On 30 March 2012, Top Cats released the single "Sad But True" for the following season of Big Brother. It featured the show's contestants, who performed as backing vocalists. Viewers criticised the song for the limited participation of Big Brother contestants and said that Basshunter's "Fest i hela huset" was more appropriate for the program.
## Track listing
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history |
2,636,818 | Battle of Bound Brook | 1,141,960,178 | Battle of the American Revolutionary War | [
"1777 in New Jersey",
"Battles involving Great Britain",
"Battles involving Hesse-Kassel",
"Battles involving the United States",
"Battles of the American Revolutionary War in New Jersey",
"Battles of the Philadelphia Campaign",
"Bound Brook, New Jersey",
"Conflicts in 1777"
]
| The Battle of Bound Brook (April 13, 1777) was a surprise attack conducted by British and Hessian forces against a Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook, New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War. The British objective of capturing the entire garrison was not met, although prisoners were taken. The U.S. commander, Major General Benjamin Lincoln, left in great haste, abandoning papers and personal effects.
Late on the evening of April 12, 1777, four thousand British and Hessian troops under the command of Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis marched from the British stronghold of New Brunswick. All but one detachment reached positions surrounding the outpost before the battle began near daybreak the next morning. During the battle, most of the 500-man garrison escaped by the unblocked route. U.S. reinforcements arrived in the afternoon, but not before the British plundered the outpost and began the return march to New Brunswick.
## Background
Following the Battles of Trenton and Princeton in December 1776 and January 1777, the Continental Army of Major General George Washington entered winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey, while the British and German forces of Lieutenant General William Howe settled into winter quarters in New York City and northeastern New Jersey. Throughout the winter months, a guerrilla war of sorts went on, in which American militia companies, sometimes with Continental Army support, harassed British and German outposts and ambushed their foraging and raiding expeditions. One of the forward bases used for these operations was at Bound Brook, located on the Raritan River upriver from New Brunswick, the major British camp in New Jersey. The post was responsible for patrolling three bridges across the Raritan likely to be used by the British in moves against the main camp at Morristown.
In February 1777, the Bound Brook outpost consisted of 1,000 men under the command of Major General Benjamin Lincoln, but this was reduced by expiring militia enlistments to 500 in mid-March. The troops that remained were from the 8th Pennsylvania Regiment, a company from the 4th Continental Artillery, and two independent companies from the Wyoming Valley in what is now northeastern Pennsylvania, but was then also claimed by Connecticut as Westmoreland County. Lincoln expressed concern over his exposed position to General Washington, noting that many units were not in a position to "render the least assistance to this post in case it is attacked", and that he was keeping wagons ready in case a precipitate departure was needed. Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis, in command of the British forces in New Jersey, had had enough of the ongoing petite guerre, and organized a reprisal action against the Bound Brook outpost. According to the Hessian jäger Captain Johann Ewald, Cornwallis asked him to draft a plan of attack on February 12, after the Battle of Quibbletown on February 8, but the plan could not be executed until springtime because it necessitated fording the Raritan. On the night of April 12, the plan was put into action.
## Battle
Under the overall command of Cornwallis, 4,000 British and Hessian troops marched from New Brunswick to make a multi-pronged surprise attack. The right flank, under the command of Major General James Grant, consisted of the Hessian jäger corps, grenadiers from the English Brigade of Guards, and a detachment of British light dragoons. While most of this column advanced from Raritan Landing (opposite New Brunswick on the left, or Bound Brook side, of the river), two companies of light infantry went further right, aiming to cut off the main road from Bound Brook to the Continental Army camp at Morristown. The center, under the command of Hessian colonel, Carl von Donop, consisted of the Hessian grenadier battalions von Linsing and Minnigerode, and the left, commanded by Cornwallis, consisted of two battalions of British light infantry, the 1st battalion of grenadiers, and another detachment of light dragoons. Donop's column advanced up the right bank of the Raritan, aiming to gain control of the bridge directly at Bound Brook, while Cornwallis took a longer route to ford the river above Bound Brook and thus cut off the possibility of retreat in that direction.
Ewald and a few of his jägers were in the vanguard of Grant's column and engaged the American sentries to the south of Bound Brook. Unaware that this was supposed to be a feint, Ewald drove the sentries back nearly to the main redoubt where the outpost's cannons were located. By sunrise he was nearly surrounded; the timely arrival of von Donop's column just over the river, and the attack by Cornwallis's column prompted the Americans to begin abandoning the post. The surprise was very nearly complete; the Pennsylvania artillery company, which had been manning the redoubt, was severely mauled, with numerous killed and captured. Colonel von Donop reported that General Lincoln "must have retired en Profond Négligé" ("profoundly undressed", or naked), and Lincoln's papers were taken. The British plan was marred by the early skirmishing involving Ewald, and the too-late arrival of the companies sent to cut off the road to Morristown; many Americans escaped via this route. The British also captured cannons, ammunition, and supplies, and looted Bound Brook, but returned to New Brunswick later that morning.
## Aftermath
The Continental Army response was immediate; Washington sent a large force under Major General Nathanael Greene to reoccupy Bound Brook. The British had already left by the time they arrived; Greene sent a detachment to harass their rear guard. This detachment caught up with the British near Raritan Landing, where they killed 8 and captured 16.
General Howe reported that about 30 Americans were killed and 80 to 90 were captured, while General Lincoln reported that 60 of his men were killed or wounded. Howe claimed no deaths and seven wounded among the British and Hessians. Washington reported that "[t]he enemy lost the post at Eleven O'Clock the same day, & our people took possession of it again", and that the army's losses were "trifling and not worth mentioning". He did, however, also report that between 35 and 40 killed or captured, and the loss of three field cannons. In a report to the Board of War, Washington admitted the capture of two cannons, two officers and 20 men from Colonel Proctor's Regiment. General Greene reported to his wife, "The British Generals breakfasted and I [dined] at the same house that day". This event happened at the Van Horne House, also known as Convivial Hall.
Washington, concerned that the attack presaged an early start to the campaign season, worried that his troops were not yet in place to deal with major British movements. Two weeks later, after no further major activity, the Americans learned that "the Enemy are to take the field the first of June."
Washington recognized that Bound Brook itself was a difficult place to defend. On May 26 he withdrew the garrison, and on May 28, he moved part of his army from Morristown to a new entrenched camp near Middle Brook, just north of Bound Brook but well protected between the first and second Watchung Mountain ranges; other troops were stationed near Princeton. From the top of the Watchung Mountains, Washington monitored British movements while the two sides continued to skirmish. Both sides also engaged in intelligence gathering, each trying to determine the strength and intentions of the other.
On June 12 Howe marched a significant force (more than 18,000 men) out of New Brunswick, through Bound Brook, and as far as Somerset, apparently in an attempt to draw Washington out of the hills. Washington, aware that Howe had left the army's heavy baggage behind, was not fooled and refused to move. Howe then abruptly retreated back to Piscataway on June 19, upon which Washington had some of his troops give chase, and he moved down out of the hills. A week later Howe tried to spring a trap on one of Washington's detachments that would have cut off the American retreat into the hills; this effort was repulsed in the Battle of Short Hills. After this failure, Howe embarked his army on transports and set sail for Chesapeake Bay, intending to take Philadelphia from the south.
## Gallery
## See also
- Forage War – military events leading up to the Battle of Bound Brook |
68,512,218 | 2022 24 Hours of Le Mans | 1,173,488,585 | 90th 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance race | [
"2022 FIA World Endurance Championship season",
"2022 in French motorsport",
"2022 in motorsport",
"24 Hours of Le Mans races",
"June 2022 sports events in France"
]
| The 90th 24 Hours of Le Mans (French: 90<sup>e</sup> 24 Heures du Mans) was a 24-hour automobile endurance event that was held in front of 244,200 spectators on 11 and 12 June 2022 at the Circuit de la Sarthe, near Le Mans, France for Le Mans Hypercar (Hypercar), Le Mans Prototypes (LMP) and Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance (LMGTE) cars that were entered by teams of three drivers each. It was the 90th edition of the event organised by the Automobile Club de l'Ouest, and the third round of the 2022 FIA World Endurance Championship. A test day was held the week before the race on 5 June.
A Toyota GR010 Hybrid shared by Sébastien Buemi, Brendon Hartley and Ryō Hirakawa started from pole position after Hartley recorded the fastest overall lap time in the Hyperpole session. The three drivers led for 274 of the race's 380 laps and finished first, two minutes and 1.222 seconds ahead of teammates Mike Conway, Kamui Kobayashi and José María López (who shared another Toyota GR010 Hybrid). It was Buemi's fourth Le Mans victory, Hartley's third, Hirakawa's first and Toyota's fifth in succession. A Glickenhaus SCG 007 LMH shared by Ryan Briscoe, Franck Mailleux and Richard Westbrook completed the podium, five laps behind in third place.
Jota's team of Roberto González, António Félix da Costa and Will Stevens, sharing an Oreca 07-Gibson car, won the Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) category after leading for all but 15 laps. The debuting Prema squad of Lorenzo Colombo, Louis Delétraz and Robert Kubica followed, two minutes and 21 seconds later, and the class podium was completed by the sister Jota trio of Jonathan Aberdein, Ed Jones and Oliver Rasmussen in third place. In the final Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance Pro (LMGTE Pro) race at Le Mans, the No. 91 Porsche 911 RSR-19 of Gianmaria Bruni, Richard Lietz and Frédéric Makowiecki won the category; AF Corse's No. 51 Ferrari 488 GTE Evo, shared by James Calado, Alessandro Pier Guidi and Daniel Serra, was second. Aston Martin won the Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance Am (LMGTE AM) class with an TF Sport-run Aston Martin Vantage GTE, shared by Henrique Chaves, Ben Keating and Marco Sørensen, 44.446 seconds ahead of WeatherTech Racing's Porsche 911 RSR-19 driven by Julien Andlauer, Cooper MacNeil and Thomas Merrill.
The Alpine trio of André Negrão, Nicolas Lapierre and Matthieu Vaxivière remained atop the Hypercar Drivers' Championship; their advantage was reduced to three points over Buemi, Hartley and Hirakawa, who passed Glickenhaus' Romain Dumas and Olivier Pla for second. Bruni and Lietz took the GTE Drivers' Championship lead by three points over their Porsche teammates Michael Christensen and Kévin Estre. Toyota and Porsche left Le Mans as the respective Hypercar World Endurance and GTE Manufacturers' Championship leaders with three rounds remaining in the season.
## Background
The 24 Hours of Le Mans was first held in 1923 after automotive journalist Charles Faroux, Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) general secretary Georges Durand and industrialist Emile Coquile agreed to conduct a test of vehicle reliability and durability. Considered one of the world's most prestigious motor races, it is part of the Triple Crown of Motorsport. The 2022 race, held at the Circuit de la Sarthe (near Le Mans, France) from 11 to 12 June 2022, was the event's 90th edition and the third round of the 2022 FIA World Endurance Championship. This was the first Le Mans race to host a full crowd and be run in June since restrictions were imposed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in France.
Before the race, Alpine drivers André Negrão, Nicolas Lapierre and Matthieu Vaxivière led the Hypercar Drivers' Championship with 57 points. Glickenhaus' Romain Dumas and Olivier Pla were second with 39 points, and Toyota's Sébastien Buemi, Brendon Hartley and Ryō Hirakawa were third with 27. Porsche's Michael Christensen and Kévin Estre led the GTE Drivers' Championship with 57 points, ahead of AF Corse's James Calado and Alessandro Pier Guidi (43 points) and third-place Tommy Milner and Nick Tandy of Corvette (39 points). Alpine led Toyota in the Hypercar World Endurance Championship, and Porsche led Ferrari in the GTE Manufacturers' Championship.
## Regulation changes
Following the race, where clerk of the course Patrick Morrisseau was almost struck by an approaching car at the finish line, the ACO allowed Morrisseau to wave the checkered flag from a footbridge in the event of a close finish for safety reasons. For the first time, all entries used Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile-compliant renewable fuel produced by TotalEnergies from wine residue to reduce carbon-dioxide emissions.
## Entries
Entry to the race was initially open from 6 December 2021 to 28 February 2022. In response to the Russian G-Drive Racing team's suspension of its racing programme and measures imposed on Russian drivers and entries by international sporting bodies after the country's invasion of Ukraine, the ACO selection committee invited new applicants to apply for entry to the race from 7 to 9 March 2022. The committee issued 62 invitations, and entries were placed into the Le Mans Hypercar (LMH), Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2), Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance Professional (LMGTE Pro) and Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance Amateur (LMGTE Am) classes. Peugeot Sport withdrew their planned entries so they could continue testing their 9X8 Hypercars before homologation.
### Automatic entries
Teams which won their class in the 2021 24 Hours of Le Mans or won championships in the European Le Mans Series (ELMS), Asian Le Mans Series (ALMS) and the Michelin Le Mans Cup (MLMC), received automatic entry invitations. The second-place finishers in the 2021 ELMS in LMP2 and LMGTE championships also received an automatic invitation. Two participants from the IMSA SportsCar Championship (WTSC) were chosen by the ACO as automatic entries, regardless of performance or category. Teams earning automatic entries in LMP2 were allowed to change their cars from the previous year. ELMS LMGTE and ALMS GT teams earning automatic entries were allowed to use them in LMGTE Pro or LMGTE Am. The European and Asian LMP3 (Le Mans Prototype 3) champion was required to field an entry in LMP2, and the Michelin Le Mans Cup Group GT3 (GT3) champion was limited to the LMGTE Am category. The ACO announced the final list of automatic entries on 28 February 2022.
### Entry list
The ACO was scheduled to announce the 62-car list on 28 February but due to "administrative reasons", the announcement was delayed; it was published on 10 March. In addition to the 38 guaranteed WEC entries, 14 came from the ELMS, four each from IMSA and the ALMS, and three were one-off Le Mans entries. In addition to the 62 entries invited to the race, six (three each from LMP2 and LMGTE Am) were placed on a reserve list to replace withdrawn or unaccepted invitations. Reserve entries were ordered, with the first replacing the first withdrawal from the race regardless of class. Entries were selected for their sporting and technical quality, fan, media and public interest and commitment, and loyalty to other ACO-administered series.
After publication of the entry list, Racing Team Nederland withdrew its TDS Racing-run Oreca 07 entry from third in the reserve list to enable to team to focus on the IMSA endurance races. On 31 May, Hardpoint Motorsport (which received an automatic invitation through the IMSA for driver Rob Ferriol, who received the 2021 Akin Award as the highest-placed bronze-ranked IMSA entrant) withdrew their LMGTE Am-category Porsche 911 RSR-19 and relinquished the entry to Proton Competition. Proton gave it to the Absolute Racing customer squad, which raced under the Hardpoint Motorsport name in accordance with ACO regulations. Josh Pierson (driving the United Autosports Oreca 07-Gibson) was 16 years and 117 days old when he competed at Le Mans, beating the record set by Matt McMurry in 2014.
## Pre-race balance of performance changes
In the balance of performance adjustments, the Alpine A480-Gibson received a performance increase with an extra 13 hp (9.7 kW) of power and weight; the Toyota GR010 Hybrid and the Glickenhaus SCG 007 LMH cars remained unchanged from the preceding 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps. The LMGTE Pro-class Chevrolet Corvette C8.R had its performance slowed by an 0.8-millimetre (0.031 in) engine-air-restrictor diameter reduction. The Ferrari 488 GTE Evo was equipped with a revised power curve it had since the WEC season began, and the Porsche 911 RSR-19 received a 3-litre (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) fuel-capacity increase in both LMGTE categories. Aston Martin's LMGTE Am-category Vantage AMR had its fuel capacity decreased by 1 L (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 US gal).
## Testing
All entrants participated in eight hours of mandatory testing on 5 June, divided into two sessions. The testing took place in mainly-dry weather, with a brief period of light rain. Driver Paul di Resta helped Pierson in one of the United Autosports Oreca cars, while the team waited for Alex Lynn and Oliver Jarvis to arrive at Le Mans from Detroit.
The morning session was led by Toyota with a 3:31.626 lap from José María López's No. 7 entry with 17 minutes left, demoting Dumas' No. 708 Glickenhaus entry to second. Hartley made the No. 8 Toyota third-quickest, with Franck Mailleux's sister Glickenhaus No. 709 car fourth and the No. 36 Alpine of Vaxivière fifth. In LMP2, Jota's No. 38 car driven by Will Stevens lapped fastest at 3:33.964 during the third hour; United Autosport USA's No. 22 entry of Philip Hanson was second. The quickest Pro/Am sub-class entry was Mathias Beche's No. 13 TDS Racing car in third, and Alex Brundle's No. 34 Inter Europol Competition car was fourth in class. Corvette were first and second in LMGTE Pro, with Milner's No. 64 car faster than Nicky Catsburg's No. 63 sister entry by almost two-tenths of a second. The highest-placed Porsche was Gianmaria Bruni's No. 91 car in third, with the best Ferrari the privateer Riley Motorsports entry of Felipe Fraga placing fourth. Michelle Gatting's No. 85 Iron Dames Ferrari led in LMGTE Am ahead of the No. 52 AF Corse, LMGTE Pro's slowest entry. Some cars went off the track during the session, sustaining damage; it was stopped after ten minutes when the No. 65 Panis car of Julien Canal lost a wheel at the Daytona chicane on the Mulsanne Straight and was returned to the pit lane.
Dumas set the early pace in the second test session before López improved to a 3:29.986 lap with almost 90 minutes left to go. Hirakawa's No. 8 Toyota was third, and Mailleux was fourth in Glickenhaus' No. 709 car. Late in the session, López briefly went off the circuit during a car-safety procedure at Mulsanne Corner and forced the testing to end early. Filipe Albuquerque improved the fastest LMP2 lap to a 3:32.099 in the No. 22 United Autosports USA entry, and was fifth overall. The No. 38 Jota car of António Félix da Costa fell to second, and Lynn placed third in United Autosports' No. 23 sister vehicle. Alexander Sims improved the No. 64 Corvette's quickest lap to top LMGTE Pro, ahead of Davide Rigon's No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari and Frédéric Makowiecki's No. 91 Porsche. Ferrari were first and second in LMGTE Am, with Kessel Racing's No. 57 car of Mikkel Jensen leading JMW Motorsport's Renger van der Zande by four-tenths of a second. Safety cars were required for Charlie Fagg's stopped No. 777 D'Station Racing Aston Martin at the pit lane exit into turn one due to a sensor fault, and the No. 88 Dempsey Proton Porsche driven by Jan Heylen was beached in the gravel entering the Porsche Curves with punctured front tyres.
### After testing
After testing, the ACO and FIA again altered the LMGTE balance of performance. The LMGTE Ferrari 488 GTE Evo received a 0.07-bar (7.0 kPa) decrease in turbocharger boost pressure curve across all revolutions, a 3-litre (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) fuel-capacity reduction from 87 litres (19 imp gal; 23 US gal) to 84 litres (18 imp gal; 22 US gal), and minimum rear-wing angle changes to decrease performance. The Porsche 911 RSR-19 received a minimum rear-wing angle change to increase performance. The Pro-class Chevrolet Corvette C8.R and the Am-category Aston Martin Vantage AMR had no performance changes.
## Practice
The first three-hour practice session was held on the afternoon of 8 June. Quick laps were initially disregarded as teams tried to conduct race simulations. Light rain had fallen on the circuit, and the session was declared wet before cars on slick tyres removed water. Hartley's No. 8 Toyota lapped fastest at 3:29.441 in the last 20 minutes. Mailleux's No. 709 Glickenhaus was second. Glickenhaus' No. 708 sister entry of Pipo Derani was third, ahead of Kamui Kobayashi's No. 7 Toyota. Lynn's No. 23 United Autosports car was quickest in LMP2 and fourth overall at 3:30.238 in the session's final minutes. Félix da Costa put the No. 38 Jota car second just before practice ended, with Prema Orlen Team's No. 9 entry of Robert Kubica third. In LMGTE Pro, Corvette maintained its test-day pace with the No. 63 entry fastest after a lap by Antonio García demoted teammate Milner (in the No. 64 vehicle) to second. Porsche led in LMGTE Am, with the fastest class lap coming from the No. 79 WeatherTech Racing car driven by Julien Andlauer; brand mate Ben Barker's No. 86 GR Racing car was second. Several cars went off the track during the session. The full-course yellow procedure was deployed for Ryan Cullen's No. 10 Vector Sport car, which stopped in the Tertre Rouge S-curves. The session ended early when Steven Thomas damaged the No. 45 Algarve Pro Racing car's front left corner on the left tyre wall entering the Ford chicane.
Algarve Pro installed a new chassis on the No. 45 car, which missed qualifying. Dumas's No. 708 Glickenhaus car set the day's fastest time of 3:28.900 24 minutes into the second, two-hour evening session, 0.348 seconds faster than Kobayashi's second-place No. 7 Toyota. Toyota's No. 8 sister car was third after a lap by Hartley, and Ryan Briscoe's No. 709 Glickenhaus was fourth-quickest. René Rast recorded the quickest LMP2 lap at 3:33.119 in the No. 31 WRT vehicle, with Albuquerque's No. 22 United Autosports USA entry second. Dries Vanthoor was third with a late lap in Team WRT's No. 32 car. Fabio Scherer stopped the No. 43 Inter Europol car on the start-finish straight with right front suspension damage from mounting the sausage kerbs at the Ford chicane; a flatbed truck returned the car to the pit lane. Catsburg kept Corvette first in LMGTE Pro, as Makowiecki moved the No. 91 Porsche to second. LMGTE Am was led by Mikkel O. Pedersen's No. 46 Project 1 Racing Porsche with a lap set with five minutes remaining, leading Heylen's No. 88 Dempsey-Proton car.
Before the third practice session, a balance of performance adjustment gave the Alpine A480-Gibson 7 kW (9.4 hp) more power and 11 MJ (3.1 kWh) more energy per stint for a total power output of 427 kW (573 hp). The Toyota GR010 Hybrid and Glickenhaus SCG 007 LMH had no performance changes.
The third practice session, for three hours on the afternoon of 9 June, saw Kobayashi lap fastest early in the No. 7 Toyota; Hartley's No. 8 car was second. Both Glickenhaus cars were third and fourth, with Pla's No. 708 entry ahead of Briscoe's No. 709 sister car. Hirakawa stopped between the Indianapolis and Arnage corners with a hybrid problem, but slowly returned to the pit lane for a half-hour of repairs. LMP2 was led by Albuquerque's No. 22 United Autosports USA car, which was less than one-tenth of a second faster than teammate Lynn's No. 23 vehicle. They were followed by WRT's No. 31 car, driven by Robin Frijns. Tandy's No. 64 Corvette led LMGTE Pro, and Richard Lietz's No. 91 Porsche remained second in class. Pedersen kept the No. 46 Project 1 Porsche atop LMGTE Am, with the No. 33 TF Sport Aston Martin driven by Henrique Chaves slower by two-tenths of a second. Accidents by Philippe Cimadomo's No. 13 TDS Racing entry (against the right concrete barrier at the Porsche Curves from contact with Sean Gelael's No. 31 WRT car), the No. 39 Graff Racing car driven by Sebastien Page (spinning into the barrier exiting the Indianapolis turn) and Alexander West's No. 59 Inception Racing Ferrari (which struck the Ford Chicane tyre wall) disrupted the session.
The final two-hour practice session took place on the night of 9 June. Toyota led from the start with López's No. 7 entry going fastest overall at 3:28.322, 0.362 seconds quicker than Buemi's No. 8 sister car. The Glickenhaus team followed in third and fourth, with Derani's No. 708 entry faster than teammate Richard Westbrook's No. 708 car. Lynn's No. 23 United Autosport car led in LMP2 at 3:32.226, ahead of Panis Racing's Job van Uitert and Jonathan Aberdein's No. 28 Jota entry. Graff driver David Droux, in their No. 39 car, went across the gravel and crashed lightly against the tyre barrier at Mulsanne corner. Félix da Costa's No. 38 Jota car and Alexandre Cougnaud's No. 3 DKR Engineering entry collided at the Ford chicane, sending Cougnaud sideways into the tyre wall. Cougnaud drove across the circuit to the pit lane for repairs. Corvette continued their fast pace, with Catsburg lapping quickest in the No. 63 car in LMGTE Pro; the No. 64 sister C8R driven by Milner was second by 0.021 seconds. Dempsey-Proton led LMGTE Am with Harry Tincknell's No. 77 Porsche ahead of teammate Heylen in the second-place No. 88 entry.
## Qualifying
Divided into two sessions, the first one-hour qualifying session set the race's starting order except for the fastest six vehicles in each class; they qualified for a half-hour shootout, "Le Mans Hyperpole", which determined pole position in all four classes. Cars were placed in starting order by category, with every Hypercar at the front of the field regardless of lap time, followed by LMP2, LMGTE Pro and LMGTE Am. The vehicles were placed with the six qualifying Hyperpole cars ordered by fastest Hyperpole-session lap time first, followed by the remaining non-qualifying class vehicles by fastest lap time set during the first qualifying session.
Each of the five entries in the Hypercar category progressed to Hyperpole, with the fastest lap a 3:27.247 recorded by Kobayashi's No. 7 Toyota early before light rain fell during the second half of the session. In LMP2, the qualifiers were Frijns' No. 31 WRT car with entries from Jota's Félix da Costa, Norman Nato for RealTeam by WRT, the United Autosports pair of Lynn and Albuquerque and Prema's Louis Delétraz. LMGTE Pro saw the six factory entrants advance to Hyperpole. The No. 92 Porsche driven by Laurens Vanthoor was fastest, ahead of García's No. 63 Corvette, Porsche's No. 91 car driven by Makowiecki, the No. 64 sister Corvette of Tandy and the AF Corse Ferrari entries driven by Calado (No. 51) and Antonio Fuoco (No. 52). LMGTE Am saw Nicki Thiim's No. 98 Northwest AMR, Jensen's Kessel Racing Ferrari, the No. 54 AF Corse Ferrari driven by Nick Cassidy, Rahel Frey's No. 85 Iron Dames Ferrari, Dempsey-Proton Racing's Tincknell in its No. 77 Porsche and the No. 61 AF Corse Ferrari driven by Vincent Abril. Actor Michael Fassbender lost control of the rear of Proton Competition's No. 93 Porsche braking for the first Mulsanne chicane due to a front puncture, and struck the Armco barrier with the front. Fassbender was unhurt, and the session was stopped for about 12 minutes to recover the damaged car. The crash resulted in the Proton Competition mechanics replacing the chassis on the No. 93 Porsche.
In Hyperpole, Hartley set the fastest lap (3:24.408) in the No. 8 Toyota for Toyota's sixth consecutive pole position at Le Mans late in the session on worn tyres after being slowed by traffic in the Porsche Curves earlier on. Kobayashi qualified the No. 7 sister Toyota second after his fastest lap was deleted, reinstated and then invalidated again for a track-limits infringement at the Tertre Rouge corner. The No. 36 Alpine qualified third after a lap by Lapierre, and the Glickenhaus entries of Briscoe (No. 709) and Pla (No. 708) were fourth and fifth. The LMP2 pole position was taken by Frjins' No. 31 WRT entry, with a time of 3:28.394. Nato's No. 41 Realteam entry was second, holding the category pole until Frijns' lap. Following in third to sixth were the lead United Autosports car of Albuquerque, the Jota entry of Félix da Costa, Delétraz's Prema car and Lynn's sister United Autosports car (after one of Lynn's laps was invalidated). Corvette Racing took the first two positions in LMGTE Pro with Tandy's No. 63 entry on category pole, with the only sub-3:50 class lap from his teammate García's No. 64 car. The two Porsches were third and fourth, with Makowiecki's No. 91 car faster than Laurens Vanthoor's No. 92 vehicle. Abril took pole position in LMGTE Am in AF Corse's No. 61 Ferrari early in the session from Jensen's No. 57 Kessel entry and Tincknell's Dempsey-Proton Porsche after a lap by Frey in Iron Dames' No. 85 vehicle was invalidated for violating track limits.
After qualifying, stewards barred Cimadomo from racing at race director Eduardo Freitas's recommendation for his and other entrants' safety due to his "not driving to the standard required to safely participate in the remainder of the event" after his involvement in three incidents during free practice. Cimadomo was replaced by Formula E champion Nyck de Vries, and TDS' No. 13 car was moved from the LMP2 Pro/Am subclass to the main LMP2 category because De Vries held a platinum racing licence. The FIA and ACO revised the balance of performance, increasing the LMGTE Ferrari 488 GTE Evo's turbocharger boost pressure and decreasing the A480's engine power by 13 hp (9.7 kW) and a loss of 32 MJ (8.9 kWh) of energy allowance per stint.
### Qualifying results
Pole positions in each class are denoted in bold.
## Warm-up
A 15-minute warm-up session was held on the morning of 11 June, and a number of drivers did not have a fast lap due to incidents during the session. The No. 7 Toyota of Mike Conway lapped fastest at 3:31.236 seconds, ahead of the fastest LMP2 entry (driven by Rast) in WRT's No. 31 car; Buemi's No. 8 sister Toyota was 2.313 seconds slower in third, and second in Hypercar. The fastest LMGTE Pro lap was 3:54.788, set by Garcia in the No. 63 Corvette, and Toni Vilander's No. 21 AF Corse Ferrari paced LMGTE Am. Mailleux appeared to lose control of the No. 709 Glickenhaus leaving the Mulsanne turn due to a malfunctioning traction-control sensor before stopping on the right hand side of the circuit. A driveline fault slowed Tandy's No. 64 Corvette between the Mulsanne and Indianapolis corners, necessitating a pit stop. Nico Müller beaching the No. 10 Vector Sport car in the gravel at the Indianapolis corner and Laurents Hörr losing control of the No. 3 DKR entry at the Dunlop Chicane prompted a full-course-yellow period.
## Race
### Start and early hours
The weather was dry at the start, with an air temperature of 13 to 26 °C (55 to 79 °F) and a track temperature of 17.5 to 57.5 °C (63.5 to 135.5 °F). There were 244,200 spectators in attendance. The French tricolour was waved at 16:00 CEST by TotalEnergies CEO Patrick Pouyanné to begin the race, which was led by the pole-sitting Buemi. Will Owen's No. 22 United Autosports USA Oreca, pinched between the WRT cars of Ferdinand Habsburg and LMP2-class pole-sitter Rast at the first corner, was sent into the gravel trap. Owen required recovery by crane to return to the pit lane for repairs (which cost him two laps), and Habsburg's No. 41 car sustained front-end damage and a right rear puncture. The stewards deemed Rast responsible for the accident, and imposed a one-minute stop-and-go penalty. This moved Kubica's No. 9 Prema entry on the inside from fifth to the LMP2 lead. In LMGTE Am, Abril was unable to retain the No. 61 AF Corse Ferrari's class lead; Tincknell used the end of a slow zone at turn one to overtake Jensen and Abril in Dempsey's No. 77 Porsche.
The race's first hour ended with Alessio Picariello's No. 99 Hardpoint Porsche taking the LMGTE Am lead from Project 1's No. 46 car, driven by Matteo Cairoli. Félix da Costa's No. 38 Jota entry became the new LMP2 leader after passing Prema's No. 9 Prema during the first pit-stop cycle. Buemi could not build up a large-enough lead over his teammate Conway due to an oversteer, and relinquished his overall lead to the No. 7 sister car after their pit stops; Conway's stop was faster. Tandy had trouble downshifting for the Mulsanne corner and drove across the roundabout to rejoin the circuit, but forfeited the No. 64 Corvette's hold on the LMGTE Pro lead to García's No. 63 sister Corvette. The LMGTE Am class became a battle between the No. 99 Hardpoint Ferrari and the No. 79 WeatherTech Racing Porsche, and Andlauer took the category lead by passing Picariello on the inside at the Indianapolis corner. Glickenhaus' No. 709 car, driven by Mailleux, was forced to the garage for three minutes for mechanics to replace a faulty engine sensor which was detected by telemetry just before the start of the third hour and fell to 10th place.
Dane Cameron and Felipe Nasr brought the No. 5 Team Penske Oreca car from ninth to second in LMP2 by the end of the third hour, ahead of Lorenzo Colombo's third-place No. 9 Prema car which drew to within a second of Nasr. Lapierre was observed speeding in a slow zone, and the No. 36 Alpine received a drive-through penalty which dropped the car from the lead lap. Team Project's No. 46 Porsche, driven by Nicolas Leutwiler, was beached in the Mulsanne Corner gravel and required extraction to get to the pit lane before the car was retired with irreparable ride height damage. The No. 7 Toyota lost the overall race lead to its No. 8 sister car when López went across the gravel at the second Mulsanne chicane on an out-lap. Vaxivière later brought the Alpine into the garage to repair an electronic clutch fault; the 13+1⁄2 minutes of clutch bleeding dropped the car out of contention. Porsche began closing on the Corvette LMGTE Pro leaders – who were lapping faster in the cooler conditions – and overtook the No. 64 Corvette, which had downshifting problems after Tandy locked its brakes at the Mulsanne turn.
Sims brought the No. 64 Corvette back to second in LMGTE Pro, passing Laurens Vanthoor's No. 92 Porsche on the inside at the second Mulsanne chicane. In the sixth hour, Nasr's No. 5 Penske car lost its hold on second in LMP2 to Ricky Taylor's No. 37 Cool Racing vehicle when debris caused left-front-tyre delamination which damaged the car's left front corner. An unscheduled two-minute, 15-second pit stop dropped the car to third in LMP2 after brake-duct and front-end replacements. The No. 8 Toyota lost the overall lead to Kobayashi's No. 7 sister Toyota when Hirakawa was impeded by a GT car after exiting the pit lane. Corvette lost their hold on the top two places in LMGTE Pro when Tandy brought the No. 64 car into the garage for unscheduled brake repairs and García's No. 63 entry was forced slowly into the garage for a left rear suspension replacement. This promoted Christensen's No. 92 Porsche to the LMGTE Pro lead and Bruni's No. 91 sister car to second.
### Night to morning
As night fell, Pla lost control of the third-place No. 708 Glickenhaus and damaged its left rear suspension on the right guardrail leaving the Tertre Rouge corner after he struck the kerb. Pla drove the vehicle slowly to the pit lane for repairs, relinquishing the car's hold on third to Mailleux's sister Glickenhaus. The No. 7 Toyota had a slow pit stop for a tyre change and driver switch (from Kobayashi to Conway), and Buemi's No. 8 Toyota retook the lead. Conway then reclaimed the lead, passing Buemi into the Daytona Chicane on the Mulsanne Straight. Buemi returned the No. 8 Toyota to the overall lead ahead of Conway's No. 7 entry to begin the ninth hour, extending the car's lead to half a minute when a slow zone was imposed to dry a coolant spill between the Tertre Rouge turn and the first Mulsanne Straight chicane. The No. 709 LMGTE Am-class D'Station Racing Aston Martin of Charlie Fagg retired with chassis and wishbone damage. The category became a two-car battle for the lead between the No. 79 WeatherTech Porsche and the No. 33 TF Sport Aston Martin, driven by Marco Sørensen, after Sørensen lapped faster than Paul Dalla Lana's No. 98 Northwest entry.
The No. 31 WRT Oreca recovered from its early stop-and-go penalty to move to second in LMP2 after a quick stint by Frijns before Delétraz's No. 9 Prema passed Frijns' co-driver Gelael on the main straight by forcing Gelael towards the pit-lane barrier. Hirakawa's No. 8 Toyota led López's No. 7 car by almost 19 seconds at half distance, and both cars were two laps ahead of Briscoe's third-place No. 709 Glickenhaus. Jota's No. 38 Oreca, driven by Félix da Costa, still led LMP2 with a one-lap advantage over Prema's No. 9 entry of Delétraz due to the No. 38 team's fast pace and slow zones. Porsche's No. 92 team led the No. 64 Corvette by 100 seconds in LMGTE Pro. TF Sport's No. 33 Aston Martin, driven by Chaves, took the LMGTE Am lead from WeatherTech's No. 79 Porsche when driver Cooper MacNeil lost a minute in one lap for a pit stop just before half distance. The No. 8 Toyota lost the lead it had held for 86 laps when a slow zone was deployed to recover West's retired LMGTE Am-category No. 59 Inception Ferrari from the Mulsanne Straight, catching Buemi off-guard and allowing Conway's No. 7 car to pass during a pit-stop cycle. Porsche brought the No. 92 car into the garage for routine brake disc and pad switches, and lost the LMGTE Pro lead it had held for 104 laps to Pier Guidi's No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari.
LMGTE Pro became a close battle between Milner's No. 64 Corvette and Pier Guidi's No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari, with both drivers close for multiple laps with Porsche's No. 92 RSR (driven by Christensen). Milner drafted past Pier Guidi on the Mulsanne Straight and the outside of the Daytona chicane to return to the category lead. The No. 92 Porsche left the battle for the class lead when Christensen understeered into the gravel at the Mulsanne corner. Christensen had a right-front puncture when he built up speed on the approach to the Indianapolis corner, and heavy damage to the car's front required him to drive slowly to the pit lane for repairs. This moved Sims' No. 64 Corvette back into the category lead, with Daniel Serra's No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari second. Before the 16th hour ended, López stopped the No. 7 Toyota at the exit of the right-hand Arnage corner with a front-axle motor–generator issue that made him perform a power cycle to restart the car and return to the pit lane for further troubleshooting; he lost a lap and the lead to Hartley's No. 8 sister Toyota. Brendan Iribe was caught off-guard under braking for the Daytona chicane and struck the left-side Armco barrier with the front of the No. 56 Team Project 1 Porsche hard enough to retire the car, which was third in LMGTE Am. Iribe was unhurt and extricated himself from the car.
In the 18th hour, just after the No. 63 Corvette was retired with rear-end mechanical damage, François Perrodo's No. 83 AF Corse Oreca was sandwiched between Sims' No. 64 Corvette and John Falb's No. 47 Algarve Pro Oreca on the Mulsanne Straight after the first chicane when he veered left. Perrodo made slight left-side contact with Sims, who was sent into the left-side barrier at high speed; the damaged No. 64 Corvette was retired. Perrodo, who received a three-minute stop-and-go penalty for causing the crash, slowly entered the pit lane for rear-suspension repairs; Calado's No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari took the LMGTE Pro lead, with Makowiecki's No. 91 Porsche second. Frijns lost control of the No. 31 WRT Oreca, going onto the gravel at the exit of Indianapolis turn and crashing into the left-side Armco barrier. Since the blue impact light came on, Frijns was transported to the medical centre; he was unhurt. The accident forced the No. 31 car's retirement and the safety car's only deployment, to enable repairs to the Armco wall. The safety cars were recalled after fifteen minutes, and the first two cars in LMGTE Pro were together; Pier Guidi lost the No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari's advantage to Makowiecki's No. 91 Porsche. Pier Guidi had a right-rear puncture entering the Porsche Curves which forced an unscheduled pit stop, promoting the No. 91 Porsche to the LMGTE Pro lead. The safety-car period reduced the LMP2-leading No. 38 Jota Oreca's gap from one lap to a half-lap, because it had to remain in the pit lane and wait for the nearest safety car.
### Afternoon to finish
Claudio Schiavoni, in the No. 85 Iron Lynx Ferrari, collided with an LMP2 entry and struck the left tyre barrier leaving the Porsche Curves with four minutes left in the 21st hour. Schiavoni was unhurt, but the Ferrari was retired. The second-place No. 9 Prema car of Colombo and (later) Kubica in LMP2 closed the gap to Roberto González's class-leading No. 38 Jota car, while the No. 28 sister Jota entry of Aberdein in third made an unscheduled pit stop to repair a slow puncture. Sebastian Priaulx brought the No. 77 Dempsey-Proton Porsche into the pit lane from third in LMGTE Am to repair a failed lower front wishbone, losing his position to David Pittard's No. 98 Aston Martin. Thomas Merrill miscalculated entering the Porsche Curves in WeatherTech's No. 79 Porsche and entered the gravel trap; he avoided striking the barriers, and continued without relinquishing his car's hold on second in LMGTE Am.
Hartley maintained the overall lead his No. 8 Toyota had held for the previous 125 laps, and finished first after 380 laps; it was Buemi's fourth Le Mans victory, Hartley's third, Hirakawa's first and Toyota's fifth in succession. They finished two minutes and 1.222 seconds ahead of No. 7 sister Toyota; Glickenhaus made the overall Le Mans podium for the first time in third, with its No. 709 car five laps down. Jota's No. 38 Oreca won LMP2, leading for all but 15 laps, to finish two minutes and 21 seconds ahead of the debuting second-place No. 9 Prema car. It was Jota's third category victory (their first since ) and the maiden LMP2 Le Mans win for Félix da Costa, González and Stevens. The No. 28 sister Jota car completed the LMP2 podium in third. The No. 45 Algarve Pro team of James Allen, René Binder and Thomas won the LMP2 Pro/Am subclass by one lap over the No. 24 Nielsen Racing car driven by Matt Bell, Ben Hanley and Rodrigo Sales. In the final LMGTE Pro race at Le Mans, Porsche had their first class victory since with the No. 91 RSR leading the No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari by 42.684 seconds. Aston Martin won LMGTE Am, with the No. 33 TF Sport car leading for the final 105 laps in the first category victory for Chaves, Ben Keating and Sørensen. WeatherTech Racing placed second in the class, 44.446 seconds behind. A record 53 of the 62 starting cars finished the race.
## Post-race
The top three teams in each of the four classes appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media at individual press conferences. Hirakawa said that he did not expect to win the race in his first year with Toyota, and his next objective was to win as many as possible. Hartley admitted being emotional about winning and said it was an "amazing race because we were pushing each other so hard. We were giving it everything: there was nothing left on the table because it was so evenly matched." López said that making a car run perfectly was difficult. Toyota's technical director, Pascal Vasselon, called the speed of the Glickenhaus cars "remarkable" given the team's inexperience. Briscoe called Glickenhaus' podium finish "a massive accomplishment", but was disappointed at not matching Toyota's pace. Westbrook said that finishing third felt like a victory, and Mailleux described a podium result as "so unreal".
Félix da Costa said about the LMP2 win, "The win is special, but the way to get there takes a lot. It's a collective victory." González said it was Jota's dream to win, something they had prepared for, for the previous three years. Bruni said that luck was a factor in winning LMGTE Pro when the Corvette and the No. 92 Porsche encountered issues: "This is part of racing. Sometimes it works well, other times it works bad. For sure they were not lucky, Corvette was unlucky. In the end Le Mans chooses [whether] you win or not. This is the special thing of Le Mans. Sometimes she recognises you, other times not." Lietz said a lot of misfortune and difficulty in the preceding two years prevented Porsche from achieving a decent result and that it felt good for them to be lucky again. Keating said that his LMGTE Am win gave him a "little bit of vindication" after a 2019 post-race fuel disqualification from first place: "Somebody asked me what it feels like to win Le Mans, I told them this is my second! Everyone knows we won it in 2019, the difference is this one will be in the record books. There's something special about that".
Perrodo and AF Corse team principal Amato Ferrari visited Corvette Racing's garage to apologise for the accident which caused the No. 64 car's retirement. Perrodo said that he had no excuse: "I made a terrible mistake. It's like a small movement with huge consequences. So I had to apologise to Corvette. It's the least I can do. I know that nothing will make them feel better at this stage. It's horrible. It's horrible for me, for them, but of course particularly for them." Sims said, "It's never nice when things happen outside of your control, but we're on track with 60 other cars and people make mistakes. I'm sure Perrodo didn't plan it, we were just in the wrong place, wrong time." Owen believed that Rast was overly aggressive on the first lap: "That's how you cause accidents, honestly. I couldn't even react fast enough before I hit the blue car on my left and was just in the gravel. Of course, it took five or six minutes to get the car unstuck. That was quite a setback." Rast thought that the cars behind him jumped the start, and he followed the race director's instructions: "Everybody who knows me knows that I'm a fair and hard driver, but I'm not taking somebody out on purpose. So yeah, it was the drivers behind me just jumping the start and I got the penalty for it."
The result kept Lapierre, Negrão and Vaxivière atop the Hypercar Drivers' Championship with 81 points; race winners Buemi, Hartley and Hirakawa moved from third to second, three points behind. With 69 points, Dumas and Pla fell from second to third. Bruni's and Lietz's LMGTE Pro win placed them atop the GTE Drivers' Championship with 84 points, ahead of teammates Christensen and Estre by three points. Toyota and Porsche left Le Mans as the Hypercar and GTE Manufacturers' Championship leaders, respectively, with three rounds of the season left.
## Race results
The minimum number of laps for classification at the finish (70 per cent of the overall race winner's distance) was 266 laps. Class winners are denoted in bold and with .
## Championship standings after the race |
25,785,789 | Jim Wallhead | 1,157,201,189 | English mixed martial arts fighter | [
"1984 births",
"Doping cases in mixed martial arts",
"English Muay Thai practitioners",
"English male judoka",
"English male mixed martial artists",
"English practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu",
"English sportspeople in doping cases",
"Living people",
"Middleweight mixed martial artists",
"Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu",
"Mixed martial artists utilizing Muay Thai",
"Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing",
"Mixed martial artists utilizing judo",
"Sportspeople from Loughborough",
"Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters",
"Welterweight mixed martial artists"
]
| Jim Wallhead (born 14 March 1984) is an English former professional mixed martial artist who competed in the Welterweight division. He has competed for BAMMA, Bellator, and M-1 Challenge and the UFC .
Wallhead is a member of Team Rough House and Leicester Shootfighters. In addition to his training at Leicester Shootfighters, Wallhead also works as a coach. Wallhead joined Team Rough House after back-to-back losses at the beginning of his professional career and dropped his competing weight from Light Heavyweight and Middleweight to Welterweight.
## Mixed martial arts career
### Background
Wallhead comes from a judo background, where he holds a black belt. He was introduced to judo accidentally after being taken to a class that was believed to be a karate class. Wallhead was successful early in his judo career for the Beaumont Leys Judo club, before moving to a club in Coventry under Olympic silver medallist Neil Adams. Under Adams, Wallhead won three Under-21s British titles as well as placing 7th in the European youth Olympics.
Wallhead joined Team Rough House in 2005, following back-to-back losses between May and July 2005. Wallhead is still a member of Team Rough House to this date, alongside fighters such as Dan Hardy, Ross Pearson, Paul Daley and Andre Winner. Wallhead also trains Muay Thai with the former multi-time Kickboxing champion Owen Comerie, who previously trained Dan Hardy. Wallhead works his strength and conditioning with Ollie Richardson at the Leicester Tigers Rugby Union training ground. Wallhead also trains Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Victor Estima, he holds a Black Belt under him.
### Early career
Early in his career, Wallhead was associated with the Urban Combat Leicester team. He made his semi-professional debut against Steve Matthews on 8 April 2005, in a two-round fight. This fight was fought at heavyweight, at the "Cage Warriors: Quest" event where Wallhead was able to defeat his opponent with a rear naked choke after 27 seconds of the first round.
Wallhead soon turned professional and on 30 April 2005, he made his debut at Cage Warriors: Ultimate Force. Jim fought Leslee Ojugbana, utilising knee strikes from the clinch, whilst preventing Ojugbana from succeeding with takedown attempts. After one-sided striking from Wallhead, Ojugbana gave up his back and Wallhead was able to pull off a rear naked choke for his debut win after just 64 seconds.
Wallhead competed just weeks later and made his second professional appearance against Boris Jonstomp at Cage Warriors: Strike Force. This fight was fought at the lower weight of middleweight and saw Wallhead succeed with judo throw attempts early in the fight. However, Wallhead's ground game was not to the same standard at Jonstomp's and he lost via first round submission (neck crank) after 4:20.
This was followed up by his second consecutive loss, two months later at the Cage Warriors: Quest 2 event, at the hands of Chris Rice. Wallhead was TKOd 3:32 into the first round, resulting in a 1–2 record at the start of his professional MMA career. Following this loss, Wallhead joined Team Rough House after meeting Dan Hardy and receiving an invitation to join the team. Upon doing so, Wallhead dropped two weight categories to his current status as a welterweight.
### Early affiliation with Team Rough House
In his welterweight debut and his first fight under Team Rough House affiliation, Wallhead was victorious. The fight took place at Cage Warriors: Strike Force 3 where Wallhead faced Greco-Roman wrestler Steve Singh-Sidhu. Though Wallhead had dropped to welterweight, he still had a considerable weight advantage over his opponent who weighed in at 3.5 kg less than Wallhead. This perhaps was significant as Singh-Sidhu's strikes seemed to have little bearing on Wallhead, who was able to land takedowns and a standing choke. Midway through the first round, Singh-Sidhu appeared to be backing away from Wallhead, who chased him down with punches and knees to the head. After a shin strike to the head, Singh-Sidhu's corner threw in the towel, resulting in a first-round TKO victory for Wallhead.
In December 2005, Wallhead fought Welshman Paul Jenkins. This was Wallhead's first title fight in mixed martial arts, as they competed for the House of Pain Welterweight title in front of Jenkins' home crowd of Cardiff, Wales. Wallhead won the fight via majority decision after five rounds, giving him the title. Just over two years to that day, Wallhead rematched Jenkins in a kickboxing bout (thus not counting towards his pro-MMA record); this time in Wallhead's hometown of Nottingham. Wallhead showed effective low kicks and combinations which earned him a unanimous decision victory.
After his third successive victory, with his win over Henning Svendsen in March 2006, Wallhead made his first title defense of his House of Pain Welterweight title just two weeks later. His opponent was John Phillips who was making his second professional appearance. Wallhead defeated Phillips to retain the title, after a TKO victory due to elbows.
After going 4–0 under the tutelage of Team Rough House, Wallhead then faced Peter Angerer in May 2006. Despite controlling the fight, Angerer defeated Wallhead via submission (arm-triangle choke). During the submission attempt, Wallhead's arm was stuck, meaning he had to tap with his feet, earning the nickname "Scuba Steve" from his teammates.
### European and worldwide exposure
Following his loss to Angerer, Wallhead entered the 2H2H 83 kg tournament in Holland, on just 72 hours notice, despite the tournament being at a higher weight than he was adjusted to. In the first round of the tournament, Wallhead defeated Camara Bouna via two-round decision, before defeating Xander Nel in the final via TKO.
Wallhead then captured the Cage Gladiators British Welterweight Title, defeating the UFC veteran Jason Tan.
Returning to Cage Warriors, Wallhead faced the UFC-bound Dennis Siver. Despite being on a three fight winning streak, Wallhead was submitted via armbar taking his record to 8–4. Wallhead faced Lewis Barrow four months later and won via submission (punches) to begin a four fight win streak. Wallhead's next three fights resulted in submission victories; a victory via choke over Jordan James, an arm-triangle choke victory over Soli Clichko and a rear naked choke victory over Steven Lynch.
Wallhead began to gain more recognition and exposure in the United States when his fight against Charles Blanchard was featured on Inside MMA on HDNet. Unfortunately for Wallhead, this fight resulted in a decision loss. Wallhead would later state: "I didn't throw my hands enough in the first round when I was fresh and that's my own fault."
Wallhead then began to show improved boxing and knockout power in his next few fights, the first of which was against Tom Haddock in April 2008 who he defeated via submission due to punches.
Just under three months later, Wallhead faced off against Fabricio Nascimento. Wallhead kept the fight on their feet throughout, preventing Nascimento's takedowns. Frustrated by Wallhead's superior boxing, Nascimento visibly showed his disdain. Wallhead took the unanimous decision victory which was regarded as the most important victory he had claimed at that stage in his career.
Wallhead's next fight came at M-1 Challenge UK in September 2008 and was intended to be against Jason Ball. However, Ball had to withdraw with a knee injury and was replaced by Igor Araújo. In preparation for his fight with Araújo, Wallhead temporarily joined Xtreme Couture Mixed Martial Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada to further polish his skills. Araújo himself had just finished training at Xtreme Couture and entered the fight having won seven of his last eight fights. After just 79 seconds, Wallhead won via TKO due to punches - the fifth TKO victory of his career.
Wallhead then applied to become a castmember of The Ultimate Fighter: United States vs. United Kingdom. After passing the assessment and interview successfully, he was told he was "too experienced" for the show, though strangely, he was instead made into an "alternate" who would step up if another castmember withdrew with injury.
Wallhead would then have an eight-month layoff. This was due to his signing with the debuting "British Fighting Championships" - an organisation aimed at combining domestic British MMA into one entity - that would eventually dissolve before its premiere broadcast. The knockout-style tournament saw him drawn against the Brazilian Fabio Toldo. However, the BFC organisation would eventually dissolve and in May 2009, the Ultimate Force organisation picked up the fight. The fight saw Wallhead continue to use his improved boxing after an early scare, where Toldo knocked Wallhead down. Wallhead would go on to defeat his opponent via knockout, which was described by one of Wallhead's team mates as "one of the worst knockouts they've seen".
In September 2009, Wallhead won the Clash of Warriors Welterweight title by defeating Marius Buzinskas.
In November 2009, Wallhead scored arguably the most high-profile win of his career when he defeated The Ultimate Fighter: United States vs. United Kingdom participant Che Mills at "Knuckleup At The Manor" in Newport, Wales. The fight, which was seen as "a clash between the UK’s two top unsigned welterweights," was a close fight that was difficult to score for the judges. Mills was able to block Wallhead's takedown attempts and get back up quickly when Wallhead was successful. In the first round, Wallhead was able to take Mills down and get into side mount, though Mills almost won the first round in the eyes of the judges after a late flurry of strikes. The second round saw Mills use foot stomps and elbows from the clinch, which prevented Wallhead from utilising his wrestling. In the final round, Wallhead continued with takedowns before hitting Mills with elbows. With 45 seconds of the fight remaining, Wallhead was able to cut Mills with his strikes.
Wallhead's overall control, strategy and constant aggression led to him taking a unanimous decision.
### Bellator Fighting Championships
Despite speculation about joining the UFC, in December 2009, Wallhead was signed by the Bellator Fighting Championships to compete in their 2010 eight man, number 1 contender Welterweight Tournament, which began on 8 April 2010.
Wallhead's first appearance in the tournament was scheduled to be at Bellator 15 against the American Jacob McClintock.
However, on 20 April, just two days before his fight with McClintock, Wallhead was forced to withdraw from the Bellator tournament as he was grounded in England due to the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull. Wallhead was replaced by Ryan Thomas.
A month later, Bellator CEO Bjorn Rebney stated that they were aiming to include Wallhead in the third season - despite the absence of a welterweight tournament - with a view to including him in the fourth season's welterweight tournament.
In the meantime, Wallhead took a fight in Cage Warriors against Shaun Lomas and defeated him via rear naked choke in the first round. Due to an injury to Wallhead's previous opponent, Lomas had to step in at short notice, meaning that Wallhead competed at middleweight for the first time in two years.
Bellator's plans to include Wallhead in their third season were confirmed in September 2010, when Wallhead signed to face Ryan Thomas on 14 October 2010 at Bellator 32. Wallhead went on to defeat Thomas via unanimous decision (29–28, 29–28, 29–28).
In the fourth season welterweight tournament opening round, Wallhead faced fellow judoka, Rick Hawn, losing via unanimous decision.
### BAMMA
Wallhead made his BAMMA debut at BAMMA 7 against Frank Trigg. Trigg was set to face Tom 'Kong' Watson for Watson's middleweight title, but Watson suffered a back injury forcing his withdrawal and allowing Wallhead to step up as his replacement. In the opening round, Wallhead caught Trigg with a left hook which appeared to hurt him, before executing a successful takedown. He ended the first round landing ground-and-pound shots which opened up a cut on Trigg's cheek. The second round saw Wallhead land the stronger strikes, but less often than Trigg. The final round was also close, though Wallhead once again managed to rock Trigg early in the round. The fight went to the judges, where Wallhead won via split decision (29-28, 28-29 and 30-27).
He competed at BAMMA 8 in a welterweight bout against Joey Villasenor, winning via first-round KO.
Wallhead faced off against UFC veteran Matt Veach in the main event of BAMMA 12 in Newcastle, England on 9 March 2013. He won the fight via submission in the first round.
### Return to Bellator
Wallhead returned to Bellator to compete in the season seven welterweight tournament. His opening round match was against Lyman Good. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.
### Back to BAMMA
On 9 March 2013 he took on UFC veteran Matt Veach at BAMMA 12, winning by first round submission due to Rear-Naked Choke. Wallhead faced former TUF contestant Eddy Ellis at BAMMA 13 on 14 September 2013. He lost the fight in a highly controversial decision after breaking Ellis' jaw in the first round and stuffing many of his takedown attempts.
### KSW
In mid-2015, Wallhead signed with Poland-based promotion Konfrontacja Sztuk Walki, and faced Rafał Moks at KSW 32: Road to Wembley in a welterweight bout on 31 October 2015. He won the bout via TKO due to punches.
### WFCA
On 9 April 2016, Wallhead fought at WFCA 17 against Gennadiy Kovalev. He won the bout via unanimous decision
### Ultimate Fighting Championship
On 27 June 2016, Wallhead signed with the UFC to fight Jessin Ayari at UFC Fight Night 93, replacing Emil Meek. He lost the fight via split decision.
Wallhead faced Luan Chagas on 3 June 2017 at UFC 212. He lost the fight via submission due to a rear-naked choke in the second round.
Wallhead was expected to face Warlley Alves on 21 October 2017 at UFC Fight Night 118. However, Wallhead pulled out of the fight on 14 October citing an injury.
Wallhead was tested positive from an out-of-competition test collected on October 7, 2017 by USADA . On February 6, 2018 he received a nine month USADA suspension for violation for tested ostarine and its metabolite as the result of a contaminated supplement and clear to compete again on July 7, 2018.
### Bellator MMA
In his Bellator debut, Wallhead faced Abner Lloveras on February 9, 2019 at Bellator: Newcastle. He won the bout via unanimous decision.
Wallhead faced Giorgio Pietrini on May 4, 2019 at Bellator: Birmingham. He won the bout via unanimous decision.
### Cage Warriors
Wallhead faced Daniel Skibiński at Cage Warriors 141 on July 22, 2022. He won the bout via TKO stoppage in the first round.
Wallhead faced Mateusz Figlak for the Interim Cage Warriors Welterweight Championship on November 12, 2022 at Cage Warriors 146. He won the tilte and the bout, knocking out Figlak in the first round.
Wallhead faced Rhys McKee on April 29, 2023 at Cage Warriors 153 in a unification of the Cage Warriors Welterweight Championship. Wallhead's corner threw in the towel at the end of the fourth round, with Wallhead retiring from MMA after the bout.
## Championships and accomplishments
### Mixed martial arts
- Cage Warriors
- Interim Cage Warriors Welterweight Championship
- Clash of Warriors
- COW Welterweight Championship (one time)
- Cage Gladiators
- CG British Welterweight Championship (one time)
- House of Pain
- HoP Welterweight Championship (one time)
- One successful title defense
- 2 Hot 2 Handle
- 2H2H: Road to Japan 83kg tournament winner
## Mixed martial arts record
\|- \|Loss \|align=center\|33–12 \|Rhys McKee \|TKO (corner stoppage) \|Cage Warriors 153 \| \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|5:00 \|Dublin, Ireland \|For the Cage Warriors Welterweight Championship. \|- \|Win \|align=center\|33–11 \|Mateusz Figlak \|KO (punches) \|Cage Warriors 146 \| \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|1:39 \|Manchester, England \|Won the Interim Cage Warriors Welterweight Championship. \|- \|Win \|align=center\|32–11 \|Daniel Skibiński \|TKO (punch) \|Cage Warriors 141 \| \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|1:26 \|London, England \| \|- \|Win \|align=center\|31–11 \|Giorgio Pietrini \|Decision (unanimous) \|Bellator: Birmingham \| \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|5:00 \|Birmingham, England, United Kingdom \| \|- \|Win \|align=center\|30–11 \|Abner Lloveras \|Decision (unanimous) \|Bellator: Newcastle \| \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|5:00 \|Newcastle upon Tyne, England \| \|- \|Loss \|align=center\|29–11 \|Luan Chagas \|Submission (rear-naked choke) \|UFC 212 \| \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|4:48 \|Rio de Janeiro, Brazil \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 29–10 \| Jessin Ayari \| Decision (split) \| UFC Fight Night: Arlovski vs. Barnett \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Hamburg, Germany \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 29–9 \| Gennadiy Kovalev \| Decision (unanimous) \| WFCA 17 - Grand Prix Akhmat 2016 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Grozny, Russia \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 28–9 \| Rafał Moks \| KO (punch) \| KSW 32: Road to Wembley \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 2:26 \| London, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 27–9 \| Rodrigo Ribeiro \| KO (punch) \| Abu Dhabi Warriors 2 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:10 \| Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 26–9 \| Juan Manuel Suarez \| KO (punches) \| CWFC 73: Ray vs. Warburton 3 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:49 \| Newcastle upon Tyne, England \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 25–9 \| Danny Roberts \| KO (punches) \| CWFC 68: Roberts vs. Wallhead \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:49 \| Liverpool, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 25–8 \| Florent Betorangal \| KO (slam) \| BAMMA 14 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 0:21 \| Birmingham, England \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 24–8 \| Eddy Ellis \| Decision (split) \| BAMMA 13 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Birmingham, England \| For the BAMMA Welterweight Championship. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 24–7 \| Matt Veach \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| BAMMA 12 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:05 \| Newcastle upon Tyne, England \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 23–7 \| Lyman Good \| Decision (unanimous) \| Bellator 74 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States \| Welterweight tournament quarterfinal. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 23–6 \| Joey Villaseñor \| KO (punches) \| BAMMA 8 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 0:48 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 22–6 \| Frank Trigg \| Decision (split) \| BAMMA 7 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Birmingham, England \| Middleweight bout. \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 21–6 \| Rick Hawn \| Decision (unanimous) \| Bellator 35 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Lemoore, California, United States \| Welterweight tournament quarterfinal. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 21–5 \| Ryan Thomas \| Decision (unanimous) \| Bellator 32 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Kansas City, Missouri, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 20–5 \| Shaun Lomas \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| Cage Warriors 37: Right to Fight \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:34 \| Birmingham, England \| Middleweight bout. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 19–5 \| Che Mills \| Decision (unanimous) \| KnuckleUp MMA 3: Mills vs. Wallhead \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Newport, Wales \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 18–5 \| Marius Buzinskas \| Submission (neck crank) \| Clash of Warriors 7: No Way Out \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:08 \| Nottingham, England \| Won the COW Welterweight Championship. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 17–5 \| Fabio Santana Toldo \| KO (punches) \| Ultimate Force: Oblivion \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:46 \| Doncaster, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 16–5 \| Igor Araújo \| TKO (punches) \| M-1 Challenge 7: UK \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:19 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 15–5 \| Fabricio Nascimento \| Decision (unanimous) \| Cage Warriors: Enter the Rough House 7 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 14–5 \| Tom Haddock \| Submission (punches) \| Cage Warriors: Enter the Rough House 6 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:49 \| Nottingham, England \| Middleweight bout. \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 13–5 \| Charles Blanchard \| Decision (unanimous) \| Cage Warriors: USA Battle Royale \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Kissimmee, Florida, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 13–4 \| Steven Lynch \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| CWFC: Enter The Rough House 4 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:53 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 12–4 \| Marius Liaukevicius \| Technical Submission (arm-triangle choke) \| CWFC: Enter The Rough House 3 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:52 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 11–4 \| Jordan James \| Submission (choke) \| House of Pain: Fight Night 9 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:09 \| Swansea, Wales \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 10–4 \| Lewis Barrow \| Submission (punches) \| CWFC: Enter The Rough House 2 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 1:40 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 9–4 \| Dennis Siver \| Submission (armbar) \| CWFC: Enter The Rough House \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:31 \| Nottingham, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 9–3 \| Jason Tan \| Decision (split) \| Cage Gladiators II: The Next Generation \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Liverpool, England \| Won the Cage Gladiators British Welterweight Championship. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 8–3 \| Xander Nel \| TKO (punches) \| 2 Hot 2 Handle: Road To Japan \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:06 \| Amsterdam, Netherlands \| Won the 2H2H 83 kg tournament. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 7–3 \| Camara Bouna \| Decision \| 2 Hot 2 Handle: Road To Japan \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:00 \| Amsterdam, Netherlands \| 2H2H 83 kg tournament opening round. \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 6–3 \| Peter Angerer \| Submission (arm-triangle choke) \| CWFC: Strike Force 6 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:49 \| Coventry, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 6–2 \| John Phillips \| TKO (elbows) \| House of Pain: Fight Night 5 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:41 \| Swansea, Wales \| Defended the House of Pain Welterweight Championship. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 5–2 \| Henning Svendsen \| TKO (punches) \| CWFC: Strike Force 5 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:06 \| Coventry, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 4–2 \| Paul Jenkins \| Decision (majority) \| House of Pain: Fight Night 4 \| \| align=center\| 5 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Cardiff, Wales \| Won the House of Pain Welterweight Championship. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 3–2 \| Steve Singh-Sidhu \| TKO (corner stoppage) \| CWFC: Strike Force 3 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:14 \| Coventry, England \| Welterweight debut. \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 2–2 \| Chris Rice \| TKO (punches) \| CWFC: Quest 2 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:32 \| Sheffield, England \| Light Heavyweight bout. \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 2–1 \| Boris Jonstomp \| Submission (neck crank) \| CWFC: Strike Force \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:20 \| Coventry, England \| Middleweight bout. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 2–0 \| Leslee Ojugbana \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| CWFC: Ultimate Force \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:20 \| Sheffield, England \| Light Heavyweight bout. \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 1–0 \| Steve Mathews \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| CWFC: Quest 1 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| N/A \| Sheffield, England \|
## Titles and accomplishments
- Judo
- Three time Under-21 British Judo champion
- Seventh place in the European Youth Olympics
- Mixed Martial Arts
- Former House of Pain Welterweight champion (defended once, then relinquished)
- 2H2H 83 kg tournament winner
- Former Cage Gladiators British Welterweight champion
- Clash of Warriors Welterweight champion
## Personal life
Wallhead has a son and a daughter.
## See also
- List of current UFC fighters
- List of Bellator MMA alumni
- List of male mixed martial artists |
22,916,804 | Glanville Davies affair | 1,149,580,837 | Scandal in the English legal profession | [
"1982 in British law"
]
| The Glanville Davies affair was a scandal in the English legal profession which resulted in greater reform of the regulatory processes for solicitors and was one of the justifications for the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990. Glanville Davies was a well-respected solicitor and a member of the Council of the Law Society of England and Wales who massively overcharged his client, Leslie Persons, sending him a bill for £197,000 that was reduced on taxation to £67,000. Davies was not punished by the Law Society's internal regulatory committees, which allowed him to resign from the council on the grounds of ill-health with his reputation intact. Following litigation and public criticism, the Law Society commissioned an internal report that found "administrative failures, wrong decisions, mistakes, errors of judgement, failures in communication and insensitivity". A private member's bill reformed the way in which the Law Society investigated disciplinary complaints, although not to the extent initially proposed, and paved the way for the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 that created an independent disciplinary body.
## Background
In 1982, Leslie Parsons filed a complaint against Glanville Davies, a respected solicitor and member of the Council of the Law Society of England and Wales, the solicitors' professional body. Davies had charged Parsons £197,000 for legal services, a "grossly inflated and inaccurate legal bill". Parsons complained to the Law Society repeatedly from 1976 to 1982; despite this, the Law Society took no disciplinary action, allowing Davies to resign from the Council on grounds of ill-health with his reputation intact. Parsons finally brought legal action against Davies in 1982, and on 18 November, Anthony McCowan of the High Court of Justice reduced the bill to £67,000. McCowan also said that Davies was "guilty of at least gross and persistent misconduct" and recommended that he be struck off. On 24 October 1983, Vinelott J struck Davies from the roll of solicitors.
## Investigation
Following the start of litigation, an investigation by the Lay Observer and the Law Society itself (which became known as the Ely Report) highlighted "an appalling catalogue of errors, insensitivity and poor judgment" in the handling of the Davies Affair by the Law Society internal disciplinary organisation. The report found "administrative failures, wrong decisions, mistakes, errors of judgement, failures in communication and insensitivity... the whole affair was a disgrace to the Society". The Society paid compensation to Parsons for their mishandling of the situation and said that they would compensate victims of similar cases where they had failed to investigate complaints with reasonable care.
The Law Society asked Coopers & Lybrand to produce a report on the Law Society, which included its disciplinary topics among the areas to be reported on. The draft report, published in 1984, recommended that the Law Society should transfer its disciplinary processes to an independent Solicitor's Complaints Board, which would be made up of both solicitors and lay people (although with a majority of its members being solicitors). In 1985 the National Consumer Council published a survey showing that only 15% of respondents felt that the Law Society should be investigating complaints, and only 5% felt that if an independent body was created it should contain a solicitor majority, with 36% wanting equal representation of solicitors and lay people and 55% preferring a majority of lay people.
## Aftermath
As a result of this and similar controversies, Alf Dubs introduced a private member's bill named the Solicitors (Independent Complaints Procedure) Bill on 12 February 1985, which would move the responsibility of regulating the solicitors profession to a body outside the Law Society. Professional opinion was split on this – the National Consumer Council, Legal Action Group and many of the smaller law societies supported the proposal, while larger law societies and the Law Society of England and Wales opposed it.
The Law Society of England and Wales persuaded Coopers & Lybrand to include an alternate reform proposal in their report, and after pressure from the Law Society, and several of the larger regional societies, the alternate proposal was used. This was far weaker than the original proposal, and kept the responsibility of regulating the solicitors' profession within the Law Society but increased the separation of functions within the Society and required that the majority of the people on regulatory committees be lay people (not solicitors). The events surrounding this scandal have been directly linked to the reforms pushed through in the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990, which created an independent disciplinary body for solicitors. |
190,049 | USS Washington (BB-47) | 1,171,566,158 | Cancelled dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy | [
"1921 ships",
"Cancelled ships of the United States Navy",
"Colorado-class battleships",
"Maritime incidents in 1924",
"Ships built by New York Shipbuilding Corporation",
"Ships sunk as targets",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
| USS Washington (BB-47), a Colorado-class battleship, was the second ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 42nd state. Her keel was laid down on 30 June 1919, at Camden, New Jersey, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation. She was launched on 1 September 1921, sponsored by Miss Jean Summers, the daughter of Congressman John W. Summers of Washington.
On 8 February 1922, two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armaments, all construction work ceased on the 75.9%-completed superdreadnought. She was sunk as a gunnery target on 26 November 1924, by the battleships New York and Texas.
## Design
In 1916, design work was completed on the next class of battleships to be built for the United States Navy beginning in 1917. These ships were nearly direct copies of the preceding Tennessee class, with the exception of the main battery, which increased from twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns to eight 16 in (406 mm) guns. The Colorado class proved to be the last class of battleships completed of the standard type.
Washington was 624 ft (190 m) long overall and she had a beam of 97 ft 6 in (29.72 m) and a draft of 30 ft 6 in (9.30 m). She displaced 32,693 long tons (33,218 t) as designed and up to 33,590 long tons (34,130 t) at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric turbo-electric drives with steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The ship's propulsion system was rated at 28,900 shaft horsepower (21,600 kW) for a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). She had a normal cruising range of 8,000 nmi (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph), but additional fuel space could be used in wartime to increase her range to 21,100 nmi (39,100 km; 24,300 mi) at that speed. Her crew numbered 64 officers and 1,241 enlisted men.
She was armed with a main battery of eight 16 in /45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four twin-gun turrets on the centerline, two forward and two aft in superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns, mounted individually in casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. She carried an anti-aircraft battery of eight 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns in individual high-angle mounts. As was customary for capital ships of the period, she had a 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tube mounted in her hull below the waterline on each broadside. Washington's main armored belt was 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm) thick, while the main armored deck was up to 3.5 in (89 mm) thick. The main battery gun turrets had 18 in (457 mm) thick faces on 13 in (330 mm) barbettes. Her conning tower had 16 in (406 mm) thick sides.
## History
With fiscal year 1917 appropriations, bids on the four Colorados were opened on 18 October 1916; though Maryland's keel was laid on 24 April 1917. The other three battleships, including Washington, were not laid down until 1919–1920. With the cancellation of the first South Dakota class, the Colorados were the last U.S. battleships to enter service for nearly two decades. They were also the final U.S. battleships to use twin gun turrets—the North Carolina and second South Dakota classes used nine 16-inch/45 caliber Mark 6 guns and the Iowas used nine 16-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns in three triple turrets. Washington was laid down on 30 June 1919.
On 8 February 1922, two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of all Naval Armaments, all construction work was stopped on the 75.9-percent-completed superdreadnought. By that time, she had her underwater armored protection in place.
The ship was towed out in November 1924, to be used as a gunnery target. On the first day of testing, the ship was hit by two 400-pound (180 kg) torpedoes and three 1-metric-ton (1.1-short-ton) near-miss bombs causing minor damage and a list of three degrees. She then had 400 pounds of TNT detonated on board, but remained afloat. Two days later, the ship was hit by fourteen 14-inch (356 mm) shells dropped from 4,000 feet (1,200 m), but only one penetrated. The ship was finally sunk by Texas and New York with fourteen more 14-inch shells. After the test, it was decided that the existing deck armor on battleships was inadequate, and that future battleships should be fitted with triple bottoms, which was underwater armor with three layers. |
43,724,730 | Frankenstein, MD | 1,159,298,472 | 2014 American web series | [
"2010s YouTube series",
"2014 web series debuts",
"2014 web series endings",
"American comedy web series",
"PBS Digital Studios shows",
"Transmedia storytelling",
"Works based on Frankenstein"
]
| Frankenstein, MD is a 2014 American Gothic horror comedy webseries with transmedia elements. Produced in partnership between Pemberley Digital and PBS Digital Studios, the show is a modern adaptation of Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, replacing the eponymous character with Victoria Frankenstein, a medical student near graduation. The show, which represents PBS Digital's first foray into scripted content, was created by Bernie Su, Brett Register, and Lon Harris. It ran on YouTube from August 19 through October 31, 2014, and was generally well-received by critics.
## Synopsis
Frankenstein, MD is presented as an educational webseries presented by medical students (and later doctors) Victoria Frankenstein and Iggy DeLacey from the fictional Engle State University. Each episode generally consists of Frankenstein experimenting with cutting-edge medical technologies or theories, often using DeLacey or her childhood friends Eli Lavenza and Rory Clerval as subjects. Dr. Abraham Waldman serves as an adviser to Frankenstein, usually acting as a foil and reminding her of the impracticality or perceived impossibility of her experiments and theories.
Partway through the series, the show's unseen camera operator and editor, Robert Walton, dies from a fall while adventuring in Alaska, where his body is left partially preserved in the snow. Frankenstein becomes distraught and attempts to revive Walton's corpse with DeLacey's help in secret using the medical technologies she had expounded upon earlier in the show. The attempt is successful, but the revived creature is startled by light and escapes the lab, running into the woods. Later, as Frankenstein and Lavenza are trying to locate the creature from her father's basement, Clerval is killed mysteriously while camping. The creature confronts Frankenstein and asks her to make him a friend. She grows morally opposed to the idea of recreating her experiment and agrees to run off to Costa Rica with Lavenza after he confesses his love to her. The creature returns to her makeshift lab and kills Lavenza in anger after he tries to stop it from hurting Frankenstein.
## Production
Frankenstein, MD was announced in May 2014, in a partnership between PBS Digital Studios, the online arm of the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), and Pemberley Digital whose previous webseries included The Lizzie Bennet Diaries (an adaptation of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice) and Emma Approved (based on Austen's Emma). The show is a transmedia adaptation of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus by Mary Shelley that reimagines the story's male protagonist Victor Frankenstein as a female student of medicine named Victoria Frankenstein. The show is PBS Digital's first scripted program, though it also includes educational elements.
According to its writers, Frankenstein, MD's narrative fills a two-year gap left by Shelley's source text between Victor Frankenstein's time at medical school and his reappearance as a mad scientist. The original Frankenstein is driven to insanity by his ostracization and Frankenstein, MD attempted to recontextualize this concept by gender-swapping its lead. Victoria Frankenstein is a medical student and later doctor grappling with institutional sexism in what the creators called the "sort of a male-dominated profession" of medicine.
The show is produced by Bernie Su who was previously responsible for Pemberley Digital's other webseries. Filmed at YouTube's Space LA production studio, it premiered on the site on August 19, 2014. Prior to the show's premiere, accounts on social media for various characters in the show were created, allowing viewers to interact with Frankenstein's protagonists. Joe Hanson, host of PBS Digital's It's Okay To Be Smart, acts as the show's science consultant. In early episodes of the show, Frankenstein neglected to wear gloves during her experiments which Su claimed was because, "real science and real-life procedures aren't sexy for entertainment". During its run, fans noticed this and called the show out for the error; in later episodes she is depicted with gloves on for all of her scientific work. The first season of the show concluded after 24 five- to eight-minute episodes on October 31, 2014.
Episodes of Frankenstein, MD are directed by Brett Register, executive produced by Su, and produced by Tracy Bitterolf with consulting producer by Frederick Kim. Register and Lon Harris serve as showrunners with the latter also working as head writer. Other writers include Kim, Danielle Evenson, and Taylor Brogan. The series's cinematographer is Matt Ryan.
## Cast and characters
- Victoria Frankenstein (Anna Lore) – Analogous to Victor Frankenstein, she is a medical student described by The New York Observer as "smart, strong willed and filled with both an insatiable desire to learn about science and an unwavering belief in the field itself." According to Register, Frankenstein's character was not fully understood by the creators of the show until after Lore was cast on July 23, 2014. She helped them view the role as "this very confident but almost introverted character".
- Ludwig "Iggy" DeLacey (Steve Zaragoza) – Analogous to Igor, he is Frankenstein's fellow student and co-host of her show. Zaragoza mailed an audition tape to the show's producers before in-person auditions began which "set the bar for the character of Iggy" according to Register.
- Dr. Abraham Waldman (Kevin Rock) – Analogous to M. Waldman, he serves as a mentor to Frankenstein.
- Eli Lavenza (Brendan Bradley) – Analogous to Elizabeth Lavenza, he is one of Frankenstein's close friends.
- Rory Clerval (Sara Fletcher) – Analogous to Henry Clerval, she is another of Frankenstein's close friends.
- Robert Walton / The Creature (Evan Strand) – A combination of both Robert Walton and Frankenstein's monster from the novel, Walton is the camera operator for Frankenstein's vlog. He dies and is reanimated by her experiments. Lon Harris, a producer and writer of the series, chose Strand to perform The Creature because Strand's performance was very different from Boris Karloff's, and Tracy Bitterolf, a producer, praised Strand's control of his body. Strand described his performance as being inspired by a five-year-old child, a silverback gorilla, and a rhinoceros.
## Episodes
## Reception
Reviewing the first three episodes of the show for The A.V. Club, Myles McNutt felt that the fact that the show was a coproduction of PBS and Pemberley Digital was "the most exciting part" but that it was also the element "that takes the most time to negotiate in the series’ first three episodes, as the writers and the audience alike adjust to the distinct goals of the science fiction vlog webseries." McNutt declared the first three episodes "a solid start" and rated them B+, B, and A−, respectively. Nicole Vranjican wrote in The New York Observer that the show "has a definite juvenile feel and is likely best suited for scientifically curious Jr. High students" and that its message "that being smart is cool...sets a standard for television that more TV shows should get behind". After viewing the first six episodes, Atiya Abbas noted in Vox Magazine that "[t]he series is light-hearted compared to the dark subject of the novel". On Hypable, Marama Whyte called the show "highly comedic" and noted its high production value and Anna Lore's "standout performance" as positive aspects. |
44,741,813 | 2014 Indian Super League final | 1,171,510,667 | null | [
"2014 Indian Super League season",
"2014 in Maharashtra",
"ATK (football club) matches",
"Indian Super League finals",
"Kerala Blasters FC matches"
]
| The 2014 Indian Super League Final was an association football match between the Kerala Blasters and ATK played on 20 December 2014, at the DY Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai. The match was the final match to determine the inaugural champion of the Indian Super League for the 2014 season.
The Kerala Blasters had qualified for the final through defeating the first-place regular season side, Chennaiyin, 4–3 on aggregate. ATK qualified after defeating Goa in a penalty shoot-out 4–2. Prior to the final, during the regular season, both sides played to a 1–1 draw at the Salt Lake Stadium while Kerala Blasters won the return match 2–1 in Kochi.
ATK won the final to win the inaugural title of the league, with late substitute Mohammed Rafique scoring the only goal in added time.
## Road to the final
The Indian Super League is a franchise league started between IMG-Reliance and STAR Sports with the objective of making football one of the main sports in India, as well as make it a known name in the world of football. The 2014 edition was the inaugural season of the Indian Super League.
The Indian Super League, which started its inaugural season with eight franchises, acted in a round-robin format, with each team facing each other twice, home and away. The top four teams at the end of the 14-game regular season would qualify for the play-offs. The play-offs would feature a two-legged semi-final which would pit the first place team against the fourth place team, while second and third would face off against each other. The final would then be a one-legged affair at a neutral venue.
### Kerala Blasters
The Kerala Blasters played their first ever game in the Indian Super League on 13 October 2014 against NorthEast United at the Indira Gandhi Athletic Stadium. They lost the match 0–1 after Koke found the net in the 45th minute. It took till 26 October 2014, the Blasters' third game, before they gained their first ever point in the Indian Super League. It was against their future final opponents, ATK, at the Salt Lake Stadium. Iain Hume scored the equalizer for the Blasters after Baljit Sahni gave the Kolkata side the lead. In the next game, four days later, the Blasters recorded their first ever victory against Pune City at the Balewadi Sports Complex. David Trezeguet gave Pune City the lead in the 15th minute before Chinadorai Sabeeth scored a 41st-minute equalizer. Penn Orji scored the winner for the Blasters in the 65th minute as they ran out with a 2–1 scoreline.
The team played their first home match of the season on 6 November 2014 against Goa. A goal from Milagres Gonsalves helped the Kerala Blasters win 1–0 in front of over 55,000 fans. In the end, the Kerala Blasters managed to just qualify for the finals of the Indian Super League when they defeated Pune City 1–0 at home with Iain Hume scoring his fourth goal of the season.
In the semi-finals, the Kerala Blasters were set to take on the regular season winners, Chennaiyin. The first leg took place at home for the Kerala Blasters, the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Kochi, on 13 December 2014. The match could not have been any better for the Kerala Blasters as goals from Ishfaq Ahmed, Iain Hume, and Sushanth Mathew gave the Kerala Blasters a 3–0 advantage heading to Chennai. The second leg took place three days later at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Chennai. Despite heading into the game leading 3–0 on aggregate, the Blasters managed to concede three goals to Chennaiyin in the second leg and thus bring the game into extra-time. Just as it looked like the game was going to be settled in a penalty shoot-out, the Blasters managed to steal the tie when Stephen Pearson scored in the 117th minute and thus help the Kerala Blasters win 4–3 on aggregate.
### Atlético de Kolkata
Atlético de Kolkata played in the first ever Indian Super League match on 12 October 2014 against Mumbai City at the Salt Lake Stadium. Goals from Fikru Teferra, Borja Fernández, and Arnal helped Kolkata win the inaugural match 3–0. They played their first road match four days later against NorthEast United at the Indira Gandhi Athletic Stadium. Kolkata won the match 2–0 with goals coming from Fikru Teferra and Jakub Podaný.
ATK qualified for the play-offs after they drew Goa at the Salt Lake Stadium 1–1 on 10 December 2014. Edgar Marcelino scored first to give Goa the lead before Fikru scored the equalizer for Kolkata. In the semi-finals, Atlético de Kolkata once again took on Goa. The first leg at the Salt Lake Stadium ended in a 0–0 draw. The second leg at the Fatorda Stadium also ended 0–0 and after the tie could not be settled in extra-time that meant the game went into penalty-kicks. Atlético de Kolkata won the shoot-out 4–2 after André Santos and Zohib Islam Amiri missed their penalties for Goa and Kolkata converted all four of theirs.
## Pre-match
### Officials
Uzbekistani referee, Ravshan Irmatov, was selected as the referee for the final. He had previously officiated the match between the Kerala Blasters and Atlético de Kolkata almost a month before the final on 21 November. He booked seven players that night as the Kerala Blasters won 2–1.
### Venue
In early December 2014 it was announced that the DY Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai would host the final of the Indian Super League. It was also announced that tickets for the final would be available online from 8 December 2014. On 18 December 2014, one day after the semi-finals had concluded, it was reported that a packed crowd was expected for the final. According to the owner of the DY Patil Stadium, Vijay Patil, the stands during the Indian Super League final will be just as full as they were during the 2008 Indian Premier League final.
Due to the strong celebrity influence expected at the Indian Super League final it was reported that over 250 police officers would be in attendance at the stadium to maintain order of the crowd. It was also reported that over 150 personnel would be brought in to man the streets outside the stadium.
### Analysis
Going into the final, former India national team captain, Baichung Bhutia, predicted Atlético de Kolkata to go on and win the final.
Before this match, the Kerala Blasters and Atlético de Kolkata had played each other twice during the regular season. Their first match against each other, on 26 October 2014, ended in a 1–1 draw at the Salt Lake Stadium. Baljit Sahni scored the opening goal in the 22nd minute before Iain Hume equalized for the Blasters to earn the Blasters their first point of the season. In the second game, on 21 November 2014, it was the Kerala Blasters who came out on top as 2–1 winners. Iain Hume and Pedro Gusmão gave the Blasters the 2–0 lead before Fikru Teferra scored the consolation for Kolkata.
## Match
### Team selection
Coming into the match, the Kerala Blasters made a couple necessary defensive changes from the squad that faced Chennaiyin in the semi-finals. David James replaced the injured Sandip Nandy in goal, while Saumik Dey and Nirmal Chettri replaced the suspended pair of Jamie McAllister and Gurwinder Singh in the middle of defense. Atlético de Kolkata head coach, Antonio Lopez Habas, meanwhile decided to bench the team's marquee player, Luis García, and instead started Arnal in central midfield. Habas also decided to switch to playing four defenders instead of three, which meant that Kingshuk Debnath started the match while Lester Fernandez moved to the bench.
### Summary
The first opportunity of the match came in the fifth minute when Kerala Blasters midfielder, Iain Hume, put Michael Chopra through on goal only for Josemi to deny Chopra with a last-minute tackle. The Blasters then had the second realistic chance of the match five minutes later when Pulga received the ball in the box from Saumik Dey but his shot went out for a corner after a deflection off Atlético's Borja Fernández. The pressure continued to mount on Atlético de Kolkata as their goalkeeper Apoula Edel was forced into action; first he had to punch away a direct free-kick from Stephen Pearson before Ishfaq Ahmed's shot moments later was caught by the keeper. Atlético de Kolkata had their first major chance of the match in the 26th minute when Arnal put Mohammed Rafi through on goal, only for Nirmal Chettri to make a last-ditch tackle to keep the score level. The score would remain 0–0 going into half time.
Atlético de Kolkata had the first major opportunity of the second half when Jakub Podaný crossed the ball into the box with both Baljit Sahni and Arnal looking to head it in before David James came out to catch the ball. The Kerala Blasters soon had three chances in three minutes but could not convert any of those into goals. Just after the 60th minute, Kerala Blasters defender Sandesh Jhingan almost headed the ball into his own net while trying to clear it. The Kerala Blasters continued to have the most chances throughout the match, which was compounded in the last minute of regulation time when Michael Chopra had his point blank range shot saved by Apoula Edel. Four minutes later, in the final minute of stoppage time, Atlético de Kolkata substitute Mohammed Rafique headed home a corner from Podaný to win the match and the championship.
### Details
## Post-match
Atlético de Kolkata head coach Habas lauded his players after the final: "I must thank my players for they have been magnificent. I cannot ask them for anything more, for they have given me the ultimate gift." He also praised his backroom staff: "I must thank my entire support staff, for without them, I would not have been able to function. The owners have been fantastic and have supported us through thick and thin. This title is for the fans as they have been our strength." Habas was also delighted that the match was won from a goal scored by an Indian player, saying, "I think it is marvellous that Rafique got the winning goal. It is fantastic that an Indian player settled the contest."
Despite the defeat, David James expressed his opinions over them match while also suggesting that the match would most likely be his last in the Indian Super League. After scoring the winning goal for his side, Mohammed Rafique was very happy while also singing the praises of his coach, saying, "I cannot describe what I am feeling in words," said the midfielder. "I would like to thank my coach, who had faith in me. It was he who decided to bring me on and what happened next was surreal. People dream of scoring in a final and I am very fortunate that I got to experience that in the flesh." |
72,753,565 | Sora ga Suki! | 1,169,441,403 | Japanese manga series | [
"1971 manga",
"1972 comics endings",
"Anime and manga set in France",
"Comedy anime and manga",
"Keiko Takemiya",
"Shogakukan manga",
"Shōjo manga"
]
| Sora ga Suki! (Japanese: 空がすき!, lit. 'I Love the Sky!' or 'I Like the Sky!') is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Keiko Takemiya. It was originally serialized in the manga magazine Shūkan Shōjo Comic in two parts: from March to May 1971, and from August to October 1972. It was later published as a collected edition by Shogakukan, and was the first manga series by Takemiya to be published in this format.
The series follows a teenaged con artist in Montmartre who develops a friendship with the son of one of his marks. It is heavily influenced by musical theater, with characters expressing their feelings and emotions through dance and song lyrics, and its largely male cast composed of bishōnen (lit. "beautiful boys", a term for androgynous male characters) was atypical for shōjo manga (girls' manga) of the era. Sora ga Suki! was Takemiya's breakthrough work as a manga artist, and her first critical success as a creator. Two sequels, Marude Haru no Yō Ni (まるで春のように, 'Just Like Spring') and Noel!, were published in 1972 and 1975, respectively.
## Plot
### Part 1
Fourteen-year-old con artist Tag Parisian (タグ・パリジャン, Tagu Parijan) arrives in Montmartre, Paris, where he quickly charms the denizens with his skill at music, singing, and dancing. He integrates himself with a famous local pianist and is hired to teach piano to Genet Hortense (ジュネ・オルタンス, June Orutansu), the upper-class son of the local police chief. Genet becomes aware of Tag's deception, and says he will remain silent if Tag agrees to be his friend. As Tag and Genet gradually grow closer, Tag begins to target Genet's wealthy mother for his next scheme. Torn between his life as a con artist and his friendship with Genet, he decides to leave Montmartre.
### Part 2
Sometime after Tag's departure, Genet has been transferred to a boarding school in Paris where he suffers under the social dominance of student Solmon Correll (ソルモン・コレル, Sorumon Koreru), the son of the mayor of Paris. He reunites with Tag, now selling poems written by a beggar named Bollocks (ボロックズ, Borokkuzu) that Tag misrepresents to buyers as written by "Claire Peynet" (クレール・ペイネ, Kurēru Peine), a famed poet. He sells a poem to a wealthy American businessman, who reveals he is aware that the poem is a forgery; the businessman wishes to verify the authenticity of a statue of The Bath of Venus owned by Solmon's father that is on display at the Louvre, and hires Tag to steal it. Tag accepts the job and steals the statue, which is determined to be a forgery made by Solmon. Bollocks reveals that he is in fact Claire Peynet, and that he holds the genuine statue, which he returns to the Louvre. In an epilogue, Tag and Genet are shown living happily together.
## Production
### Development
In September 1970, Keiko Takemiya began drawing a manga tie-in for the television series Majoha Hottona Otoshi-goro [ja] in Shūkan Shōjo Comic, and took a brief hiatus at its conclusion at the end of the year to plot out her next serialization. Feeling confined by the creative constraints of writing an adaptation, she began to plan for her next work to be an original series. In her planning, Takemiya broadly focused the story of the series around two concepts – a manga musical and a shōjo manga (girls' manga) series that featured a bishōnen (lit. "beautiful boy", a term for androgynous male characters) as its protagonist.
Takemiya selected Paris as the setting for the series; at the time, she had developed an interest in Paris and was collecting film soundtracks of movies set in the city. As Takemiya had never travelled there, she purchased a variety of books and other materials related to the city for use as reference to incorporate its culture and customs into the series, particularly in regards to drawing clothing and buildings that were location-accurate.
The central characters of Sora ga Suki! were created before Takemiya conceived of the story, with Takemiya rationalizing that once the characters were established, they alone would be enough to appeal to readers. She chose the surname "Parisian" for Tag not only as a reference to Paris, but also because it was a last name that was clearly fake, and thus indicated his status as a con artist. She designed Genet, whose name is a reference to French writer Jean Genet, to contrast Tag: upper-class compared to Tag's low-born status, a police chief's son versus a con artist. The supporting characters, such as Genet's father, follow typical archetypes common in shōnen manga (boys' manga).
### Release
When Takemiya submitted Sora ga Suki! to Shūkan Shōjo Comic editor Junya Yamamoto [ja], she was chastised for creating a story with male protagonists – shōjo manga of the era featured female protagonists almost exclusively – but the series was accepted for publication. Takemiya speculated that the series was accepted because its depiction of male characters was seen as more palatable than that of Sunroom Nite, a shōnen-ai (male–male romance) manga she had published in the December 1970 issue of Bessatsu Shōjo Comic.
It was determined that Sora ga Suki! would begin serialization in the March 1971 issue of Shūkan Shōjo Comic and run for ten chapters, with an agreement made between Takemiya and Yamamoto that the series would be extended if it was received well by readers. However, the response was ultimately deemed insufficient thus ending the series with its tenth chapter in the May issue that same year. Following the conclusion of the series, Shūkan Shōjo Comic received an influx of letters from readers expressing disappointment that Sora ga Suki! had ended. Reflecting on these fan letters, Takemiya stated in her 2019 memoir The Boy's Name Is Gilbert:
> While I was grateful for the response from fans, I also felt like, 'it's too late! If you had said something earlier, they might have extended the series!' I was a little irritated.
In response to these letters, Sora ga Suki! resumed serialization with a second part of the series starting in the August 1972 issue. However, Takemiya was no longer as enthusiastic about the series as she had previously been. The second part similarly ended after ten chapters, with the final installment published in the October 1972 issue of Shūkan Shōjo Comic.
#### Collected volumes
In October 1974, Sora ga Suki! was published as two tankōbon (collected edition) volumes by Shūkan Shōjo Comic publisher Shogakukan, under their Flower Comics imprint. It was the first manga by Takemiya to be published in this format. The first volume contains Rakuyō no Ki (落葉の記, 'The Chronicle of Fallen Leaves'), a 16-page preview of what would become her 1976 manga series Kaze to Ki no Uta (lit. 'The Poem of Wind and Trees'). The preview was included at the end of the volume without notice or explanation. Takemiya said she wanted to "expose" a part of Kaze to Ki no Uta, and she was curious to see how readers would react to it.
Multiple collected volume editions of Sora ga Suki! have been published:
- Sora ga Suki!, published by Shogakukan (Flower Comics), collected as:
- Volume 1, released October 1, 1974 ()
- Volume 2, released December 1, 1974 ()
- Sora ga Suki!, published by Shogakukan (Keiko Takemiya Works), collected as:
- Volume 1, released October 15, 1978 ()
- Volume 2, released December 15, 1978 ()
- Sora ga Suki!, published by Shogakukan (Shogakukan Bunko), collected as:
- Volume 1, released February 1984 ()
- Volume 2, released May 1984 ()
- Sora ga Suki!, published by Kadokawa Shoten (Asuka Comics DX), released September 1989 ()
- Sora ga Suki!, published by Shōeisha (Masterpiece Manga Selection), released April 1995 ()
### Sequels
Marude Haru no Yō Ni (まるで春のように, 'Just Like Spring'), a sequel to Sora ga Suki!, was published in a special issue of Shūkan Shōjo Comic in 1972. It is a 40-page one-shot depicting the events in a town visited by Tag. A second sequel, Noel!, was published in two parts in the November and December 1975 issues of Bessatsu Shōjo Comic. The 120-page story continues the events of the original manga series. Both Marude Haru no Yō Ni and Noel! were included in the 1978 collected edition of Sora ga Suki! published by Shogakukan.
## Themes and analysis
### Musical theater
Sora ga Suki! is influenced in plot and form by musical theater, with characters expressing their feelings and emotions through dance and song lyrics. In illustrating the series, Takemiya stated that she drew inspiration through the use of movement to indicate expression and meaning, and that she was particular about drawing motion lines that indicated character movement in order to communicate their emotions. Further, she felt she was able to express the vividness of youth by incorporating musical elements.
### Shōnen-ai
The primary characters of Sora ga Suki! are all male, which was atypical for shōjo manga of the era. This, combined with the ambiguously homoerotic subtext attributed to the central friendship between Tag and Genet, led writer and sociologist Shunsuke Tsurumi to describe it as a shōnen-ai (male–male romance) manga. The second part of the series depicts a kiss between Tag and Genet; while it is depicted in-text as an expression of their friendship, it was nevertheless a taboo at the time for manga to portray male characters kissing. In the afterword of the 1984 collected edition, Takemiya described the kiss scene as "the most fun" she'd had as a manga artist since seeing her work in print for the first time. However, in her 2019 memoir The Boy's Name is Gilbert, she stated that she intended the kiss as an expression of the emotional drama between the characters, and that she ultimately viewed its inclusion as unnecessary in retrospect.
## Reception and influence
Sora ga Suki! was Takemiya's breakthrough work as a manga artist. It was her first critical success as a creator and helped establish a fan base for her manga, some of whom began to visit her at the Ōizumi Salon, the nickname for the rented house she shared with manga artist Moto Hagio that became an important gathering point for shōjo manga artists in the early 1970s.
Manga artist Mineo Maya (Patalliro!) has praised Sora ga Suki! for pushing forward depictions of fashion in manga, specifically noting the black and white spectator shoes worn by Tag, and evaluates the series as unique for its era in this regard. Manga artist Chiho Saito (Revolutionary Girl Utena) became aware of Takemiya after reading Sora ga Suki! while in junior high school; at the time she had developed an interest in films and musicals after watching West Side Story, and was impressed that a musical could be depicted in manga. She credits Sora ga Suki! with helping inspire her to become a manga artist. Aiko Itō (manga artist) [Aiko Itō; 伊東愛子] also became a fan of Takemiya's after reading Sora ga Suki! and began visiting the Ōizumi Salon in fall 1972, becoming Takemiya's assistant shortly thereafter. She studied under Takemiya and made her debut as a manga artist in 1973. |
2,206,695 | Grade School Confidential | 1,158,357,429 | null | [
"1997 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about academic scandals",
"Television episodes about birthdays",
"Television episodes about educators",
"The Simpsons (season 8) episodes",
"Virginity in television"
]
| "Grade School Confidential" is the nineteenth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 6, 1997. It was written by Rachel Pulido and directed by Susie Dietter. The episode establishes the long-term relationship between Seymour Skinner and Edna Krabappel. Bart witnesses a romantic moment between Principal Skinner and Mrs. Krabappel and acts as a snitch for them. However, they later embarrass him and he exposes their romance to the public.
## Plot
Martin Prince invites his classmates to his birthday party, but it ends badly after most of the partygoers get food poisoning and end up leaving by ambulance due to diseased oysters being served instead of cake. After the party, Bart, who fed his oysters to the Prince family cat, sees Principal Seymour Skinner and Edna Krabappel kissing in Martin's pink playhouse. After failing to provide Bart with a convincing cover story, Edna and Seymour, fearing that they will be fired if anyone discovers their romance, swear him to secrecy in exchange for putting Milhouse's name on his permanent record.
Edna and Seymour use Bart as their gofer. When Edna and Skinner accidentally run into Superintendent Chalmers whilst on a date at the cinema, Seymour fetches Bart, who had been sleeping, so that Edna and Skinner could claim that they were supervising a field trip. Bart is humiliated in front of his classmates after Skinner forces him to say "I love you, Edna Krabappel" aloud as if the message were his own. Fed up, Bart gathers the entire school in front of a janitor's closet and opens the door to reveal that Skinner and Edna are making out.
Word quickly spreads throughout Springfield, with the story the students tell growing more illicit and exaggerated. After hearing his son Ralph's risqué version involving the two "making babies", Chief Wiggum reports it to Chalmers, who gives Skinner an ultimatum: either he ends his relationship with Edna or they both will be fired. Skinner decides that love trumps his professional goals, so Chalmers fires them and demands they leave the building by day's end.
Feeling guilty for costing Edna and Skinner their jobs, Bart encourages them to stand up for themselves. With Bart's help, Skinner and Edna barricade themselves inside the school, contact the media and make their demands: they want their jobs back and the townspeople to stop interfering with their relationship. When several parents protest that their children saw them having sex in the janitor's closet, Skinner insists that is untrue because he is a 44-year-old virgin. The mob is left speechless at the revelation. Chalmers brusquely concedes that it must be true, because nobody in their right mind would lie about something so embarrassing. Realizing that they have overreacted, the residents leave peacefully.
Chalmers agrees to reinstate Skinner and Edna, but asks them to "keep the lewdness at a minimum" during school hours. They thank Bart for helping them, but tell him they are breaking up, fearing the entire town judging their relationship publicly. When a disappointed Bart leaves, they observe grade-school children will believe anything they are told before entering the janitor's closet for another tryst.
## Production
The idea of Skinner and Krabappel becoming a couple had been around since the days when Mike Reiss and Al Jean were show runners. The episode's writer Rachel Pulido took some of the inspiration for this episode from "Bart the Lover", specifically Mrs. Krabappel's line to Bart about refusing to date Principal Skinner because, "his mommy won't let him out to play". The Mathmagician is based on Bill Gates. The cakes in Agnes Skinner's cake book were designed to accurately resemble the real life versions of them. Homer using his megaphone to talk to Marge and Lisa, who were standing next to him, was ad-libbed by Dan Castellaneta. A deleted scene featured an awkward moment at Martin's party, between Bart, Milhouse and Martin, when the latter introduces the two to his parents.
## Cultural references
Mrs. Krabappel has a candle that resembles Charlie Brown, a character from Peanuts. At the Aztec theater, a movie by Tom Berenger was played. It is implied by Superintendent Chalmers' comment "You think they actually filmed this in Atlanta?" and from the commentary that the movie is The Big Chill. In trying to force Edna and Seymour out of the school, the Springfield police attempts to flood the area with music. This is similar to a tactic that the US troops used during Operation Just Cause in an attempt to force Manuel Noriega out of the Vatican embassy in Panama City. However, in this case, romance-themed music was played, which was "Embraceable You" by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. Edna and Seymour's dance poses were taken from Orlando Baeza, who was the assistant director for this episode.
## Reception
In its original broadcast, "Grade School Confidential" finished 57th in ratings for the week of March 31 - April 6, 1997, with a Nielsen rating of 7.7, equivalent to approximately 7.5 million viewing households. It was the fifth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Party of Five, Beverly Hills, 90210 and Melrose Place.
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "A delightful episode that finally brings to fruition one of the series' longest running gags: Edna and Seymour's mutual attraction. What is doubly refreshing is that it remains a constant in the subsequent episodes." The scene in which Agnes Skinner shows Bart her cake book is one of Matt Groening's all-time favorite scenes. |
31,403,252 | Dancehall Queen (Robyn song) | 1,159,191,683 | null | [
"2010 singles",
"2010 songs",
"Dancehall songs",
"Reggae songs",
"Robyn songs",
"Song recordings produced by Diplo",
"Songs written by Klas Åhlund"
]
| "Dancehall Queen" is a song by Swedish recording artist Robyn, taken from her fifth studio album, Body Talk Pt. 1 (2010). The song was written by Klas Åhlund, who produced it with disc jockey Diplo. The initial writing and production of the song arose from a discussion by Robyn, Diplo and Åhlund about Ace of Base. The song features a dancehall and reggae-infused sound with 1980s synths and bass. It was released as a promotional single before the album was launched in April 2010.
The song received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Some praised its hook and chorus, while others dismissed its overall sound. "Dancehall Queen" charted at number fifty-six on the Sverigetopplistan chart and was listed there for only a week. The accompanying music video, released in November 2010, was directed by Diplo, Red Foxx and Pomp&Clout. It resembles a karaoke tape with sing-along lyrics on the bottom of the screen. Robyn herself does not appear in the clip.
## Background
In November 2009, a video of Robyn and Diplo working on "Dancehall Queen" in the studio was posted onto YouTube. The song originally leaked onto the Internet in February 2010, under the title "No Hassle". In an interview with music website Stereogum, Robyn spoke of the song's origin, saying; "We [Robyn, Diplo and Klas Åhlund] were talking about Ace of Base and we were just having fun with that kind of genre music. And the idea of making this song came out of that discussion. It was fun. We really connected on something where music that you might put in one box becomes something else, depending on how you look at it." In an interview with music magazine Pitchfork, she spoke of the song's musical style, stating;
> In my world, there are people who have already pushed those boundaries [of musical style] forward enough for me to feel comfortable doing a song like 'Dancehall Queen', so it's not a big deal to me. It's not about making black music as much as it's about making music that relates to real things that I grew up with. Back then, when Dr. Alban came to Sweden from Africa and started making reggae music with Denniz Pop—who did Ace of Base—it was too weird to be offensive. It's the same thing with Mad Decent and Diplo now.
"Dancehall Queen" was released digitally in the US on 13 April 2010, and on 28 April 2010 in Sweden. It was one of three promotional singles released before the album's release.
## Composition
"Dancehall Queen" was written by Klas Åhlund, who produced the song with Diplo. The piece is a dancehall song, with influences of reggae. The song incorporates 1980s dancehall synths and subwoofer wobbles. Nate Chinen of The New York Times called the song "an ode to 1990s Euro-dub". Noel Gardner of Drowned in Sound called it a "modern equivalent" of 10cc's "Dreadlock Holiday". The song utilizes electrified Caribbean sounds, influenced by Ace of Base. According to Ben Norman of About.com, Robyn "raggas her way through a laid back and bouncy electronic atmosphere". The chorus features Robyn singing "I still run this thing like a dancehall queen/I really don't want no hassle." The song also includes a shoutout to Sleng Teng; "I came to dance, not to socialize." According to Marc Hogan of Pitchfork, the song's title is a "sideways allusion" to ABBA.
## Reception
Marc Hogan of Pitchfork called the song a "so-wrong-it's-right collaboration with tastemaking Philadelphia DJ/producer Diplo." Hogan wrote that "It's here, dancing, with a chorus that Santigold and Gwen Stefani might kill for, that Robyn is free from all the worries that are "killing" her at the album's start." Christopher Muther of The Boston Globe wrote that "[Robyn's] take on Jamaican music has the potential to reek of day-old Ace of Bass", but called it "surprisingly solid". Noel Gardner of Drowned in Sound called it "frankly peculiar", and wrote, "It’s evidently laced with irony, and is possibly the most fun tune on here". Luke Lewis of NME wrote a mixed review of the song, stating, "It feels less authentic, especially on ‘Dancefloor Queen’, a misfiring collaboration with Diplo that features the least convincing patois this side of a George Lamb radio show."
Ben Norman of About.com wrote, "Nothing against 'Dancehall Queen,' but it just isn't the Robyn people have come to love." Robbie Daw of Idolator called it "subtle", and wrote that "it’s hard to imagine this song being worked as a single", but concluded saying that it "definitely has an infectious hook". Anthony Balderrama of Consequence of Sound wrote that the song "is what you’d expect to hear: a smooth beat and an international sound, but nothing you’ll keep on repeat. It seems like a match made in heaven, but ultimately it’s fairly safe." Matthew Horton of BBC Music called the song "superfluous".
The song entered the Sverigetopplistan chart at its peak position of number fifty-six, before dropping out the next week. The song also peaked at number fifty-one on the Swedish Digital Chart.
## Music video
The music video for "Dancehall Queen" was directed by Diplo, Red Foxx and Pomp&Clout. It premiered on 29 November 2010 via Robyn's official YouTube account. Ryan Staake of Pomp&Clout referred the video to as a "really weird VHS/karaoke video". The video resembles a faded karaoke tape with occasional sing-along lyrics on the bottom of the screen. Robyn does not appear in the video. Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork said that the video is "complete with awkward/sexy dancing and footage of bustling city life". Erika Brooks Adickman of Idolator wrote a mixed review of the clip, stating, "We’re guessing Robyn didn’t want the “hassle” of appearing, so instead we’re treated to—seemingly—random grainy footage of the streets of Japan and gyrating women as the words of the chorus appear karaoke-style on the screen. We can say one good thing about the flick, if you were confused about the song’s lyrics, they’re fairly easy to read."
The video features dancing Japanese former Jamaican Dancehall Queen Junko Kudō.
## Track listing
- Digital download
1. "Dancehall Queen" – 3:39
## Credits and personnel
- Klas Åhlund – music, lyrics and production
- Diplo – production, instruments and programming
- Niklas Flykt – mixing
## Charts |
44,916,407 | Sutton Valence Castle | 1,084,153,971 | Castle in Sutton Valence, Kent, England | [
"Castles in Kent",
"English Heritage sites in Kent"
]
| Sutton Valence Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the village of Sutton Valence in Kent, England. Overlooking a strategic route to the coast, the original castle probably comprised an inner and an outer bailey and a protective barbican, with a three-storey high keep on its southern side.
It was built in the second half of the 12th century, probably by Baldwin of Bethune, the Count of Aumale. It then passed to the families of Marshal and de Montfort, before being given by King Henry III to his half-brother William de Valence in 1265, from whom the castle takes its current name. It was abandoned in the early 14th century and fell into ruin. Today, the castle is managed by English Heritage, and the remains of the keep are open to the public.
## 12th – 15th centuries
Sutton Valence Castle was probably built in the second half of the 12th century by the Counts of Aumale, most likely by Baldwin of Bethune, but perhaps by William le Gros, Baldwin's father-in-law.
The castle was built on a commanding position overlooking the strategic route between the towns of Maidstone, Rye and Old Winchelsea and the location was also known as Sudtone and Town Sutton.
The castle keep was constructed around 1200.
In 1203, Baldwin gave the castle to his daughter Alicia on her marriage to William Marshal, the Earl of Pembroke, who later remarried, passing the property to his second wife, Eleanor. After William's death, Eleanor married Simon de Montfort, the Earl of Leicester. Simon led a rebellion against King Henry III during the Second Barons' War, but was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, after which Eleanor lost ownership of the castle.
After the de Montfort rebellion, King Henry III gave the castle to William de Valence, his half-brother, who had supported him during the conflict. Under William, the castle and village acquired its current name of Sutton Valence. Aymer de Valence, his son, inherited the castle in 1307. The Valences travelled around their estates, increasingly focusing their attention on a handful of their various great houses, and stayed at Sutton Valence on at least several occasions.
After Aymer's death in 1324, the castle passed by marriage to Lawrence, Lord Hastings, and was held in the Hastings family until 1390, when Reginald Lord Grey de Ruthin acquired it. There are few historical records of the castle beyond this point, but it appears to have been abandoned in the early 14th century and by the 15th century had become ruined.
## Architecture - Layout of the Castle Area
Sutton Valence Castle is on a spur of the Chart Hills on the east side of the village of Sutton Valence.
It probably comprised an inner, an outer bailey and a protective barbican, see the diagram.
Access would have been through the eastern barbican, coming to an outer bailey, but these features only survive today as earthworks.
A dry ditch protected the inner bailey, which was approximately 300 by 34 metres (984 by 112 ft) across, on the southern side of the site.
The site probably included a hall, chapel and kitchen, but of the original buildings only the castle keep now survives.
The keep on the South side of the site is 11 metres (36 ft) square, with walls 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) thick, built from ragstone and flint rubble and surviving up to 7 metres (23 ft) high. It was originally 20 metres (66 ft) tall, with at least three storeys, and entered through an external staircase leading to a doorway in the first floor. The building had a corner tower, in which was a spiral staircase linking the floors, and had clasping buttresses at the corners.
## 16th – 21st centuries
The historian Edward Hasted (1732-1812) in his "History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent" described Sutton Valence Castle as being "now almost covered with ivy, and the branches of the trees which sprout out from the walls of it." See the drawing on the right from Halstead's History.
Archaeological excavations were carried out at the site during the mid-1950s with the assistance of Maidstone Museum and the local Sutton Valence School, concentrating on the area of the castle keep.
The castle was placed in the guardianship of the state in 1976 and it is now owned by English Heritage.
Conservation work was done on the ruins in the 1980s.
It is protected under UK law as a Grade II listed building and a Scheduled Monument.
## See also
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in England |
6,902,697 | Pattillo Higgins | 1,141,999,504 | American businessman and geologist | [
"1863 births",
"1955 deaths",
"American businesspeople in the oil industry",
"American geologists",
"Businesspeople from Texas",
"People born in the Confederate States",
"People from Port Arthur, Texas",
"Texas Oil Boom people",
"Wildcatters"
]
| Pattillo Higgins (December 5, 1863 – June 5, 1955) was an American businessman and a self-taught geologist. He earned the nickname the "Prophet of Spindletop" for his endeavors in the Texas oil business, which accrued a fortune for many. He partnered to form the Gladys City Oil Gas and Manufacturing Company, and later established the Higgins Standard Oil Company.
## Early life
Pattillo Higgins was born to Roberto James and Sarah (Raye) Higgins on December 5, 1863, in Sabine Pass, Texas. His family moved to Beaumont when he was six years old. He attended school until he reached the fourth grade, after which he apprenticed as a gunsmith under his father's direction. In his youth, he was a violent troublemaker, pulling pranks and harassing African Americans.
When he was seventeen, he pulled a prank on a black Baptist church that got the attention of a sheriff's deputy. The deputy fired a warning shot over Higgins' head, after which Higgins fired back and delivered what would later turn out to be a fatal hit. The wounded deputy managed to fire again, striking Higgins in his lower left arm. Higgins' arm would later become severely infected, requiring amputation from the elbow down. Higgins was put on trial for the murder of the deputy, but he would be found not guilty by a jury that perceived his act as self-defense. After his acquittal, he worked as a logger along the Texas-Louisiana border, apparently unhindered by his lack of an arm.
It was in 1885 that he attended a Baptist revival meeting where he made the decision to become a Christian. Realizing that the lumber camps were not the ideal place to maintain a good morality, he decided to return to Beaumont, Texas to establish himself as a businessman.
## Venture into business
Higgins ventured into real estate at first, and with the money that he saved as a logger, he started the Higgins Manufacturing Company to manufacture bricks. The business sparked his interest in oil and gas, as he used it for his kilns to burn the bricks evenly. He decided to travel to Pennsylvania to learn about these fuels and study the geographical features that give signs to the presence of underground oil. Studying geology on his own, he dedicated himself to finding these clues by reading all the United States Geological Survey reports and books that he could find. The details he learned reminded him of what some Beaumont locals back home referred to as "Sour Hill Mound", a place where he frequently brought his Sunday school students for outings. This mound was described as "sour" due to the unpleasant sulfur smell that came out of the springs around it. Convinced that this salt dome mound had oil below it, Higgins first partnered with George O'Brien, George Carroll, Emma John, and J.F. Lanier to form the Gladys City Oil, Gas, and Manufacturing Company in 1892. It was during this time that other formally trained geologists dismissed the idea of finding oil along the gulf coast region of the United States. Higgins' personal integrity was even challenged by the local newspaper. However, his informal training in geology influenced his belief that the Spindletop field contained oil below due to the presence of mineral water and gas seepage, and he managed to convince the partners to proceed with the venture. Work began the following year, but all three of the shallow drilling attempts failed to locate oil due to the shifting sands and unstable clay under the hill. Higgins resigned from the company, sold his stock, and purchased 33 acres compromising the summit of Sour Spring Mound.
### Partnership with Anthony Lucas
Unwilling to give up hope of striking oil, Higgins placed numerous ads in industrial magazines and trade journals in an effort to spark others' interests in the prospect of hitting a successful well at the site. Only one man responded to the ads, a Croatian-American named Anthony Francis Lucas. Lucas signed agreements with the Gladys City Company and also with Higgins in 1899, and in June of the following year, he began to drill. The first well Lucas made with his light equipment collapsed after reaching 575 feet (175 m). This failure exhausted the partners' finances, so Lucas turned to John H. Galey and James M. Guffey in Pittsburgh for backing. The terms set forth by Guffey (who held and controlled the funds) limited Lucas’ percentage cut to a small amount, and eliminated Higgins and cut him completely from the deal.
### The Lucas Gusher at Spindletop
In late October 1900, with the help of the experienced crew of Al and Curt Hamill from Corsicana, drilling began again. This time, the drilling would be done using a newer, heavier, and more efficient rotary type bit. Over the next several months, work was difficult maintaining the drilling through the underground sands. On January 10, 1901, the six tons of four-inch (102 mm) drilling pipe began to shoot up out of the hole, sending the roughnecks fleeing for safety. The geyser shot oil over 150 feet (46 m) high and flowed an estimated 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m<sup>3</sup>/d). The well was at a depth of 1,020 feet (310 m), and as it turns out, was at the precise location as initially predicted by Higgins. The well would not have struck oil if it had been drilled just 50 feet (15 m) to the south. The well, which was dubbed "Lucas 1", had an initial flow rate greater than all of the oil wells in the United States combined in that day. The Spindletop oilfield churned out over 3 million barrels (480,000 m<sup>3</sup>) the first year of operation, and over 17 million barrels (2,700,000 m<sup>3</sup>) the following year. This effectively brought an end to John D. Rockefeller’s world monopoly.
### Lawsuit against Lucas and the Gladys City Company
Higgins sued Lucas and Gladys City Oil, Gas and Manufacturing Company for royalties, using the basis that the second lease was invalid because the first lease had not yet expired when the second was enacted. After the parties settled out of court, Higgins formed the Higgins Oil and Fuel Company located at the center of Spindletop. This company was vulnerable to takeover bids due to Higgins' over-zealous land prospecting, which enabled the lumber baron and businessman John Henry Kirby to overtake his ownership in 1902 by purchasing his shares of the company for \$3 million. Higgins maintained his leasing rights to his land, and would establish the Higgins Standard Oil Company. He later established other wells with various investors, with an eccentric habit of pulling his interests out, leaving the majority of the profits for others.
## Later life and death
Higgins' lifestyle was varied in interests and occupations. Along with working as a wildcatter, his diverse activities involved drafting, work as an inventor, an artist, as well as an engineer to name a few. His religious beliefs kept him away from public entertainment and resorts, as well as maintaining a strong belief against the selling of alcohol. In addition to residing in Beaumont, he owned estates in Houston and San Antonio. He remained a bachelor until the age of 45. In 1905, he adopted a young woman named Annie Jahn, who at the time was fifteen. Three years later Higgins married her, and later had three children with her, despite the scandal. Higgins died in San Antonio on June 5, 1955.
## Higgins World's Oil Company
From the Prescott Evening Courier – Dec 23, 1905: Articles of Incorporation for the "Higgins World's Oil Company" |
13,077 | Galileo project | 1,171,080,058 | American space program to study Jupiter | [
"Articles containing video clips",
"Galileo Galilei",
"Galileo program",
"Missions to Jupiter",
"Missions to main-belt asteroids"
]
| Galileo was an American robotic space program that studied the planet Jupiter and its moons, as well as several other Solar System bodies. Named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, the Galileo spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and an entry probe. It was delivered into Earth orbit on October 18, 1989 by on the STS-34 mission, and arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, after gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth, and became the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter. It launched the first probe into Jupiter, directly measuring its atmosphere. Despite suffering major antenna problems, Galileo achieved the first asteroid flyby, of 951 Gaspra, and discovered the first asteroid moon, Dactyl, around 243 Ida. In 1994, Galileo observed Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's collision with Jupiter.
Jupiter's atmospheric composition and ammonia clouds were recorded. Io's volcanism and plasma interactions with Jupiter's atmosphere were also recorded. The data Galileo collected supported the theory of a liquid ocean under the icy surface of Europa, and there were indications of similar liquid-saltwater layers under the surfaces of Ganymede and Callisto. Ganymede was shown to possess a magnetic field and the spacecraft found new evidence for exospheres around Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Galileo also discovered that Jupiter's faint ring system consists of dust from impacts on the four small inner moons. The extent and structure of Jupiter's magnetosphere was also mapped.
On September 20, 2003, after 14 years in space and 8 years in the Jovian system, Galileo's mission was terminated by sending it into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of over 48 kilometers per second (30 mi/s), completely eliminating the possibility of contaminating local moons with terrestrial bacteria.
## Background
Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System, with more than twice the mass of all the other planets combined. Consideration of sending a probe to Jupiter began as early as 1959, when the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) developed four mission concepts:
- Deep space flights would fly through interplanetary space;
- Flyby missions would fly past planets, and could visit multiple planets on a single mission;
- Orbiter missions would place a probe in orbit around a planet for detailed study;
- Planetary entry and lander missions, which would explore the atmosphere and surface.
Two missions to Jupiter, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, were approved in 1969, with NASA's Ames Research Center given responsibility for planning the missions. Pioneer 10 was launched in March 1972 and passed within 200,000 kilometers (120,000 mi) of Jupiter in December 1973. It was followed by Pioneer 11, which was launched in April 1973, and passed within 34,000 kilometers (21,000 mi) of Jupiter in December 1974, before heading on to an encounter with Saturn. They were followed by the more advanced Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft, which were launched on 5 September and 20 August 1977 respectively, and reached Jupiter in March and July 1979.
## Planning
### Initiation
Following the approval of the Voyager missions, NASA's Scientific Advisory Group (SAG) for Outer Solar System Missions considered the requirements for Jupiter orbiters and atmospheric probes. It noted that the technology to build a heat shield for an atmospheric probe did not yet exist, and indeed facilities to test one under the conditions found on Jupiter would not be available until 1980. There was also concern about the effects of radiation on spacecraft components, which would be better understood after Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 had conducted their flybys. These indicated that the effects were less severe than feared. NASA management designated the JPL as the lead center for the Jupiter Orbiter Probe (JOP) Project. John R. Casani, who had headed the Mariner and Voyager projects, became the first project manager. The JOP would be the fifth spacecraft to visit Jupiter, but the first to orbit it, and the probe would be the first to enter its atmosphere.
An important decision made at this time by Ames and the JPL was to use a Mariner program spacecraft like that used for Voyager for the Jupiter orbiter, rather than a Pioneer. Pioneer was stabilized by spinning the spacecraft at 60 rpm, which gave a 360-degree view of the surroundings, and did not require an attitude control system. By contrast, Mariner had an attitude control system with three gyroscopes and two sets of six nitrogen jet thrusters. Attitude was determined with reference to the Sun and Canopus, which were monitored with two primary and four secondary sensors. There was also an inertial reference unit and an accelerometer. This allowed it to take high resolution images, but the functionality came at a cost of increased weight. A Mariner weighed 722 kilograms (1,592 lb) compared to just 146 kilograms (322 lb) for a Pioneer.
The Voyager spacecraft had been launched by Titan IIIE rockets with a Centaur upper stage, but Titan was retired afterwards. In the late 1970s, NASA was focused on the development of the reusable Space Shuttle, which was expected to make expendable rockets obsolete. In late 1975, NASA decreed that all future planetary missions would be launched by the Space Shuttle. The JOP would be the first to do so. The Space Shuttle was supposed to have the services of a space tug to launch payloads requiring something more than a low Earth orbit, but this was never approved. The United States Air Force then developed the solid-fueled Interim Upper Stage (IUS), later renamed the Inertial Upper Stage (with the same acronym), for the purpose.
The IUS was not powerful enough to launch a payload to Jupiter without resorting to using a series of gravitational slingshot maneuvers around planets to garner additional speed, something most engineers regarded as inelegant, and which planetary scientists at JPL disliked because it meant that the mission would take months or years longer to reach Jupiter. Longer travel times meant that components would age and the onboard power supply and propellant would be depleted. Some of the gravity assist options also meant flying closer to the Sun, which would induce thermal stresses. However, the IUS was constructed in a modular fashion, with two stages, a large one with 9,700 kilograms (21,400 lb) of propellant, and a smaller one with 2,700 kilograms (6,000 lb). This was sufficient for most satellites. It could also be configured with two large stages to launch multiple satellites. A configuration with three stages, two large and one small, would be enough for a planetary mission, so NASA contracted with Boeing for the development of a three-stage IUS.
It was estimated that the JOP would cost \$634 million (equivalent to \$ million in ), and it had to compete for fiscal year 1978 funding with the Space Shuttle and the Hubble Space Telescope. A successful lobbying campaign secured funding for both JOP and Hubble over the objections of Senator William Proxmire, the chairman of the Independent Agencies Appropriations Subcommittee. The United States Congress approved funding for the Jupiter Orbiter Probe on July 12, 1977, and JOP officially commenced on October 1, 1977, the start of the fiscal year. Casani solicited suggestions for a more inspirational name for the project, and the most votes went to "Galileo" after Galileo Galilei, the first person to view Jupiter through a telescope, and the discoverer of what is now known as the Galilean moons in 1610. It was noted that the name was also that of a spacecraft in the Star Trek television show. The new name was adopted in February 1978.
### Preparation
Early plans called for a launch on on STS-23 sometime between 2 and 12 January 1982, this being the launch window when Earth, Jupiter and Mars were aligned in such a way as to permit Mars to be used for a gravitational slingshot maneuver. To enhance reliability and reduce costs, the Galileo project's engineers decided to switch from a pressurized atmospheric entry probe to a vented one. This added 100 kilograms (220 lb) to its weight. Another 165 kilograms (364 lb) was added in structural changes to improve reliability. This would require additional fuel in the IUS. But the three-stage IUS was itself overweight, by about 3,200 kilograms (7,000 lb).
Lifting Galileo and the IUS would require the use of the special lightweight version of the Space Shuttle external tank, the Space Shuttle orbiter stripped of all non-essential equipment, and the Space Shuttle main engines (SSME) running at full power—109 percent of their rated power level. Running at this power level necessitated the development of a more elaborate engine cooling system. By 1980, delays in the Space Shuttle program pushed the launch date for Galileo back to 1984. While a Mars slingshot was still possible in 1984, it would no longer be sufficient.
NASA decided to split Galileo into two separate spacecraft, an atmospheric probe and a Jupiter orbiter, with the orbiter launched in February 1984 and the probe following a month later. The orbiter would be in orbit around Jupiter when the probe arrived, allowing it to perform its role as a relay. Separating the two spacecraft required a second mission and a second carrier to be built for the probe, and was estimated to cost an additional \$50 million (equivalent to \$ million in ), but NASA hoped to be able to recoup some of this through separate completive bidding on the two. The problem was that while the atmospheric probe was light enough to launch with the two-stage IUS, the Jupiter orbiter was too heavy to do so, even with a gravity assist from Mars, so the three-stage IUS was still required.
By late 1980, the price tag for the IUS had risen to \$506 million (equivalent to \$ million in ). The USAF could absorb this cost overrun (and indeed had anticipated that it might cost far more), but NASA was faced with a quote of \$179 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) for the development of the three-stage version, which was \$100 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) more than it had budgeted for. At a press conference on January 15, 1981, NASA Administrator Robert A. Frosch announced that NASA was withdrawing support for the three-stage IUS, and going with a Centaur G Prime upper stage because "no other alternative upper stage is available on a reasonable schedule or with comparable costs."
Centaur provided many advantages over the IUS. The main one was that it was far more powerful. The probe and orbiter could be recombined, and the probe could be delivered directly to Jupiter in two years' flight time. The second was that despite this, it was also more gentle than the IUS, as it had lower thrust, thereby minimizing the chance of damage to the payload. Thirdly, unlike solid-fuel rockets which burned to completion once ignited, Centaur could be switched off and on again. This gave it flexibility, which increased the chances of a successful mission, and permitted options like asteroid flybys. Centaur was proven and reliable, whereas the IUS had not yet flown. The only concern was about safety; solid-fuel rockets were considered safer than liquid-fuel ones, especially ones containing liquid hydrogen. NASA engineers estimated that additional safety features might take up to five years to develop and cost up to \$100 million (equivalent to \$ million in .
In February 1981, the JPL learned that the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) was planning major cuts to NASA's budget, and was considering cancelling Galileo. What saved it from cancellation was the intervention of the USAF. The JPL had considerable experience with autonomous spacecraft. This was a necessity for deep space probes, since a signal from Earth takes anything from 35 to 52 minutes to reach Jupiter. The USAF was interested in providing this capability for its satellites so that they would be able to determine their attitude using onboard systems rather than relying on ground stations, which were not "hardened" against nuclear attacks, and could take evasive action in the face of anti-satellite weapons. It was also interested in the manner in which the JPL was designing Galileo to withstand the intense radiation of the magnetosphere of Jupiter. On February 6, 1981 Strom Thurmond, the President pro tempore of the Senate, wrote directly to David Stockman, the Director of the OMB, arguing that Galileo was vital to the nation's defense.
In December 1984 Casani proposed adding a flyby of asteroid 29 Amphitrite to the Galileo mission. In plotting a course to Jupiter, the engineers were concerned to avoid asteroids. Little was known about them at the time, and it was suspected that they could be surrounded by dust particles. Flying through a dust cloud could damage the spacecraft's optics and possibly the spacecraft itself. To be safe, the JPL wanted to avoid asteroids by at least 10,000 kilometers (6,200 mi). Most of the asteroids in the vicinity of the flight path like 1219 Britta and 1972 Yi Xing were only a few kilometers in diameter and posed little value when observed from a safe distance, but 29 Amphitrite was one of the largest of the asteroids, and a flyby at even 10,000 kilometers (6,200 mi) could have great scientific value. The flyby would delay the spacecraft's arrival in Jupiter orbit from August 29 to December 10, 1988, and the expenditure of propellant would reduce the number of orbits of Jupiter from eleven to ten. This was expected to add \$20 to \$25 million (equivalent to \$ to \$ million in ) to the cost of the Galileo project. The 29 Amphitrite flyby was approved by NASA Administrator James M. Beggs on December 6, 1984.
During testing, contamination was discovered in the system of metal slip rings and brushes used to transmit electrical signals around the spacecraft, and they were returned to be refabricated. The problem was traced back to a chlorofluorocarbon used to clean parts after soldering. It had been absorbed, and was then released in a vacuum environment. It mixed with debris generated as the brushes wore down, and caused intermittent problems with electrical signal transmission. Problems were also detected in the performance of memory devices in an electromagnetic radiation environment. The components were replaced, but then a read disturb problem arose, in which reads from one memory location disturbed those in adjacent locations. This was found to have been caused by the changes made to make the components less sensitive to electromagnetic radiation. Each component had to be removed, retested, and replaced. All of the spacecraft components and spare parts received a minimum of 2,000 hours of testing. The spacecraft was expected to last for at least five years—long enough to reach Jupiter and perform its mission. On December 19, 1985, it departed the JPL in Pasadena, California, on the first leg of its journey, a road trip to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The Galileo mission was scheduled for STS-61-G on May 20, 1986, using .
### Reconsideration
On January 28, 1986, lifted off on the STS-51-L mission. A failure of the solid rocket booster 73 seconds into flight tore the spacecraft apart, resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members. The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was America's worst space disaster up to that time. The immediate impact on the Galileo project was that the May launch date could not be met because the Space Shuttles were grounded while the cause of the disaster was investigated. When they did fly again, Galileo would have to compete with high priority Department of Defense launches, the tracking and data relay satellite system, and the Hubble Space Telescope. By April 1986, it was expected that the Space Shuttles would not fly again before July 1987 at the earliest, and Galileo could not be launched before December 1987.
The Rogers Commission handed down its report on June 6, 1986. It was critical of NASA's safety protocols and risk management. In particular, it noted the hazards of Centaur-G stage. On June 19, 1986, NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher canceled the Shuttle-Centaur project. This was only partly due to the NASA management's increased aversion to risk in the wake of the Challenger disaster; NASA management also considered the money and manpower required to get the Space Shuttle flying again, and decided that there was insufficient resources to resolve lingering issues with Shuttle-Centaur as well. The changes to the Space Shuttle proved more extensive than anticipated, and in April 1987 the JPL was informed that Galileo could not be launched before October 1989. The Galileo spacecraft was shipped back to the JPL.
Without Centaur, it looked like there would not be any means of getting the spacecraft to Jupiter, and it looked for a time like its next trip would be to the Smithsonian Institution. The cost of keeping it ready to fly in space was reckoned at \$40 to \$50 million per year (equivalent to \$ to \$ million in ), and the estimated cost of the whole project had blown out to \$1.4 billion (equivalent to \$ billion in ).
At the JPL, the Galileo Mission Design Manager and Navigation Team Chief, Robert Mitchell, assembled a team that consisted of Dennis Byrnes, Louis D'Amario, Roger Diehl and himself, to see if they could find a trajectory that would get Galileo to Jupiter using only a two-stage IUS. Roger Diehl came up with the idea of using a series of gravitational slingshots to provide the additional velocity required to reach Jupiter. This would require Galileo to fly past Venus, and then past Earth twice. This was referred to as the Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist (VEEGA) trajectory.
The reason no one had thought of it before was that the second encounter with Earth would not give the spacecraft any extra energy. Diehl realised that this was not necessary; the second encounter with Earth would merely change its direction to put it on a course for Jupiter. In addition to increasing the flight time to six years, the VEEGA trajectory had an additional drawback from the point of view of NASA Deep Space Network (DSN): Galileo would arrive at Jupiter when it was at the maximum range from Earth, and maximum range meant minimum signal strength. Furthermore, it would have a southerly declination of −23 degrees instead of a northerly one of +18 degrees, so the main tracking station would be the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex in Australia, with its two 34-meter and one 70-meter antennae. This was supplemented the 64-meter antenna at the Parkes Observatory.
Initially it was thought that the VEEGA trajectory demanded a November launch, but D'Amario and Byrnes calculated that a mid-course correction between Venus and Earth would permit an October launch as well. Taking such a roundabout route meant that Galileo would require sixty months to reach Jupiter instead of just thirty, but it would get there. Consideration was given to using the USAF's Titan IV launch system with its Centaur G Prime upper stage. This was retained as a backup for a time, but in November 1988 the USAF informed NASA that it could not provide a Titan IV in time for the May 1991 launch opportunity, owing to the backlog of high priority Department of Defense missions. However, the USAF supplied IUS-19, which had originally been earmarked for a Department of Defense mission, for use by the Galileo mission.
As the launch date of Galileo neared, anti-nuclear groups, concerned over what they perceived as an unacceptable risk to the public's safety from the plutonium in the Galileo's radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) modules, sought a court injunction prohibiting Galileo's launch. RTGs were necessary for deep space probes because they had to fly distances from the Sun that made the use of solar energy impractical. They had been used for years in planetary exploration without mishap: the Department of Defense's Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8/9 had 7 percent more plutonium on board than Galileo, and the two Voyager spacecraft each carried 80 percent of plutonium. By 1989, plutonium had been used in 22 spacecraft.
Activists remembered the crash of the Soviet Union's nuclear-powered Kosmos 954 satellite in Canada in 1978, and the Challenger disaster, while it did not involve nuclear fuel raised public awareness about spacecraft failures. No RTGs had ever done a non-orbital swing past the Earth at close range and high speed, as Galileo's VEEGA trajectory required it to do. This created a novel mission failure modality that might plausibly have entailed dispersal of Galileo's plutonium in the Earth's atmosphere. Scientist Carl Sagan, a strong supporter of the Galileo mission, wrote that "there is nothing absurd about either side of this argument."
Before the Challenger disaster, the JPL had conducted shock tests on the RTGs that indicated that they could withstand a pressure of 14,000 kilopascals (2,000 psi) without a failure, which would have been sufficient to withstand an explosion on the launch pad. The possibility of adding additional shielding was considered but rejected, mainly because it would add an unacceptable amount of extra weight. After the Challenger disaster, NASA commissioned a study on the possible effects if such an event occurred with Galileo on board. Angus McRonald, a JPL engineer, concluded that what would happen would depend on the altitude at which the Space Shuttle broke up. If the Galileo/IUS combination fell free of the orbiter at 27,000 meters (90,000 ft), the RTGs would fall to Earth without melting, and drop into the Atlantic Ocean about 240 kilometers (150 mi) from the Florida coast. On the other hand, if the orbiter broke up at an altitude of 98,700 meters (323,800 ft) it would be traveling at 2,425 meters per second (7,957 ft/s) and the RTG cases and GPHS modules would melt before falling into the Atlantic 640 kilometers (400 mi) off the Florida coast. NASA concluded that the chance of such a disaster was 1 in 2,500, although anti-nuclear groups thought it might be as high as 1 in 430. The risk to an individual would be 1 in 100 million, about two orders of magnitude less than the danger of being killed by lightning. The prospect of an inadvertent re-entry into the atmosphere during the VEEGA maneuvers was reckoned at less than one in two million, but an accident might have released up to 11,568 curies (428,000 GBq).
## Launch
STS-34 was the mission designated to launch Galileo, scheduled for October 12, 1989, in the Space Shuttle Atlantis. The spacecraft was delivered to the Kennedy Space Center by a high-speed truck convoy that departed the JPL in the middle of the night. There were fears that the spacecraft might be hijacked by anti-nuclear activists or terrorists, so the route was kept secret from the drivers, who drove through the night and the following day and only stopped for food and fuel.
Last minute efforts by three environmental groups to halt the launch were rejected by the District of Columbia Circuit. In a concurring opinion, Chief Justice Patricia Wald wrote that while the legal challenge was not frivolous, there was no evidence that NASA had acted improperly in compiling the mission's environmental assessment, and the appeal was therefore denied on technical grounds. On October 16, eight protesters were arrested for trespassing at the Kennedy Space Center; three were jailed and the remaining five released.
The launch was twice delayed; first by a faulty main engine controller that forced a postponement to October 17, and then by inclement weather, which necessitated a postponement to the following day, but this was not a concern since the launch window extended until November 21. Atlantis finally lifted off at 16:53:40 UTC on October 18, and went into a 343 kilometers (213 mi) orbit. Galileo was successfully deployed at 00:15 UTC on October 19. Following the IUS burn, the Galileo spacecraft adopted its configuration for solo flight, and separated from the IUS at 01:06:53 UTC on October 19. The launch was perfect, and Galileo was soon headed towards Venus at over 14,000 km/h (9,000 mph). Atlantis returned to Earth safely on October 23.
## Venus encounter
The encounter with Venus on February 9 was in view of the DSN's Canberra and Madrid Deep Space Communications Complexes. Galileo flew by at 05:58:48 UTC on February 10, 1990, at a range of 16,106 km (10,008 mi). Doppler data collected by the DSN allowed the JPL to verify that the gravitational assist maneuver had been successful, and the spacecraft had obtained the expected 2.2 km/s (1.4 mi/s) increase in speed. Unfortunately, three hours into the flyby, the tracking station at Goldstone had to be shut down due to high winds, and Doppler data was lost.
Because Venus was much closer to the Sun than the spacecraft had been designed to operate, great care was taken to avoid thermal damage. In particular, the X-band high gain antenna (HGA) was not deployed, but was kept folded up like an umbrella and pointed away from the Sun to keep it shaded and cool. This meant that the two small S-band low gain antennae (LGA) had to be used instead. They had a maximum bandwidth of 1,200 bits per second compared to the 134,000 bit/s expected from the HGA. As the spacecraft moved further from Earth, it also necessitated the use of the DSN's 70 meters (230 ft) dishes, to the detriment of other users, who had lower priority than Galileo. Even so, the downlink telemetry rate fell to 40 bit/s within a few days of the Venus flyby, and by March it was down to just 10 bit/s.
Venus had been the focus of many automated flybys, probes, balloons and landers, most recently the Magellan spacecraft, and Galileo had not been designed with Venus in mind. Nonetheless, there were useful observations that it could make, as it carried some instruments that had never flown on spacecraft to Venus, such as the near-infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS). Telescopic observations of Venus had revealed that there were certain parts of the infrared spectrum that the greenhouse gases in the Venusian atmosphere did not block, making them transparent on these wavelengths. This permitted the NIMS to both view the clouds and obtain maps of the equatorial and mid-latitudes of the night side of Venus with three to six times the resolution of Earth-based telescopes. The ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) was also deployed to observe the Venusian clouds and their motions.
Another set of observations was conducted using Galileo's energetic particles detector (EPD) when Galileo moved through the bow shock caused by Venus's interaction with the solar wind. Earth's strong magnetic field causes this to occur at around 65,000 kilometers (40,000 mi) from its center, but Venus's weak magnetic field causes the bow wave to occur nearly on the surface, so the solar wind interacts with the atmosphere. A search for lightning on Venus was conducted using the plasma wave detector, which noted nine bursts which were likely caused by lightning, but efforts to capture an image of lightning with the solid-state imaging system (SSI) were unsuccessful.
## Earth encounters
### Flybys
Galileo made two small course corrections on 9 to 12 April and 11 to 12 May 1990. The spacecraft flew by Earth twice; the first time at a range of 960 km (600 mi) at 20:34:34 UTC on December 8, 1990. This was only 8 kilometers (5 mi) higher than predicted, and the time of the closest approach was only a second off. It was the first time that a deep space probe had returned to Earth from interplanetary space. A second flyby of Earth was at 304 km (189 mi) at 15:09:25 UTC on December 8, 1992. This time the spacecraft passed within a kilometer of its aiming point over the South Atlantic. This was so accurate that a scheduled course correction was cancelled, thereby saving 5 kilograms (11 lb) of propellant.
### Earth's bow shock and the solar wind
The opportunity was taken to conduct a series of experiments. A study of Earth's bow shock was conducted as Galileo passed by Earth's day side. The solar wind travels at 200 to 800 kilometers per second (120 to 500 mi/s) and is deflected by Earth's magnetic field, creating a magnetic tail on Earth's dark side over a thousand times the radius of the planet. Observations were made by Galileo when it passed through the magnetic tail on Earth's dark side at a distance of 56,000 kilometers (35,000 mi) from the planet. The magnetosphere was quite active at the time, and Galileo detected magnetic storms and whistlers caused by lightning strikes. The NIMS was employed to look for mesospheric clouds, which are believed to be caused by methane released by industrial processes. Normally they are only seen in September or October, but Galileo was able to detect them in December, an indication of damage to Earth's ozone layer.
### Remote detection of life on Earth
The astronomer Carl Sagan, pondering the question of whether life on Earth could be easily detected from space, devised a set of experiments in the late 1980s using Galileo's remote sensing instruments during the mission's first Earth flyby in December 1990. After data acquisition and processing, Sagan published a paper in Nature in 1993 detailing the results of the experiment. Galileo had indeed found what are now referred to as the "Sagan criteria for life". These included strong absorption of light at the red end of the visible spectrum (especially over continents) which was caused by absorption by chlorophyll in photosynthesizing plants, absorption bands of molecular oxygen which is also a result of plant activity, infrared absorption bands caused by the \~1 micromole per mole (μmol/mol) of methane in Earth's atmosphere (a gas which must be replenished by either volcanic or biological activity), and modulated narrowband radio wave transmissions uncharacteristic of any known natural source. Galileo's experiments were thus the first ever controls in the newborn science of astrobiological remote sensing.
### Galileo Optical Experiment
In December 1992, during Galileo's second gravity-assist planetary flyby of Earth, another groundbreaking experiment was performed. Optical communications in space were assessed by detecting light pulses from powerful lasers with Galileo's CCD. The experiment, dubbed Galileo Optical Experiment or GOPEX, used two separate sites to beam laser pulses to the spacecraft, one at Table Mountain Observatory in California and the other at the Starfire Optical Range in New Mexico. The Table Mountain site used a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser operating at a wavelength of 532 nm, with a repetition rate of \~15 to 30 Hz and a pulse power full width at half maximum (FWHM) in the tens of megawatts range, which was coupled to a 0.6 m (2.0 ft) Cassegrain telescope for transmission to Galileo. The Starfire range site used a similar setup with a larger, 4.9 ft (1.5 m), transmitting telescope. Long exposure (\~0.1 to 0.8 s) images using Galileo's 560 nm centered green filter produced images of Earth clearly showing the laser pulses even at distances of up to 6 million km (3.7 million mi).
Adverse weather conditions, restrictions placed on laser transmissions by the U.S. Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC) and a pointing error caused by the scan platform acceleration on the spacecraft being slower than expected (which prevented laser detection on all frames with less than 400 ms exposure times) all contributed to the reduction of the number of successful detections of the laser transmission to 48 of the total 159 frames taken. Nonetheless, the experiment was considered a resounding success and the data acquired will likely be used in the future to design laser downlinks that will send large volumes of data very quickly from spacecraft to Earth. The scheme was studied in 2004 for a data link to a future Mars orbiting spacecraft.
## Lunar observations
## High gain antenna problem
Once Galileo headed beyond Earth, it was no longer risky to employ the HGA, so on April 11, 1991, Galileo was ordered to unfurl it. This was done using two small dual drive actuator (DDA) motors, and was expected to take 165 seconds, or 330 seconds if one failed. They would drive a worm gear. The antenna had 18 graphite-epoxy ribs, and when the driver motor started and put pressure on the ribs, they were supposed to pop out of the cup their tips were held in, and the antenna would unfold like an umbrella. When it reached the fully deployed configuration, redundant microswitches would shut down the motors. Otherwise they would run for eight minutes before being automatically shut down to prevent them from overheating.
Through telemetry from Galileo, investigators determined that the electric motors had stalled at 56 seconds, the spacecraft's spin rate had decreased and its wobble had increased. Only 15 ribs had popped out, leaving the antenna looking like a lop-sided, half-open umbrella. The first suggestion was to re-fold the antenna and try the opening sequence again. This was not possible; although the motors were capable of running in reverse, the antenna was not designed for this, and human assistance was required when it was done on Earth to ensure that the wire mesh did not snag. It was later discovered that less torque was available from the DDA each time, so after five deploy and stow operations, the DDA torque was half its original value.
The first thing the Galileo team tried was to rotate the spacecraft away from the Sun and back again on the assumption that the problem was with friction holding the pins in their sockets. If so, then heating and cooling the ribs might cause them to pop out of their sockets. This was done seven times, but with no result. They then tried swinging LGA-2 (which faced in the opposite direction to the HGA and LGA-1) 145 degrees to a hard stop, thereby shaking the spacecraft. This was done six times with no effect. Finally, they tried shaking the antenna by pulsing the DDA motors at 1.25 and 1.875 Hertz. This increased the torque by up to 40 percent. The motors were pulsed 13,000 times over a three-week period in December 1992 and January 1993, but only managed to move the ballscrew by one and a half revolutions beyond the stall point.
Investigators concluded that during the 4.5 years that Galileo spent in storage after the Challenger disaster, the lubricants between the tips of the ribs and the cup were eroded and worn by vibration during the three cross-country journeys by truck between California and Florida for the spacecraft. The failed ribs were those closest to the flat-bed trailers carrying Galileo on these trips. The use of land transport was partly to save costs—air transport would have cost an additional \$65,000 () or so per trip—but also to reduce the amount of handling required in loading and unloading the aircraft, which was considered a major risk of damage. The spacecraft was also subjected to severe vibration in a vacuum environment by the IUS. Experiments on Earth with the test HGA showed that having a set of stuck ribs all on one side reduced the DDA torque produced by up to 40 percent.
The antenna lubricants were applied only once, nearly a decade before launch. Furthermore, the HGA was not subjected to the usual rigorous testing, because there was no backup unit that could be installed in Galileo in case of damage. The flight-ready HGA was never given a thermal evaluation test, and was unfurled only a half dozen or so times before the mission. But testing might not have revealed the problem; the Lewis Research Center was never able to replicate the problem on Earth, and it was assumed to be the combination of loss of lubricant during transportation, vibration during launch by the IUS, and a prolonged period of time in the vacuum of space where bare metal touching could undergo cold welding.
Fortunately, LGA-1 was capable of transmitting information back to Earth, although since it transmitted a signal isotropically, its bandwidth was significantly less than what the high-gain antenna's would have been; the high-gain antenna was to have transmitted at 134 kilobits per second, whereas LGA-1 was only intended to transmit at about 8 to 16 bits per second. LGA-1 transmitted with a power of about 15 to 20 watts, which by the time it reached Earth and had been collected by one of the large aperture 70-meter DSN antennas, had a total power of about 10 zeptowatts. Through the implementation of sophisticated technologies, the arraying of several Deep Space Network antennas and sensitivity upgrades to the receivers used to listen to Galileo's signal, data throughput was increased to a maximum of 160 bits per second. By further using data compression, the effective bandwidth could be raised to 1,000 bits per second.
The data collected on Jupiter and its moons was stored in the spacecraft's onboard tape recorder, and transmitted back to Earth during the long apoapsis portion of the probe's orbit using the low-gain antenna. At the same time, measurements were made of Jupiter's magnetosphere and transmitted back to Earth. The reduction in available bandwidth reduced the total amount of data transmitted throughout the mission, but William J. O'Neil, Galileo's project manager from 1992 to 1997, expressed confidence that 70 percent of Galileo's science goals could still be met. The decision to use magnetic tape for storage was a conservative one, taken in the late 1970s when the use of tape was common. But conservatism was not restricted to engineers; a 1980 suggestion that the results of Galileo could be distributed electronically instead of on paper was regarded as ridiculous by geologists, on the grounds that storage would be prohibitively expensive; some of them thought that taking measurements on a computer involved putting a wooden ruler up to the screen.
## Asteroid encounters
### 951 Gaspra
Two months after entering the asteroid belt, Galileo performed the first asteroid encounter by a spacecraft, passing the S-type asteroid 951 Gaspra to a distance of 1,604 km (997 mi) at 22:37 UTC on October 29, 1991 at a relative speed of about 8 kilometers per second (5.0 mi/s). In all, 57 images of Gaspra were taken with the SSI, covering about 80% of the asteroid. Without the HGA, the bit rate was only about 40 bit/s, so an image took up to 60 hours to transmit back to Earth. The Galileo project was able to secure 80 hours of the Canberra's 70-meter dish time between 7 and 14 November 1991, but most of images taken, including low-resolution images of more of the surface, were not transmitted to Earth until November 1992.
The imagery revealed a cratered and irregular body, measuring about 19 by 12 by 11 kilometers (11.8 by 7.5 by 6.8 mi). Its shape was not remarkable for an asteroid of its size. Measurements were taken using the NIMS to indicate the asteroid's composition and physical properties. While Gaspra has plenty of small craters—over 600 of them ranging in size from 100 to 500 meters (330 to 1,640 ft)—it lacks large ones, hinting at a relatively recent origin. However, it is possible that some of the depressions were eroded craters. Perhaps the most surprising feature was several relatively flat planar areas. Measurements of the solar wind in the vicinity of the asteroid showed it changing direction a few hundred kilometers from Gaspra, which hinted that it might have a magnetic field, but this was not certain.
### 243 Ida and Dactyl
Following the second Earth encounter, Galileo performed close observations of another asteroid, 243 Ida, at 16:52:04 UTC on August 28, 1993, at a range of 2,410 km (1,500 mi). Measurements were taken from Galileo using SSI and NIMS. The images revealed that Ida had a small moon measuring around 1.6 kilometers (0.99 mi) in diameter, which appeared in 46 images.
A competition was held to select a name for the moon, which was ultimately dubbed Dactyl after the legendary Dactyloi; craters on Dactyl were named after individual dactyloi. Regions on 243 Ida were named after cities where Johann Palisa, the discover of 243 Ida, made his observations, while ridges on 243 Ida were named in honor of deceased Galileo team members. Dactyl was the first asteroid moon discovered. Previously moons of asteroids had been assumed to be rare. The discovery of Dactyl hinted that they might in fact be quite common. From subsequent analysis of this data, Dactyl appeared to be an S-type asteroid, and spectrally different from 243 Ida. It was hypothesized that both may have been produced by the breakup of a Koronis parent body.
The requirement to use the LGA resulted in a bit rate of 40 bit/s, and that only from August 28 to September 29, 1993 and from February to June 1994. Galileo's tape recorder was used to store images, but tape space was also required for the primary Jupiter mission. A technique was developed whereby only image fragments of two or three lines out of every 330 were initially sent. A determination could then be made as to whether the image was of 243 Ida or empty space. Ultimately, only about 16 percent of the SSI data recorded could be sent back to Earth.
## Voyage to Jupiter
### Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9
Galileo's prime mission was a two-year study of the Jovian system, but while it was en route, an unusual opportunity arose. On 26 March 1993, comet-seeking astronomers Carolyn S. Shoemaker, Eugene M. Shoemaker and David H. Levy discovered fragments of a comet orbiting Jupiter. They were the remains of a comet that had passed within the Roche limit of Jupiter, and had been torn apart by tidal forces. It was named Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9. Calculations indicated that it would crash into the planet sometime between 16 and 24 July 1994. While Galileo was still a long way from Jupiter, it was perfectly positioned to observe this event, whereas terrestrial telescopes had to wait to see the impact sites as they rotated into view because it would occur on Jupiter's night side.
Instead of burning up in Jupiter's atmosphere as expected, the first of the 21 comet fragments struck the planet at around 320,000 kilometers per hour (200,000 mph) and exploded with a fireball 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) high, easily discernible to Earth-based telescopes even though it was on the night side of the planet. The impact left a series of dark scars on the planet, some two or three times as large as the Earth, that persisted for weeks. When Galileo observed an impact in ultraviolet light, it lasted for about ten seconds, but in the infrared it persisted for 90 seconds or more. When a fragment hit the planet, it increased Jupiter's overall brightness by about 20 percent. The NIMS observed one fragment create a fireball 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) in diameter that burned with a temperature of 8,000 K (7,730 °C; 13,940 °F), which was hotter than the surface of the Sun.
### Probe deployment
The Galileo probe separated from the orbiter at 03:07 UTC on July 13, 1995, five months before its rendezvous with the planet on December 7. At this point, the spacecraft was still 83 million kilometers (52×10^<sup>6</sup> mi) from Jupiter, but 664 million kilometers (413×10^<sup>6</sup> mi) from Earth, and telemetry from the spacecraft, travelling at the speed of light, took 37 minutes to reach the JPL. A tiny Doppler shift in the signal of the order of a few centimeters per second indicated that the separation had been accomplished. The Galileo orbiter was still on a collision course with Jupiter. Previously, course corrections had been made using the twelve 10-newton (2.2 lb<sub>f</sub>) thrusters, but with the probe on its way, the Galileo orbiter could now fire its 400-newton (90 lb<sub>f</sub>) Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm main engine which had been covered by the probe until then. At 07:38 UTC on July 27, it was fired for the first time to place the Galileo orbiter on course to enter orbit around Jupiter, whence it would perform as a communications relay for the Galileo probe. The Galileo probe's project manager, Marcie Smith at the Ames Research Center, was confident that this role could be performed by LGA-1. The burn lasted for five minutes and eight seconds, and changed the velocity of the Galileo orbiter by 61.9 meters per second (203 ft/s).
### Dust storms
In August 1995, the Galileo orbiter encountered a severe dust storm 63 million kilometers (39×10^<sup>6</sup> mi) from Jupiter that took several months to traverse. Normally the spacecraft's dust detector picked up a dust particle every three days; now it detected up to 20,000 particles a day. Interplanetary dust storms had previously been encountered by the Ulysses space probe, which had passed by Jupiter three years before on its mission to study the Sun's polar regions, but those encountered by Galileo were more intense. The dust particles were about the same size as those in cigarette smoke, and had speeds ranging from 140,000 to 720,000 kilometers per hour (90,000 to 450,000 mph) depending on their size. The existence of the dust storms had come as a complete surprise to scientists. While data from both Ulysses and Galileo hinted that they originated somewhere in the Jovian system, it was a mystery how they had been created, and how they had escaped from Jupiter's strong gravitational and electromagnetic fields.
### Tape recorder anomaly
The failure of Galileo's high-gain antenna meant that data storage to the tape recorder for later compression and playback was absolutely crucial in order to obtain any substantial information from the flybys of Jupiter and its moons. This was a four-track, 114-megabyte digital tape recorder, manufactured by Odetics Corporation. On October 11, it was stuck in rewind mode for 15 hours before engineers learned what had happened and were able to send commands to shut it off. Although the recorder itself was still in working order, the malfunction had possibly damaged a length of tape at the end of the reel. This section of tape was declared "off limits" to any future data recording, and was covered with 25 more turns of tape to secure the section and reduce any further stresses, which could tear it. Because it happened only weeks before Galileo entered orbit around Jupiter, the anomaly prompted engineers to sacrifice data acquisition of almost all of the Io and Europa observations during the orbit insertion phase, in order to focus on recording data sent from the Jupiter probe descent.
## Jupiter
### Arrival
The Galileo orbiter's magnetometers reported that the spacecraft had encountered the bow wave of Jupiter's magnetosphere on November 16, 1995, when it was still 15 million kilometers (9.3 million miles) from Jupiter. The bow wave was not stationary, but moved to and fro in responses to solar wind gusts, and was therefore crossed multiple times between 16 and 26 November, by which time it was 9 million kilometers (5.6 million miles) from Jupiter.
On December 7, 1995, the orbiter arrived in the Jovian system. That day it made a 32,500-kilometer (20,200 mi) flyby of Europa at 11:09 UTC, and then an 890-kilometer (550 mi) flyby of Io at 15:46 UTC, using Io's gravity to reduce its speed, and thereby conserve propellant for use later in the mission. At 19:54 it made its closest approach to Jupiter. The orbiter's electronics had been heavily shielded against radiation, but the radiation exceeded expectations, and nearly the spacecraft's design limits. One of the navigational systems failed, but the backup took over. Most robotic spacecraft respond to failures by entering safe mode and awaiting further instructions from Earth, but with a minimum of a two-hour signalling delay, this was not possible for Galileo.
### Atmospheric probe
The descent probe awoke in response to an alarm at 16:00 UTC and began powering up its instruments. It passed through the rings of Jupiter and encountered a previously undiscovered belt of radiation ten times as strong as Earth's Van Allen radiation belt. Before the atmospheric entry, the probe detected a previously unknown radiation belt 31,000 miles (50,000 km) above Jupiter's cloud tops.
It had been predicted that the probe would pass through three layers of clouds; an upper one consisting of ammonia ice-particles at a pressure of 0.5 to 0.6 bars (50 to 60 kPa); a middle one of ammonium hydrosulphide ice particles at a pressure of 1.5 to 2 bars (150 to 200 kPa); and one of water vapor at 4 to 5 bars (400 to 500 kPa). The atmosphere through which the probe descended was much denser and hotter than expected. Jupiter was also found to have only half the amount of helium expected and the data did not support the three-layered cloud structure theory: only one significant cloud layer was measured by the probe, at a pressure of around 1.55 bars (155 kPa) but with many indications of smaller areas of increased particle densities along the whole length of its trajectory.
The descent probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere, defined for the purpose as being 450 kilometers (280 mi) above the 1 bar (100 kPa) pressure level, without any braking at 22:04 UTC on December 7, 1995. At this point it was moving at 76,700 kilometres per hour (47,700 mph) relative to Jupiter.
The probe slowed to subsonic speed within two minutes of entry. The rapid flight through the atmosphere produced a plasma with a temperature of about 15,500 °C (27,900 °F), and the probe's carbon phenolic heat shield lost more than half of its mass, 80 kilograms (180 lb), during the descent. At the time, this was by far the most difficult atmospheric entry yet attempted; the probe entered at Mach 50 and had to withstand a peak deceleration of 228 g<sub>0</sub> (2,240 m/s<sup>2</sup>). As it passed through Jupiter's cloud tops, it started transmitting data to the orbiter, 215,000 kilometers (134,000 mi) above. The data was not immediately relayed to Earth, but a single bit was transmitted from the orbiter as a notification that the signal from the probe was being received and recorded, which would then take days to arrive using the LGA.
The atmospheric probe deployed its 2.5-meter (8.2-foot) parachute fifty-three seconds later than anticipated, resulting in a small loss of upper atmospheric readings. This was attributed to wiring problems with an accelerometer that determined when to begin the parachute deployment sequence. It then dropped its heat shield, which fell into Jupiter's interior. The parachute reduced the probe's speed to 430 kilometers per hour (270 mph). The signal from the probe was no longer detected by the orbiter after 61.4 minutes, at an elevation of 112 miles (180 km) below the cloud tops and a pressure of 22.7 standard atmospheres (2,300 kPa). It was believed that the probe continued to fall at terminal velocity, as the temperature increased to 1,700 °C (3,090 °F) and the pressure to 5,000 standard atmospheres (510,000 kPa), completely destroying it.
The probe's seven scientific instruments yielded a wealth of information. The probe detected very strong winds. Scientists had expected to find wind speeds of up to 350 kilometers per hour (220 mph), but winds of up to 530 kilometers per hour (330 mph) were detected. The implication was that the winds are not produced by heat generated by sunlight or the condensation of water vapor (the main causes on Earth), but are due to an internal heat source. It was already well known that the atmosphere of Jupiter was mainly composed of hydrogen, but the clouds of ammonia and ammonium sulfide were much thinner than expected, and clouds of water vapor were not detected. This was the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet's atmosphere. The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths. The probe detected less lightning, less water, but more winds than expected. The atmosphere was more turbulent and the winds a lot stronger than expected. Wind speeds in the outermost layers were 290 to 360 kilometres per hour (180 to 220 mph), in agreement with previous measurements from afar, but that winds increased dramatically at pressure levels of 1–4 bars, then remaining consistently high at around 610 kilometers per hour (170 m/s). No solid surface was detected (or expected) during the 156-kilometer (97 mi) downward journey.
The abundance of nitrogen, carbon and sulfur was three times that of the Sun, raising the possibility that they had been acquired from other bodies in the Solar system, but the low abundance of water cast doubt on theories that Earth's water had been acquired from comets. There was far less lightning activity than expected, only about a tenth of the level of activity on Earth, but this was consistent with the lack of water vapor. More surprising was the high abundance of noble gases, argon, krypton and xenon, with abundances up to three times that found in the Sun. For Jupiter to trap these gases, it would have had to be much colder than today, around −240 °C (−400.0 °F), which suggested that either Jupiter had once been much further from the Sun, or that the interstellar debris that the Solar system had formed from was much colder than had been thought.
### Orbiter
With the probe data collected, the Galileo orbiter's next task was to slow down in order to avoid heading off into the outer solar system. A burn sequence commencing at 00:27 UTC on December 8 and lasting 49 minutes reduced the spacecraft's speed by 600 metres per second (2,000 ft/s) and enter a 198-day parking orbit. The Galileo orbiter then became the first artificial satellite of Jupiter. Most of its initial 7-month long orbit was occupied transmitting the data from the probe back to Earth. When the orbiter reached its apojove on March 26, 1996, the main engine was fired again to increase the orbit from four times the radius of Jupiter to ten times. By this time the orbiter had received half the radiation allowed for in the mission plan, and the higher orbit was to conserve the instruments for as long as possible by limiting the radiation exposure.
The spacecraft traveled around Jupiter in elongated ellipses, each orbit lasting about two months. The differing distances from Jupiter afforded by these orbits allowed Galileo to sample different parts of the planet's extensive magnetosphere. The orbits were designed for close-up flybys of Jupiter's largest moons. A naming scheme was devised for the orbits: a code with the first letter of the moon being encountered on that orbit (or "J" if none was encountered) plus the orbit number.
### Io
The innermost of the four Galilean moons, Io is roughly the same size as Earth's moon, with a radius of 1,821.3 kilometers (1,131.7 mi). It is in orbital resonance with Ganymede and Europa, and tidally locked with Jupiter, so just as the Earth's Moon always has the same side facing Earth, Io always has the same side facing Jupiter. It orbits faster though, with a rotation period of 1.769 days. As a result, rotational and tidal forces are 220 times as great as those on Earth's moon. These frictional forces are sufficient to melt rock and create volcanoes and lava flows. Although only a third of the size of Earth, Io generates twice as much heat. While geological events occur on Earth over periods of thousands or even millions of years, cataclysmic events are common on Io. Visible changes occurred between orbits of Galileo. The colorful surface is a mixture of red, white and yellow sulphur compounds.
Galileo flew past Io on arrival day, but in the interest of protecting the tape recorder, O'Neil decided to forego collecting images. Only the fields and particles instruments were allowed to collect data, as these required the tape recorder to run at slow speeds, and it was believed that it could handle this, whereas the SSI camera required it to operate a high speed, with abrupt stops and starts. It was a crushing blow to scientists, some of whom had waited years for the opportunity. No other Io encounters were scheduled during the prime mission because it was feared that the high radiation levels close to Jupiter would damage the spacecraft. However, valuable information was still obtained; Doppler data used to measure Io's gravitational field revealed that Io had a core of molten iron and iron sulfide.
Another opportunity to observe Io arose during the GEM, when Galileo flew past Io on orbits I24 and I25, and it would revisit Io during the GMM, on orbits I27, I31, I32 and I33. As Galileo approached Io on I24 at 11:09 UTC on October 11, 1999, it entered safe mode. Apparently, high energy electrons had altered a bit on a memory chip. When it entered safe mode, the spacecraft turned off all non-essential functions. Normally it took seven to ten days to diagnose and recover from a safe mode incident; this time the Galileo Project team at the JPL had nineteen hours before the encounter with Io. After a frantic effort, they managed to diagnose a problem that had never been seen before, and restore the spacecraft systems with just two hours to spare. Not all of the planned activities could be carried out, but Galileo obtained a series of high-resolution color images of the Pillan Patera, and Zamama, Prometheus, and Pele volcanic eruption centers.
When Galileo next approached Io on I25 at 20:40 Pacific Time on November 25, 1999, the JPL were eating their Thanksgiving dinner at the Galileo Mission Control Center when, with the encounter with Io just four hours away, the spacecraft again entered safe mode. This time the problem was traced to a software patch implemented to bring Galileo out of safe mode during I24. Fortunately, the spacecraft had not shut down as much as it had on I24, and the team at JPL were able to bring it back online. During I24 they had done so with two hours to spare; this time, they had just three minutes. Nonetheless, the flyby was very successful, with Galileo's NIMS and SSI camera capturing an erupting volcano that generated a 32 kilometers (20 mi) long plume of lava that was sufficiently large and hot to have also been detected by the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility atop Mauna Kea in Hawaii. While such events were more common and spectacular on Io than on Earth, it was extremely fortuitous to have captured it.
The safe mode incidents on I24 and I25 left some gaps in the data, which I27 targeted. This time Galileo passed just 198 kilometers (123 mi) over the surface of Io. At this time, the spacecraft was nearly at the maximum distance from Earth, and there was a solar conjunction, a period when the Sun blocked the line of sight between Earth and Jupiter. As a consequence, three quarters of the observations were taken over a period of just three hours. NIMS images revealed fourteen active volcanoes in a region thought to contain just four. Images of Loki Patera showed that in the four and half months between I24 and I27, some 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi) had been covered in fresh lava. Unfortunately, a series of observations of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) had to be cancelled due to yet another safe mode event. Radiation exposure caused a transient bus reset, a computer hardware error resulting in a safe mode event. A software patch implemented after the Europa encounter on orbit E19 guarded against this when the spacecraft was within 15 Jupiter radii of the planet, but this time it occurred at 29 Jupiter radii. The safe mode event also caused a loss of tape playback time, but the project managers decide to carry over some Io data into orbit G28, and play it back then. This limited the amount of tape space available for that Ganymede encounter, but the Io data was considered to be more valuable.
The discovery of Io's iron core raised the possibility that it had a magnetic field. The I24, I25 and I27 encounters had been on equatorial orbits, which made it difficult to determine whether Io had its own magnetic field, or one induced by Jupiter. Accordingly, on orbit I31, Galileo passed within 200 kilometers (120 mi) of the surface of the north pole of Io, and on orbit I32 it flew 181 kilometers (112 mi) over the south pole. After examining the magnetometer results, planetary scientist Margaret G. Kivelson, announced that Io had no intrinsic magnetic field, which meant that its molten iron core did not have the same convective properties as that of Earth. On I31 Galileo sped through an area that had been in the plume of the Tvashtar Paterae volcano, and it was hoped that the plume could be sampled. This time, Tvashtar was quiet, but the spacecraft flew through the plume of another, previously unknown, volcano 600 kilometers (370 mi) away. What had been assumed to be hot ash from the volcanic eruption turned out to be sulphur dioxide snowflakes, each consisting of 15 to 20 molecules clustered together. Galileo's final return to Io on orbit I33 was marred by another safe mode incident. Although the project team worked hard to restore the spacecraft to working order, much of the hoped-for data was lost.
### Europa
Although the smallest of the four Galilean moons, with a radius of 1,565 kilometers (972 mi), Europa is still the sixth largest moon in the solar system. Observations from Earth indicated that it was covered in ice. Like Io, Europa is tidally locked with Jupiter. It is in orbital resonance with Io and Ganymede, with its 85-hour orbit being twice that of Io, but half that of Ganymede. Conjunctions with Io always occur on the opposite side of Jupiter to those with Ganymede. Europa is therefore subject to tidal effects. There is no evidence of volcanism like on Io, but Galileo revealed that the surface ice was covered in cracks.
Some observations of Europa were made during orbits G1 and G2. On C3, Galileo conducted a 34,800-kilometer (21,600 mi) "nontargeted" encounter of Europa on 6 November 1996. A "nontargeted" encounter is defined as a secondary flyby up to a distance of 100,000 kilometers (62,000 mi). During E4 from 15 to 22 December 1996, Galileo flew within 692 kilometers (430 mi) of Europa, but data transmission was hindered by a Solar occultation that blocked transmission for ten days.
Galileo returned to Europa on E6 in January 1997, this time at a height of 586 kilometers (364 mi) to analyze oval-shaped features in the infrared and ultraviolet spectra. Occultations by Europa, Io and Jupiter provided data on the atmospheric profiles of Europa, Io and Jupiter, and measurements were made of Europa's gravitational field. On E11 from 2 to 9 November 1997, data was collected on the magnetosphere. Due to the problems with the HGA, only about two percent of the anticipated number of images of Europa were obtained by the primary mission. On the GEM, the first eight orbits, E12 through E19, were all dedicated to Europa, and Galileo paid it a final visit on E26 during the GMM.
Images of Europa also showed few impact craters. It seemed unlikely that it had escaped the meteor and comet impacts that scarred Ganymede and Callisto, so this indicated Europa has an active geology that renews the surface and obliterates craters. Clark Chapman argued that if we assume that a 20-kilometer (12 mi) crater occurs in Europa once every million years, and given that only about twenty have been spotted on Europa, the implication is that the surface must only be about 10 million years old. With more data on hand, in 2003 a team led Kevin Zahle at NASA's Ames Research Center arrived at a figure of 30 to 70 million years. Tidal flexing of up to 100 meters (330 ft) per day was the most likely the culprit. But not all scientists were convinced; Michael Carr, a planetologist from the US Geological Survey, argued that, on the contrary, the surface of Europa was subjected to less impacts than Callisto or Ganymede.
Evidence of surface renewal hinted at the possibility of a viscous layer below the surface of warm ice or liquid water. NIMS observations by Galileo indicated that the surface of Europa appeared to contain magnesium and sodium salts. A likely source was brine below the ice crust. Further evidence was provided by the magnetometer, which reported that the magnetic field was induced by Jupiter. This could be explained by the existence of a spherical shell of conductive material like salt water. Since the surface temperature on Europa was a chilly −162 °C (−260 °F), any water breaching the surface ice would instantly freeze over. Heat required to keep water in a liquid state could not come from the Sun, which had only 4 percent of the intensity of Earth, but ice is a good insulator, and the heat could be provided by the tidal flexing. Galileo also yielded evidence that the crust of Europa had slipped over time, moving south on the hemisphere facing Jupiter, and north on the far side.
There was acrimonious debate among scientists over the thickness of the ice crust, and those who presented results indicating that it might be thinner than the 20 to 30 kilometers (12 to 19 mi) proposed by the accredited scientists on the Galileo Imaging Team faced intimidation, scorn, and reduced career opportunities. The Galileo Imaging Team was led by Michael J. Belton from the Kitt Peak National Observatory. Scientists who planned imaging sequences had the exclusive right to the initial interpretation of the Galileo data, most which was performed by their research students. The scientific community did not want a repetition of the 1979 Morabito incident, when Linda A. Morabito, an engineer at the JPL working on Voyager 1, discovered the first active extraterrestrial volcano on Io. The Imaging Team controlled the manner in which discoveries were presented to the scientific community and the public through press conferences, conference papers and publications.
Observations by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995 reported that Europa had a thin oxygen atmosphere. This was confirmed by Galileo in six experiments on orbits E4 and E6 during occultations when Europa was between Galileo and the Earth. This allowed Canberra and Goldstone to investigate the ionosphere of Europa by measuring the degree to which the radio beam was diffracted by charged particles. This indicated the presence of water ions, which were most likely water molecules that had been dislodged from the surface ice and then ionized by the Sun or the Jovian magnetosphere. The presence of an ionosphere was sufficient to deduce the existence of a thin atmosphere on Europa. On December 11, 2013, NASA reported, based on results from the Galileo mission, the detection of "clay-like minerals" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa. The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet.
### Ganymede
The largest of the Galilean moons with a diameter of 5,270 kilometres (3,270 mi), Ganymede is larger than Earth's moon, the dwarf planet Pluto or the planet Mercury. It is the largest of the moons in the Solar system that are characterized by large amounts of water ice, which also includes Saturn's moon Titan, and Neptune's moon Triton. Ganymede has three times as much water for its mass as Earth has.
When Galileo entered Jovian orbit, it did so at an inclination to the Jovian equator, and therefore the orbital plane of the four Galilean moons. To transfer orbit while conserving propellant, two slingshot maneuvers were performed. On G1, the gravity of Ganymede was used to slow the spacecraft's orbital period from 21 to 72 days to allow for more encounters and to take Galileo out of the more intense regions of radiation. On G2, the gravity assist was employed to put it into a coplanar orbit to permit subsequent encounters with Io, Europa and Callisto. Although the primary purpose of G1 and G2 was navigational, the opportunity to make some observations was not missed. The plasma wave experiment and the magnetometer detected a magnetic field with a strength of about 750 nanoteslas (0.0075 G), more than strong enough to create a separate magnetosphere within that of Jupiter. This was the first time that a magnetic field had ever been detected on a moon contained within the magnetosphere of its host planet.
This discovery led naturally to questions about its origin. The evidence pointed to an iron or iron sulphide core and mantle 400 to 1,300 kilometers (250 to 810 mi) below the surface, encased in ice. Margaret Kivelson, the scientist in charge of the magnetometer experiment felt that the induced magnetic field required an iron core, and speculated that an electrically conductive layer was required, possibly a brine ocean 200 kilometers (120 mi) below the surface. Galileo returned to Ganymede on orbits G7 and G9 in April and May 1997, and on G28 and G29 in May and December 2000 on the GMM. Images of the surface revealed two types of terrain: highly cratered dark regions, and grooved terrain sulcus. Images of the Arbela Sulcus taken on G28 made Ganymede look more like Europa, but tidal flexing could not provide sufficient heat to keep water in liquid form on Ganymede, although it may have made a contribution. One possibility was radioactivity, which might provide sufficient heat for liquid water to exist 50 to 200 kilometers (31 to 124 mi) below the surface. Another possibility was volcanism. Slushy water or ice reaching the surface would quickly freeze over, creating areas of a relatively smooth surface.
### Callisto
Callisto is the outermost of the Galilean moons, and the most pockmarked, indeed the most of any body in the Solar system. So many craters must have taken billions of years to accumulate, which gave scientists the idea that its surface was as much as four billion years old, and provided a record of meteor activity in the Solar system. Galileo visited Callisto on orbits C3, C9 and C100 during the prime mission, and then on C20, C21, C22 and C23 during the GEM. When the cameras observed Callisto close up, there was a puzzling absence of small craters. The surface features appeared to have been eroded, indicating that they had been subject to active geological processes.
Galileo's flyby of Callisto on C3 marked the first time that the Deep Space Network operated a link between its antennae in Canberra and Goldstone that allowed them to operate as a gigantic array, thereby enabling a higher bit rate despite the spacecraft's long distance from Earth. With the assistance of the antenna at Parkes, this raised the effective bandwidth to as much as 1,000 bits per second.
Data accumulated on C3 indicated that Callisto had a homogeneous composition, with heavy and light elements intermixed. This was estimated to be composed of 60 percent rock and 40 percent ice. This was overturned by further radio Doppler observations on C9 and C10, which indicated that rock had settled towards the core, and therefore that Callisto indeed has a differentiated internal structure, although not as much so as the other Galilean moons.
Observations made with Galileo's magnetometer indicated that Callisto had no magnetic field of its own, and therefore lacked an iron core like Ganymede's, but that it did have an induced field from Jupiter's magnetosphere. Because ice is too poor a conductor to generate this effect, it pointed to the possibility that Callisto, like Europa and Ganymede, might have a subsurface ocean of brine. Galileo made its closest encounter with Callisto on C30, when it made a 138-kilometer (86 mi) pass over the surface, during which it photographed the Asgard, Valhalla and Bran craters. This was used for slingshot maneuvers to set up the final encounters with Io on I31 and I32.
### Amalthea
Although Galileo's main mission was to explore the Galilean moons, it also captured images of four of the inner moons, Thebe, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Metis. Such images were only possible from a spacecraft; to Earth-based telescopes they were merely specks of light. Two years of Jupiter's intense radiation took its toll on the spacecraft's systems, and its fuel supply was running low in the early 2000s. Galileo's cameras were deactivated on January 17, 2002, after they had sustained irreparable radiation damage.
NASA engineers were able to recover the damaged tape recorder electronics, and Galileo continued to return scientific data until it was deorbited in 2003, performing one last scientific experiment: a measurement of Amalthea's mass as the spacecraft swung by it. This was tricky to arrange; to be useful, Galileo had to fly within 300 kilometers (190 mi) of Amalthea, but not so close as to crash into it. This was complicated by its irregular 146-by-262-kilometer (91 by 163 mi) potato-like shape. It was tidally locked, pointing its long axis towards Jupiter at all times. A successful flyby meant knowing which direction the asteroid was pointed in relative to Galileo at all times.
Galileo flew by Amalthea on November 5, 2002, during its 34th orbit, allowing a measurement of the moon's mass as it passed within 160 km (99 mi) of its surface. The results startled the scientific team; they revealed that Amalthea weighed 2.08×10<sup>18</sup> kilograms (4.59×10<sup>18</sup> lb), and with a volume of 2.43×10<sup>6</sup> cubic kilometers (5.8×10<sup>5</sup> cu mi), it therefore had a density of 857 ± 99 kilograms per cubic meter, less than that of water.
A final discovery occurred during the last two orbits of the mission. When the spacecraft passed the orbit of Amalthea, the star scanner detected unexpected flashes of light that were reflections from seven to nine moonlets. None of the individual moonlets were reliably sighted twice, so no orbits were determined. It is believed that they were most likely debris ejected from Amalthea and form a tenuous, and perhaps temporary, ring.
### Star scanner
Galileo's star scanner was a small optical telescope that provided an absolute attitude reference. It also made several scientific discoveries serendipitously. In the prime mission, it was found that the star scanner was able to detect high-energy particles as a noise signal. This data was eventually calibrated to show the particles were predominantly \>2 MeV (0.32 pJ) electrons that were trapped in the Jovian magnetic belts, and released to the Planetary Data System.
A second discovery occurred in 2000. The star scanner was observing a set of stars which included the second magnitude star Delta Velorum. At one point, this star dimmed for 8 hours below the star scanner's detection threshold. Subsequent analysis of Galileo data and work by amateur and professional astronomers showed that Delta Velorum is the brightest known eclipsing binary, brighter at maximum than even Algol. It has a primary period of 45 days and the dimming is just visible with the naked eye.
### Mission extension
After the primary mission concluded on December 7, 1997, most of the mission staff departed, including O'Neil, but about a fifth of them remained. The Galileo orbiter commenced an extended mission known as the Galileo Europa Mission (GEM), which ran until December 31, 1999. This was a low-cost mission, with a budget of \$30 million (equivalent to \$ million in ). The reason for calling it as the "Europa" mission rather than the "Extended" mission was political; although it might seem wasteful to scrap a spacecraft that was still functional and capable of performing a continuing mission, Congress took a dim view of requests for more money for projects it thought had already been fully funded. This was avoided through rebranding.
The smaller GEM team did not have the resources to deal with problems, but when they arose it was able to temporarily recall former team members for intensive efforts to solve them. The spacecraft performed several flybys of Europa, Callisto and Io. On each one the spacecraft collected only two days' worth of data instead of the seven it had collected during the prime mission. The radiation environment near Io, which Galileo approached to within 201 kilometers (125 mi) on November 26, 1999, on orbit I25, was very unhealthy for Galileo's systems, and so these flybys were saved for the extended mission when loss of the spacecraft would be more acceptable.
By the time GEM ended, most of the spacecraft was operating well beyond its original design specifications, having absorbed three times the radiation exposure that it had been built to withstand. Many of the instruments were no longer operating at peak performance, but were still functional, so a second extension, the Galileo Millennium Mission (GMM) was authorized. This was intended to run until March 2001, but it was subsequently extended until January 2003. GMM included return visits to Europa, Io, Ganymede and Callisto, and for the first time to Amalthea. The total cost of the original Galileo mission was about US\$1.39 billion (equivalent to \$ billion in ). Of this, US\$892 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) was spent on spacecraft development. Another \$110 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) was contributed by international agencies.
### Radiation-related anomalies
Jupiter's uniquely harsh radiation environment caused over 20 anomalies over the course of Galileo's mission, in addition to the incidents expanded upon below. Despite having exceeded its radiation design limit by at least a factor of three, the spacecraft survived all these anomalies. Work-arounds were found eventually for all of these problems, and Galileo was never rendered entirely non-functional by Jupiter's radiation. The radiation limits for Galileo's computers were based on data returned from Pioneers 10 and 11, since much of the design work was underway before the two Voyagers arrived at Jupiter in 1979.
A typical effect of the radiation was that several of the science instruments suffered increased noise while within about 700,000 km (430,000 mi) of Jupiter. The SSI camera began producing totally white images when the spacecraft was hit by the exceptional 'Bastille Day' coronal mass ejection in 2000, and did so again on subsequent close approaches to Jupiter. The quartz crystal used as the frequency reference for the radio suffered permanent frequency shifts with each Jupiter approach. A spin detector failed, and the spacecraft gyro output was biased by the radiation environment.
The most severe effects of the radiation were current leakages somewhere in the spacecraft's power bus, most likely across brushes at a spin bearing connecting rotor and stator sections of the orbiter. These current leakages triggered a reset of the onboard computer and caused it to go into safe mode. The resets occurred when the spacecraft was either close to Jupiter or in the region of space magnetically downstream of Jupiter. A change to the software was made in April 1999 that allowed the onboard computer to detect these resets and autonomously recover, so as to avoid safe mode.
### Tape recorder problems
Routine maintenance of the tape recorder involved winding the tape halfway down its length and back again to prevent it sticking. In November 2002, after the completion of the mission's only encounter with Jupiter's moon Amalthea, problems with playback of the tape recorder again plagued Galileo. About 10 minutes after the closest approach of the Amalthea flyby, Galileo stopped collecting data, shut down all of its instruments, and went into safe mode, apparently as a result of exposure to Jupiter's intense radiation environment. Though most of the Amalthea data was already written to tape, it was found that the recorder refused to respond to commands telling it to play back data.
After weeks of troubleshooting of an identical flight spare of the recorder on the ground, it was determined that the cause of the malfunction was a reduction of light output in three infrared Optek OP133 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) located in the drive electronics of the recorder's motor encoder wheel. The gallium arsenide LEDs had been particularly sensitive to proton-irradiation-induced atomic lattice displacement defects, which greatly decreased their effective light output and caused the drive motor's electronics to falsely believe the motor encoder wheel was incorrectly positioned.
Galileo's flight team then began a series of "annealing" sessions, where current was passed through the LEDs for hours at a time to heat them to a point where some of the crystalline lattice defects would be shifted back into place, thus increasing the LED's light output. After about 100 hours of annealing and playback cycles, the recorder was able to operate for up to an hour at a time. After many subsequent playback and cooling cycles, the complete transmission back to Earth of all recorded Amalthea flyby data was successful.
### End of mission and deorbit
When the exploration of Mars was being considered in the early 1960s, Carl Sagan and Sidney Coleman produced a paper concerning contamination of the red planet. In order that scientists could determine whether or not native life forms existed before the planet became contaminated by micro-organisms from Earth, they proposed that space missions should aim at a 99.9 percent chance that contamination should not occur. This figure was adopted by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International Council of Scientific Unions in 1964, and was subsequently applied to all planetary probes. The danger was highlighted in 1969 when the Apollo 12 astronauts returned components of the Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had landed on the Moon three years before, and it was found that microbes were still viable even after three years in that harsh climate. An alternative was the Prime Directive, a philosophy of non-interference with alien life forms enunciated by the original Star Trek television series that prioritized the interests of the life forms over those of scientists. Given the (admittedly slim) prospect of life on Europa, scientists Richard Greenberg and Randall Tufts proposed that a new standard be set of no greater chance of contamination than that which might occur naturally by meteorites.
Galileo had not been sterilized prior to launch and could have carried bacteria from Earth. Therefore, a plan was formulated to send the probe directly into Jupiter, in an intentional crash to eliminate the possibility of an impact with Jupiter's moons, particularly Europa, and prevent a forward contamination. On April 14, 2003, Galileo reached its greatest orbital distance from Jupiter for the entire mission since orbital insertion, 26 million km (16 million mi), before plunging back towards the gas giant for its final impact. At the completion of J35, its final orbit around the Jovian system, Galileo impacted Jupiter in darkness just south of the equator on September 21, 2003, at 18:57 UTC. Its impact speed was approximately 48.26 km/s (29.99 mi/s).
### Major findings
1. The composition of Jupiter differs from that of the Sun, indicating that Jupiter has evolved since the formation of the Solar System.
2. Galileo made the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet's atmosphere. The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths.
3. Io was confirmed to have extensive volcanic activity that is 100 times greater than that found on Earth. The heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth.
4. Complex plasma interactions in Io's atmosphere create immense electrical currents which couple to Jupiter's atmosphere.
5. Several lines of evidence from Galileo support the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa's icy surface.
6. Ganymede possesses its own, substantial magnetic field – the first satellite known to have one.
7. Galileo magnetic data provided evidence that Europa, Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid salt water layer under the visible surface.
8. Evidence exists that Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto all have a thin atmospheric layer known as a "surface-bound exosphere".
9. Jupiter's ring system is formed by dust kicked up as interplanetary meteoroids smash into the planet's four small inner moons. The outermost ring is actually two rings, one embedded with the other. There is probably a separate ring along Amalthea's orbit as well.
10. The Galileo spacecraft identified the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet's magnetosphere.
## Follow-on missions
There was a spare Galileo spacecraft that was considered by the NASA-ESA Outer Planets Study Team in 1983 for a mission to Saturn, but it was passed over in favor of a newer design, which became Cassini–Huygens. While Galileo was operating, Ulysses passed by Jupiter in 1992 on its mission to study the Sun's polar regions, and Cassini–Huygens coasted by the planet in 2000 and 2001 en route to Saturn. New Horizons passed close by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto, and it too collected data on the planet. The next mission to orbit Jupiter was the Juno spacecraft, which entered Jovian orbit in July 2016.
### Juno
NASA's Juno spacecraft, launched in 2011 and planned for a two-year tour of the Jovian system, successfully completed Jupiter orbital insertion on July 4, 2016.
### Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer
The European Space Agency is planning to return to the Jovian system with the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), which is designed to orbit Ganymede in the 2030s.
### Europa Clipper
Even before Galileo concluded, NASA considered the Europa Orbiter, which was a mission to Jupiter's moon Europa, but it was canceled in 2002. After its cancellation, a lower-cost version was studied. This led to the Europa Clipper being approved in 2015; it is currently planned for launch in the mid-2020s.
### Europa Lander
A lander concept, simply called Europa Lander is being assessed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. As of 2020, this lander mission to Europa remains a concept, although some funds have been released for instrument development and maturation. |
787,827 | Klaus Roth | 1,170,425,438 | British mathematician | [
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| Klaus Friedrich Roth (29 October 1925 – 10 November 2015) was a German-born British mathematician who won the Fields Medal for proving Roth's theorem on the Diophantine approximation of algebraic numbers. He was also a winner of the De Morgan Medal and the Sylvester Medal, and a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Roth moved to England as a child in 1933 to escape the Nazis, and was educated at the University of Cambridge and University College London, finishing his doctorate in 1950. He taught at University College London until 1966, when he took a chair at Imperial College London. He retired in 1988.
Beyond his work on Diophantine approximation, Roth made major contributions to the theory of progression-free sets in arithmetic combinatorics and to the theory of irregularities of distribution. He was also known for his research on sums of powers, on the large sieve, on the Heilbronn triangle problem, and on square packing in a square. He was a coauthor of the book Sequences on integer sequences.
## Biography
### Early life
Roth was born to a Jewish family in Breslau, Prussia, on 29 October 1925. His parents settled with him in London to escape Nazi persecution in 1933, and he was raised and educated in the UK. His father, a solicitor, had been exposed to poison gas during World War I and died while Roth was still young. Roth became a pupil at St Paul's School, London from 1939 to 1943, and with the rest of the school he was evacuated from London to Easthampstead Park during The Blitz. At school, he was known for his ability in both chess and mathematics. He tried to join the Air Training Corps, but was blocked for some years for being German and then after that for lacking the coordination needed for a pilot.
### Mathematical education
Roth read mathematics at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and played first board for the Cambridge chess team, finishing in 1945. Despite his skill in mathematics, he achieved only third-class honours on the Mathematical Tripos, because of his poor test-taking ability. His Cambridge tutor, John Charles Burkill, was not supportive of Roth continuing in mathematics, recommending instead that he take "some commercial job with a statistical bias". Instead, he briefly became a schoolteacher at Gordonstoun, between finishing at Cambridge and beginning his graduate studies.
On the recommendation of Harold Davenport, he was accepted in 1946 to a master's program in mathematics at University College London, where he worked under the supervision of Theodor Estermann. He completed a master's degree there in 1948, and a doctorate in 1950. His dissertation was Proof that almost all Positive Integers are Sums of a Square, a Positive Cube and a Fourth Power.
### Career
On receiving his master's degree in 1948, Roth became an assistant lecturer at University College London, and in 1950 he was promoted to lecturer. His most significant contributions, on Diophantine approximation, progression-free sequences, and discrepancy, were all published in the mid-1950s, and by 1958 he was given the Fields Medal, mathematicians' highest honour. However, it was not until 1961 that he was promoted to full professor. During this period, he continued to work closely with Harold Davenport.
He took sabbaticals at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the mid-1950s and mid-1960s, and seriously considered migrating to the United States. Walter Hayman and Patrick Linstead countered this possibility, which they saw as a threat to British mathematics, with an offer of a chair in pure mathematics at Imperial College London, and Roth accepted the chair in 1966. He retained this position until official retirement in 1988. He remained at Imperial College as Visiting Professor until 1996.
Roth's lectures were usually very clear but could occasionally be erratic. The Mathematics Genealogy Project lists him as having only two doctoral students, but one of them, William Chen, who continued Roth's work in discrepancy theory, became a Fellow of the Australian Mathematical Society and head of the mathematics department at Macquarie University.
### Personal life
In 1955, Roth married Mélèk Khaïry, who had attracted his attention when she was a student in his first lecture; Khaïry was a daughter of Egyptian senator Khaïry Pacha She came to work for the psychology department at University College London, where she published research on the effects of toxins on rats. On Roth's retirement, they moved to Inverness; Roth dedicated a room of their house to Latin dancing, a shared interest of theirs. Khaïry died in 2002, and Roth died in Inverness on 10 November 2015 at the age of 90. They had no children, and Roth dedicated the bulk of his estate, over one million pounds, to two health charities "to help elderly and infirm people living in the city of Inverness". He sent the Fields Medal with a smaller bequest to Peterhouse.
## Contributions
Roth was known as a problem-solver in mathematics, rather than as a theory-builder. Harold Davenport writes that the "moral in Dr Roth's work" is that "the great unsolved problems of mathematics may still yield to direct attack, however difficult and forbidding they appear to be, and however much effort has already been spent on them". His research interests spanned several topics in number theory, discrepancy theory, and the theory of integer sequences.
### Diophantine approximation
The subject of Diophantine approximation seeks accurate approximations of irrational numbers by rational numbers. The question of how accurately algebraic numbers could be approximated became known as the Thue–Siegel problem, after previous progress on this question by Axel Thue and Carl Ludwig Siegel. The accuracy of approximation can be measured by the approximation exponent of a number $x$, defined as the largest number $e$ such that $x$ has infinitely many rational approximations $p/q$ with $|x-p/q|<1/q^e$. If the approximation exponent is large, then $x$ has more accurate approximations than a number whose exponent is smaller. The smallest possible approximation exponent is two: even the hardest-to-approximate numbers can be approximated with exponent two using continued fractions. Before Roth's work, it was believed that the algebraic numbers could have a larger approximation exponent, related to the degree of the polynomial defining the number.
In 1955, Roth published what is now known as Roth's theorem, completely settling this question. His theorem falsified the supposed connection between approximation exponent and degree, and proved that, in terms of the approximation exponent, the algebraic numbers are the least accurately approximated of any irrational numbers. More precisely, he proved that for irrational algebraic numbers, the approximation exponent is always exactly two. In a survey of Roth's work presented by Harold Davenport to the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1958, when Roth was given the Fields Medal, Davenport called this result Roth's "greatest achievement".
### Arithmetic combinatorics
Another result called "Roth's theorem", from 1953, is in arithmetic combinatorics and concerns sequences of integers with no three in arithmetic progression. These sequences had been studied in 1936 by Paul Erdős and Pál Turán, who conjectured that they must be sparse. However, in 1942, Raphaël Salem and Donald C. Spencer constructed progression-free subsets of the numbers from $1$ to $n$ of size proportional to $n^{1-\varepsilon}$, for every $\varepsilon>0$.
Roth vindicated Erdős and Turán by proving that it is not possible for the size of such a set to be proportional to $n$: every dense set of integers contains a three-term arithmetic progression. His proof uses techniques from analytic number theory including the Hardy–Littlewood circle method to estimate the number of progressions in a given sequence and show that, when the sequence is dense enough, this number is nonzero.
Other authors later strengthened Roth's bound on the size of progression-free sets. A strengthening in a different direction, Szemerédi's theorem, shows that dense sets of integers contain arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions.
### Discrepancy
Although Roth's work on Diophantine approximation led to the highest recognition for him, it is his research on irregularities of distribution that (according to an obituary by William Chen and Bob Vaughan) he was most proud of. His 1954 paper on this topic laid the foundations for modern discrepancy theory. It concerns the placement of $n$ points in a unit square so that, for every rectangle bounded between the origin and a point of the square, the area of the rectangle is well-approximated by the number of points in it.
Roth measured this approximation by the squared difference between the number of points and $n$ times the area, and proved that for a randomly chosen rectangle the expected value of the squared difference is logarithmic in $n$. This result is best possible, and significantly improved a previous bound on the same problem by Tatyana Pavlovna Ehrenfest. Despite the prior work of Ehrenfest and Johannes van der Corput on the same problem, Roth was known for boasting that this result "started a subject".
### Other topics
Some of Roth's earliest works included a 1949 paper on sums of powers, showing that almost all positive integers could be represented as a sum of a square, a cube, and a fourth power, and a 1951 paper on the gaps between squarefree numbers, describes as "quite sensational" and "of considerable importance" respectively by Chen and Vaughan. His inaugural lecture at Imperial College concerned the large sieve: bounding the size of sets of integers from which many congruence classes of numbers modulo prime numbers have been forbidden. Roth had previously published a paper on this problem in 1965.
Another of Roth's interests was the Heilbronn triangle problem, of placing points in a square to avoid triangles of small area. His 1951 paper on the problem was the first to prove a nontrivial upper bound on the area that can be achieved. He eventually published four papers on this problem, the latest in 1976. Roth also made significant progress on square packing in a square. If unit squares are packed into an $s\times s$ square in the obvious, axis-parallel way, then for values of $s$ that are just below an integer, nearly $2s$ area can be left uncovered. After Paul Erdős and Ronald Graham proved that a more clever tilted packing could leave a significantly smaller area, only $O(s^{7/11})$, Roth and Bob Vaughan responded with a 1978 paper proving the first nontrivial lower bound on the problem. As they showed, for some values of $s$, the uncovered area must be at least proportional to $\sqrt{s}$.
In 1966, Heini Halberstam and Roth published their book Sequences, on integer sequences. Initially planned to be the first of a two-volume set, its topics included the densities of sums of sequences, bounds on the number of representations of integers as sums of members of sequences, density of sequences whose sums represent all integers, sieve theory and the probabilistic method, and sequences in which no element is a multiple of another. A second edition was published in 1983.
## Recognition
Roth won the Fields Medal in 1958 for his work on Diophantine approximation. He was the first British Fields medalist. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1960, and later became an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Fellow of University College London, Fellow of Imperial College London, and Honorary Fellow of Peterhouse. It was a source of amusement to him that his Fields Medal, election to the Royal Society, and professorial chair came to him in the reverse order of their prestige.
The London Mathematical Society gave Roth the De Morgan Medal in 1983. In 1991, the Royal Society gave him their Sylvester Medal "for his many contributions to number theory and in particular his solution of the famous problem concerning approximating algebraic numbers by rationals."
A festschrift of 32 essays on topics related to Roth's research was published in 2009, in honour of Roth's 80th birthday, and in 2017 the editors of the journal Mathematika dedicated a special issue to Roth. After Roth's death, the Imperial College Department of Mathematics instituted the Roth Scholarship in his honour.
## Selected publications
### Journal papers
### Book
- A second edition was published in 1983 by Springer-Verlag. |
8,594,116 | Dick in a Box | 1,161,166,004 | null | [
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| "Dick in a Box" is a song by the American comedy group The Lonely Island featuring American singer Justin Timberlake. The trio—Andy Samberg, Akiva Schaffer, and Jorma Taccone—co-wrote the song with Timberlake, Katreese Barnes, and Asa Taccone. Barnes and Asa Taccone co-produced it with Jorma Taccone. Saturday Night Live (SNL) creator and producer Lorne Michaels asked Samberg to write a musical sketch for the 2006 Christmas episode with Timberlake, who was returning as both host and musical guest. Samberg developed the concept with other members of the group before working with Timberlake on December 14. They recorded the track around midnight and spent the next day and a half filming the corresponding music video.
The sketch depicts two early 1990s R&B singers, played by Samberg and Timberlake, singing a holiday song about making a Christmas gift for their girlfriends of their penises in boxes. The sketch premiered on SNL as a Digital Short on December 16, 2006. The word "dick" was bleeped 16 times following an agreement with the Federal Communications Commission. SNL producers published an uncensored version of the sketch online right after its broadcast debut, a decision criticized by the Parents Television Council. In 2009, the song was released digitally as a single and included on The Lonely Island's debut studio album, Incredibad.
"Dick in a Box" became a viral hit on the internet, and had generated more than 28 million views on YouTube by October 2007. The song received generally positive reviews from both television and music critics, who praised its raunchy humor and Timberlake's performance. "Dick in a Box" has been recognized retrospectively as The Lonely Island's signature song and one of the best Christmas-themed SNL sketches. The track won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics in 2007, and appeared on the Australian and Canadian single charts in 2009. Samberg and Timberlake reprised their roles in two Digital Shorts sequels, "Motherlover" (2009) and "3-Way (The Golden Rule)" (2011).
## Background
Akiva Schaffer, Andy Samberg, and Jorma Taccone met while attending junior high together in Berkeley, California. They decided to move to Los Angeles in September 2000 and formed the comedy trio The Lonely Island, named after the nickname they gave to the apartment they shared. They hosted several short films on their website before signing to the variety show Saturday Night Live (SNL) in late August 2005. Samberg was promoted as a performing member for the 32nd season, while Taccone and Schaffer joined the show as writers. In December, the trio wrote and recorded "Lazy Sunday" with fellow cast member Chris Parnell, which was broadcast as their second Digital Short. The gangsta rap song received over five million views on YouTube by February 2006, becoming the first television clip to go viral on the online video platform. The track's popularity contributed to the success of YouTube and reintroduced SNL to a younger audience.
Justin Timberlake first appeared on SNL as a musical guest in 2000, performing as a member of the American boy band NSYNC. He subsequently appeared as both host and musical guest in an episode in October 2003, in which he demonstrated his acting potential with an impression of Jessica Simpson and his work with Jimmy Fallon on The Barry Gibb Talk Show sketch. "Hosting SNL was something I'd always wanted to do. The show allowed me to play to my strengths—mixing music with comedy seemed like a way into that world", Timberlake recalled. After the show, he received several acting offers and spent the next two years launching his acting career. He shot four films, including Edison Force (2005) and Alpha Dog (2006), before working on his second studio album FutureSex/LoveSounds (2006). In late November 2006, Timberlake announced his return to SNL for the December 16 episode as host and musical guest.
## Writing and recording
On December 12, 2006, when Timberlake was on track to host SNL for the second time, creator and executive producer Lorne Michaels asked Samberg to try writing a funny skit to showcase Timberlake's singing skills. Although the writing team originally came up with a different idea, Michaels insisted they exploit more of Timberlake's musical side. Inspired by the music they grew up listening to, members of The Lonely Island wanted to write an early 1990s R&B song that was similar to the work of Jodeci, R. Kelly, the Isley Brothers, LeVert, and H-Town. That night, they contacted associate music director Katreese Barnes to help them work on the song; she was later credited as a songwriter and producer. Samberg felt the concept of imitating a 1990s-style band was "a perfect fit" for Timberlake, who was a member of a boy band.
The concept of the track was not decided until December 14, when Jorma came up with the "dick in a box" premise. Once the trio agreed the concept was funny enough, they presented a rough draft of the song to Timberlake. A fan of 1990s-style music, Timberlake immediately accepted the song. He was the only one who was confident about the sketch. The trio was having doubts about the crass joke and the bygone musical concept. Timberlake felt it was important to make the song "really singable" and suggested several changes to "Dick in a Box". He came up with the hook and the line "Mid-day at the grocery store", while adding pauses to make the song more catchy. Schaffer suggested adding the three steps of making the box into the lyrics. Samberg, who was feeling nervous when working on the idea with Timberlake, said the singer "took the reigns [sic] and schooled us on how to record and make it sound fantastic". The writers finished writing the lyrics within two hours.
Like other SNL sketches, "Dick in a Box" was recorded and produced in a very short time. Samberg and Timberlake recorded their voice track for two hours around midnight on December 14-15, right after finishing the lyrics. They used special equipment, including a \$500 microphone, in Samberg's office. Timberlake recalled the crew were laughing frantically during the production and that the "delirium of no sleep" contributed to the song's humor. Although Samberg's voice cracked a few times, Timberlake's easygoing attitude made him more relaxed throughout the recording session. Asa Taccone, Jorma's brother, worked on the track in Los Angeles while the other writers were in New York City. Initially, Jorma gave his brother the specific outline of the track for him to work with, which Asa described as a "cheesy, 90s, Color Me Badd type track". Asa then sent the writers several instrumental tracks and went through each beat with them during phone calls. He was nervous working with Timberlake and felt the process was chaotic because of the limited work time. "It was semi-terrifying having [Timberlake] listen to my stuff. I was a kid back then. I'm sure the stuff I was playing was mostly terrible," Asa said. NBC was not originally aware of his contribution to the track, so Jorma paid him \$60 for it.
## Music video
After listening to the finished audio track, Barnes felt it would "be a big hit" if they had an equally funny video for it. The music video for "Dick in a Box" was filmed in New York City in a day and a half. The crew spent December 15 filming the video. Timberlake left occasionally to prepare for the show; they finished the session at 3:00 AM the following morning. Schaffer directed the video with Jorma's assistance. Indoor scenes were filmed in Studio 8H, SNL's permanent set. Timberlake and Samberg sported wigs and fake short beards for the video.
Schaffer felt the filming process was both frightening and funny, saying, "We knew it was a really dumb idea and we weren't sure if we were even gonna get away with it on the air, but once we were actually making it, it was just super fun!" Members of The Lonely Island wanted to do the filming as quickly as they could, since Timberlake was busy with other hosting gigs and sketches. Kristen Wiig and Maya Rudolph played the duo's lovers. Wiig felt the song would be a hit after hearing it and seeing the film set. It was not until 4:00 PM on December 16, less than eight hours before it was to go live, that the video was ready to be shown to NBC executive Rick Ludwin.
The video begins with Samberg and Rudolph sitting in front of a fireplace. Samberg says he has a Christmas gift for her and instructs her to "just sit down and listen". The balladeers are wearing silk suits, jewel-toned rayon shirts, herringbone chains, trimmed goatees, and sunglasses. The men each give their lovers a box with their penis inside as a present, and ask them to open it and look inside. The singers stroke their goatees and pose with each displaying a gift-wrapped box attached to his groin. Their girlfriends seem aroused and excited by their presents, while the men aggressively rub roses and feathers in the women's faces. Near the chorus, the men sing about how their presents are better than other gifts, such as diamond rings, fancy cars, or luxury houses. The duo suggest their present is suitable for all holidays, including Christmas, Hanukkah, and Kwanzaa. At one point, they give step-by-step instructions on how to create the gift.
> > It's easy to do, just follow these steps: 1. Cut a hole in a box. 2. Put your junk in that box. 3. Make her open the box. And that's the way you do it.
The video cuts between scenes of Samberg and Timberlake dancing and singing in various urban landscapes—in a park, on a ferry in front of the East River, and on a basketball court, where Timberlake is seen hanging from a basketball hoop with a gift box on his crotch. At the end of the video, the men sing about giving the present on multiple occasions—at their parents' houses, the grocery store, and backstage at the Country Music Association Awards—while being arrested by the New York City Police Department (NYPD), presumably for indecent exposure.
## Composition
"Dick in a Box" is an R&B song with a runtime of 2:41. According to Universal Music Publishing Group's digital sheet music for the song, "Dick in a Box" is composed in the key of C minor and set in common time signature, with a moderately slow groove of 80 beats per minute. The vocals span two octaves, from C<sub>4</sub> up to C<sub>6</sub>. Music critics compared the track to the work of Color Me Badd, noting the song's spoken-word breakdown and the way the last syllables of the refrain go increasingly up. Idolator's Noah wrote the track is a "slightly more up-front–and generously Yuletide-themed" version of Color Me Badd's "I Wanna Sex You Up" (1991). Critics also found the R&B track was influenced by American groups New Kids on the Block, Hall & Oates, and Backstreet Boys.
David Jeffries of AllMusic described "Dick in a Box" as an imitation of teen pop, while Stephen Saito of Premiere called the slow jam "an ode to the phallic present for all occasions". Chris Mincher of The A.V. Club and Stuart McGurk of GQ viewed it as a midtempo synth rock track that soundtracks a rapidly unfolding horror. "Dick in a Box" has been described as a Christmas song by critics, including Mincher who highlighted its release in the special Christmas episode of SNL. Ross Bonaime of Paste referred to it is a hybrid between "a Christmas song, a '90s R&B parody and a joke about bad gift giving". Believed the sketch qualified as a Christmas film, Matthew Dessem of Slate pointed out the Christmas setting and the theme surrounding Christmas presents, as well as the non-Christmas holidays mentioned in the song all take place around Christmas.
## Premise and themes
The music the songwriters grew up listening to inspired "Dick in a Box". They wanted to make a parody of the members of a 1990s R&B group, who were still stuck in that era. It follows the tone of other songs by The Lonely Island, which focus on mundane characters who express themselves aggressively about their daily lives. The fictional duo was named 2:30 AM, which Timberlake explained is the time (until 5:00 AM) when "really strong lovemaking happens". Despite referring to 1990s R&B style music, Timberlake said the sketch was not "parodying anyone in particular".
Timberlake explained the premise, where the characters genuinely give their genitalia as Christmas presents to their lovers, aimed for comedic effect, while making the characters even more ridiculous. He thought initially the idea was creepy but still pursued it. The premise was based on dick jokes and some men's habit of putting their penises in unusual things. "It's nothing new. Guys have been putting their dicks in boxes since caveman days," Schaffer said. Despite not trying it himself, Samberg had heard stories from other people doing similar things with bad results. Jorma said a scene in the 1982 Barry Levinson film Diner, in which Mickey Rourke's character tricks his date into groping him by placing his penis inside a box of popcorn at a movie theater also inspired the premise. An identical act can be found in a scene of La Boum (1980), directed by Claude Pinoteau. Mincher felt the act was "so absurd (and unexpectedly raunchy) that few watching it live could see it coming".
Critics have offered various interpretations of "Dick in a Box". Penny Spirou in Music in Comedy Television: Notes on Laughs (2017) and Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times viewed the sketch as a satire of "the bad faith of the pandering R&B foreplay songs", which was made to trick a women's desire for comfort, until she "opens that nicely wrapped present". Heffernan also linked the content to Timberlake's public image in the 2000s, saying, "He's all sweet, but he gets what he wants. And no one, not even Janet Jackson, stands in his way... [The audiences] have decided, for now, that he's cooler than they thought." Terry Gross of Fresh Air opined the sketch is a parody of male narcissism, in which the characters suggest "the greatest gift [a man] could give to a lady is a very special lovemaking". She noted the singers emphasize "how great he is, not how much he loves his girlfriend, but really how much he loves himself". Mincher argued that besides the joke about men's obsession with their own genitalia, the sketch pokes fun at several men's gift-giving mistakes. A man believes he is the greatest present his girlfriend could receive, implying a woman should provide sexual favors for her man. He dismisses more expensive presents as superficial. Mincher suggests the sketch is a product of male fantasy detached from the reality of relationships.
## Release
The video for "Dick in a Box" was sent to NBC executive Rick Ludwin after the raw editing had been finished at 4:00 PM on December 16. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) took issue with the actors saying "dick" on-air and wanted to stop the sketch's screening. SNL producers came to an agreement with the FCC that the song could be aired with the word bleeped out. However, since the FCC has no jurisdiction over the content on the internet, the producers asked Ludwin to make the uncensored version available online. Ludwin, who was initially hesitant about the idea, watched the footage with a representative from the NBC legal department. He found the sketch funny and realized that those searching on the internet specifically for the video would not be upset by its content. He sought final approval for the uncensored sketch from Kevin Reilly, the president of NBC Entertainment, and Jeff Zucker, the chief executive of NBCUniversal Television Group—both of whom approved the idea. Editing continued on the video for the rest of the day, in time for its television debut.
"Dick in a Box" premiered as a Digital Short on the Christmas episode of the 32nd season of SNL, which aired on December 16, 2006. NBC bleeped the word "dick" 16 times as agreed with the FCC. After the broadcast concluded at 1:00 AM on December 17, both the censored and uncensored versions of the sketch were made available on NBC's website and YouTube channel, under the heading "Special Treat in a Box" or "Special Christmas Box". A cautionary warning was shown at the beginning of the unbleeped version, while viewers had to affirm they were over 18 to access the video. Besides the official video uploaded by NBC, bootleg copies of the clip were being removed from YouTube at the network's request.
The release made SNL the first scripted comedy show on a broadcast network to use the internet to avoid FCC control over its explicit content. On December 21, the Parents Television Council (PTC) called on NBC and asked the network to explain the decision to post both versions of the song online. L. Brent Bozell, the president of the PTC, said that the video is "a new low for NBC" and the online release "is blatantly irresponsible and unacceptable". In an interview published by The New York Times the same day, Michaels said that posting the equivalent of a "director's cut" of his late-night show on the internet "will be the exception" in the future. He believed other shows and networks would be likely to follow NBC's lead in making inappropriate-for-TV material available online, saying. "Now that the door has been opened, some things will go through it."
Days after "Dick in a Box" was released, Samberg expressed his interest in creating an album full of comedy hip hop and R&B songs. "It's something we've always wanted to do and we've been working on putting it together," Samberg said. Universal Republic released the album, titled Incredibad, on February 10, 2009. The album included 14 new tracks the trio recorded while living together in Encino, Los Angeles, during the summer of 2009. "Dick in a Box" was one of five SNL Digital Shorts on the album, with "Lazy Sunday", "Natalie's Rap", "Ras Trent", and "Space Olympics". This was made possible because of the partnership between NBC and Broadway Video that gave Universal Republic the rights to release these videos. It was the first time these sketches had been released without a laugh track. "We spend so much time getting stuff to sound good... but nobody has ever really heard a clean version of those songs," Jorma said. Before the album's release, the lead single "Jizz in My Pants" was broadcast and released digitally in December 2008, followed by the first-ever digital release of "Dick in a Box" on iTunes and Amazon on January 27, 2009. "Dick in a Box" later appeared on the Saturday Night Live – The Best of '06–'07 extra DVD, released in March 2008.
## Public reaction
The SNL episode received a 5.3/13 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, and attracted seven million American viewers during its initial broadcast, one of the show's highest ratings for a Christmas episode. According to the New York Daily News, less than a week after its online release, the uncensored version of the sketch had been viewed over 320,000 times on NBC's website and 3.5 million times on YouTube. Thanks to a partnership between NBC and YouTube, the video quickly became one of the 20 most-viewed on the site and one of the quickest viral hits of 2006. It generated 7.5 million views in one week at the end of December. According to Bri Holt, founder of the online video analytics site Vidmeter, there were at least 18 identical copies of "Dick in a Box" posted to various YouTube and Google Video accounts, bringing the total views to over 20 million as of February 2007.
The official uncensored video garnered more than 15,000 comments and 28 million views (34.9 million views when combined with other versions) before NBC took down its YouTube channel in preparation for the launch of Hulu on October 21. On December 23, 2008, "Dick in a Box" appeared at number nine on the Guardian Viral Video Chart: Christmas Special showing the year's top viral videos, compiled by The Guardian and viralvideochart.com. An official video of the sketch was uploaded again on YouTube in December 2018, which had garnered 5.5 million views as of April 2020. Following its release as a digital single in January 2009, "Dick in a Box" debuted at number 82 on the Canadian Hot 100 and number 48 on the Billboard Canadian Digital Song Sales chart. Both were The Lonely Island's first entries on the charts. In late June, the single peaked at number 61 on the Australian Singles Chart, the third track from Incredibad to appear on the chart after the top 10 entries "Jizz in My Pants" and "I'm on a Boat". In January 2011, "Dick in a Box" peaked at number eight on the Billboard Comedy Digital Track Sales.
Following the rebroadcast of "Dick in a Box" on SNL, the FCC received several complaints from viewers about the sketch. A report in The Atlantic showed that "Dick in a Box" and "Djesus Uncrossed," a 2013 parody of Django Unchained starring Christoph Waltz, were the most frequent targets of complaint letters sent to the FCC about SNL by viewers from 2012 to 2015. Most of the letters were suspicious of Timberlake's appearance after his part in the Janet Jackson controversy at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show.
## Critical reception
"Dick in a Box" received generally positive reviews from television and music critics. Annie Wu of TV Squad was "laughing [her] head off" while watching the sketch and was impressed with Timberlake's performance. Palmer wrote that Timberlake and Samberg had "given new meaning to 'giving of yourself' and 'package' with the perfect gift for that special someone". Both Wu and Palmer were confused about the sketch's title and content during the broadcast. Palmer called the censored version pointless. Gilbert Cruz of Entertainment Weekly thought the sketch was a nice way "to cap off what has been a fantastic year for [Timberlake]" and suggested SNL should focus more on the Digital Shorts. Tom Hall of IndieWire praised the Digital Short as the highlight of the show, while Mark Lore of News & Review felt the track was Timberlake's best work since "Rock Your Body" (2003). Adam Sternbergh of New York magazine described it as "by far the most hilarious Timberlake–starring, Kwanzaa-referencing, Color Me Badd–parodying, 'put your junk in that box'–instructing short video you will ever see".
Larry Carroll of IGN called the song "the closest to 'Lazy Sunday' that we've seen yet". He praised the "dead-on spoof of that musical time period" and Wiig's brief cameo, and concluded, "Mr. Timberlake brought a very special package to us all this year, and he didn't even have it attached to his crotch." Heffernan said that Timberlake "[sealed] his triumph when he managed to score a cherished asset: a holiday classic". She commended the joke as both mindless fun and imaginative. Several critics chose the sketch as the funniest moment of the episode, including Larry Carroll, Matt Dentler of IndieWire, and a writer from Rap-Up. Joel Keller of TV Squad picked the sketch as one of the best television moments in 2006, while Brian Zoromski of IGN listed the sketch as his favorite Digital Short and the most memorable moment of the year on SNL.
Critics have recognized retrospectively that "Dick in a Box" is one of the best Christmas-themed SNL sketches. Bonaime wrote the sketch is cheerfully egotistical and "might be the pinnacle of the Digital Short's success". Tara Aquino of VH1 labeled the track as "The Christmas Song" for millennials that should "make its way to every station come December 1st". Eric Spitznagel of Vanity Fair wrote the track is as recognizable as Steve Martin's "King Tut" (1978). Jody Rosen of Vulture commended the track as a "sublime cultural artifact that deserves to be in the next time capsule that NASA shoots off toward Jupiter". Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly ranked the track as Timberlake's best moment on SNL, calling it hilarious and "largely responsible for Timberlake's stellar hosting reputation". Billboard hailed it as one of the show's best musical moments, along with "Lazy Sunday". Rolling Stone listed the skit at number three on their 50 Greatest Saturday Night Live Sketches of All Time list, calling it Timberlake's best song post-FutureSex/LoveSounds.
On July 19, 2007, it was announced that "Dick in a Box" had received a nomination for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics. Other nominees in the category included "My Drunken Irish Dad" (from Family Guy), "Merry Ex-Mas" (from MADtv), "Everything Comes Down to Poo", and "Guy Love" (both from Scrubs). The songwriters won the award at the 59th Primetime Creative Arts ceremony on September 8. "Dick in a Box" was credited for setting a precedent for more explicit material to earn nominations and win in the Emmy music-related categories.
## Live performances and usage in media
On February 7, 2007, Timberlake and Samberg gave a surprise performance of "Dick in a Box" for the first time at the Madison Square Garden during Timberlake's concert tour FutureSex/LoveShow. The duo sang in front of a sold-out stadium of 18,000 people, including rapper P. Diddy, Donald Trump and his wife Melania. They performed the track as an encore, beginning with an announcer introducing them as a new band that had "the most-watched video on YouTube". The singers wore the characters' costumes and facial hair from the sketch, with a gift box attached below the belt. Samberg changed the holiday lyrics to "Valentine's Day... Flag Day... Kwanzaa", while Timberlake was giggling as he delivered the deadpan lines. At one point, Timberlake fell on his knee and sang the line "All across America, a dick in a box." After the song, Timberlake came back onstage and apologized, "I'm sorry if I offended some of you, but I could not resist."
Billboard felt the surprise performance "was hilarious if wholly unnecessary". Caryn Ganz of MTV wrote that the singers struggled with the nasal vocal performance and the song "landed a bit awkwardly in context". Ganz, however, noted that the audience "went truly berserk" with the performance. Amelia McDonell-Parry of Rolling Stone wrote "Samberg hardly has the pipes to fill an arena, but no one seemed to mind." Timberlake, who was absent during the Primetime Creative Arts ceremony on September 8, celebrated after being notified of his Emmy win by performing a piano rendition of the song at the Tacoma Dome, Washington. Samberg was willing to perform "Dick in a Box" with Timberlake at the main 59th Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony, held in Los Angeles on September 16. The Emmy Awards producers were reportedly unsure about airing the explicit content and asked the duo to come up with a more family-friendly version of the track. The singers rejected the idea, and the performance was canceled.
The online release of "Dick in a Box" resulted in many users filming response videos on YouTube, in which they either present their own gift box or give instructions on how to do the box. Leah Kauffman, who was a Temple University student, wrote and recorded a parody from the female perspective of the sketch, titled "My Box in a Box". The track's music video showed a woman lip sync to Kauffman's vocals and dance around with a gift-wrapped box in front of her crotch. The video had attracted more than three million views by January 2007. American band Umphrey's McGee covered "Dick in a Box" as an encore on December 31, 2006, at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago. In "Koi Pond", an episode of the sixth season of the American comedy television series The Office, Michael Scott (portrayed by Steve Carell) dresses in a suit similar to Samberg and Timberlake's characters, with a box wrapped as a present attached to his waist, while slipping a noose around his neck and faking a hanging to scare a group of young visitors. On an episode of The Ellen DeGeneres Show, aired in January 2007, Ellen DeGeneres performed a jingle for AQUA2GO water drink boxes to the tune of "Dick in a Box". The following month, Facebook created a virtual gift shop for Valentine's Day that included a box with a bow on top and a hole cut into one of its sides.
## Impact
Like "Lazy Sunday", "Dick in a Box" has found a wider audience during its online release than the initial television broadcast. The sketch, which has been rebroadcast over the years, has become one of the most popular SNL sketches and widely recognized as one of The Lonely Island's signature songs. The viral video helped solidify The Lonely Island as a stand-alone comic act. In an interview with Esquire in 2013, Samberg said, "[Michaels] says the thing you're known for will be in quotes in the middle of your name. He's Lorne 'SNL' Michaels, and I'm Andy 'Dick in a Box' Samberg." Terri Schwartz of IFC opined "'Lazy Sunday' might have been the first Lonely Island Digital Short to be featured on SNL, but it was 'Dick in a Box' that made the Digital Short one of the most anticipated skits on the improv series." Many people have since chosen costumes similar to those of Timberlake and Samberg for Halloween. Samberg was flattered by the costume trend, while Wiig was astonished by it, saying, "It was crazy. So I did expect it because I knew it was funny, but you never expect the level to which it goes." Samberg and Timberlake's costumes are also displayed at Saturday Night Live: The Exhibition, an exhibition about a week in the show's life on New York's Fifth Avenue.
Jorma recalled the working experience with Timberlake has become their standard, saying, "Getting to work with someone as wildly talented as Justin Timberlake, getting to spend maybe four days with him... That was amazing." "Dick in a Box" has inspired many subsequent sketches by The Lonely Island, including the similar-themed "Jizz In My Pants" and "I Just Had Sex", and has spawned two sequels, where Timberlake and Samberg reprised their roles. In "Motherlover" (2009), broadcast during the 34th season, the duo sings about their desire to have sex with each other's mothers (played by Patricia Clarkson and Susan Sarandon) as a tribute to Mother's Day. They find themselves invited to a threesome with a girl they met at the Payless ShoeSource (played by Lady Gaga) in season 36's "3-Way (The Golden Rule)" (2011). "Motherlover" was released as a single in 2011 and appeared on The Lonely Island's second studio album, Turtleneck & Chain (2011); while "3-Way (The Golden Rule)" was digitally released after the broadcast and appeared on the third studio album, The Wack Album (2013). The duo also re-appeared on the special 100th Digital Short, which was broadcast in season 37 in May 2012.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Incredibad.
Studio locations
- Mixed at Ansons Pocket Studio (Yorktown Heights, New York)
- Mastered at The Cutting Room (New York City, New York)
Personnel
- Andy Samberg – lead vocals, songwriting
- Akiva Schaffer – songwriting
- Jorma Taccone – songwriting, producer
- Asa Taccone – songwriting, producer
- Justin Timberlake – lead vocals, songwriting
- Katreese Barnes – songwriting, producer
- Brian Sperber – mixing
- Tony Gillis – mastering
## Charts
## Release history |
15,892,507 | Electric (Robyn song) | 1,158,904,774 | null | [
"1999 singles",
"1999 songs",
"Funk songs",
"Robyn songs",
"Song recordings produced by Ghost (production team)",
"Songs written by Johan Ekhé",
"Songs written by Robyn",
"Songs written by Ulf Lindström",
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]
| "Electric" is a song by Swedish singer Robyn from her second studio album, My Truth (1999). It was released as the album's lead single on 29 April 1999 by BMG Sweden. Robyn wrote the track in collaboration with its producers Ulf Lindström and Johan Ekhé. The single artwork features the singer wearing a feather headpiece designed by Sebastian Wahl. Musically, "Electric" is an electronic funk song, and the lyrics address unexpected life events that make one feel alive.
"Electric" was hailed by music critics as a highlight on My Truth. It achieved commercial success in Sweden, with a peak position of number six on the Sverigetopplistan chart and a gold certification by the Swedish Recording Industry Association (GLF). Though it was initially planned to be serviced internationally, "Electric" and its parent album were not released outside of Sweden due to a dispute between Robyn and her overseas label RCA Records.
## Background and composition
"Electric" was written by Robyn, Ulf Lindström and Johan Ekhé. Lindström and Ekhé recorded Robyn's vocals and produced the track at Lifeline Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. Lindström and Patrik Berger played the guitar, while all other instruments as well as mixing were handled by Lindström and Ekhé. Hernan "Boogie" Donoso served as an assistant engineer and Björn Engelmann mastered the song at Cutting Room Studios in Stockholm. "Electric" is an electronic funk song with elements of R&B and reggae music. It uses positive and negative energy as metaphors for the close relationship between love and hate. In a chat room provided by Swedish tabloid newspaper Aftonbladet, Robyn elaborated on the lyrical matter of the song when asked by a fan; she stated that it is about unexpected events in life, both good and bad, that are "fantastic" and make one feel alive.
## Release and promotion
"Electric" was sent to Swedish radio stations on 22 March 1999. Robyn first performed the song on the televised Miss Sweden beauty pageant at the Stockholm Concert Hall on 27 March 1999. The single was released on 29 April 1999 in CD format by BMG Sweden, as the lead single for the singer's second studio effort My Truth (1999). Eric Broms photographed the single cover art which features Robyn wearing a feather headpiece designed by Sebastian Wahl. The single release contains both the radio edit and the extended album version, which includes a 90-second intro. The maxi single includes the radio edit and remixes by Mad Professor, Internal Dread and Berger. A music video was made to promote the single. The video is set in a club where Robyn, wearing all-white clothing, is dancing and singing in the centre.
RCA Records, Robyn's international label at the time, planned to release "Electric" in the United States in September 1999, followed by the album in January 2000. The label wanted Robyn to re-record portions of the album as certain aspects reflected on the singer's abortion, a topic deemed unsuitable for the American market and pop radio. When she refused to make alterations, the two parties were unable to reach a compromise and My Truth and its singles were left unreleased outside of Sweden.
## Reception
"Electric" received favorable reviews from music critics. While reviewing My Truth, a writer for Nöjesguiden particularly commended the single and "Main Thing". The writer praised the extended intro of "Electric", calling the first 90 seconds "magical". John Lucas of AllMusic deemed the single a stand-out and described it as "distinctive" and "minimal". Aftonbladet's Per Bjurman praised the electronic funk sound. Göteborgs-Posten's Patrik Lindgren appreciated that the album was not fitted to the American market, which he found apparent with "Electric".
"Electric" made its debut on the Sverigetopplistan singles chart at number eight on 22 April 1999. The next week, it ascended to acquire a peak position at number six. It became Robyn's third top-ten single on the chart, following "Do You Really Want Me (Show Respect)" and "Do You Know (What It Takes)". "Electric" stayed in the top-ten for four weeks, and remained on the chart for fourteen weeks in total. On 18 May 1999, it received a gold certification by the Swedish Recording Industry Association (GLF) for sales of 15,000 units. The single was placed at number 53 on the chart's year-end list of 1999. The track was the sixth most-played song of 1999 on Sveriges Radio P3.
## Track listings
- CD single
1. "Electric" (radio edit) – 3:46
2. "Electric" (extended) – 5:09
- CD maxi single
1. "Electric" (radio edit) – 3:46
2. "Electric" (Mad Professor Shocking mix) – 5:14
3. "Electric" (Mad Professor High Voltage dub) – 5:18
4. "Electric" (Rub-A-Dub Roots dub) – 4:41
5. "Electric" (Patrik Berger Alchemist remix) – 5:52
## Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of "Electric".
Recording
- Produced, arranged, recorded and mixed at Lifeline Studios (Stockholm, Sweden)
- Mastered at Cutting Room Studios (Stockholm, Sweden)
Personnel
- Robyn – songwriting
- Ulf Lindström – arrangement, guitar, instruments, mixing, production, recording
- Johan Ekhé – arrangement, instruments, mixing, production, recording
- Patrik Berger – guitar
- Hernan "Boogie" Donoso – assistant engineering
- Björn Engelmann – mastering
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history |
20,952 | Mobile, Alabama | 1,173,318,767 | City in Alabama, United States | [
"1702 establishments in New France",
"Alabama placenames of Native American origin",
"Cities in Alabama",
"Cities in Mobile County, Alabama",
"Colonial United States (Spanish)",
"County seats in Alabama",
"Former colonial and territorial capitals in the United States",
"French-American culture in Alabama",
"Mobile metropolitan area",
"Mobile, Alabama",
"Populated coastal places in Alabama",
"Populated places established in 1702",
"Port cities and towns of the United States Gulf Coast"
]
| Mobile (/moʊˈbiːl/ moh-BEEL, ) is a city and the county seat of Mobile County, Alabama, United States. The population within the city limits was 187,041 at the 2020 census, down from 195,111 at the 2010 census. After a successful vote to annex areas west of the city limits in July 2023, Mobile's population increased to 204,689 residents. It is now the second-most-populous city in Alabama, after Huntsville.
Alabama's only saltwater port, Mobile is located on the Mobile River at the head of Mobile Bay on the north-central Gulf Coast. The Port of Mobile has always played a key role in the economic health of the city, beginning with the settlement as an important trading center between the French colonists and Native Americans, down to its current role as the 12th-largest port in the United States.
Mobile is the principal municipality of the Mobile metropolitan area. This region of 430,197 residents is composed of Mobile and Washington counties; it is the third-largest metropolitan statistical area in the state. Mobile is the largest city in the Mobile–Daphne−Fairhope Combined Statistical Area, with a total population of 661,964, the second largest such area fully in the state.
Mobile was founded in 1702 by the French as the first capital of Louisiana. During its first 100 years, Mobile was a colony of France, then Great Britain, and lastly Spain. Mobile became a part of the United States in 1813, with the annexation by President James Madison of West Florida from Spain.
During the American Civil War, the city surrendered to Federal forces on April 12, 1865, after Union victories at two forts protecting the city. This, along with the news of Johnston's surrender negotiations with Sherman, led General Richard Taylor to seek a meeting with his Union counterpart, Maj. Gen. Edward R. S. Canby. The two generals met several miles north of Mobile on May 2. After agreeing to a 48-hour truce, the generals enjoyed an al fresco luncheon of food, drink, and lively music. Canby offered Taylor the same terms agreed upon between Lee and Grant at Appomattox. Taylor accepted the terms and surrendered his command on May 4 at Citronelle, Alabama.
Considered one of the Gulf Coast's cultural centers, Mobile has several art museums, a symphony orchestra, professional opera, professional ballet company, and a large concentration of historic architecture. Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Carnival or Mardi Gras celebrations in the United States. Alabama's French Creole population celebrated this festival from the first decade of the 18th century. Beginning in 1830, Mobile was host to the first formally organized Carnival mystic society to celebrate with a parade in the United States. (In New Orleans, such a group is called a krewe.)
## Etymology
The city gained its name from the Mobile tribe that the French colonists encountered living in the area of Mobile Bay. Although it is debated by Alabama historians, they may have been descendants of the Native American tribe whose small fortress town, Mabila, was used to conceal several thousand native warriors before an attack in 1540 on the expedition of Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto. About seven years after the founding of the French Mobile settlement, the Mobile tribe, along with the Tohomé, gained permission from the colonists to settle near the fort.
## History
### Colonial
The European settlement of Mobile began with French colonists, who in 1702 constructed Fort Louis de la Louisiane, at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff on the Mobile River, as the first capital of the French colony of La Louisiane. It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, to establish control over France's claims to La Louisiane. Bienville was appointed as royal governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobile's Roman Catholic parish was established on July 20, 1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, Bishop of Quebec. The parish was the first French Catholic parish established on the Gulf Coast of the United States.
In 1704, the ship Pélican delivered 23 Frenchwomen to the colony; passengers had contracted yellow fever at a stop in Havana. Though most of the "Pélican girls" recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans contracted the disease in turn and many died. This early period was also the occasion of the importation of the first African slaves, transported aboard a French supply ship from the French colony of Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, where they had first been held. The population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet shrinking to 178 persons two years later due to disease.
These additional outbreaks of disease and a series of floods resulted in Bienville ordering in 1711 that the settlement be relocated several miles downriver to its present location at the confluence of the Mobile River and Mobile Bay. A new earth-and-palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time. By 1712, when Antoine Crozat was appointed to take over administration of the colony, its population had reached 400 persons.
The capital of La Louisiane was moved in 1720 to Biloxi, leaving Mobile to serve as a regional military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new brick fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon.
In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years' War, which Britain won, defeating France. By this treaty, France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain. This area was made a part of the expanded British West Florida colony. The British changed the name of Fort Condé to Fort Charlotte, after Queen Charlotte.
The British were eager not to lose any useful inhabitants and promised religious tolerance to the French colonists; ultimately 112 French colonists remained in Mobile. The first permanent Jewish settlers came to Mobile in 1763 as a result of the new British rule and religious tolerance. Jews had not been allowed to officially reside in colonial French Louisiana due to the Code Noir, a decree passed by France's King Louis XIV in 1685 that forbade the exercise of any religion other than Roman Catholicism, and ordered all Jews out of France's colonies. Most of these colonial-era Jews in Mobile were merchants and traders from Sephardic Jewish communities in Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina; they added to the commercial development of Mobile. In 1766 the total population was estimated to be 860, though the town's borders were smaller than during the French colonial period. During the American Revolutionary War, West Florida and Mobile became a refuge for loyalists fleeing the other colonies.
While the British were dealing with their rebellious colonists along the Atlantic coast, the Spanish entered the war in 1779 as an ally of France. They took the opportunity to order Bernardo de Galvez, Governor of Louisiana, on an expedition east to retake West Florida. He captured Mobile during the Battle of Fort Charlotte in 1780, as part of this campaign. The Spanish wished to eliminate any British threat to their Louisiana colony west of the Mississippi River, which they had received from France in the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Their actions were condoned by the revolting American colonies, partially evidenced by the presence of Oliver Pollack, representative of the American Continental Congress. Due to strong trade ties, many residents of Mobile and West Florida remained loyal to the British Crown. The Spanish renamed the fort as Fortaleza Carlota, and held Mobile as a part of Spanish West Florida until 1813, when it was seized by United States General James Wilkinson during the War of 1812.
### 19th century
By the time Mobile was included in the Mississippi Territory in 1813, the population had dwindled to roughly 300 people. The city was included in the Alabama Territory in 1817, after Mississippi gained statehood. Alabama was granted statehood in 1819; Mobile's population had increased to 809 by that time.
Mobile was well situated for trade, as its location tied it to a river system that served as the principal navigational access for most of Alabama and a large part of Mississippi. River transportation was aided by the introduction of steamboats in the early decades of the 19th century. By 1822, the city's population had risen to 2,800.
The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain created shortages of cotton, driving up prices on world markets. Much land well suited to growing cotton lies in the vicinity of the Mobile River, and its main tributaries the Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers. A plantation economy using slave labor developed in the region and as a consequence Mobile's population quickly grew. It came to be settled by attorneys, cotton factors, doctors, merchants and other professionals seeking to capitalize on trade with the upriver areas.
From the 1830s onward, Mobile expanded into a city of commerce with a primary focus on the cotton and slave trades. Many slaves were transported by ship in the coastwise slave trade from the Upper South. There were many businesses in the city related to the slave trade – people to make clothes, food, and supplies for the slave traders and their wards. The city's booming businesses attracted merchants from the North; by 1850 10% of its population was from New York City, which was deeply involved in the cotton industry. Mobile was the slave-trading center of the state until the 1850s, when it was surpassed by Montgomery.
The prosperity stimulated a building boom that was underway by the mid-1830s, with the building of some of the most elaborate structures the city had seen up to that point. This was cut short in part by the Panic of 1837 and yellow fever epidemics. The waterfront was developed with wharves, terminal facilities, and fireproof brick warehouses. The exports of cotton grew in proportion to the amounts being produced in the Black Belt; by 1840 Mobile was second only to New Orleans in cotton exports in the nation.
With the economy so focused on one crop, Mobile's fortunes were always tied to those of cotton, and the city weathered many financial crises. Mobile slaveholders owned relatively few slaves compared to planters in the upland plantation areas, but many households had domestic slaves, and many other slaves worked on the waterfront and on riverboats. The last slaves to enter the United States from the African trade were brought to Mobile on the slave ship Clotilda. Among them was Cudjoe Lewis, who in the 1920s became the last survivor of the slave trade.
By 1853, fifty Jewish families lived in Mobile, including Philip Phillips, an attorney from Charleston, South Carolina, who was elected to the Alabama State Legislature and then to the United States Congress. Many early Jewish families were descendants of Sephardic Jews who had been among the earliest colonial settlers in Charleston and Savannah.
By 1860 Mobile's population within the city limits had reached 29,258 people; it was the 27th-largest city in the United States and 4th-largest in what would soon be the Confederate States of America. The free population in the whole of Mobile County, including the city, consisted of 29,754 citizens, of which 1,195 were free people of color. Additionally, 1,785 slave owners in the county held 11,376 people in bondage, about one-quarter of the total county population of 41,130 people.
During the American Civil War, Mobile was a Confederate city. The H. L. Hunley, the first submarine to sink an enemy ship, was built in Mobile. One of the most famous naval engagements of the war was the Battle of Mobile Bay, resulting in the Union taking control of Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864. On April 12, 1865, three days after Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse, the city surrendered to the Union army to avoid destruction after Union victories at nearby Spanish Fort and Fort Blakely.
On May 25, 1865, the city suffered great loss when some three hundred people died as a result of an explosion at a federal ammunition depot on Beauregard Street. The explosion left a 30-foot (9 m) deep hole at the depot's location, and sank ships docked on the Mobile River; the resulting fires destroyed the northern portion of the city.
Federal Reconstruction in Mobile began after the Civil War and effectively ended in 1874 when the local Democrats gained control of the city government. The last quarter of the 19th century was a time of economic depression and municipal insolvency for Mobile. One example can be provided by the value of Mobile's exports during this period of depression. The value of exports leaving the city fell from \$9 million in 1878 to \$3 million in 1882.
### 20th century
The turn of the 20th century brought the Progressive Era to Mobile. The economic structure developed with new industries, generating new jobs and attracting a significant increase in population. The population increased from around 40,000 in 1900 to 60,000 by 1920. During this time the city received \$3 million in federal grants for harbor improvements to deepen the shipping channels. During and after World War I, manufacturing became increasingly vital to Mobile's economic health, with shipbuilding and steel production being two of the most important industries.
During this time, social justice and race relations in Mobile worsened, however. The state passed a new constitution in 1901 that disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites; and the white Democratic-dominated legislature passed other discriminatory legislation. In 1902, the city government passed Mobile's first racial segregation ordinance, segregating the city streetcars. It legislated what had been informal practice, enforced by convention. Mobile's African-American population responded to this with a two-month boycott, but the law was not repealed. After this, Mobile's de facto segregation was increasingly replaced with legislated segregation as whites imposed Jim Crow laws to maintain supremacy.
In 1911 the city adopted a commission form of government, which had three members elected by at-large voting. Considered to be progressive, as it would reduce the power of ward bosses, this change resulted in the elite white majority strengthening its power, as only the majority could gain election of at-large candidates. In addition, poor whites and blacks had already been disenfranchised. Mobile was one of the last cities to retain this form of government, which prevented smaller groups from electing candidates of their choice. But Alabama's white yeomanry had historically favored single-member districts in order to elect candidates of their choice.
The red imported fire ant was first introduced into the United States via the Port of Mobile. Sometime in the late 1930s they came ashore off cargo ships arriving from South America. The ants were carried in the soil used as ballast on those ships. They have spread throughout the South and Southwest.
During World War II, the defense buildup in Mobile shipyards resulted in a considerable increase in the city's white middle-class and working-class population, largely due to the massive influx of workers coming to work in the shipyards and at the Brookley Army Air Field. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into Mobile to work for war effort industries.
Mobile was one of eighteen United States cities producing Liberty ships. Its Alabama Drydock and Shipbuilding Company (ADDSCO) supported the war effort by producing ships faster than the Axis powers could sink them. ADDSCO also churned out a copious number of T2 tankers for the War Department. Gulf Shipbuilding Corporation, a subsidiary of Waterman Steamship Corporation, focused on building freighters, Fletcher-class destroyers, and minesweepers. The rapid increase of population in the city produced crowded conditions, increasing social tensions in the competition for housing and good jobs.
A race riot broke out in May 1943 of whites against blacks. ADDSCO management had long maintained segregated conditions at the shipyards, although the Roosevelt administration had ordered defense contractors to integrate facilities. That year ADDSCO promoted 12 blacks to positions as welders, previously reserved for whites; and whites objected to the change by rioting on May 24. The mayor appealed to the governor to call in the National Guard to restore order, but it was weeks before officials allowed African Americans to return to work, keeping them away for their safety.
In the late 1940s, the transition to the postwar economy was hard for the city, as thousands of jobs were lost at the shipyards with the decline in the defense industry. Eventually the city's social structure began to become more liberal. Replacing shipbuilding as a primary economic force, the paper and chemical industries began to expand. No longer needed for defense, most of the old military bases were converted to civilian uses. Following the war, in which many African Americans had served, veterans and their supporters stepped up activism to gain enforcement of their constitutional rights and social justice, especially in the Jim Crow South. During the 1950s the City of Mobile integrated its police force and Spring Hill College accepted students of all races. Unlike in the rest of the state, by the early 1960s the city buses and lunch counters voluntarily desegregated.
The Alabama legislature passed the Cater Act in 1949, allowing cities and counties to set up industrial development boards (IDB) to issue municipal bonds as incentives to attract new industry into their local areas. The city of Mobile did not establish a Cater Act board until 1962. George E. McNally, Mobile's first Republican mayor since Reconstruction, was the driving force behind the founding of the IDB. The Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce, believing its members were better qualified to attract new businesses and industry to the area, considered the new IDB as a serious rival. After several years of political squabbling, the Chamber of Commerce emerged victorious. While McNally's IDB prompted the Chamber of Commerce to become more proactive in attracting new industry, the chamber effectively shut Mobile city government out of economic development decisions.
In 1963, three African-American students brought a case against the Mobile County School Board for being denied admission to Murphy High School. This was nearly a decade after the United States Supreme Court had ruled in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. The federal district court ordered that the three students be admitted to Murphy for the 1964 school year, leading to the desegregation of Mobile County's school system.
The civil rights movement gained congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, eventually ending legal segregation and regaining effective suffrage for African Americans. But whites in the state had more than one way to reduce African Americans' voting power. Maintaining the city commission form of government with at-large voting resulted in all positions being elected by the white majority, as African Americans could not command a majority for their candidates in the informally segregated city.
In 1969 Brookley Air Force Base was closed by the Department of Defense, dealing Mobile's economy a severe blow. The closing resulted in a 10% unemployment rate in the city. This and other factors related to industrial restructuring ushered in a period of economic depression that lasted through the 1970s. The loss of jobs created numerous problems and resulted in loss of population as residents moved away for work.
Mobile's city commission form of government was challenged and finally overturned in 1982 in City of Mobile v. Bolden, which was remanded by the United States Supreme Court to the district court. Finding that the city had adopted a commission form of government in 1911 and at-large positions with discriminatory intent, the court proposed that the three members of the city commission should be elected from single-member districts, likely ending their division of executive functions among them. Mobile's state legislative delegation in 1985 finally enacted a mayor-council form of government, with seven members elected from single-member districts. This was approved by voters. As white conservatives increasingly entered the Republican Party in the late 20th century, African-American residents of the city have elected members of the Democratic Party as their candidates of choice. Since the change to single-member districts, more women and African Americans were elected to the council than under the at-large system.
Beginning in the late 1980s, newly elected mayor Mike Dow and the city council began an effort termed the "String of Pearls Initiative" to make Mobile into a competitive city. The city initiated construction of numerous new facilities and projects, and the restoration of hundreds of historic downtown buildings and homes. City and county leaders also made efforts to attract new business ventures to the area.
## Geography and climate
### Geography
Mobile is located in the southwestern part of the U.S. state of Alabama. It is 168 miles (270 km) by highway southwest of Montgomery, the state capital; 58 miles (93 km) west of Pensacola, Florida; and 144 miles (232 km) northeast of New Orleans.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 180.1 square miles (466 km<sup>2</sup>), with 139.5 square miles (361 km<sup>2</sup>) of it being land, and 40.6 square miles (105.2 km<sup>2</sup>), or 22.5% of the total, being covered by water. The elevation in Mobile ranges from 10 feet (3 m) on Water Street in downtown to 211 feet (64 m) at the Mobile Regional Airport.
### Neighborhoods
Mobile has a number of notable historic neighborhoods. These include Ashland Place, Campground, Church Street East, De Tonti Square, Leinkauf, Lower Dauphin Street, Midtown, Oakleigh Garden, Old Dauphin Way, Spring Hill, and Toulminville.
### Climate
Mobile's geographical location on the Gulf of Mexico provides a mild subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with hot, humid summers and mild, rainy winters. The record low temperature was −1 °F (−18 °C), set on February 13, 1899, and the record high was 105 °F (41 °C), set on August 29, 2000.
A 2007 study by WeatherBill, Inc. determined that Mobile is the wettest city in the contiguous 48 states, with 66.3 inches (1,680 mm) of average annual rainfall over a 30-year period. Mobile averages 120 days per year with at least 0.01 inches (0.3 mm) of rain. Precipitation is heavy year-round. On average, July and August are the wettest months, with frequent and often-heavy shower and thunderstorm activity. October stands out as a slightly drier month than all others. Snow is rare in Mobile, with its last snowfall occurring on December 8, 2017; before this, the last snowfall had been nearly four years earlier, on January 27, 2014.
Mobile is occasionally affected by major tropical storms and hurricanes. The city suffered a major natural disaster on the night of September 12, 1979, when category-3 Hurricane Frederic passed over the heart of the city. The storm caused tremendous damage to Mobile and the surrounding area. Mobile had moderate damage from Hurricane Opal on October 4, 1995, and Hurricane Ivan on September 16, 2004.
Mobile suffered millions of dollars in damage from Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, which damaged much of the Gulf Coast cities. A storm surge of 11.45 feet (3.49 m), topped by higher waves, damaged eastern sections of the city with extensive flooding in downtown, the Battleship Parkway, and the elevated Jubilee Parkway.
#### Christmas Day tornado
In late December 2012, the city suffered two tornado hits. On December 25, 2012, at 4:54 pm, a large wedge tornado touched down in the city. The tornado rapidly intensified as it moved north-northeast at speeds of up to 50 mph (80 km/h). The path took the tornado into Midtown, causing damage or destruction to at least 100 structures. The heaviest damage to houses was along Carlen Street, Rickarby Place, Dauphin Street, Old Shell Road, Margaret Street, Silverwood Street, and Springhill Avenue.
The tornado caused significant damage to the Carmelite Monastery, Little Flower Catholic Church, commercial real estate along Airport Boulevard and Government Street in the Midtown at the Loop neighborhood, Murphy High School, Trinity Episcopal Church, Springhill Avenue Temple, and Mobile Infirmary Hospital before moving into the neighboring city of Prichard. The tornado was classified as an EF2 tornado by the National Weather Service on December 26.
The path taken through the city was just a short distance east of the path taken days earlier, on December 20, by an EF1 tornado which had touched down near Davidson High School and taken a path ending in Prichard. Initial damage estimates for insured and uninsured ranged from \$140 to \$150 million.
## Culture
Mobile's French and Spanish colonial history has given it a culture distinguished by French, Spanish, Creole, African and Catholic heritage, in addition to later British and American influences. It is distinguished from all other cities in the state of Alabama. The annual Carnival celebration is perhaps the best example of its differences. Mobile is the birthplace of the celebration of Mardi Gras in the United States and has the oldest celebration, dating to the early 18th century during the French colonial period.
Carnival in Mobile evolved over the course of 300 years from a beginning as a sedate French Catholic tradition into the mainstream multi-week celebration that today bridges a spectrum of cultures. Mobile's official cultural ambassadors are the Azalea Trail Maids, meant to embody the ideals of Southern hospitality.
Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) and Back Roads (1981) were shot in Mobile.
### Carnival and Mardi Gras
The Carnival season has expanded throughout the late fall and winter: balls in the city may be scheduled as early as November, with the parades beginning after January 5 and the Twelfth Day of Christmas or Epiphany on January 6. Carnival celebrations end at midnight on Mardi Gras, a moveable feast related to the timing of Lent and Easter. The next day is Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent, the 40-day penitential season before Easter.
In Mobile, locals often use the term Mardi Gras as a shorthand to refer to the entire Carnival season. During the Carnival season; the mystic societies build colorful floats and parade throughout downtown. Masked society members toss small gifts, known as 'throws,' to parade spectators. The mystic societies, which in essence are exclusive private clubs, also hold formal masquerade balls, usually by invitation only, and oriented to adults.
Carnival was first celebrated in Mobile in 1703 when colonial French Catholic settlers carried out their traditional celebration at the Old Mobile Site, prior to the 1711 relocation of the city to the current site. Mobile's first Carnival society was established in 1711 with the Boeuf Gras Society (Fatted Ox Society). Celebrations were relatively small and consisted of local, private parties until the early 19th century.
In 1830 Mobile's Cowbellion de Rakin Society was the first formally organized and masked mystic society in the United States to celebrate with a parade. The Cowbellions got their start when Michael Krafft, a cotton factor from Pennsylvania, began a parade with rakes, hoes, and cowbells. The Cowbellians introduced horse-drawn floats to the parades in 1840 with a parade entitled "Heathen Gods and Goddesses". The Striker's Independent Society, formed in 1843, is the oldest surviving mystic society in the United States.
Carnival celebrations in Mobile were canceled during the American Civil War. In 1866 Joe Cain revived the Mardi Gras parades when he paraded through the city streets on Fat Tuesday while costumed as a fictional Chickasaw chief named Slacabamorinico. He celebrated the day in front of the occupying Union Army troops. In 2002, Mobile's Tricentennial celebrated with parades that represented all of the city's mystic societies.
Founded in 2004, the Conde Explorers in 2005 were the first integrated Mardi Gras society to parade in downtown Mobile. The society has about a hundred members and welcomes men and women of all races. In addition to the parade and ball, the Conde Explorers hold several parties throughout the year. Its members also perform volunteer work. The Conde Explorers were featured in the award-winning documentary, The Order of Myths (2008), by Margaret Brown about Mobile's Mardi Gras.
### Archives and libraries
The National African American Archives and Museum features the history of African-American participation in Mardi Gras, authentic artifacts from the era of slavery, and portraits and biographies of famous African Americans. The University of South Alabama Archives houses primary source material relating to the history of Mobile and southern Alabama, as well as the university's history. The archives are located on the ground floor of the USA Spring Hill Campus and are open to the general public.
The Mobile Municipal Archives contains the extant records of the City of Mobile, dating from the city's creation as a municipality by the Mississippi Territory in 1814. The majority of the original records of Mobile's colonial history, spanning the years 1702 through 1813, are housed in Paris, London, Seville, and Madrid. The Mobile Genealogical Society Library and Media Center is located at the Holy Family Catholic Church and School complex. It features handwritten manuscripts and published materials that are available for use in genealogical research.
The Mobile Public Library system serves Mobile and consists of eight branches across Mobile County; its large local history and genealogy division is housed in a facility next to the newly restored and enlarged Ben May Main Library on Government Street. The Saint Ignatius Archives, Museum and Theological Research Library contains primary sources, artifacts, documents, photographs and publications that pertain to the history of Saint Ignatius Church and School, the Catholic history of the city, and the history of the Roman Catholic Church.
### Arts and entertainment
The Mobile Museum of Art features permanent exhibits that span several centuries of art and culture. The museum was expanded in 2002 to approximately 95,000 square feet (8,826 m<sup>2</sup>). The permanent exhibits include the African and Asian Collection Gallery, Altmayer Gallery (American art), Katharine C. Cochrane Gallery of American Fine Art, Maisel European Gallery, Riddick Glass Gallery, Smith Crafts Gallery, and the Ann B. Hearin Gallery (contemporary works).
The Centre for the Living Arts is an organization that operates the historic Saenger Theatre and Space 301, a contemporary art gallery. The Saenger Theatre opened in 1927 as a movie palace. Today it is a performing arts center and serves as a small concert venue for the city. It is home to the Mobile Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Maestro Scott Speck. Space 301 Gallery and Studio was initially housed adjacent to the Saenger, but moved to its own space in 2008. The 93,000 sq ft (8,640 m<sup>2</sup>) building, donated to the centre by the Press-Register after its relocation to a new modern facility, underwent a \$5.2 million renovation and redesign prior to opening. The Crescent Theater in downtown Mobile has been showing arthouse films since 2008.
The Mobile Civic Center contains three facilities under one roof. The 400,000 sq ft (37,161 m<sup>2</sup>) building has an arena, a theater and an exposition hall. It is the primary concert venue for the city and hosts a wide variety of events. It is home to the Mobile Opera and the Mobile Ballet. The 60-year-old Mobile Opera averages about 1,200 attendees per performance. A wide variety of events are held at Mobile's Arthur C. Outlaw Convention Center. It contains a 100,000 sq ft (9,290 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibit hall, a 15,000 sq ft (1,394 m<sup>2</sup>) grand ballroom, and sixteen meeting rooms.
The city has hosts the Greater Gulf State Fair, held each October since 1955. The city also hosted BayFest, an annual three-day music festival with more than 125 live musical acts on multiple stages spread throughout downtown; it now holds Ten Sixty Five festival, a free music festival.
The Mobile Theatre Guild is a nonprofit community theatre that has served the city since 1947. It is a member of the Mobile Arts Council, the Alabama Conference of Theatre and Speech, the Southeastern Theatre Conference, and the American Association of Community Theatres. Mobile is also host to the Joe Jefferson Players, Alabama's oldest continually running community theatre. The group was named in honor of the famous comedic actor Joe Jefferson, who spend part of his teenage years in Mobile. The Players debuted their first production on December 17, 1947. Drama Camp Productions and Sunny Side Theater is Mobile's home for children's theater and fun. The group began doing summer camps in 2002, expanded to a year-round facility in 2008 and recently moved into the Azalea City Center for the Arts, a community of drama, music, art, photography, and dance teachers. The group has produced Broadway shows including "Miracle on 34th Street", "Honk", "Fame", and "Hairspray".
The Mobile Arts Council is an umbrella organization for the arts in Mobile. It was founded in 1955 as a project of the Junior League of Mobile with the mission to increase cooperation among artistic and cultural organizations in the area and to provide a forum for problems in art, music, theater, and literature.
## Tourism
### Museums
Mobile is home to a variety of museums. Battleship Memorial Park is a military park on the shore of Mobile Bay. It features the World War II era battleship USS Alabama, the World War II era submarine USS Drum, Korean War and Vietnam War Memorials, and a variety of historical military equipment. The History Museum of Mobile showcases 300 plus years of Mobile history and prehistory. It is housed in the historic Old City Hall (1857), a National Historic Landmark. The Oakleigh Historic Complex features three house museums that attempt to interpret the lives of people from three strata of 19th century society in Mobile, that of the enslaved, the working class, and the upper class.
The Mobile Carnival Museum, housing the city's Mardi Gras history and memorabilia, documents the variety of floats, costumes, and displays seen during the history of the festival season. The Bragg-Mitchell Mansion (1855), Richards DAR House (1860), and the Condé-Charlotte House (1822) are historic, furnished antebellum house museums. Fort Morgan (1819), Fort Gaines (1821), and Historic Blakeley State Park all figure predominantly in local American Civil War history.
The Mobile Medical Museum is housed in the historic French colonial-style Vincent-Doan House (1827). It features artifacts and resources that chronicle the long history of medicine in Mobile. The Phoenix Fire Museum is located in the restored Phoenix Volunteer Fire Company Number 6 building and features the history of fire companies in Mobile from their organization in 1838. The Mobile Police Department Museum features exhibits that chronicle the history of law enforcement in Mobile.
The Gulf Coast Exploreum Science Center is a non-profit science center located in downtown. It features permanent and traveling exhibits, an IMAX dome theater, a digital 3D virtual theater, and a hands-on chemistry laboratory. The Dauphin Island Sea Lab is located south of the city, on Dauphin Island near the mouth of Mobile Bay. It houses the Estuarium, an aquarium which illustrates the four habitats of the Mobile Bay ecosystem: the river delta, bay, barrier islands and Gulf of Mexico.
### Parks and other attractions
The Mobile Botanical Gardens feature a variety of flora spread over 100 acres (40 ha). It contains the Millie McConnell Rhododendron Garden with 1,000 evergreen and native azaleas and the 30-acre (12 ha) Longleaf Pine Habitat. Bellingrath Gardens and Home, located on Fowl River, is a 65-acre (26 ha) botanical garden and historic 10,500-square-foot (975 m<sup>2</sup>) mansion that dates to the 1930s. The 5 Rivers Delta Resource Center is a facility that allows visitors to learn about and access the Mobile, Tensaw, Apalachee, Middle, Blakeley, and Spanish rivers. It was established to serve as an easily accessible gateway to the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. It offers boat and adventure tours, a small theater, an exhibit hall, meeting facilities, walking trails, and a canoe and kayak landing.
Mobile has more than 45 public parks within its limits, with some that are of special note. Bienville Square is a historic park in the Lower Dauphin Street Historic District. It assumed its current form in 1850 and is named for Mobile's founder, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville. It was once the principal gathering place for residents, when the city was smaller, and remains popular today. Cathedral Square is a one-block performing arts park, also in the Lower Dauphin Street Historic District, which is overlooked by the Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception.
The Fort of Colonial Mobile is a reconstruction of the city's original Fort Condé, built on the original fort's footprint. It serves as the official welcome center and a colonial-era living history museum. Spanish Plaza is a downtown park that honors the Spanish phase of the city between 1780 and 1813. It features the Arches of Friendship, a fountain presented to Mobile by the city of Málaga, Spain. Langan Park, the largest of the parks at 720 acres (291 ha), features lakes, natural spaces, and contains the Mobile Museum of Art, Azalea City Golf Course, Mobile Botanical Gardens and Playhouse in the Park.
### Historic architecture
Mobile has antebellum architectural examples of Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, Italianate, and Creole cottage. Later architectural styles found in the city include the various Victorian types, shotgun types, Colonial Revival, Tudor Revival, Spanish Colonial Revival, Beaux-Arts and many others. The city currently has nine major historic districts: Old Dauphin Way, Oakleigh Garden, Lower Dauphin Street, Leinkauf, De Tonti Square, Church Street East, Ashland Place, Campground, and Midtown.
Mobile has a number of historic structures in the city, including numerous churches and private homes. Mobile's historic churches include Christ Church Cathedral, the Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, Emanuel AME Church, Government Street Presbyterian Church, St. Louis Street Missionary Baptist Church, State Street AME Zion Church, Stone Street Baptist Church, Trinity Episcopal Church, St. Francis Street Methodist Church, Saint Joseph's Roman Catholic Church, Saint Francis Xavier Catholic Church, Saint Matthew's Catholic Church, Saint Paul's Episcopal Chapel, and Saint Vincent de Paul. The Sodality Chapel and St. Joseph's Chapel at Spring Hill College are two historic churches on that campus. Two historic Roman Catholic convents survive, the Convent and Academy of the Visitation and the Convent of Mercy.
Barton Academy is a historic Greek Revival school building and local landmark on Government Street. The Bishop Portier House and the Carlen House are two of the many surviving examples of Creole cottages in the city. The Mobile City Hospital and the United States Marine Hospital are both restored Greek Revival hospital buildings that predate the Civil War. The Washington Firehouse No. 5 is a Greek Revival fire station, built in 1851. The Hunter House is an example of the Italianate style and was built by a successful 19th-century African American businesswoman. The Shepard House is a good example of the Queen Anne style. The Scottish Rite Temple is the only surviving example of Egyptian Revival architecture in the city. The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Passenger Terminal is an example of the Mission Revival style.
The city has several historic cemeteries that were established shortly after the colonial era. They replaced the colonial Campo Santo, of which no trace remains. The Church Street Graveyard contains above-ground tombs and monuments spread over 4 acres (2 ha) and was founded in 1819, during the height of yellow fever epidemics. The nearby 120-acre (49 ha) Magnolia Cemetery was established in 1836 and served as Mobile's primary burial site during the 19th and early 20th centuries, with approximately 80,000 burials. It features tombs and many intricately carved monuments and statues.
The Catholic Cemetery was established in 1848 by the Archdiocese of Mobile and covers more than 150 acres (61 ha). It contains plots for the Brothers of the Sacred Heart, Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Charity, and Sisters of Mercy, in addition to many other historically significant burials. Mobile's Jewish community dates back to the 1820s and the city has two historic Jewish cemeteries, Sha'arai Shomayim Cemetery and Ahavas Chesed Cemetery. Sha'arai Shomayim is the older of the two.
## Demographics
### 2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 187,041 people, 77,628 households, and 41,260 families residing in the city.
### 2010 census
The 2010 United States Census determined that there were 195,111 people residing within the city limits of Mobile. Mobile is the center of Alabama's second-largest metropolitan area, which consists of all of Mobile County. Metropolitan Mobile is estimated to have a population of 413,936 in 2012.
The 2010 census indicated that there were 78,959 households, out of which 21,073 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28,073 were married couples living together, 17,037 had a female householder with no husband present, 3,579 had a male householder with no wife present, and 30,270 were non-families. 25,439 of all households were made up of individuals, and 8,477 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.
The racial makeup of the city was 50.6% Black or African American, 45.0% White, 0.3% Native American, 1.8% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.9% from other races, 1.4% from two or more races, and 2.4% of the population were Latino. Non-Hispanic Whites were 43.9% of the population in 2010, down from 62.1% in 1980. The average household size was 2.4 and the average family size was 3.07. Estimated same-sex couple households comprised 0.3% of all households in 2010.
The age distribution of the population in 2010 consisted of 6.7% under the age of five years, 75.9% over 18, and 13.7% over 65. The median age was 35.7 years. The male population was 47.0% and the female population was 53.0%. The median income for a household in the city was \$37,056 for 2006 to 2010. The per capita income for the city was \$22,401.
## Government
Since 1985 the government of Mobile has consisted of a mayor and a seven-member city council. The mayor is elected at-large, and the council members are elected from each of the seven city council single-member districts (SMDs). A supermajority of five votes is required to conduct council business.
This form of city government was chosen by the voters after the previous form of government, which had three city commissioners, each elected at-large, was ruled in 1975 to substantially dilute the minority vote and violate the Voting Rights Act in Bolden v. City of Mobile. The three at-large commissioners each required a majority vote to win. Due to appeals, the case took time to reach settlement and establishment of a new electoral system. Municipal elections are held every four years and are nonpartisan.
The first mayor elected under the new system of single-member district (SMD) voting was Arthur R. Outlaw, who served his second term as mayor from 1985 to 1989. His first term had been under the old system, from 1967 to 1968. Mike Dow defeated Outlaw in the 1989 election; he was re-elected, serving as mayor for four terms, from 1989 to 2005. His "The String of Pearls" initiative, a series of projects designed to stimulate redevelopment of the city's core, is credited with reviving much of downtown Mobile. Upon his retirement, Dow endorsed Sam Jones as his successor.
Sam Jones was elected in 2005 as the first African-American mayor of Mobile. He was re-elected for a second term in 2009 without opposition. His administration continued the focus on downtown redevelopment and bringing industries to the city. He ran for a third term in 2013 but was defeated by Sandy Stimpson. Stimpson took office on November 4, 2013, and was re-elected on August 22, 2017.
As of January 2022, the seven-member city council is made up of Cory Penn from District 1, William Carroll from District 2, C.J. Small from District 3, Ben Reynolds from District 4, Joel Daves from District 5, Scott Jones from District 6, and Gina Gregory from District 7.
## Education
### Public facilities
Public schools in Mobile are operated by the Mobile County Public School System. The Mobile County Public School System has an enrollment of approximately 55,200 students at 88 schools, employs approximately 7,026 public school employees, and had a budget in 2020-2021 of \$623 million. The State of Alabama operates the Alabama School of Mathematics and Science on Dauphin Street in Mobile, which boards advanced Alabama high school students. It was founded in 1989 to identify, challenge, and educate future leaders.
### Private facilities
Mobile also has a large number of private schools, most of them parochial in nature. Many belong to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mobile. The private Catholic institutions include McGill-Toolen Catholic High School (1896), Corpus Christi School, Little Flower Catholic School (1934), Most Pure Heart of Mary Catholic School (1900), Saint Dominic School (1961), Saint Ignatius School (1952), Saint Mary Catholic School (1867), Saint Pius X Catholic School (1957), and Saint Vincent DePaul Catholic School (1976).
Notable private Protestant institutions include St. Paul's Episcopal School (1947), Mobile Christian School (1961), St. Lukes Episcopal School (1961), Cottage Hill Baptist School System (1961), Faith Academy (1967), and Trinity Lutheran School (1955).
UMS-Wright Preparatory School is an independent co-educational preparatory school. It assumed its current configuration in 1988, when the University Military School (founded 1893) and the Julius T. Wright School for Girls (1923) merged to form UMS-Wright.
### Tertiary
### Primary and secondary
Major colleges and universities in Mobile that are accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools include the University of South Alabama, Spring Hill College, the University of Mobile, Faulkner University, and Bishop State Community College.
#### Undergraduate and postgraduate
The University of South Alabama is a public, doctoral-level university established in 1963. The university is composed of the College of Arts and Sciences, the Mitchell College of Business, the College of Education, the College of Engineering, the College of Medicine, the Doctor of Pharmacy Program, the College of Nursing, the School of Computing, and the School of Continuing Education and Special Programs.
Faulkner University is a four-year private Church of Christ-affiliated university based in Montgomery, Alabama. The Mobile campus was established in 1975 and offers bachelor's degrees in Business Administration, Management of Human Resources, and Criminal Justice. It also offers associate degrees in Business Administration, Business Information Systems, Computer & Information Science, Criminal Justice, Informatics, Legal Studies, Arts, and Science.
Spring Hill College, chartered in 1830, was the first Catholic college in the southeastern United States and is the third oldest Jesuit college in the country. This four-year private college offers graduate programs in Business Administration, Education, Liberal Arts, Nursing (MSN), and Theological Studies. Undergraduate divisions and programs include the Division of Business, the Communications/Arts Division, International Studies, Inter-divisional Studies, the Language and Literature Division, Bachelor of Science in Nursing, Philosophy and Theology, Political Science, the Sciences Division, the Social Sciences Division, and the Teacher Education Division.
The University of Mobile is a four-year private Baptist-affiliated university in the neighboring city of Prichard that was founded in 1961. It consists of the College of Arts and Sciences, School of Business, School of Christian Studies, School of Education, the School of Leadership Development, and the School of Nursing.
#### Community college
Bishop State Community College, founded in 1927, is a public, historically African American, community college. Bishop State has four campuses in Mobile and offers a wide array of associate degrees.
#### Vocational
Several post-secondary vocational institutions have a campus in Mobile. These include the Alabama Institute of Real Estate, American Academy of Hypnosis, Bealle School of Real Estate, Charles Academy of Beauty Culture, Fortis College, Virginia College, ITT Technical Institute, Remington College and White and Sons Barber College.
## Notable people
- Tim Cook (born 1960), CEO of Apple Inc.
- Rick Crawford (born 1958), racing driver and convicted sex offender
- Sidney W. Fox (1912–1998), biochemist known for studies of the origins of life.
- Cale Gale (born 1985), racing driver
- Thomas Praytor (born 1990), racing driver
- Gene Tapia (1925–2005), racing driver
- Bubba Wallace (born 1993), racing driver
- Woodie Wilson (1925–1994), racing driver
## Healthcare
Mobile serves the central Gulf Coast as a regional center for medicine, with over 850 physicians and 175 dentists. There are four major medical centers within the city limits.
Mobile Infirmary Medical Center has 704 beds and is the largest nonprofit hospital in the state. It was founded in 1910. Providence Hospital has 349 beds. It was founded in 1854 by the Daughters of Charity from Emmitsburg, Maryland. The University of South Alabama Medical Center has 346 beds. Its roots go back to 1830 with the old city-owned Mobile City Hospital and associated medical school. A teaching hospital, it is designated as Mobile's only level I trauma center by the Alabama Department of Public Health. It is also a regional burn center. Springhill Medical Center, with 252 beds, was founded in 1975. It is Mobile's only for-profit facility.
Additionally, the University of South Alabama operates the University of South Alabama Children's and Women's Hospital with 219 beds, dedicated exclusively to the care of women and minors. In 2008, the University of South Alabama opened the USA Mitchell Cancer Center Institute. The center is home to the first academic cancer research center in the central Gulf Coast region.
Mobile Infirmary Medical Center operated Infirmary West, formerly Knollwood Hospital, with 100 acute-care beds, but closed the facility at the end of October 2012 due to declining revenues.
BayPointe Hospital and Children's Residential Services, with 94-beds, is the only psychiatric hospital in the city. It houses a residential unit for children, an acute unit for children and adolescents, and an age-segregated involuntary hospital unit for adults undergoing evaluation ordered by the Mobile Probate Court.
The city has a broad array of outpatient surgical centers, emergency clinics, home health care services, assisted-living facilities and skilled nursing facilities.
## Economy
Aerospace, steel, ship building, retail, services, construction, medicine, and manufacturing are Mobile's major industries. After having economic decline for several decades, Mobile's economy began to rebound in the late 1980s. Between 1993 and 2003 roughly 13,983 new jobs were created as 87 new companies were founded and 399 existing companies were expanded.
Defunct companies that had been founded or based in Mobile included Alabama Drydock and Shipbuilding Company, Delchamps, and Gayfers. Current companies that were formerly based in the city include Checkers, Minolta-QMS, Morrison's, and the Waterman Steamship Corporation.
In addition to those discussed below, AlwaysHD, Foosackly's, Integrity Media, and Volkert, Inc. are headquartered in Mobile.
### Major industry
#### Port of Mobile
Mobile's Alabama State Docks underwent the largest expansion in its history in the early 21st century. It expanded its container processing and storage facility and increased container storage at the docks by over 1,000% at a cost of over \$300 million, a project completed in 2005. Despite the expansion of its container capabilities and the addition of two massive new cranes, the port went from 9th largest to the 12th largest by tonnage in the nation from 2008 to 2010.
#### Shipyards
Shipbuilding began to make a major comeback in Mobile in 1999 with the founding of Austal USA. A subsidiary of the Australian company Austal, it expanded its production facility for United States defense and commercial aluminum shipbuilding on Blakeley Island in 2005. Austal announced in October 2012, after winning a new defense contract and completing another 30,000-square-foot (2,800 m<sup>2</sup>) building within their complex on the island, that it would expand its workforce from 3,000 to 4,500 employees.
Atlantic Marine operated a major shipyard at the former Alabama Drydock and Shipbuilding Company site on Pinto Island. It was acquired by British defense conglomerate BAE Systems in May 2010 for \$352 million. Doing business as BAE Systems Southeast Shipyards, the company continues to operate the site as a full-service shipyard, employing approximately 600 workers with plans to expand.
#### Mobile Aeroplex at Brookley
The Mobile Aeroplex at Brookley is an industrial complex and airport located 3 miles (5 km) south of the central business district of the city. It is the largest industrial and transportation complex in the region, having more than 70 companies, many of which are aerospace, spread over 1,650 acres (668 ha). Notable employers at Brookley include Airbus North America Engineering (Airbus Military North America's facilities are at the Mobile Regional Airport), ST Aerospace Mobile (a division of ST Engineering), and Continental Motors.
Plans for an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile were formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a \$600 million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. It was planned to employ up roughly 1,000 full-time workers when fully operational. Construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony on April 8, 2013, with it becoming operable by 2015 and producing up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility. The factory officially opened on September 14, 2015, covering one million square feet on 53 acres of flat grassland.
On October 16, 2017, Airbus announced a partnership with Bombardier Aerospace, taking over a majority share of the Bombardier CSeries airliner program. As a result of this partnership, Airbus plans to open an assembly line for CSeries aircraft in Mobile, particularly to serve the US market. This effort may allow the companies to circumvent high import tariffs on the CSeries family. The aircraft was renamed the Airbus A220 on July 10, 2018. Production started in August 2019; the first A220 from the new line is due to be delivered to Delta in the third quarter of 2020.
#### ThyssenKrupp
German technology conglomerate ThyssenKrupp broke ground on a \$4.65 billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility in Calvert, a few miles north of Mobile, in 2007. Original projections promised eventual employment for 2,700 people. The facility became operational in July 2010.
The company put both its carbon mill in Calvert and a steel slab-making unit in Rio de Janeiro up for sale in May 2012, citing rising production costs and a worldwide decrease in demand. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu Oyi in 2012.
### Top employers
According to Mobile's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city during 2019 were:
### Unemployment rate
The United States Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics unemployment rate (not seasonally adjusted) for the Mobile Metropolitan Statistical Area was 7.5% for July 2013, compared with an unadjusted rate of 6.6% for Alabama as a whole and 7.4% for the entire nation.
## Transportation
### Air
Local airline passengers are served by the Mobile Regional Airport, with direct connections to four major hub airports. It is served by American Eagle, with service to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport and Charlotte/Douglas International Airport; United Express, with service to George Bush Intercontinental Airport and Delta Connection, with service to Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport. The Mobile Downtown Airport at the Brookley Aeroplex serves corporate, cargo, and private aircraft.
### Cycling paths
In an effort to leverage Mobile's waterways for recreational use, as opposed to simply industrial use, The Three Mile Creek Greenway Trail is being designed and implemented under the instruction of the City Council. The linear park will ultimately span seven miles, from Langan (Municipal) Park to Dr. Martin Luther King Junior Avenue, and include trailheads, sidewalks, and bike lanes. The existing greenway is centered at Tricentennial Park. Other trails include the paved Mobile Airport Perimeter Trail, encircling the Mobile Downtown Airport and mountain biking trails on the west side of the University of South Alabama.
### Rail
Mobile is served by four Class I railroads, including the Canadian National Railway (CNR), CSX Transportation (CSX), the Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS), and the Norfolk Southern Railway (NS). The Alabama and Gulf Coast Railway (AGR), a Class III railroad, links Mobile to the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway (BNSF) at Amory, Mississippi. These converge at the Port of Mobile, which provides intermodal freight transport service to companies engaged in importing and exporting. Other railroads include the CG Railway (CGR), a rail ship service to Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz, and the Terminal Railway Alabama State Docks (TASD), a switching railroad.
The city was served by Amtrak's Sunset Limited passenger train service until 2005, when the service was suspended due to the effects of Hurricane Katrina. However, efforts to restart passenger rail service between Mobile and New Orleans were revived in 2019 by the 21-member Southern Rail Commission after receiving a \$33 million Federal Railroad Administration grant in June of that year. Louisiana quickly dedicated its \$10 million toward the project, and Mississippi initially balked before committing its \$15 million sum but Governor Kay Ivey resisted committing the estimated \$2.7 million state allocation from Alabama because of concerns regarding long-term financial commitments and potential competition with freight traffic from the Port of Mobile.
The Winter of 2019 was marked by repeated postponement of votes by the Mobile City Council as it requested more information on how rail traffic from the port would be impacted and where the Amtrak station would be built as community support for the project became more vocal, especially among millennials. A day before a deadline in the federal grant matching program being used to fund the project, the city council committed about \$3 million in a 6–1 vote.
About \$2.2 million is still needed for infrastructure improvements and the train station must still be built before service begins in 2023. Potential locations for the station include at the foot of Government Street in downtown and in the Mobile Aeroplex at Brookley, which is favored by the Port of Mobile.
### Transit
The Wave Transit System provides fixed-route bus and demand-response service in Mobile. Buses operate Monday through Saturday.
### Roadways
Two major interstate highways and a spur converge in Mobile. Interstate 10 runs northeast to southwest across the city, while Interstate 65 starts in Mobile at Interstate 10 and runs north. Interstate 165 connects to Interstate 65 north of the city in Prichard and joins Interstate 10 in downtown Mobile. Mobile is well served by many major highway systems. US Highways US 31, US 43, US 45, US 90, and US 98 radiate from Mobile traveling east, west, and north. Mobile has three routes east across the Mobile River and Mobile Bay into neighboring Baldwin County. Interstate 10 leaves downtown through the George Wallace Tunnel under the river and then over the bay across the Jubilee Parkway to Spanish Fort and Daphne. US 98 leaves downtown through the Bankhead Tunnel under the river, onto Blakeley Island, and then over the bay across the Battleship Parkway into Spanish Fort. US 90 travels over the Cochrane–Africatown USA Bridge to the north of downtown onto Blakeley Island, where it becomes co-routed with US 98.
Mobile's public transportation is the Wave Transit System which features buses with 18 fixed routes and neighborhood service. Baylinc is a public transportation bus service provided by the Baldwin Rural Transit System in cooperation with the Wave Transit System that provides service between eastern Baldwin County and downtown Mobile. Baylinc operates Monday through Friday. Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service between Mobile and many locations throughout the United States. Mobile is served by several taxi and limousine services.
### Water
The Port of Mobile has public deepwater terminals with direct access to 1,500 miles (2,400 km) of inland and intracoastal waterways serving the Great Lakes, the Ohio and Tennessee river valleys (via the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway), and the Gulf of Mexico. The Alabama State Port Authority owns and operates the public terminals at the Port of Mobile. The public terminals handle containerized, bulk, breakbulk, roll-on/roll-off, and heavy-lift cargoes. The port is also home to private bulk terminal operators, as well as a number of highly specialized shipbuilding and repair companies with two of the largest floating dry docks on the Gulf Coast.
The city was a home port for cruise ships from Carnival Cruise Lines. The first cruise ship to call the port home was the Holiday, which left the city in November 2009 so that a larger and newer ship could take its place. The Carnival Fantasy operated from Mobile from then on until the Carnival Elation arrived in May 2010. In early 2011, Carnival announced that despite fully booked cruises, the company would cease operations from Mobile in October 2011. This cessation of cruise service left the city with an annual debt service of around two million dollars related to the terminal. In September 2015, Carnival announced that the Carnival Fantasy was relocating from Miami, Florida, to Mobile, Alabama, after a five-year absence and would offer four- and five-night cruises to Mexico that started in November 2016 through November 2017. The four-night cruises will visit Cozumel, Mexico while the five night cruises will additionally visit Costa Maya or Progreso. Her first departure from Mobile left on November 9, 2016, on a five-night cruise to Cozumel and Progreso. Carnival Fascination will be replacing Carnival Fantasy in 2022.
Although Carnival Cruise Lines did not operate from Mobile after the Carnival Fantasy left in 2011, the Carnival Triumph was towed into the port following a crippling engine room fire. It was the largest cruise ship ever to dock at the cruise terminal in Mobile. Later it was eclipsed by the Carnival Conquest, which docked in Mobile when the Port of New Orleans was temporarily closed. Larger commercial ships routinely arrive at the Port of Mobile.
## Media
### Print
Mobile's Press-Register is Alabama's oldest active newspaper, first published in 1813. The paper focuses on Mobile and Baldwin counties and the city of Mobile, but also serves southwestern Alabama and southeastern Mississippi. Mobile's alternative newspaper is the Lagniappe. The Mobile area's local magazine is Mobile Bay Monthly. The Mobile Beacon was an alternative focusing on Mobile's African-American communities that ran from 1943 to 2018. Mod Mobilian is a website with a focus on cultured living in Mobile.
### Television
Mobile is served locally by a number of over-the-air television stations. These include WKRG 5 (CBS), WALA 10 (Fox), WPMI 15 (NBC), WMPV 21 (religious), WDPM 23 (religious), WEIQ 42 (PBS), and WFNA 55 (The CW). The region is also served by WEAR 3 (ABC), WSRE 31 (PBS), WHBR 34 (religious), WFGX 35 (MyNetworkTV), WJTC 44 (independent), WFBD 48 (America One), WPAN 53 (Jewelry Television), and WAWD 58 (independent), all out of the Pensacola, Florida area. Mobile is part of the Mobile–Pensacola–Fort Walton Beach designated market area, as defined by Nielsen Media Research. It ranked 61st in the nation for the 2007–08 television season.
### Radio
In total, 55 radio stations are located around the Mobile area and provide signals sufficiently strong to serve Mobile. Fourteen FM radio stations transmit from Mobile: WAVH, WBHY, WBLX, WDLT, WHIL, WKSJ, WKSJ-HD2, WLVM, WMXC, WMXC-HD2, WQUA, WRKH, WRKH-HD2, and WZEW. Nine AM radio stations transmit from Mobile: WBHY, WABF, WGOK, WIJD, WLPR, WMOB, WNGL, WNTM, and WXQW. The content ranges from Christian Contemporary to Hip hop to Top 40.
In fall of 2020, Nielsen ranked Mobile's radio market as the 102nd in the US. Some years earlier, Nielsen's predecessor, Arbitron ranked Mobile's radio market as 93rd in fall 2007.
## Sports
### Football
Mobile is the home of Ladd–Peebles Stadium. The football stadium opened in 1948. With a current capacity of 40,646, Ladd–Peebles Stadium is the fourth-largest stadium in the state.
Ladd–Peebles Stadium has been home to the Senior Bowl since 1951, featuring the best college seniors in NCAA football.
The Dollar General Bowl, originally known as the Mobile Alabama Bowl and later the GMAC Bowl and GoDaddy.com Bowl, has been played at Ladd–Peebles Stadium since 1999. It features opponents from the Sun Belt and Mid-American conferences.
Since 1988, Ladd–Peebles Stadium has hosted the Alabama-Mississippi All-Star Classic. The top graduating high school seniors from their respective states compete each June.
The University of South Alabama in Mobile established a football team in 2007, which went undefeated in its 2009 inaugural season. Their program moved to Division I/FBS in 2013 as a member of the Sun Belt Conference. It currently plays at Ladd–Peebles Stadium.
### Baseball
Mobile's Hank Aaron Stadium was the home of the Mobile BayBears Minor League Baseball team from 1997 to 2019. Five members of the Baseball Hall of Fame called Mobile home, more than any city outside of New York City and Chicago: the five players were Satchel Paige, Billy Williams, Willie McCovey, Hank Aaron, and Ozzie Smith. Other baseball players to hail from South Alabama include Amos Otis, Tommie Agee, Cleon Jones, Luis Gonzalez, Juan Pierre, Jon Lieber, Adam Lind, and David Freese.
### Basketball
South Alabama basketball is a respected mid-major, regularly competing for the Sun Belt Conference championship. They play their home games at the Mitchell Center.
### Other sports and facilities
The Archbishop Lipscomb Athletic Complex is home of AFC Mobile, which is a National Premier Soccer League team.
The public Mobile Tennis Center includes over 50 courts, all lighted and hard-court.
For golfers, Magnolia Grove, part of the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, has 36 holes. The Falls course was recently named the best par 3 course in America. The Mitchell Company Tournament of Champions was played annually at Magnolia Grove from 1999 through 2007. The Mobile Bay LPGA Classic took its place in 2008, also held at Mobile's Magnolia Grove.
Mobile is home to the Azalea Trail Run, which races through historic midtown and downtown Mobile. This 10k run has been an annual event since 1978. The Azalea Trail Run is one of the premier 10k road races in the United States, attracting runners from all over the world.
## Sister cities
Mobile's sister cities are:
## See also
- List of people from Mobile, Alabama
- List of tallest buildings in Mobile, Alabama
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Mobile, Alabama
- USS Mobile, 6 ships |
160,327 | John Smith's Brewery | 1,173,488,394 | Brewery in Tadcaster, North Yorkshire, England | [
"1852 establishments in England",
"Beer brands",
"Breweries in Yorkshire",
"British companies established in 1852",
"Companies based in Tadcaster",
"Food and drink companies established in 1852",
"Heineken brands",
"Tadcaster"
]
| John Smith's Brewery in Tadcaster, North Yorkshire, England, produces beers including John Smith's, the highest selling bitter in the United Kingdom since the mid-1990s.
The majority of John Smith's sales are of the nitrogenated Extra Smooth product, although a cask conditioned variant is available nationally. A stronger variant called Magnet is also available in the North East of England. John Smith's Cask and Magnet are produced under licence by Cameron's in Hartlepool.
John Smith acquired the Backhouse & Hartley brewery in 1852. Following a series of acquisitions in the post-World War II period, the company became one of the largest regional brewers in the country, operating over 1,800 licensed premises. The company was taken over by Courage in 1970 who extended distribution of the brewery's products into the South of England. Courage was acquired by Scottish & Newcastle in 1995, and the operations were purchased by Heineken in 2008.
John Smith's Extra Smooth and Original are produced at the Tadcaster brewery, as well as a range of Heineken products including Amstel and Kronenbourg 1664. With a 38 million litre capacity, the brewery is one of the largest in the country.
John Smith's became well known for a series of highly successful "No Nonsense"-themed television advertising campaigns, featuring the dour Yorkshireman character "Arkwright" during the 1970s and 1980s (shown only in the South of England), followed by the comedians Jack Dee during the 1990s and Peter Kay since 2002. The brand also has an association with horse racing: it was the principal sponsor of the Grand National between 2005 and 2013, the Northumberland Plate from 2003 until 2016, and has sponsored the John Smith's Cup since 1960.
## History
### Early years
Stephen Hartley began brewing in Tadcaster in 1758. Jane Hartley mortgaged the brewery to David Backhouse and John Hartley in 1845. Samuel Smith of Leeds arranged for his son John to enter the business in 1847. Jane Hartley died in 1852, and John Smith acquired the business, enlisting his brother William to assist. The timing was to prove fortuitous; pale ales were displacing porter as the beer of choice, and Tadcaster's hard water proved to be well-suited for brewing the new style. The prosperity of the 1850s and 1860s, together with the arrival of the railways, realised greater opportunities for brewers, and John Smith employed eight men in his brewing and malting enterprise by 1861.
The operations became sizeable during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Smith died in 1879, leaving an estate valued at under £45,000 (around £4.1 million in 2016 adjusted for inflation), and his assets were jointly inherited by his two brothers, William and Samuel Smith, a tanner. William purchased Samuel's share of his brother's personal estate, and built a modern brewery in 1883–4 at the cost of £130,000 (£9.7 million in 2013). By this time the business employed over 100 people. William Smith died in 1886, and the firm was inherited in partnership by his two nephews, Henry Herbert Riley (1863 - 1911) and Frank Riley, henceforth known as Riley-Smith under the terms of his will.
The firm expanded throughout the 1880s by creating an agency network, establishing sixteen offices in nearby settlements, and offering free trade discounts on their beer of 20 per cent or higher. The brewery had an annual output of 150,000 barrels by 1889. In 1889, the company's first scientifically-trained head brewer was appointed, Percy Clinch, son of Charles Clinch of the Eagle Brewery in Witney. In 1892, the partnership became a limited company called John Smith's Tadcaster Brewery Company Limited, with Henry Herbert Riley-Smith as chairman. In 1899 the company acquired Simpson & Co of Market Weighton, with 51 public houses, and converted the brewery into a maltings.
By the turn of the century the brewery was considered to be one of the best-run in Britain, "a byword for first-class management". In 1907, John Marples of Sheffield, the wines and spirits distributor, was acquired. The company began to bottle its own beer in Tadcaster from 1907. In 1912, the company owned over 250 horses, 41 of which saw service during the First World War. Artificially carbonated beer was first bottled in 1923. Paired horse drays were phased out by 1929. During and for some time after the World Wars, the Government raised the duty on beer, and forced brewers to lower their beer strength. During this period, substitutes for malted barley had to be used for brewing, including flaked barley, oats and rye.
The last of the company's dray horses was retired in 1947. Horses had delivered beer to all the areas surrounding the brewery, as far afield as Pateley Bridge. From 1948 the company exported beer to Belgium where it was bottled and distributed by Tilkens brewery. In 1950 there was a general strike in Belgium, and John Smith's hired two Handley Page Halifax heavy bomber aircraft to carry 7 ton loads twice-daily of their beers into the country in order to ensure supply. In 1953 the firm became a public company, with fixed assets of around £5 million, 1,000 licensed premises and around 1,100 employees. In 1958, Whitworth, Son & Nephew of Wath-upon-Dearne was acquired with 165 licensed houses, and the brewery was immediately closed down. In 1959 the company began to bottle imported Alken lager at Tadcaster, in response to growing customer demand. In 1961 the company also began to bottle Carlsberg lager. By 1960 the company had an estate of 909 public houses.
In 1961, John Smith's acquired the Barnsley Brewery Company, adding 250 licensed properties to their growing estate. The company acquired Warwicks & Richardsons of Newark-on-Trent, with 474 pubs, in 1962. Whilst some product rationalisation took place, popular lines such as Warwicks' Milk Maid Stout were retained. John Smith's closed down all the breweries it acquired, apart from Barnsley, where it invested in the brewery, and added production of John Smith beers to the site, as well as increasing the distribution of Barnsley Bitter. As a result of acquisitions, by 1967 John Smith's was the third largest regional brewer in the country after Courage and Scottish & Newcastle, with fixed assets of £30 million. Acquisitions diluted the Riley-Smith family stake in the company to around 10 per cent.
### 1970–present: Courage takeover and the growth of John Smith's Bitter
In October 1970, Courage purchased John Smith's in a friendly takeover which valued the company at £40 million (equivalent to £ million in ). By this time John Smith's owned around 1,800 licensed premises throughout the north of England, and as far south as Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire and parts of Cambridgeshire and Shropshire. The merged company held assets worth £137 million. By combining Courage's strength in the South of England, and John Smith's in the North, a national brewing company was created. John Smith's bottled Magnet Pale Ale was selected for nationwide distribution across the group, and the takeover facilitated the wider distribution of Courage brands such as Tavern Keg.
The Tadcaster brewery was substantially redeveloped and expanded throughout 1974. Courage closed down the Barnsley brewery in 1976 with the loss of 200 jobs. Barnsley Bitter was replaced by John Smith's bitter. Courage argued that modernisation of the Barnsley site would have required "massive" investment. It was reported in The Times that landlords were generally indifferent to the change, as the taste profiles of John Smith's bitter and Barnsley bitter were similar.
After successful test marketing from 1974, John Smith's Bitter was distributed in the South of England from 1979 onwards, accompanied by an extensive marketing budget. As research by Courage indicated that Southern drinkers considered Yorkshire bitter to be superior, the beer was sold there under the name John Smith's Yorkshire Bitter. Sales of the beer doubled in 1981 owing to the increase in free trade outlets in the South stocking the beer. By 1982 it was the highest selling Courage brand and the highest selling canned bitter in the United Kingdom.
In 1982, the John Smith's brands included Yorkshire Bitter, Magnet Pale Ale, Export Pale, Sweet Stout, Double Brown and Magnet Old. In December 1983, John Smith's Cask (3.8% ABV) was re-introduced, seven years after it had been phased out. By June 1985, John Smith's produced 1.7 million hectolitres (1.0 million imperial barrels) of beer annually. In November that year, a new brewhouse was opened, at the cost of £5 million. Production of Foster's lager began in 1987.
In 1993, John Smith's Extra Smooth was launched in cans. It was introduced in kegs in February 1995, and distributed to 10,000 pubs and venues. It is a nitrogenated version of the pasteurised beer, which was renamed to John Smith's Original in order to differentiate the two products.
In 2005, Scottish & Newcastle claimed that John Smith's was available in 40,000 outlets across the United Kingdom. In 2007, Scottish & Newcastle moved production of John Smith's Cask from Tadcaster to Burtonwood near Warrington, and production of John Smith's Magnet to Camerons Brewery of Hartlepool. In 2008 three limited edition beers were released to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the brewery. In 2010 Heineken discontinued production of cask conditioned John Smith's Magnet, although it remains available in kegs. By 2011, production of John Smith's Cask had moved to Cameron's. As of 2012, John Smith's is the sixth highest selling beer brand in the United Kingdom and the highest selling bitter in the world. From February 2013, John Smith's Extra Smooth and Original were reduced from 3.8 to 3.6% ABV. According to Heineken, the decision was taken in order to bring the product in line with the strength of its major competitors such as Tetley, Boddingtons and Worthington.
## Beers
- John Smith's Extra Smooth (3.6% ABV). The highest selling variant, available in kegs and cans. It is nitrogenated and pasteurised.
- John Smith's Original (3.6% ABV). The same as Extra Smooth, but carbonated, rather than nitrogenated.
- John Smith's Cask (3.8% ABV). Available nationwide, but most often found around the brewery's Yorkshire heartland.
- John Smith's Magnet (4% ABV). A keg product, most frequently found around the North East and Yorkshire.
- John Smiths Golden Ale (4% ABV). Available in a can only, a lightly hopped pale ale.
## Brewery
The brewery brews 3.8 million hectolitres annually (1.3 million of which is John Smith's beer), and employed around 300 people in 2008. It has two keg lines, two bottle lines and one canning line. It currently brews and packages the ale brands John Smith's Original, John Smith's Extra Smooth and Newcastle Brown Ale, and the lager brands Foster's, Kronenbourg 1664 (Kronenbourg is a Carlsberg-owned brand brewed under license by Heineken in the UK), Amstel and Tiger.
Slate Yorkshire Square brewing vessels were used at the brewery from 1913 until 1975. Stainless steel Yorkshire Squares were in use by at least 1953, but were removed in the 1980s, and the brewery now uses conical tanks. By 1953, the brewery site occupied 20 acres.
Wooden casks were still in use in the 1960s. The cask beer line was removed in 1976, but restored in 1984. A new canning line and a new brewhouse were installed around 1982.
In 1984 the original brewhouse was converted into a brewery museum. In November 1985 a new £5 million brewhouse opened. Production of Foster's Lager began in 1987. By 1989 the brewery had a production capacity of 1.2 million barrels per annum. Scottish & Newcastle used the John Smith's Brewery to brew many of its ale brands. In 2004, a new £24 million bottling facility was opened in 2004, described as the most modern bottling facility in Europe.
## Advertising
The Magnet trademark was first registered in September 1908 in Brussels, and symbolised strength.
The company's association with television advertising began in 1971 with the "Yorkshiremen love it" campaign.
An early campaign used a series of parodies of Jona Lewie's "Stop the Cavalry" generally extolling "yer mate called Smith."
This was followed by the "Big John" campaign, which ran in the North of England from 1981, and centred around a re-writing of the Big Bad John country music staple. Courage was able to demonstrate to an independent panel that the £300,000 campaign had resulted in a £5 million sales increase in the North.
From 1979 to 1986 Gordon Rollings played the dour Yorkshireman Arkwright in a campaign that was only used in the South. The campaign won a large number of advertising industry awards, and was featured on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. After Rollings died in 1986 the campaign was continued with Arkwright's successor, Barraclough, until 1991. Despite its success, the campaign was not without detractors, with Deyan Sudjic describing it in The Times as a "spurious ... tripe-and-whippets campaign".
### No Nonsense campaigns
From 1992 until 1997, comedian Jack Dee starred in the "No Nonsense" campaign, created by DDB. The Dee campaign was widely credited with helping John Smith's rise from sixteenth to fourth highest selling beer in the UK as sales increased by 65 per cent, and the brand overtook Tetley's as the highest selling ale brand in the world by 1995. The Dee campaign won fifty advertising awards, and helped to turn the rising comedian into a household name.
Dee resigned in 1997, and he was replaced in 1998 with a cardboard cut-out known as the "No Nonsense Man", from the GGT advertising agency. Despite appearing in over 20,000 pubs, clubs and shops, No Nonsense Man was found to have less of an impact than the Dee advertisements.
Peter Kay represented the brand from 2002 to 2005 and again in 2010–11. The Kay campaign was described as an "advertising phenomenon", and introduced the phrase "Ave it!" into the public consciousness. Between 2002 and 2004 the Kay advertisements won over fifty advertising and marketing awards, making it the sixth most awarded advertising campaign in the world. Despite the success of the Kay campaign, the perceived "laddishness" of the advertisements were criticised by rival brewer Interbrew as hindering sales of beer among women.
### Sponsorship
John Smith's is a major sponsor of horse racing in the United Kingdom. It has sponsored the Northumberland Plate since 2003, and more than 90 "No Nonsense" race days are held throughout the year at 28 jump and flat racecourses across the UK. The brand has sponsored the John Smith's Cup (originally the Magnet Cup until 1998) at York since 1960, which is the longest running sponsorship in flat racing in the world. John Smith's previously sponsored the Grand National between 2005 and 2013.
In August 2012 John Smith's announced a five-year sponsorship of the Kirklees Stadium in Huddersfield, home to football team Huddersfield Town and rugby league team Huddersfield Giants, which was renamed "John Smith's Stadium". In December 2016, this deal was extended for a further five years. |
229,676 | Tug of war at the 1900 Summer Olympics | 1,172,329,952 | Tug of war at the Olympics | [
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| A tug of war tournament was held on 16 July at Catalan Cross, Boulogne Forest in Paris as part of the 1900 Summer Olympics. The only match of the tournament was between a mixed team from the Racing Club de France, consisting of five French and one Colombian athlete, and a mixed team consisting of three Danish athletes and three Swedish athletes. The mixed Scandinavian team won the match 2–0.
Originally, the Racing Club team were scheduled to face a team from the United States, but the latter had to withdraw due to a scheduling clash with the hammer throw, which three of their team were competing in.
The Scandinavians were accepted as late entrants by the organisers, with their team composed of five athletes who were competing in other events and one journalist, Edgar Aabye.
The Scandinavian team won both of the first two pulls against the French/Colombian team in a best-of-three contest to win the gold medal.
Due to a second unofficial match subsequently taking place between the United States and the Scandinavians, some records have erroneously listed the United States as gold medalists.
## Background
The modern Olympic Games were first held in Athens in 1896, and travelled to Paris four years later as part of the 1900 Exposition Universelle world's fair. The second Games featured a greatly expanded range of events from the first, up from 43 to 95. Among the events added in 1900 was the tug of war.
Two tug of war teams were entered for the Paris tournament: Racing Club de France represented the host nation, along with a team from the United States which was composed of six athletes that were taking part in various other events during the Games.
However, the American team were forced to withdraw after they discovered that the tug of war was scheduled at the same time as the hammer throw, in which three of their team members were competing.
A Scandinavian team was accepted as a late entry by the organisers, comprising a mix of Swedish and Danish athletes competing at the Games. Various reports assign the credit for the formation and entry of this team to different sources; a Danish account claimed that it was one of the Danish pullers, Eugen Schmidt, who was responsible, while a Swedish record attributed it to their representative at the Games, Lieutenant Bergh.
## Team composition
The French team, representing the Racing Club de France, included 3 players who were later part of the gold-winning rugby team for France. Jean Collas, Charles Gondouin, and Émile Sarrade were all part of both teams, while it is often misreported that another of their rugby teammates, the Haitian-born Constantin Henriquez was also on the tug of war team, but this was a case of mistaken identity due to their similar names, with Colombian-born Francisco Henríquez de Zubiría taking part in the tug of war. The other two members of the tug-of-war team were Raymond Basset and Joseph Roffo. The combined Scandinavian team featured three athletes from each of Sweden and Denmark. The Swedish competitors were August Nilsson, who also took part in the pole vault and shot put, Gustaf Söderström, who was competing in the shot put and the discus throw, and Karl Staaf, who did the pole vault, triple jump, standing triple jump and hammer throw. Only one of the three Danish pullers took part in any other events; Charles Winckler competed in the shot put and discus throw. Dane Edgar Aabye was at the Games as a journalist for the Politiken newspaper, but was recruited into the team to make up the numbers as one of the original entrants was injured. Eugen Schmidt, the sixth member of the team, had competed in the 100 metres sprint and the 200 metre rifle shooting at the 1896 Games, and founded the Danish Sports Federation that same year.
## Match
The match was played as a best-of-three. The mixed Scandinavian team won both of the first two pulls, using their greater weight, particularly that of Söderström and Winckler, to their advantage. The Swedish paper Ny Tidning för Idrott reported that the French team "put up desperate resistance" but were unable to cope with their opponents. There are sources that report that the Scandinavian team won by two pulls to one, but the majority record it as a 2–0 victory.
### Confusion
As late as 1974, the Olympic Review listed the United States team of John Flanagan, Robert Garrett, Truxton Hare, Josiah McCracken, Lewis Sheldon and Richard Sheldon as the gold medalists for the 1900 tug of war. A report in the Paris edition of the New York Herald described the tug of war contest at the Olympic Games as being "an object lesson in how not to do a thing". The report mentioned the Scandinavian team's defeat of France, before detailing a second match between an American team and the Scandinavians.
The New York Herald recorded that in the second contest, a group of Americans formed a team to take on the victorious Scandinavians, beating them in two pulls, the second of which took over five minutes. In contrast, the Journal des Sports suggested that the Americans initially wanted to wear spiked shoes to take part in the match, but were then forced to remove them after protests. They then won the first pull against the mixed Swedish/Danish team, but during the second pull, some of their compatriots joined in pulling the rope to help the tiring team. A fight nearly broke out, but was avoided by the intervention of officials.
Regardless of the result of this second contest, it was not considered to be part of the official competition, but rather a private contest, so the United States are not considered to have officially taken part.
## Medalists |
52,106 | Albany, New York | 1,173,801,399 | Capital city of New York, United States | [
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| Albany (/ˈɔːlbəni/ AWL-bən-ee) is the capital city of the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. It is located on the west bank of the Hudson River, about 10 miles (16 km) south of its confluence with the Mohawk River, and about 135 miles (220 km) north of New York City.
The city is known for its architecture, commerce, culture, institutions of higher education, and rich history. It is the economic and cultural core of the Capital District of the State of New York, which comprises the Albany–Schenectady–Troy Metropolitan Statistical Area, including the nearby cities and suburbs of Troy, Schenectady, and Saratoga Springs. With an estimated population of 1.1 million in 2013, the Capital District is the third most populous metropolitan region in the state. As of 2020, Albany's population was 99,224.
The Hudson River area was originally inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican (Mahican), who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw. The area was settled by Dutch colonists who, in 1614, built Fort Nassau for fur trading and in 1624, built Fort Orange. In 1664, the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city Albany in honor of the Duke of Albany, the future James II. The city was officially chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York in 1797 after the formation of the United States. Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies; no other city in the United States has been continuously chartered as long.
In the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade and transportation. The city lies toward the north end of the navigable Hudson River. It was the original eastern terminus of the Erie Canal, connecting to the Great Lakes, and was home to some of the earliest railroads in the world. In the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in Albany. In the latter part of the 20th century, Albany's population shrank because of urban sprawl and suburbanization. In the 1990s, the New York State Legislature approved for the city a US\$234 million building and renovation plan, which spurred redevelopment downtown. In the early 21st century, Albany's high-technology industry grew, with great strides in nanotechnology.
## History
### Mohican, Mohawk, and Dutch before 1660
The Hudson River area was originally inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican (Mahican), who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw, meaning "the fireplace of the Mohican nation". Based to the west along the Mohawk River, the Iroquoian-speaking Mohawk called it Sche-negh-ta-da, "through the pine woods", referring to the path they took there. The Mohawk were one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy.
According to Hendrick Aupaumut, the Mohicans came to the area from the north and the west. They settled along the Mahicannituck, which is now called the Hudson River, and called themselves the Muh-he-con-neok, the "People of the Waters That Are Never Still". This name evolved to Mohicans.
The Mohawks were based in the Mohawk valley and noted for their fur trading and their access to trade between the Iroquois and other nations. The Mohawk became strong trading partners with the Dutch and English. It is likely that the Albany area was visited by European fur traders perhaps as early as 1540, but the extent and duration of those visits are unclear.
Permanent European claims began when Englishman Henry Hudson, exploring for the Dutch East India Company on the Half Moon (Dutch: Halve Maen), reached the area in 1609, claiming it for the United Netherlands. In 1614, Hendrick Christiaensen built Fort Nassau on Castle Island in the Hudson River. The fort acted as a fur-trading post and was the first documented European structure in present-day Albany. Commencement of the fur trade provoked hostility from the French colony in Canada and among the natives, all of whom vied to control the trade. In 1618, a flood ruined Fort Nassau, but the Dutch replaced it with Fort Orange on the mainland in 1624. Both forts were named in honor of the leading family of the Dutch Revolt, members of the House of Orange-Nassau. Fort Orange and the surrounding area were incorporated as the village of Beverwijck (English: Beaverwick or Beaver District) in 1652, and the city of Albany in 1686. In these early decades of trade, the Dutch, Mohican, and Mohawk developed relations that reflected differences among their three cultures.
### British occupation to 1800
Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original Thirteen Colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. When New Netherland was captured by the English in 1664, the name was changed from Beverwijck to Albany in honor of the Duke of Albany (later James II). Duke of Albany was a Scottish title given since 1398, generally to a younger son of the King of Scots. The name is ultimately derived from Alba, the Gaelic name for Scotland. The Dutch briefly regained Albany in August 1673 and renamed the city Willemstadt; the English took permanent possession in 1674 with the Treaty of Westminster. On November 1, 1683, the Province of New York was split into counties, with Albany County being the largest. At that time the county included all of present New York State north of Dutchess and Ulster Counties in addition to present-day Bennington County, Vermont, theoretically stretching west to the Pacific Ocean; Albany became the county seat. Albany was formally chartered as a municipality by provincial Governor Thomas Dongan on July 22, 1686. The Dongan Charter was virtually identical in content to the charter awarded to the city of New York three months earlier. Dongan created Albany as a strip of land 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and 16 miles (26 km) long. Over the years Albany would lose much of the land to the west and annex land to the north and south. At this point, Albany had a population of about 500 people.
In 1754, representatives of seven British North American colonies met in the Stadt Huys, Albany's city hall, for the Albany Congress; Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania presented the Albany Plan of Union there, which was the first formal proposal to unite the colonies. Although it was never adopted by Parliament, it was an important precursor to the United States Constitution. The same year, the French and Indian War, the fourth in a series of wars dating back to 1689, began. It ended in 1763 with French defeat, resolving a situation that had been a constant threat to Albany and held back its growth. In 1775, with the colonies in the midst of the Revolutionary War, the Stadt Huys became home to the Albany Committee of Correspondence (the political arm of the local revolutionary movement), which took over operation of Albany's government and eventually expanded its power to control all of Albany County. Tories and prisoners of war were often jailed in the Stadt Huys alongside common criminals. In 1776, Albany native Philip Livingston signed the Declaration of Independence at Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
During and after the Revolutionary War, Albany County saw a great increase in real estate transactions. After Horatio Gates defeated John Burgoyne at Saratoga in 1777, the upper Hudson Valley was generally at peace as the war raged on elsewhere. Prosperity was soon seen all over Upstate New York. Migrants from Vermont and Connecticut began flowing in, noting the advantages of living on the Hudson and trading at Albany, while being only a few days' sail from New York City. Albany reported a population of 3,498 in the first national census in 1790, an increase of almost 700% since its chartering.
On November 17, 1793, a large fire broke out, destroying 26 homes on Broadway, Maiden Lane, James Street, and State Street. The fire originated at a stable belonging to Leonard Gansevoort and was suspected to be arson set by enslaved people. Three were arrested and charged with arson: Pompey, a man enslaved by Matthew Visscher; Dinah, a 14-year-old girl enslaved by Volkert P. Douw; and Bet, a 12-year-old girl enslaved by Philip S. Van Rensselaer. On January 6, 1794, the three were tried and sentenced to death. For reasons unknown, Governor George Clinton issued a temporary stay of execution, but Dinah and Bet were executed by hanging on March 14, and Pompey on April 11, 1794.
In 1797, the state capital of New York was moved permanently to Albany. From statehood to this date, the Legislature had frequently moved the state capital between Albany, Kingston, Poughkeepsie, and the city of New York. Albany is the tenth-oldest state capital in the United States and the second-oldest city that is a state capital, after Santa Fe, New Mexico.
### 1800 to 1942
Albany has been a center of transportation for much of its history. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Albany saw development of the turnpike and by 1815, Albany was the turnpike center of the state. The development of Simeon De Witt's gridded block system in 1794—which renamed streets that had originally honored British royalty with names of birds and mammals instead—was intersected by these major arterials coming out of Albany, cutting through the city at unexpected angles. The construction of the turnpike, in conjunction with canal and railroad systems, made Albany the hub of transportation for pioneers going to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory in the early and mid-19th century.
In 1807, Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind anywhere in the world. By 1810, with 10,763 people, Albany was the tenth-largest urban place in the nation. The town and village north of Albany known as "the Colonie" was annexed in 1815. In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed, forming a continuous water route from the Great Lakes to New York City. Unlike the current Barge Canal, which ends at nearby Waterford, the original Erie Canal ended at Albany; Lock 1 was north of Colonie Street. The Canal emptied into a 32-acre (13 ha) man-made lagoon called the Albany Basin, which was Albany's main port from 1825 until the Port of Albany-Rensselaer opened in 1932. In 1829, while working as a professor at the Albany Academy, Joseph Henry, widely regarded as "the foremost American scientist of the 19th century", built the first electric motor. Three years later, he discovered electromagnetic self-induction (the SI unit for which is now the henry). He went on to be the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In the 1830 and 1840 censuses, Albany was ranked as the ninth-largest urban place in the nation; it dropped back to tenth in 1850. This was the last time the city was one of the top ten largest urban places in the nation.
Albany also has significant history with rail transport, as the location of two major regional railroad headquarters. The Delaware and Hudson Railway was headquartered in Albany at what is now the SUNY System Administration Building. In 1853, Erastus Corning, a noted industrialist and Albany's mayor from 1834 to 1837, consolidated ten railroads stretching from Albany to Buffalo into the New York Central Railroad (NYCRR), headquartered in Albany until Cornelius Vanderbilt moved it to New York City in 1867. One of the ten companies that formed the NYCRR was the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, which was the first railroad in the state and the first successful steam railroad running regularly scheduled service in the country.
While the key to Albany's economic prosperity in the 19th century was transportation, industry and business also played a role. Largely thanks to the city's Dutch and German roots, beer was one of its biggest commodities. Beverwyck Brewery, originally known as Quinn and Nolan (Nolan being mayor of Albany 1878–1883), was the last remaining brewer from that time when it closed in 1972. The city's location at the east end of the Erie Canal gave it unparalleled access to both raw products and a captive customer base in the west. Albany was known for its publishing houses, and to some extent, still is. Albany was second only to Boston in the number of books produced for most of the 19th century. Iron foundries in both the north and south ends of the city attracted thousands of immigrants to the city for industrial jobs. To this day, one can see many intricate wrought-iron details that were constructed in those years on what are now historic buildings. The iron industry waned by the 1890s due to increased costs associated with a newly unionized workforce and the opening of mines in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota.
Albany's other major exports during the 18th and 19th centuries were furs, wheat, meat, and lumber. By 1865, there were almost 4,000 saw mills in the Albany area and the Albany Lumber District was the largest lumber market in the nation. The city was also home to a number of banks. The Bank of Albany (1792–1861) was the second chartered bank in New York. The city was the original home of the Albank (founded in 1820 as the Albany Savings Bank), KeyBank (founded in 1825 as the Commercial Bank of Albany), and Norstar Bank (founded as the State Bank of Albany in 1803). American Express was founded in Albany in 1850 as an express mail business. In 1871, the northwestern portion of Albany—west from Magazine Street—was annexed to the neighboring town of Guilderland after the town of Watervliet refused annexation of the territory. In return for this loss, portions of Bethlehem and Watervliet were added to Albany. Part of the land annexed to Guilderland was ceded back to Albany in 1910, setting up the current western border.
The train carrying the body of slain President Abraham Lincoln came through Albany on the way to Illinois and some claim the ghostly image of that train remains.
Albany opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, and the first municipal airport in the United States, in 1908. Originally on a polo field on Loudon Road, it moved to Westerlo Island in 1909 and remained there until 1928. The Albany Municipal Airport—jointly owned by the city and county—was moved to its current location in Colonie in 1928. By 1916 Albany's northern and southern borders reached their modern courses; Westerlo Island, to the south, became the second-to-last annexation, which occurred in 1926.
### 1942 to present day
Erastus Corning 2nd, arguably Albany's most notable mayor (and great-grandson of the former mayor of the same name), was elected in 1941. Although he was one of the longest-serving mayors of any city in United States history (1942 until his death in 1983), one historian describes Corning's tenure as "long on years, short on accomplishments," citing Corning's preference for maintaining the status quo as a factor that held back potential progress during his tenure. While Corning brought stability to the office of mayor, it is said even those who admire him greatly cannot come up with a sizable list of "major concrete Corning achievements." Corning is given credit for saving—albeit somewhat unintentionally—much of Albany's historic architecture.
During the 1950s and 1960s, a time when federal aid for urban renewal was plentiful, Albany did not have growth in its economy or infrastructure. It lost more than 20 percent of its population during the Corning years, as people moved to newer housing in the suburbs, followed by most of the downtown businesses moving there as well. While cities across the country grappled with similar issues, the problems were magnified in Albany: interference from the Democratic political machine hindered progress considerably. In 1960, the mayor sold the city's stake in the airport to the county, citing budget issues. It was known from then on as Albany County Airport until a massive upgrade and modernization project between 1996 and 1998, when it was rebranded Albany International Airport.
Governor Nelson Rockefeller (1959–1973) (R) tried to stimulate the city with new monumental architecture and large, government-sponsored building projects; he drove construction of the Empire State Plaza, SUNY Albany's uptown campus, and much of the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus. Albany County Republican Chairman Joseph C. Frangella once quipped, "Governor Rockefeller was the best mayor Albany ever had." Corning, although opposed to the project, was responsible for negotiating the payment plan for the Empire State Plaza. Rockefeller did not want to be limited by the Legislature's power of the purse, so Corning devised a plan to have the county pay for the construction and have the state sign a lease-ownership agreement. The state paid off the bonds until 2004. It was Rockefeller's only viable option, and he agreed. Due to the clout Corning gained from the situation, he gained inclusion of the State Museum, a convention center, and a restaurant, back in the plans—ideas which Rockefeller had originally vetoed. The county gained \$35 million in fees and the city received \$13 million for lost tax revenue. Having the state offices in the city enabled it to keep good jobs and retain middle-class residents.
Another major project of the 1960s and 1970s was the construction of Interstate 787 and the South Mall Arterial. Construction began in the early 1960s. A proposed Mid-Crosstown Arterial never came to fruition. One of the project's main results was separating the city from the Hudson River. Historian Paul Grondahl has described Corning as shortsighted with respect to use of the waterfront, saying the mayor could have used his influence to change the location of I-787, which now cuts the city off from "its whole raison d'être" In 1967, the hamlet of Karlsfeld was the last annexation by the city, sourced from the Town of Bethlehem.
When Corning died in 1983, Thomas Whalen assumed the mayorship and was reelected twice. He encouraged redevelopment of historic structures and helped attract federal dollars earmarked for that purpose. What Corning had saved from destruction, Whalen refurbished for continued and new uses. The Mayor's Office of Special Events was created in an effort to increase the number of festivals and artistic events in the city, including a year-long Dongan Charter tricentennial celebration in 1986. Whalen is credited for an "unparalleled cycle of commercial investment and development" in Albany due to his "aggressive business development programs".
Prior to the recession of the 1990s, downtown Albany was home to four Fortune 500 companies. After the death of Corning and the retirement of Congressman Sam Stratton, the political environment changed. Long-term office holders became rare in the 1980s. Local media began following the drama surrounding county politics (specifically that of the newly created county executive position); the loss of Corning (and eventually the machine) led to a lack of interest in city politics. The election of Gerald Jennings was a surprise, and he served as mayor from 1994 until his retirement at the end of 2013. His tenure essentially ended the political machine that had been in place since the 1920s.
During the 1990s, the State Legislature approved the \$234 million "Albany Plan", "a building and renovation project [that] was the most ambitious building project to affect the area since the Rockefeller era." Under the Albany Plan, renovation and new building projects were initiated around the downtown area. Many state workers were relocated from the Harriman State Office Campus to downtown, helping its retail businesses and vitality. The first decade of the 21st century saw a real possibility for a long-discussed and controversial Albany Convention Center; it opened in 2017 with the goal of making Albany a viable location for large events hosted by statewide organizations.
Albany remains an important location for business presence, given its role as de facto seat of Tech Valley and being home to the state capitol. Fortune 500 companies with offices in Albany include American Express, J.P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank.
Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009.
## Geography
Albany is about 150 miles (240 km) north of New York City on the Hudson River. It has a total area of 21.8 square miles (56 km<sup>2</sup>), of which 21.4 square miles (55 km<sup>2</sup>) is land and 0.4 square miles (1.0 km<sup>2</sup>) (1.8%) is water. The city is bordered on the north by the town of Colonie (along with the village of Menands), on the west by the town of Guilderland, and on the south by the town of Bethlehem. The former Foxes Creek, Beaver Kill, and Rutten Kill were diverted underground in the 19th century. There are four lakes within city limits: Buckingham Lake; Rensselaer Lake at the mouth of the Patroon Creek; Tivoli Lake, which was formed as a reservoir and once connected to the Patroon Creek; and Washington Park Lake, which was formed by damming the Beaver Kill.
The highest natural point in Albany is a USGS benchmark near the Loudonville Reservoir off Birch Hill Road, at 378 feet (115 m) above sea level. The lowest point is at the Hudson River—which is still technically an estuary at Albany and is affected by the Atlantic tide—at an average of 2 feet (0.61 m) above sea level at low tide and 4 feet (1.2 m) at high tide. The interior of Albany consists of rolling hills which were once part of the Albany Pine Bush, an area of pitch pine and scrub oak, and has arid, sandy soil that is a remnant of the ancient Lake Albany. Due to development, the Pine Bush has shrunk from an original 25,000 to 6,000 acres (10,100 to 2,400 ha) today. A preserve was set up by the State Legislature in 1988 and is on the city's western edge, spilling into Guilderland and Colonie; it is the only sizable inland pine barrens sand dune ecosystem in the United States, and is home to many endangered species, including the Karner Blue butterfly.
### Climate
Albany is in the humid continental climate zone (Köppen climate classification: Dfa), and features cold, snowy winters, and hot, humid summers; the city experiences four distinct seasons. Albany is in plant hardiness zone 6a near downtown and along the shore of the Hudson and 5b at its western end. Albany receives 40.7 inches (1,030 mm) of precipitation per year, with 138 days of at least 0.01 in (0.25 mm) of precipitation each year. Snowfall is significant, totaling 59.4 inches (151 cm) per season, but with less accumulation than the lake effect areas to the north and west, as it is farther from Lake Ontario. However, Albany is close enough to the Atlantic coast to receive heavy snow from Nor'easters and the city occasionally receives Alberta clippers. Winters can be very cold with fluctuating conditions; temperatures drop to 0 °F (−18 °C) or below on nine nights per annum. Summers in Albany can contain stretches of excessive heat and humidity, with temperatures of 90 °F (32 °C) or hotter on nine days per year. Record temperature extremes range from −28 °F (−33 °C), on January 19, 1971, to 104 °F (40 °C) on July 4, 1911.
### Cityscape
#### Neighborhoods
The neighborhoods of Albany include Arbor Hill; Center Square, "[an] eclectic mix of residential and commercial [buildings], including bars, night clubs, restaurants, and stores"; Pine Hills; and the South End.
## Demographics
### City of immigrants
Historically, Albany's population has been mixed. First dominated by Mohican and Mohawk, then Dutch and Germans, it was overtaken by the English in the early 19th century. Irish immigrants soon outnumbered most other ethnicities by the mid-19th century, and were followed by Italians and Poles. In the mid-to-late 20th century, the African-American population increased with thousands of people from the rural South, as part of the Great Migration. As historian (and Albany Assemblyman) John McEneny puts it,
> Dutch and Yankee, German and Irish, Polish and Italian, black and Chinese—over the centuries Albany's heritage has reflected a succession of immigrant nationalities. Its streets have echoed with a dozen languages, its neighborhoods adapting to the distinctive life-style and changing economic fortunes of each new group.
Until after the Revolution, Albany's population consisted mostly of ethnic Dutch descendants. Settlers migrating from New England tipped the balance toward British ethnicity in the early 19th century. Jobs on the turnpikes, canals, and railroads attracted floods of Irish immigrants in the early 19th century, especially in the 1840s during the Great Famine, solidifying the city's Irish base. Michael Nolan became Albany's first Irish Catholic mayor in 1878, two years before Boston. Polish and Italian immigrants began arriving in Albany in the wave of immigration in the latter part of the 19th century. Their numbers were smaller than in many other eastern cities mainly because most had found manufacturing jobs at General Electric in Schenectady. The Jewish community had been established early, with Sephardic Jewish members as part of the Beverwijck community. Its population rose during the late 19th century, when many Ashkenazi Jews immigrated from eastern Europe. In that period, there was also an influx of Chinese and east Asian immigrants, who settled in the downtown section of the city. Many of their descendants have since moved to suburban areas. Asian immigration all but halted after the Immigration Act of 1924.
Albany saw its last large immigration pattern as part of the Great Migration when many African Americans moved there from the American South before and after World War I to fill industrial positions and find other opportunities. In the early years, African-Americans lived together with Italians, Jews, and other immigrants in the South End, where housing was older and less expensive. The black community has grown as a proportion of the population since then; African Americans made up three percent of the city's population in 1950, six percent in 1960, 12 percent in 1970, and 30 percent in 2010. The change in proportion is related mostly to middle-class white families moving to the suburbs and black families remaining within city limits during the same time period.
Since 2007, the number of Burmese refugees to Albany has increased. The Burmese refugee community consists mostly of persons of Karen ethnicity. An estimated 5,000 Burmese refugees reside in Albany as of January 2015.
### Religious participation
Like most cities of comparable age and size, Albany has well-established Orthodox Christian, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish communities. Albany is home to the oldest Christian congregation in Upstate New York and the Mother Churches of two Christian dioceses. As of June 2010, eight churches or religious buildings in the city were listed on the National Register of Historic Places, one of which—St. Peter's Episcopal Church on State Street—is a National Historic Landmark. Established in 1642, the congregation of the First Church in Albany (Reformed), also known as the North Dutch Church (on North Pearl Street), is the second-oldest Reformed Church in America. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Eagle Street and Madison Avenue, built 1852) is the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Albany, led by Bishop Edward Scharfenberger, and the Cathedral of All Saints (South Swan Street and Elk Street, built 1888) is the cathedral of the Episcopal Diocese of Albany. As of 2023, the city was home to twelve Catholic churches and four Episcopal churches. Despite its history of Christendom, in 2019 the Albany-Schenectady-Troy MSA was found to be among the most post-Christian cities in the United States in a study by Christian polling firm The Barna Group.
A significant Jewish presence has existed in Albany as early as 1658. As of 2010, Albany is home to two Conservative synagogues, a Chabad-Lubavitch synagogue, an Orthodox synagogue, and two Reform synagogues. Albany is also home to one of the few Karaite synagogues outside Israel. As of 2008, the total membership in Albany's synagogues was estimated at 12,000-13,000, with half the members residing outside the city. Since the early 2000s, there has been an increase in Orthodox Jews moving to Albany from the New York Metro area, largely due to cheaper housing prices and closer walking proximity to synagogues.
The Islamic community in Albany and its surrounding suburbs is represented by at least four major mosques in the region. The Muslim population increased substantially starting in the late 2000s, with the arrival of many refugees from countries such as Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan.
Exact numbers on religious denominations in Albany are not readily available. Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the United States Census Bureau, which cannot ask about religious affiliation as part of its decennial census. It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics, but these are not representative of a city the size of Albany. One report from 2000 offers religious affiliations for Albany County. According to the data, 59.2% of Albany County residents identified as Christian: 47% are Roman Catholic, 8.4% are mainline Protestants, 2.7% are Evangelical Protestants, and 1.1% are Eastern or Oriental Orthodox Christians. Residents who practice Judaism make up 4.2% of the population and Muslims represent 0.2%.
### Modern overview
#### 2020 census
As of April 1, 2020, Albany's population is 99,224.
With a 2013 Census-estimated population of 1.1 million, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state.
As of the 2010 census, Albany's population density was 4,572.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,765.5/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 46,362 housing units at an average density of 2,166.4 per square mile (836.5/km<sup>2</sup>); 5,205 of these units (11.2%) were vacant. The racial makeup of the city residents was 52.3% white; 27% black or African American; 0.06% Native American or Native Alaskan; 7.4% Asian; 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander; .06% from other races; and 3.6% from two or more races. A total of 9.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Non-Hispanic Whites were 52.0% of the population in 2010, compared to 87.0% in 1970.
As of 2010, 20.0% of Albany's population was under the age of 18, 19.3% was aged 18 to 24, 29.2% was aged 25 to 44, 18.1% was aged 45 to 64, and 13.4% was aged 65 years or older. The median age was 31.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males. Some 81.3% of the population had completed high school or earned an equivalency diploma.
As of the 2000 census, the top five ancestry groups in the city were African American (27%), Irish (18.1%), Italian (12.4%), German (10.4%), and English (5.2%); (33.1%) of the population reported "other ancestries". Albany is home to a Triqui language-speaking community of Mexican-Americans.
There were 40,709 households in Albany in 2000, out of which 22.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.3% were married couples living together, 16.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.8% were non-families. 41.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.11 and the average family size was 2.95.
The median income for a household in the city in 2000 was \$, and the median income for a family was \$ (male, year-round worker) and \$ (female, year-round worker). The per capita income for the city was \$. About 16.0% of families and 21.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.8% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over. The rate of reported violent crimes for 2008 (1,095 incidents per 100,000 residents) were more than double the rate for similarly sized US cities. Reported property crimes (4,669 incidents per 100,000 residents) were somewhat lower.
Demographically speaking, the population of Albany and the Capital District mirrors the characteristics of the United States consumer population as a whole better than any other major municipality in the country. According to a 2004 study conducted by the Acxiom Corporation, Albany and its environs are the top-ranked standard test market for new business and retail products. Albany, Rochester, and Syracuse all scored within the top five.
According to the 2020 American Community Survey, the Latino population was: 4.57% Puerto Rican, 1.45% Dominican, .84% Ecuadorian, .77% Mexican, .69% Salvadoran, .22% Cuban.
### Crime
New York had an effective statewide crime rate of 385/100,000 people in 2009. Albany's violent crime rate is nearly on a par with Rochester (1028 violent crimes/100,000 population vs 968/100,000 in Rochester) and much lower than Buffalo at 1514/100,000. By comparison, New York City's violent crime rate was 639/100,000 in 2013.
## Economy
Albany's economy, along with that of the Capital District in general, is heavily dependent on government, health care, education, and more recently, technology. Because of these typically steady economic bases, the local economy has been relatively immune to national economic recessions in the past. In 2009, more than 25 percent of the city's population worked in government-related positions. Albany's estimated daytime population is more than 162,000. Companies based in Albany include Trans World Entertainment, AMRI Global and Clough Harbour. In 2019, Albany had the fourth-highest amount of lawyers in its employment pool (7.5 lawyers per 1,000 jobs) compared to the rest of the nation, behind Washington, D.C., Trenton, New Jersey, and New York City, respectively.
### Tech Valley
Since the 2000s, the economy of Albany and the surrounding Capital District has been directed toward high technology, a growing fourth sector of the area's economic base. Tech Valley is a marketing name for the eastern part of New York State, encompassing Albany, the Capital District, and the Hudson Valley. Originated in 1998 to promote the greater Albany area as a high-tech competitor to regions such as Silicon Valley and Boston, it has since grown to represent the counties in the Capital District and extending to 19 counties from IBM's Westchester County plants in the south to the Canada–US border in the north.
The area's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State University of New York Polytechnic Institute. Tech Valley encompasses 19 counties straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway, and with heavy state taxpayer subsidy, has experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high-technology industry, with great strides in the nanotechnology sector, digital electronics design, and water- and electricity-dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing. A notable video game development cluster has grown in and around Albany starting in the 2010s.
## Arts and culture
### Nightlife and entertainment
Albany's geographic situation—roughly equidistant from New York City to the south and Montreal to the north — makes it a convenient stop for nationally touring artists and acts. The Palace Theatre and The Egg are mid-sized forums for music, theater, and spoken-word performances; the Capital Repertory Theatre is smaller. The TU Center is the city's largest musical venue for nationally and internationally prominent bands. It also hosts trade shows, sporting events, and other large gatherings. Some people praise the cultural contributions of Albany and the greater Capital District; others suggest that the city has a "cultural identity crisis" due to its widespread geography, which requires a car to reach most of what the area has to offer, a necessity not seen in larger and more densely populated metropolitan areas such as New York and Boston.
In recent years, the city's government has invested resources to cultivate venues and neighborhoods that attract after-hours business. Madison Avenue, Pearl Street, Delaware Avenue and Lark Street are the most active entertainment areas in the city. Many restaurants, clubs, and bars have opened since the mid-1990s, revitalizing areas that had once been abandoned and reclaiming old row houses, businesses, and a pump station. Bars are concentrated in three areas: about two blocks on Park Street, downtown; along Lark Street, home to smaller bars, which fit the neighborhood's artistic and eclectic style; and Western and Madison Avenues, in midtown, centered on the College of Saint Rose and SUNY Albany's downtown campus and drawing younger people. Much of the bar restaurant scene features classic Irish Pubs.
Last call in Albany is 4:00 a.m. nightly. New York law sets that time as last call statewide; although counties may set an earlier time, municipalities may not. More than half of the state's counties have an earlier closing time; Albany County, like all counties in the Capital District, does not.
### Festivals
Alive at 5 is a free, weekly concert series held downtown during the summer on Thursdays; with 10 concerts in 2010, total attendance was roughly 100,000. The Tulip Festival is set in Washington Park and celebrates the city's Dutch heritage, which began with Pinkster Festival, an African-Dutch Celebration. This traditional Albany event marks the beginning of spring as thousands of tulips bloom in the park in early May; attendance to the Tulip Festival in 2010 was approximately 80,000. Another large festival in Albany is the Capital Pride Parade and Festival, a major gay pride event held each June, attended by an estimated 30,000 spectators annually from across Upstate New York.
The Price Chopper Fabulous Fourth and Fireworks Festival at the Empire State Plaza celebrates Independence Day with musical performances and the region's largest fireworks display. Freihofer's Run for Women is a 5-kilometer run through the city that draws more than 4,000 participants from across the country; it is an annual event that began in 1978.The Albany Chefs' Food & Wine Festival: Wine & Dine for the Arts is an annual Festival that hosts more than 3500 people over 3 days. The Festival showcases more than 70 Regional Chefs & Restaurants, 250 Global Wines & Spirits, a NYS Craft Beer Pavilion, 4 competitions (The Signature Chef Invitational, Rising Star Chef, Barista Albany and Battle of the Bartenders) and one Grand Gala Reception, Dinner & Auction featuring 10 f Albany's Iconic Chefs. The Albany Chefs' Food & Wine Festival donates all net proceeds to deserving Albany Arts Organizations and is held the Thursday-Saturday preceding Martin Luther King Weekend. Smaller events include the African American Family Day Arts Festival each August at the Empire State Plaza; the Latin Fest, held each August at the Corning Preserve; the Albany Jazz Festival, an annual end-of-summer event held at the Corning Preserve; and Lark Fest, a music and art festival held each fall.
### Museums and historic sites
Because of Albany's historical and political significance, the city has numerous museums, historical buildings, and historic districts. Albany is home to the New York State Museum, the New York State Library and the New York State Archives; all three facilities are in the Cultural Education Center at the south end of Empire State Plaza and are free to the public. The USS Slater (DE-766), a decommissioned World War II destroyer escort that was restored in 1998, is a museum ship docked in the Hudson River at Quay Street. It is the only ship of its kind still afloat. The Albany Heritage Area Visitors Center, at the corner of Clinton Avenue and Broadway at Quackenbush Square, hosts a museum, gift shop, and the Henry Hudson Planetarium. In early 2012, the Irish American Heritage Museum opened in downtown Albany. The museum is home to exhibits highlighting the contributions of the Irish people in America.
The Albany Institute of History and Art, on Washington Avenue near the Center Square Neighborhood and State Capitol, is "dedicated to collecting, preserving, interpreting and promoting interest in the history, art, culture of Albany and the Upper Hudson Valley region." The museum's most notable permanent exhibits include an extensive collection of paintings by the Hudson River School and an exhibit on Ancient Egypt featuring the institute's "Albany Mummies."
Albany is home to 57 listings on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) and five National Historic Landmarks. The Ten Broeck Mansion, a 1797 Federal-style mansion (later renovated in the Greek-Revival style) built for Abraham Ten Broeck (mayor of Albany 1779–1783 and 1796–1798) is a historic house museum and the headquarters of the Albany County Historical Association; it was added to the NRHP in 1971. Later known as "Arbor Hill", it gave the current neighborhood its name.
### Literature and film
Albany has been the subject, inspiration, or location for many written and cinematic works. Many non-fiction works have been written on the city. One of the city's more notable claims to fame is Ironweed (1983), the 1984 Pulitzer Prize-winning book by Albany native William Kennedy. Ironweed was the third in a series of books by Kennedy known as the "Albany Cycle". The elusive author Trevanian also grew up in Albany and wrote The Crazyladies of Pearl Street (2005), about a North Albany neighborhood along Pearl Street. The book is considered a semi-autobiographical memoir.
In 1987, the film version of Ironweed premiered at the Palace Theatre. The movie starred Jack Nicholson and Meryl Streep, each of whom were nominated for Academy Awards for their performances; much of the filming was done on location in Albany. Most recently the downtown area was the site of filming for the action-thriller Salt, starring Angelina Jolie, and the action-comedy The Other Guys, starring Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg.
Authors Herman Melville and Henry James lived with their families in Albany when young, before their careers. James identified his character Isabel Archer, the heroine of his novel The Portrait of a Lady, as being from Albany. Gregory Maguire, author of Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (adapted for the Broadway hit Wicked), grew up in North Albany and graduated from SUNY Albany.
### Architecture
The Empire State Plaza, a collection of state agency office buildings, dominates almost any view of Albany. Built between 1965 and 1978 at the hand of Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and architect Wallace Harrison, the complex is a powerful example of late American modern architecture and remains a controversial building project both for displacing city residents and for its architectural style. The most recognizable aspect of the complex is the Erastus Corning Tower, the tallest building in New York outside of New York City. Juxtaposed at the north end of the Plaza is the 19th-century New York State Capitol, the seat of the New York State Legislature and the home of the Governor's office.
Albany's initial architecture incorporated many Dutch influences, followed soon after by those of the English. Quackenbush House, a Dutch Colonial brick mansion, was built c. 1736; Schuyler Mansion, a Georgian-style mansion, was built in 1765; and the oldest building in Albany is the 1728 Van Ostrande-Radliff House at 48 Hudson Avenue. Albany's housing varies greatly, with mostly row houses in the older sections of town, closer to the river. Housing type quickly changes as one travels westward, beginning with two-family homes of the late 19th century, and one-family homes built after World War II in the western end of the city.
Albany City Hall, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, was opened in 1883. The New York State Capitol was opened in 1899 (after 32 years of construction) at a cost of \$25 million, making it the most expensive government building at the time. Albany's Union Station, a major Beaux-Arts design, was under construction at the same time; it opened in 1900. In 1912, the Beaux-Arts styled New York State Department of Education Building opened on Washington Avenue near the Capitol. It has a classical exterior, which features a block-long white marble colonnade. The 1920s brought the Art Deco movement, which is illustrated by the Home Savings Bank Building (1927) on North Pearl Street and the Alfred E. Smith Building (1930) on South Swan Street, two of Albany's tallest high-rises.
Architecture from the 1960s and 1970s is well represented in the city, especially at the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus (1950s and 1960s) and on the uptown campus of the University at Albany (1962–1971). The state office campus was planned in the 1950s by governor W. Averell Harriman to offer more parking and easier access for state employees. The uptown SUNY campus was built in the 1960s under Governor Rockefeller on the site of the city-owned Albany Country Club. Straying from the popular open campus layout, SUNY Albany has a centralized building layout with administrative and classroom buildings at center surrounded by four student housing towers. The design called for much use of concrete and glass, and the style has slender, round-topped columns and pillars reminiscent of those at Lincoln Center in New York City.
Downtown has seen a revival in recent decades, often considered to have begun with Norstar Bank's renovation of the former Union Station as its corporate headquarters in 1986. The Times Union Center (TU Center) was originally slated for suburban Colonie, but was instead built downtown and opened in 1990. Other development in downtown includes the construction of the State Dormitory Authority headquarters at 515 Broadway (1998); the State Department of Environmental Conservation building, with its iconic green dome, at 625 Broadway (2001); the State Comptroller headquarters on State Street (2001); the Hudson River Way (2002), a pedestrian bridge connecting Broadway to the Corning Preserve; and 677 Broadway (2005), "the first privately owned downtown office building in a generation".
## Sports
Albany has no major league professional sports teams, and minor league teams typically have low support.
The Albany Devils were a minor league ice hockey team that moved to the city for the 2010–11 season. They played in the American Hockey League and were affiliated with the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League. The Devils replaced the Albany River Rats, who played in the Capital Region from 1990 to 2010, when they relocated to Charlotte, North Carolina. The Albany Devils moved to Binghamton, New York in 2017.
The Times Union Center has previously hosted arena football teams including the Albany Firebirds in the Arena Football League (AFL) from 1990 to 2000 and then a team originally known as the Albany Conquest and later the Firebirds in the af2, the AFL's developmental league, from 2002 to 2009. The Albany Empire played in the AFL from 2018 through the 2019 season when the league folded. A new Albany Empire was relaunched in the National Arena League for the 2021 season. In 2023, Antonio Brown bought the team and immediately caused problems. He missed payment after payment till finally, the NAL suspended the Empire from the league.
The Tri-City ValleyCats short season minor league baseball team have played at the Joseph L. Bruno Stadium on the Hudson Valley Community College campus in North Greenbush since 2002. Prior to the ValleyCats' arrival, the Albany-Colonie Diamond Dogs (1995–2002) played at Heritage Park in Colonie; due to financial pressures, and facing impending competition from the ValleyCats, the franchise folded in 2002.
The Albany Legends (International Basketball League), played in the Washington Avenue Armory from 2010 to 2014 before moving to Schenectady. The Albany Patroons have played at the Armory on and off since 1982 and currently play in The Basketball League.
With the large number of local colleges and universities around Albany, college sports are popular. The University at Albany's Great Danes play at the Division I level in all sports. The football team is a member of the Coastal Athletic Association while all other sports teams play as members of the America East Conference. In 2006, UAlbany became the first SUNY-affiliated school to send a team to the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. The Siena Saints saw a rise in popularity after their men's basketball team made it to the NCAA Tournament in 2008, 2009, and 2010. All 18 Saints teams are Division I and play in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference. Although Siena's campus is in nearby Colonie, the men's basketball team plays at the Times Union Center.
UAlbany hosted the New York Giants training camp from 1996 to 2012.
On February 23, 2021, it was announced that the National Lacrosse League (NLL) would return to the city with the relocation of the New England Black Wolves. The team was named the Albany FireWolves on April 15, 2021. This is the second NLL team to be based in the area; the first, the Albany Attack, played in the city from 2000 to 2003.
## Parks and recreation
Albany has more than 60 public parks and recreation areas. Washington Park was organized as the Middle Public Square in 1806. Its current location has been public property since the Dongan Charter of 1686 gave the city title to all property not privately owned. Washington Park was designed by John Bogart and John Cuyler in 1870, and opened for public use the following year. The original lake house, designed by Frederick W. Brown, was added in 1876. The park had previously been used as a cemetery; its graves were moved to Albany Rural Cemetery. Washington Park is a popular place to exercise and play sports; skate during the winter; people-watch during Tulip Fest; and attend plays at the amphitheater during the summer.
Other parks in Albany include Lincoln Park, Buckingham Park, the Corning Preserve, and the Pine Bush. Lincoln Park, southwest of the Empire State Plaza, was organized in 1886 and was originally known as Beaver Park. Today, the park has a pool that is open during the summer months. Buckingham Lake Park is between Manning Boulevard and Route 85 in the Buckingham Pond neighborhood; it contains a pond with fountains, a footpath, a playground, and picnic tables. The Albany Riverfront Park at the Corning Preserve has an 800-seat amphitheatre that hosts events in non-winter months, most notably the Alive at 5 summer concert series. The Preserve's visitors center details the ecology of the Hudson River and the local environment. The park has a bike trail and boat launch and was effectively separated from downtown by Interstate 787 until the opening of the Hudson River Way in 2002.
Other public parks include Westland Hill Park, Hoffman Park, Beverwyck Park, and Liberty Park, today a small circular grassy patch in downtown on Hudson Avenue, which is Albany's oldest park. Ridgefield Park is home to the clay courts of the Albany Tennis Club, one of the oldest tennis clubs in the United States. The municipal golf course, New Course at Albany, was constructed in 1929 as the Albany Municipal Golf Course, later renamed the Capital Hills at Albany, and remodeled in 1991.
## Government
Albany has a Strong mayor-council form of government, which functions under the Dongan Charter, which was granted by colonial governor Thomas Dongan in 1686 when Albany was incorporated as a city. A revised charter was adopted by referendum in 1998, but was legally reckoned as an amendment to the Dongan Charter. This gives Albany the distinction of having the oldest active city charter in the United States and "arguably the longest-running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere." The mayor, who is elected every four years, heads the executive branch of city government. The current mayor, Kathy Sheehan, was first elected in 2013. She replaced former mayor Gerald Jennings who was mayor for 20 years from 1994 to 2013. The Common Council represents the legislative branch of city government and is made up of fifteen council members (each elected from one ward) and an at-large Common Council President. The current president is Corey Ellis; he began his term in January 2018.
While Albany has its own city government, it has also been the seat of Albany County since the county's formation in 1683 and the capital of New York since 1797. As such, the city is home to all branches of the county and state governments, as well as its own. Albany City Hall sits on Eagle Street, opposite the State Capitol, and the Albany County Office Building is on State Street. The state government has offices scattered throughout the city.
Albany is in the 20th Congressional district, represented by Paul Tonko (D) in the United States House of Representatives. The city is represented by Chuck Schumer (D) and Kirsten Gillibrand (D) in the United States Senate. On the state level, the city is in the 44th district in the New York Senate, represented by Neil Breslin (D). In the New York Assembly, western Albany is in the 109th district, represented by Patricia Fahy (D) while downtown and eastern Albany are in the 108th district, represented by John T. McDonald III (D). As the seat of Albany County, the city is the location of the county's courts including Family Court, County Court, Surrogate Court, Supreme Court, and New York Court of Appeals. Albany is the site of a federal courthouse that houses the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York.
### Politics
Albany's politics have been dominated by the Democratic Party since the 1920s; Daniel (Uncle Dan) O'Connell established a political machine in the city with the election of William Stormont Hackett as mayor in 1922. Prior to that, William Barnes Jr. had set up a Republican machine in the 1890s. Barnes' success is attributed to the fact that he owned two newspapers in Albany and that he was the grandson of Thurlow Weed, the influential newspaper publisher and political boss. O'Connell's organization overcame Barnes' in 1922 and survived well into the 1980s (even after his death), as the machine put forth candidates for whom the electorate dutifully voted. In many instances, votes were outright bought; it was not uncommon for the machine to "buy poor folks' loyalty and trust with a fiver".
Gerald Jennings' upset in the 1993 Democratic mayoral primary over Harold Joyce, who had the Democratic Party's formal endorsement and had only recently been its county chairman, is often cited as the end of the O'Connell era in Albany. In the early 21st century, Albany continued to be dominated by the Democratic Party. Democratic Party enrollment in the city was 38,862 in 2009, while Republican enrollment was 3,487. As of 2022, every elected city position had been held by a Democrat since 1931.
In November 2013, Kathy Sheehan became the first woman to be elected Mayor of Albany.
## Education
The City School District of Albany (CSDA) operates the city's public school system, which consists of 17 schools and learning centers; in addition, there are 7 charter schools, including Green Tech Charter High School, and Albany Leadership High School. In the 2015–2016 school year, over 9,000 students were enrolled in the public school system. The district had an average class size of 18, an 81-percent graduation rate, and a 5-percent dropout rate. The district's 2010–11 budget is \$202.8 million. Although considered by the state to be one of the lowest-achieving high schools in New York, Albany High was listed as the nation's 976th best high school in a 2010 Newsweek/Washington Post report. Albany also has a number of private schools, including the coed Bishop Maginn High School and Albany Free School; the all-boys Albany Academy; and the all-girls Academy of the Holy Names and Albany Academy for Girls.
The Albany Medical College (private), today part of Albany Medical Center, was founded in 1839. Albany Law School (private) is the oldest law school in New York and the fourth-oldest in the country; it was opened in 1851. President William McKinley was an alumnus. The Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (private) is the second-oldest pharmacy school in New York and the fifteenth-oldest in the United States.
The New York State Normal School, one of the oldest teachers colleges in the United States, opened in 1844; it was later known as the State Teachers College. It eventually evolved into the University at Albany, also known as SUNY Albany (public), which inherited the Normal School's original downtown campus on Western Avenue. The center of the campus moved to its current Uptown Campus in the west end of the city in 1970. SUNY Albany is a unit of the State University of New York and one of only four university centers in the system. Other colleges and universities in Albany include Empire State College, The College of Saint Rose, Excelsior College, Maria College, Mildred Elley, and Sage College of Albany. Nearby Hudson Valley Community College (HVCC) fills the community college niche in the Albany-Troy area. The effect of the campuses on the city's population is substantial: Combining the student bodies of all the aforementioned campuses (except HVCC) results in 63,149 students, or almost 70 percent of the 2008 estimate of Albany's permanent population.
## Media
The Times Union is Albany's primary daily newspaper and the only one based close to the city; its headquarters moved from within city limits to suburban Colonie in the 1960s after a dispute with Mayor Corning over land needed for expansion. Its circulation totals about 73,000 on weekdays and 143,000 on Sundays. Serving Albany to a lesser degree are The Daily Gazette, based in Schenectady, and The Record, of Troy. Metroland is the alternative newsweekly in the area, publishing each Thursday, while The Business Review is a business weekly published each Friday. The Legislative Gazette, another weekly newspaper, focuses exclusively on issues related to the Legislature and the state government.
As of 2010, the Albany-Schenectady-Troy media market is the 63rd-largest in the country in terms of radio and the 57th-largest in terms of television audiences. It is a broadcast market with historical significance. The pioneering influence of General Electric in Schenectady directly contributed to the area emerging as the birthplace of station-based television with WRGB; the station was also the first affiliate of NBC. In 1947, the region was home to the first independently owned and operated commercial FM radio station in the United States: W47A. WGY was the second commercial radio station in New York and the twelfth in the nation. The Capital District is home to ABC affiliate WTEN 10, CBS affiliate WRGB 6 (also operating CW affiliate WCWN 45), Fox affiliate WXXA 23, NBC affiliate WNYT 13 (also operating MyNetworkTV affiliate WNYA 51), and PBS member station WMHT 17. Charter Communications hosts Spectrum News Capital Region, the area's only local 24-hour news channel. The area has numerous radio stations.
## Infrastructure
### Transportation
#### Highways
The Northway (Interstate 87 north of the New York State Thruway) connects Albany by car to Canada at Champlain; Autoroute 15 continues into Quebec, linking Albany to Montreal. Interstate 90 connects Albany to both Buffalo and Boston, via the New York State Thruway and the Massachusetts Turnpike respectively, both of which use I-90 (the NYS Thruway partially, the Massachusetts Turnpike fully). South of Albany, I-87 becomes part of the Thruway and ends at Interstate 278 in the Bronx. Albany is at the crossroad of I-87 and I-90, creating a junction between Buffalo, Boston, Montreal, and New York. Interstate 787 links Albany to Watervliet, Colonie, and Menands. By way of Route 7, I-787 connects to the Northway.
#### Trains
Since the closure of Union Station on Broadway, area passenger-rail service is provided by Amtrak at the Albany-Rensselaer station across the river in Rensselaer. In 2009, the station saw more than 720,000 passengers, making it Amtrak's second-busiest in New York, behind Manhattan's Penn Station. Amtrak provides service south to New York City; north to Montreal, and Burlington (Vermont); west to Niagara Falls, Toronto and Chicago; and east to Boston.
#### Airport
Albany's major airport is Albany International Airport in Colonie. Major airline service to Albany includes service by: American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Southwest Airlines, JetBlue Airlines, and United Airlines; Million Air is the local fixed-base operator. In 2010, Albany had the highest average airfare in New York, though the per-mile cost on its busiest routes was second-lowest in the state.
#### Bus
The Capital District Transportation Authority (CDTA) provides bus service throughout Albany and the surrounding area, including Schenectady, Troy, and Saratoga Springs. The city was once served by an urban streetcar service maintained by the United Traction Company. As in many American cities, after the advent of the automobile, light rail services declined in Albany and were replaced by bus and taxi services. Greyhound Lines, Trailways, Peter Pan, Short Line, Vermont Translines, and Yankee Trails buses all serve a downtown terminal. Brown Coach provides commuter service. Low-cost curbside bus service from the SUNY Albany campus and the Rensselaer station is also provided by Megabus, with direct service to New York City.
#### Boat
Albany, long an important Hudson River port, today serves domestic and international ships and barges through the Port of Albany-Rensselaer, on both sides of the river. The port has the largest mobile harbor crane in the state of New York. The New York State Barge Canal, the ultimate successor of the Erie Canal, is in use today, largely by tourist and private boats.
## Sister cities
The city of Nijmegen, Netherlands connected with Albany following World War II. With the help of the Catholic university in Albany, the Catholic University of Nijmegen (Radboud University Nijmegen) rebuilt its partly destroyed library, with over 50,000 books being donated to the Dutch university. To show its gratitude for post-war assistance, the city sent Albany 50,000 tulip bulbs in 1948; this act led to the establishment of the annual Tulip Festival. Most of the other connections were made in the 1980s during Mayor Whalen's term in office as part of his cultural expansion program.
Albany's sister cities are:
- Bucha, Ukraine
- Nassau, Bahamas
- Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Tula, Russia
- Verona, Italy
## See also
- List of capitals in the United States
- List of cities in New York
- List of incorporated places in New York's Capital District
- List of people associated with Albany County, New York
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Albany, New York
- Neighborhoods of Albany, New York
- USS Albany, several ships |
8,533,378 | Glass Spider | 1,122,296,565 | null | [
"1988 live albums",
"1988 video albums",
"Concert films",
"David Bowie live albums",
"David Bowie video albums",
"Films directed by David Mallet (director)",
"Films shot in Sydney",
"Live video albums"
]
| Glass Spider is a concert film by English singer David Bowie. The release was sourced from eight shows during the first two weeks of November 1987 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre in Australia during the last month of the Glass Spider Tour. The 86-show tour, which also visited Europe, North America and New Zealand, was in support of Bowie's album Never Let Me Down (1987). Originally released in 1988 on VHS, the tour was choreographed by Toni Basil, directed by David Mallet, and produced by Anthony Eaton. The VHS was released by MPI Home Video in the US and by Video Collection International in the UK.
The film stars Bowie, his band including Peter Frampton, and a troupe of dancers performing on what was called at the time "the largest touring set ever". Although the tour received mixed critical reviews at the time, later critics noted that the show changed how other artists (such as Britney Spears, Madonna, and U2) performed on their own tours. In 2010, one critic called the Glass Spider Tour one of the "top concert tour design[s] of all time", and in 2016 another critic called the video one of the best for fans wanting to see Bowie delivering "a rock-theatre spectacular."
An edit of the film was shown on American Broadcasting Company-affiliated stations in June 1988 as a concert special. The full concert video was subsequently released in 1999 on DVD and re-released again in 2007 with a Special Edition, which peaked at number 9 on the UK Video Charts.
## Background and recording
The Glass Spider Tour was a worldwide concert tour launched in May 1987 in support of Bowie's album Never Let Me Down (1987). The tour was well attended and profitable, but was poorly received by contemporary critics. His first tour since his 1983 Serious Moonlight Tour, the Glass Spider Tour was seen as a chance for Bowie to return to theatrical stage performances, the way he had in his 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour. As a result, the tour incorporated dancers, music and multi-media elements such as stage projections and props. The set itself was designed to look like a giant spider and stood over 60 feet (18.3m) high, and was described at the time as "the largest touring set ever". The tour features dance choreography by Toni Basil, and Peter Frampton on guitar. Charlie Sexton makes a guest appearance on vocals and guitar in the video release.
Prior to the tour, Bowie stated that he did not intend to produce a live record of the show, but despite this, director David Mallet recorded 8 shows from a nearly 2-week run in Sydney, Australia in the tour's final month. The liner notes say that most of the Glass Spider video comes from the nights of 7 and 9 November 1987, with some footage from the other nights, although Bowie biographer Nicholas Pegg claimed that most of the footage comes from the performance on the evening of 6 November. While a typical show from the tour ran over 2 hours with around 26 songs, the video release clocks in at under 2 hours and includes only about 20 songs. A 2007 Special Edition re-release includes a CD of the entire show as performed in Montreal, Canada on 30 August 1987, but does not change the video release. The tour and concert film were named after the track "Glass Spider" from the album.
## Releases
The film was released on VHS in 1988 by MPI Home Video in the US and Video Collection International in the UK. In some regions, it was released on two video cassettes of 10 songs each until a 1990 compilation combined them into a single release. The running time of the combined VHS is approximately 110 minutes. In 1999 a "semi-official" DVD of the show was released in Far East regions only.
A 1-hour edit from the original release was aired on US prime-time television in early June 1988 on American Broadcasting Company-affiliated stations.
The video was reissued in 2007 on DVD. A regular edition includes the DVD of the same concert as released on VHS, while a special edition also includes a 2 CD live album from the same tour, recorded at Montreal Olympic Stadium on 30 August 1987. The 2007 re-release was originally planned to include a live recording of the song "Glass Spider" recorded in Vienna on 1 July 1987.
The DVD includes stereo, Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS 5.1 sound and presents the video in its original 1.33:1 aspect ratio. An error in the sound mix on this DVD left much of Peter Frampton's guitar playing scarcely audible. Pegg claimed that as a result, although the picture quality is superior on the DVD release, the original VHS or 1999 DVD remain a superior choice for audio.
## Critical reception
The home video's original 1988 release received positive reviews from sources such as Variety magazine, the Houston Post and the Toronto Star. The Chicago Tribune said the video "offers all of the excitement, spectacle and music" of one of 1987's "most visually engrossing" shows. The AllMusic review called the release "brilliant" and credited the performance with "stunning" live performances that are frequently on par with their studio counterparts. Some reviews were more ambivalent, such as The Boston Globes review stating simply that "there's a lot to digest." The Los Angeles Times had a mostly negative review of the 1-hour ABC special, calling the show "surprisingly lame" and the stage "silly."
One critic found that the video release rendered the show's intended meaning ("rock stars vs reality") "obscured" for two reasons: First, by the time the show was recorded, Bowie had already dropped some parts of the show that elaborated the point; and second, six songs (and at least one vignette) that were performed in the show were omitted from the video itself. Another critic found that the 1-hour ABC special, which showed only a small subset of the songs performed, and showed them out of order, also "obliterated" the show's meaning.
Pegg said that the concert film was "hugely enjoyable" despite the show's flaws, and unless the 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour or 1990 Sound+Vision Tour videos are released, this release "leads the field for those wishing to see David Bowie delivering a rock-theatre spectacular."
## Track listing
All songs were written by David Bowie except where noted. Although they are not mentioned on the sleeve, the original VHS edition contains the same "Intro/Up the Hill Backwards" and band introduction segments that feature on the DVD reissue.
### Special edition CD 2007
## Personnel
Adapted from the Glass Spider liner notes.
Musicians'
- David Bowie – lead vocals, guitar
- Carlos Alomar – guitar, backing vocals
- Alan Childs – drums
- Richard Cottle – keyboards, saxophone, tambourine, backing vocals
- Peter Frampton – guitar, vocals
- Erdal Kızılçay – keyboards, trumpet, congas, violin, backing vocals
- Carmine Rojas – bass guitar
- Charlie Sexton – guitar, backing vocals
### Dancers and performers
- Melissa Hurley
- Viktor Manoel
- Constance Marie
- Stephen Nichols
- Craig Allen Rothwell ("Spazz Attack")
### Production
- David Mallet – film director
- Anthony Eaton – film producer
- Toni Basil – choreography
- David Richards – audio mixing
- Mark Ravitz – set design
- Allen Branton – lighting design
## Chart performance
The 2007 re-release reached number 9 on the UK Video Charts. |
1,582,184 | 1st Armoured Regiment (Australia) | 1,151,500,653 | Armoured regiment of the Australian Army | [
"Armoured and cavalry regiments of the Australian Army",
"Military units and formations established in 1949",
"Military units and formations of Australia in the Vietnam War",
"Military units in South Australia",
"Regiments of Australia"
]
| 1st Armoured Regiment is an armoured regiment of the Australian Army and is the senior regiment of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps. Formed as a tank unit in the new Australian Regular Army on 7 July 1949, the regiment subsequently saw service during the Vietnam War operating Centurion tanks. Currently the unit is based in Edinburgh, South Australia as part of the 9th Brigade. As part of the Plan Beersheba reorganisation, the unit has become one of three Armoured Cavalry Regiments (ACRs) assigned to the Army's multirole combat brigades in Brisbane, Darwin and Townsville. Each ACR is equipped with M1A1 tanks and ASLAV light armoured vehicles.
## History
### Formation
The 1st Armoured Regiment was raised as a regular unit on 7 July 1949 at Puckapunyal in Victoria when the 1st Armoured Car Squadron, which had returned from occupation duties in Japan a few months earlier, was converted to a tank unit. The formation occurred following the renaming of a reserve unit of the Citizens Military Forces (CMF) of the same name, which subsequently became the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers and its battle honours and history perpetuated by this unit, in order to reallocate the name to the tank regiment that was to be established in the new Australian Regular Army. At first only one squadron strong, planning commenced to expand to full strength as soon as possible under the command of Major Cecil Ives. Formal affiliation with the Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) was recognised two years later and the regiment adopted their regimental colours of Brown, Red and Green, which date back to the Battle of Cambrai during the First World War in 1917. These same colours had also been used by the Australian Tank Corps prior to the Second World War.
Initially the new regiment was equipped with Churchill tanks, although this was only a temporary measure until Centurion tanks could be acquired. However, due to the perceived unsuitability of the Churchill and the late arrival of the new platform, the regiment was not deployed as part of Australia's commitment to the Korean War, although a number of officers served on exchange with British and US formations and the unit provided machine-gunners and signalers to Australian infantry battalions as reinforcements. The first Centurions finally began arriving in June 1952, with the regiment receiving 39 tanks. With the numbers of regular personnel steadily growing, it was possible to raise Regimental Headquarters, Headquarters Squadron and B Squadron, and the regiment was fully raised by 8 September 1952 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stuart Graham.
Meanwhile, in September 1952 another tank squadron was raised. This was known as Nucleus Squadron and, based in Holsworthy, New South Wales, with the purpose of forming the basis of a second tank unit which was to be named the 2nd Armoured Regiment. In 1954 the regiment received it first Ferret MK 1 Scout Car, enabling the raising of Reconnaissance Troop. The following year 1st Armoured Regiment received the Saracen Armoured Personnel Carrier, and it was at this time that the intention to form another tank unit was abandoned, and Nucleus Squadron subsequently returned to the regiment as its third squadron, designated C Squadron.
On 6 February 1956, the then Governor General, Field Marshal Sir William Slim, presented the regiment with its Guidon at a Regimental Parade held in Puckapunyal. Also in 1956 the regiment was equipped with the Centurion armoured recovery vehicle, allowing the retirement of the Churchill recovery vehicle. Following the expansion of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps (RAAC) in 1960, A Squadron was disbanded, reducing the regiment to two squadrons, and the majority of its personnel formed regular squadrons in the 4th/19th Prince of Wales' Light Horse and the 2nd/14th Light Horse (Queensland Mounted Infantry), which were predominantly CMF formations. These squadrons subsequently became part of the 1st Cavalry Regiment, which was later redesignated the 2nd Cavalry Regiment and in turn provided the nucleus for the newly raised 3rd Cavalry Regiment.
### Vietnam War
During 1964–65 the regiment provided most of the men for 1 Troop, A Squadron, 4th/19th Prince of Wales Light Horse, which was subsequently equipped with the new M113A1 Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) and was deployed on active service to South Vietnam in May 1965. In October 1967 the Australian government announced it would increase the size of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) at Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy Province from two to three infantry battalions, while additional supporting arms, including a tank squadron would also be added to the force. As such in February 1968, C Squadron was sent to Vietnam, with a total strength of 20 Centurion tanks which would work closely with the M113s of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment. However, two of the four tank troops were initially held back until the Centurions had proved themselves capable of operating in the conditions. The tank squadron reached full strength on 5 September 1968. Meanwhile, in May the regiment had again reached full strength, with A Squadron re-raised in order to meet the ongoing operational commitment.
Over the next four years all three of the regiment's operational squadrons eventually served in Vietnam, providing invaluable close support to the infantry, particularly during the clearance of Viet Cong bunker systems. Although their value in Vietnam was originally questioned by some, they proved a powerful weapon in both offence and defence, and were responsible for limiting infantry casualties. The Centurions were able to move through the countryside more easily than expected and although they were vulnerable to anti-tank weapons and mines, their firepower and shock action had a decisive effect on the battlefield. In late-May 1968 the tanks played a significant role in the Battle of Coral–Balmoral. Occupying blocking positions in an attempt to thwart an impending communist offensive aimed at influencing the peace-talks, 1ATF deployed two battalions away from its base in Phuoc Tuy, subsequently developing Fire Support Base Coral north-east of Saigon, just east of Lai Khe on 12 May.
Following several regimental-sized assaults on Coral which were successfully repelled by the Australians with heavy casualties on both sides, 1ATF moved to establish Fire Support Base Balmoral on 24–25 May, 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) north of Coral. The infantry were this time supported by Centurion tanks which had been called forward by road from Nui Dat and had arrived just hours before Balmoral was subjected to a two battalion attack. Following a very accurate rocket and mortar barrage at 03:45 hours on 26 May, the base was assaulted by North Vietnamese infantry. The attack was repelled with heavy casualties by the combined firepower of the tanks and infantry. The next day the Australians at Coral assaulted a number of bunkers located just outside the base, with a troop of Centurions supported by infantry destroying the bunkers and their occupants without loss. A second attack, again of regimental strength, was made against Balmoral at 02:30 hours on 28 May but was called off after only 30 minutes. The North Vietnamese were soundly defeated—again by the supporting fires of tanks, artillery and mortars—leaving 55 dead and resulted in six prisoners. Australian losses were one killed and six wounded. This performance demonstrated the advantage of using armour in Vietnam, and whereas before the battle some infantry had doubted the usefulness or necessity of the Centurions, after the battle the infantry did not like working without them. For its involvement in the fighting at Coral–Balmoral, 'C' Squadron was awarded a Unit Citation for Gallantry in 2018.
In February 1969, C Squadron was relieved by B Squadron. On 6–7 June, B Squadron was involved in a fierce action during the Battle of Binh Ba, a village 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of Nui Dat. The attack began on the morning of 6 June when Australian tanks and APCs advanced with infantry from D Company, 5th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (5 RAR) towards the village which was being occupied by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese. As the battle continued, B Company, 5 RAR took up a blocking position to prevent them from escaping. During fierce urban fighting the infantry were forced to clear each house, while the Communist troops occupying the houses fired on them from the windows and doorways before retreating into tunnels as the Australians passed. Each time the infantry were fired on, the tanks would blast a hole in the wall of the building, through which small teams could then enter and clear the structure of any opposition. The fighting continued throughout the afternoon, and resumed the next day before the Australians successfully cleared the village, the bulk of which was destroyed. One Australian was killed and 10 wounded, while communist losses included at least 107 killed, six wounded and eight captured.
In December 1969, B Squadron was re-designated A Squadron, while in December 1970 A Squadron was in turn re-designated C Squadron. By late-1970 Australia was beginning to reduce its commitment to the war and the size of 1ATF was again reduced from three infantry battalions to two. The tanks, however, continued operations and were involved in heavy fighting at Long Khanh on 6–7 June 1971, as well as numerous smaller actions. The last elements of the regiment were subsequently withdrawn from Vietnam in September 1971. A total of 58 Centurions had served in Vietnam; 42 had suffered battle damage, of which six were beyond repair, while two crewmen had been killed in action.
### Post-Vietnam to the present
The following years were traumatic for the regiment, and for the Australian Army, with the abolition of National Service after the end of Australian involvement in Vietnam depleting its strength to the point where training was severely restricted until it was reinforced during 1974. B Squadron was re-designated as the Medium Tank Trials Unit in 1972 and subsequently carried out extensive user and technical trials to evaluate the replacement for the ageing Centurions. In 1977 the Centurion was replaced in service by the Leopard 1, which had been selected over the American built M60 Patton. On 21 April 1981, the Colonel-in-Chief of the RAAC, the Prince of Wales (now Charles III), presented the unit with its first Regimental Standard. In 1995 the 1st Armoured Regiment moved from Puckapunyal to Darwin.
On 13 July 2002, the regiment was presented with its current Standard by the then Governor General, Dr. Peter Hollingworth. On 26 July 2007, after 31 years of service the Leopard was replaced by 59 M1A1 Abrams AIM, with 41 being delivered to the regiment and the remaining vehicles issued to the School of Armour for use for training purposes. Seven M88A2 Hercules Armoured Recovery Vehicles were also acquired, two being delivered to the regiment. The Leopards never saw operational service, although during the 1999 East Timor crisis the regiment was placed on standby to deploy in the event the conflict escalated, while the regiment was not deployed during Australia's involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Members of the unit later deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan as Bushmaster PMV crews, while others have also served in East Timor and the Solomon Islands. During this period the regiment was the only main battle tank unit in the Australian Army and was based at Robertson Barracks, in Darwin. Until 2013 it provided the basis for one of three battlegroups within the mechanised 1st Brigade, which included two mechanised infantry battalions, one cavalry regiment, one tank regiment, and a medium artillery regiment.
As part of the Plan Beersheba reorganisation, the unit has become one of three Armoured Cavalry Regiments (ACRs) assigned to the Army's multirole combat brigades in Brisbane, Darwin and Townsville. As an ACR, the unit was to be equipped with M1A1 tanks, ASLAV light armoured vehicles, and M113AS4 armoured personnel carriers. Under the reforms announced in 2011 and confirmed in the 2013 Defence White Paper, the three Regular Army brigades will be restructured between 2014 and 2017 into three Combat Brigades with a similar structure and capabilities, each consisting of: a Brigade Headquarters, an Armoured Cavalry Regiment, two Standard Infantry Battalions, an Artillery Regiment, a Combat Engineer Regiment, a Combat Service Support Battalion and a Combat Signals Regiment. In late 2015, one of the 1st Armoured Regiment's two tank squadrons was transferred to the Townsville-based 2nd Cavalry Regiment, with 14 of the tanks relocating. In 2017, the ACR structure was changed as part of what was named the workforce alignment of Plan Beersheba with the APCs transferred to infantry battalions. In October 2017, the 1st Armoured Regiment moved from Robertson Barracks in Darwin to RAAF Base Edinburgh in South Australia.
## Organisation
From December 2017 the regiment was organised as follows:
- Headquarters Squadron
- A Squadron – Cavalry (equipped with ASLAV)
- B Squadron – Tank (equipped with M1A1 Abrams)
- C Squadron – Cavalry (equipped with ASLAV)
- A Squadron – 3rd/9th Light Horse (South Australian Mounted Rifles) (Reserve, equipped with Hawkei)
- Support Squadron
## Battle honours
- Vietnam War: Coral–Balmoral, Hat Dich, Binh Ba, Vietnam 1965–72.
## Alliances
- United Kingdom – Royal Tank Regiment |
66,653,446 | Wind phone | 1,168,562,901 | Telephone booth in Ōtsuchi, Japan | [
"2010 establishments in Japan",
"Buildings and structures in Iwate Prefecture",
"Communication with dead people",
"Ōtsuchi, Iwate"
]
| The wind phone (風の電話, kaze no denwa) is an unconnected telephone booth in Ōtsuchi, Iwate Prefecture, Japan, where visitors can hold one-way conversations with deceased loved ones. Initially created by garden designer Itaru Sasaki in 2010 to help him cope with his cousin's death, it was opened to the public in the following year after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami killed over 15,000 people in the Tōhoku region. The wind phone has since received over 30,000 visitors. A number of replicas have been constructed around the world, and it has served as the inspiration for several novels and films.
## Origin and description
In 2010, Itaru Sasaki, a garden designer from Ōtsuchi, learned that his cousin had terminal cancer with three months to live. After his cousin's death, Sasaki set up an old telephone booth in his garden in December 2010, to continue to feel connected to him by "talking" to him on the phone. According to Sasaki, the wind phone was not designed with any specific religious connotation, but rather as a way to reflect on his loss. In an interview, he stated: "Because my thoughts couldn't be relayed over a regular phone line, I wanted them to be carried on the wind."
The wind phone is a white, glass-paned telephone booth containing a black, disconnected rotary dial telephone on a metal shelf. A notebook is placed next to the telephone for messages of remembrance. The booth is on a hill that overlooks Ōtsuchi.
## Public opening
The 2011 Tōhoku tsunami resulted in the deaths of over 15,000 people in the Tōhoku region, including over 1,200 people in Ōtsuchi (about 10 percent of the town's population). Sasaki subsequently opened the wind phone to the public to allow visitors to call their friends and family who had died in the disaster. It has since been visited by over 30,000 people.
On January 7, 2017, strong winds blew off the roof of the wind phone and broke the glass doors. Local carpenters, including ones who had previously visited the wind phone, quickly volunteered to repair it on January 10, and the wind phone was reopened by the next day. In April 2018, Sasaki announced that the wooden and metal parts of the booth were deteriorating due to age and corrosion, even after a new coat of paint, and that he hoped to replace the old booth with a corrosion-resistant aluminum booth. People responded with donations totaling about one million yen, and Sasaki installed the sturdier aluminum booth in August 2018.
## Replicas
Several replicas of the Ōtsuchi wind phone have been built around the world. In Oakland, California, local artist Jordan Stern constructed a wind telephone in February 2017, to commemorate the 36 people who died in the Ghost Ship warehouse fire, including his friend. According to Stern, the purpose of the wind phone was to comfort "a field of people grieving in Oakland".
Altrúchas, an anonymous art collective based in Dublin, Ireland, set up a wind phone (fón gaoithe) atop Two Rock Mountain in August 2017. The wind phone, which was constructed from salvaged materials, was installed without permission; at the time, Altrúchas stated that they planned on "maintaining it indefinitely". It was destroyed for unknown reasons less than two weeks after it was set up. In a statement, Altrúchas said that the destruction was "a strong statement from people that didn't like the project", but that they would not let it "take away from the positivity".
Tomohiko and Kazuko Kutsuna, a married couple in Tahara, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, installed a red-painted replica in 2018. Their telephone booth, named the "phone of the sea breeze" (潮風の電話, shiokaze no denwa), was built in memory of one of Kazuko's students, an 18-year-old woman who died by suicide in 2009.
Additional wind phones have been placed in Chelsea, Quebec, Canada in 2022 [le fil du vent Chelsea wind phone] Massachusetts, North Carolina, Colorado, British Columbia, along the Appalachian Trail in Fahnestock State Park, New York, Wilber Park in Oneonta, New York, East Nashville, Tennessee, and Olympia, Washington
## In media
### Literature
Sasaki, the creator of the Ōtsuchi wind phone, wrote a book of reflections titled Kaze no Denwa – Daishinsai Kara Rokunen, Kaze no Denwa o Tooshite Mieru Koto (風の電話:大震災から6年、風の電話を通して見えること, lit. 'The Phone of the Wind: What I Have Seen via the Phone in the Six Years Since the Earthquake') in 2017. The book was published by Kazama Shobo.
The 2020 novel The Phone Box at the Edge of the World by Italian writer Laura Imai Messina tells the story of a woman who loses her family in the Tōhoku tsunami and travels to the wind phone, where she meets a widower and his daughter who have experienced similar losses. The novel was inspired by Messina's visit to the Ōtsuchi wind phone in 2011.
The Phone Booth in Mr. Hirota's Garden, a 2020 novel by Canadian writer Heather Smith, is a fictionalized version of the wind phone's origins. According to Smith, she was inspired by a National Public Radio podcast about the wind phone and exchanged emails with Sasaki during the writing process, stating that it "was a thrill to receive his blessing and an honour to share his beautiful approach to grief through this book."
### Film
The 2019 Austrian short film The Wind Phone, written and directed by Kristin Gerweck, follows seven fictional strangers who visit the Japanese wind phone. Gerweck wrote the screenplay when she learned about the wind phone after her grandmother's death, saying: "I was intrigued by the emotional realities that could emerge in this metaphysical grieving space and so began my journey to translate this beautiful story to screen."
Voices in the Wind (風の電話, Kaze no Denwa) is a 2020 Japanese drama film about a fictional high school student who lost her family in the Tōhoku tsunami and returns to her hometown to visit the wind phone years later. Director Nobuhiro Suwa, who returned to Japan for filming, stated: "Going there eight years later, you can't see much of the damage, it has been rebuilt. But people's feelings have not been fixed." |
50,368,624 | Characters of Final Fantasy XV | 1,173,248,746 | null | [
"Final Fantasy XV",
"Lists of Final Fantasy characters"
]
| Final Fantasy XV, an action role-playing video game released in November 2016, is the fifteenth main installment in the Final Fantasy series, and is thematically connected to Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy, a subseries of games linked by a common mythos which includes Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy Type-0. The world and main characters were created by Tetsuya Nomura, the game's original director. Nomura also designed the main characters, with later revisions and additional characters being designed by Yusuke Naora: other character designers involved with the game included Roberto Ferrari and Yusaku Nakaaki.
The story revolves around a conflict between the nations of Lucis and Niflheim for control of the magical Crystal. The main protagonist is Noctis Lucis Caelum, sole heir to the throne of Lucis. On his journey, he has three companions: Gladiolus Amicitia, heir to a family of royal bodyguards; Ignis Scientia, Noctis's strategist and personal attendant; and Prompto Argentum, a friend and schoolmate from a lower-class family. A key character is Lunafreya Nox Fleuret, Noctis's fiancée through an arranged marriage. Other characters include Noctis's father Regis, the king of Lucis; Cor Leonis, a famous warrior of Lucis; Iris, Gladiolus's sister; the mechanic Cindy Aurum and her grandfather Cid Sophiar, who provide services for Noctis' car, the Regalia. The main antagonist Ardyn Izunia is supported by the forces of Niflheim under emperor Iedolas Aldercapt and his chief scientist Verstael Besithia, Lunafreya's brother Ravus Nox Fleuret, and the mercenary dragoon Aranea Highwind.
Originally a spin-off game titled Final Fantasy Versus XIII, the game changed multiple times during its ten-year development cycle, including the redesign or removal of characters and story elements. Additional media and merchandise based upon the world and characters of XV have been produced, with its expanded media being dubbed the "Final Fantasy XV Universe": these include the original net animation Brotherhood, the CGI feature film Kingsglaive, numerous pieces of story-based downloadable content (DLC), and a novel The Dawn of the Future based on a cancelled second series of DLC.
Reception of its characters has been mixed; while the playable cast and its interactions met with frequent praise, underuse of its supporting cast and handling of female characters like Cindy were frequently faulted. It also saw commentary on its portrayal of gender roles and character disability. The additional media saw a mixed reaction; Brotherhood was praised for its character development, while Kingsglaive met with frequent criticism. The DLC episodes met with varied reactions, though many critics praised their expansions on each character.
## Concept and creation
The concept and setting of Final Fantasy XV, initially a spin-off titled Final Fantasy Versus XIII, was created by original director Tetsuya Nomura. Initially in development for PlayStation 3, Versus XIII was shifted to the eighth generation consoles PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. During this transition, Final Fantasy Type-0 director Hajime Tabata became co-director; later in development, he assumed full directorial duties from Nomura. The development period ultimately lasted about ten years, although Tabata now refers to Versus XIII and XV as different games. The game was originally part of Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy, a collection of games united by a common mythology and shared themes. When it was renamed, XV "disconnected" from Fabula Nova Crystallis; although the mythos was retained, its role in the story was reduced and its unique terminology was removed to aid with marketing and provide Final Fantasy XV with an individual identity. A surviving theme from the mythos was the struggles of humans chosen by a divine crystal.
The central concept behind the world of XV is "a fantasy based on reality": the setting is based on the real world and the fantasy elements grew out of familiar settings. Realizing this aspect of the game was quite difficult for Nomura before the game's move onto eighth-generation hardware. While the story was similar to other entries, he wanted to create more realistic characters. His ambition was to make XV "about man in the real world", including less fantasy elements. He also described XV as the darkest entry in the series, acknowledging that this atmosphere might narrow its target audience while feeling that the time was right for such characters. Nomura wanted to depict a story centered on a group of men traveling the world, much like that of a road movie. This approach was inspired by experiences from his youth, in which he often witnessed single-gender groups taking extended trips. Nomura also did not want the protagonists to be drawn together by a grand destiny, instead being natural friends confronted with bizarre and dangerous situations. To help convey the road movie theme, the team created towns featuring both strange and familiar elements, taking inspiration from the opening scenes of Back to the Future Part II.
The initial story themes were "misery" and "bonds", with all characters representing these themes through their actions and circumstances. It was intended to be a painful story that emphasized the power of friendship. The theme of bonds was represented in XV by the relationships between Noctis and his comrades, as well as Noctis and his father, Regis. A key narrative element was Noctis' personal journey from prince to king. The original script was written by Kazushige Nojima, who described his story for Versus XIII as "Myth vs. Reality". When Versus XIII became FInal Fantasy XV, multiple aspects were changed. A scene that was removed was the original opening, in which Noctis met another character at a treaty-signing party, then had to escape Lucis when the forces of Niflheim attacked; those scenes were changed to have the group being away at the time of the invasion. However, other characters revealed during earlier trailers were retained and would have important roles in the story. When consulted over how his original draft could be reworked, Nojima said that he would be content as long as the overall concept remained faithful to the original. This gave the team the confidence to rework and realize the original story within XV. Around two thirds of the planned scenario ended up being cut. This rewriting was primarily done by Saori Itamuro, who was credited as "Lead Scenario Designer".
The story takes place over a ten-year period, and the characters' appearances were altered as they aged: this bucked the trend of many similar JRPGs, with the team wanting to properly represent the characters growing through their journey. The game's opening depicts a scene late in the game; this approach was inspired by Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII, which featured a conclusion linked to the original Final Fantasy VII. In both cases, the developers wanted players to experience a sequence of events leading up to a known conclusion. The ending was left deliberately ambiguous so that players could develop their own interpretations. For both Versus XIII and XV, game staff stated that it would likely be the saddest Final Fantasy story to date. Alongside the serious plot, several elements of light comedy were added as a counterbalance. A large amount of dialogue was conveyed using in-game conversations instead of cutscenes. Nomura also wanted the dialogue to sound "natural and not game-like or lofty". Final Japanese voice casting for the game began in 2010.
### Character design
In contrast to many previous Final Fantasy titles, the playable cast of Final Fantasy XV is all male. This concept was chosen by Nomura from the outset, and agreed upon by Tabata despite some later reservations on his part. Women still have significant roles in the story, and Tabata noted in an interview that it is "not healthy to have a bias in genders". The game's main cast was designed by Nomura. The clothing for characters was designed by Hiromu Takahara, lead designer for Japanese fashion house Roen. Takahara's involvement principally came due to the detail needed for the costumes, which were inspired by western fashion: designing them himself would have been time-consuming for Nomura to do along with his other duties, which included designing characters for Final Fantasy XIII. He also wanted to continue to express the game's realism through the character outfits. The design trait for the main characters was "jet-black", while all the character clothing in the game utilized Roen's distinctive asymmetrical styling. Roen's designs were kept in the game when it became XV, as the team felt it would be wrong to remove them. The changeover from Versus XIII to XV resulted in the redesign of characters such as Regis, and the replacement of the previous main heroine Stella with the similarly named Lunafreya. A result of the shift onto new hardware was that the art style moved away from the "stylized" look required by earlier hardware limitations. To help maximize the realism of the characters, their hair was first created by a hairstylist using a mannequin's wig, then rendered into the game using the technology of the Luminous Studio engine. The same technique was used for Agni's Philosophy, the engine's demo at E3 2012.
The characters of Ardyn, Gentiana, Iris, Aranea, Umbra, Cindy, Cid, and Verstael were all designed by Roberto Ferrari, who had previously done work on Type-0 and was involved with the project from its earlier development as Versus XIII. These designs were completed by 2010, when the project was still known as Versus XIII. Ferrari was brought on board the project in 2010 after an unidentified female designer resigned from the project as her art was repeatedly rejected by the developers. The change and subsequent alterations to the game's content meant that many of Ferrari's character designs went unused, something he was openly frustrated about as he considered these unseen characters more visually striking than his surviving designs. Many of his surviving character designs were altered during later development, including those for Gentiana and Umbra. Ardyn and Aranea remained mostly unchanged. Another contributing artist was Yusaku Nakaaki, who helped design Cindy Aurum. Tabata thought of Cindy as a cheerful and active character, and believed that her appearance when combined with such personality traits would not be problematic for audiences who might otherwise expect more modest clothing from the character. The party's black garb were retained as a reference to the concepts of "death worship" present in Versus XIII, which were cut to avoid changing too much for regional censorship laws. Black remained an important color in-game due to its connection to the Lucian royal family. The later characters of Aera and Somnus were respectively based physically on Lunafreya and Noctis, while a young version of Verstael was physically based on Prompto.
### Expanded media
To avoid spreading the narrative of Final Fantasy XV into multiple games, the team created a multimedia universe surrounding the game; these included a special prequel demo titled Platinum Demo, the feature film Kingsglaive: Final Fantasy XV, and the original net animation Brotherhood: Final Fantasy XV. The central theme for the overall story of XV was the bond between father and son: Kingsglaive represented the theme from the father Regis' point of view. The film also salvaged a large section of the original narrative that was cut from the game. Brotherhood focuses on themes of brotherhood and friendship, and includes interpersonal scenes that could not be included in the game. Lunafreya was highlighted as the "keystone" connecting the game, the film, and the anime series together. While the media universe was expanded, Tabata divided the two phases between pre-release media and post-release downloadable content (DLC) and spin-off titles. The story also continued in Comrades, a multiplayer-focused expansion set during the ten-year narrative gap and focusing on the titular faction from Kingsglaive.
The DLC was split into three episodes covering Gladiolus, Prompto, and Ignis during periods they were separated from Noctis. The online multiplayer expansion filled the ten-year gap in the narrative A second series of DLC episodes was commissioned under the title The Dawn of the Future, which was intended to create an alternate series of events and allow a better ending where the lead characters defy their fates. Prior to this, an anime short centered around Ardyn's past was also planned, expanding into its own DLC episode. The basic scenario were written by Toru Osanai. Due to several factors, only Episode Ardyn was released, with the other three episodes being cancelled. The scrapped content was instead turned into a novel of the same name, written by Emi Nagashima based on the draft scenario; the novel was released in 2019 in Japan and 2020 in the West.
### Localization
The English localization of XV was led by Dan Inoue. One of the aspects of the localization was using different accents to show the characters coming from different regions of the world: a cited example was Ignis, who spoke with a British accent while the other main characters spoke with an American accent. For the game's lore, the team made a conscious effort to move away from the esoteric terminology Final Fantasy had gained a reputation for. They used understandable names like "Astral" and "Daemon". To stop the lore becoming uninteresting, the divine beings' speech was made very impersonal—such as Gentiana not using "I" or "You" during her dialogue—and using interpretive dialogue for simple concepts. Different issues raised later included Ignis' localized lines, which changed aspects of the character interaction, and the alteration of Cindy's name from the original "Cidney".
In an interview with Famitsu during Gamescom, Tabata revealed that the main reason for the delays in XV's release were related to the game's localization and debugging, as the team wanted to bring the game out in the west close to its Japanese release. The decision for a simultaneous release meant the localization had to happen alongside the game production, with no extra time for tweaks and corrections. In addition to being released with French and German dubs and text translation for those respective regions, it was also localized for Latin America with Latin American Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese text: this was the first time a Final Fantasy title was localized into these languages.
One of the early issues, which drew public attention with the release of Episode Duscae, was Noctis' English voice actor. In Episode Duscae, his voice was pitched rather low, making the character seem older and less energetic than his Japanese counterpart. This was explained as being due to tight scheduling removing the opportunity for Tabata to catch the issue and re-record before it was time for release. After Episode Duscae, the voice work was redone to better convey Noctis' personality. The team needed to deal with the clash between normal dialogue and the fantastic elements, which threatened to undermine the narrative. This forced the different pieces of media to take different approaches, and some scripted character interactions to join up the different sides of the narrative. The game's localization methods ended up backfiring after release due to the dialogue matching mechanism for characters causing line repetition or omission.
## Main characters
### Noctis Lucis Caelum
Noctis Lucis Caelum (ノクティス・ルシス・チェラム, Nokutisu Rushisu Cheramu) is the protagonist of XV. The crown prince of Lucis, he was chosen by the Crystal as the legendary True King when he was five years old. At the game's beginning, he is en route to the city of Altissia for his arranged marriage with Lunafreya when he receives the news of Lucis's invasion by Niflheim. He eventually becomes the True King, a figure who saves Eos from a plague of darkness called the Starscourge at the cost of his life. In The Dawn of the Future, Noctis ends up rebelling against his role, succeeding in both saving Lunafreya and purging Eos of the Starscourge while surviving. Noctis is voiced by Tatsuhisa Suzuki in Japanese and Ray Chase in English.
### Lunafreya Nox Fleuret
Lunafreya Nox Fleuret (ルナフレーナ・ノックス・フルーレ, Runafurēna Nokkusu Furūre, Lunafrena Nox Fleuret), "Luna" (ルーナ, Rūna) for short, is one of the central figures in Noctis' journey. During the events of Final Fantasy XV, Lunafreya travels ahead of Noctis, ensuring the Astrals grant him their power while guiding him through her companion Gentiana, the human form of the Astral Shiva. As she is persuading with the Astral Leviathan, she is fatally stabbed by Ardyn, giving the Ring of the Lucii to Noctis before dying. It is later revealed that speaking with the Astrals was slowly killing her, and she had been counting on her brother Ravus to finish what she started. Lunafreya continues to support Noctis in spirit form, aiding him directly in his final confrontation with Ardyn before reuniting with Noctis in the afterlife. In The Dawn of the Future, Lunafreya is resurrected by Bahamut to become a replacement for the rebellious Ardyn; initially falling in line, Lunafreya decides to rebel in turn against his wish to purge Eos of life, ultimately surviving and reuniting with Noctis. Lunafreya was voiced by Rina Kitagawa in Japanese and Amy Shiels in English. In Kingsglaive, the character is voiced by Shiori Kutsuna in Japanese and Lena Headey in English.
### Ardyn Izunia
Ardyn Izunia (アーデン・イズニア, Āden Izunia) is the main antagonist of XV, and the protagonist of Episode Ardyn. He is initially introduced as Niflheim's Imperial Chancellor and regarded as both its main political force running the empire and benefactor of its advances in Magitek technology. He orchestrates the events that lead to Niflheim's invasion of Insomnia, while guiding Noctis in forming Covenants with the Astrals so he can kill him once he becomes the True King. Ardyn reveals his motives by fatally wounding Lunafreya after she summons Leviathan, then harassing Noctis first by tricking him into attacking Prompto. When Noctis reaches the Crystal, he reveals the truth of their kinship and his birth name as Ardyn Lucis Caelum (アーデン・ルシス・チェラム, Āden Rushisu Cheramu), a healer from an ancient era who cured Starscourge patients by taking it into his own body. The growing Starscourge renders him immortal, but caused him to be ostracised by his brother Somnus and rejected by the Crystal. After ten years, Ardyn faces Noctis in single-combat after setting the infected Ifrit and Lucii—embodiments of past Lucian monarchs—on him. Noctis destroys first Ardyn's body and then his spirit, completing his role and purging Eos of the Starscourge. Episode Ardyn reveals that during an assault on Insomnia 30 years prior to the game, Ardyn learns that he had been chosen by the Astrals to become a sacrificial vessel as part of a solution for the Starscourge; he reluctantly submits to this fate in exchange for revenge against Somnus's bloodline. In The Dawn of the Future, Ardyn instead rebels against Bahamut's will, ultimately allying with Noctis and Lunafreya to defeat Bahamut. Ardyn is voiced by Keiji Fujiwara in Japanese and Darin De Paul in English.
### Gladiolus Amicitia
Gladiolus Amicitia (グラディオラス・アミシティア, Guradiorasu Amishitia), or Gladio to his close friends, is the protagonist of Episode Gladiolus. He is the eldest son of a noble family pledged to the protection of the Lucian royal family. Gladiolus serves as both Noctis' most loyal companion and a foil for his impulsive nature. While he initially disliked Noctis for his cold attitude when they first met as children, he warmed up to Noctis keeping his sister Iris safe and the two developed a brotherly relationship. During the course of the story, Gladiolus assumes the role of the Shield of the King to protect Noctis like his father Clarus before him. He is briefly demoralized when he is easily defeated by Ravus and left the party to go on a personal quest in Episode Gladiolus to grow his strength. The events at Altissia and Ignis' injury drive a brief wedge between Gladiolus and Noctis until Ignis forces a reconciliation. Gladiolus and Ignis later make their way through the Niflheim fortress Zegnautus Keep after being separated from Noctis, encountering the Daemon form of Niflheim's emperor Iedolas Aldercapt and seeing footage of Ravus' death. Gladiolus, along with Noctis' other companions, become Daemon Hunters until his return, and accompany him to the final battle against Ardyn.
Gladiolus' design and role was established from an early stage: as the King's Shield, he was more than a part of Noctis' entourage, having trained all his life to protect and at times chastise the current Lucian king. With this in mind, he was given a muscular design and an outspoken personality, with his other hobbies and quirks fitted in around that. Gladiolus's original design was dubbed a "straight muscleman" by Naora, but was redesigned to appear more intellectual for Final Fantasy XV. His eyes were also narrowed to give him a "sultry gaze off into the distance". For the musculature of his chest and midriff, which was designed to appear realistic and in keeping with his lifelong training, martial artists and other similar real-life figures were used as references.
Gladiolus is voiced by Kenta Miyake in Japanese and Chris Parson in English. When deciding upon Gladiolus' English vocal performance, Inoue's guideline was to make him sound like a young version of John McClane, the main protagonist of the Die Hard film series. Parson found voicing Gladiolus odd, as his physique and personality were almost the exact opposite to the character.
### Ignis Scientia
Ignis Scientia (イグニス・スキエンティア, Igunisu Sukientia), or Iggy to his close friends, is the protagonist of Episode Ignis. Raised alongside Noctis to be his advisor and provided with an extensive education, he developed a collected composure and tactical instinct. Ignis acts as Noctis' confidant and helper, forming a deep connection to Noctis during their youth when Noctis begins realizing his eventual fate of becoming king. Ignis is blinded during the battle with Leviathan, when he wields the Ring of the Lucii to drive Ardyn away from an unconscious Noctis. His blindness causes tension within the group until he forces a reconciliation. Like Noctis's other companions, Ignis becomes a Daemon Hunter, and accompanies Noctis to the final battle against Ardyn. Ignis is voiced by Mamoru Miyano in Japanese and Adam Croasdell in English.
### Prompto Argentum
Prompto Argentum (プロンプト・アージェンタム, Puronputo Ājentamu) is the protagonist of Episode Prompto. He is a friend of Noctis from a lower-class family, dating back to their teenage years. On their journey, Prompto acts to lighten the atmosphere of the party, taking on burdens for others and lifting their spirits with his antics. Initially a shy and obese child when he first met Noctis at school, a chance encounter with one of Lunafreya's messenger dogs prompted Lunafreya to ask him to be Noctis' friend—Prompto slims down and builds up his confidence, ending up firm friends with Noctis when they meet in high school. During their journey to Niflheim, Ardyn tricks Noctis into knocking Prompto from the train, leading to his capture by Niflheim's forces. Upon being found, Prompto reveals that he is actually from Niflheim, a baby designed to become a Magitek soldier but was spirited away to Lucis. Like the other companions, Prompto became a Daemon Hunter during the ten-year wait and accompanied Noctis to Insomnia for the final battle. Prompto is voiced by Tetsuya Kakihara in Japanese and Robbie Daymond in English. Prompto's younger self is voiced by Aki Kaneda in Japanese and Griffin Burns in English.
## Other characters
### Regis Lucis Caelum CXIII
Regis Lucis Caelum CXIII (レギス・ルシス・チェラム113世, Regisu Rushisu Cheramu Hyakujūsansei) is the king of Lucis and Noctis's father. As the ruling king of Lucis, he safeguards the Crystal and protects Insomnia using a magical barrier called the Wall using the hereditary Ring of the Lucii. Maintaining the Wall drains Regis of his life energy, causing him to age rapidly. In Brotherhood, it is revealed that Regis fought off the Daemon that almost killed Noctis, but the two become estranged as Regis's health failed to meet the Wall's energy demands and Noctis had to come to terms with his future as Lucis's king. He fought against Ardyn in Episode Ardyn, almost dying at his hands. When Regis accepted Niflheim's peace offer despite knowing it is a trap, he sent Noctis away from the chaos that would ensue in the events of Kingsglaive. Losing the Ring of the Lucii when it was cut from his hand by Niflheim's General Glauca, Regis dies fighting the general despite Lunafreya wanting to save him. Regis reappears as one of the Lucii when Noctis sacrifices himself to end the Starscourge and destroy Ardyn, delivering the final blow.
A character carried over from Versus XIII, Regis underwent a major redesign during development, becoming an older character in appearance. This was due to Regis's expanding role in Kingsglaive and the new technology available. The development team wanted to create a more expressive character and aged him to properly convey his exhaustion that came from his use of magic to uphold a protective barrier surrounding the kingdom. Due to this, his in-game incarnation was redesigned to better fit with his portrayal in Kingsglaive. The redesign was also chosen as his original design no longer fit into the reworked story of Final Fantasy XV. Regis's motion capture and physical model were provided by British actor Jon Campling.
Regis features as the player character in the spin-off title A King's Tale, where he is accompanied by his steward Weskham Armaugh, his protector Clarus Amicitia, and his friend Cid Sophiar. The game's story is portrayed as a fairy tale told by Regis to a young Noctis. Regis is voiced by Tsutomu Isobe in Japanese and Jim Pirri in English; in Kingsglaive, Regis's English voice actor was Sean Bean.
### Aranea Highwind
Aranea Highwind (アラネア・ハイウィンド, Aranea Haiuindo) is the commodore of Niflheim's Third Army Z-Corps 87th Airborne Unit, a group of Daemon hunters and mercenaries employed by Niflheim. Due to her prowess in aerial combat, she is known as "the Dragoon". Over the course of the story, she becomes increasingly uncomfortable with the empire's actions—particularly in capturing Daemons for experimentation—and ultimately severs ties with them, instead using her resources to aid refugees. She later appears in Episode Prompto, sent by Noctis to find Prompto. She chastises Prompto for doubting Noctis and refuses his help in fighting Verstael until he overcomes it. In The Dawn of the Future, Aranea helps imperial citizens escape the capital of Niflheim, Gralea, and takes down a Diamond Weapon brought by Ardyn to destroy it, later aiding Lunafreya and Noctis in their battle against Bahamut.
Aranea was designed by Ferrari. Compared to other characters, Aranea—who was designed in mid-2010—underwent very few changes during the game's development. The only notable change was to her weapon, which was altered as it was deemed "unsuitable". Two characters closely connected to her, Biggs and Wedge, originally had major roles with unique designs; they were eventually reduced to a minor role with Niflheim NPC character models. Aranea was voiced by Miyuki Sawashiro in Japanese and Kari Wahlgren in English. According to Wahlgren, Aranea is morally ambiguous with a "sexy dark streak", and that she is a tonal departure from the roles she usually played.
### Cor Leonis
Cor Leonis (コル・リオニス, Koru Rionisu) is the Marshal of the Crownsguard and a famous warrior of Lucis known as "the Immortal" (不死将軍, Fushi Shōgun), a name he earned when a teenager for being the only survivor of a Lucian squad that encountered the supernatural swordsman Gilgamesh and managed to cut off his arm despite losing his sword to him. He fought alongside King Regis against the forces of Niflheim in his youth, being friends with Gladiolus's father Clarus. He helps the party early on in Noctis's hunt for the Royal Arms, magical weapons tied to Noctis's family. In Comrades, he continues to support the Kingsglaive, halting any search for Noctis on orders from Gentiana. He later rallies the soldiers of Lucis around Noctis when he returns, and helps him directly during the assault on Insomnia.
Cor was one of the characters created for Versus XIII, initially designed as the fifth permanent playable character who joined the group during the course of the game. When transitioning from Versus XIII to Final Fantasy XV, Cor was retained, but his role was reduced to a non-playable mentor figure. This was because the team decided to focus on the dynamics within the core group of similarly aged men, feeling that an older man would not be compatible with their plans. His character went otherwise unchanged. He acts as a temporary party member during certain points, following the party in order to protect the prince and his group, occasionally joining them in battle. Cor's Japanese voice actor, Hiroki Tōchi, was originally cast as Noctis's chauffeur in Versus XIII before its transition to Final Fantasy XV. The character was voiced in English by Matthew Mercer. Cor, depicted as a mature background figure of authority, was a character Mercer had not played before in his career.
### Iris Amicitia
Iris Amicitia (イリス・アミシティア, Irisu Amishitia) is the younger sister of Gladiolus and a childhood friend of Noctis. When she was a child, Noctis shielded her from trouble when she got lost in the grounds of Regis's palace; her later confession to Gladiolus helped soften his view of Noctis. She escaped Insomnia during Niflheim's invasion, taking refuge in Lestallum. Iris is depicted as having a carefree attitude and is close to all four of the party members; particularly Noctis, whom she has a crush on. She occasionally employs a doll made in the likeness of a Moogle during combat situations. During Noctis's slumber, Iris becomes one of the most notorious Daemon hunters in the world, being dubbed "the Daemon Slayer". Iris is voiced by Megumi Han in Japanese and Eden Riegel in English.
### Iedolas Aldercapt
Iedolas Aldercapt (イドラ・エルダーキャプト, Idora Erudākyaputo) is the emperor of Niflheim and an antagonist in XV. At the game's beginning he has withdrawn from frontline politics, delegating the task of administrating his empire to Ardyn. Nevertheless, he retains an active role within Niflheim's political scene. Aldercapt's ambition is to use the Crystal to grant Niflheim world domination. In The Dawn of the Future, it is revealed that Aldercapt's attitude was born from the loss of his family during the war against Lucis, and Ardyn's manipulation. Aldercapt is eventually infected by Ardyn with the Starscourge, transforming into the Daemon Foras before being killed by Noctis. Aldercapt is voiced by Shōzō Iizuka in Japanese; in English, he is voiced by Bob Joles in Final Fantasy XV and David Gant in Kingsglaive.
### Ravus Nox Fleuret
Ravus Nox Fleuret (レイヴス・ノックス・フルーレ, Reivusu Nokkusu Furūre) is Lunafreya's older brother and a former prince of Tenebrae, a formerly sovereign kingdom which is occupied by Niflheim. He bears a grudge against Lucis and the Caelum dynasty for abandoning his homeland, joining the imperial army in order to exact his revenge. During the events of Kingsglaive, Ravus attends the treaty-signing as part of Niflheim's delegation, subsequently participating in the empire's invasion of Lucis. He attempts to wield the Ring of the Lucii, but it rejects him and destroys his arm. Upon the death of General Glauca, Ravus is promoted to high commander of Niflheim's armies, with his maimed arm replaced by a Magitek prosthesis. While appearing antagonistic, it is revealed that he merely deemed Noctis unworthy and resented Lunafreya worsening her health on his behalf. After Lunafreya asks him to give Noctis Regis' sword, Ravus is labeled an enemy of the empire for his failure to contain the summoning of Leviathan, leading to his defecting to Noctis's side. Ravus is then killed by Ardyn and resurrected as a partially transformed Daemon which the party defeats. Ravus is voiced by Yūichi Nakamura in Japanese and Trevor Devall in English.
### Verstael Besithia
Verstael Besithia (ヴァーサタイル・べスティア, Vāsatairu Besutia) is the head researcher of Niflheim, and the "father" of Prompto, a promising scientist in his youth who developed the Magitek army from Solheim's lost technology to reduce casualties in his people's war against Lucis. More than thirty years before the game's events, Verstael uncovered the dormant Ifrit and freed Ardyn from his prison, seeing them as a means to end the war with Lucis and to acquire immortality. In the main storyline, Verstael is seen persuading Emperor Aldercapt to capture Lunafreya alive as he believed the Oracle could have potential use in her link to the Astrals. In Episode: Prompto, it is revealed Verstael used the Starscourge and his own DNA to create Magitek soldiers, along with other Daemon weapons. Verstael reveals Prompto's origins as a clone retrieved by Lucis, goading his "son" into shooting him. Upon his death he uploads his consciousness into his final magitek invention, Immortalis, intending to destroy the world in his new body before being eventually destroyed by Prompto with Aranea's help. He is voiced by Jin Urayama in Japanese and Steve Blum in English. His younger version in Episode Ardyn is voiced in Japanese by Noriaki Sugiyama.
### Kingsglaive
The Kingsglaive (キングスグレイブ, Kingusugureibu) is an elite group dedicated to protecting Regis. They are empowered with abilities similar to those of the Lucian royal line. Following Regis's acceptance of Niflheim's peace, there is dissension among the ranks, and several turn traitor. The Kingsglaive survivors are the main protagonists of Comrades, helping defend survivors from the growing Daemon numbers and receiving forgiveness from Bahamut in return for protecting Noctis during his ten-year slumber. They join with Noctis in a final assault on Insomnia during the final battle.
During early production, Ferrari had created a group of similar figures to the Kingsglaive, though they were themed after ninjas. The character Umbra was supposed to be one of the group, but these plans were changed. The characters of Kingsglaive were designed to be relatable, playing into the movie's themes.
- Nyx Ulric (ニックス・ウリック, Nikkusu Urikku) is the main protagonist of Kingsglaive, and a member of the titular elite guard that defends Lucis from the invading forces of Niflheim. Having lost his mother and sister in his youth when his hometown of Galahd was conquered by the empire, Nyx developed a fierce loyalty to Regis when rescued by the king. During the events of Kingsglaive, Nyx is appointed as Lunafreya's bodyguard and eventually learns of Niflheim's plot. He subsequently sacrifices himself by using the Ring of the Lucii to enable Lunafreya's escape. Nyx is voiced by Gō Ayano in Japanese and Aaron Paul in English.
- Titus Drautos (タイタス・ドラットー, Taitasu Dorattō), also known as General Glauca (グラウカ, Gurauka), acts as both the Kingsglaive leader and the main antagonist of the film. Originally loyal to Lucis, the destruction of his home town by Niflheim after Regis withdrew to the fortified capital caused him to ally with Niflheim in an act of vengeance. He is responsible for the deaths of the previous Queen of Tenebrae and Oracle Sylva Via Fleuret, as well as King Regis, and dies fighting Nyx during the destruction of Insomnia. Drautos was voiced by Kōichi Yamadera in Japanese. In English, he was voiced by Adrian Bouchet in Kingsglaive and Matthew Waterson in Final Fantasy XV.
- Libertus Ostium (リベルテス・オスティウム, Riberutesu Osutiumu) is a member of the Kingsglaive and Nyx's childhood friend, hailing from the same home town. He is among those disillusioned by King Regis's acceptance of Niflheim's offer of an armistice, defecting to the rebels when his friend Crowe is killed. However, upon witnessing the destruction Niflheim has wrought and learning of Drautos's secret identity Libertus returns to aid Nyx, escorting Lunafreya to Insomnia's borders so she can escape. Libertus also acts as a key guide for the Kingsglaive survivors in Comrades. He is voiced by Mitsuaki Kanuka in Japanese and Liam Mulvey in English.
- Luche Lazarus (ルーチェ・ラザロ, Rūche Razaro) is considered the unofficial leader of the Kingsglaive, having gained much trust within the group. While openly loyal, Luche is the leader of dissenters among the Kingsglaive, and leads their attempt to kill Nyx and Lunafreya. When he corners and wounds Nyx, Lunafreya tricks him into wearing the Ring of the Lucii, which burns him to ashes. Luche is voiced by Tomokazu Seki in Japanese and Todd Haberkorn in English.
- Crowe Altius (クロウ・アルティウス, Kurō Arutiusu) is a powerful mage within the Kingsglaive and Libertus's friend. Having lost her family, she considers the Kingsglaive her family, and shares a sibling bond with Libertus. She is sent by Regis on a mission to accompany Lunafreya, but she is killed by Luche; her death prompts Libertus to leave the Kingsglaive. Crowe is voiced by Ayumi Fujimura in Japanese and by Alexa Kahn in English.
### Astrals
The Astrals (六神, Rokushin, lit. "Six Gods"), also called the Hexatheon, are six beings worshipped by the people of Eos as deities. The six are Bahamut, Shiva, Ifrit, Titan, Ramuh and Leviathan. In ancient times, the Astral Ifrit acted as a patron of humankind, but when they rebelled against the Astrals, Ifrit flew into a destructive rage that threatened Eos. This triggered the Great War of Old, which only ended after Bahamut felled Ifrit. Ifrit was recovered by Niflheim, and ended up corrupted and enslaved to Ardyn. In her quest to aid Noctis, Lunafreya ensures the Astrals will lend him their power by forming pacts dubbed "Covenants". In Comrades, the Astrals witness Bahamut's trial of the Kingsglaives on the island of Angelgard, meeting place of the Astrals. Noctis's group fights a corrupted Ifrit, while the other Astrals aid in the assault on Insomnia, then unite their power with Noctis to destroy the Starscourge and Ardyn. In The Dawn of the Future, the Astrals turn against Bahamut when he threatens Eos, uniting with Noctis, Lunafreya and Ardyn to destroy him; while the Starscourge is eradicated, Bahamut's death causes magic and the other Astrals to vanish from Eos.
In the original lore of Versus XIII, inspired by the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries, god-like beings called the fal'Cie existed separately from the summons. The summon Leviathan's design was the earliest completed for the game. During production, the mythos terminology was removed and the mythos gradually shifted to become a thematic base for original lore. As used in Final Fantasy XV, the Astrals were designed to play integral parts in the story and world as opposed to being simple monsters to be called into battle. They were intelligent beings that Noctis needed to forge a pact with rather than simply commanding them. Due to their key role in the story, the staff chose traditional Final Fantasy summons instead of creating ones unique to the game. In gameplay, four of the Astrals—Titan, Ramuh, Leviathan and Shiva—act as regular summons during the game, triggered based on the local environment and Noctis's situation.
- Shiva (シヴァ, Shiva), also known as the Glacian and the Frostbringer, is the Goddess of Ice. She is seen through most of the game as Lunafreya's human attendant Gentiana (ゲンティアナ). Originally hostile towards humanity, Ifrit changed her views, though she took sides against him during the Great Wer of Old. Her faith in humanity was further rekindled by Lunafreya, and she willingly aided Noctis through his quest. When Ardyn enslaved Ifrit, Shiva woke to protect him and her Astral body felled by Niflheim's troops. She later joins the other Astrals in aiding Noctis's entry to Insomnia, and deals the finishing blow to the infected Ifrit after Ardyn sets him against Noctis. In The Dawn of the Future, she directly rebels against Bahamut out of liking for Lunafreya and Noctis. Shiva is voiced by Sayaka Kinoshita in Japanese, and Renee Faia in English.
- Ifrit (イフリート, Ifurīto), also known as the Infernian and the Pyreburner, is the God of Fire. Originally a patron of humanity who granted them the gift of fire and founded the Solheim civilisation, humanity's betrayal turns him hostile. He is corrupted by Ardyn upon awakening, becoming enthralled to the Starscourge. He features as both the penultimate boss of Final Fantasy XV, and a boss fight in Comrades. In The Dawn of the Future, Lunafreya cleanses Ifrit of the Starscourge, and he aids Noctis in the final battle with Bahamut. Ifrit is voiced by Yasuhiro Mamiya in Japanese and John Kassir in English.
- Bahamut (バハムート, Bahamūto), also known as the Draconian and the Bladekeeper, is the God of War and leader of the Astrals. When the Starscourge ravaged Eos, he planned the events leading to the main game to permanently destroy the plague; to that end he gifted the Crystal and the Ring of the Lucii to the Caelum dynasty, and his trident to the Fleuret family. He summons Ardyn—and later, Noctis—to his domain to explain to each their role as sacrifices to end the Starscourge, aiding the latter in his battle against the revived and corrupted Ifrit. Bahamut takes on the role of main antagonist in Dawn of the Future, resolving to purge the planet to eradicate the Scarscourge after Ardyn refuses his role. Noctis and Lunafreya ally with Ardyn and defeat Bahamut. Bahamut is voiced by Itaru Yamamoto in Japanese and David Lodge in English. Bahamut makes a cameo appearance in Assassin's Creed: Origins as part of a franchise crossover between Square Enix and Ubisoft in 2017.
- Leviathan (リヴァイアサン, Rivaiasan), also known as the Hydraean and the Tidemother, is the Goddess of the Seas. She is awakened from beneath the city of Altissia by Lunafreya, going on a rampage upon being attacked by Niflheim until Noctis is empowered by Lunafreya and defeats her. She later aids Noctis both on his journey to Niflheim and in the final battle. Leviathan is voiced by Urara Takano in Japanese and Candi Milo in English.
- Titan (タイタン, Taitan), also known as the Archaean and the Landforger, is the God of Earth. Located near the town of Lestallum, Titan is the first Astral to lend his power to Noctis. He later protects Noctis and the dying Lunafreya from Leviathan's rampage in Altissia, before joining the other Astrals in the final battle. Titan is voiced by Kenichiro Matsuda in Japanese and Ike Amadi in English.
- Ramuh (ラムウ, Ramū), also known as the Fulgurian and the Stormsender, is the God of the Storms and overseer of Eos's natural laws. He was woken from his slumber on Angelgard by Lunafreya. Noctis acquires him by completing a trial in the region of Duscae, and appears with the other Astrals during Noctis's final battle.
## Minor characters
- Carbuncle (カーバンクル, Kābankuru) is one of the twenty-four Messengers, and features in both Final Fantasy XV and as a key character in Platinum Demo. Regis gifted Carbuncle to the young Noctis through a small mascot; Carbuncle's role is to guard and guide Noctis through his dreams. During Platinum Demo, Carbuncle guides the comatose Noctis through his dreams following a Daemon injury. Carbuncle was also featured in a supplementary manga titled Episode Carbuncle.
- Cid Sophiar (シド・ソフィア, Shido Sofia) is the owner and operator of the Hammerhead garage, a gas station and repair shop in the Leide region. During his youth, Cid fought alongside Regis and Cor against the forces of Niflheim. Cid supports the repentant Kingsglaive during the events of Comrades. Hammerhead is later converted into a safe haven for the survivors of the collapse of civilization throughout Eos. Cid is voiced by Nobuyuki Katsube in Japanese and Jack Angel in English.
- Cindy Aurum (シドニー・オールム, Shidonī Ōrumu) serves as the mechanic for the Regalia at the Hammerhead garage, and offers customization options for the vehicle. Like her grandfather, the character's original English name "Cidney" is part of a long-running tradition of characters with an affinity for mechanical objects and technology named "Cid" who appear in Final Fantasy titles. Cindy is the first instance of a female incarnation of "Cid" in the series. She has appeared or is otherwise referenced in other video games outside of the Final Fantasy franchise, such as Minecraft and Blue Reflection. Cindy is voiced by Yū Shimamura in Japanese and Erin Matthews in English.
- Loqi Tummelt (ロキ・タメルト, Roki Tameruto) and Caligo Ulldor (カリゴ・ウルドー, Karigo Urudō) are minor antagonists, serving as Brigadier Generals in Niflheim's army. Loqi has a long-standing antagonism with Cor, and both pursue Noctis and threaten his allies. Caligo is killed by Ravus in the aftermath of Leviathan's rampage. In The Dawn of the Future, Loqi sacrifices himself to defend fleeing citizens from Daemons. Loqi is voiced by Takashi Ohara/Jason Spisak, while Caligo is voiced by Itaru Yamamoto/Rick Zieff.
- Umbra (アンブラ, Anbura) and Pryna (プライナ, Puraina) are two dogs who act as companions to and messengers for Noctis and Lunafreya. They are two of the twenty-four Messengers, beings who serve as intermediaries between humanity and the Astrals. Prompto helped an injured Pryna in his youth, indirectly leading to his friendship with Noctis. Pryna dies along with Lunafreya in Altissia, but she manifests for Prompto to guide him during the events of Episode Prompto. Umbra continues to watch over Noctis, giving him a message after he wakes from his ten-year slumber in the Crystal and appearing in Insomnia following his final battle.
- Talcott Hester (タルコット・ハスタ, Tarukotto Hasuta) is the grandson of Jared Hester (タルコット・ハスタ, Jareddo Hasuta), the chamberlain of the Amicitia family. After the fall of Imsomnia, they flee to Lestallum along with Iris. Jared is later murdered after Talcott inadvertently reveals their identities to Niflheim agents, which traumatizes him. Ten years later, an older Talcott encounters Noctis after his awakening on Angelgard, and drives him to Hammerhead to meet the other survivors of a post-apocalyptic Eos. Talcott is voiced in Japanese by Ayumu Murase as an adult, and by Tomoyo Kurosawa as a child; their English counterparts are Josh Keaton and Kyle Arem respectively. Jared is voiced by Hiroshi Iwasaki in Japanese and Tony Amendola in English.
- Camelia Claustra (カメリア・クラウストラ, Kameria Kurausutora) is the first secretary of the Accordo Protectorate, a vassal state of Niflheim. She is a friend of Regis' former steward Weskham, who arranges a diplomatic summit between her and Noctis in Accordo's capital city, Altissia, to discuss the summoning of Leviathan and its potential consequences for the city. She is voiced by Jun Karasawa in Japanese and Judith Flanagan in English.
- Gilgamesh (ギルガメッシュ, Girugamesshu) is a central character in Episode Gladiolus, and a version of a recurring Final Fantasy character. He served as Somnus's Shield in ancient times. He became an immortal being, challenging Lucian warriors in battle. He tests Gladiolus's worth, and grants him his favour and the weapon he took from Cor during their bout years before. He is voiced by Kazuhiko Inoue in Japanese and Tom Taylorson in English.
- Somnus Lucis Caelum (ソムヌス・ルシス・チェラム, Somunusu Rushisu Cheramu), referred to also as the Founder King and the Mystic, is Noctis's ancestor and Ardyn's younger brother. Somnus took a martial approach to quelling the Starscourge, subsequently taking Ardyn's place as the chosen king and accidentally killing Aera, expunging Ardyn's existence from history. He becomes one of the Lucii, and acts as the final boss of Episode Ardyn. In both Final Fantasy XV and The Dawn of the Future, Somnus's Lucii form aids in destroying the Starscourge. Somnus is voiced by Daisuke Namikawa in Japanese and Zach Villa in English.
- Aera Mirus Fleuret (エイラ・ミルス・フルーレ, Eira Mirusu Furūre) is Lunafreya's ancestor, the first Oracle, and the fiancée of Ardyn. When Aera revealed to Somnus the identity of the chosen king, she was used to lure Ardyn into Somnus's trap, dying in the ensuing fight between the brothers. Her death would play a vital role in Ardyn's vendetta against Somnus's bloodline. In Dawn of the Future, Aera asks Lunafreya to save Ardyn, then meets him in the afterlife after Bahamut's defeat. Aera is voiced by Saori Seto in Japanese and Julie Nathanson in English.
- Solara Aldercapt Antiquum (ソラーラ・エルダーキャプト・アンテイクム, Sorāra Erudākyaputo Anteikumu), also called Sol, is a character from The Dawn of the Future. The secret grandchild of Iedolas Aldercapt, she is rescued from Nilfheim's capital Gralea by Aranea and Loqi as it falls to the Starscourge. During the next ten years later she becomes an experienced Daemon hunter, helping the revived Lunafreya and ultimately aiding in the final battle.
- Sarah (サラ, Sara) and Y'jhimei (ヤ・ジメイ, Ya Jimei) appear as guest companions in crossover collaboration content with Terra Wars and Final Fantasy XIV respectively. Sarah teams up with Noctis after they find themselves stranded in a realm populated by small white beings known as the Hiso Aliens. Y'jhimei supports Noctis' party after they accept her request to investigate an attempt by cultists to summon Garuda, a powerful being from the setting of Final Fantasy XIV.
## Reception
Six characters from Final Fantasy XV ranked in the Top 75 of NHK's "All-Final Fantasy Grand Poll of Japanese players" in 2020, which tallied over 468,000 votes; Noctis, Ignis, Prompto, Ardyn, Lunafreya and Aranea placed \#13, \#28, \#38, \#63, \#69, and \#75 respectively. Game Informer, in its "RPG of the Year" awards, awarded the "Best Cast" category to the leads of Final Fantasy XV and best sidekick to Ignis. In an article for ComicsVerse, Peter Swann noted that Final Fantasy XV's all-male cast helped challenge gender roles, focusing on Ignis's behavior during rest periods and the non-prejudice representation of Prompto's early obesity. Salvatore Pane, writing for Paste Magazine, called Final Fantasy XV a "tender depiction of teenage boy and their complex relationships with each other and with death", much more than its science fantasy tropes, giving praise to each character due to their mutually-reinforcing dynamic. He also praised the central cast's characterization of its four principal characters as "one of the first truly human experiences" in the video game genre, and suggested that its storytelling of the characters' struggle against injustice and malevolence to be an example of video games as an art form in its "cathartic and transformative" aspirations. An article by the Perkins School for the Blind lauded the representation of Ignis's recovery from his blinding, citing it as a positive example of acclimatising to disability.
Chris Carter of Destructoid enjoyed the playable cast, and felt other characters' presence within the narrative despite a lack of development. Electronic Gaming Monthly's Mollie L. Patterson cited the four lead characters as "the glue that keeps everything together even in the game's worst periods", saying that they went beyond their stereotypes due to the amount of time spent with them. Game Informer's Andrew Reiner praised the portrayal of Noctis's burdens, and enjoyed the characters and the portrayal of their hobbies and interests. Game Revolution's Jonathan Leack felt the characters lacked development during the early sections of the game. Peter Brown of GameSpot enjoyed the grounded portrayal of the playable cast, but faulted the minimal representation of supporting characters despite portrayals in additional media. IGN's Vince Ingenito said the relationships within Noctis's party gave the game its only heart, as he felt its supporting cast was underused and its romantic elements poorly written. Philip Kollar of Polygon called Noctis's companions the game's "beating heart". Hardcore Gamer's Adam Beck, while negative on the storyline and treatment of supporting characters, said the main cast "serve strong character building and chemistry".
Reviewing Kingsglaive, Meghan Sullivan of IGN said the voicework helped make the lead cast believable, but faulted its handling of the secondary characters. In his review of Kingsglaive, Andrew Barker of Variety felt the "throwaway characters" were one of its biggest flaws. Polygon's Ashley Oh felt there was a lack of character development compared to other Final Fantasy narratives. GamesRadar was more positive, praising its cast as relatable. Carter found the anime Brotherhood helped him become interested in the game's lead cast. GamesRadar called the anime "surprisingly well-written", praising its more intimate narrative compared to Kingsglaive. In a feature following the release of the anime's third episode, Michelle Nguyen of Geek.com praised the camaraderie between the leads and how the anime fleshed out Prompto's character. Jenni Lada, writing for Siliconera, felt that the additional backstory and interactions shown in Brotherhood helped the main game's narrative work.
Writing about Episode Gladiolus, Andrew Webster of The Verge found Gladiolus's character development lacking in the absence of his companions. RPGFan's Peter Triezenberg enjoyed the interactions between Gladiolus and Cor. Reviews of Episode Prompto generally praised the title character's portrayal and storyline despite some clichéd or clashing elements. Carter called Episode Ignis the best DLC episode to that point, praising its relation to the main narrative as well as Ignis's portrayal. Triezenberg enjoyed the narrative, and felt the alternate storyline featured in Episode Ignis provided some good character development for Ignis, Noctis and Ardyn. Mike Fahey from Kotaku praised Ardyn's portrayal as the setting's overarching antagonist, citing Episode Ardyn and its anime tie-in as highlights for his character development and making his vendetta against Noctis's family "fully justified". RPG Site's George Foster was very positive, saying the DLC "manages to turn a previously interesting, but oftentimes one-note villain, into a sympathetic figure". Hirun Cryer from USGamer was less positive, faulting Ardyn's overarching characterisation and saying Episode Ardyn's narrative undermined the work done during the anime tie-in.
### Portrayal of female characters
Critics were divided over the representation of female characters across all relevant media. Many expressed disappointment at the disproportionate lack of female characters, as well as the portrayal of the few who are present in the narrative like Lunafreya and Cindy. Conversely, Aranea and Camelia are regarded as empowering or respectable female characters. Heather Alexandra from Kotaku praised Aranea's boss fight as a memorable encounter which provides a strong introduction to a great character. Critics particularly liked Aranea's interactions with Prompto in Episode Prompto. Swann took the view that the good character writing in Brotherhood helped balance out any problems with female representation in the game.
Although Cindy is a minor character, her revealing outfit and sensual demeanour became widely discussed following the release of Episode Duscae. A major complaint from European respondents in a survey for the Episode Duscae was that Cindy, the only female character who interacts with the main party during the demo, was oversexualized. A common point of contention among reviewers of the final game was that Cindy was inappropriately dressed for someone in her line of work. Game Revolution opined that Cindy's design made Quiet, another character who has received criticism for her design, seem "subtle". Nadia Oxford from USGamer felt that her outfit and window-washing cutscene was "obvious fanservice" as the outfit is seemingly inappropriate for her surroundings, but said it was inoffensive because the game is ultimately not about "male wish fulfillment". The Guardian gave a harsher assessment, labelling Cindy's scenes a "laughable male fantasy" and claimed that it draws greater attention to the lack of playable women in the game. Mike Diver and Patrick Klepek from Vice both disliked her design and were surprised that it had not been toned down in spite of negative feedback to her depiction in the demo, which led them to feel embarrassed for the video game medium. Klepek described Cindy as his biggest negative of the game and said that she stands out as an incongruent form of fan service that is otherwise not present. Tabata and Marketing manager Akio Ofuji have publicly defended Cindy's visual design and insisted that she is not meant to be an erotic character, although the former noted the value of moderating her presentation to avoid the impression of oversexualization.
On the other hand, poll feedback from European players for the Final Fantasy XV demo incited backlash from certain quarters of the Final Fantasy fandom who went on social media to defend the presentation of female characters like Cindy in the video game industry. Cindy became popular with certain fans, some of whom made the effort to cosplay as the character or forward requests to Square Enix to ask that she be made a playable character. Swann considered Cindy to be the most important female character of Final Fantasy XV for subverting gender roles, noting that "in a male dominated field like machinery and car repair, the entire male cast is completely inept at this and rely on a badass woman to fix their car". |
56,881,426 | A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo | 1,173,471,526 | 2018 children's book by Jill Twiss and EG Keller | [
"2010s LGBT literature",
"2018 children's books",
"2018 in LGBT history",
"American children's books",
"American picture books",
"Books about the Trump administration",
"Censored books",
"Children's books about rabbits and hares",
"Children's books with LGBT themes",
"Chronicle Books books",
"Gay fiction",
"LGBT literature in the United States",
"LGBT-related controversies in literature",
"Last Week Tonight with John Oliver",
"Mike Pence",
"Political satire books"
]
| A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo is a 2018 children's book written by Jill Twiss and illustrated by EG Keller (a pseudonym of Gerald Kelley). The book is about a fictional day in the life of Marlon Bundo, the real-life pet rabbit of then-Vice President of the United States Mike Pence, and details the same-sex romance between Marlon Bundo and another rabbit named Wesley. It is a loose parody of Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President, another children's book featuring Marlon Bundo written by Charlotte Pence and illustrated by Karen Pence.
The book and its LGBTQ-inclusive theme was written by Jill Twiss (with Marlon Bundo credited as co-writer), who is a comedy writer for the television show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, aiming to deride then-Vice President Pence over his controversial anti-LGBTQ views, such as his alleged support for gay conversion therapy and opposition to same-sex marriage. It was released on March 18, 2018, one day before the release of Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President. The audiobook version features Jim Parsons, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Jeff Garlin, Ellie Kemper, John Lithgow, Jack McBrayer, and RuPaul.
On the day of release, John Oliver promoted the book on Last Week Tonight at the conclusion of an episode mainly dedicated to Pence and his positions on LGBTQ issues; it became a bestseller and the No. 1 book and e-book on Amazon the following day. Oliver announced profits from the book were to be donated to The Trevor Project and AIDS United.
## Background
A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo was conceptualized as a loose parody of Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President, a children's book written by Mike Pence's daughter Charlotte Pence and illustrated by his wife Karen Pence. Writer Jill Twiss stated she became interested in Bundo due to his name, and once she learned about the upcoming book she stated, "we thought we could use the opportunity to support some really great charities while also hopefully putting out an inclusive, loving children's book in the process". Helped by input from the writing staff of Last Week Tonight, Twiss' work was done in a few months, faster than the normal picture book process.
Oliver acquired two domain names to promote A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo. According to Oliver, the domain betterbundobook.com contrasts the book with the Pence-family-written Bundo book and focusonthefurmily.com satirizes the anti-LGBTQ organization Focus on the Family. In a broadcast on March 18, 2018, Oliver said that aside from sending an inclusive message, he was hoping to annoy Pence over the competition for his family's book and the fact that Last Week Tonight is donating all proceeds of its book to LGBTQ-friendly organizations (The Trevor Project and AIDS United).
## Plot
Marlon Bundo, a black-and-white rabbit sporting a colorful bow tie, lives in the home of "Grampa", former Vice President Mike Pence. Marlon is lonely, but one morning after breakfast, he meets Wesley, a bespectacled brown rabbit. They spend the day together, hopping around in the garden and the house. They decide to get married, because they never want to hop without each other again.
Marlon and Wesley tell their animal friends, who respond enthusiastically. But the stink bug, who is "In Charge and Important", yells at them that boy rabbits can only marry girl rabbits. He calls them different, and he says that different is bad. The other animals speak up and tell him how each of them is different in their own way. They decide to vote on who is "In Charge and Important", and the stink bug is voted out. Marlon and Wesley have their wedding, with their friends in attendance. They go to sleep in anticipation of their "bunnymoon". Marlon is no longer lonely.
## Analysis
A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo is meant to be an actual children's story rather than a direct parody of the Pences' book, the publisher calling it a "better bundo book". Oliver and his team wanted to mock the Vice President, but they also wanted to create a book that has "something very genuinely for children", according to Twiss. Twiss added that she hoped the book would resonate with children "feeling out of place or having a family that looks different than that of their friends," and that the main message was "different is special". It nevertheless contains some stabs at Mike Pence, with the Marlon Bundo character claiming that Pence "isn't very fun" and a stink bug character with a resemblance to Mike Pence. Twiss said in an interview that her ambition for the book was to make a heartfelt story and also to annoy Pence.
## Publication
A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo was published on March 18, 2018, the day of the Last Week Tonight broadcast about Pence. The publication of both books was used as a comedy piece in the broadcast to raise awareness of Mike Pence's stated anti-LGBTQ attitudes. John Oliver stated that Pence's pet rabbit was the one thing he liked about Pence, and that because of this, he had taken issue with the real-life Marlon Bundo having to make a stop at the anti-LGBTQ organization Focus on the Family during an upcoming promotional book tour with the Pences.
The day of publication was intentionally the day before the publication of the Pence's book. One day after its release, the book overtook James Comey's book A Higher Loyalty: Truth, Lies, and Leadership to become the No. 1 book on Amazon. For 26 non-consecutive weeks, A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo was on The New York Times Children's Picture Books Bestsellers list, becoming No. 1 the week of July 15, 2018. It also topped the e-book sales, thus making the two versions of the book No. 1 and No. 2 on overall Amazon book sales, with the printed edition selling the most of the two. A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo sold much better than the Pence book it parodied, which climbed to No. 4 in the week after publication. In the first two days, 180,000 copies were sold.
Last Week Tonight had not anticipated a large demand and the printed version sold out after two days, Twiss later saying in an interview that she "never thought it would actually get published". While it was being reprinted, it remained possible to order the book on Amazon and it continued to be available as an e-book version for Amazon Kindle and its various platforms. Within the first week of release, the audiobook version with voice acting from Jim Parsons, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Jeff Garlin, Ellie Kemper, John Lithgow, Jack McBrayer and RuPaul was No. 1 on audiobook service Audible. On March 28, publisher Chronicle Books reported to have over 400,000 copies in print. Independent booksellers expressed disappointment with Chronicle Books for making it exclusively available via Amazon at release, rather than supplying it other retailers at the launch.
## Reception
### Public response
The publication caused large numbers of positive reviews and comments on Amazon, though only about a quarter of the reviews were left by actual buyers of the book. News about the book and the controversy it stirred up was picked up by mainstream news outlets and talk shows in the U.S. In a segment about the book on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Ellen DeGeneres praised it and presented John Oliver with a \$10,000 check from HBO for The Trevor Project, calling on her viewers to buy the book in support of the project. Will & Grace creator Max Mutchnick donated a copy of the book to every elementary school in Indiana, saying he wanted to counter Pence's "message of intolerance" about gay people, hoping to "provide positive role models and a story of inclusion for children in Pence's home state".
According to the American Library Association, the book was the 19th most banned and challenged book in the United States between 2010 and 2019, meaning it was requested for removal from various library collections on several occasions. The book ranked in the Top Ten Most Challenged Books in 2018 (2nd) and 2019 (3rd). The book was challenged due to its LGBTQ content, for allegedly being "designed to pollute the morals of its readers," for concerns that it was sexually explicit and biased, as well as its political and religious viewpoints. Following passage of the Parental Rights in Education (Don’t Say Gay) law in Florida, Broward County Schools banned Bundo after complaints by conservative parents.
### Reactions
Charlotte Pence, Mike Pence's daughter and the author of Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President, supported A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo. She posted on Twitter a picture of herself and the real-life Marlon Bundo wearing a bow tie identical to the one in Jill Twiss' book and said in a television interview: "His book is contributing to charities that I think we can all get behind... I'm all for it". The official Instagram account of Marlon Bundo also spoke of Twiss' book in a positive light, stating "Not gonna lie, I do look pretty fly in a bow tie. The only thing better than one bunny book for charity is...TWO bunny books for charity". The proceeds from the Pences' book were also given to charities, namely The A21 Campaign which works to fight human trafficking and Tracy's Kids, an art therapy program for hospitalized children.
President of Focus on the Family Jim Daly called Oliver's treatment of the Pences' book "not just vicious in tone, but also vulgar and vile in every sense of the word and way". Regnery Publishing, the conservative book publisher who published the Pence book, initially criticized the release of A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, saying that it was "unfortunate that anyone would feel the need to ridicule an educational children's book and turn it into something controversial and partisan". When the success of both books became apparent, publisher Marji Ross of Regnery congratulated Oliver and Chronicle Books with their sales figures, stating: "There's plenty to go around for everyone and, like Charlotte [Pence] said, we can all be happy the proceeds are going to a good cause".
### Critical reviews
Common Sense Media gave the book a four-star rating and considers it appropriate for children of four years and older, giving it its highest marks for "positive messages" and "positive role models and representations". Susie Wilde of The News & Observer said that Twiss "understands how to tell a simple story with comic touches and pacing, creating a parody that children might actually enjoy", while Keller's "details are playful and give a strong sense of motion, which works well for the two rabbit heroes who never want to hop without each other". Katy Waldman in The New Yorker called the book "full of the attentive details and poetic grace notes that distinguish good children's books", while noting its "subtextual treats for adults". Kirkus Reviews calls the book "another tiresome political picture book", that really just aims at older people and not for the age the book was supposed to be for. The review also notes that the book is good for a little laughter but not for a message intended for inclusion. Contrarily, The Globe and Mail's Anna Fitzpatrick wrote that "while an unabashed political parody, it also stands on its own as a children's book".
## See also
- Whose Boat Is This Boat?, a satirical children's book produced by The Late Show With Stephen Colbert |
3,467,861 | Amor Prohibido | 1,171,939,029 | 1994 studio album by Selena | [
"1994 albums",
"Albums produced by A.B. Quintanilla",
"Albums recorded at Q-Productions",
"EMI Latin albums",
"Selena albums",
"Spanish-language albums",
"Tejano Music Award winners for Album of the Year"
]
| Amor Prohibido (English: Forbidden Love) is the fourth studio album by American singer Selena, released on March 22, 1994, by EMI Latin. Having reached a core fan base, the label aimed to broaden her appeal with the next studio release. Finding it challenging to write a follow-up hit after "Como la Flor" (1992), Selena's brother A. B. Quintanilla enlisted the assistance from band members Ricky Vela and Pete Astudillo with writing the album's songs. The resulting album has a more mature sound featuring experimental production that blends diverse musical styles from ranchera to hip-hop music. Amor Prohibido is a Tejano cumbia album modernized with a synthesizer-rich delivery using a minimalist style that was quintessential in early 1990s Tejano music.
The album's songs deal with dysfunctional and volatile relationships; its lyrics explore unrequited love, infidelity, and social division. With relatively few love songs, Amor Prohibido narrates a woman's struggles and triumphs following unsuccessful relationships with men who struggle with commitment. The album continued the singer's streak of number-one singles on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart with the title track "Amor Prohibido"— which became the most successful US Latin single of 1994, a feat she repeated the following year with "No Me Queda Más". Along with the latter, "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" and "Fotos y Recuerdos" also topped the US Latin chart, and together with "Si Una Vez" are regarded as Selena's signature recordings.
When the album tour broke attendance records at the Houston Astrodome and attracted a record-breaking crowd at Miami's Calle Ocho Festival, Selena became recognized as one of the biggest US Latin touring acts at that time. Amor Prohibido became the first Tejano record to peak at number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart, remaining in the top five for 98 consecutive weeks. The album holds the record for most weeks at number one on Billboard's Regional Mexican Albums chart at 97 nonconsecutive weeks, as well as crowning the chart in four different calendar years. Amor Prohibido received critical acclaim, it is considered to be Selena's best work and her band's "crowning achievement". The album's sound received the highest acclaim, it was noted by critics to have retained its innovative spirit well into the 21st century. Amor Prohibido is credited with catapulting Tejano music into mainstream success resulting in sales to listeners previously unfamiliar with the genre. Amor Prohibido was nominated for Best Mexican-American Album at the 37th Grammy Awards. The record took Album of the Year honors at the 1995 TMA's and the Lo Nuestro Award for Best Regional Mexican Album.
On March 31, 1995, Selena was murdered by her friend and former manager of her Selena Etc. boutiques, Yolanda Saldívar. The record re-entered the Billboard 200 chart, peaking at number 29 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Within three weeks, it was certified platinum and was re-certified by the RIAA as 36× platinum (Latin), denoting 2.14 million album-equivalent units sold. Amor Prohibido is the second-highest certified Latin album in the United States trailing only her posthumous album Dreaming of You (1995), the fourth best-selling Latin album in the US, the best-selling Tejano recording of the 1990s, and remains the best-selling Tejano recording of all time. Amor Prohibido has been ranked among the most essential Latin recordings of the past 50 years by Billboard magazine, while Rolling Stone magazine named it one of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. NPR ranked the album number 19 on their list of the 150 greatest albums made by women; it was the highest-ranking album by a female Latin artist and ninth highest-ranking recording by a woman of color.
## Production and development
### Background
Following the release of Selena's third studio album Entre a Mi Mundo and the launch of a clothing boutique in 1993, the singer and her band began working on Amor Prohibido. Having achieved the success and fan base that EMI Latin's president Jose Behar was seeking, Behar aimed to capitalize on Selena's broad appeal with the next studio release. The label was keen to use a Grammy Award-winning producer instead of the singer's brother, A.B. Quintanilla. A.B. knew Selena's musical tastes and vocal range, though he found that he needed to outdo himself to remain her principal record producer. He found it challenging to meet expectations after the commercial success of Entre a Mi Mundo and its career-launching single "Como la Flor". When A.B. met with record executives in New York City and Nashville, they pressured him to come up with another successful song. He felt it was important that the music he produced for Selena remain fresh. He stressed that writing a successful song following "Como la Flor" was infeasible—as he expressed to Billboard, "you don't try to outdo a hit, you just write another hit". As with previous albums, A.B. enlisted Selena y Los Dinos band members, Pete Astudillo and Ricky Vela, to help with the writing process. The result included a mature sound for Selena with experimental recording and production than her previous works. It was the final album featuring production and songwriting by Astudillo, who subsequently parted with Los Dinos to pursue a solo career.
### Recording
Amor Prohibido was recorded at Manny Guerra's studio in San Antonio, Texas, and was engineered by Brian "Red" Moore. The production of Amor Prohibido lasted six months beginning on September 17, 1993. The recording schedule was squeezed in around touring commitments and the opening of Selena's boutiques, as Selena's husband and guitarist Chris Pérez recalled: "I don't even know how we managed to find time to make the next album." According to Vela, progress stalled and the band had to rush to finish production because of an approaching deadline. The first day of recording, which lasted until four in the morning, began with the sequencing of the keyboards. The following days concluded with the band recording their respective parts before Selena recorded her vocals. It then took two weeks to complete post-production. Vela said that it was common for the band to rehearse all of the music in advance of the recording sessions, as the band's production sequence remained unchanged for Amor Prohibido. Selena and the band recorded their parts in the studio after they had first perfected them during pre-production. A.B. would then arrange and mix them, using an AKAI MPC60 II for timing and tempo control before studio mixing instruments were used. It took two weeks for Selena to record the album's ten tracks.
Pérez provided an evocative account of working with Selena during the sessions for Amor Prohibido. Pérez wrote how Selena never complained in the studio, adding that the singer was never recalcitrant towards changes. Selena would often arrive at the studio during the album's production, "hum her part a little", and then proceeded to the mall informing the band not to worry because she would "know what to do when [the band is] ready to record." Nevertheless, Pérez explained that the band never had to approach Selena on changes in the studio as she disciplined herself and tracked her vocals while requesting a second take in order to "add little harmonies she'd create" during recording. A.B. described his own creative process during the sessions in a 1994 interview with KMOL. He would use a tape recorder to hum a melody before creating a title and concept of a song. If he caught himself humming a tune the next day "then it's catchy", and otherwise he "wouldn't use it." A.B. also requested material from Rena Dearman, former keyboardist of the group, who provided several songs. A.B. favored "I'll Be Alright" and wanted Selena to record the song for Amor Prohibido. After it was rejected by EMI Latin because it was incoherent of the album's theme, A.B. suggested that it could be included in Selena's next Tejano recording.
One song–"Bidi Bidi Bom Bom"–was improvised during a rehearsal starting off as a song with few, if any, lyrics. The band's drummer, Selena's sister Suzette Quintanilla, said "we were goofing off" and insisted that after A.B. began playing a groove on his guitar, Selena started singing, coming up with lyrics "as ideas came to her." It started off with lyrics about a cheerful fish swimming freely in the ocean, which Astudillo likened to a nursery rhyme, organized around a wah-wah guitar riff using a crybaby that was improvised by Pérez. The track, then called "Itty Bitty Bubbles", became an extended jam during the band's concerts to prevent promoters from reducing their pay for playing for a shorter time than promised. Selena performed the song at the La Feria concert in Nuevo Leon in September 1993, a day before the singer and Astudillo began "[putting] the lyrics and melody together". A.B. saw potential in the tune and "nipped and tucked what Selena [had already done]". He joined as co-writer, writing the guitar solos for Pérez, as well as the arrangements for the song. A.B. called it "kinda a little scary" finding the project the first of its kind. The day before the band was scheduled to record the album, A.B. approached Pérez and asked if he would be interested in working with Vela on "Ya No", a song that A.B. had written. Pérez worked with Vela throughout the night improvising the drum sounds and programming the music for it, adding electric guitar riffs, and complementing it with his own musical style. Pérez was dumbfounded that despite A.B.'s assistance he had been given creative control over the track.
The idea for the album's title track was Selena's own, although Astudillo had at one time aspired to write a telenovela-esque song entitled "Amor Prohibido". Together with A.B. and Astudillo, Selena began writing and recording a track based on a story about her great-grandparents. The singer was inspired by love letters written by her great-grandmother who wrote about her experiences as a maid to the Calderon family, a wealthy family who lived in Nueva Rosita, Mexico who immigrated from Spain, and her infatuation with their son. Her great-grandmother was forbidden to form a relationship with him because of her social class and described it as "forbidden love". Astudillo feared that Selena's father would reject the song because of the lyrical content of disobeying one's parents to pursue true love, as Selena herself had done when eloping with Pérez in 1992. Abraham heard "Amor Prohibido" after Selena recorded the track and enjoyed it, he found the lyrics to be relatable something "many families have gone through". While recording the song, Selena had ad-libbed "oh whoa, baby". Her brother believed that the recording would not have been the same had she not added the "oh whoa, baby" part. "Amor Prohibido" sampled the cencerro, which was intended by A.B., to attract people of different ethnicities to Selena's music. The media attention following Selena's death led the Calderon family to Selena and the song "Amor Prohibido", they visited the family for the first time and traveled to Corpus Christi. After falling in love with Suzette, and finding out about her marriage in September 1993, Vela wrote down how he felt; which he had kept private from her. The resulting song was titled "No Me Queda Más" and it was given to Selena to record for the album. According to Abraham, Selena provided an emotional delivery while recording the track and was seen sobbing in the recording studio because "she knew how [Vela] felt" about Suzette.
During recording sessions for "Techno Cumbia", A.B. encouraged Selena to rap with a New York accent similar to Rosie Perez. During a New York trip, A.B. heard the Pretenders' 1983 single "Back on the Chain Gang" on the radio. Concerned about the lack of material the band had to record for the album, and captivated by the idea of reworking "Back on the Chain Gang" into a Spanish-language cumbia song, A.B. asked Vela to write a translation of the lyrics. After discovering that Selena had sampled her song, Pretenders' vocalist Chrissie Hynde prevented the band from releasing Amor Prohibido and demanded a translation from Vela before she approved a rights agreement. At the time of Hynde's refusal, the band had \$475,000 (1994 USD) of pre-sale copies in a warehouse that included "Fotos y Recuerdos". Noticing it was the shortest track on Amor Prohibido, musicologist James Perone felt that "Fotos y Recuerdos" had "stripped some of the edge [sic] off of Hynde's text but retained the basic premise of ["Back on the Chain Gang"]". Perone complemented A.B.'s arrangement as "an example of [his] universal Latin approach."
## Composition
Amor Prohibido contains a more diverse collection of musical styles than Selena's previous work, ranging from ranchera to hip-hop music. Music critics believe it is an album of various genres accessible to both traditional and contemporary Latin music fans. Jeff Young, then-EMI Latin's sales director, labeled Amor Prohibido as "Pop International", which Mark Schone of Newsday believed was a ploy by the company to broaden Selena's appeal. Musicologist Matt Doeden found the album as having "a new sound" whose aim was to appeal to a broad audience. Perone found the mixture of compositions on the album to be rock and dance music, and according to Frank Hoffman in the Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound, the album exhibited the band's broad range of styles. Newsweek found the music in Amor Prohibido to have combined house music, cumbia, rock, dancehall, and new wave that was modernized in a kaleidoscopic form that embodied postmodern maelstrom of the mid-'90s. Amor Prohibido diverged from Selena's "stock-in-trade contemporary Tex-Mex sound." Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News, however, believed the title track and "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" contained Selena's cheerful and enthusiastic personality that were prevalent in previous recordings. The album's musical influences include salsa, funk, R&B, bubblegum pop, teen pop, pop ballads, techno, a fusion of reggae and dancehall, rock, polka, conjunto, flamenco, mariachi, corridos, and Tejano cumbia. Tejano cumbia is used heavily throughout Amor Prohibido. Author Ed Morales noticed its representation of the "cumbia sound" already established by Tejano band La Mafia, though Donald Clarke found Selena's delivery to be more of a modernized synthesizer-rich sound. While Amor Prohibido is a cross-cultural musical fusion, it remains an authentic Tejano recording, which uses a minimalist style that was quintessential in early 1990s Tejano music.
Selena called the recordings on Amor Prohibido as "love songs [or songs about] getting your heartbroken". Lyrically, the title track "Amor Prohibido" encapsulates the social divide between a poverty-stricken woman and the man of unreachable rank with whom she has fallen in love. The lyrics have been analyzed by authors, musicologists, and critics, who found them relevant to issues facing the LGBT community. They are ambiguous, and have been interpreted to portray prohibited romance between same-sex couples, modern society's views of romantic relationships, and to Romeo & Juliet. A review in The Monitor felt that the lyrics portrayed the forbidden love that Selena and Pérez hid from her overbearing father. Musically, the titular song is "an emotional uptempo ballad" which showcases the singer's "passionate side". In "Cobarde", the protagonist calls her partner a "coward" upon learning on his inability to face her after feeling reticent about his affair. Two other tracks, "Ya No" and "Si Una Vez", delve into heartaches of failed relationships with the protagonist in the former song angrily refusing to take back a cheating partner. Selena's vocals were called "strong [and] raspy" in "Si Una Vez". Suzette particularly liked because Selena gave "that attitude" in the song.
"Tus Desprecios" has a storyline typical of mariachi recordings, concerning dysfunctional and volatile relationships. The track uses the traditional Tejano conjunto (small band) style and includes a trilling accordion motif. On the day Selena recorded the song, she was suffering from a bronchitis episode. Perone wrote that the song showed Selena's ease with pop, Latin, and Tejano styles. Writing for The Miami Herald, Mario Tarradell described "Tus Desprecios" and "Si Una Vez" as having a more traditional Tejano sound than the rest of the tracks on Amor Prohibido but found them riddled with synthesizers and digital processing. Another track, "No Me Queda Más", uses the identical style of ranchera songs, with the female singer agonizing over the end of a relationship. The lyrics explore an unrequited love in which a woman wishes the best for her former lover despite her own agony. Jose Feliciano express his take on the song, noting a sense of sorrowfulness in the lyrics, while finding cognitive parallels to Selena's life, and noticed a comparison of compositions that are typically recorded by Pedro Infante. Selena's voice was admired for being powerful and emotive, while her vocals were found to have been subdued and solemn and were sung in a desperate and emotional way. Hispanic magazine praised Selena's vocal interpretations in "No Me Queda Más", citing the singer's ability to tackle such a song reserved for established musicians twice her age.
Joe Nick Patoski of The New York Times, recognized the melody of "Fotos y Recuerdos" from the Pretenders' new wave sound, that played on a rock en español groove surrounded with organs and percussions which "transcend[ed] traditional Tejano sounds." He also noticed that Pérez's lead guitar emulated the style of the Pretenders' James Honeyman-Scott. Newsweek praised Pérez' guitar solos and the lyrics on "Fotos y Recuerdos" which explored forbidden romance, with the singer "cherishing memories of a relationship". John LaFollette of The Monitor called Selena's simultaneous appeals to multiculturalism and commerce in the song "as American as apple pie." The track supplements rock and house rhythms with synth-driven strings and layers of percussion, including steel drums under a cumbia beat. Perone located suggestions of Jamaica, Cuba, and Trinidad and Tobago. "Techno Cumbia" featured Selena rapping under a cumbia beat supplemented with congas, hi-hats, techno samples, and EBM. Patoski acclaimed the band's new take on the cumbia rhythm, updated vocal samples, drums inspired from New Orleans, and horn charts taken from soca from the Caribbean. "Techno Cumbia" was praised as the first successful case of a cumbia-rap prototype in the industry. "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom", which also draws on music from the Caribbean, features lusher arrangements and less driven, trebly synthesizers than the first four songs on Amor Prohibido. Infused with cumbia and reggae, its onomatopoeic title and its nonsensical lyrics suggests the sound of Selena's heart palpitating whenever she thought of her husband. Critics praised the song's catchiness and noted a sense of conviviality in the track. "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" is musically similar to "El Chico del Apartamento 512"; Perone noted a recurring theme of attraction to a young man. The latter song's hook is more accessible to listeners with limited Spanish than that of "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom". In "El Chico del Apartamento 512", called a "sunny pop anthem", the protagonist is hit on by several men whom she has no interest in, except for the song's "boy in apartment 512". She finds enough courage to knock on his door to find it answered by a woman who asks if she is searching for her brother. To Perone, the song's lightness represents a relief from the heartbreak and despair elsewhere on the album.
## Release and promotion
Amor Prohibido was released in the United States on March 22, 1994. The release followed a recording contract with EMI Latin's pop division SBK Records, who aimed Selena to crossover into mainstream American pop music, in November 1993. After this news reached Billboard magazine, Amor Prohibido was given a spotlight feature in its album reviews which called its release a continuation of her "torrid streak." While Mark Holston of Hispanic magazine, wrote that the album's release reinforced her reputation as one of the leading Hispanic singers of the 1990s. With EMI Latin's president Jose Behar requesting enhancements to their commercial appeal, the band gave Argentine arranger Bebu Silvetti the song "No Me Queda Más" to be reworked into a pop-style track for its single release in October 1994. Amor Prohibido was subsequently re-released with a red sticker indicating that it included a "new version" of the song. In a Billboard interview, Behar said that "No Me Queda Más" was "internalized" without affecting the originality of its recording. During the twenty-year celebration of Selena releasing music, Amor Prohibido was repackaged and was made available for physical and digital purchase on September 22, 2002. The limited edition version included Selena's duet with the Barrio Boyzz on their 1994 single "Donde Quiera Que Estés", music videos for "Amor Prohibido" and "No Me Queda Más", as well as spoken liner notes containing commentary and recollections of each track provided by the singer's family, friends, and her band.
After featuring on "Donde Quiera Que Estés", Selena went on a mini-tour with the Barrio Boyzz that enabled her to visit New York City, Argentina, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Central America, where she was not well known. In September 1994, Selena sold out the 10,000 seats D.C. Armory in Washington, DC, with mostly Central Americans in attendance. Daniel Bueno, who organized the event, told The Washington Post that Central Americans loathe Tejano music and thought that the addition of reggae and tropical music into her repertoire had helped her appeal to Central Americans. Nelly Carrion, a journalist for the Washington Hispanic, expressed how the audience resonated emotionally towards Selena's performance and stressed how people were desperate to touch Selena, forcing her act to be suspended. Selena made several appearances on television and in live shows to promote Amor Prohibido. Most notably, her performance at the Houston Astrodome on February 26, 1995, has been called one of her best. The event was critically praised for breaking attendance records set by country music musicians Vince Gill, Reba McEntire, and George Strait. Her performance in the Astrodome was emulated by Jennifer Lopez in her role as the singer in the 1997 biopic. The singer appeared at the Calle Ocho Festival in Miami, with an estimated 100,000 in attendance breaking previous audience records. Her performance on a November 1994 episode of Sabado Gigante was ranked among the most memorable moments in the show's 53-year history. Selena performed "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom", "No Me Queda Más", "El Chico del Apartamento 512", and "Si Una Vez" on the Johnny Canales Show, which was later released as part of the host's "favorite songs" on DVD. Selena's performance of "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" on July 31, 1994, at Six Flags AstroWorld was the subject of a video released by the Houston Chronicle for their segment "On This Forgotten Day". Ramiro Burr, of Billboard, called the singer's tour for her album a "tour de force". The concerts established Selena as one of Latin music's most successful contemporary acts.
### Singles
Tracks released from the album continued the singer's streak of US number-one singles. The title track, "Amor Prohibido", was the album's lead single released on April 13, 1994. The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart the week ending June 11 – her first number one as a solo artist – and remained atop the chart for nine consecutive weeks becoming the most successful US Latin single of 1994. "Amor Prohibido" was certified 7× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) denoting sales of 420,000 digital units. "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" followed in July, reaching the top of the chart in its eleventh week on October 29, it remained at number one for four consecutive weeks, and was certified 9× platinum by the RIAA for sales of 540,000 digital copies. "No Me Queda Más" was released in November peaking at number one for seven nonconsecutive weeks. The single fared better in 1995, remaining entrenched in the top ten on the Hot Latin Songs chart for twelve consecutive weeks, earning it the title of Billboard's most successful US Latin single that year. The track was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA for digital sales of 240,000 units. The album's final single "Fotos y Recuerdos", released in January 1995, peaked at number one following the shooting death of Selena on March 31, 1995. At the time of her death, the song was at number four. "Fotos y Recuerdos" peaked and remained atop the Hot Latin Songs chart for seven weeks, finishing the year as the second most played track in the US trailing "No Me Queda Más". The song was certified platinum by the RIAA for digital sales of 60,000 copies. Although not released as singles from Amor Prohibido, "Techno Cumbia" was certified platinum by the RIAA for sales of 60,000 digital units, "El Chico del Apartamento 512" was certified double platinum for selling 120,000 copies, while "Si Una Vez" received a triple-platinum certification for 180,000 copies sold.
Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that the singles from Amor Prohibido elevated Selena to success on Latin radio whose promoters had not previously taken the singer seriously. "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" was ranked number 54 on the Dallas Observer's list of the Best Texas Songs of All-time. The song was listed as an honorable mention on Billboard's top ten list of best Tejano songs of all-time, while "No Me Queda Más" ranked ninth. Lisa Leal of KVTV said that "No Me Queda Más" and "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom", continue to be popular with fans and are Spanish-language counterparts of the Beatles' 1965 single, "Yesterday", in fan popularity. Author Kristine Burns also considered that the two aforementioned singles aided the growth of Selena's fan base. "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" was the most-played song from Amor Prohibido on Mexican radio, and remains a Latin pop and American pop standard. "Fotos y Recuerdos" has been recognized as the singer's "best-known dance tracks", while "Amor Prohibido" was popular on radios across Spanish-speaking countries. "Techno Cumbia", considered a stable in the 1990s for family gatherings in South Texas, is believed by musicologists to have spearheaded a new style of music. Following the 16th anniversary of the album's release, a readers poll in The Monitor saw participants choosing "No Me Queda Más" and "Fotos y Recuerdos" as their top picks, saying they "loved the feeling and musicianship in those two songs." Three tracks on Amor Prohibido ranked among Billboard's Greatest Hot Latin Songs of All-Time list in 2016, including "No Me Queda Más" at number 13, "Fotos y Recuerdos" at number 29, and "Amor Prohibido" at number 46. The majority of the recordings found on Amor Prohibido have been named Selena's signature songs including the title track, "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom", "Fotos y Recuerdos", and "Si Una Vez".
## Critical reception
### Reviews
The vast majority of contemporary reviews were positive. Critics at The New York Times overwhelmingly praised the album: Peter Watrous felt it stayed honest to her "country, working-class constituency" and Greg Kot praised its "contemporary snap", while Joe Nick Patoski hailed Amor Prohibido as a "watershed" recording from a supergroup at the top of its game. Others, such as AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine, musicologist James Perone, and music editor Mario Tarradell panned the album initially before coming to view Amor Prohibido positively. Tarradell called Selena "Miss Mexican Lite" and criticized the lack of songs true to regional Mexican music, before calling the album "delightfully infectious". Perone felt the album sounded dated, despite providing ample evidence of the singer's appeal, whereas Erlewine characterized Amor Prohibido as "slightly uneven" and praised Selena's success at recording the weaker material. Erlewine would later describe Amor Prohibido as Selena's strongest album, and an effective introduction to her work that highlighted her successful interpretation of the Tejano sound. Walter Martinez from Latin Style opined that Amor Prohibido contained tracks that deviated from regional Mexican or Tejano music. In response to Martinez's observation, Selena explained that she and the band experimented with Amor Prohibido, but songs like "Cobarde" still encompassed elements of Tejano and norteño music. Selena attributed her success to the diverse genres that she and the band explored in their albums while maintaining a "Mexicano" essence. With Amor Prohibido, Selena noted that the album possessed a pop ambiance, influenced by her exposure to both English and Spanish music during her formative years. She concurred that the album is not strictly "hard-core Tex-Mex or Mexican", which she perceived as a key factor in her and her band's success, as their distinctive sound strayed from tradition.
The album's sound received positive reviews. Described by author Ed Morales as a "subtle evolution", and by The Dallas Morning News as "delightfully infectious, hummable [and] ultra radio-friendly", the tracks were summarized and praised by The Monitor as "romantic, charming and ebullient." Billboard characterized the album's sound to be transparent for those unfamiliar with its musical diversity, while the Houston Chronicle marveled Amor Prohibido's ability at retaining its innovative sound well into the 21st century; a sound which was "light years ahead" of the singer's contemporaries. The singer's "seductive alto" was described as at a peak of expression. The San Antonio Express-News collectively praised the band as being at their "creative peak", while A.B.'s production was highlighted by the Rolling Stone who labeled it the "Selena sound" that would have made the singer a dominant force on the music charts had it not been for her death. Amor Prohibido hinted of a "pop potential", an opinion echoed by author Matt Doeden, who felt that the recording exhibited Selena's potential to become the genre's first pop musician.
Many critics found Amor Prohibido to have been Selena's best work, calling it her band's "crowning achievement." Other reviews called the work the singer's "blockbuster album", her signature album, a "career-defining" release, her "most interesting" and "sleekest" record, a "desert island album" for fans, calling it a "notch up" in her career, a "landmark", a "victory" recording, a "sultry, regional anthem." and an "overnight sensation".
### Recognition
At the time of its release, Amor Prohibido was regarded as very popular in Hispanic communities, albeit one that exemplified a generational split within the Tejano market at the time. Musicians found contemporary Tejano more sophisticated and noticed that it was unnecessary to explore their roots to have successful recordings. A.B.'s musical production of fusing and blending urban musical compositions in Amor Prohibido, revolutionized Tejano music. With Amor Prohibido, Selena brought Tejano music to unprecedented levels of mainstream success. The album was considered one of the first Latin recordings that were enjoyed in the United States during the 1990s Latin explosion, a period known as the golden age of Latin music which was fueled by the singer's death in 1995. Amor Prohibido popularized Tejano music among a younger and wider audience than at any other time in the genre's history. The album was instrumental in popularizing Tejano music and has been credited for "[putting] Tejano music on the map." Amor Prohibido was called the first record many young Hispanic females bought "with lyrics in the language [their] blood is rooted in." With Amor Prohibido, Selena provided a voice and exhibited the experiences of Latinos in the United States. At the time of its release, the album was aimed to surpass limitations in the music industry, ultimately becoming "an ageless cultural symbol".
After the album's release, Selena was considered "bigger than Tejano itself", and was credited for tearing down barriers in the Latin music market. Amor Prohibido established Selena as a figure in American pop music. Critics felt the recording elevated Selena among the leading females in the Latin music sector and established her as a leading performer among young singers with mainstream appeal. Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News believed Selena had "conquered the Latin pop landscape", while Herón Márquez called it a "landmark success". In a November 1994 Billboard issue, Amor Prohibido was named, among other Latin recordings, as an example to show that American Latinos were able to sell albums in English-speaking markets across the US that had historically overlooked Latin music. According to Gisela Orozco of the Chicago Tribune, Selena became the most successful Tejano musician following the album's release. Amor Prohibido was played in its entirety at the 25th anniversary of the D.C. Latino Festival in July 1995, which followed her death in March of that year.
The album appeared on Tom Moon's list of the 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die: A Listener's Life List (2008). The Seattle Post-Intelligencer included Amor Prohibido on its list of the best-produced albums of 1994, while the Houston Press placed it on its list of the best Texas albums of the past 30 years. Amor Prohibido was ranked ninth out of ten on Latin music critic Mario Tarradell's list of the best Latin music albums of the 1990s. BuzzFeed ranked Amor Prohibido number 22 on its list of the "35 Old-School Latino Albums You Probably Forgot About". Billboard magazine ranked Amor Prohibido among the most essential Latin recordings of the past 50 years, and included it on its list of the top 100 albums of all-time. In 2017, NPR ranked Amor Prohibido at number 19 on their list of the 150 greatest albums made by women, the highest-ranking album by a female Latin artist, and ninth highest-ranking recording by a woman of color. Music and media outlets, BuzzFeed, Billboard, and Apple Music, commemorated the album's 25th anniversary in March 2019. Other media outlets, such as Entertainment Tonight and the Houston Chrionicle, interviewed Jennifer Lopez, Ally Brooke, Cierra Ramirez, Natti Natasha, Anitta, Farina, Angela Aguilar, Becky G, and Kam Franklin on their take of Amor Prohibido and the singer's impact on their careers. In an interview with Billboard, Mexican singer Danna Paola spoke about how Amor Prohibido was the first album she ever bought. American soul singer Kam Franklin called the record as "one of the greatest albums of all time". In the updated edition of Rolling Stone magazine's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, the album ranked at number 479.
### Accolades
Selena dominated the 1995 Tejano Music Awards, winning every category in which she was eligible. Amor Prohibido won the Tejano Music Award for Album of the Year – Orchestra, while the title track won Record of the Year and Single of the Year. "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" was Song of the Year, while "Techno Cumbia" received the award for Best Crossover Song. Amor Prohibido received a nomination for Best Mexican-American Album at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards. Music critic Chuck Philips, believed Selena was "the politically correct candidate" to win the Grammy, "with all the heavy media coverage she [had] received in the last two years [1992-94]". At the Premio Lo Nuestro 1995, the album won Best Regional Mexican Album and its titular single won Regional Mexican Song of the Year. At the second annual Billboard Latin Music Awards in 1995, it won Regional Mexican Album of the Year, Female and its namesake song won Regional Mexican Song of the Year while "No Me Queda Más" received the award for Music Video of the Year. Amor Prohibido was nominated for Album of the Year at the 1995 Desi Entertainment Awards, while the title track was nominated for Spanish-language Song of the Year. At the 1995 Pura Vida Hispanic Music Awards, music industry professionals voted for that year's Best Album for which they awarded to Amor Prohibido along with "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" which took Music Video of the Year and Song of the Year honors.
## Commercial performance
### Chart history
Amor Prohibido debuted at number three on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums chart the week ending April 9, 1994. The following week it rose to number two and received the greatest jump in sales for that week. In an interview with Billboard, A.B. was frustrated that the album had yet reached number one. He explained that they were limited in their capabilities with Tejano music and spoke about his excitement when Amor Prohibido finally topped the chart, saying the event "was a big thing [for us]." Amor Prohibido peaked at number one in its tenth week, becoming the second album to place first on the newly formed Top Latin Albums chart displacing Cuban singer Gloria Estefan's Mi Tierra from the top spot. Sales were so vigorous it nearly entered the US Billboard 200 and became the first Tejano record to peak at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart. The event marked Selena as the "hottest artist in the Latino market." The following week, the album entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 183, becoming the first record by a non-crossover act to do so since Mexican singer Luis Miguel's album Aries (1993). The album also became the first recording by a Tejano singer to chart on the Billboard 200. Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News called the event "groundbreaking" and named Amor Prohibido as one of the most popular Latin recordings of 1994. Amor Prohibido and Mi Tierra switched back and forth between the first and second positions on the Top Latin Albums chart for five consecutive weeks.
On July 16, the album debuted at number 18 on the US Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart and ranked number one in the South Central United States region. By May 1994, Amor Prohibido had outsold other competing Tejano albums and lead the list of best-selling Tejano records of 1994. Amor Prohibido became the singer's third consecutive album to outsell men in the Tejano market who historically were unchallenged by women. By June 1994, Amor Prohibido outsold ZZ Top and Willie Nelson's recent releases in the state of Texas. Within 19 weeks of its release, the album outsold her previous recordings. It was selling 2,000 units a week in Mexico, while Selena was growing a following in Canada following the release of Amor Prohibido. By November 1994 a report by Billboard showed the singer was one of the top-selling acts in Mexico. Amor Prohibido finished 1994 as the fourth best-selling US Latin album and the best-selling regional Mexican album. After 48 weeks at number one on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart, Amor Prohibido was displaced by Bronco's Rompiendo Barreras. The recording became the second Tejano album to reach year-end sales of 500,000 copies, a feat that previously had only been accomplished by La Mafia. Despite this, Nielsen Soundscan reported that the recording actually sold 184,000 units by April 1995. According to Behar, sales figures Nielsen Soundscan provides do not include sales in small shops specializing in Latin music. Before Selena was murdered in March 1995, the album remained in the top five on the Top Latin Albums chart for 53 consecutive weeks. Album sales in the four weeks preceding her death were slightly above 2,000 units a week. In the week immediately before her death, Amor Prohibido sold 1,700 units. In Mexico, Amor Prohibido sold 400,000 units by April 1995, and subsequently received a gold certification.
### Posthumous commercial performance
Media attention had helped increased sales of Amor Prohibido as well as her back catalogue. As a result, EMI Latin increased the production of the singer's albums at their Los Angeles, California, and Greensboro, North Carolina plants. In the hours immediately after her death, it was the most requested album by people in music stores looking for her work. An Austin, Texas music retailer expressed how Amor Prohibido sold more units in the first month following her death "than it did the entire year it was out." This was echoed by a music wholesaler in Manhattan, who constantly sold out of Selena's albums the same day they received them, telling the local newspaper that "It used to be just the Mexicans [in Manhattan]. Now everybody likes her." In McAllen, Texas, music shops reported that people bought the singer's earlier works than Amor Prohibido, citing that "most fans already have her latest [album]". Music stores in Washington, DC, reportedly sold out of Amor Prohibido within days of her murder. The album reached number one for the fifth time on April 15, 1995, with sales of 12,040 units - a 580% increase over the previous week. The record subsequently re-entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 92 and at number one on the Regional Mexican Albums chart. The album sold an additional 28,238 units (a 136% increase) and rose to number 36 on the Billboard 200 chart. Amor Prohibido peaked at number 29 during its fifth week on the Billboard 200. The event was "a rare feat" for a non-English album in the United States. The album jumped from number 20 to number six on the list of the best-selling albums in Southern California in the week following her death. The recording eventually ranked second on their list of the best-selling albums in the state. In a June 1995 report, Amor Prohibido was the second best-selling record in Puerto Rico. Amor Prohibido and her 1992 studio album Entre a Mi Mundo, rose 1,250% in sales in the eight weeks following her murder. The album helped increase local record shops in Texas who were "selling more than when [Selena] was alive". Amor Prohibido remained at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart for 16 weeks following her death until the release of her crossover album Dreaming of You replaced it on August 5. The album remained behind Dreaming of You for seven weeks. By the end of 1995, Amor Prohibido ranked second to Dreaming of You for the best-selling Latin album for that year, and remained the best-selling regional Mexican recording for three consecutive years.
After 98 weeks the album dropped from the top five on the Top Latin Albums chart, though it remained within the top ten for 12 additional weeks. Amor Prohibido holds the record for most weeks at number one on the Regional Mexican Albums chart at 97 weeks, and is the only album to reach number one in four different calendar years. Amor Prohibido became the ninth best-selling Latin album of 1996, and ranked as the second best-selling Latin catalog album of 1997, while in 1998 it placed third. Billboard's revised catalog criteria made it ineligible for the Top Latin Albums and Regional Mexican Albums chart on January 18, 1997. The album was removed from the list and began charting on the newly formed Latin Catalog Albums chart positioned at number two. Since 1997, the album has spent 13 nonconsecutive weeks at number one on the Top Latin Catalog Albums chart including three weeks in 2010. Following another revision to its Latin albums charts, Billboard removed its two-decade-long ban of catalog albums in its chart beginning with the February 11, 2017 list; Amor Prohibido re-entered the Top Latin Albums and Regional Mexican Albums chart after 20 years. Still popular today, Nielsen SoundScan reported that Amor Prohibido was the ninth best-selling Latin record of 2016. After its revision, Amor Prohibido reclaimed the number one position on the Regional Mexican Albums chart in May 2017. Amor Prohibido was the first album by a woman to claim the top position since Jenni Rivera's Paloma Negra Desde Monterrey (2016). Amor Prohibido became the last album by a woman to claim the top spot until Rivera's daughter Chiquis Rivera debuted atop the chart in March 2018. As of 2018, the album has spent twenty weeks atop the Top Latin Albums chart, which is the ninth most weeks an album has spent at number one. Amor Prohibido has spent 111 weeks within the top ten of the Top Latin Albums chart, which is the second most weeks behind American singer Romeo Santos' Formula, Vol. 2 (2014).
In May 1995, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album gold, for shipments of 500,000 units. Within three weeks, it was certified platinum for increments of one million units. Amor Prohibido became the first Tejano record to receive a platinum certification. The Sydney Morning Herald called the event "an achievement" for a Spanish-language album which was not "the music industry's language of choice." By June 1995, it had sold 1.5 million units in the US, of which 100,000 were sold in Puerto Rico alone. In March 2011, the RIAA updated its certification of Amor Prohibido as double Diamond during an unveiling of the United States Postal Service's forever stamps honoring Selena and several other Hispanic/Latino Americans. As of November 2017, the album has been certified 36× platinum (Latin), denoting 2.14 million album-equivalent units sold. Amor Prohibido is the second-highest certified Latin album in the United States trailing only her posthumous album Dreaming of You (1995). Amor Prohibido is the fourth best-selling Latin album of all-time in the US with over 1.246 million copies sold as of October 2017. The album has sold over 2.5 million copies worldwide. The recording has been ranked as the best-selling Tejano album of the 1990s, and the best-selling Tejano album of all-time.
## Track listing
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Amor Prohibido.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Amor Prohibido.
Vocal credits
- Selena – vocals, background vocals, composer
- Stephanie Lynn, Rick Alvarez, "Rock 'n' Roll" James – background vocals
Visuals and imagery
- Lisette Lorenzo – art direction
- Maurice Rinaldi – photography
Instruments
- Suzette Quintanilla – drums, producer
- Chris Pérez – electric guitar, drum programming, arranger
- A.B. Quintanilla – bass guitar, bajo sexto
- Henry Gomez – guitar
- Joe Ojeda – keyboards, arranger
- Ricky Vela – keyboards, programming, arranger, composer
- Johnny Saenz – accordion
- Rafael Gasca – trumpet
- Rene Gasca – trumpet
- Gilbert Garza – trombone
Technical and production credits
- A.B. – composer, producer, programming, mixing, arranger
- Jorge A. Pino – executive producer
- Brian "Red" Moore – engineer, mixing
- Nir Seroussi – editing
- Guillermo J. Page – reissue producer
- Bebu Silvetti – arranger, producer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Quarterly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
!scope="row"\|Worldwide \| \|2,500,000 \|-
## See also
- 1994 in Latin music
- Selena albums discography
- List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums from the 1990s
- Billboard Regional Mexican Albums Year-end Chart, 1990s
- List of number-one Billboard Regional Mexican Albums of 1994
- List of number-one Billboard Regional Mexican Albums of 1995
- List of number-one Billboard Regional Mexican Albums of 1996
- List of best-selling Latin albums
- List of best-selling Latin albums in the United States
- Latin American music in the United States
- Women in Latin music |
314,644 | Strand, London | 1,166,565,949 | Major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, London, England | [
"1000s establishments in England",
"A4 road (England)",
"Areas of London",
"Districts of the City of Westminster",
"Strand, London",
"Streets in the City of Westminster",
"West End theatre"
]
| Strand (or the Strand) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The street, which is part of London's West End theatreland, runs just over 3⁄4 mile (1.2 km) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar, where the road becomes Fleet Street in the City of London, and is part of the A4, a main road running west from inner London.
The road's name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, as it historically ran alongside the north bank of the River Thames. The street was much identified with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House and Cecil House. The aristocracy moved to the West End during the 17th century, and the Strand became known for its coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a centre point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century, and several venues remain on the Strand. At the east end of the street are two historic churches: St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. This easternmost stretch of the Strand is also home to King's College, one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. Other notable structures include the Royal Courts of Justice and Australia House.
Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Virginia Woolf. The street has been commemorated in the 19th century music hall song "Let's All Go Down the Strand".
## Geography
The street is the main link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, to Temple Bar which is the boundary between the two cities at this point; the road ahead being Fleet Street. Traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district and forms part of the Northbank business improvement district.
The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and in 1220 as la Stranda. It is formed from the Old English word 'strond', meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the shallow bank of the once much wider Thames, before the construction of the Victoria Embankment. The name was later applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as 'Densemanestret' or 'street of the Danes', referring to the community of Danes in the area.
Two London Underground stations were once named Strand: a Piccadilly line station (which was renamed Aldwych station) that operated between 1907 and 1994 and a former Northern line station which today forms part of Charing Cross station. 'Strand Bridge' was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction; it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6, 23, 139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services.
## History
During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as "Iter VIII" on the Antonine Itinerary, and which later became known by the name Akeman Street. It was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields.
In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the principal route between the separate settlements of the City of London (the civil and commercial centre) and the royal Palace of Westminster (the national political centre). In the archaeological record, there is considerable evidence of occupation to the north of Aldwych, but much along the former foreshore has been covered by rubble from the demolition of the Tudor Somerset Place, a former royal residence, to create a large platform for the building of the first Somerset House, in the 17th century. The landmark Eleanor's Cross was built in the 13th century at the western end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile. It was demolished in 1647 by the request of Parliament during the First English Civil War, but reconstructed in 1865.
The west part of the Strand was in the parish of St Martin in the Fields and in the east it extended into the parishes of St Clement Danes and St Mary le Strand. Most of its length was in the Liberty of Westminster, although part of the eastern section in St Clement Danes was in the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex. The Strand was the northern boundary of the precinct of the Savoy, which was approximately where the approach to Waterloo Bridge is now. All of these parishes and places became part of the Strand District in 1855, except St Martin in the Fields which was governed separately. The Strand District Board of Works was based at No. 22, Tavistock Street. Strand District was abolished in October 1900 and became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster.
### Palaces
From the 12th century onwards, large mansions lined the Strand including several palaces and townhouses inhabited by bishops and royal courtiers, mainly on the south side, with their own river gates and landings directly on the Thames. The road was poorly maintained, with many pits and sloughs, and a paving order was issued in 1532 to improve traffic.
What later became Essex House on the Strand was originally an Outer Temple of the Knights Templar in the 11th century. In 1313, ownership passed to the Knights of St John. Henry VIII gave the house to William, Baron Paget in the early 16th century. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, rebuilt the house in 1563, originally calling it Leicester House. It was renamed Essex House after being inherited by Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, in 1588. It was demolished around 1674 and Essex Street, leading up to the Strand, was built on the location by property speculator Nicholas Barbon.
Arundel House was originally the town house of the Bishops of Bath and Wells. It was owned by William FitzWilliam, 1st Earl of Southampton between 1539 and his death in 1542, with ownership passing to Thomas Seymour in 1545. After Seymour was executed in 1549, the property was sold to Henry FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, and was owned by the Earldom for much of the 16th and 17th century. In 1666, it became the meeting place of the Royal Society after the Great Fire of London destroyed their previous venue. The house was demolished in 1678 and Arundel Street, adjoining the Strand, was built on the site.
Somerset House was built by Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, regent of England from 1547 to 1549, demolishing three inns and the church of the Nativity of Our Lady and the Innocents in the process. After Somerset was executed in 1552, it became an occasional residence for Princess Elizabeth. When she became Queen in 1558, she returned part of the house to Seymour's family (with ownership passing to his son, Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford); the remainder was an occasional meeting place for the Royal Society. After Elizabeth's death in 1603, it was owned by Anne of Denmark, wife of James VI and I. The building was renamed Denmark House in commemoration of Anne's brother, Christian IV of Denmark. After James died in 1625, his body lay there intestate for a month. The building was taken over by Parliament in 1645 following the Civil War, renaming it back to Somerset House. It had an irregular series of owners and residents for much of the 18th century until it was demolished in 1775. The house was rebuilt as a series of government buildings. The Stamp Office, later to become the Inland Revenue was established in Somerset House in 1789. In the late 20th century, a number of art galleries were set up on vacant parts, including the Courtauld Institute of Art and the King's College London School of Law.
Savoy Palace was the London residence of John of Gaunt, King Richard II's uncle and the nation's power broker. In the 14th century the Savoy was the most magnificent nobleman's mansion in England. During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, rebels, led by Wat Tyler, inflamed by opposition to the poll tax promoted by John of Gaunt, systematically demolished the Savoy and everything in it. In 1512 it was rebuilt as the Savoy Hospital for the poor. It gradually fell into dereliction and was divided into multiple tenancies. It was demolished in 1816–1820 to build the approach road to Waterloo Bridge. eventually being demolished in the 19th century. The Savoy Hotel now occupies this site.
Durham House, the historic London residence of the Bishop of Durham, was built circa 1345 and demolished in the mid-17th century. It was the home of Anne Boleyn. It had become derelict by the mid-17th century and was demolished in 1660. Durham Street and the Adelphi Buildings were built on its site.
York House was built as the London residence for the Bishop of Norwich not later than 1237. At the time of the Reformation it was acquired by King Henry VIII and came to be known as York House when he granted it to the Archbishop of York in 1556. In the 1620s it was acquired by the royal favourite George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and after an interlude during the Civil War it was returned to George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who sold it to developers in 1672. It was then demolished and new streets and buildings built on the site, including George Street, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley, and Buckingham Street.
Cecil House, also called Exeter House or Burghley House, was built in the 16th century by Lord Burghley as an expansion of an existing Tudor house. Exeter House was demolished in 1676 and Exeter Exchange built on the site. A menagerie was built on the upper floors in 1773, which was later run by Edward Cross, who housed lions, tigers, monkeys and hippopotami. In 1826, an elephant, Chunee, nearly broke free from its cage and had to be destroyed; the skeleton was later put on display. The exchange was demolished in 1829, with the menagerie moving to the Surrey Zoological Gardens, and replaced by Exeter Hall, noted for its Evangelical meetings. This was demolished in 1907, and the site is now occupied by the Strand Palace Hotel.
Other significant palaces along the Strand include Worcester House, formerly the Inn, or residence, of the Bishop of Carlisle, Salisbury House, used for royal lodgings in the 15th and 16th centuries, Bedford House demolished in 1704, Hungerford House, which was demolished and replaced, in turn, by Hungerford Market and Charing Cross station and Northumberland House, a large Jacobean mansion, the historic London residence of the Dukes of Northumberland; built in 1605 and demolished in 1874. Northumberland Avenue now occupies the site. The official residence of the Secretary of State, next door at No. 1 the Strand, became the first numbered address in London.
Apart from the rebuilt Somerset House, all of these buildings have been demolished and replaced from the 17th century onwards. A New Exchange was built on part of the gardens of Durham House, in 1608–1609, facing the Strand. This high-class shopping centre enjoyed considerable popularity but was eventually destroyed in 1737.
### Modern era
During the 17th century, many of the grand mansions on the Strand were demolished as the aristocracy moved to the West End. The Duck and Drake tavern on Strand was famed as a venue for the conspirators involved in the Gunpowder Plot. In the time of the Civil War, the Nag's Head tavern was the venue of a meeting between Henry Ireton and some of the Levellers which resulted in the production of Remonstrance of the Army, demanding the abolition of the monarchy and the trial of King Charles I.
In the 18th century, coffee and chop houses were established on the street; Twinings was established at No. 206 in 1706 by Thomas Twining, supplier of tea to Queen Anne. The company claims to be the oldest ratepayer in Westminster. The Grecian Coffee House ran from around 1702 to 1803, while Tom's ran from 1706 to around 1775. Though these premises were well-known, the alleyways around the Strand were regular haunts for pickpockets and prostitutes during this time. The Rose Tavern, at the eastern end of the street, was frequented by lawyers during the 18th century. It was later demolished and became Thanet Place. The Crown and Anchor in Arundel Street was the main meeting place for the Catholic Association, and helped established the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829. It was later used for Catholic politicians such as Daniel O'Connell to address constituents. The original premises burned down in 1854, but was rebuilt. Simpson's-in-the-Strand originally started at No. 100 in 1828 as a smoking and dining club. It later became a restaurant. The Strand was also notable in the 18th century as a centre for the British book trade, with numerous printers and publishers along the street. The prominent bookseller Andrew Millar is an example of one of the most successful publishers who owned a shop there.
In the 19th century, much of the Strand was rebuilt, and the houses to the south no longer backed onto the Thames and no longer had direct boat access, separated from the river by the Victoria Embankment constructed in 1865–1870 and reclaiming 37 acres (15 ha) of land. King's College, London was founded in 1828. The historic King's Building, based next to the church of St Mary-le-Strand, was designed by Robert Smirke and constructed in 1829–1831 to complete the riverside frontage of Somerset House. King's College Hospital opened as a branch of the college in 1840, and became a constituent part of the University of London in 1908. The current campus building was constructed between 1966 and 1972 by E.D. Jefferiss Mathews. In 2015, the college acquired Strand House, Bush House and other buildings in the Aldwych Quarter. The Royal Courts of Justice, at the eastern end of the Strand, was designed in the mid-1860s by G.E. Street as a replacement for the older courts at Westminster Hall, though construction was so delayed that he died shortly before Queen Victoria opened the courts in 1882. The West Green extension to the courts opened in 1911, while the Queen's Building opened in 1968.
The architect John Nash redeveloped the western end of the Strand in the 1830s, including the construction of Charing Cross Hospital, later (1990s) converted for use as Charing Cross police station.
The street became well known for theatres, and at one point contained more than any other; including the Tivoli Music Hall at No. 65, the Adelphi, Gaiety, Savoy, Terry's and Vaudeville. In the 21st century, only the Adelphi, Vaudeville and Savoy remain. The Piccadilly branch line from Holborn to Aldwych was built partly to serve theatre traffic.
The Coal Hole tavern was founded at No. 91 in the early 19th century, and frequented by coal-heavers working on the Thames. The impresario Renton Nicholson held song-and-supper evenings at the inn, featuring tableaux vivants. The actor Edmund Kean established the Wolf Club at the venue, which is now commemorated by the Wolf Room.
Charing Cross railway station was built on the Strand in 1864, providing a boat train service to Europe, which stimulated the growth of hotels in the area to cater for travellers. These included the Charing Cross Hotel, attached to the station itself. Today, there are several luggage outlets and tourist agents on the Strand, as well as old postage stamp dealers. The philatelist Stanley Gibbons opened a shop at No. 435 in 1891. It moved to No. 391 in 1893, and is now currently based at No. 399.
The Strand Palace Hotel was designed by F.J.Wills and constructed in 1925–1930. The entrance was rebuilt in 1968, with the original being moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum. The Strand underwent extensive redevelopment in the mid-20th century. The length of road from St Mary's eastwards up to St Clement's was widened in 1900, subsuming the former Holywell Street which forked from the Strand and ran parallel with it to the north, leaving the two churches of St Mary Le Strand and St Clement Danes as islands in the centre of the road. Gaiety Theatre was demolished, to be replaced by Citibank House, while Villiers House and New South Wales House were both built in 1957–1959. New South Wales House was subsequently demolished in 1996 and replaced by an office block. In 1998, a statue of Oscar Wilde was built at the junction of Adelaide Street and Duncannon Street, adjoining the western end of the Strand.
Between January 2021 and December 2022 Westminster City Council's Strand Aldwych Scheme works took place, pedestrianising the Strand between Melbourne Place and Lancaster Place whilst Aldwych was converted into a two-way street.
## Churches
The church of St Clement Danes is believed to date from the 9th century. The name may have come from Harold Harefoot, a Danish king who ruled England around 1035–1040 and is buried in the church, or from a place of refuge for Danes after the conquest of Alfred the Great. It was transferred to the Order of the Knights Templar by Henry II in 1189. It survived the Great Fire in 1666, but was declared unsafe and rebuilt by Christopher Wren in 1679. The building was damaged during the Blitz in 1941, gutting much of the interior, and was rebuilt in 1958 by Sam Lloyd, since when it has served as the central church of the Royal Air Force. The church is one of two possible origins for the "St Clement's" in the nursery rhyme "Oranges and Lemons", though more contemporary accounts suggest St Clement's, Eastcheap in the City of London to be more likely.
St Mary le Strand was designed by James Gibbs and completed in 1717, to replace a previous church demolished to make way for Somerset House. It was the first building to be designed by Gibbs, who was influenced by Wren and Michelangelo. The column on top of the church was originally designed to support a statue of Queen Anne, but was replaced with a spire following Anne's death in 1714. It survived the Blitz but was in poor shape until John Betjeman led a campaign to restore it in the 1970s. Essex Street Chapel, the birthplace of British Unitarianism, abuts onto the Strand. The original chapel was built in 1774, but damaged in the Blitz. It was restored after the war, and now serves as the denominational headquarters of the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches.
## Notable residents
The print seller Rudolph Ackermann lived and worked at No. 101 The Strand between 1797 and 1827. His shop was one of the first to have gas lighting fitted.
In the 19th century, The Strand became a newly fashionable address and many avant-garde writers and thinkers gathered here, among them Thomas Carlyle, Charles Dickens, John Stuart Mill, Ralph Waldo Emerson and the scientist Thomas Henry Huxley. No. 142 was the home of radical publisher and physician John Chapman, who published contemporary authors from this house during the 1850s and edited the journal Westminster Review from 1851. George Eliot lived at No. 142 between 1851 and 1855. Virginia Woolf regularly travelled along the Strand, and a King's College building named after her is in nearby Kingsway.
## Cultural references
The Strand is the subject of a famous music hall song "Let's All Go Down the Strand", composed by Harry Castling and C. W. Murphy. The song opens with a group of tourists staying the night at Trafalgar Square while about to embark for the Rhineland. The chorus of "Let's all go down the Strand – have a banana" is now recognised as a stereotypical part of Cockney music hall and parodied by English comedian Bill Bailey. John Betjeman used the title of the song for a television documentary made for Associated-Rediffusion in 1967. The same year, Margaret Williams used it for a stage comedy. Australian-born composer Percy Grainger used the name for his 1911 piano trio Handel in the Strand.
Virginia Woolf wrote about the Strand in several of her essays, including "Street Haunting: A London Adventure," and the novel Mrs. Dalloway. T. S. Eliot alluded to the Strand in his 1905 poem "At Graduation" and in his 1922 poem "The Waste Land" (part III, The Fire Sermon, v. 258: "and along the Strand, up Queen Victoria Street"). John Masefield also referred to a "jostling in the Strand" in his poem "On Growing Old". The street name also figures in the 1958 poem "Buses on the Strand" by Richard Percival Lister, which in 2013 was featured as part of TFL’s "Poems on the Underground" scheme, appearing in tube carriages all over London.
The Strand Magazine, which began publishing in 1891, was named after the street. A BBC World Service arts and culture radio series was called The Strand. Bush House, situated on the Strand, was home to the World Service between 1941 and 2012.
The standard British Monopoly board has Strand in a group with the nearby Fleet Street and Trafalgar Square.
## See also
- Australia House
- Gibraltar House
- Lancaster Place
- Savoy Court
- Southampton Street
- Strand School
- Zimbabwe House |
2,300,771 | My Sister, My Sitter | 1,156,801,830 | null | [
"1997 American television episodes",
"The Simpsons (season 8) episodes"
]
| "My Sister, My Sitter" is the seventeenth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 2, 1997. In the episode, Marge and Homer leave Lisa to babysit Bart and Maggie. Annoyed that his younger sister is his babysitter, Bart does everything he can to annoy her. When Bart is injured, Lisa must find him medical attention without spoiling her reputation as a good babysitter.
The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Jim Reardon. The script was written to focus on the relationship between Bart and Lisa and the episode has further been used to discuss the difficulties in letting children babysit themselves. The episode received mostly positive reviews.
## Plot
Inspired by The Baby-Sitters Club series of novels, Lisa decides to become a babysitter, but no one takes her seriously because of her age. When Maude is taken hostage in Lebanon, Ned must leave suddenly to get her released. In his haste, he agrees to let Lisa babysit Rod and Todd. Ned puts out the good word for Lisa, who experiences a business boom.
Inspired by the success of Baltimore's revamped wharf, the Springfield Squidport reopens and throws a gala. Homer and Marge attend, leaving Lisa to babysit Bart and Maggie. Bart is upset that his younger sister is his babysitter; Lisa thinks his childish antics warrant it. Bart torments Lisa by having a giant submarine sandwich delivered, hiring Krusty for a bachelor party, claiming that Lisa saw a UFO, dialing 9-1-1 for a "sisterectomy", and feeding Maggie coffee ice cream for dinner.
Bart's pranks anger Lisa so much that she lunges at him, causing him to fall down the stairs, dislocating his shoulder and leaving a large bump on his head. Bart realizes if Lisa fails to take him to a nearby hospital, her reputation as a babysitter will be ruined. To make his condition worse, Bart locks himself in his room and repeatedly bangs his head against the door, eventually knocking himself unconscious.
Lisa tries to call for an ambulance, but the 9-1-1 operator refuses to assist her due to Bart's earlier prank calls. Lisa considers asking Dr. Hibbert for help, but realizes that would ruin her reputation as a babysitter. Instead, she takes Bart to Dr. Nick Riviera's clinic in a wheelbarrow, bringing Maggie along in a pet carrier because the coffee ice cream has overstimulated her. Lisa is unable to see the doctor due to a long queue in the waiting room.
Frantic, Lisa tries to wheel Bart and Maggie to the hospital. After encountering Chief Wiggum whilst he is on patrol, she loses control of the wheelbarrow, and it rolls down a cliff into a muddy river — in front of aghast onlookers at the Squidport. The crowd assumes Lisa is on drugs, has murdered Bart, and is about to drown the caged Maggie, and accuse her of bad babysitting.
Later, Bart, whose injuries have been treated, apologizes to Lisa for causing the ordeal and ruining her babysitting business. She forgives him, but feels bad for being called the "World's Worst Babysitter". Much to her delight, she receives babysitting requests from Hibbert and Ned because they cannot find any other sitters, who seemingly brush off accusations against Lisa of her supposed attempt on Bart's life.
## Production and themes
The episode was directed by Jim Reardon and written by Dan Greaney. Like numerous preceding episodes, "My Sister, My Sitter" deals with the relationship between Bart and Lisa. Greaney specializes in writing Bart and Lisa episodes from the perspective of a kid. Elaine E Sutherland, who is a member of the Law Society of Scotland's Family Law Sub-Committee and Professor of Child and Family Law at the Law School, Stirling University, used the episode to describe the potential problems of letting one of your kids babysit the rest. While one child may be mature enough to babysit, it is not certain that the other kids accept the babysitter's authority. According to Alan S. Brown and Chris Logan, the writers of the book The Psychology of the Simpsons: D’oh!, the episode is an example of how feminine anger rarely solves the problem on The Simpsons. “Here, Lisa’s rage and ongoing frustration contribute to her difficulty in making good decisions about what to do with her emotion,” they write. Keeping with the babysitter theme, there are cultural references to The Baby-Sitters Club: Lisa reads book \#14 - The Formula Formula, while Janey is on book \#20 - The President's Baby Is Missing.
The idea of revamping the waterfront came from cities like Baltimore, who were always trying to fix formerly horrible places. Chris Turner, the author of the book Planet Simpson, writes about the scene at the Squidport: "The 'satirical' setting seems almost documentary". The Squidport is a local revitalization project, which recast a historic industrial area as a pedestrian mall. He calls this an example of how "hyper-consumer culture of Springfield moves front and center". On the waterfront, Rainier Wolfcastle opens a restaurant called "Planet Hype". This is a parody of the international theme restaurant franchise Planet Hollywood. Wolfcastle is a parody of Arnold Schwarzenegger, who launched Planet Hollywood along with Sylvester Stallone, Bruce Willis, Demi Moore and Whoopi Goldberg in 1991. According to Matt Groening, the show had written an entire episode around Planet Hollywood, which featured the voices of Schwarzenegger, Stallone, and Willis as The Three Stooges type of characters. The episode was never animated, because it turned out that it was only the publicist of Planet Hollywood's idea and the actors did not want to participate.
## Reception
In its original broadcast, "My Sister, My Sitter" finished 47th in ratings in a tie with Melrose Place for the week of February 24 – March 2, 1997, with a Nielsen rating of 9.0, equivalent to approximately 8.7 million viewing households. It was the fifth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week.
Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "a clever episode, if a little disjointed — the two stories don't gel as well as normal."
Tim Raynor of DVDTown.com said that the episode "is full of the usual, fun antics that you would expect from Bart or any of the other dumb Simpsons."
DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson said that "the segments in which Lisa babysits the various kids in town are a delight" and that the episode "mixes wacky moments with reality as it places Lisa in a logical position. Her conflict with Bart creates realism and also brings out the comedy." |
26,066,222 | Helmichis | 1,164,190,749 | Italian regicide | [
"572 deaths",
"6th-century Lombard people",
"6th-century criminals",
"Assassins of heads of state",
"Italian regicides",
"Lombard warriors",
"Medieval assassins",
"Usurpers",
"Year of birth unknown"
]
| Helmichis (fl. 572) was a Lombard noble who killed his king, Alboin, in 572 and unsuccessfully attempted to usurp his throne. Alboin's queen, Rosamund, supported or at least did not oppose Helmichis' plan to remove the king, and after the assassination Helmichis married her. The assassination was assisted by Peredeo, the king's chamber-guard, who in some sources becomes the material executer of the murder. Helmichis is first mentioned by the contemporary chronicler Marius of Avenches, but the most detailed account of his endeavours derives from Paul the Deacon's late 8th-century Historia Langobardorum.
The background to the assassination begins when Alboin killed the king of the Gepids in 567 and captured the king's daughter Rosamund. Alboin then led his people into Italy, and by 572 had settled himself in Verona, which made him vulnerable to the ambitions of other prominent Lombards, such as Helmichis, who was Alboin's foster-brother and arms-bearer. After Alboin's death, Helmichis attempted to gain the throne. He married Rosamund to legitimize his position as new king, but immediately faced stiff opposition from his fellow Lombards who suspected Helmichis of conniving with the Byzantines; this hostility eventually focused around the duke of Ticinum Cleph, supporter of an aggressive policy towards the Empire.
Rather than going to war, Helmichis, Rosamund and their followers escaped to Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy, where they were received with full honours by the authorities. Once in Ravenna, Rosamund was persuaded by the Byzantine prefect Longinus to kill Helmichis in order to be free to marry him. Rosamund proceeded to poison Helmichis, but the latter, having understood what his wife had done to him, forced her to drink the cup too, so both of them died. After their deaths, Longinus dispatched Helmichis' forces to Constantinople, while the remaining Lombards had already found a new king in Cleph.
## Background
The oldest author to write about Helmichis is the contemporary chronicler Marius of Avenches. In his account he mentions that "Alboin was killed by his followers, that is Hilmaegis with the rest, his wife agreeing to it". Marius continues by adding that, after killing the king, Helmichis married his widow and tried unsuccessfully to gain the throne. His attempt failed and he was forced to escape together with his wife, the royal treasure and the troops that had sided with him in the coup. This account has strong similarities with what is told in the Origo. The Origo would in its turn become a direct source for the Historia Langobardorum.
The background to the assassination begins when Alboin, king of the Lombards, a Germanic people living in Pannonia (in the region of modern Hungary), went to war against the neighbouring Gepids in 567. In a decisive battle, Alboin killed the Gepid king Cunimund and captured the king's daughter Rosamund – later marrying her to guarantee the loyalty of the surviving Gepids. The following year, the Lombards migrated to Italy, a territory then held by the Byzantine Empire. In 569 Alboin took Mediolanum (Milan), the capital of northern Italy, and by 570 he had assumed control of most of northern Italy. The Byzantine forces entrenched themselves in the strategic town of Ticinum (Pavia), which they took only after a long siege. Even before taking Ticinum, the Lombards crossed the Apennines and invaded Tuscia. After the fall of Ticinum, Alboin chose Verona as his first permanent headquarters. In this town Alboin was assassinated in 572 and it is in these circumstances that Helmichis' name is first heard of. Most of the available details are in the Historia Langobardorum.
## Assassination
By settling himself in Verona and temporarily interrupting his chain of conquests, Alboin had weakened his popular standing as a charismatic warrior king. The first to take advantage of this was Rosamund, who could count on the support of the Gepid warriors in the town in her search for an opportunity to avenge the death of her father. To obtain this goal she persuaded Helmichis, spatharius (arms bearer) and foster brother of the king, and also head of a personal armed retinue in Verona, to take part in a plot to eliminate Alboin and replace him on the throne. Helmichis persuaded Rosamund to involve Peredeo, described by Paul simply as "a very strong man", who was seduced through a trick by the Queen and forced to consent to become the actual assassin.
This story is partly in conflict with what is told by the Origo, which has Peredeo acting as an instigator and not as the murderer. In a similar vein to the Origo is the account of Peredeo contained in the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani, where it is added that Peredeo was Alboin's "chamber-guard", hinting that in the original version of the story Peredeo's role may just have been to let in the real assassin, who is Helmichis in Agnellus' account, as it had been in that of Marius. However, the primary intent of the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani may have been to obtain a more straightforward and coherent narrative by reducing the number of actors in the story, beginning with Peredeo. The disappearance of Peredeo, however, means that the role of Helmichis changes: while Paul presents him as "the efficient conspirator and killer", with Agnellus he is a victim of a ruthless and domineering queen.
According to historian Paolo Delogu it may be that Agnellus' narrative better reflects Lombard oral tradition than Paul's. In his interpretation, Paul's narrative represents a late distortion of the Germanic myths and rituals contained in the oral tradition. In a telling consistent with Germanic tradition, it would be Helmichis who was seduced by the queen, and by sleeping with him Rosamund would pass Alboin's royal charisma magically to the king's prospective murderer. A symbol of this passage of powers is found in Paul's account of the assassin's entry: Alboin's inability to draw his sword represents here his loss of power.
After the king's death on June 28, 572, Helmichis married Rosamund and claimed the Lombard throne in Verona. The marriage was important for Helmichis: it legitimized his rule because, judging from Lombard history, royal prerogatives could be inherited by marrying the king's widow; and the marriage was a guarantee for Helmichis of the loyalty of the Gepids in the army, who sided with the queen since she was Cunimund's daughter.
## Failure
Behind the coup were almost certainly the Byzantines, who had every interest in removing a dangerous enemy and replacing him with somebody, if not from a pro-Byzantine faction, at least less actively aggressive. Gian Piero Bognetti advances a few hypotheses about Helmichis' motivation for his coup: his reason could have involved a family link to the Lethings, the Lombard royal dynasty that had been dispossessed by Alboin's father Audoin; or he may have been related through Amalafrid to the Amali, the leading dynasty of the Goths. Helmichis easily obtained the support of the Lombards in Verona, and he probably hoped to sway all the warriors and Lombard dukes to his side by having Alboin's only child, Albsuinda, under his control. He may also have hoped for Byzantine help in buying the dukes' loyalty economically.
Helmichis' coup ultimately failed because it met strong opposition from the many Lombards who wanted to continue the war against the Byzantines and to confront the regicides. Faced with the prospect of going to war at overwhelming odds, Helmichis asked for help from the Byzantines. The praetorian prefect Longinus enabled him to avoid a land route possibly held by hostile forces, by shipping him instead down the Po to Byzantine-held Ravenna, together with his wife, his Lombard and Gepid troops, the royal treasure and Albsuinda. Bognetti believes that Longinus may have planned to make the Lombards weaker by depriving them of any legitimate heir. In addition, because of the ongoing war, it was hard to assemble all the warriors to elect a new king formally. This plan was brought to nothing by the troops stationed in Ticinum, who elected their duke Cleph king, having it in mind to continue Alboin's aggressive policy. In contrast, Wolfram argues that Cleph was elected in Ticinum while Helmichis was still making his bid for the crown in Verona.
## Death
Once in Ravenna, Helmichis and Rosamund rapidly became estranged. According to Paul, Longinus persuaded Rosamund to get rid of her husband so that he could marry her. To accomplish this, she made him drink a cup full of poison; before dying, however, Helmichis understood what his wife had done and forced her to drink the cup too, so they both died. According to Wolfram, there may be some historical truth in the account of Longinus' proposal to Rosamund, as it was possible to achieve Lombard kingship by marrying the queen, but the story of the two lovers' end is not historical but legendary. The mutual murder as told by Agnellus is given a different interpretation by Joaquin Martinez Pizarro: he sees Helmichis' last action as a symbol of how the natural hierarchy of sexes is at last restored, after the queen's actions had unnaturally modified the proper equilibrium.
At this point, Longinus sent the royal treasure and Albsuinda to Constantinople, the Empire's capital, together with Helmichis' forces, which were to become Byzantine mercenaries. This was a common Byzantine strategy, already applied previously to the Ostrogoths, by which large national contingents were relocated to be used in other theatres. These are believed to be the same 60,000 Lombards that are attested by John of Ephesus as being active in Syria in 575 against the Persians. As for Albsuinda, the Byzantine diplomacy probably aimed to use her as a political tool to impose a pro-Byzantine king on the Lombards. According to Agnellus, once Longinus' actions came to the attention of emperor Justin II they were greatly praised, and the emperor gave lavish gifts to his official.
Cleph kept his throne for only 18 months before being assassinated by a slave. An important success for the Byzantines was that no king was proclaimed to succeed him, opening a decade of interregnum and making the Lombards who remained in Italy more vulnerable to attacks from Franks and Byzantines. It was only when faced with the danger of annihilation by the Franks in 584 that the Lombard dukes elected a new king in the person of Authari, son of Cleph, who began the definitive consolidation and centralization of the Lombard kingdom.
## Early Middle Ages sources
Among the surviving Early Middle Ages sources, there are six that mention Helmichis by name. Of these, the only contemporary one is the Chronica of Marius of Avenches, written in the 580s. Marius was bishop of Aventicum, a town located in the western Alps in the Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy. Because of the small distance from Aventicum to the Italian peninsula, the chronicler had easy access to information regarding northern Italy. For this reason, historian Roger Collins considers the Chronica, though short, to be reliable on Italian matters. The remaining sources all come from Italy and were written in later centuries. Two of them were written in the 7th century, the Continuatio Havniensis Prosperi and the Origo Gentis Langobardorum, both anonymous. The Continuatio is a chronicle written around 625 that has reached us in a single manuscript. As its name suggests, it is a continuation of the 5th century chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine. Derived in considerable measure from the Chronica Majora of Isidore of Seville, it blames the Romans for their inability to defend Italy from foreign invaders, and praises the Lombards for defending the country from the Franks. This is the earliest surviving work to name Rosamund, the queen of the Lombards who plays a central role in Helmichis' attested biography. The other 7th century work, the Origo, is a brief prose history of the Lombards that is essentially an annotated king list, although it begins with a description of the founding myth of the Lombard nation. Giorgio Ausenda believes that the Origo was written around 643 as a prologue to the Edictum Rothari, and continued to be updated till 671. According to Walter Pohl, the author's motives are mostly political: the Origo serves to consolidate the Lombards' national identity by emphasising a shared history. Apart from the origin myth, the only more detailed account is the one concerning the death of Alboin, and thus Helmichis.
For the events surrounding 572, the most exhaustive source available is Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum, a history of the Lombard nation up to 744. The book was finished in the last two decades of the 8th century, after the Lombard Kingdom had been conquered by the Franks in 774. Because of the apparent presence in the work of many fragments preserved from Lombard oral tradition, Paul's work has been often interpreted as a tribute to a vanishing culture. Among these otherwise lost traditions stands the tale of Alboin's death. According to Herwig Wolfram, what Paul deals with is an example of how nationally vital events were personalized to make them easier to preserve in the collective memory. Even later than the Historia Langobardorum, but possibly using earlier lost sources, are the last two primary sources to speak about Helmichis: the anonymous Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani and the Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis written by Andreas Agnellus. The first is a brief Christianizing version of the Origo that was made in the first decade of the 9th century from a Carolingian point of view. The second was written in the 830s by a priest from Ravenna and is a history of the bishops who held the see of Ravenna through the ages. Agnellus' passage on Alboin and Rosamund is mostly derived from Paul and little else. |
24,434,147 | Braathens Helikopter | 1,157,400,255 | Former Norwegian helicopter airline | [
"1993 disestablishments in Norway",
"Airlines disestablished in 1993",
"Airlines established in 1989",
"CHC Helikopter Service",
"Companies based in Sola, Norway",
"Defunct airlines of Norway",
"Defunct helicopter airlines",
"Norwegian companies established in 1989"
]
| Braathens Helikopter A/S was a Norwegian helicopter airline based at Stavanger Airport and Bergen Airport. It used a fleet of seven Aérospatiale Super Pumas to serve offshore oil platforms in the North Sea. The customers were Amoco, BP, Norsk Hydro, Phillips Petroleum and Statoil, serving their oil fields Ekofisk, Oseberg, Gullfaks, Veslefrikk, Valhall, Ula and Gyda. Braathens Helikopter operated from 1989 to 1993, after which it was sold to and merged with the main competitor, Helikopter Service. Braathens Helikopter was owned by Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi and was a sister company of the airline Braathens SAFE.
## Operations
Braathens Helikopter was a pure helicopter airline, with the main base at Stavanger Airport and a secondary base at Bergen Airport. It operated seven Aérospatiale Super Puma helicopters, each with nineteen seats. They were used exclusively on long-term contracts with oil companies to ship crews to their oil platforms in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. The company employed at the most 120 people, was owned by Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi, and was a sister company of Braathens SAFE. The airline served seven oil fields: Ekofisk, Gullfaks, Gyda, Oseberg, Ula, Valhall, Veslefrikk. These were on contract with Amoco, BP, Norsk Hydro, Phillips Petroleum and Statoil. The company had a 30% market share before it was sold.
## History
Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi's first attempt at entering the helicopter market was in 1982, when it applied for a concession from the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications to operate offshore helicopters, which it was awarded in 1983. As a protest, the incumbent Helikopter Service applied for the airline routes that Braathens SAFE operated from Stavanger, but this application was rejected.
The airline was not founded until 1 September 1989, after Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi, the owner of Braathens SAFE, made an agreement with the oil companies Phillips Petroleum, Norsk Hydro and Statoil. The agreement involved flights to the platforms Ekofisk, Oseberg, Gullfaks og Veslefrikk. Prior to this, Helikopter Service had held a monopoly on flights for the oil companies to their offshore installations. The oil companies wanted to establish a competitor to Helikopter Service to press down prices. The initial agreement gave a revenue of and gave the new company a 20% market share. Four 19-seat Aérospatiale Super Puma helicopters were ordered, each costing NOK 60 million. Total investment costs were NOK 300 million. Two helicopters were stationed at Stavanger Airport, Sola, and two at Bergen Airport, Flesland.
Bjarne Sortland was appointed managing director. The first helicopter was delivered in May, with a new helicopter being delivered each month. They were named Havsulen, Havhesten, Havørn and Havsvale. Owner Bjørn G. Braathen stated that his goal was that the airline would reach a 50% market share. In 1990, another challenger, Mørefly, had also established themselves in the market. For the start of operations, Braathens Helikopter hired 22 pilots, most of them previously working for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. The company had 70 employees in total. Services started on 1 September 1990, where the initial contract involved flying 10,000 passengers per year.
In January 1991, the company placed an order and an option for the Super Puma. In June, Braathens Helikopter signed a three-year agreement, with an option for a two-year extension, with Amoco for flights from Stavanger to Valhall. The revenue was between NOK 100 and 200 million, depending on the length of the contract and the capacity needed. Operations started in February 1992, and involved the company purchasing the Super Puma they had an option for. On 10 September, Braathens Helikopter was awarded the contract with British Petroleum for flights from Stavanger to Ula and Gyda. The contract gave a revenue of up to NOK 300 million in the course five years. Operations started on 1 November 1992, and involved about 2,000 hours of flying per year. With this contract, Braathens Helikopter had about a 30% market share. As a consequence of the contract, Braathens purchased another Super Puma. After operations started, the company had grown to 120 employees and was the second-largest helicopter operator in the country. The company made a profit of NOK 14 million in 1991, NOK 11 million in 1992 and NOK 23 million in the seven first months of 1993.
In 1993, Norway decided to allow any airline from the European Economic Area to operate helicopter services in Norway from 1995. This meant that companies like Bristow Helicopters, KLM and Maersk Air could start operation in Norway. This would be coordinated through common technical rules for helicopters through the Joint Aviation Authorities. Braathens Helikopter and Helikopter Service announced on 1 October 1993 that the two companies would merge from 1 January 1994. Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi would be paid NOK 225 million in Helikopter Service shares. The Norwegian Competition Authority stated they would have to look at the merger, since the new company would have a near-monopoly on offshore flights. However, the Ministry of Transport and Communications stated that the authority could not hinder the merger, because, by the time new contracts were awarded in 1995, helicopter operators from foreign countries would also be allowed to bid. The ownership of Braathens Helikopter was transferred to Helikopter Service on 14 December. Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi received 14% of the shares in the merged company. They were immediately sold, giving Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi a NOK 170 million profit on the five-year venture. Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi needed the capital to participate in an initial public offering of Braathens. Most of the management of Braathens Helikopter was hired at the newly established competitor United Helicopter, a joint venture between Bristow Helicopters, Leif Höegh & Co and Andreas Ugland & Sønn.
## Destinations
The following is a list of Braathens Helikoper's destinations. It includes the name of the location or platform, the aerodrome's ICAO and IATA codes and name. |
12,495,947 | Battle of Apple River Fort | 1,146,695,478 | 1832 battle of the Black Hawk War | [
"1832 in the United States",
"Battles and skirmishes of the Black Hawk War in Illinois",
"Jo Daviess County, Illinois",
"June 1832 events"
]
| The Battle of Apple River Fort, occurred on the late afternoon of June 24, 1832 at the Apple River Fort, near present-day Elizabeth, Illinois, when Black Hawk and 200 of his "British Band" of Sauk and Fox were surprised by a group of four messengers en route from Galena, Illinois. One of the couriers was wounded in the thigh as the riders quickly made for the protection of the nearby stockade. Courier Fred Dixon lagged behind and provided cover for his comrades. The other couriers rode ahead to warn some 70 settlers of the approaching Sauk and Fox, thus saving their lives. The small company of militia at the fort, about 28-30 men and boys led by Captain Clack Stone, fought off Black Hawk's 150-man war party in an action that lasted about an hour. The withering pace of the gunfire eventually convinced Black Hawk that the fort was too heavily defended to lead a direct attack. He considered burning the fort, then switched to raiding cabins of foodstuffs, clothing and cooking utensils. In the gathering darkness, Black Hawk and his war party retreated.
After the battle, some of the fort defenders won praise for their efforts to repel the Indian attack. Among them were: Elizabeth Winters, Rebecca Hitt, Sarah Vanvoltinburg, and Elizabeth Armstrong. Mrs. Armstrong rallied the 40 or so women and children who had taken shelter inside the fort. The women and children were divided into two groups: one to mold rifle balls and another to roll paper cartridges and fill them with a measure of gunpowder into paper cartridges. Some of the married women reload weapons so that the militia could increase the pace of their fire. Courier George Harkleroad was struck in the neck and mortally wounded: the fort's only fatality. Native casualties remain unknown, although some defenders later reported blood on the ground and inside a nearby building.
For some time afterward, the old fort was used by local squatters. The former battlefield and the fort remains were sold in 1847. The new owner re-purposed many of the timbers from the fort to build a livestock barn. What remained was burned. Today, a replica fort was built near the original site in the late 1990s and still stands in Elizabeth. The site is managed by the IDNR as "Apple River Fort State Historical Site."
## Background
As a consequence of the 1804 Treaty of St. Louis between William H. Harrison the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sac and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, the Sac and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828. However, the Sac's principle warrior Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, between 1830–31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River, but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other Great Lakes tribes and supplies from the British in Canada, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 500 warriors and a like number of families and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies among the local Ho Chunk, he attempted to return to Iowa, but was temporarily stopped by the presence of several companies of militia. As night fell, the undisciplined Illinois militia fled before Black Hawk's warriors in a skirmish known today as Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other engagements followed, and the militias of Michigan Territory and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's Band. The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War.
The period between Stillman's Run and the Battle of Apple River Fort was filled with war-related activity and events. A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove, the Plum River settlement, Fort Blue Mounds and one of the conflict's most infamous incidents: the Indian Creek massacre, all took place between mid-May and late June 1832. The week preceding the Battle of Apple River Fort was an important turning point for the militia: between June 16–18 two small but important fights occurred. One was known as "Stephenson's Fight'" today incorrectly called Waddams Grove and the other at Horseshoe Bendin present-day Wisconsin, played a key role in changing public perception about the militia after its defeat at Stillman's Run.
## Prelude
Following the militia's disastrous defeat at Stillman's Run on May 14, settlers in the lead-mining region around Galena panicked; many left the area altogether. The exaggerated claim that 2,000 "bloodthirsty warriors were sweeping all Northern Illinois with the bosom of destruction" sent terror through the region. At the Apple River Settlement, the situation prompted residents to form a 46-man militia tentatively under Captain Vance L. Davidson. By late May, Davidson was at the Plum River settlement (present-day Savanna, Illinois) and Captain Clack Stone had been elected to command the militia company. The single blockhouse at Apple River Fort was completed around May 22; the stockade was completed sometime later. In the days immediately preceding June 18, 1832, Apple River Fort's horses were raided and stolen during the night. This incident was one of several around that time that led Illinois militia officer James W. Stephenson to clash with a handful of warriors at "Stephenson's Fight" (later erroneously named Waddams Grove on June 18.
On June 24, 1832, a supply wagon loaded with meat and lead bars from Galena arrived at Apple River Fort around noon. Around this time, Black Hawk and his 200-man war party also en route to the fort, had gathered at a gap in Terrapin Ridge. Black Hawk's forces were able to elude detection until the time they opened fire. At around 4 p.m. four couriers from Galena bound for the army camp at Dixon's Ferry arrived at the fort. The fort's occupants were eager to hear their news from Galena and of the conflict with Black Hawk.
There were 28-30 armed militia inside Apple River Fort at the time of the attack. Another 40 women, children and other settlers were resident in the Apple River Settlement. Captain Clack Stone and his officers commanded the fort's defenders. Most of the defenders were members of Stone's militia company augmented by a few civilians. A few of the militia company were away from the stockade and were not present for the battle.
## Battle
The four riders from Galena; George Harkleroad, Fred Dixon, Edmund Welch, and J. Kirkpatrick were under orders as a military messengers known as an "express". They were traveling from Galena to Dixon. The men stopped at the fort, consumed a quick dinner, and then continued on their way. The group was about 600 yards (550 m) east of the fort when the only man with a loaded gun, Welch, was ambushed by Black Hawk's advance-guard of about 30 warriors. He was shot in the hip and fell from his horse. His companions aimed their unloaded weapons at the band, putting themselves between the wounded man and his attackers. The group recovered Welch and moved away from their assailants toward the fort. Fred Dixon, covered the retreat of his fellow express men as they raced for the fort. Three of the expressmen gained the safety of the fort, while Dixon fled on horseback towards the Apple River and ended up at the farm of John McDonald, only to find it overrun by Native Americans as well. Dixon then abandoned his horse, waded the river, and managed to gain the road to Galena, where he reported the Apple River Fort to be under attack.
The settlers took shelter inside the fort while the men and boys took up their positions at the portholes inside the fort. A vicious firefight erupted, involving around 150 of Black Hawk's British Band. The battle raged for about an hour with heavy gunfire from both sides. At the battle's onset many of the settlement's women had been huddled in and around the cabins, but several married woman, including Elizabeth Armstrong, rallied the women and older children to provide support to the soldiers. She assigned the unmarried young women, boys, and girls as young as eight years old to such tasks as cutting and rolling gunpowder cartridges and molding rifle balls. The married women reloaded the weapons while the soldiers tried to maintain an increased rate of fire.
The ferocity of the fight convinced Black Hawk that Apple River Fort was strongly defended. He considered burning the fort, but feared the rising smoke would alert other militia in the area. His war-party slackened their fire as braves raided cabins near the fort. Taken were meat, flour, clothing, cooking utensils. Left behind was a paucity of real vandalism. Braves then raided the livestock: horses were run off and pigs and cattle were shot down and the choicest cut of meat taken. In the gathering darkness, Black Hawk quietly withdrew his war party and retreated back to the gap in Terrapin Ridge and gained the Galena Road. Casualties were few, given the intensity of the battle. Courier George Harkleroad was shot in the neck early in the battle and died; it has been documented that he was killed while peering over the stockade wall's pickets. Besides Welch, the only other garrison casualty was Josiah Nutting, who suffered a non-lethal wound to the side of his head. The number of Sauk casualties is unknown.
## Aftermath
The defenders at Apple River Fort awaited the next move by Black Hawk, holding their positions through the night, but dawn came without incident. On the day following the battle, June 25, a relief party consisting of two companies of mounted rangers arrived at the fort from Galena . That same day, Black Hawk's war-party encountered Major John Dement and his three-company Spy Battalion at the Second Battle of Kellogg's Grove. Apple River Fort's only fatality, George Harkleroad, was buried near the fort; today no trace of his grave exists.
Elizabeth Armstrong was praised by some as a heroine for her actions during the battle, displaying the kind of courage under fire the militia had so badly lacked during the first months of the Black Hawk War. Her actions, in part, helped the fort's outnumbered defenders give Black Hawk the impression the Apple River Fort was more heavily defended than had been anticipated.
Initially, some writers confused the name of the woman who played such an important role at Apple River Fort; a 1900 collection from the Wisconsin Historical Society misidentified her as "Mrs. Graham." Several years after the fight, an itinerant Methodist minister heard the story of the Apple River Fort fight from a "Mr. Jewel," a man who settled in Jo Daviess County after the Black Hawk War. Jewel told a story of Armstrong "cursing & swearing like a pirate" throughout the battle; so angry that even Black Hawk's warriors purported to hear her. The Methodist minister pronounced such action as "profane" and "a great drawback upon her credit."
The fort was demolished around 1847 and its timbers used to construct a barn. Today, the fort and its three buildings have been reconstructed by the Apple River Fort Historic Foundation. The Apple River Fort Site is listed twice on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places for its military and archaeological significance.
On January 1, 2001, the state of Illinois took over operation of the reconstructed Apple River Fort and its interpretive center. The state now operates the area as the Apple River Fort State Historic Site. Illinois' purchase was funded, in part, through a US\$160,000 grant from the state of Illinois. |
4,695,188 | Tom Sturdivant | 1,170,757,873 | American baseball player | [
"1930 births",
"2009 deaths",
"Baseball players from Kansas",
"Baseball players from Oklahoma City",
"Beaumont Exporters players",
"Birmingham Barons players",
"Boston Red Sox players",
"Columbus Jets players",
"Detroit Tigers players",
"Kansas City Athletics players",
"Kansas City Blues (baseball) players",
"Major League Baseball pitchers",
"New York Mets players",
"New York Yankees players",
"Oklahoma City 89ers players",
"People from Butler County, Kansas",
"Pittsburgh Pirates players",
"Quincy Gems players",
"Washington Senators (1961–1971) players"
]
| Thomas Virgil Sturdivant (April 28, 1930 – February 28, 2009), nicknamed "Snake", was an American pitcher who played for the New York Yankees, Kansas City Athletics, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, Pittsburgh Pirates, Detroit Tigers, and New York Mets of Major League Baseball. He threw a curveball and a knuckleball, among other pitches. He batted left-handed but threw right-handed.
Sturdivant was originally signed by the Yankees as an infielder in 1948. After a two-year stint in the United States Army, he became a pitcher in order to improve his chances of making the major leagues. He debuted with the Yankees in 1955, the first of four straight years he was on a World Series roster. In 1956, he had a 16–8 record, led the American League (AL) with a 2.12 strikeout-to-walk ratio, and won Game 4 of the 1956 World Series, which the Yankees won in seven games over the Brooklyn Dodgers. He went 16–6 in 1957, tying for the AL lead in winning percentage with a .727 mark. Arm trouble and a spike wound to the heel limited him in 1958, though he won his second World Series as the Yankees defeated the Milwaukee Braves in seven games.
The next several years saw Sturdivant pitch for a number of teams. He was traded to the Athletics in May 1959. In 1960, he made the Opening Day start for the Red Sox, but he only started two more games for them. The Senators picked him in the 1960 expansion draft, then traded him to the Pirates in mid-1961. Pittsburgh initially assigned him to the minor leagues, but he won five games in a six start stretch shortly after being recalled. He split 1962 between the starting rotation and the bullpen, winning four straight games in late August/early September. In 1963, he pitched for Pittsburgh, Detroit, and Kansas City, winning just twice as he spent most of the year in the bullpen. He pitched in three games for Kansas City in 1964, then pitched in 16 games for the Mets that same year before getting released on June 27. Following his baseball career, he was involved in trucking businesses around Oklahoma City.
## Early life
Born in Gordon, Kansas, on April 28, 1930, Tom was the son of Elbert E. Pete Sturdivant and his wife, Ethel (née Moudy). He was the second of two boys; brother Bobby Joe was born in 1926. The family had moved to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, by 1940. Elbert worked for an oil pipeline company as a telegraph operator while Ethel worked at a fur repair shop as an assistant.
Sturdivant attended Capitol Hill High School in Oklahoma City, which he graduated from in May 1948. He played as a pitcher for Bill Mosier's Tires, an American Legion team, but he also played infield positions. While he was in high school, John Hall, a neighbor of his, taught him how to throw a knuckleball. On May 24, 1948, he was signed as an infielder by New York Yankees scout Tom Greenwade, the man who became famous the next year for signing Sturdivant's fellow Oklahoman Mickey Mantle. "What a boy if we can find a position for him," Greenwade said in 1949. "Great speed and a rifle arm. Used to be a high-school pitcher in Oklahoma City, you know. And one of the greatest. He set some kind of record. More than 100 innings without being scored on. When he wasn’t pitching he was playing short. He likes to play the infield. He might, with that arm and speed, make a real outfielder."
## Minor league career
### Third baseman (1948–50)
Sturdivant began his professional career playing third base for the Quincy Gems of the Three-I League, which was at the Class B level. He batted .338 in 21 games. Later in the season, he batted .241 in 36 games for the Norfolk Tars, another Yankees' Class B affiliate in the Piedmont League which needed help at third base. He spent the next two seasons at Quincy, hitting.255 in 109 games in 1949. He only played 68 games in 1950, batting .246, but he also pitched in two contests. During his time at Quincy, he suffered a leg injury that reduced his speed.
### United States Army (1951–52)
Sturdivant joined several other Yankee prospects at a pre-spring training camp held by Yankee manager Casey Stengel, but he played no professional baseball that season. With the Korean War going on, Sturdivant joined the United States Army for two years of service. During his time in the Army, he decided that he would focus on pitching when he resumed his professional career. "I knew I wasn't getting anywhere, batting .246 in Class B, so I decided I'd better try something else if I wanted to stay in baseball, which I did, badly."
### Pitcher (1953–54)
Discharged from the Army, Sturdivant was able to join the Beaumont Exporters of the Texas League of the Class AA level for the remainder of their 1952 season. Harry Craft, the manager, supported him in his decision to become a pitcher and assigned him as roommate Hank Wyse, a former Major League Baseball (MLB) player with the Chicago Cubs who mentored Sturdivant in the art of pitching. Sturdivant was 3-3 with a 3.56 ERA in 17 games (seven starts. In 1953, he had a 10-7 record with a 2.98 ERA for the Class AA Birmingham Barons of the Southern Association, striking out 104, walking 61, and allowing 130 hits in 139 innings pitched. Of his 47 appearances for Birmingham, just three were starts. In 1954, he started 20 of his 32 appearances with the Kansas City Blues of the American Association, a Class AAA level team that was New York's top minor league affiliate. With the Blues, he was 8-9 with a 3.57 ERA, 133 strikeouts, 59 walks, and 154 hits allowed in 169 innings.
## Major league career
### New York Yankees (1955–59)
Coming into the 1955 season, fellow Oklahoman and Yankee pitcher Allie Reynolds, who had given Sturdivant pitching tips, thought the prospect might make New York's roster in 1955 as a relief pitcher. During spring training, Stengel said, "I’m very impressed with his work. He has improved considerably since training started. ... We learned that he can be a fighter ... and that’s what we want with this club." Sturdivant did make the roster, working almost exclusively out of the bullpen during the 1955 season. He wore the number 47, which he bore throughout his time with the team. His major league debut, against the Boston Red Sox on April 14, could have been better. Entering to begin the bottom of the seventh with New York losing 5–2, Sturdivant gave up a triple to opposing pitcher Willard Nixon, who later scored on a double by Faye Throneberry. Then, in the eighth, he allowed two more runs, which scored on a double by Boston reliever Ellis Kinder. The Yankees lost 8–4. On May 22, he was the pitcher getting the hits when he singled against the Baltimore Orioles in the second game of a doubleheader that New York trailed 3–2. Yogi Berra hit a home run to score him, and Sturdivant picked up his first major league win in the victory. It was his only win of the season.
Sturdivant made only one start in 1955. Facing the Kansas City Athletics on July 22, he gave up two runs in seven innings but was outdueled on the mound by ex-Yankee Vic Raschi in the 3–1 loss. In 33 games, he had a 1–3 record, a 3.16 ERA, 48 strikeouts, 42 walks, and 48 hits allowed in 68+1⁄3 innings. He was part of the Yankees' roster as they faced the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1955 World Series. In Game 3, he gave up two runs and four hits, pitching the final two innings of an 8–3 loss. He pitched a scoreless eighth inning in Game 4, but the Yankees lost that one 8–5. Those were his only appearances of the series, which the Dodgers won in seven games. After the season, he and the Yankees went on a tour of Japan, playing exhibition games against Japanese teams.
In 1956, the Yankees wanted to waive Sturdivant and send him to the minor leagues, but a claim by the Detroit Tigers prevented them from doing so. He did not make an appearance until the 25th game of the season on May 13; though he was originally scheduled to start a game on May 5, Stengel pushed back his debut because he wanted a more experienced pitcher on the mound following some Yankee losses. His first appearance was a start, but most of his outings in the early part of the year were in relief. On June 16, he got a start against the Cleveland Indians, striking out 11, allowing just two hits and one run, and earning an ovation from the fans at Cleveland Stadium in a 3–1 victory. On July 13, Sturdivant threw his first major league shutout, holding the Indians to two hits in a 10–0 victory. After that game, except for a stretch between August 2 and August 18, he was used mainly as a starter. He struck out seven Indians in a 3–2 victory on August 22, then recorded eight strikeouts in the first game of a doubleheader against the Tigers four days later, when he threw his second shutout of the season in a 7–0 victory. Sportswriter Joseph M. Sheehan reported, "During the Bombers' drive to the pennant, [Sturdivant] carried an equal share of the pitching load with Whitey Ford and Johnny Kucks, the Yankees' two nineteen-game winners." By the end of the year, Stengel said, "He was a meal ticket...starting and relieving and doing both good in the tough spots...now he's got the experience, too, to go along with the rest of it." In 32 games (17 starts), he had a 16–8 record, 110 strikeouts, and 52 walks in 158+1⁄3 innings. His 16 wins ranked 10th in the American League (AL), his 3.30 ERA ranked eighth, and his .667 winning percentage was tied for seventh (with Kucks and Frank Sullivan. He led the AL in Strikeout-to-walk ratio with a 2.12 mark.
For the second year in a row, Sturdivant and the Yankees faced the Dodgers in the World Series. Called on in relief in the third inning of Game 2, with the score tied 6–6, he allowed an RBI single to Don Bessent and left with the bases loaded, though Tom Morgan retired Pee Wee Reese on a pop fly to end the inning with no more runs scoring. The Yankees lost that game 13–8, though Sturdivant did not get the loss. With the Dodgers up 2–1 in the series, he pitched a complete Game 4. Seven times, the leadoff man for the Dodgers reached, drawing visits to the mound from Stengel in the later innings, but the manager elected to use his starter for the full distance. The Yankees defeated the Dodgers 6-2, one day before Don Larsen's perfect game. "Yogi called ’em and I threw ’em," Sturdivant credited his catcher for help handling the Dodgers. With Ford, Larsen, Bob Turley, and Kucks, Sturdivant was part of a group that threw five straight complete games in the series, an occurrence that has yet to be repeated. This time, the Yankees were victors in seven games.
Sturdivant's 1957 regular season was even better than it had been in 1956. This year, all 28 of his appearances were starts. From April 26 through May 24, he pitched 31 consecutive innings without allowing an earned run. Included in that stretch were a game on May 15 in which he struck out nine Indians (though he suffered the loss because of two unearned runs) sandwiched between victories over the Athletics on May 7 and May 24, the latter of which was a shutout. Against the Tigers on June 9, after Frank Bolling and Charlie Maxwell started the third inning with back-to-back home runs, Sturdivant threw a pitch over Ray Boone's head. Boone started for the mound, and Sturdivant approached him as the benches cleared; both players were thrown out of the game. Sturdivant claimed the pitch was a mistake: "It was a high fast one that got away from me." A loss on August 7 brought his record to 9–6, but he won all seven of his final decisions, posting a 1.59 ERA in his last nine games. In the first game of an August 18 doubleheader, he shut out the Orioles, striking out eight in a 7–0 victory. Six days later, he tied his season high with nine strikeouts against the Indians; though he gave up four runs over eight innings, he earned the win in the 10–4 victory. He threw eight shutout innings in a 2–0 win over the Orioles on September 3. In 1957, Sturdivant walked 80 batters and allowed 170 hits in 201+2⁄3 innings pitched, a career high. His 16-6 record helped him lead the AL in won-lost percentage (.727, tied with Dick Donovan, who was also 16–6), and his 2.54 ERA was second in the league to teammate Bobby Shantz's 2.45. Sturdivant also finished third in the AL in wins (tied with Donovan and Tom Brewer behind Jim Bunning's and Billy Pierce's 20). Sports Illustrated said he was the "most dependable Yankee pitcher."
The Yankees again reached the World Series, this time facing the Milwaukee Braves. Starting Game 4, Sturdivant pitched three scoreless innings before allowing four runs in the fourth, including home runs by Hank Aaron and Frank Torre. He received a no decision, but the Yankees lost in 10 innings. He pitched a scoreless sixth and seventh innings in Game 7, but the Yankees already trailed, and they were defeated 5–0 as Milwaukee won the series.
Hoping for a higher salary, Sturdivant waited to start spring training, finally agreeing to an \$18,000 contract (a \$4,000 increase) in late February. He did not pitch between April 22 and May 28, and on June 5, Sheehan reported that "Sturdivant has yet this year to find his touch." Bearing a 1–4 record and a 6.00 ERA through June 12, he was relegated to the bullpen, not starting again until July 20. In August, he suffered an injury during practice when one of his teammates stepped on his heel, spiking him and causing an injury that placed him on the disabled list for six weeks. The Boston Globe reported that Stengel fined the pitcher \$250 for horseplay. However, Stengel said in an August 19 article, "The accident happened because Tom slipped on the damp grass. No one was clowning around." Arm trouble suffered that year began a "nightmarish" few seasons for him. He had a "miserable" season, according to Sports Illustrated. In 15 games (10 starts), he had a 3–6 record, a 4.20 ERA, 41 strikeouts, 38 walks, and 77 hits allowed in 70+2⁄3 innings pitched. Though Sturdivant was initially left off the list of World Series-eligible players, Stengel announced on the final day of the season that Sturdivant was indeed one of the 25. He did not pitch in the series but earned his second World Series ring as New York prevailed in seven games.
Sturdivant started spring training late in 1959 as he negotiated his contract, finally agreeing to the same salary as the previous year. The Yankees, who had discussed trading him to the Washington Senators for Camilo Pascual in 1956, were rumored to be interested in making the same trade in 1959, until Sturdivant threw five shutout innings in a spring game on March 23. In seven games (three starts) with the Yankees during the regular season, he had an 0–2 record, a 4.97 ERA, 16 strikeouts, nine walks, and 20 hits allowed in 25+1⁄3 innings. On May 26, he, along with Kucks and Jerry Lumpe, was sent to Kansas City for Héctor López and Ralph Terry. Though he and Kucks had been viewed as up-and-coming stars in 1957, Stengel said, "The two pitchers, Kucks and Sturdivant, just couldn’t get going for me, and I felt we had to do something. Maybe a change of scenery will do them good."
### Kansas City Athletics (1959) and Boston Red Sox (1960)
With the Athletics, Sturdivant wore uniform number 32. He was used mainly as a reliever, making only three starts. On July 17, he relieved Bud Daley with no outs in the sixth after the starter had given up three runs to narrow a 4–0 lead over the Orioles to 4–3. Sturdivant did not allow a hit, pitching four scoreless innings to preserve the win. Against the Tigers on September 23, with Kansas City down 5–1 and the bases loaded, Sturdivant relieved Al Grunwald and struck out Gus Zernial to end the inning. He then pitched two scoreless innings and earned the win after Kansas City rallied in the sixth. Those were, however, his only wins for Kansas City. In 36 games, he had a 2–6 record, a 4.65 ERA, 57 strikeouts, 34 walks, and 70 hits allowed in 71+2⁄3 innings pitched. Adding in his totals from his seven games with New York, he had a 2–8 record, a 4.73 ERA, 73 strikeouts, 43 walks, and 90 hits allowed in 97 innings pitched. On December 3, he was traded by the Athletics to the Red Sox for Pete Daley.
Sturdivant wore uniform number 15 for the Red Sox. Boston planned on using Sturdivant as a starter, according to manager Billy Jurges: "His trouble is that his arm is weak. He has to start all over again and strengthen it. I’ve talked to a lot of the men in the league who liked what they saw of him late last season." The Red Sox liked what they saw of him too, as he was the best-conditioned player at the start of spring training. By the end of it, he had been selected to make the Opening Day start against the Senators, a game traditionally held the day before the rest of the AL teams started their season. While Pascual allowed just three hits, Sturdivant gave up six runs (five earned) in four innings, taking the loss. After allowing three runs in five innings in another loss to Washington (not charged to him), he held the Senators to one run and four hits over seven innings on April 30, though he again received a no decision, this time in a 2–1 victory. However, he was used out of the bullpen for the rest of the season, often as a long reliever. Pitching in the 12th inning of a tie game against the White Sox on June 25, he threw a wild pitch with Joe Ginsberg on third base, allowing the runner to score the winning run in a 7–6 defeat. Twice (June 21 and August 6), he had relief outings of seven innings or more; he allowed five earned runs both times but recorded the victory on August 6 in an 11–9 win over the Tigers. In 40 games for Boston, he had a 3–3 record, a 4.97 ERA, 67 strikeouts, 45 walks, and 106 hits allowed in 101+1⁄3 innings pitched.
### Washington Senators (1961) and Pittsburgh Pirates (1961–63)
On December 14, 1960, he was drafted by the new Washington Senators from the Red Sox in the 1960 expansion draft. He wore uniform numbers 35 and 47 during his tenure with Washington. After two relief appearances, he began to be used as a starter on April 26, holding the Red Sox to three hits and one unearned run over 7+1⁄3 innings and picking up the win in a 2–1 triumph. He won the first shutout game in Senators history, a 4-0 victory over Boston on May 13. The only hit he allowed in the game was a double to Vic Wertz, the only baserunner for Boston. Those were his only wins with Washington, however, and after he gave up seven runs in 3+1⁄3 innings of a 14–9 loss to Boston on June 16, he was moved to the bullpen. In 15 games (10 starts) through June 29, he had a 2–6 record, a 4.61 ERA, 39 strikeouts, 40 walks, and 67 hits allowed in 80 innings pitched. On that date, he was traded by the Senators to the Pittsburgh Pirates for Tom Cheney.
Sturdivant did not pitch for Pittsburgh right away, as the major league club sold his contract to the Columbus Jets, their Class AAA affiliate in the International League. He gave Columbus manager Larry Shepard credit for helping improve his performance: "One thing he noticed was that I seemed to be flinging or flipping the ball, instead of firing it. Maybe because I’d been hit so hard in the American League I was timid about throwing strikes. But Shepard put me right to work. He threw me in there every fourth game, my arm got stronger, and my confidence returned. I started throwing more knuckleballs for strikes and I started winning." In six starts for Columbus, he had a 5–1 record and a 1.80 ERA, striking out 26, walking eight, and allowing 34 hits in 45 innings before getting his contract purchased by Pittsburgh on July 29. He replaced George Witt on Pittsburgh's roster. With Pittsburgh, Sturidvant wore uniform number 15. After losing his first start for the Pirates, he threw six consecutive complete games, winning all but an 11–inning match against the Cubs on August 18 in which he allowed two runs in 10+1⁄3 innings. On August 25, facing the Cubs again, Sturdivant made one run hold up, throwing a shutout in Pittsburgh's 1–0 victory. His ERA in those starts was 1.63. In a four-hit victory over the Reds on August 30, he retired 20 hitters in a row. However, Sturdivant did not win again after September 5, posting a 4.28 ERA in his final six games (four starts) of the season. In 13 games (11 starts) for the Pirates, he had a 5–2 record, a 2.84 ERA, 45 strikeouts, 17 walks, and 81 hits allowed in 85+2⁄3 innings pitched. His combined totals in 28 games (21 starts) between Washington and Pittsburgh were a 7–8 record, a 3.69 ERA, 84 strikeouts, 57 walks, and 148 hits allowed in 165+2⁄3 innings pitched.
Beginning his 1962 season on April 13, Sturdivant struck out seven and allowed two runs over seven innings, earning the win in a 4–3 triumph over the New York Mets. After giving up five earned runs in only an inning of work in his next two starts, he was moved to the bullpen. In the second of those two, on April 23, he had become the first pitcher to lose to the Mets, who had lost the first nine ballgames of their existence. He had a 6.41 ERA through June 18, but he lowered over a full run by posting a 2.86 mark from June 24 through August 11. Added back to the rotation on August 18, he won four straight starts. He had back-to-back eight-strikeout games August 18 and August 22, the latter of which was a three-hit shutout of the Houston Colt .45's. Though he went 1–2 in his final four starts, he pitched at least seven innings and allowed no more than three runs in any of them. "My knuckleball just won’t act right till late in the season," he said. In 49 games (12 starts), he had a 9–5 record, a 3.73 ERA, 76 strikeouts, 39 walks, and 120 hits allowed in 125+1⁄3 innings pitched.
In its preview of the 1963 Pirates, Sports Illustrated wrote that "Harvey Haddix and knuckle-balling Tom Sturdivant are getting old and will spend some time in the bullpen with fork-baller ElRoy Face." He gave up six runs in 8+1⁄3 innings as a reliever and requested a trade. "I asked the Pirates to trade me because I get nervous when I don’t pitch."
### Detroit Tigers (1963), Kansas City Athletics (1963–64), and New York Mets (1964)
On May 4, 1963, his contract was purchased by the Tigers. With Detroit, he was assigned uniform number 22. The Tiger team Sturdivant joined was in last place in the AL. He won his first game with Detroit, relieving Phil Regan with two outs and the Tigers up by one in the fifth inning of a game against the Orioles, stranding the two runners he inherited, and pitching scoreless ball the rest of the way in Detroit's 12–4 victory on May 5. That was his only win with the team. His longest outing came in the second game of a doubleheader against the Senators on May 18, when he relieved Jim Bunning after Bunning had walked the first two batters of the game. Sturdivant lasted five innings but surrendered six runs, taking the loss in the 7–5 defeat. In 28 games (all in relief) for the Tigers, he had a 1–2 record, a 3.76 ERA, 36 strikeouts, 24 walks, and 43 hits allowed in 55 innings pitched. On July 23, his contract was purchased by the Athletics.
With Kansas City, Sturdivant replaced Dale Willis, who was sent to the minor leagues to create space for him on the roster. He wore uniform number 18 for the Athletics this time. In late August and early September, he made three starts for the Athletics, never allowing more than three earned runs but posting an 0–1 record, though Kansas City won the first of the trio. With Kansas City losing 6–5 to Boston on September 25, Sturdivant relieved Ed Rakow in the sixth inning, then held the Red Sox to one run for the rest of the game, earning the win in a 7–6 triumph. In 17 games (three starts) for Kansas City, he had a 1–2 record, a 3.74 ERA, 26 strikeouts, 17 walks, and 47 hits allowed in 53 innings pitched. He appeared in 48 games (three starts) for his three teams in 1963, posting a 2–4 record, a 3.95 ERA, 68 strikeouts, 45 walks, and 98 hits allowed in 116+1⁄3 innings pitched.
Sturdivant began 1964 with Kansas City, posting a 9.82 ERA in three appearances. He was released by the Athletics on May 10.
Later on May 10, Sturdivant signed as a free agent with the Mets later that day. He wore uniform number 47, his old Yankees number, for the Mets; and he was reunited with Stengel, now managing the National League (NL) ballclub. As was the case with Kansas City, he was used exclusively in relief. On June 21, he pitched in both games of a doubleheader against the Philadelphia Phillies. Two days later, he was placed on waivers, and the Mets released him on June 27. In 16 games for New York, he had no record, a 5.97 ERA, 18 strikeouts, seven walks, and 34 hits allowed in 28+2⁄3 innings pitched. Adding in the Kansas City totals, he had a 6.40 ERA, 19 strikeouts, eight walks, and 38 hits allowed in 32+1⁄3 innings pitched.
On July 5, 1964, Sturdivant signed with his hometown Oklahoma City 89ers, the Class AAA affiliate of the Colt .45's. Bill Nowlin of the Society for American Baseball Research speculates that he may have done so partly to help his political campaign, as he was running as a Republican for the Oklahoma Senate that fall. In 13 games (12 starts) for the 89ers, he had a 6–3 record, a 3.89 ERA, 35 strikeouts, 14 walks, and 87 hits allowed in 74 innings pitched. Sturdivant said he would retire from baseball if elected, but he failed to win the Senate seat. However, 1964 was his final professional season.
## Pitching style
Sturdivant's curveball was difficult to face, earning him the nickname "Snake". In its preview of the Yankees before the 1956 World Series, Sports Illustrated wrote, "Has good fast ball that moves, tailing away from right-hand batter and highly effective knuckler. A real battler." The fastball was a sinkerball, according to the 1955 Sports Illustrated preview of the Yankees before the World Series. Steve Boros described his first major league at bat, which was against Sturdivant in 1957: "I took a curve and a slider, both of which looked rather ordinary. Then he threw me a knuckle ball. I must have lunged at the pitch three times and just did foul it back. I'd never seen anything like that in the Big Ten. I finally popped up on a high inside fast ball. I remember trotting back to the dugout wondering what I had gotten myself into." Sturdivant began incorporating the knuckleball into his repertoire around 1956; the pitch helped him emerge as a starter that year. The Associated Press called the knuckleball his best pitch in 1963. Before he threw a pitch, he had a habit of "banging the ball, again and again into his glove," according to teammate Sal Maglie. Ted Williams said of him in 1956, "Maybe he hasn’t got a thing. But I notice one thing. He keeps winning."
## Post-retirement career
After his retirement from baseball, he was involved in the freight and truck leasing business. He worked for R&R Trucking, Inc., then served as an executive for Rollins Trucking Company. According to his wife, Elaine, "He worked for two or three companies and then we started our own company, King Truck Leasing. It was really hard work. I worked there a while, but for someone as high-strung as Tom, it maybe wasn’t best for husband and wife to work together." He later served on the board of directors of Metro Tech in Oklahoma City and the Integris Hospice of Oklahoma County.
## Personal life
On May 9, 1952, Tom married Paula Whitten, who went by her middle name, Reba. They had two sons, Thomas Virgil ("Tommy") II and Paul Marshall. The couple eventually divorced, and Tom remarried to Elaine in 1980. His son, Tom III acted in The Young Riders, though he spent most of his life working in sales. By the end of 2006, both Paul and Tommy had passed away. In the 2000s, Sturdivant and his wife attended Grace Community Baptist Church, a Southern Baptist church founded and pastored by Don Demeter, who was also a former MLB player.
During his time with the Yankees, Sturdivant played golf with Mantle. The two were golfing together late in the 1957 season, when Mantle suffered a massive gash in his shin after frustratedly throwing a putter and had to miss five games. Sturdivant remained a Yankee fan after his career ended, subscribing to a television package that allowed him to watch all the games, even in the Midwest. In 1976, he organized an Allie Reynolds Appreciation Day in Oklahoma to help the former pitcher's Hall of Fame chances. Sturdivant participated in baseball fantasy camps.
Just before 2000, Sturdivant's pickup truck rolled over five times while he was visiting Texas. He was hospitalized for a few weeks and underwent two surgeries, but the accident affected his health permanently. On Valentine's Day, 2009, his wife woke up to find him on the floor, having suffered a seizure. He never regained consciousness and died on February 28 at Integris Southwest Medical Center in Oklahoma City. |
20,854,580 | Without (The X-Files) | 1,168,143,680 | null | [
"2000 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about alien abduction",
"Television episodes directed by Kim Manners",
"Television episodes set in Arizona",
"Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)",
"The X-Files (season 8) episodes"
]
| "Without" is the second episode of the eighth season of the science fiction television series The X-Files. The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on November 12, 2000, on Fox and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on February 18, 2001. It was written by executive producer Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners. The episode helps to explore the series' overarching mythology and continues from the seventh season finale, "Requiem", and season eight premiere, "Within", in which Fox Mulder was abducted by aliens who are planning to colonize Earth. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9.0 in the United States and was seen by 15.1 million viewers. As with the previous episode, "Within," it was generally well-received by critics, although some detractors criticized various plot points.
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In the episode, John Doggett (Robert Patrick) continues his search for Mulder, and attempts to uncover an alien bounty hunter within their ranks. After the task force is called off, Scully is surprised to learn that Doggett, the leader of the team, has been assigned to the X-Files.
"Without" featured scenes of Mulder imprisoned on an alien spaceship and new sets were created for this unique locale. The production crew of The X-Files designed the set in a decidedly "low-tech" and "interesting" manner. In addition, unusual filming techniques were used, such as special lenses and motion control, in order to achieve the desired footage.
## Plot
### Background
FBI special agent Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) is currently missing, having been abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale, "Requiem." His partner Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) has been working with Agent John Doggett (Robert Patrick) in order to locate him. After consulting with The Lone Gunmen, a trio of conspiracy theorists made up of John Byers (Bruce Harwood), Melvin Frohike (Tom Braidwood) and Richard Langly (Dean Haglund), Scully finds evidence that Mulder may be in Arizona. Doggett receives news that Gibson Praise (Jeff Gulka), a boy with potentially extraterrestrial DNA, may be in hiding in Arizona as well. The two, along with Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) and a task force of FBI agents arrive and, after searching, find Mulder and Praise on the corner of a mountain.
### Events
Doggett pursues Mulder and Praise and corners them at the edge of a cliff. Doggett convinces Mulder to release Praise who runs off alone, but Mulder intentionally steps off the precipice and apparently falls to his death. When agents go to retrieve the body, they only find footprints. Scully realizes "Mulder" was an Alien Bounty Hunter sent to retrieve Praise.
While the Alien Bounty Hunter returns to the school to continue his search for Praise, Scully follows Praise's schoolmate, a deaf girl named Thea (Christine Firkins), through the desert to a hidden underground room. Praise has broken his leg reaching the hiding place. Scully applies first aid, but is unable to move him without a car.
After Doggett explains the events on the cliff to Alvin Kersh, Skinner tells him that Kersh is setting him up to fail. Shortly afterwards, the Alien Bounty Hunter (now disguised as Scully) attacks Agent Landau. Skinner and the real Scully eventually manage to drive the alien away. Later, Skinner gets Praise to a hospital, but leaves Scully behind in the desert.
Searching for Mulder in the desert, Scully sees a bright light in the sky which is revealed to be a helicopter with Doggett inside. Doggett insists Scully travel with him to the hospital; she reluctantly accepts. There, two other FBI agents assure them that nothing has happened to Praise; however, they soon discover that he has vanished. Scully leaves to search for Praise while Doggett stays in an attempt to catch the intruder. He checks the ceiling space, where he finds Skinner badly injured. Scully finds Praise with "Skinner" who claims to be protecting the boy. The Alien Bounty Hunter attempts to kill her, but Scully shoots and kills him first.
After reporting to Kersh, Doggett is assigned to the X-Files with Scully. Meanwhile, Mulder continues to be held in captivity, experimented on and tortured as six Bounty Hunters look on.
## Production
After David Duchovny fulfilled his contractual obligations with the show's seventh season, he felt that there was not much else to do with the character. Fox Mulder's abduction was thus devised by Chris Carter in the seventh-season finale "Requiem" as a way of allowing the actor to leave the series.
Several of the scenes in "Without" take place onboard an alien spaceship in which Mulder is being imprisoned. When designing the interior look of the ship, production designer Cory Kaplan was attracted to a primitive aesthetic, noting in an interview: "We all see super-tech [in spaceships] now, but the idea of low-tech was much more interesting to me, much more visual. So, you take elements of rock and steel and chisel them into interesting shapes." Kaplan's task was aided by the discovery of backdrop from the film Alien (1979), which she and director of photography Bill Roe "lit ... very dimly and put ... behind" the chair in which Mulder is restrained. According to Kaplan, this chair was "just this rotating platform with this humongous dental piece that could rotate around".
Most of the shots of Mulder being tortured in the chair were created using special and practical effects, as well as creative camera techniques. For the scene in which Mulder's face is restrained by hooks, make-up artist Matthew W. Mungle, who created special cheek prosthetics that were then attached to Duchovny (whom series makeup supervisor Cheri Montasanto-Medcalf later noted "sat pretty good through all that"). Likewise, for the scene in which the Colonists use a small laser-guided drill to bore into the roof of Mulder's mouth, visual effects supervisor John Wash placed "weird lens effects" over shots of the laser to give the scene "an alien, other-world-like quality." This scene also called for a shot of the device approaching the camera, which posed a challenge to the series' cinematographers because the device was so small. In a behind-the-scenes interview, supervising producer Paul Rabwin explained that he had the camera operators use "a very, very highly magnified lens" to capture the shot: "[The scene] was very, very scary, Rabwin stated. "We ended up putting some really cool sound effects in there, little servos and motors."
The shot at the end of the episode, in which multiple Alien Bounty Hunters surround Mulder as he is restrained in a surgical chair, required the use of motion control, a method in which a motion-control camera on a computerized module is repeatedly run through the same motion while elements are continually added. According to Wash, this was one of the few times that the series employed motion control, which made it more challenging to shoot. To create the effect, the camera first filmed a pass over the empty set. The production crew then filmed five additional passes, each one with the Alien Bounty Hunter in a different location. By compositing all the shots together, the production crew was able to "clone" the Bounty Hunter and have him appear in multiple places at once.
## Reception
"Without" premiered on American television on November 12, 2000, on Fox. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9.0, meaning that it was seen by 9.0% of the nation's estimated households, and was viewed by 9.07 million households, and 15.1 million viewers. Fox promoted the episode with the tagline "Once in a great while a story takes a turn that you never expect... Tonight this is one of them." The episode was later included on The X-Files Mythology, Volume 3 – Colonization, a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist's plans to take over the earth.
The episode was met with relatively positive reviews from critics. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode five stars out of five. The two praised the episode's plot, citing the abduction and search for Mulder as components to the arcs "brilliance". Shearman and Pearson noted that the final scene, featuring Mulder surrounded by the alien bounty hunter was created with "beauty, emotion, and horror which in collision make The X-Files one of the best shows on TV."
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote that both "Without" and "Within" form "a great way to pick up after the cliffhanger ending of the previous season" and that "the pair of episodes [...] work well as an introduction to the new narrative status quo." He awarded both entries a "B+" but noted, however, that "Without" nearly came across as "strained or stalling", but "manages to get by with the general freakiness of the alien bounty hunter". Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a rare "A+". The previous episode, "Within", also received an "A+" grade, making them the only two episodes of The X-Files to receive this rating from the site.
Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly was positive towards both this episode and the season premiere, "Within," awarding the episodes an "A−". George Avalos and Michael Liedtke from the Contra Costa Times praised the episode and noted that the Scully/Dogget dynamic and the hunt for Fox Mulder worked towards the show's strengths. Tom Janulewicz from Space.com positively commented on Scully's conversion from skeptic to believer, writing, "Regardless of whether it's aliens, flukemen, or pizza delivering vampires, The X-Files is all about phenomena that don't stand in the face of 'rational' explanations. It took her a long time, but like Mulder before her, Scully eventually came to accept that there are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in her philosophy."
Not all reviews were positive. Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a more mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four. Vitaris criticized both Scully becoming the believer as well as the "sky turning out to be a helicopter gimmick", which she notes "has gotten way too old." Tom Kessenich, in his book Examinations wrote a relatively negative review of the episode. He noted, "All ['Without'] did was remind me why the show is a hollow shell of what it once was as long as Fox Mulder is strapped to an alien table and why The Doggett and Pony Show holds absolutely no appeal to me whatsoever." |
35,607,279 | GateKeeper (roller coaster) | 1,159,386,681 | Steel wing roller coaster at Cedar Point | [
"Cedar Point",
"Roller coasters in Ohio",
"Roller coasters introduced in 2013",
"Roller coasters operated by Cedar Fair"
]
| GateKeeper is a steel roller coaster located at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio. Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard (B&M), it was the fifth Wing Coaster installation in the world. The ride opened on May 11, 2013, on the most successful opening weekend to date in the park's history. GateKeeper featured the highest inversion in the world when it opened, with its 170-foot (52 m) Wing Over drop. It also broke several Wing Coaster records, including those for height, speed, track length, drop height and number of inversions. The coaster has a 170 ft (52 m), 40-degree inclined lift hill with a 164 ft (50 m) drop and features two support towers with keyhole elements that the trains travel through. Its maximum speed is approximately 67 mph (108 km/h).
Construction began in September 2012 and took roughly eight months to complete. Cedar Point built a new entrance plaza featuring the keyhole towers as the centerpiece. The roller coaster replaced Disaster Transport and Space Spiral, both demolished during mid-2012. It was Cedar Point's first new roller coaster since Maverick debuted in 2007, and the third B&M coaster in the park following Raptor (1994) and Mantis (1996). In 2013, GateKeeper was the most frequently-ridden roller coaster at Cedar Point, and it ranked 28th among steel roller coasters in the annual Golden Ticket Awards poll from Amusement Today.
## History
### Planning
Initial planning for a new roller coaster began under former Cedar Fair CEO Dick Kinzel in 2011, who credits his successor Matt Ouimet with the project. The first concept of GateKeeper was showcased at the 2011 International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) Expo. On April 24, 2012, Ouimet said at an Erie County Chamber of Commerce meeting that there would be \$25 million in capital expenditures for Cedar Point in 2013. On May 30, 2012, the Sandusky Register reported that a memo written by Ouimet to Cedar Fair's board of directors on February 15, 2012, stated that a new Wing Coaster code-named "CP Alt. Winged" would be introduced in 2013. It also mentioned that the new coaster would set Wing Coaster records for drop, speed, and length and that it would have a "Front Gate Statement" explained as a strong presence at the entrance to the park. In addition to traveling over the front entrance, part of the track would also cross over portions of the parking lot. Details claimed the ride would be 170 feet (52 m) high, and that both Disaster Transport and Space Spiral would need to be removed to accommodate the new attraction.
As part of GateKeeper's marketing campaign, Cedar Point released several teasers on their "OnPoint" blog. Posters scattered throughout the park and on Cedar Point's website included taglines such as, "How do you recover from a Disaster?", "WildCat is no match for this creature" and "Not even a Jumbo Jet soars like this!" Each poster had a black background with five blue wings, hinting at the ride's logo. Annie Zelm, a marketing representative for the park, stated that some of the clues on the website were intended to mislead readers. On August 3, 2012, Cedar Point launched a countdown clock on their Facebook page, letting the public know when the next major announcement was scheduled. The page said, "We can't keep it locked away much longer... Join us outside the Main Gate at 3:30 pm on August 13, where all we've kept hidden will be set free!"
On August 13, 2012, Cedar Point made an official announcement introducing GateKeeper with specifications that confirmed the report leaked previously by Sandusky Register—a 170-foot-tall (52 m) Wing Coaster that would be manufactured by B&M. The announcement included a Halloween Haunt-like creature speaking to guests atop the main gate at the park's main entrance. A trademark application was filed for the name GateKeeper the same day. Rob Decker said, "GateKeeper is truly an innovation in thrills. Every twist, turn and near-miss element was created exclusively for Cedar Point." Following its completion, the total investment in the new coaster was \$30 million.
### Construction and opening
Cedar Point announced in early July 2012 that the Disaster Transport and Space Spiral attractions were scheduled for removal. Disaster Transport closed on July 29, 2012, with dismantling beginning a week later in the back of the building. Space Spiral closed on August 14, 2012, and was demolished a month later by a controlled explosion that imploded the base and caused the tower to fall toward the beach. Construction of GateKeeper started in mid-September and the first footings were poured on October 2. Approximately 200 footings were dug, each approximately 6 feet (1.8 m) deep. The first pieces of track were delivered on October 23 and the installation of the track and supports, starting with the station, began on November 5. The lift hill was topped off on November 30. A construction update on January 7, 2013, said that approximately 40% of the ride's structure, including the Wing Over Drop, Immelmann and Camelback elements, had been completed. The first pieces of the two keyhole towers arrived on January 23, and the first keyhole tower was erected on January 29. On February 27, 2013, at approximately 2 pm, the final piece of GateKeeper was put in place about two weeks ahead of schedule.
Gatekeeper took approximately eight months to construct, and nearly 100 workers from four engineering companies participated on the project. Sherrod Brown, a United States senator from Ohio, praised Cedar Point for hiring local companies for the job. A.A. Boos & Sons did the groundwork, including the footers and cement pouring. Tony Ravagnani Architects designed, engineered and installed the two keyhole towers. The electrical work, including the lighting, was done by Firelands Electric. The station and gift shop were built by Bert Witte Contractors, S.A. Comunal installed the plumbing and air systems and Lew’s Construction built the park's new entrance plaza. About 12 million pounds (5,400,000 kilograms) of concrete was used for the ride.
Hundreds of tests were conducted prior to inspection and operational approval. The roller coaster completed its first full-circuit ride during testing on April 4, 2013. Less than a week later, Cedar Point hosted an online auction for the first 64 seats on GateKeeper's opening day. The Cleveland Clinic Children's Hospital and United Way of Erie County each had 32 seats available in separate auctions, and proceeds were shared between the organizations. A soft opening media day for GateKeeper was held on May 9, 2013, and the ride opened to the public two days later on May 11.
## Ride experience
### Entrance and queue
GateKeeper's entrance plaza is located along the beach near Giant Wheel. A sculpture with the GateKeeper logo is in the center of the plaza. The queue runs parallel to the beach, under the lift hill and station. Once under the station, riders can choose which side of the train they would like to ride. GateKeeper uses the Fast Lane queuing system; visitors can buy a wristband that allows them to wait in a shorter line.
### Layout
After leaving the station, the train turns 180 degrees to the right and begins to climb the chain lift hill at a 40-degree angle. At the top of the 170-foot (52 m) lift, it immediately enters the first element, an inversion that B&M calls the "Wing Over Drop". The train rotates 180 degrees before descending 164 feet (50 m) in a half loop. During this drop, the ride attains its maximum speed of 67 mph (108 km/h), and riders experience approximately 4 Gs. After exiting the first drop, the train enters an Immelmann loop situated underneath the lift hill. After the loop, the train turns right into its only camelback hill, where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness. Next, the train goes through an oversized corkscrew element that B&M calls a giant flat spin, followed by two keyhole elements slotted through a pair of 100-foot-tall (30 m) towers near the park's entrance. Both keyholes are connected by a zero-g roll inversion. The train then dips low to the ground and enters an inclined dive loop, where the track reaches its turnaround point. Next, the train rotates 360 degrees in an inline twist and passes by the two keyhole towers. The track veers slightly left as the train enters the mid-course brake run. This is followed by another hill that dips low to the ground and a 360-degree downward helix. The train then traverses a small hill before turning left into the final brake run, which leads back into the station.
## Characteristics
### Location
GateKeeper's entrance and station are located near Giant Wheel, Troika and maXair. The ride covers 3.5 acres (1.4 ha); it initially runs parallel to Lake Erie then travels through the parking lot, over the main entrance then turns around in front of Blue Streak. As it passes through the main entrance plaza, it passes through two 100-foot (30 m)-tall towers that form Cedar Point's entrance gates.
### Manufacturer
GateKeeper is a Wing Coaster model manufactured by Swiss roller coaster firm Bolliger & Mabillard. It is the third roller coaster at Cedar Point to be manufactured by B&M, after Raptor, an inverted roller coaster, and Rougarou, a floorless roller coaster. GateKeeper was the fifth Wing Coaster in the world and the third one in the United States following X-Flight at Six Flags Great America and Wild Eagle at Dollywood.
### Trains
GateKeeper operates with three open-air steel and fiberglass trains, each with eight cars of four seats each, with two on each side of the track. Each train holds 32 riders and the ride has a capacity of about 1,710 riders per hour. Riders are restrained by flexible over-the-shoulder restraints and interlocking seat belts and riders are required to be between 52 inches (130 cm) and 78 inches (200 cm) to ride. Because the seats are on the side of the track, a cantilevered steel arm is used to support the wings. The trains are painted Sunset Gold with Zenith, Meteor, and Orion Gold accents. The fourth row of each train has extendable harnesses enabling large passengers to ride. The front of each train is shaped to resemble the head of a griffin. The griffin's eyes and the outside seats of each row incorporate LED lighting, a first for a roller coaster at Cedar Point. The LED lights on the trains recharge while the trains are in the station.
### Track
GateKeeper's tubular steel track is 4,164 feet (1,269 m) long and the lift is approximately 170 feet (52 m) high. The track is Azure Blue (dark blue) and Strata Blue (light blue), and the supports are white. There are 102 track pieces, each weighing approximately 7,500 pounds (3,400 kg). Unlike Raptor and Rougarou, the track and supports are filled with sand to reduce the noise as the ride traverses the main entrance. The track and supports were manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia in southwest Ohio.
Clermont also manufactured the two keyhole towers. Each tower is 100 feet (30 m) tall; 25 feet (7.6 m) is the concrete foundation and 75 feet (23 m) is steel. At the Great Ohio Coaster Club holiday tour, Ed Dangler—Cedar Point’s Director of Maintenance and New Construction—stated the original plan was to have the towers' supports encased by an outer shell; however, Cedar Point went back to B&M, and decided to build a steel structure to serve as the keyhole element and the supports. Each half of the tower weighs about 65,000 pounds (29,000 kg).
## Records
GateKeeper broke several world records. Among Wing Coasters, it became the longest and fastest, featured the longest drop, and contained the most inversions. It also set a record for the world's highest roller coaster inversion, surpassing Volcano, The Blast Coaster at Cedar Point's sister park, Kings Dominion. The highest-inversion record was broken by Steel Curtain in 2019.
## Reception
GateKeeper has received mostly positive reviews from the media and public. Some riders complained about the shoulder restraints becoming too tight while sitting in the brake run at the end of the ride. Others praised the near-miss elements; one woman said, "It feels like you're going to get your knees chopped off and your head chopped off." Many guests also praised the smoothness of the ride and how the renovated main entrance is very appealing. On GateKeeper's opening weekend, Cedar Point achieved its most successful opening weekend in the history of the park, due to the popularity of GateKeeper.
On July 17, 2013, GateKeeper's millionth rider received \$500 to spend at the park, a VIP tour of the park and exclusive access to GateKeeper for the rest of the 2013 season. The park's spokesman Bryan Edwards said, "We are giving approximately 1,600 rides per hour. It has definitely been a huge success for the park. Our guests love GateKeeper." It finished the season with just over 2.1 million riders, the most of any ride in 2013. GateKeeper also helped Cedar Fair to achieve record revenue, record attendance, record distribution and record stock pricing in 2013.
### Awards
In 2013, GateKeeper ranked third in Amusement Today's Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride behind Outlaw Run at Silver Dollar City and Iron Rattler at Six Flags Fiesta Texas. It also debuted 28th on the list for Top Steel Roller Coasters, making it the first time ever that Cedar Point had six steel roller coasters in the top 50.
## Incidents
- On July 13, 2013, a man was found unresponsive after one of the trains returned to the station. EMT's performed CPR, then rushed him to a nearby hospital. A park spokesman said the man survived a medical condition unrelated to the ride, which reopened later that day.
- On June 12, 2019, strong winds affected the momentum of a train, which stalled and failed to return to the station. Safety mechanisms engaged, stopping the next train on the lift hill. All riders were safely evacuated.
- On June 12, 2021, the chain lift mechanism malfunctioned, stopping a train on the lift hill. All riders were able to evacuate safely.
## See also
- 2013 in amusement parks |
30,509,929 | Mr. Saxobeat | 1,173,239,226 | null | [
"2010 singles",
"2010 songs",
"Alexandra Stan songs",
"English-language Romanian songs",
"Eurodance songs",
"Number-one singles in Austria",
"Number-one singles in Denmark",
"Number-one singles in Germany",
"Number-one singles in Israel",
"Number-one singles in Italy",
"Number-one singles in Romania",
"Number-one singles in Russia",
"Number-one singles in Switzerland",
"Omega (singer) songs",
"Romanian songs"
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| "Mr. Saxobeat" is a song by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan, released on 12 September 2010 as the second single from her debut studio album, Saxobeats (2011). The track was written and produced by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi, and was recorded at their Maan Studio. Musically, "Mr. Saxobeat" is a Eurodance and dance-pop song, with its instrumentation consisting of notably saxophone and horn as well as 'conventional' synth and techno sound. The lyrics echo the singer's vision of a perfect man. Reviewers were positive towards the recording, with them praising its catchiness, the saxophone sequences and Stan's voice.
"Mr. Saxobeat" received award nominations at the 2011 Romanian Music Awards and Los Premios 40 Principales 2011, as well as at the 2012 Echo Music Prize. Commercially, it became the singer's breakthrough single, reaching the top ten of the charts in more than 20 countries and being awarded various certifications. As of June 2013, the track sold almost one million units worldwide in less than a year. For promotion, an accompanying music video was shot by Iulian Moga in Buftea, Romania. Uploaded on YouTube on 14 November 2010, it depicts Stan and two friends being arrested, interviewed by the police, put in jail and then escaping from the station. The singer performed the track on multiple occasions, and it was covered by artists such as Selena Gomez & the Scene and Omega. "Mr. Saxobeat" was also featured on television series and on video games Dance Central 3 and Just Dance 4.
## Background and release
In her youth, Alexandra Stan participated in various music-related contests, including the Mamaia Music Festival in 2009. She was discovered by Romanian producers and songwriters Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi that same year at a karaoke bar in Constanța. They offered her a record deal with their label, Maan Records, and she recorded a promotional single titled "Show Me the Way". The singer rose to fame in Romania with the release of her debut single, "Lollipop (Param Pam Pam)" (2009), which was given radio airplay. It also caught the attention of the management behind the Azerbaijani energy drink Trojka, who approached her with the idea of creating a song to be featured in a commercial for their product. This resulted in "Trojka", a song which would however eventually become the singer's next release, "Mr. Saxobeat". It was recorded at Maan Studios, with the writing and production handled by Prodan and Nemirschi; the mastering was done by Tom Coyne in New York City. In a 2021 interview, Stan stated that she was displeased about not being credited as a composer on the song, claiming that she had been involved in the writing process. Saxophone was added to "Mr. Saxobeat" since Stan thought it appealed to the Azerbaijani people and culture; she ended up scrapping an older refrain idea in favour of singing the same melody as the saxophone in the chorus. The song was released on 12 September 2010 and was soon after sent to local radio stations.
## Composition
"Mr. Saxobeat" is written in the key of B minor, while its tempo is set at 126 beats per minute. Stan's vocals span from F#<sub>3</sub> to D<sub>5</sub>; Maura Johnston from Village Voice compared her delivery to that of Rihanna "in its weary hoarsines". The song is of the Eurodance and dance-pop genres. Alongside the "ridiculously catchy" saxophone loop which is played and composed by Cosmin Basasteanu, the track's instrumentation also includes "twinkly" synths, techno beats and horn. The saxophone prominently features a trill, "a very popular effect in sax house records", with it being digitally chopped to bits. Tris McCall from The Star-Ledger wrote, "The link between the saxophone and sexual expression is a long-standing one [...] Breath is tactile and sensuous, and the explosive sound of a sax in full blast carries with it some of the mad rush of desire."
Regarding the saxophone, Stan said when interviewed, "I consider saxophone a very hot and sexy instrument which is also very used in my region." Josh Baines from Vice described the track as a "Balkanized club ballad", further comparing its sound to Yolanda Be Cool and DCUP's "We No Speak Americano" (2010). Billboard called "Mr. Saxobeat" a "one-off mainstream dance single" along with "We No Speak Americano". During the lyrics, Stan sings, "You make me this, bring me up, bring me down, plays it sweet/Make me move like a freak, Mr. Saxobeat", which Baines wrote was Stan's "vision of the perfect man". He also wrote, "The second verse informs us that he's a 'sexy boy' who can set Stan 'free,' but that he's just as 'shy' as he is 'dirty.' Mr. Saxobeat, so it would seem, contains multitudes." Echoing this thought, Stan stated on German television ARD that "Mr. Saxobeat" was only her vision of the perfect man.
## Reception and accolades
The song was met with positive reviews by music critics. During a review of Saxobeats, Celeste Rhoads from AllMusic saw "Mr. Saxobeat" as a club sensation along with "Lollipop (Param Pam Pam)" (2009) and "Get Back (ASAP)" (2011). Rodrigo of Yam Magazine wrote, "One day, I heard Mr. Saxobeat by accident and I was instantly hooked. Thanks to its insanely catchy saxophone riffs and Stan's voice, Mr. Saxobeat is a very fun, upbeat song that you can smile and dance to no matter where you are. Plus, the song works like a charm for parties." Both NME's El Hunt and McCall of The Star-Ledger associated the song with the revival of the saxophone in music. The Hollywood Reporter's Shirley Halperin listed the saxophone sequences in "Mr. Saxobeat" in her list of "12 Awesome Sax Solos". Johnston, writing for Village Voice, said "the way they're employed" sounded like Pitbull's "I Know You Want Me (Calle Ocho)" (2009). In his book Stars of 21st Century Dance Pop and EDM: 33 DJs, Producers and Singers ... author James Arena listed it in his "range of sounds that make up the world of the twenty-first century dance music". Fans of the recording include British singer Ellie Goulding, who praised it in a Twitter post in November 2016. At the 2011 Romanian Music Awards, "Mr. Saxobeat" won Best Song and was nominated for Best Dance Song. The track also received a nomination for Best International Song at the Los Premios 40 Principales 2011, and for Hit of the Year at the 2012 Echo Music Prize.
## Commercial performance
"Mr. Saxobeat" first experienced success in Stan's native country, where it reached number one on the Romanian Top 100 and stayed there for eight consecutive weeks. Subsequently, the single debuted at number 47 on Spain's PROMUSICAE chart, peaking at number three in May 2011 and gaining a Gold certification for exceeding sales of 20,000 units. The single further reached number six in France. In Russia, the single peaked at number on the country's Tophit chart and was further certified three times Platinum. "Mr. Saxobeat" also notably reached number one in Austria, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Slovakia and Switzerland, and was awarded various Gold and Platinum certifications. "Mr. Saxobeat" also reached number three on the UK Singles Chart and number one in Germany. Certified three times Gold, the track was that year's second most successful single in the latter country behind Jennifer Lopez and Pitbull's "On the Floor".
Outside of Europe, "Mr. Saxobeat" debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 72 and peaked at number 25 in that territory. The song spent 20 weeks on the chart and was certified Platinum by Music Canada. In the United States, "Mr. Saxobeats" sold 22,000 units in its first week of availability. On the week ending 30 July 2011, the song debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 92 and continued rising every week until peaking at number 21. It also managed to reach a number of Billboard's component charts, notably reaching number eight on the US Tropical Airplay chart and number 11 on the Hot Latin Songs chart. "Mr. Saxobeat" became the third Romanian song to top the Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart after Inna's "Hot" (2008) and Edward Maya and Vika Jigulina's "Stereo Love" (2009). By December 2016, the track was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it sold one million digital downloads in the United States as of January 2012.
In Australia, Stan's song reached the ARIA chart at position 32, peaking at number 19. "Mr. Saxobeat" was later certified double Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). "Mr. Saxobeat" also debuted at number 36 in New Zealand in August 2011 and continued rising upon the charts until reaching number four, similarly earning Stan another Gold certification awarded by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). In Asia "Mr. Saxobeat" topped the Israeli Airplay Chart and reached number nine on Lebanon's Lebanese Top 20. In early 2012, the song debuted at the same position on the Japan Hot 100 and was later awarded Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). As of June 2013, the track sold almost one million copies worldwide in less than a year. Romanian label MediaPro Music further awarded Stan with a Platinum disc for this achievement. In November 2020, "Mr. Saxobeat" reached 200 million streams on Spotify, making it the most streamed song by a Romanian artist on the platform.
## Music video
An accompanying music video for "Mr. Saxobeat" was filmed in Buftea, Romania by Iulian Moga on 1 November 2010. The clip was uploaded onto YouTube on 14 November 2010. A behind-the-scenes video was previously aired in November 2010 by Romanian television Music Channel. Los 40 Principales cited the video for "Mr. Saxobeat" as one of Stan's best clips ever. The video begins with scenes of police officers bringing a handcuffed Stan into a room of a police station to interrogate her along with two of her female friends. When she and her friends refuse to give the police any information, they lock them in a jail cell. Stan coaxes and successfully seduces the guard, while her friends steal his police equipment before locking him inside the cell and escaping. The group enters a dressing room where they find police outfits and disguise themselves as officers. They locate the chief's office and hold the police chief and other workers at gun point while duct-taping their mouths and hands to the chief's desk. Stan and her friends exit the office and walk inconspicuously through the front lobby and out of the building. Cut scenes show Stan dancing in her cell or her with her friends in police uniform.
## Live performances and covers
At most of her live performances of the song, the singer was accompanied by saxophonist Basasteanu on stage, which was his idea. Stan performed the song at French event Starfloor 2011, and on German show Ballermann Hits in late 2011; the latter appearance was controversial as the singer accidentally showed parts of her genitalia. She went on to perform "Mr. Saxobeat" at the 2011 Eska Music Awards, German music show The Dome and on German television ARD's Morgenmagazin as an acoustic version. It was also included on the setlist of concert tours promoting her debut studio album Saxobeats. Covers of the track were done by Russian singer Lena Katina in an acoustic approach, American band Selena Gomez & the Scene on their We Own the Night Tour (2011–12) in Latin America, and Dominican recording artist Omega, whose version peaked at number 25 on Billboard's Latin Digital Songs component chart. "Mr. Saxobeat" was also recorded by Alexandra Stan Tribute Band, reaching number three on the Billboard Luxembourg Digital Songs chart. In July 2021, Strange Fruits Music, Steve Void and DMNDS released their version of the song.
## Other usage
In December 2011, "Mr. Saxobeat" was released on an extended play with Stan's subsequent single "Get Back (ASAP)" in Germany. It was featured on the sixth episode of the first season of American sitcom Suburgatory titled "Charity Case" and in the last episode of the final season of CSI: Miami, named "Habeas Corpse". The track was also added to the playlist of Cardinal Burns, and was used for the sixth episode of the first season of Faking It. "Mr. Saxobeat" can be further found in Xbox 360 games Dance Central 3 and Just Dance 4. "Endless Summer" (2012) by German singer Oceana, which served as the UEFA Euro 2012 theme song, is based on a sample of "Mr. Saxobeat".
## Track listings
- Digital download/French CD single
1. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Radio Edit) – 3:15
2. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Extended Mix) – 4:16
- UK Digital EP
1. "Mr. Saxobeat" (UK Radio Edit) – 2:31
2. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Extended Mix) – 4:15
3. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Hi Def Radio Edit) – 3:00
4. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Hi Def Mix) – 6:53
5. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Kenny Hayes Mix) – 5:30
- Italian CD single
1. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Paolo Noise Radio Edit) – 3:33
2. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Paolo Noise Extended) – 6:04
3. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Gabry Ponte Radio Edit) – 3:02
4. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Gabry Ponte Extended) – 6:03
5. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Ali6 Remix) – 3:22
6. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Wender Remix) – 5:55
- German digital download
1. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Radio Edit) – 3:15
2. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Acoustic Version) – 3:01
3. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Extended Version) – 4:16
4. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Bodybangers Remix) – 5:51
5. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Bodybangers Remix Edit) – 3:23
- German CD single
1. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Radio Edit) – 3:17
2. "Mr. Saxobeat" (Acoustic Version) – 3:03
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Saxobeats, Urban.ro and HeavyRotation.ro.
- Alexandra Stan – lead vocals
- Andrei Nemirschi – songwriter, producer
- Marcel Prodan – songwriter, producer
- Tom Coyne – mastering
- Maan Studio – recording studio
- Iulian Moga – director
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
!scope="col" colspan="3"\|Streaming \|-
## Release history
## See also
- List of number-one hits of 2011 (Austria)
- List of number-one singles from the 2010s (Denmark)
- List of top 10 singles in 2011 (France)
- List of number-one hits of 2011 (Germany)
- List of number-one singles of 2011 (Hungary)
- List of number-one hits of 2011 (Italy)
- List of Romanian Top 100 number ones
- List of number-one songs of 2011 (Russia)
- List of number-one hits of 2011 (Switzerland)
- List of top 10 singles in 2011 (UK)
- List of UK Dance Singles Chart number ones of 2011
- List of number-one dance airplay hits of 2011 (U.S.) |
36,043,175 | Ricardio the Heart Guy | 1,160,336,746 | null | [
"2010 American television episodes",
"Adventure Time (season 1) episodes"
]
| "Ricardio the Heart Guy" is the seventh episode of the first season of the American animated television series Adventure Time. The episode was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez, from a story by Merriwether Williams, Tim McKeon and Adam Muto. It originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 26, 2010. The episode guest stars George Takei as the title character, Ricardio.
The series follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will. In this episode, Finn believes that Princess Bubblegum's (voiced by Hynden Walch) new friend, a heart named Ricardio, is evil, and is proven right after learning that Ricardio is the heart of the Ice King (voiced by Tom Kenny). Ricardio reveals that he wants to "make out" with Bubblegum's heart, but he is defeated by Finn and Jake.
Ricardio would become a minor recurring villain, reappearing in the fourth season entry "Lady & Peebles". After the episode aired, series composer Casey James Basichis posted a video explaining his inspiration and the method in which he produced the music featured in the episode. Basichis largely scored the episode with opera music, because he felt the genre suited Ricardio. "Ricardio the Heart Guy" was watched by 1.91 million people and received largely positive critical attention, with many reviews praising Takei's voice work.
## Plot
Ice King has kidnapped Princess Bubblegum. Finn and Jake throw snowballs at Ice King's eyes, which stalls him enough for them to replace Princess Bubblegum with Jake's butt, which Ice King still thinks is Princess Bubblegum and kisses it. Princess Bubblegum thanks the boys by hugging Finn (making him embarrassed) and honoring them with a party. Finn makes a paper crane for Bubblegum as a gift, and Jake says that Finn has a crush on her, which he denies. But when they arrive at the party, no one notices them and only watch as a heart-shaped man gives Lumpy Space Princess a massage called the Best Friend Massage. Bubblegum walks in, and the heart-shaped man introduces himself as Ricardio. He begins talking to Princess Bubblegum about Plantoids and Zanoits and other science subjects.
Finn immediately gets jealous, and he tries to impress Bubblegum by doing the Science Dance, but embarrasses himself by saying "I'm not jealous, I'm WEIRD!" when Bubblegum accuses him of being jealous. Finn thinks Ricardio is a villain, but Jake does not, so they spy on him to see if he is evil or not. They see Ricardio going into a dumpster, holding a rope and broken bottles. Then they see him throwing the Ice King into the dumpster, so they question him about being a super-villain. Finn punches Ricardio right when Bubblegum comes. Mad and upset, she takes Ricardio away. And when Finn begins to believe Bubblegum hates him and that he was wrong, Ice King then crawls to Finn and Jake and tells them that Ricardio is a villain.
He says that during an experiment where he tried to take control of Princess Bubblegum's heart, he messed up and lost control of his. Ricardio said that he was going to cut out Princess Bubblegum's heart and make out with it. Without Ricardio, Ice King grew weak but managed to get to the Candy Kingdom and pleaded to Ricardio for him to return to Ice King's body, but instead Ricardio threw him into the dumpster and left him for dead. Finn and Jake hurry to the Princess Bubblegum's Castle and find Princess Bubblegum tied to a chair, being held hostage by Ricardio. Finn and Jake then fight Ricardio and manage to beat him up. The Ice King crawls into the castle and places Ricardio into his chest. He then believes that Bubblegum would marry him, but Finn kicks him in the face, which causes him to fly away. During dinner, Bubblegum tells Finn that he does not need to be jealous anymore, but Finn denies that he was jealous in the first place. Then, Princess Bubblegum says "Kiss me, Finn," which causes Finn to blush. Princess Bubblegum was just acting like Jake did in the beginning of the episode; she was upside-down with a picture of Jake on her dress. Finn then screams, "NOOOOO!"
## Production
"Ricardio the Heart Guy" was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez, from a story by Merriwether Williams, Tim McKeon, and Adam Muto. Directed by Larry Leichliter, the episode introduces the recurring villain Ricardio, played by George Takei, a character that Tom Kenny later called "the valentine from Hell". Takei later reprised the role in the season four episode "Lady and Peebles". Initial drafts of the character featured him looking more like an anthropomorphic heart, complete with arteries and ventricles. Ricardio is one of the few individuals in the Adventure Time universe to have a highly detailed face; during the commentary for the episode, his design was compared to that of the face on the moon in the 1902 French silent film Le Voyage dans la Lune, based on H.G. Wells's 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon.
After the episode aired, series composer Casey Basichis posted a video explaining his inspiration and method of producing the music featured in the episode. According to the video, Basichis created a "skeleton" of the score in his shower using his voice and a ukulele; the audio was captured on a phone. Originally, the score was going to have a "New York City, taxi, and jazz" feel, but Basichis was unhappy with the genre choice, and changed the feel. For the music that played while the Ice King interacted with Ricardio, Basichis was inspired by the score from the original seven-minute short. In addition, opera singer Karen Vuong lent her voice to the episode. According to Basichis, Vuong was able to record her vocals successfully in one take. Basichis chose opera because he knew it had a reputation for being "sickeningly intellectual" and "preoccupied with murder", traits that he felt suited Ricardio.
## Reception
"Ricardio the Heart Guy" first aired on Cartoon Network on April 26, 2010. The episode was watched by 1.91 million viewers, and scored a 1.3/2 percent Nielsen household rating, meaning that it was seen by 1.3 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode's airing. The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2011 Adventure Time: My Two Favorite People DVD, which included 12 episodes from the series' first two seasons. It was later re-released as part of the complete first season DVD in July 2012; commentary for the episode was also included on the DVD.
The episode garnered mostly positive reviews from critics. Matt Fowler of IGN, in a review of the My Two Favorite People DVD, noted that while "the idea of a walking, talking heart named Ricardio [...] who plans to cut out Princess Bubblegum's heart is potent nightmare fuel", the show nevertheless "finds a way to make that grim idea accessible and fun."
Takei's appearance as Ricardio gained critical favor. Charlie Anders of io9 named Takei's appearance in the episode as one of his "greatest moments", noting, "how could we have missed that Takei did the voice for this sleazy science-talking heart on Adventure Time, our new favorite show?" Tyler Foster of DVD Talk called Ricardio one of the highlights of the season. The A.V. Club reviewer Oliver Sava, in a review for "Lady & Peebles", wrote that Ricardio is "always welcome on this series, largely due to Takei’s delightful voice work." Furthermore, he praised the way that Takei delivered his lines, noting that "there’s a theatrical smarminess to his vocals that is a stark contrast to the Ice King’s nasality", and that "Takei always sounds like he’s having a great time reading the ridiculous lines that are written for him."
## Explanatory notes |
53,482,293 | Battle of Berea | 1,147,316,147 | 1852 battle between the Cape Colony and the Basuto people | [
"1852 in Africa",
"19th-century military history of the United Kingdom",
"African resistance to colonialism",
"Conflicts in 1852",
"December 1852 events",
"Punitive expeditions of the United Kingdom",
"Wars involving Lesotho"
]
| The Battle of Berea was a battle between British forces under Sir George Cathcart and Basuto-Taung forces under King Moshoeshoe I that took place on 20 December 1852. The battle began when British forces broke into three columns and crossed the Caledon River in southern Africa, with the goal of seizing Basuto cattle as a form of punishment for past Basuto cattle raiding.
A combination of stiff Basuto resistance, poor planning and miscoordination on the side of the British forces led to far fewer cattle being seized than originally planned. The British withdrew in order to regroup after suffering relatively high casualties. However a peace agreement was reached before the resumption of hostilities. The Basuto paid limited restitution, while agreeing to halt any further cattle raids against British subjects.
## Background
### Foundation of the Basuto State
During the early 19th century, a diverse group of Sotho, Nguni and Tswana speaking tribes settled in the Caledon River region in southern Africa. The latter two formed the minority of the population and were gradually assimilated by the culturally dominant Sotho. King Moshoeshoe I united the various Sotho speaking chieftainships into a single nation during a period of political turbulence known as Lifaqane. By approximately 1828, Moshoeshoe's act had transformed the denigratory exonym of Sotho into the name of the nascent Basuto nation. In the region's African societies cattle raiding played a crucial societal role in increasing a chief's prestige. By stealing cattle from rival tribes and then redistributing it to his followers under the mafisa system, the chief retained its nominal ownership while strengthening his relationship with his subjects.
In the 1820s the Basuto faced a number of cattle raids from the Koranna, a group of Khoekhoe people who had migrated from the Cape following the European settlement of the region. It was during this time that they first encountered horses and guns in a combat setting. After a number of initial setbacks, the Basuto managed to either capture or acquire horses and guns of their own, and began stockpiling gunpowder. By 1843, Moshoeshoe had accumulated more horses and guns than any other chieftain in South Africa. Nevertheless, most of the guns in Basuto possession were outdated flintlocks, which had flooded the South African market after the introduction of percussion lock muskets.
### Basuto-British Relations
In 1843, Moshoeshoe signed a treaty with the governor of the British Cape Colony, Sir George Napier, whereby the British recognized the Basuto as their allies. The Basuto were tasked with countering Boer incursions into the Cape during the course of the Great Trek, receiving an annual grant of £75 in money or ammunition. In 1845, Napier's successor Sir Peregrine Maitland signed another treaty with Moshoeshoe which intended to settle territorial conflicts between the Boers and various African tribes on the Cape's northern border. Moshoeshoe reluctantly signed the treaty as it deprived the Basuto of both a tract of land and their annual grant. In 1848, the new Cape governor Sir Harry Smith pressured Moshoeshoe into signing an agreement whereby he recognized British paramount authority over the lands north of the Orange River; while retaining his traditional rights. The agreement also envisioned the creation of an alliance between the British and the Basuto. A series of similar ambiguously worded treaties with local African tribes effectively established the Orange River Sovereignty.
In the north-east, the Basuto and their Taung allies regularly engaged in tit for tat cattle raids against their old enemies the Batlakoa and the Koranna. The British Resident in the Orange River Sovereignty, Major Henry Douglas Warden, believed that the Basuto were more to blame for the continuous inter tribal warfare in the region. In 1849, Warden began delineating borders between the various tribes in the north-east frontier, ignoring Moshoeshoe's long standing claims to several territories in the process. Moshoeshoe believed that the British had failed to protect him against Batlakoa and Boer encroachment, while many of his subjects accused him of cowardice in the face of British oppression. On 25 June 1851, Warden demanded that the Basuto restore 6,000 head of cattle and 300 horses to the victims of their past cattle raids. Warden had assembled a mixed force of British, Boer and African troops numbering approximately 2,500 men at Platberg. On 28 June, Warden moved his force against the Taung in an effort to seize stolen cattle. On 30 June, Warden's force was defeated by a Basuto-Taung army at the Battle of Viervoet.
In October Moshoeshoe wrote to both Smith and Warden, explaining that he had acted in self-defense and intended to maintain cordial relations with the British. In February 1852, assistant commissioner William Hogge conceded that the Cape government had made mistakes in their treatment of the Basuto. Hogge agreed to redraw the boundaries in south-western Basutoland and to cease colonial interference in inter-tribal conflicts. Hogge insisted that the Basuto restore the cattle and horses they had stolen from the Rolong and the Boer settlers since September 1850 within a span of two weeks. Moshoeshoe restored four hundred cattle and horses by 20 March, however he refused to proceed with the process after he realized that the restoration of Basuto lands was conditional upon the return of the cattle. The Basuto were determined to fight rather than give away their cattle, while Smith's newly appointed replacement, Major-General Sir George Cathcart, was waiting for the hostilities with the Xhosa to wane before dealing with the Basuto.
## Prelude
Having largely suppressed Xhosa opposition in the east, in late November 1852 Cathcart led an army numbering some 2,500 men from Burgersdorp northwards. The force consisted of infantry detachments of the 2nd (The Queen's Royal) Regiment of Foot, the 43rd (Monmouthshire) Regiment of Foot, the 73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot, the 74th (Highland) Regiment of Foot and the 1st Battalion of The Rifle Brigade. Also included were elements of the Cape Mounted Rifles (CMR) and the 12th Royal Lancers as well as two six-pounder field guns, two twelve-pounder howitzers and Congreve rockets belonging to the Royal Artillery and Royal Sappers and Miners.
On 13 November, Cathcart convened a meeting in Platberg with the intention of determining the number of cattle the Basuto needed to restore. The committee decided that the Basuto were to commit 10,000 cattle and 1,000 horses within three days. In the event of Basuto resistance, Cathcart warned that he would seize thrice the original number. Two days later, Moshoeshoe visited Cathcart's camp and requested additional time to collect the cattle. Cathcart rebuffed Moshoeshoe and threatened to collect the cattle by force. Moshoeshoe warned that "a dog when beaten would show its teeth". Cathcart remained sure that the Basuto would offer no resistance and left more than half his army at the Platberg camp. Moshoeshoe convened a pitso (formal assembly) at Thaba Bosiu imploring his followers to collect as many cattle as they could. By 18 November, 3,500 cattle had been collected and Basuto envoys pleaded for more time. The British remained adamant and when the Basuto failed to deliver additional cattle the following day; Cathcart established a camp on the right bank of the Caledon (modern day Cathcart's Drift) 12 miles (19 km) north-west of Thaba Bosiu. Moshoeshoe's brother Mopeli visited Cathcart at his new camp and agreed to lead the British to Thaba Bosiu the following day in order to continue peaceful negotiations.
After Mopeli's departure, Cathcart changed his mind and ordered his troops to march on Thaba Bosiu at 4 a.m. on 20 December. The fourth company of the 74th Regiment was tasked with guarding the camp on the Caledon while the rest of the force was divided into three columns. The first column under Lieutenant-Colonel G. Napier, numbering 119 men of the CMR and 114 of the 12th Lancers, was to move around the Berea plateau that separated the camp from Thaba Bosiu from the north, rounding up any cattle his soldiers came across. Unbeknownst to the British the plateau extended for many miles to the north and thus Napier would have to inevitably cross the mountain in order to carry out his task in time. The central column was commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel William Eyre and had a strength of approximately 400 men, most of whom were infantry. It was supported by small detachments of Lancers and CMR cavalry, mounted Mfengu herdsmen and artillerymen who carried two Congreve rockets on mules. It was tasked with traversing the plateau and then driving the cattle through passes on its southern side. The third column was personally commanded by Cathcart. It included three companies of the 43rd Regiment, two six-pounder guns with their crews and a small mixed cavalry detachment, totaling under 400 men. Cathcart's column was to advance along the western side of Berea before converging with the other columns in front of the mountain. The pincer movement of Napier's and Cathcart's columns was to prevent the Basuto from driving their cattle away.
## Battle
At dawn on 20 December, the British crossed the Caledon and began their push on Thaba Bosiu. The Basuto were shocked by the British advance and believed that they had been deliberately misled by Cathcart. The herds around Thaba Bosiu were driven away, guarded by the tribe's infantry; while the cavalry regiments prepared for battle. Napier's column crossed the Caledon, advancing within sight of the peak of Berea by 8 a.m. After taking a short stop at a spring, they began gathering the large herds of cattle which were grazing on the slopes of the mountain. In the meantime, Moshoeshoe's son Molapo had concealed 700 cavalry (including allied Taung) and several hundred infantry above the Berea Mission Station. At midday Napier's force began driving 4,000 captured cattle and 55 horses along the road to the Caledon camp. It was then that Molapo's infantry attacked the column's rear guard, while the cavalry charged upon the Lancers. A group of 30 Lancers under Major Tottenham, rode alongside a dried river which unbeknownst to them ended in a stony ridge. They were cornered there by the Basuto cavalry who killed 27 and injured one with their battle axes and assegais. A separate group of CMR riders were isolated near the mission station and five were shot dead. Napier rallied his soldiers and repelled Molapo's warriors. Two further Basuto attacks were driven off by a charge of the Lancers and long range rifle fire from a company of the 74th Regiment respectively. Napier's column then returned to the Caledon camp.
Cathcart's and Eyre's columns set off at 3 a.m., moving jointly downstream. They were fired upon from a small hill in front of Berea, but took no casualties. They reached the village of Khoabane 1.5 miles (2.4 km) west of the Berea Mission Station at 6 a.m. There they separated, Cathcart moved to the west in order to circumvent the mountain, while Eyre continued moving forward. Eyre ordered the Rifle Brigade and the light company of the 73rd Regiment to capture a position above Khoabane. Moving across difficult terrain the British exchanged fire with their adversaries. One British soldier was killed, along with several Basuto warriors and a few civilian women who were shot by accident. Further clashes took place at a village on a summit, which the British set ablaze. Eyre's column had sighted a herd of 30,000 cattle, however they struggled to take control of the animals since most of them were on foot. By 1 p.m., they had seized only 1,500 animals. At the same time, they were suddenly struck by 300 of Molapo's horsemen who were armed with the lances belonging to the British soldiers they had killed and wearing their caps. Eyre's hat was knocked down by a knobkerrie. The British lost four soldiers killed and 10 wounded in the ensuing fighting, while captured Captain Walter Faunce was executed in retaliation for the earlier killing of civilians. The Basuto were eventually driven off by rifle and rocket fire, withdrawing at 4 p.m., after the outbreak of heavy rainfall.
Cathcart's column had rounded the south-western corner of Berea. Howitzer fire had put groups of mounted Basuto skirmishers to flight enabling the British to take over a knoll overlooking the Phuthiatsana valley 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from Thaba Bosiu at midday. The Basuto began gradually massing in front and to the right of their opponents, circling around the British position, occasionally closing in to musket range before being driven away by enemy fire. Their strength grew to 6,000 cavalry led by Moshoeshoe and his sons Letsie, Sekhonyana and Masopha. Eyre's column departed from Berea and joined Cathcart at 5 p.m. just as the rainstorm ended. The combined British force pulled back 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) down the road, securing the cattle Eyre had captured at a nearby kraal. The Basuto intensified their skirmishing, with Masopha, Sekhonyana and Moshoeshoe's brother Lelosa leading cavalry charges. The British responded with rifle fire and canister shot salvos. The Basuto were discouraged by the high degree of discipline of the British, after seeing them roasting meat within their encampment. They returned to Thaba Bosiu at around 8 p.m. Cathcart remained vigilant, forbidding his men from unrolling their blankets.
## Aftermath
The British had rounded up over 5,000 head of cattle along with numerous other animals. The Basuto thought their cause to be lost, Letsie urged his father to sue for peace, while others suggested a retreat to the Maloti Mountains. Cathcart likewise did not expect the Basuto to showcase such determined resistance. His force was short on ammunition and his soldiers were tired. A miscommunication between the major-general and his officers led to the failure of the British plan to conduct a general assault, with conflicting reports being issued as to the original plan of the operation. The decision was taken to fall back to the Caledon camp and resume the campaign at a later date. At midnight Moshoeshoe composed a letter to Cathcart which was translated into English by French missionary Eugène Casalis in which he pleaded for peace. He also ordered his troops to make no further attacks. The following morning, the Basuto found that the British had already departed from Berea, before the letter could be dispatched.
A few hours after the British return to their Caledon camp, a Basuto messenger delivered the letter under a flag of truce. Cathcart believed that any further assault on Thaba Bosiu may have led to the outbreak of another large scale conflict, which he was unwilling to pursue. He therefore ignored his officers' arguments and accepted a truce, inviting Moshoeshoe to Platberg. The captured herds and the wounded were sent to Bloemfontein, while the British army began to depart Basutoland on 24 December. The Basuto did not allow their chief to travel and thus Thaba Bosiu was visited by assistant commissioner Charles Owen. Masopha and Sekhonyana assisted Owen in recovering and burying the bodies of 20 British soldiers. The rest of the bodies were likely used in the preparation of traditional medicine. The Basuto paid a restitution of 3,500 head of cattle, 1,500 of which were distributed to tribes they had raided. The rest were sold with the proceeds going to Boer farmers. The value of the sold cattle was far lower than the £20,000 goal set by Cathcart, who opted to write off any outstanding claims.
The Basuto estimated their losses to be 20 killed and 20 injured, while Cathcart reported enemy probable losses to be between 500 and 600 men. Modern estimates put Basuto casualties at fewer than 50. British casualties amounted to 38 killed and 14 wounded. In 1855, the surviving British participants of the Battle of Berea received the South African General Service Medal which bore the date 1853. The Basuto were so impressed by the performance of the British soldiers that the battle is popularly remembered by them as Ntoa ea Masole (Battle of the Soldiers). Moshoeshoe was now able to convince his followers to completely stop raiding loyalist Boer farmers and trade between the two nations was restored. Anglo-Sotho relations remained amicable, enabling the Basuto to avoid destruction during the Free State–Basotho Wars in the 1860s by becoming a British dominion.
One of the edges of the Berea plateau came to be known as the Lancers Gap, according to an apocryphal story in which the 12th Lancers rode to their death off the cliff at that point. |
34,057,054 | Susanna Paine | 1,149,480,319 | American artist (1792–1862) | [
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"1862 deaths",
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| Susanna Paine, also known as Susannah and Susan (June 9, 1792 – November 10, 1862), was an American portrait artist in New England in the 19th century. She published poetry, a Christmas hymn, a novel, and an autobiography entitled Roses and Thorns, or Recollections of an Artist.
As a young girl, she was an excellent student, but needed to quit school at the age of 11 to care for her ill grandmother. At 15, she taught school and a year later joined an academy in Providence, Rhode Island, where she earned her way through school by making and selling needlework. She graduated with highest honors and established a school that she operated for years. Paine gave the profits to her family, and she helped support them throughout most of her life.
She had a short marriage characterized by abuse and control. A child was born to the couple, but died 11 months later. Before the child's birth, Paine had left her husband and obtained a divorce. To support herself, she taught school for a period and then began to work as a portraitist. She traveled throughout Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Maine accepting commissions for portraits of individuals or families from 1826 through 1862. Because she lived a mobile lifestyle, she had few long-lasting relationships. The closest personal relationship of her life was with her mother. She raised a girl, however, for three years and taught her how to paint. Once she became a professional portraitist she had periods of financial security, but that and her physical health vacillated over the course of her career.
## Early life
Susanna Paine, born in Rehoboth, Massachusetts, on June 9, 1792, was the second child of James Paine (b. 1764–65) and Mary Chaffee Paine (1767–1849). Her father was a mariner. When she was a young girl, he was lost at sea. She then lived with her maternal grandparents, Reverend Jonathan Chaffee and Mary Chaffee. Paine, an excellent student, attended school until she was 11 years of age, when she was needed to help care for her ill grandmother. The following year she nearly died as the result of a lightning strike that killed the person standing beside her. Believed to have died, she resumed consciousness after one hour, but suffered from seizures for several years after the incident. Her mother married widower Nathaniel Thurber on April 9, 1808, and the combined household, including his four children, moved to a Foster, Rhode Island, farm.
At 15 years of age, Paine taught school and then attended "the best Academy in Rhode Island", which she financed through the sales of her needlework. Paine learned how to paint with watercolor at the academy and graduated with the highest honors; she was sufficiently trained "to teach any of the common branches of education." Upon graduation Paine established a school near her mother and stepfather's house. The profits she made from the school were given to her mother and on one occasion loaned to her stepfather.
Reluctantly, and at her mother's insistence, she married James Phillips on November 4, 1819. Her husband—a gambler—was abusive, tyrannical and cruel. According to Paine, she left her husband after "one year and two months of cruel bondage". Paine returned to her mother's house and three months later gave birth to her son on August 30, 1821. The child, Theodore Winthrop Phillips, died 11 months later. The Rhode Island Supreme Court granted Paine a divorce from her husband in 1821 or 1823. Paine was left destitute, receiving no alimony and relinquishing previously owned property.
Paine resumed teaching and painted portraits to supplement her earnings, allowing her to support herself and send money to her mother, stepfather and their family, who had moved to Connecticut. Up to this point her life had been one of turmoil and financial precariousness. Rather than marry another man to secure a better standard of living, she developed a career so that she could support herself.
> I was very diligent: toiling incessantly at my easel, until the picture was finished: when I viewed it with great complacency, (artist like) and called Mrs. R., my patron and landlady, to look at it for the first time. She entered with an anxious, doubting look—but at the first glance she started back, in surprise—then fell into perfect rapture, declaring it was "most excellent"... The next day, the house was "inundated" with callers. They entered my "sanctum" with eager looks, to see whither [sic]—a woman could paint a likeness? When lo, they all applauded, beyond my most sanguine hopes—or expectations.
## Artist
Paine worked as a professional portrait painter by traveling through New England and placing advertisements in local newspapers to solicit business. She and Ruth Henshaw Bascom were two of 11 or more women who worked as professional itinerant portraitists in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
> In many ways, her [Paine's] career typified the itinerant portraitist in the early nineteenth-century United States. Her anxiety over commissions, the constant threat of poverty and corresponding need for mobility in search of work, would have been familiar to contemporary American painters both male and female.
Paine was "a woman of stalwart proportions, weighing over 200 pounds, and was a very original character..." She was also described as an idealist. Paine was subject to criticism for traveling alone as a woman, but found it was safe to stay in boarding houses, secured through "several letters of introduction" from trusted people. To establish herself as a "genteel" artist, she studied art at the Boston Athenæum, stayed at upscale boarding houses, and became a published writer.
Throughout her career, Paine generally made oil paintings on 1/2 inch wood panels of which the sides and back were washed in red, gray-green, or green-blue. The subjects of the paintings were often portrayed in a confident manner in half-length poses. Their accessories, hair, and clothing were often "elaborately detailed". The placement of hands, tables, and other objects could be awkward. She had a tendency to paint the sitters with long hands, light flesh tones, doelike eyes and round faces. Paine was known to take liberties in the portrayal of her subjects; she once painted a gray-eyed man's portrait with black eyes because she thought they were more attractive.
### Maine
She traveled alone for the first time in 1826 to Portland, Maine, and placed a business advertisement in the December 12 edition of the Portland Advertiser. The standard rate for large oil portraits at that time was US\$20–\$30, but Paine advertised \$8 for large portraits. Not having received any leads for work, she placed a January ad with a testimonial, which said that her portrait's were a good likeness of the subject and well executed—and that women might find "a pride and pleasure in patronizing a female artist." Once she made a painting for her landlady and neighbors saw it, she began to receive commissions for her work.
Paine worked in southern Maine, Portland, and New Hampshire in 1827 and 1828. Initially, she had sufficient commissions to support the rental of a furnished parlor, an office for painting, and another office to exhibit her portraits. A religious woman, Paine adopted simpler clothing as a spiritual practice during this time. As her health declined, she engaged nursing services, which left her short of funds. Paine answered a friend's request to return to Providence to paint her dying daughter, and still in poor health, stayed there several months.
Paine worked as an artist in Maine until about 1831. One of her subjects while in Portland was George Morillo Bartol, her portrait of him sold for US\$38,513 on March 6, 2011.
### Massachusetts
She received formal art training at the Boston Athenæum around 1832 and spent the following summer in Cape Ann. Paine, one of the first artists to paint on Cape Ann, returned for several years, interrupted by visits to her mother each spring and fall. She was in the village of Annisquam on Cape Ann by 1834, when she painted portraits of families. Paine continued to paint on the cape during the 1830s and 1840s. She found it to be a unique place:
> The scenery was delightful; and the people just to my liking... No one was very rich, and no one very poor; they all seemed on an equality... Kindness, benevolence and good will, were the most prominent traits of their lives, and characters.
She raised a girl, who she called her adopted daughter, from 12 to 15 years of age. During that time Paine taught her to paint and they lived for a few months in Fall River, Massachusetts. During a visit to her mother and stepfather's farm, she found that her younger half-brother, Nathaniel, had secured the deed to the farm and lived in the main house; her parents lived in "a sort of out-house". Months later, after her half-brother sold the farm, Paine found them "looking sad and dejected" with Nathaniel in South Killingly, Connecticut, and made arrangements for her mother and step-father to live in an apartment.
### Rhode Island
In 1830, Paine painted the portrait of author, Catharine R. Williams, who wrote poetry, Religion at Home, and the Lives of William Barton and Stephen Olney. The portrait was given to the Rhode Island Historical Society in 1885 from a group of members of the society, including Henry J. Steere. From about 1836, she had a residence in Providence, Rhode Island and kept her parents in "comfortable support". Between 1836 and 1838, she wrote and published a Christmas hymn and poetry. She enjoyed a successful professional life until 1842 when she left town for her safety during the Dorr Rebellion. She went to Cape Ann and after a few months returned to Providence. She became ill and, unable to find work in both places, suffered financially. Her mother came to live with her in Providence following the death of her stepfather, Nathaniel Thurber, in November, 1848. The following March, her mother Mary died during a visit to her half-brother who then lived in Hartford, Connecticut. She had supported her parents since she was a teenaged girl.
### Later years
Paine traveled through Maine, where she had difficulty establishing herself for want of connections that she had relied upon in the past, so she returned to Providence and for the first time established herself in a highly respectable commercial building with, aside from herself, only male occupants. She struggled professionally and, because of the loss of her mother, she suffered personally. The career that she relied upon kept her forever traveling, which had made it difficult to establish long-standing relationships. Her relationship with her mother was the only close one of her life.
She published her autobiography, Roses and Thorns, or Recollections of an Artist in 1854. Six years later she published Wait and See, a Victorian novel. She died in Providence, Rhode Island on November 10, 1862.
A file containing papers, photographs, exhibition catalogs and other archival material is held at the Brooklyn Museum Libraries & Archives and the Frick Art Reference Library of the Frick Collection.
## Collections
- Cape Ann Museum, Gloucester, Massachusetts
- Maine State Museum, Augusta, Maine
- Portland Museum of Art, Maine
- Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence, Rhode Island
## Works
- Sally Ellery Ryerson Merchant, oil on canvas, c. 1825–1835, Cape Ann Historical Association
- Catherine Read Arnold Williams, oil on wood, c. 1830 John Brown House Museum, Rhode Island Historical Society
- Eliza and Sheldon Battey and their son Thomas Sheldon Battey, Providence, Rhode Island, oil on wood, 1830, private collection
- George Morillo Bartol, pastel on paper, 1827
- Portrait of Mrs. J. H. Corbett, oil on panel, 1832, Portland Museum of Art, Maine
- Gideon Lane, III, oil on wood, 1833, Cape Ann Historical Association
- Hannah Griffin Lane, oil, 1833, Cape Ann Historical Association
- Eliza Harper Peabody Lane, oil on wood, 1833, Cape Ann Historical Association
- Hannah Fuller Smith Stanwood, oil, 1834, Cape Ann Historical Association
- Lucy Kinsman Brown Davis, oil on wood, c. 1835, Cape Ann Historical Association
- The Oldridge Family, four oil on wood panel portraits, 1839, private collection
- Portrait of a Lady in a Lace Cap, oil, Portland Museum of Art |
483,941 | Chetham's School of Music | 1,171,778,859 | null | [
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| Chetham's School of Music (/ˈtʃɛtəmz/) is an independent co-educational music school in Manchester, England. Chetham's educates students between the ages of 8 and 18, all of whom enter via musical auditions. Students receive a full academic education alongside specialist group and individual music tuition.
Chetham's offers a year-round programme of concerts at the school, Manchester Cathedral, the Royal Northern College of Music, Band on the Wall and Bridgewater Hall. Recitals also take place in churches and community spaces, at festivals and internationally. Its senior ensembles, Chetham's Symphony Orchestra and Big Band, alongside many individual students, have won awards for their music, and many alumni have progressed to highly successful careers as professional musicians or in other sectors.
The music school was established in 1969 from Chetham's Hospital School, founded as a charity school by Humphrey Chetham in 1653. After becoming a boys' grammar school in 1952, the school turned to music as its speciality, at the same time becoming a private school and accepting its first female students. There are approximately 300 students on roll, including a large sixth form making up around half of the school. Approximately two-thirds of students board on site, with others travelling in as day students from around Greater Manchester. The oldest parts of the school date to the 1420s, when the building was constructed as a residence for priests of the church which is now Manchester Cathedral. These parts are listed buildings housing Chetham's Library, the oldest free public reference library in the English-speaking world.
Academic and music teaching moved into a new, purpose-designed building in 2012; this replaced the Victorian Palatine building and allowed easier access for concert visitors. A 482-seat concert hall, Stoller Hall, opened within the New School Building in 2017 as a home for both school and professional music and other genres of performance.
## History
### Beginnings
The school is built on the site of Manchester Castle, a fortified manor house owned by the Grelleys after the Norman Conquest, at the confluence of the River Irwell and the River Irk. Medieval Manchester grew around the manor house and the parish church, which eventually became Manchester Cathedral.
In the early 14th century, the de la Warre family acquired the land through marriage. Thomas de la Warre refounded the church as a collegiate church in 1421. De la Warre gave the site of his manor house for the construction of a college, where eight priests, four clerks and six lay choristers lived in the care of a warden. It is likely that building began between 1424 and 1429, and the main hall and cloister rooms finished by 1458. It remains the most complete building of its kind in the country, and at the time of its construction, was the second largest building in Manchester, surpassed only by the church.
The college was dissolved during the English Reformation in 1547, and purchased by Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby. It was re-founded by Queen Mary, before Elizabeth I refounded it as 'Christ's College' in 1578. This arrangement lasted until the foundation of Manchester Cathedral in 1847. The college buildings remained the property of the Stanleys, and wardens (including the Elizabethan astronomer and mathematician John Dee) lived on the premises with their families and servants. During the English Civil War, the college was used as a gunpowder factory and a prison and was left damaged by powder, disused and overrun by pigs. Lord James Stanley, a Royalist, was executed in 1651, and Parliament confiscated his property, including the college.
### Humphrey Chetham
Humphrey Chetham (1580–1653) was an unmarried and childless financier, philanthropist and cloth merchant from Manchester. In the 1640s he provided money for the maintenance and education of fourteen poor boys from Manchester, six from Salford, and two from Droylsden. In March 1649 he wrote to the Earl of Derby about his intention to establish a school. He attempted unsuccessfully to acquire the buildings, which were "spoyld and ruin'd and become like a dunghill", to provide a hospital, school and library. In his will, Chetham left over £8,000 from his estate (which was worth about £14,000 in total) to establish a hospital school for 40 poor local boys, between the ages of six and ten and from "honest" families, who should be taught and cared for until they were 14. His executors obtained the lease of the college in 1654 to house both the school and library.
### Charity school
After repairs to the college were completed in mid-1656, the first admissions were made. The first headmaster, Richard Dutton, was appointed in 1655, and in 1665 the institution became an incorporated charity. The number of pupils grew, with admissions rising to 100 by the 1870s. Boys were admitted based on the parish they lived in, and on need, health and background of the family. Illegitimate boys were not admitted, and all boys had to be able to read to a certain standard that meant they were not hard to teach. In 1878, a new schoolroom designed by architect Alfred Waterhouse (who designed Manchester Town Hall) was built in a Tudor style. The number of boys admitted was reduced to 75 in 1908 to save money, though three years later admissions increased again to 99. In 1916, no boys were admitted due to lack of funding caused by World War I, and in 1918 the number was limited to 70. Successful public appeals resulted in the numbers rising to 97 in 1929. In 1926 a scheme was set up which allowed boys to apply for scholarships to join a grammar school, which meant that while they lived at Chetham's, they were educated elsewhere during the day. Further, they would stay at grammar school until at least the age of 16 and sometimes 18.
### World War II and aftermath: 1939 to 1952
During World War II, the boys were evacuated to the seaside town of Cleveleys, Lancashire, where they shared accommodation with a primary school. Chetham's was damaged by an explosion in December 1940, when most of the windows were shattered and the roof set alight. The boys relocated to Chapel-en-le-Frith, Derbyshire, in 1943, although thirteen boys attending grammar school moved to Buxton College. By 1944 the governors believed that it would not be appropriate for the school to return to Manchester, and it was proposed the site become a religious education centre. However, after years of discussion, it was decided to return the school to Manchester. The Education Act 1944, which stipulated that schools should be classified as primary or secondary, complicated matters, since Chetham's went across the middle. It was decided in 1950 that Chetham's should become a grammar school, and this change took place two years later. In 1950, Chetham's amalgamated with Nicholls' Hospital School, a similar school based in Ardwick which had been established in 1863. While it could take up to 100 boys, by the end of the war there were only 22 and it was considered beneficial for the schools to merge.
### Later history: since 1952
After the change in organisation, Chetham's could no longer afford to provide education based on scholarships and other allowances, and began charging fees. In 1952, the school buildings were considered insufficient so a new block was built, it is currently known as the Nicholls Building and opened in 1955. By 1960 the numbers of boys admitted had increased significantly, particularly among day pupils; 230 non-boarding students attended that year, alongside 64 boarders.
Before becoming a specialist school, Chetham's had a good reputation for music, and on this basis the decision was made to become a co-educational music school in 1969. The former Palatine Hotel, which housed offices and shops, was converted into extra teaching space and practice rooms. In 1969, 50 students were admitted based on musical potential and by 1972 this had risen to 150, more than half of the entire school. In 1977 the school changed to its present name. In 1978 the Long Millgate building, the original home of Manchester Grammar School, was purchased to provide additional space to the campus. Also included with the building was The Whiteley Hall, a 200-seat central performance space which became the primary venue of Chetham's concerts until 2017.
New College House, a purpose built boarding house for girls at Chetham's, was opened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II in 1994. The boarding capacity at the school was further increased following an extension to the Nicholls Building in 2004. In 2012, a new school building adjacent to the existing site, purpose-designed for music teaching, was opened by the Earl of Wessex (Patron of the school). This included The Carole Nash Hall, a 100-seat recital hall, and space for a 400-seat concert hall, which would later open in 2017 as The Stoller Hall. The Long Millgate building continues to be used as a boarding house for students, as well as a dining space, a school gym and currently houses the school's art department. The Palatine Building was demolished in 2016 to reveal the previously hidden medieval buildings and allow easier access to the library.
In June 2021, a fire broke out within the Long Millgate building, beginning at approximately 2.20am within The Whiteley Hall. The adjacent student boarding houses, Millgate House and Victoria House, were reported to have been successfully evacuated with no harm caused to either the students or staff. Fire crews reportedly arrived immediately on the scene and contained the blaze, however the incident caused substantial damage to The Whiteley Hall itself, including the main stage and a pipe organ originally installed in 2002. The school gym on the lower levels also suffered water damage, however this was quickly repaired soon after. The Whiteley Hall is likely to be closed off to students, staff and the public for the foreseeable future.
### Historical abuse allegations and convictions (2013 onwards)
In February 2013, Michael Brewer, Director of Music from the late 1970s to the early 1990s, and his ex-wife, were convicted of indecently assaulting a pupil, Frances Andrade, between 1978 and 1982. Andrade committed suicide after giving evidence at their trial. Prosecutors claimed Brewer was forced to resign in the 1990s after an inappropriate relationship with a 16-year-old girl. The school's statement said the current staff were "shocked ... to the core" by the revelations of "the most appalling acts which took place during his time at the school ..." In March 2013, Brewer was found guilty of indecent assault and sentenced to six years imprisonment.
It was reported that allegations of assault were made against another teacher in the 1980s. On 12 February, Malcolm Layfield, Head of Strings at the Royal Northern College of Music resigned from the RNCM Board after claims of his previous sexual misconduct were brought up during the Brewer hearing. Before his appointment at RNCM, Layfield had admitted to having relationships with six Chetham's pupils aged between 16 and 18 whilst he taught there. Two RNCM teachers, including the Head of Keyboard Studies, Martin Roscoe, resigned in protest at his appointment in 2002. In October 2013 Layfield was arrested on suspicion of raping and indecently assaulting an 18-year-old woman between 1988 and 1999, but was found not guilty at a trial in 2015.
On 14 February 2013, Wen Zhou Li, a violin teacher at the Royal Northern College of Music and former teacher at Chetham's, was arrested on charges of rape that allegedly occurred whilst he taught at the school. The case was dropped in 2016 before coming to trial, and Wen Zhou Li was told that he left court "without a stain on his character". Allegations of sexual abuse were also made against the pianist Ryszard Bakst, who died in 1999, and former violin teacher Christopher Ling. Ling, who had moved to Los Angeles in the 1990s, shot himself at his home when US marshals arrived in September 2015 with a provisional arrest warrant.
On 8 May 2013, the Greater Manchester Police reported that over 30 women had reported incidents of abuse relating to the school. The investigation into allegations of abuse made against individuals said by police to "have or have had connections with either Chetham's and/or Royal Northern College of Music and/or have taught music privately", was known as Operation Kiso. Thirty-nine individuals were named and 10 of these proactively investigated; the school stated that it was assisting the police with their inquiries, and had instigated an action plan to review their safeguarding processes and procedures. In 2013, two independent reports found that school "failed to follow its own guidelines to keep children safe. They also discovered that no formal, minuted meetings had taken place at the school to discuss the recent allegations and consider changes to its child protection policy."
Between September and October 2019, Chetham’s School of Music gave evidence to the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse, after applying as a core participant along with four other residential music schools. In a statement from Chetham's, Alun Jones, the principal in 2019 commented, “I welcome this Inquiry. Victims and survivors of child sexual abuse need to know that they are being listened to and that changes happen as a result of what they say. As Principal of Chetham’s I have a duty of care to our current and future students to make sure we also do everything possible to learn from victims and survivors’ experiences.”
In March 2022, the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse delivered its preliminary findings, which included damning statements about the conduct of senior staff at Chetham's School of Music, criticising a cultural reluctance to report serious safeguarding concerns, also seen across other participating schools within the inquiry. One such statement from the report read, "On occasion, when allegations of child sexual abuse arose, headteachers moved to protect the reputation of the school rather than the welfare of victims and other children at the school.". It concluded that the power and influence of its eminent music teachers at the time further compromised its pupils.
In October 2022, the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse made 20 recommendations within its final report. In a statement, Chetham's School of Music said, "To the victims and survivors of abuse including their families and loved ones, we are truly sorry [...] [This] report confirms above all else that there is no room for complacency. As the report says ‘child sexual abuse is not a problem consigned to the past'. These mistakes must never be repeated, here or elsewhere. We therefore welcome all 20 recommendations in the report. [...] “None of this work can undo past failures, and our apologies will never be enough, but we will do everything in our power to ensure that young people across the UK today are safe and protected.”
## Academics and pastoral care
### Admissions
Students are admitted to the school on musical ability and talent. The application process involves an audition, and advance 'advice auditions' are offered to help potential applicants to prepare. In addition to competency in playing an instrument, qualities such as aural awareness, creativity and ability to sight-read are sought. Grades and exam results are not required (Grade 5 theory is desired for sixth form); as musical potential is considered most important. Students between the ages of 8 and 18 can apply for a place studying any western instrument. Funding for up to 100% of study and boarding fees is available to most students through the UK Government's Music and Dance Scheme. Open Days are held twice each year.
### Curriculum
As a specialist music school, Chetham's requires all students to study a curriculum that concentrates on music and other subjects in accordance with the National Curriculum. Students taking GCSEs and A-levels study music. All students study at least two instruments and choir practice is compulsory. Despite entry being solely through musical audition, the school regularly obtains good exam results, in comparison to other local schools and nationally.
Chetham's educates choristers from Manchester Cathedral who follow a similar curriculum to other students and study an instrument. However, they do not apply in an audition. When a chorister reaches Year 9 (age 13 or 14), or their voice breaks, they can apply to join Chetham's via the usual audition process.
Ensembles form an important part of the musical curriculum, with all students taking part in at least one. The ensembles include Chetham's Symphony Orchestra, which has performed all over the world, including Germany, Spain and the United States, and on BBC Radio 3. The award-winning Big Band played an integral part in the creation of a Jazz Studies programme, and has won many prizes, including The Daily Telegraph Young Jazz Competition, and the junior section of the BBC Radio 2 Big Band of the Year Competition three times. The Chamber Choir has performed on Songs of Praise and the BBC Proms and the Symphonic Wind Band and Orchestra have won prizes at the Boosey and Hawkes National Concert Festival.
### School life
Chetham's admits boarding and day students to one of three houses: Victoria House, a mixed-gender house for students aged 8–13; Millgate House, for boys aged 13–18; and New College House aged 13–18. In senior houses, boarding students usually share rooms for four people, and in the sixth form students either have single rooms or share with one other person. Students have a personal tutor to discuss their progress, and boarding students have a house parent who communicates with parents at home.
The school offers extra-curricular activities during free time. It has a multi-gym facility as well as classes in Kung-Fu, Zumba and Ballet. As well as this, computer games, board games, pool, table tennis and many more activities can be done. Weekend trips are sometimes organised for climbing and mountain biking, or to the cinema or theatre.
## Campus
Chetham's is situated in Manchester City Centre, close to Manchester Victoria railway station, The National Football Museum and Manchester Cathedral. There are several buildings on the site, many of which are listed. They surround a large open space, the north part is a car park and courtyard, and the south part is a playground.
### College House
College House, the original 15th-century college, is a Grade I listed building built of sandstone in the shape of a lowercase 'b' with a slate roof. It is accessed by the original gatehouse; which was constructed on a plinth and contains the original timbers. The upper storey is accessed by an external staircase. Baronial Hall, once the Great Hall, contains many of its original features, such as its timber roof, dais and canopy. There is a large fireplace dating from the 19th century, and three windows likely to date from the 16th century. The Audit Room, originally a common room, contains a panelled ceiling with decorations suggesting it was installed by the Stanley family. The upper room, originally the warden's chamber, is now the library reading room, and contains a large bay window within an elaborate Tudor arch, as well as original 17th-century doors. The west part of the building surrounding the cloister courtyard contained accommodation known as sets, for people who lived in college. There were two rooms in each set on two floors, the lower floor being used as a study. Historian Clare Hartwell, describes the cobbled courtyard which has a restored well as "one of the most atmospheric spaces in the building". It is surrounded by many windows, which were probably originally unglazed. Inside there are several corridors and passages containing open beams and original stonework. To the east is the kitchen and associated rooms, and further east are rooms used for administration offices, most of which have been substantially altered.
### New School Building
Constructed in 2012 opposite Manchester Victoria Station and connected by a bespoke link bridge to the original site at Chetham's, the New School Building contains most academic teaching rooms and all music teaching rooms across seven floors, as well as two performance spaces. The Carole Nash Hall is used regularly for recitals and masterclasses, including free Lunchtime Concerts which take place five times each week during the school term. Its primary concert space, The Stoller Hall, was opened by Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex in 2017 and houses larger scale performances for audiences of up to 500. It was named after its chief benefactor Sir Norman Stoller, founder of The Stoller Charitable Trust.
### Other buildings
The Millgate Building, the former site of Manchester Grammar School, is a Grade II listed building designed by Alfred Waterhouse in the 1870s. Attached to it is the Nicholls Building, which was originally built in 1955. Combined, they are known as The Long Millgate Buildings, which contain The Whiteley Hall, school gym, school kitchen and dining room, art department, and two student boarding houses. Following the opening of the New School Building in 2012, many of the old classrooms inside were repurposed and refurbished as student accommodation. A top-down extension of the Nicholls Building was completed in 2004, allowing for the construction of these additional boarding facilities. Originally purposed as sixth form accommodation, the Nicholls Building now only contains Victoria House for junior boarders.
The Waterhouse Building (formerly known as The Vallins Arts Centre) is another building on the site designed by Alfred Waterhouse in 1878. Waterhouse is Grade II listed and styled as a medieval chapel, it contains both upper and lower floor spaces often used as overflow classrooms and large ensemble rooms. Waterhouse was responsible for much of the alterations made to College House in the 19th century, and so the building was renamed in recognition of this. It formerly housed the school's drama department until the late 2010's, when the department was relocated to the lower levels of College House. It has been speculated that this building could eventually be repurposed as a future visitors centre for the adjacent Chetham's Library.
New College House is the third boarding house and was opened by HM Queen Elizabeth II in 1994. Located adjacent to what is now Urbis and Cathedral Gardens, it was originally purpose-built as the Girls' House. It now houses both middle and sixth form students, complete with its own sixth form common room.
A small section of the former Palatine Building (demolished in 2016) also remains at the disused entrance gates adjacent to Manchester Cathedral and The Glade of Light Memorial. This section remains due to Grade I restrictions in relation to the medieval outer walls at Chetham's.
## Notable alumni
Chetham's, as a music school, has produced many notable alumni. Many of its students become professional musicians, as well as conductors, teachers and actors. This is a partial list of alumni:
- Max Beesley – actor
- Olivia Chaney – folk singer
- Jiafeng Chen – violinist
- Gareth Owen – classical pianist
- Gary Cooper – harpsichordist, fortepianist, and conductor
- Thangam Debbonaire – Labour MP
- Peter Donohoe – pianist
- Richard Egarr – conductor and harpsichord performer, music director of the Academy of Ancient Music
- Daniel Harding – conductor
- David Hill – choral director
- Stephen Hough – pianist
- Guy Johnston – cellist
- Paul Lewis – pianist
- Mike Lindup – rock musician (Level 42)
- Grant Llewellyn – conductor
- Leon McCawley – pianist
- Kevin Mallon conductor and violinist
- Murray McLachlan – pianist
- Anna Markland – pianist
- Wayne Marshall – pianist, organist and conductor
- Doug Naylor – writer of Red Dwarf
- Jennifer Pike – violinist
- Robert Plane – clarinettist
- Greg Scott – violinist
- Dominic Seldis – double bassist
- Sam Shepherd aka Floating Points – electronic musician
- Gwilym Simcock – jazz pianist, composer
- Albert Cano Smit – pianist
- Iyad Sughayer – pianist
- David Thornton – euphonium player
- Adam Walker – flautist
- Andrew Wilde – pianist
- Roger Wright – former director BBC Proms, Chief Executive of Aldeburgh Music
## See also
- Grade I listed buildings in Greater Manchester
- Listed buildings in Manchester-M3 |
2,331,104 | Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy | 1,169,043,539 | null | [
"1994 American television episodes",
"Barbie",
"Television episodes about sexism",
"The Simpsons (season 5) episodes"
]
| "Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy" is the fourteenth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons, and the 95th episode overall. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 17, 1994. Lisa challenges the Malibu Stacy dollmakers to make a less sexist doll. With Malibu Stacy's original creator, Stacy Lovell, Lisa creates the doll Lisa Lionheart to positively influence young girls.
The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, and directed by Jeffrey Lynch. Its plot was inspired by the Teen Talk Barbie doll, which "spoke" short phrases stereotypical of a middle-class American teenager. Kathleen Turner guest stars as Lovell. It features cultural references to action figures such as Ken and G.I. Joe.
The episode has received mostly positive critical reviews. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 11.6, and was the second-highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired.
## Plot
Grampa decides to give the Simpson family their inheritance early. During the entire trip to the mall and back home, Grampa tells far-fetched stories and spouts useless advice, making the family shun him. At the mall, Lisa eagerly buys the new talking Malibu Stacy doll, but is disappointed when the doll utters sexist phrases such as "Thinking too much gives you wrinkles" and "Don't ask me, I'm just a girl." After Lisa and Grampa bemoan how they are treated because of their age, they decide to change: Grampa will get a job and Lisa will find Malibu Stacy's creator, Stacy Lovell, and convince her to come out of retirement.
Grampa struggles with his new job at Krusty Burger, suffering a war flashback at the drive-thru and losing his false teeth when a coworker accidentally wraps up a bun that he put them in as a prank and sent out as part of an order. He soon quits after realizing he misses complaining with his fellow seniors.
Waylon Smithers, who owns the world's largest collection of Malibu Stacy merchandise, helps Lisa find Lovell. Lovell has become a jaded alcoholic recluse in the twenty years since she was forced out of her own company, but becomes reinvigorated when Lisa proposes a new talking doll, Lisa Lionheart, voiced by Lisa herself, to counteract the talking Malibu Stacy. The doll, designed to look more realistic than Malibu Stacy, says inspirational and encouraging phrases for girls. However, the Malibu Stacy executives learn of its development and worry that it poses a real threat to their sales.
After a slow initial release, Lisa Lionheart suddenly gains popularity among Malibu Stacy fans after being featured in Kent Brockman's news show at the behest of his daughter. As Springfield's children, along with Smithers, rush to the mall to buy Lisa Lionheart, a cart of Malibu Stacy dolls with new hats is wheeled into their path. Though Lisa protests at the cheap reissues of Malibu Stacy dolls, the kids and Smithers ransack the cart regardless. However, one little girl selects a Lisa Lionheart doll, which gives Lisa hope for her brand, though Lovell quietly remarks that the production of Lisa Lionheart cost \$46,000.
## Production
The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, and directed by Jeffrey Lynch. Before the episode aired, Malibu Stacy had already appeared many times on the show as one of Lisa's dolls. The staff were trying to come up with an idea for an episode by going through the companies in the Simpsons universe, and Oakley suggested an episode involving the Malibu Stacy company. The plot of the episode was inspired by the Teen Talk Barbie talking doll that caused controversy in the United States in the early 1990s. In July 1992, Mattel released Teen Talk Barbie, which spoke a number of phrases including "Will we ever have enough clothes?", "I love shopping!", and "Wanna have a pizza party?" Each doll was programmed to say four out of 270 possible phrases, so that there were over 200 million combinations. One of these 270 phrases was "Math class is tough!". Although only about 1.5% of all the dolls sold said the phrase, it led to criticism from the American Association of University Women because they regarded it as demeaning to women. In October 1992, Mattel announced that Teen Talk Barbie would no longer say the phrase, and offered a swap to anyone who owned a doll that did.
Oakley and Weinstein decided to include Abe in the episode because they had an "obsession" with old people. Weinstein said they both "love them and seem to really hate them" at the same time. He also said that they enjoy writing for characters such as Abe and Mr. Burns because of their "out-datedness", and because he and Oakley get to use dictionaries for looking up "old time slang". Executive producer David Mirkin thought it was difficult to make Abe funny because he is a "boring and tedious" character. He thinks that even though "Abe's doing all these complaints, what makes him funny is that the things he says are actually funny in the context of the boring and tedium." Mirkin thought this was a "big challenge, and Bill and Josh pulled it off very well."
When the episode was in production, Oakley's wife Rachel Pulido was an enthusiastic Barbie collector. Oakley therefore spent a lot of time going to Barbie conventions across the United States and met many different collectors. At one convention, Oakley met the man who owned the world's largest Barbie collection. The meeting between the two inspired the part of the episode where Lisa visits Smithers and it is revealed that Smithers is the owner of the world's largest Malibu Stacy collection. Kathleen Turner guest starred in the episode as Stacy Lovell. Mirkin thought Turner was "completely game" when she showed up at the recording studio to record her lines as she "nailed" her lines really fast. He added that he enjoyed directing her and he thought she had one of the best performances ever on The Simpsons.
## Cultural references
`At the beginning of the episode, Abe watches his idol Ben Matlock talk to a crowd of excited seniors at the Grand Opening of the Center for Geriatric Medicine. Ben Matlock is a character from the NBC/ABC television series Matlock, portrayed by Andy Griffith and created by Dean Hargrove. The crowd cheer for Matlock by singing a slightly changed version of the "We Love You, Conrad" song from stage musical Bye Bye Birdie. Homer dances on giant piano keys recessed in the floor of the toy store, spoofing a scene from the 1988 film Big. Lisa wants Lisa Lionheart to have "the wisdom of Gertrude Stein, the wit of Cathy Guisewite, the tenacity of Nina Totenberg, the common sense of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and the down-to-earth good looks of Eleanor Roosevelt."`
Stacy Lovell's list of husbands features the action figures Ken, Johnny West, G.I. Joe, Doctor Colossus, and Steve Austin. Lisa's story about the Malibu Stacy doll saying phrases that are considered demeaning to women is based on the Teen Talk Barbie line of dolls and how they caused controversy. During one scene in the episode, one girl's Malibu Stacy doll says "My Spidey Sense is tingling! Anyone call for a web-slinger?", a reference to a practical joke by the Barbie Liberation Organization in the early 1990s in which the voiceboxes of talking Barbie and G.I. Joe toys were swapped.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson thought the episode was "good but not great", despite "more than a few strong moments, like the hilarious shot of Bart at the gay rights parade." He added that "most years this would be an A-list program, but it’s one of season five’s lesser lights despite a generally high level of quality." The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, described the episode as "Lisa at her crusading best, Homer at his stupidest and Abe getting all the best lines again, especially at Krusty Burgers. Kathleen Turner's spot as the real Malibu Stacy is superb."
Janica Lockhart of The Easterner called the episode a "classic" and added: "The episode takes on misogynist views, but in a humorous way, that only The Simpsons can master." Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A. DVD Talk's Bill Gibron gave it a score of 5 out of 5.
The episode is one of Oakley and Weinstein's favorites from their time as writers on the show. When The Simpsons began streaming on Disney+ in 2019, Oakley named this one of the best classic Simpsons episodes to watch on the service. One of Mirkin's favorite jokes on the show is the scene in this episode where Abe cycles down the street, shouting "Look at me, I'm acting young!" before Lisa's Malibu Stacy doll catches the front wheel of the bike, sending Abe flying into an open grave.
In the book The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer, Aeon J. Skoble cited the episode as an example in his piece titled: "Do We Admire or Laugh at Lisa?". He wrote: "The fact that the less intellectual doll is vastly preferred over Lisa's doll, even though Lisa's objections are reasonable, demonstrates the ways in which reasonable ideas can be made to take a back seat to having fun and going with the flow. This debate is often played out in the real world, of course: Barbie is the subject of perennial criticism along the lines of Lisa's critique of Malibu Stacy, yet remains immensely popular, and in general, we often see intellectual critiques of toys dismissed as 'out of touch' or elitist."
### Ratings
In its original broadcast, "Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy" finished 23rd in the ratings for the week of February 14–20, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 11.6, equivalent to 11 million viewing households. It was the second highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following Beverly Hills, 90210. |
276,145 | Thunderball (novel) | 1,159,951,807 | Novel by Ian Fleming | [
"1961 British novels",
"Action novels",
"Aviation novels",
"British novels adapted into films",
"British thriller novels",
"James Bond books",
"Jonathan Cape books",
"Novels by Ian Fleming",
"Novels set in the Bahamas",
"Thunderball (film)"
]
| Thunderball is the ninth book in Ian Fleming's James Bond series, and the eighth full-length Bond novel. It was first published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 27 March 1961, where the initial print run of 50,938 copies quickly sold out. The first novelisation of an unfilmed James Bond screenplay, it was born from a collaboration by five people: Ian Fleming, Kevin McClory, Jack Whittingham, Ivar Bryce and Ernest Cuneo, although the controversial shared credit of Fleming, McClory and Whittingham was the result of a courtroom decision.
The story centres on the theft of two atomic bombs by the crime syndicate SPECTRE and the subsequent attempted blackmail of the Western powers for their return. James Bond, Secret Service operative 007, travels to the Bahamas to work with his friend Felix Leiter, seconded back into the CIA for the investigation. Thunderball also introduces SPECTRE's leader Ernst Stavro Blofeld, in the first of three appearances in Bond novels, with On Her Majesty's Secret Service and You Only Live Twice being the others.
Thunderball has been adapted four times, once in a comic strip format for the Daily Express newspaper, twice for the cinema and once for the radio. The Daily Express strip was cut short on the order of its owner, Lord Beaverbrook, after Ian Fleming signed an agreement with The Sunday Times to publish a short story. On screen, Thunderball was released in 1965 as the fourth film in the Eon Productions series, with Sean Connery as James Bond. The second adaptation, Never Say Never Again, was released as an independent production in 1983 also starring Connery as Bond and was produced by Kevin McClory. BBC Radio 4 aired an adaptation in December 2016, directed by Martin Jarvis. It starred Toby Stephens as Bond and Tom Conti as Largo.
## Plot
During a meeting with his superior, M, Bond learns that his latest physical assessment is poor because of excessive drinking and smoking. M sends Bond to a health clinic for a two-week treatment to improve his condition. At the clinic Bond encounters Count Lippe, a member of the Red Lightning Tong criminal organisation from Macau. When Bond learns of the Tong connection, Lippe tries to kill him by tampering with a spinal traction table on which Bond is being treated. Bond is saved by nurse Patricia Fearing and later retaliates by trapping Lippe in a steam bath, causing second-degree burns and sending him to hospital for a week.
The Prime Minister receives a communiqué from SPECTRE (Special Executive for Counter-intelligence, Terrorism, Revenge and Extortion), a private criminal enterprise under the command of Ernst Stavro Blofeld. SPECTRE has hijacked a Villiers Vindicator and seized its two nuclear bombs, which it will use to destroy two major targets in the Western Hemisphere unless a ransom is paid. Lippe was dispatched to the clinic to oversee Giuseppe Petacchi, an Italian Air Force pilot stationed at a nearby bomber squadron base, and post the communiqué once the bombs were in SPECTRE's possession. Although Lippe has accomplished his tasks, Blofeld considers him unreliable because of his childish clash with Bond and has him killed.
Acting as a NATO observer of Royal Air Force procedure, Petacchi is in SPECTRE's pay to hijack the bomber in mid-flight by killing its crew and flying it to the Bahamas, where he ditches it in the ocean and it sinks in shallow water. SPECTRE crew members kill Petacchi, camouflage the wreck, and transfer the nuclear bombs onto the cruiser yacht Disco Volante for transport to an underwater hiding place. Emilio Largo, second-in-command of SPECTRE, oversees the operations.
The Americans and the British launch Operation Thunderball to foil SPECTRE and recover the two atomic bombs. On a hunch, M assigns Bond to the Bahamas to investigate. There, Bond meets Felix Leiter, who has been recalled to duty by the CIA from the Pinkerton detective agency because of the Thunderball crisis. While in Nassau, Bond meets Dominetta "Domino" Vitali, Largo's mistress and Petacchi's sister. She is living on board the Disco Volante and believes Largo is on a treasure hunt, although Largo makes her stay ashore while he and his partners supposedly survey the ocean for treasure. After seducing her, Bond informs her that Largo arranged her brother's death, and Bond recruits her to spy on Largo. Domino re-boards the Disco Volante with a Geiger counter disguised as a camera, to ascertain if the yacht has been used to transport the bombs. However, she is discovered and Largo tortures her for information.
Bond and Leiter alert the Thunderball war room of their suspicions of Largo and join the crew of the American nuclear submarine Manta as the ransom deadline nears. The Manta chases the Disco Volante to capture it and recover the bombs en route to the first target. Bond and Leiter lead a dive team in a fight against Largo's crew and a battle ensues. Bond stops Largo from escaping with the bombs; Largo corners him in an underwater cave and is about to kill him, only to be killed by Domino with a shot from a spear gun. The fight leaves six American divers and ten SPECTRE men dead, including Largo, and the bombs are recovered safely. As Bond recuperates in hospital, Leiter explains that Domino told Largo nothing under torture and later escaped from the Disco Volante to get revenge on him. Learning that she is also recovering from injuries, Bond crawls into her room and falls asleep at her bedside.
## Characters and themes
According to continuation Bond author Raymond Benson, there was further development of the Bond character in Thunderball, with glimpses of both his sense of humour and his own sense of mortality being shown. Felix Leiter had his largest role to date in a Bond story and much of his humour came through, whilst his incapacity, suffered in Live and Let Die, had not led to bitterness or to his being unable to join in with the underwater fight scene towards the end of the novel.
Academic Christoph Linder sees Thunderball as part of the second wave of Bond villains: the first wave consisted of SMERSH, the second of Blofeld and SPECTRE, undertaken because of the thawing of relations between East and West, although the cold war escalated again shortly afterwards, with the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis all occurring in an eighteen-month period from April 1961 to November 1962. The introduction of SPECTRE and its use over several books gives a measure of continuity to the remaining stories in the series, according to academic Jeremy Black. Black argues that SPECTRE represents "evil unconstrained by ideology" and it partly came about because the decline of the British Empire led to a lack of certainty in Fleming's mind. This is reflected in Bond's using US equipment and personnel in the novel, such as the Geiger counter and nuclear submarine.
## Background
As with the previous novels in the series, aspects of Thunderball come from Fleming's own experiences: the visit to the health clinic was inspired by his own 1955 trip to the Enton Hall health farm near Godalming and Bond's medical record, as read out to him by M, is a slightly modified version of Fleming's own. The name of the health farm, Shrublands, was taken from that of a house owned by the parents of his wife's friend, Peter Quennell. Fleming dedicates a quarter of the novel to the Shrublands setting and the naturalist cure Bond undergoes.
Bond's examination of the hull of Disco Volante was inspired by the ill-fated mission undertaken on 19 April 1956 by the ex-Royal Navy frogman "Buster" Crabb on behalf of MI6, as he examined the hull of the Soviet cruiser Ordzhonikidze that had brought Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin on a diplomatic mission to Britain. Crabb disappeared in Portsmouth Harbour and was never seen again. As well as having Buster Crabb in mind, Fleming would also recall the information about the 10th Light Flotilla, an elite unit of Italian navy frogmen who used wrecked ships in Gibraltar to launch attacks on Allied shipping. The specifications for Disco Volante herself had been obtained by Fleming from the Italian ship designer, Leopold Rodriguez.
As often happened in Fleming's novels, several names were taken from those of people he had known. Ernst Stavro Blofeld's name partially comes from Tom Blofeld, a Norfolk farmer and a fellow member of Fleming's club Boodle's, who was a contemporary of Fleming's at Eton. Tom Blofeld's son is Henry Blofeld, a sports journalist, best known as a cricket commentator for Test Match Special on BBC Radio. When Largo rents his beachside villa, it is from "an Englishman named Bryce", whose name was taken from Old Etonian Ivar Bryce, Fleming's friend, who had a beachside property in Jamaica called Xanadu.
Other names used by Fleming included a colleague at The Sunday Times, Robert Harling, who was transformed into Commissioner of Police Harling, whilst an ex-colleague from his stock broking days, Hugo Pitman, became Chief of Immigration Pitman and Fleming's golfing friend, Bunny Roddick, became Deputy Governor Roddick. The title Thunderball came from a conversation Fleming had about a US atomic test.
### Writing and copyright
#### Chronology
In mid-1958 Fleming and his friend, Ivar Bryce, began talking about the possibility of a Bond film. Later that year, Bryce introduced Fleming to a young Irish writer and director, Kevin McClory, and the three of them, together with Fleming and Bryce's friend Ernest Cuneo, formed the partnership Xanadu Productions, named after Bryce's Bahamian home, but which was never actually formed into a company. In May 1959 Fleming, Bryce, Cuneo and McClory met first at Bryce's Essex house and then in McClory's London home as they came up with a story outline which was based on an aeroplane full of celebrities and a female lead called Fatima Blush. McClory was fascinated by the underwater world and wanted to make a film that included it. Over the next few months, as the story changed, there were ten outlines, treatments and scripts. Several titles were proposed for these works, including SPECTRE, James Bond of the Secret Service and Longitude 78 West.
Much of the attraction Fleming felt working alongside McClory was based on McClory's film, The Boy and the Bridge, which was the official British entry to the 1959 Venice Film Festival. When the film was released in July 1959, it was poorly received, and did not do well at the box office; Fleming became disenchanted with McClory's ability as a result. In October 1959, with Fleming spending less time on the project, McClory introduced experienced screenwriter Jack Whittingham to the writing process. In November 1959 Fleming left to travel around the world on behalf of The Sunday Times, material for which Fleming also used for his non-fiction travel book, Thrilling Cities. On his travels—through Japan, Hong Kong and into the US—Fleming met with McClory and Ivar Bryce in New York and McClory told Fleming that Whittingham had completed a full outline, which was ready to shoot. Back in Britain in December 1959, Fleming met with McClory and Whittingham for a script conference and shortly afterwards McClory and Whittingham sent Fleming a script, Longitude 78 West, which Fleming considered to be good, although he changed the title to Thunderball.
In January 1960, McClory visited Fleming's Jamaican home Goldeneye, where Fleming explained his intention of delivering the screenplay to MCA, with a recommendation from him and Bryce that McClory act as producer. Fleming also told McClory that if MCA rejected the film because of McClory's involvement, then McClory should either sell his services to MCA, back out of the deal, or file suit in court.
Fleming wrote the novel Thunderball at Goldeneye over the period January to March 1960, based on the screenplay written by himself, Whittingham and McClory. In March 1961, McClory read an advance copy of the book and he and Whittingham immediately petitioned the High Court in London for an injunction to stop publication. The plagiarism case was heard on 24 March 1961 and allowed the book to be published, although the door was left open for McClory to pursue further action at a later date. He did so and on 19 November 1963, the case of McClory v Fleming was heard at the Chancery Division of the High Court. The case lasted three weeks, during which time Fleming was unwell—suffering a heart attack during the case itself—and, under advice from his friend Ivar Bryce, offered a deal to McClory, settling out of court. McClory gained the literary and film rights for the screenplay, while Fleming was given the rights to the novel, although it had to be recognised as being "based on a screen treatment by Kevin McClory, Jack Whittingham and the Author". On settlement, "Fleming ultimately admitted '[t]hat the novel reproduces a substantial part of the copyright material in the film scripts'; '[t]hat the novel makes use of a substantial number of the incidents and material in the film scripts'; and '[t]hat there is a general similarity of the story of the novel and the story as set out in the said film scripts'." On 12 August 1964, nine months after the trial ended, Fleming suffered another heart attack and died aged 56.
#### Script elements
When the script was first drafted in May 1959, with the storyline of an aeroplane of celebrities in the Atlantic, it included elements from Fleming's friend Ernie Cuneo, who included ships with underwater trapdoors in their hulls and an underwater battle scene. The Russians were originally the villains, then the Sicilian Mafia, but this was later changed again to the internationally operating criminal organisation, SPECTRE. Both McClory and Fleming claim to have come up with the concept of SPECTRE; Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett and John Cork both note Fleming as the originator of the group, Lycett saying that "[Fleming] proposed that Bond should confront not the Russians but SPECTRE ..." while Cork produced a memorandum in which Fleming called for the change to SPECTRE:
> My suggestion on (b) is that SPECTRE, short for Special Executive for Terrorism, Revolution and Espionage, is an immensely powerful organisation armed by ex-members of SMERSH, the Gestapo, the Mafia, and the Black Tong of Peking, which is placing these bombs in NATO bases with the objective of then blackmailing the Western powers for £100 million or else.
> Ian Fleming: memo to Whittingham and McClory
Cork also noted that Fleming used the word "spectre" previously: in the fourth novel, Diamonds Are Forever, for a town near Las Vegas called "Spectreville", and for "spektor", the cryptograph decoder in From Russia, with Love. Others, such as continuation Bond author Raymond Benson, disagree, saying that McClory came up with the SPECTRE concept.
Those elements which Fleming used which can be put down to McClory and Whittingham (either separately or together) include the airborne theft of a nuclear bomb, "Jo" Petachi and his sister Sophie, and Jo's death at the hands of Sophie's boss. The remainder of the screenplay was a two-year collaboration among Fleming, Whittingham, McClory, Bryce and Cuneo.
## Release and reception
Thunderball was published on 27 March 1961 in the UK as a hardcover edition by publishers Jonathan Cape; it was 253 pages long and cost 15 shillings. 50,938 copies were printed and quickly sold out. Thunderball was published in the US by Viking Press and sold better than any of the previous Bond books. Publishers Jonathan Cape spent £2,000 (£ in pounds) on advance publicity. Cape sent out 130 review copies to critics and others and 32,000 copies of the novel had been sent to 864 UK booksellers and 603 outside the UK.
Artist Richard Chopping once again provided the cover art for the novel. On 20 July 1960 Fleming wrote to Chopping to ask if he could undertake the art for the next book, agreeing on a fee of 200 guineas, saying that "I will ask [Jonathan Cape] to produce an elegant skeleton hand and an elegant Queen of Hearts. As to the dagger, I really have no strong views. I had thought of the ordinary flick knife as used by teenagers on people like you and me, but if you have a nice dagger in mind please let us use it."
In 2023 Ian Fleming Publications—the company that administers all Fleming's literary works—had the Bond series edited as part of a sensitivity review to remove or reword some racial or ethnic descriptors. The rerelease of the series was for the 70th anniversary of Casino Royale, the first Bond novel.
### Reviews
Thunderball was generally well received by the critics; Francis Iles, wrote in The Guardian that it "is a good, tough, straightforward thriller on perfectly conventional lines." Referring to the negative publicity that surrounded Dr. No—in particular the article by Paul Johnson in the New Statesman entitled, "Sex, Snobbery and Sadism"—Iles was left "wondering what all the fuss is about", noting that "there is no more sadism nor sex than is expected of the author of this kind of thriller". Peter Duval Smith, writing in Financial Times, also took the opportunity to defend Fleming's work against negative criticism and specifically named Johnson and his review: "one should not make a cult of Fleming's novels: a day-dream is a day-dream; but nor should one make the mistake of supposing he does not know what he is doing." Duval Smith thought that Thunderball was "an exciting story [...] skilfully told", with "a romantic sub-plot ... and the denouement involves great events" He also considered it "the best written since Diamonds Are Forever, four books back. It has pace and humour and style. The violence is not so unrelenting as usual: an improvement, I think." He also expressed concern for the central character, saying "I was glad to see him [Bond] in such good form. Earlier he seemed to be softening up. He was having bad hangovers on half-a-bottle of whisky a day, which I don't call a lot, unless he wasn't eating properly."
Writing in The Times Literary Supplement, Philip John Stead thought that Fleming "continues uninhibitedly to deploy his story-telling talents within the limits of the Commander Bond formula." Stead saw that the hijacking of the two bombs "gives Bond some anxiety but, needless to say, does not prevent him from having a good deal of fun in luxury surroundings", whilst "the usual beatings-up, modern style, are ingeniously administered to lady and gentleman like". As to why the novels were so appealing, Stead considered that "Mr. Fleming's special magic lies in his power to impart sophistication to his mighty nonsense; his fantasies connect with up-to-date and lively knowledge of places and of the general sphere of crime and espionage." Overall, in Stead's opinion, with Thunderball "the mixture, exotic as ever, generates an extravagant and exhilarating tale and Bond connoisseurs will be glad to have it." The critic for The Times wrote that Thunderball "relies for its kicks far less than did Dr. No or Goldfinger on sadism and a slightly condescending sophistication." The upshot, in the critic's opinion, was that "the mixture—of good living, sex and violent action—is as before, but this is a highly polished performance, with an ingenious plot well documented and plenty of excitement."
Writing in The Washington Post, Harold Kneeland noted that Thunderball was "Not top Fleming, but still well ahead of the pack", whilst Charles Poore, writing in The New York Times considered the Bond novels to be "post-Dostoevskian ventures in crime and punishment". Thunderball he found to be "a mystery story, a thriller, a chiller and a pleasure to read." Poore identified aspects of the author's technique to be part of the success, saying "the suspense and the surprises that animate the novel arise from the conceits with which Mr. Fleming decorates his tapestry of thieving and deceiving".
The critic from The Sunday Times considered Fleming to have "a sensational imagination, but informed by style, zest and—above all—knowledge". Anthony Boucher wrote that "As usual, Ian Fleming has less story to tell in 90,000 words than Buchan managed in 40,000; but Thunderball is still an extravagant adventure". The critic for the Daily Herald implored "Hey!—that man is taking his clothes off again. So is the girl ... Can anybody stop this? Unfortunately not. Not this side of the best-seller lists. I don't envy Mr Bond's wealthy creator, Ian Fleming. I wish I could pity him", whilst L.G. Offord considered Thunderball to be "just about as wild as ever, with a walloping climax."
## Adaptations
Comic strip (1961–1962)
A comic strip adaptation was published daily in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated worldwide, beginning on 11 December 1961. The owner of the Daily Express, Lord Beaverbrook, cancelled the strip on 10 February 1962 after Fleming signed an agreement with The Sunday Times for them to publish the short story "The Living Daylights". Thunderball was reprinted in 2005 by Titan Books as part of the Dr. No anthology that also includes Diamonds Are Forever and From Russia, with Love.
Thunderball (1965)
In 1965, the film Thunderball was released through United Artists. Starring Sean Connery as James Bond. The film was produced as the fourth Eon Productions film and, as well as listing Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman as producers, Kevin McClory was also included in the production team: Broccoli and Saltzman made a deal with McClory, to undertake a joint production of Thunderball, which stopped McClory from making any further version of the novel for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon-produced version. Thunderball premiered in Tokyo on 9 December 1965, grossing \$141.2 million at the global box office.
Never Say Never Again (1983)
In 1983 Kevin McClory produced a version of the Thunderball story, again with Sean Connery as Bond. The film premiered in New York on 7 October 1983, grossing \$9.72 million (\$ million in dollars) on its first weekend, which was reported to be "the best opening record of any James Bond film" up to that point.
Warhead (1990s)
In the 1990s, McClory announced plans to make another adaptation of the Thunderball story, Warhead 2000 AD, with Timothy Dalton or Liam Neeson in the lead role, but this was eventually dropped.
## See also
- List of James Bond novels and short stories
- Outline of James Bond
- The Battle for Bond |
60,898,430 | Muharram Rebellion | 1,172,920,640 | 18th-century Bengali uprising | [
"1782 in India",
"18th-century rebellions",
"Asian resistance to colonialism",
"Battles involving Bengal",
"Battles involving British India",
"Battles involving Great Britain",
"Battles involving the Mughal Empire",
"Bengal Presidency",
"British East India Company",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"History of Islam in Bangladesh",
"History of Sylhet",
"Military of British India",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Rebellions in Asia",
"Social movements in India",
"Sylhet",
"Wars involving the United Kingdom"
]
| The Muharram Rebellion (Bengali: মুহররমের হাঙ্গামা, romanized: Muhôrrômer Haṅgama) was a Bengali uprising which took place in early December 1782 against the East India Company in colonial Sylhet, eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh). The rebellion was under the leadership of the Pirzada and his two brothers, Syed Muhammad Hadi and Syed Muhammad Mahdi. The main battle took place in the Mughal-built Sylhet Shahi Eidgah and its surrounding hills.
## Background
In 1778, the British East India Company appointed Robert Lindsay as the Supervisor or Collector of Sylhet. During his leadership, Lindsay started to trade chunam (limestone), rattan, betel nut and elephants found in the Sylhet region. This business of Lindsay's stirred hate throughout the region. Lindsay describes in his autobiography, Anecdotes of an Indian life, that during his visit to the Dargah of Shah Jalal, he sensed some danger and also perceived it as a "potential hotbed of resistance". During this period, Mubarak Ali Khan was the Nawab of Bengal under the crumbling Mughal Empire ruled by Shah Alam II and Warren Hastings was the Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William.
In 1781, the region was afflicted with a major flood. Many farmlands and crops were damaged spreading famine throughout Sylhet. A third of the region's population died due to its effects. This increased hate between the two communities as the natives accused the British of failure in minimising the flood's consequences. It is said that Lindsay sent a letter to the government in Fort William to excise taxes during this period. This request of his was declined.
Lindsay mentions in his autobiography that he was approached by the native Hindus at his home in which he was informed of the uprising by the Muslims. The Hindus informed him that the Muslims planned an attack on the British government as well as some Hindu temples in Sylhet town. It is considered that this rivalry between the Hindus and Muslims existed due to the Hindus siding with British rather than helping the Muslims. Lindsay dismissed the Hindus as he could see no signs of riot and he was also aware that it was the Islamic month of Muharram in which the Muslims would be busy preparing for Ashura, which was just a few days away. Lindsay also mentions that it was uncommon for the Muslims to be violent, most probably due to the fact that Muharram is a sacred month in Islam, during which warfare is forbidden.
One narrative identifies the rebellion's leading Pirzada as the head of the Syeds of the Jhornar Par neighbourhood in Sylhet. This was an influential family descended from Syed Hamzah Shersowari, a companion of Shah Jalal who participated in the Muslim conquest of the region in 1303 CE and then settled atop the Jhornar Par hill where he lies buried in a mazar. The Pirzada's followers were not only in Sylhet, but also Mymensingh, Tippera (Comilla) and nearby areas. Muslims from across Bengal and Assam would travel to Sylhet during the month of Muharram for the processions.
## Rebellion day
In the evening, the Pirzada led a tazia procession of 300 alongside his brothers, Syed Muhammad Hadi and Syed Muhammad Mahdi (known locally as Hada Miah & Mada Miah). Many local civilians of the Muslim faith were also present during this procession. The parade marched through the Shahi Eidgah in Sylhet. The Mourning of Muharram consisted of a matam as well, which is why blades and swords were carried to the grounds. In a letter to the government at Fort William, Lindsay mentions that the Muslim rebels first killed Dewan Manik Chand in his house before setting many parts of the town to fire.
At 5 p.m., the Hindus returned to Lindsay's house where they showed their marks of attack on their body. However, it is unknown whether this true as other sources claim that the Hindus were not involved during the day as during that time the Muslims were scattering on top of the hills around the Eidgah instead of being situated in the lowlands where inhabitants lived. Lindsay then informed Masud Bakht, the Head Qanungo (Registrar) of Sylhet, and told his Muslim jamadar to ready 20 sepoys and go to the eidgah. Lindsay joined later on, marching with 30 more sepoys towards the eidgah, with some riding on horses. Armed with over 50 contingents, he ordered the rebels to surrender, however they fled towards the hills surrounding the field. This led to Lindsay and his men to attack the rebels and they followed them to the hills. Lindsay approached the Pirzada, ready for a swordfight. The Pirzada broke Lindsay's sword with his talwar. The Muslim jamadar quickly gave Lindsay his pistol. Lindsay then shot the Pirzada, causing him to pass away. The sepoys then discharged a platoon allowing Lindsay to then set off and leave the premise. As Lindsay was about to leave, he saw a wounded elderly man dropped on his feet after being attacked by a sepoy. Lindsay told the sepoy to stop as he picked the man back up and saved him.
Both Mada and Hada Miah also died with the latter being shot dead by Lindsay himself. Lindsay mentions that one of his sepoys died and 6 were left injured. The sepoy that died is said to have been the Jamadar himself. Lindsay mentions that 4 rebels died and many were injured.
## Aftermath
After the incident took place, Lindsay took his wounded soldiers to his hall where his rope-maker, Job Hinton, stitched up their wounds and provided treatment. Lindsay also imprisoned many important Muslims from the town as hostages in his home. Nevertheless, this was short-lasted as one of Lindsay's men known as Beck and other Europeans requested their release fearing another revolt as they reported seeing Muslim men lighting torches and fires around the town. Lindsay sent another military force to the town, not because there was another revolt, rather the Muslims were burying their dead men and required light due to it being late at night. Hada and Mada Miah were buried next to Sylhet Shahi Eidgah at a place now located east of Nayasarak Madrasa and west of Nayasarak missionary church. Lindsay then issued a statement stating that rebels to the government should not be allowed to be honoured. He also sent a letter, on 14 December, to the Governor of the Presidency of Fort William, Warren Hastings, of the event. Reinforcements of troops were considered in order to increase defence in the region in case of another rebellion, as two days remained of the Muharram festival which lasts for 10 days, ending at Ashura. Lindsay mentioned that although two days remained, he was not expecting any more trouble from the local people as main "desperadoes" were killed and the survivors had suffered too much.
This first uprising in the subcontinent inspired many others in the subcontinent. It also made the British rule even more unpopular in the Sylhet region, with the death of the Pirzada. A few months after the incident, Lindsay was having dinner his friend Hamilton. Lindsay's servant informed Lindsay that there was a faqir who urgently desired to speak to him. The faqir then came inside and complained of how he had been robbed of all his belongings. As a short discussion took place, the faqir then suddenly took out a poignard from his cummerbund and struck Hamilton, who pushed it back to the faqir's chest. The faqir died a few days later.
After Lindsay's return to Scotland many years succeeding the conflict, he came across a Bengali Muslim man from Sylhet named Saeed Ullah whilst visiting the house of his clergyman, Mr Small. After engaging in a conversation, Lindsay found out that Saeed came as an attendant of Mr Small's son, who was the ship purser. Saeed mentioned his intention to hunt down the Pirzada's killer and avenge his death. He was also the son of the old man whom Lindsay had saved. Upon finding out Lindsay's identity, Saeed drew his sword which Lindsay avoided. As the scene calmed down, the two men made peace and Lindsay obliged Saeed to make a curry for his family. Saeed agreed, although the Lindsay family were suspicious on whether the dish was poisonous as Saeed never tasted it once while preparing it. Lindsay denied this as he mentioned that he had never had a better curry in his life, and acknowledged the fact that Saeed only ate halal meat (dhabihah) which was the reason behind him not tasting it.
The northern hill of Sylhet Shahi Eidgah is named after Hada and Mada Miah, who fought on top of that exact hill.
## See also
- Rahimullah of Baraikhali
- Nankar Rebellion
- Revolt of Radharam |
28,537,869 | Inland Customs Line | 1,170,315,340 | 19th century British customs barrier in India | [
"Border barriers",
"Customs duties",
"Economic history of India",
"Economic history of Pakistan",
"Economy of British India",
"Fences",
"Internal borders of India",
"Salt industry in India",
"Salt tax",
"Separation barriers",
"Walls"
]
| The Inland Customs Line, incorporating the Great Hedge of India (or Indian Salt Hedge), was a customs barrier built by the British colonial rulers of India to prevent smuggling of salt from coastal regions in order to avoid the substantial salt tax.
The customs line was begun under the East India Company and continued into direct British rule. The line had its beginnings in a series of customs houses established in Bengal in 1803 to prevent the smuggling of salt to avoid the tax. These customs houses were eventually formed into a continuous barrier that was brought under the control of the Inland Customs Department in 1843.
The line was gradually expanded as more territory was brought under British control until it covered more than 2,500 miles (4,000 km), often running alongside rivers and other natural barriers. It ran from the Punjab in the northwest to the princely states of Orissa, near the Bay of Bengal, in the southeast. The line was initially made of dead, thorny material such as the Indian plum but eventually evolved into a living hedge that grew up to 12 feet (3.7 m) high and was compared to the Great Wall of China. The Inland Customs Department employed customs officers, jemadars and men to patrol the line and apprehend smugglers, reaching a peak of more than 14,000 staff in 1872.
The line and hedge were abandoned in 1879 when the British seized control of the Sambhar Salt Lake in Rajasthan and applied tax at the point of manufacture. The salt tax itself remained in place until 1946.
## Origins
When the Inland Customs Line was first conceived, British India was governed by the East India Company. This situation lasted until 1858 when the responsibility for government of the colony was transferred to the Crown following the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By 1780 Warren Hastings, the company's Governor-General of India, had brought all salt manufacture in the Bengal Presidency under company control. This allowed him to increase the ancient salt tax in Bengal from 0.3 rupees per maund (37 kg) to 3.25 rupees per maund by 1788, a rate that it remained at until 1879. This brought in 6,257,470 rupees for the 1784–85 financial year, at a cost to an average Indian family of around two rupees per year (two months' income for a labourer). There were taxes on salt in the other British India territories but the tax in Bengal was the highest, with the other taxes at less than a third of the Bengal tax rate.
It was possible to avoid paying the salt tax by extracting salt illegally in salt pans, stealing it from warehouses or smuggling salt from the princely states which remained outside of direct British rule. The latter was the greatest threat to the company's salt revenues. Much of the smuggled salt came into Bengal from the west and the company decided to act to prevent this trade. In 1803 a series of customs houses and barriers were constructed across major roads and rivers in Bengal to collect the tax on traded salt as well as duties on tobacco and other imports. These customs houses were backed up by "preventative customs houses" located near salt works and the coast in Bengal to collect the tax at source.
These customs houses alone did little to prevent the mass avoidance of the salt tax. This was due to the lack of a continuous barrier, corruption within the customs staff and the westward expansion of Bengal towards salt-rich states. In 1823 the Commissioner of Customs for Agra, George Saunders, installed a line of customs posts along the Ganges and Yamuna rivers from Mirzapur to Allahabad that would eventually evolve into the Inland Customs Line. The main aim was to prevent salt from being smuggled from the south and west but there was also a secondary line running from Allahabad to Nepal to prevent smuggling from the Northwest frontier. The annexation of Sindh and the Punjab allowed the line to be extended north-west by G. H. Smith, who had become Commissioner of Customs in 1834. Smith exempted items such as tobacco and iron from taxation to concentrate on salt and was responsible for expanding and improving the line, increasing its budget to 790,000 rupees per year and the staff to 6,600 men. Under Smith, the line saw many reforms and was officially named the Inland Customs Line in 1843.
## Inland Customs Line
Smith's new Inland Customs Line was first concentrated between Agra and Delhi and consisted of a series of customs posts at one mile intervals, linked by a raised path with gateways (known as "chokis") to allow people to cross the line every four miles. Policing of the barrier and surrounding land, to a distance of 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 km), was the responsibility of the Inland Customs Department, headed by a Commissioner of Inland Customs. The department staffed each post with an Indian Jemadar (approximately equivalent to a British Warrant Officer) and ten men, backed up by patrols operating 2–3 miles behind the line. The line was mainly concerned with the collection of the salt tax but also collected tax on sugar exported from Bengal and functioned as a deterrent against opium, bhang and cannabis smuggling.
The end of company rule in 1858 allowed the British government to expand Bengal through territorial acquisitions, updating the line as needed. In 1869 the government in Calcutta ordered the connection of sections of the line into a continuous customs barrier stretching 2,504 miles (4,030 km) from the Himalayas to Orissa, near the Bay of Bengal. This distance was said to be the equivalent of London to Constantinople. The north section from Tarbela to Multan was lightly guarded with posts spread further apart as the wide Indus River was judged to provide a sufficient barrier to smuggling. The more heavily guarded section was around 1,429 miles (2,300 km) long and began at Multan, running along the rivers Sutlej and Yamuna before terminating south of Burhanpur. The final 794-mile (1,278 km) section reverted to longer distances between customs posts and ran east to Sonapur.
In the 1869–70 financial year the line collected 12.5 million rupees in salt tax and 1 million rupees in sugar duties at a cost of 1.62 million rupees in maintenance. In this period the line employed around 12,000 men and maintained 1,727 customs posts. By 1877 the salt tax was worth £6.3 million (approx 29.1 million rupees) to the British government in India, with the majority being collected in the Madras and Bengal provinces, lying on either side of the customs line.
## Great Hedge
It is not known when an actual live hedge was first grown along the customs line but it is likely that it began in the 1840s when thorn bushes, cut and laid along the line as a barrier (known as the "dry hedge", see also dead hedge), took root. By 1868 it had become 180 miles (290 km) of "thoroughly impenetrable" hedge. The original dry hedge consisted mainly of samples of the dwarf Indian plum fixed to the line with stakes. This hedge was at risk of attack by white ants, rats, fire, storms, locusts, parasitic creepers, natural decay and strong winds which could destroy furlongs at a time and necessitated constant maintenance. Allan Octavian Hume, Commissioner of Inland Customs from 1867 to 1870, estimated that each mile of dry hedge required 250 tons of material to construct and that this material had to be carried to the line from between 0.25 and 6 miles (0.40 and 9.66 km) away. The amount of labour involved in such a task was one of the reasons that a live hedge was encouraged, particularly as damage required the replacement of around half of the dry hedge each year.
In 1869 Hume, in preparation for a rapid expansion of the live hedge, began trials of various indigenous thorny shrubs to see which would be suited to different soil and rainfall conditions. The result was that the main body of the hedge was composed of Indian plum, babool, karonda and several species of Euphorbia. The prickly pear was used where conditions meant that nothing else could grow, as was found in parts of the Hisar district, and in other places bamboo was planted. Where the soil was poor it was dug out and replaced or overlain with better soil and in flood plains the hedge was planted on a raised bank to protect it. The hedge was watered from nearby wells or rainwater collected in large, purpose-built trenches and a "well made" road was constructed along its entire length.
Hume was responsible for transforming the hedge from "a mere line of persistently dwarf seedlings, or of irregularly scattered, disconnected bushes" into a formidable barrier that, by the end of his tenure as commissioner, contained 448.75 miles (722.19 km) of "perfect" hedge and 233.5 miles (375.8 km) of "strong and good", but not impenetrable hedge. The hedge was nowhere less than 8 feet (2.4 m) high and 4 feet (1.2 m) thick and in some places was 12 feet (3.7 m) high and 14 feet (4.3 m) thick. Hume himself remarked that his barrier was "in its most perfect form, ... utterly impassable to man or beast".
Hume also substantially realigned the Inland Customs Line, joining separate sections and removing some of the spurs that were no longer necessary. Where this happened, whole runs of hedge were abandoned, and the men would have to construct a hedge from scratch on the new alignment. The living hedge was terminated at Burhanpur in the south, beyond which it could not grow, and at Layyah in the north where it met the River Indus, whose strong current was judged sufficient to deter smugglers. Historian Henry Francis Pelham compared the use of the Indus in this way to that of the River Main, in modern Germany, for the Roman Limes Germanicus fortifications.
Hume was replaced as Commissioner of Customs in 1870 by G. H. M. Batten who would hold the post for the next six years. His administration saw little realignment of the hedge but extensive strengthening of the existing run, including the building of stone walls and ditch and bank systems where the hedge could not be grown. By the end of Batten's first year he had increased the length of "perfect" hedge by 111.25 miles (179.04 km), and by 1873 the central portion between Agra and Delhi was said to be almost impregnable. The line was altered slightly in 1875–6 to run alongside the newly built Agra Canal, which was judged a sufficient obstacle to allow the distance between guard posts to be increased to 1.5 miles (2.4 km).
Batten's replacement as Commissioner was W. S. Halsey who would be the last to be in charge of the Great Hedge. Under Halsey's control the hedge grew to its greatest extent, reaching a peak of 411.5 miles (662.2 km) of "perfect" and "good" live hedge by 1878 with a further 1,109.5 miles (1,785.6 km) of inferior hedge, dry hedge or stone wall. The live hedge extended to at least 800 miles (1,300 km) and in places was backed up with an additional dry hedge barrier. All maintenance work was halted on the hedge in 1878 after a decision was made to abandon the line in 1879.
## Tree and plants
Carissa carandas, an easy-to-grow drought-resistant sturdy shrub that grows in a variety of soil and produces berry size fruits rich in iron and vitamin C which is used for pickle, was one of the shrubs used because it is ideal for hedges, growing rapidly, densely and needing little attention. Senegalia catechu, Zizyphus jujube, prickly pear, and Euphorbia were some of the other shrubs plants and trees used for the hedge.
## Staff
The customs line and hedge required a large number of staff to patrol and maintain it. The majority of the staff were Indian, with their officers coming mainly from the British. In 1869 the Inland Customs Department employed 136 officers, 2,499 petty officers and 11,288 men on the line, reaching a peak of 14,188 men of all ranks in 1872, after which staff numbers declined to around 10,000 as expansion slowed and the hedge matured. The Indian staff were recruited disproportionately from the Muslim population, who constituted 42 per cent of the customs men. The men were intentionally stationed in areas away from their home towns which, together with their removal of local wood for the hedge, made them unpopular among local people. To encourage co-operation, those Indians who lived in villages near the line were allowed to carry up to 2 pounds (0.9 kg) of salt across for free.
The job of customs man was highly desirable due to its high pay of five rupees per month (agricultural wages were around three rupees a month), which could be topped up with the proceeds from the sale of seized salt. However the men were forced to live away from their families in order to minimise distractions and were not provided with houses, being expected to build their own from mud or wood. In 1868 the Inland Customs department allowed the men's families to join them on the line, as the previous order had led to customs men straying from their posts and associating too closely with local women. The men worked twelve-hour days consisting of two equal day and night shifts. The principal tasks were patrolling and maintaining the hedge; in 1869 alone the customs men carried out 18 million miles (29 million km) of patrols, dug 2 million cubic feet (57,000 cubic metres) of earth and carried over 150,000 tons of thorny material for the hedge. There was a fairly high level of turnover in the staff; for example, in 1876-7 more than 800 men left the service. This included 115 customs men who died on the line, 276 dismissed, 30 deserted on duty, 360 failing to rejoin after leave and 23 removed for being unfit.
The officer corps was almost entirely British; attempts to attract Indian men to the post proved unsuccessful, as the officers were required to be fluent in English, and such men could easily find better paid work in other fields. The job was tough, with each officer responsible for 100 men on 10 to 30 miles (16 to 48 km) of the line, and working through Sundays and holidays. The officers undertook at least one customs excursion per day on average, weighing and applying tax to almost 200 pounds (91 kg) of goods, in addition to personally patrolling around 9 miles (14 km) of the line. The only other British men they would meet while on the line would typically be officers of adjacent beats and senior officers who visited about three times a year.
## Abandonment
Several British viceroys considered dismantling the line, as it was a major obstacle to free travel and trade across the subcontinent. This was partly due to the use of the line for the collection of taxes on sugar (which made up 10 per cent of the revenues) as well as salt, meaning that traffic had to be stopped and searched in both directions. In addition the line had created a confusing number of different customs jurisdictions in the area surrounding it. The viceroys were also displeased with the corruption and bribery which was present in the Inland Customs system, and the way the line came to serve as a symbol of unjust taxes (parts were set on fire during the Indian Rebellion of 1857). However, the government could not afford to lose the revenue generated by the line and hence, before they could abolish it, needed to take control of all salt production in India, so that tax could be applied at the point of manufacture.
The Viceroy from 1869 to 1872, Lord Mayo, took the first steps towards abolition of the line, instructing British officials to negotiate agreements with the rulers of princely states to take control of salt production. The process was speeded up by Mayo's successor, Lord Northbrook, and by the loss of revenue caused by the Great Famine of 1876–78 that reduced the land tax and killed 6.5 million people. Having secured salt production, British India's Finance Minister, Sir John Strachey, led a review of the tax system and his recommendations, implemented by Viceroy Lord Lytton, resulted in the increase of the salt tax in Madras, Bombay and northern India to 2.5 rupees per maund and a reduction in Bengal to 2.9 rupees. This reduced difference in tax between neighbouring territories made smuggling uneconomical and allowed for the abandonment of the Inland Customs Line on 1 April 1879. The tax on sugar and 29 other commodities had been abolished a year earlier. Strachey's tax reforms continued, and he brought an end to import duties and almost complete free trade to India by 1880. In 1882 Viceroy Lord Ripon finally standardised the salt tax across most of India at a rate of two rupees per maund. However the trans-Indus districts of India continued to be taxed at eight annas (1⁄2 rupee) per maund until 23 July 1896 and Burma maintained its reduced rate of just three annas. The equalisation of tax cost the government 1.2 million rupees of lost revenue. The potential for salt to be smuggled from the Kohat (trans-Indus) region meant that the north-western section of the line, some 325 miles long from Layyah to Torbela, continued to be policed by the Department of Salt Revenue in Northern India until at least 1895.
## Impact
### On health
The use of the customs line to maintain the higher salt tax in Bengal is likely to have had a detrimental effect on the health of Indians through salt deprivation. The higher prices within the area enclosed by the line meant that the average annual salt consumption was just 8 pounds (3.6 kg) compared with up to 16 pounds (7.3 kg) outside the line. Indeed, the British government's own figures showed that the barrier directly affected salt consumption, reducing it to below the level that regulations prescribed for English soldiers serving in India and that supplied to prisoners in British jails. The consumption of salt was further lowered during the periods of famine that affected India in the 19th century.
It is impossible to know how many died from salt deprivation in India as a result of the salt tax as salt deficiency was not often recorded as a cause of death and was instead more likely to worsen the effects of other diseases and hinder recoveries. It is known that the equalisation of tax made salt cheaper on the whole, decreasing the tax imposed on 130 million people and increasing it on just 47 million, leading to an increase in the use of the mineral. Consumption grew by 50 per cent between 1868 and 1888 and doubled by 1911, by which time salt had become cheaper (relatively).
The rate of salt tax was increased to 2.5 rupees per maund in 1888 to compensate for the loss of revenue from falling silver prices, but this had no adverse effect on salt consumption. The salt tax remained a controversial means of collecting revenue and became the subject of the 1930 Salt Satyagraha, a civil disobedience movement led by Mohandas Gandhi against British rule. During the Satyagraha Gandhi and others marched to the salt producing area of Dandi and defied the salt laws, leading to the imprisonment of 80,000 Indians. The march drew significant publicity to the Indian independence movement but failed to get the tax repealed. The salt tax would finally be abolished by the Interim Government of India, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, in October 1946. The government of Indira Gandhi overlaid much of the old route with roads.
### On liberty
Sir John Strachey, the minister whose tax review led to the abolition of the line, was quoted in 1893 describing the line as "a monstrous system, to which it would be almost impossible to find a parallel in any tolerably civilised country".
This has been echoed by modern writers such as journalist Madeleine Bunting, who wrote in The Guardian in February 2001 that the line was "one of the most grotesque and least well known achievements of the British in India".
The massive scale of the undertaking has also been commented upon, with both Hume, the customs commissioner, and M. E. Grant Duff, who was Under-Secretary of State for India from 1868 to 1874, comparing the hedge to the Great Wall of China. The abolition of the line and equalisation of tax has generally been viewed as a good move, with one writer of 1901 stating that it "relieved the people and the trade along a broad belt of country, 2,000 miles long, from much harassment". Sir Richard Temple, governor of the Bengal and Bombay Presidencies, wrote in 1882 that "the inland customs line for levying the salt-duties has been at length swept away" and that care must be taken to ensure that the "evils of the obsolete transit-duties" did not return. However, the same year, the India Salt Act of 1882 explicitly prohibited Indians from collecting or selling salt and continued to limit access to the vital product at affordable prices.
### On smuggling
The Line was intended was to prevent smuggling, and in this respect it was fairly successful. Smugglers who were caught by customs men were arrested and fined around 8 rupees, those that could not pay being imprisoned for around six weeks. The number of smugglers caught increased as the line extended and was built up. In 1868 2,340 people were convicted of smuggling after being caught on the line, this rose to 3,271 smugglers in 1873–74 and to 6,077 convicted in 1877–78.
Several methods of smuggling were employed. Early on, when patrols were patchy, large scale smuggling was common, with armed gangs breaking through the line with herds of salt-laden camels or cattle. As the line was strengthened, smugglers changed tactics and would try to disguise salt and bring it through the line or throw it over the hedge. Sometimes smugglers hid salt within the jurisdiction of the customs department to collect the 50 per cent finders fee.
Clashes between smugglers and customs men were often violent. Customs officials "harassed Indian people and exhorted bribes". Many of the smugglers died, with examples including one drowning while trying to escape by swimming an irrigation tank and another accidentally killed by other smugglers during a fight with customs men. In September 1877, one large skirmish occurred when two customs men attempted to apprehend 112 smugglers and were both killed. Many of the gang were later caught and either imprisoned or transported.
## Rediscovery
Despite its scale, the customs line and associated hedge were not widely known in either Britain or India, the standard histories of the period neglecting to mention them. Roy Moxham, a conservator at the University of London library, wrote a book on the customs line and his search for its remains that was published in 2001. This followed his finding, in 1995, of a passing mention of the hedge in Major-General Sir William Henry Sleeman's work Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official. Moxham looked up the hedge in the India Office Records of the British Library and determined to locate its remnants.
Moxham conducted extensive research in London before making three trips to India to look for any remains of the line. In 1998 he located a small raised embankment in the Etawah district in Uttar Pradesh which may be all that remains of the Great Hedge of India. Moxham's book, which he claims to be the first on the subject, details the history of the line and his attempts to locate its modern remains. The book was translated into Marathi by Anand Abhyankar in 2007 and into Tamil by Cyril Alex in 2015.
In July 2015, the Children's BBC channel outlined the hedge on Horrible Histories, watched that week by 207,000 viewers.
Artist Sheila Ghelani and Sue Palmer produced live art performances of a piece called "Common Salt", about the hedge. Their book on the subject was published in July 2021 by Live Art Development Agency.
In August 2021, journalist Kamala Thiagarajan wrote about the hedge on BBC Future's "Lost Index" series.
> Moxham was recently invited to a conference on Nuclear Energy in Verdun, France to speak about the Great Hedge. "They were intrigued by how such a big project could have disappeared from memory in such a short time," says Moxham. The delegates saw it as proof enough that the world could forget anything – including the cost of nuclear warfare or the grave dangers posed by improperly disposing of radioactive waste – all of which could have severe consequences if ever erased from public memory.
## See also
- The Great Green Wall of Aravalli, a 1,600 km long and 5 km wide green ecological corridor of India
- Great Green Wall, across North Africa in Sahara desert
- Three-North Shelter Forest Program, a Chinese anti-desertification program started in 1978 |
2,825,518 | El Toro (Six Flags Great Adventure) | 1,172,858,518 | Wooden roller coaster | [
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| El Toro (Spanish for The Bull) is a wooden roller coaster located at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township, New Jersey. Designed by Werner Stengel and manufactured by Intamin, the ride opened to the public on June 11, 2006. Intamin subcontracted Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) to build the ride, and the coaster's track was prefabricated, allowing for quicker installation and lower construction costs. El Toro is the main attraction of the Mexican-themed section of the park, Plaza Del Carnaval. It replaced another roller coaster, Viper, which closed following the 2004 season.
When it opened, El Toro had the steepest drop of any wooden roller coaster in the world at 76 degrees, a record that was later broken by T Express at Everland in 2008. Among wooden coasters, its height of 181 feet (55 m) ranks fourth, its drop height of 176 feet (54 m) ranks second, and its maximum speed of 70 mph (110 km/h) ranks third. The coaster has been well-received, and with the exception of its first two years of operation, has consistently ranked in the top three of the annual Golden Ticket Awards publication from Amusement Today.
## History
El Toro sits on the former site of Viper, which closed in 2004. All components of Viper were removed in early 2005, except for the station. El Toro was announced on September 28, 2005, along with Bugs Bunny National Park, a new themed area for children. It was also announced El Toro would be part of a new themed area known as Plaza del Carnaval, which would also include the adjacent wooden racing coaster, Rolling Thunder. Al Rubano, the director of Six Flags Great Adventure's construction committee, oversaw the ride's construction. The lift hill was topped out on December 20, 2005, at a height of 188 feet (57 m). The ride started testing on Memorial Day weekend in 2006. The ride had a surprise opening on June 11, then held its grand opening on June 12.
El Toro uses the same station as Viper, the coaster that formerly stood on the site. El Toro also sits partially on land once shared by Great Adventure's first wooden coaster, Rolling Thunder.
## Description
El Toro carries a Mexican theme, and its name translates to "The bull" in Spanish. Each train has a bull's head ornament mounted on the front. The line queue of the ride is surrounded by Southwestern-style buildings of Plaza del Carnaval, and it features abandoned "wagon wheels" and Spanish posters along a wall separating the queue from the ride.
### Ride layout
After departing from the station, the train makes a turn to the left, passing through the ride's structure. It then begins to climb the 181-foot (55 m) tall cable lift hill. Once the entire train is on the lift the cable increases its speed to around 13 mph. Once at the top of the lift the speed of the cable gently slows down, but it is barely noticeable on the ride. After cresting the top of the lift, the train briefly travels forward and makes a 180 degree turn to the left. It then drops 176 feet (54 m) at a 76 degree angle, reaching a top speed of 70 miles per hour (110 km/h). As the train reaches the bottom of the drop, it comes close to the track above, creating a headchopper-effect. It then travels up a 112-foot (34 m) camelback hill followed by a second camelback hill at 100 feet (30 m). It then rises and then travels through a 180 degree downward-banked turn to the right, and up another banked turn to the left. The train goes through a small second hill that speeds past the station and the lakeside. The train then makes another turn and up a smaller hill where riders experience -2 g forces on an ejector airtime hill, crossing over the former Rolling Thunder track. After coming down the drop, the train snakes through twists and turns. After coming out of the twister section, the train slows down as it moves through small "S" curve camelback hills and into the brake run.
### Trains
El Toro operates two trains, labeled A and B, each with six cars per train. Riders are arranged two across in three rows for a total of 36 riders per train. It has a theoretical capacity of 1,200 guests per hour. One train has Kia Soul advertising wrapped onto the train itself. The other train has the classic train design, featuring the bull horns on the front of the train. The trains have padded "wings" at shoulder level to prevent riders from being thrown too far to the side in the final twister section.
In 2010, one of the trains was re-themed to endorse Stride Gum. The train was wrapped in Stride Gum advertisements, showing a different flavor of Stride gum on each car. The advertisements remained on the train for the entire 2011 season, but were removed before the start of the 2012 season and replaced with Kia Soul advertising.
### Track
The wooden track is approximately 4,400 feet (1,300 m) in length, and the height of the lift is approximately 181 feet (55 m). El Toro is very different from a traditional wooden roller coaster because it uses prefabricated wooden track. It was built and designed by Intamin, who also worked with employees of Rocky Mountain Construction to build the ride. Instead of carpenters cutting, shaping, and laying down the track on site by hand, the track is laser cut in a factory. This means that the track is manufactured to a higher degree of precision than could be achieved by hand. The "Plug and Play" aspect of the coaster speeds its construction, since track does not have to be completely manufactured on site. In addition, because of the speed of construction, the costs of building the coaster are lowered due to fewer man-hours spent on its construction. The riders are subject to a coaster whose track is as smooth as steel. El Toro is the first Intamin "Plug and Play" (Pre-Fab) wooden roller coaster in the United States and one of four in the world. The other three are Colossos at Heide Park in Germany, Balder at Liseberg in Sweden, and T Express at Everland in South Korea.
## Records
When El Toro debuted, it broke records as the second-tallest and fastest with the second-longest drop of a wooden roller coaster in the United States. As of 2016, El Toro has the third fastest speed, the third-tallest lift, and the second longest drop.
## Incidents
After El Toro suffered a malfunction with the lift motor in early August 2013, the roller coaster was closed for several weeks. The motor was sent to Intamin's American headquarters in Maryland for repairs.
On June 29, 2021, a train partially derailed when the rear car's up-stop wheels, which are designed to prevent the train from lifting off the track, moved out of place and up onto the track. The cause of the accident was not released to the public, as the information was considered "proprietary", but all riders were able to safely exit the ride. El Toro was closed for most of Six Flags Great Adventure's 2021 operating season, pending the outcome of an investigation from Intamin. Although the park was not fined for the accident itself, the park was fined \$5,000 for failure to immediately notify the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs following the incident. In early 2022, it was announced that El Toro would reopen on April 2, 2022.
On August 25, 2022, a malfunction occurred near the end of the ride, causing minor injuries to 14 riders, with five taken to a nearby hospital. The park closed the ride indefinitely, pending an investigation into the incident. An anonymous ride operator alleged that issues from previous incidents had not been fixed, saying in an interview with WCBS-TV: "The employees keep telling them that there is an issue with the pothole and maintenance has done nothing about it." Six Flags officials reported on August 30, 2022, that El Toro's safety systems were working properly and that the ride would reopen after it had been repaired. In September 2022, the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs (DCA) said El Toro was "structurally compromised", which would force El Toro to remain closed indefinitely. The DCA said it would also conduct an engineering review of El Toro and consult with Intamin. Six Flags officials said they expected to reopen the ride for the 2023 season, and it reopened on June 17, 2023.
## Awards and rankings
When the ride debuted, it ranked 3rd for "Best New Ride of 2006" in the Golden Ticket Awards. |
153,295 | Daniel Radcliffe | 1,172,956,014 | English actor (born 1989) | [
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| Daniel Jacob Radcliffe (born 23 July 1989) is an English actor. He rose to fame at age 12, when he began portraying Harry Potter in the film series of the same name, from Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (2001) to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 (2011). The series made him one of the world's highest-paid actors.
Radcliffe branched out to stage acting in 2007, starring in the West End and Broadway productions of Equus. He returned to Broadway in the musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (2011), earning a Grammy Award nomination. His other Broadway roles include Martin McDonagh's drama The Cripple of Inishmaan (2014) and Stephen Sondheim's musical Merrily We Roll Along (2023). His other West End roles were in revivals of Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (2017) and Samuel Becket's Endgame (2020).
Radcliffe also expanded his film roles, acting in a variety of genres such as the horror film The Woman in Black (2012), surreal drama Swiss Army Man (2016), thriller Now You See Me 2 (2016), and comedy The Lost City (2022). He also portrayed Allen Ginsberg in the biopic Kill Your Darlings (2013) and Weird Al Yankovic in the musical Weird: The Al Yankovic Story (2022). The latter earned him nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award and a British Academy Television Award. He has also played multiple roles in the anthology comedy television series Miracle Workers since 2019.
Radcliffe has contributed to many charities, including Demelza Hospice Care for Children and the Trevor Project; the latter awarded him its Hero Award in 2011 for his advocacy with LGBTQ youth.
## Early life and education
Daniel Jacob Radcliffe was born at Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital in Hammersmith, London, England on 23 July 1989, the only child of Marcia Jeannine Gresham (née Jacobson) and literary agent Alan George Radcliffe. His Jewish mother was born in South Africa, traces her ancestry to Jewish immigrants from Germany, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia, and was raised in the English town of Westcliff-on-Sea in Essex. His Northern Irish father was raised in a "very working-class" Protestant family in Banbridge in County Down. In 2019, he explored both sides of his family history in the BBC genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are? Radcliffe's parents had both acted as children. As a casting agent, his mother was involved in BBC productions including The Inspector Lynley Mysteries.
Radcliffe was educated at three private schools for boys in London: Redcliffe School, Sussex House School, and the City of London School. After the release of the first Harry Potter film, attending school proved difficult for him as some fellow pupils became hostile, though he states they were just trying to "have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter" rather than acting out of jealousy. As his acting career began to consume his schedule, he continued his education through on-set tutors. He has admitted to not being a very good student, considering school useless and finding the work "really difficult". He achieved A grades in the three AS level exams that he took in 2006, but decided to take a break from education and did not attend university. Part of his reasoning was he already knew he wanted to be an actor and screenwriter, and it would be difficult to have a normal college experience.
## Career
### 1999–2001: Acting debut and early career
Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at age five. After one of his mother's casting agent friends secured him an audition, he made his acting debut at age ten in BBC One's two-part adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel David Copperfield (1999), portraying the title character as a young boy. He made his film debut in The Tailor of Panama (2001), an American film based on John le Carré's 1996 spy novel, which was a moderate commercial success.
### 2001–2011: Stardom with Harry Potter
In 2000, producer David Heyman met Radcliffe while he was at the theatre with his father, a well-known literary agent who Heyman was friends with. He asked him to audition for the role of Harry Potter for the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best-selling book by British author J. K. Rowling. Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character, and the film's director Chris Columbus recalled thinking, "This is what I want. This is Harry Potter" after he saw a video of the young actor in David Copperfield. Eight months later, following several auditions, Radcliffe was selected to play the part. Rowling endorsed the selection, saying: "I don't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry." Radcliffe's parents originally turned down the offer, as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles. Warner Bros. instead offered Radcliffe a two-film contract with shooting in the UK; Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would act in more than two Harry Potter films.
The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone took place in 2001. Radcliffe received a seven-figure salary for the lead role, but asserted that the fee was "not that important" to him; his parents chose to invest the money for him. The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews, and critics took notice of Radcliffe: "Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader's imagination. It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions, from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing," wrote Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle.
A year later, Radcliffe starred in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second instalment of the series. Reviewers were positive about the lead actors' performances but had polarising opinions on the film overall. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004) was the third film in the series. Radcliffe's performance was criticised by The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott, who felt that co-star Emma Watson had to carry him with her performance. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005) was the second-highest grossing Harry Potter film at that point, and Radcliffe singled out the humour as a reason for the film's creative success.
The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe, Watson, and co-star Rupert Grint hesitated to sign on to continue their roles. By March 2007, however, Radcliffe had signed for the final Harry Potter films; his signing put an end to weeks of press "speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement in Equus", in which he had performed nude onstage. Radcliffe reprised the role of Harry for the fifth time in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2007). Radcliffe stated that director David Yates and co-star Imelda Staunton made Order of the Phoenix the "most fun" film to work on in the series. His performance earned him several award nominations, and he received the 2008 National Movie Award for "Best Male Performance". Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson left imprints of their hands, feet, and wands in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the series' sixth instalment, was released in July 2009. Radcliffe received nominations for "Best Male Performance" and "Global Superstar" at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards.
For financial and scripting reasons, the last Harry Potter book (Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows) was divided into two films that were shot back-to-back. This decision drew criticism from the series' fans, but Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film.
The two-film finale, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 and Part 2, was released in November 2010 and July 2011, respectively. While Deathly Hallows – Part 1 grossed \$960 million, Deathly Hallows – Part 2 grossed more than \$1.3 billion worldwide; as of May 2019, it was the 11th-highest-grossing film of all time. Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was critically acclaimed, as was Radcliffe's performance; Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post asked, "Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors"? Critic Rex Reed remarked, "Frankly, I'm sorry to see [Radcliffe] go"; Roger Ebert gave the film a highly positive review, but felt that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson were "upstaged by the supporting [actors]."
Radcliffe acknowledged that some people would never be able to separate him from the Harry Potter character; however, he has said he is "proud to be associated with this film series forever." Despite positive feelings about the films, he has no interest in doing more Harry Potter films. After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book, Radcliffe was asked if he would do another Harry Potter film, to which he replied, "[It is] very doubtful. I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character". Despite devoting so much time to the series, Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood like other child actors, remarking, "I've been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter."
### 2002–2008: West End and Broadway Theatre debut
In 2002, Radcliffe made his stage debut as a celebrity guest in a West End production of The Play What I Wrote, directed by Kenneth Branagh—who also appeared with him in the second Harry Potter film. He appeared in the film December Boys, an Australian family drama about four orphans that was shot in 2005 and released to theaters in mid-September 2007. On 13 April 2006, a portrait of Radcliffe by Stuart Pearson Wright was unveiled as part of a new exhibition opening at the National Theatre, before being moved to the National Portrait Gallery.
In 2007, Radcliffe co-starred with Carey Mulligan in My Boy Jack, a television drama film shown on ITV. The film received mostly positive reviews, with several critics praising Radcliffe's performance as an eighteen-year-old who goes missing in action during a battle. Radcliffe stated, "For many people my age, the First World War is just a topic in a history book. But I've always been fascinated by the subject and think it's as relevant today as it ever was." Later that year, he published several poems under the pen name Jacob Gershon—a combination of his middle name and the Hebrew version of his mother's maiden name Gresham—in the underground fashion magazine Rubbish.
At age seventeen, in a bid to demonstrate people that he was prepared for adult roles, Radcliffe starred in a West End revival of Peter Shaffer's play Equus at the Gielgud Theatre. The piece had not been revived since its first run in 1973. Radcliffe took on the lead role of Alan Strang, a stable boy who has an obsession with horses. Advance sales topped £1.7 million, and the role generated significant pre-opening media interest, as Radcliffe performed a nude scene. Equus opened on 27 February 2007 and ran until 9 June 2007. Radcliffe's performance was acclaimed, as critics were impressed by the nuance and depth of his against-type role. Charles Spencer of The Telegraph wrote that the actor "displays a dramatic power and an electrifying stage presence that marks a tremendous leap forward." He added: "I never thought I would find the diminutive (but perfectly formed) Radcliffe a sinister figure, but as Alan Strang ... there are moments when he seems genuinely scary in his rage and confusion." The production transferred to Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre in September 2008. Radcliffe continued in the lead role, starring alongside Kate Mulgrew, Anna Camp, and his Harry Potter co-star Richard Griffiths. Radcliffe was nervous about reprising the role on Broadway as he considered American audiences to be more discerning than those in London. Radcliffe's performance was nominated for a Drama Desk Award.
### 2010–2018: Return to Broadway and independent films
After voicing a character in The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror XXI" in late 2010, Radcliffe debuted as J. Pierrepont Finch in a 2011 Broadway revival How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre. The role had previously been played by Robert Morse and Matthew Broderick. Other cast members included John Larroquette, Rose Hemingway and Mary Faber. Both the actor and production received favourable reviews, with USA Today commenting: "Radcliffe ultimately succeeds not by overshadowing his fellow cast members, but by working in conscientious harmony with them – and having a blast in the process." Radcliffe's performance in the show earned him Drama Desk Award, Drama League Award and Outer Critics Circle Award nominations. The production itself later received nine Tony Award nominations. Radcliffe left the show on 1 January 2012.
Radcliffe's first post-Harry Potter project was the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black, adapted from the 1983 novel by Susan Hill. The film was released on 3 February 2012 in the United States and Canada, and was released on 10 February in the UK. Radcliffe portrays a man sent to deal with the legal matters of a mysterious woman who has just died, and soon after he begins to experience strange events and hauntings from the ghost of a woman dressed in black. He has said he was "incredibly excited" to be part of the film and described the script as "beautifully written".
In 2013, he portrayed American beat poet Allen Ginsberg in the thriller drama Kill Your Darlings, directed by John Krokidas. He also starred in an Irish-Canadian romantic comedy film The F Word (2013) directed by Michael Dowseand written by Elan Mastai, based on TJ Dawe and Michael Rinaldi's play Toothpaste and Cigars and then he starred in an American dark fantasy horror film directed by Alexandre Aja Horns. Both of the films premiered at the 38th Toronto International Film Festival. Also in 2013, Radcliffe performed at the Noël Coward Theatre in the stage play revival of Martin McDonagh's dark comedy The Cripple of Inishmaan as the lead, Billy Claven, for which he won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Actor in a Play.
Radcliffe starred as Igor in a science fiction horror film Victor Frankenstein (2015), directed by Paul McGuigan and written by Max Landis. The film was based on contemporary adaptations of Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein. He also starred as Sam Houser, one of the founders of Rockstar Games, in the biographical drama film The Gamechangers.
Radcliffe starred in the action adventure film Now You See Me 2 (2016) alongside Mark Ruffalo, Jesse Eisenberg, and Woody Harrelson. playing a technological prodigy, entrepreneur, criminal mastermind and a main leading antagonist all along with Michael Caine's character named Arthur Tressler (of whom Radcliffe's character is revealed to be the son), who whilst in turn resents magic. In 2016, Radcliffe portrayed Manny, a talkative corpse, in the indie film Swiss Army Man with Paul Dano. That same year, He also starred in critically acclaimed independent film Imperium (2016) with Toni Collette, and Tracy Letts. He played Nate Foster, an idealistic FBI agent who goes undercover to take down a radical white supremacy group. The film received an 84% on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus reading, "The unsettling Imperium boasts troublingly timely themes and a talented cast led by Daniel Radcliffe as an undercover FBI agent infiltrating a ring of white supremacists."
Radcliffe starred off-Broadway at The Public Theater in a documentary theatre piece titled Privacy, playing the role of The Writer. In 2017, he starred as Yossi Ghinsberg in the thriller Jungle, which was based on an internationally best-selling memoir of the same name by Yossi Ghinsberg. In 2018, Radcliffe portrayed a pilot smuggling drugs across borders in the independent action-thriller Beast of Burden directed by Jesper Ganslandt. Radcliffe returned to Broadway in the ninety-minute comedy play The Lifespan of a Fact at Studio 54 Theatre with Bobby Cannavale and Cherry Jones. The play revolves around a determined young fact checker who goes up against his demanding editor and an unorthodox author.
### 2019–present: Career expansion
In 2019, Radcliffe starred as Craig in the TBS comedy limited series Miracle Workers based on the book by Simon Rich. The show's second season premiered on 28 January 2020. He voice–starred as Rex Dasher, a secret agent who helps Marla, in the animated film Playmobil: The Movie directed by Lino DiSalvo. In 2020, Radcliffe starred as Miles in the action comedy film Guns Akimbo directed by Jason Lei Howden and co-starring Samara Weaving and Natasha Liu Bordizzo. He also starred as Tim Jenkin in the thriller film Escape from Pretoria, based on the real-life prison escape by three young political prisoners from jail in South Africa in 1979. He also played the role of Prince Frederick in the Netflix special Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt opposite Ellie Kemper.
Radcliffe reunited with multiple cast members of the Harry Potter film series for an HBO Max special titled Harry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts, which was released on 1 January 2022. Radcliffe stars as the villain in the action-adventure comedy film The Lost City, opposite Sandra Bullock and Channing Tatum. He portrayed musician "Weird Al" Yankovic in Weird: The Al Yankovic Story, a biographical parody film produced for The Roku Channel.
In early 2022, Radcliffe returned to the stage acting in the New York Theatre Workshop revival of the Stephen Sondheim musical Merrily We Roll Along playing Charley Kringas. He starred alongside Jonathan Groff and Lindsay Mendez. The revival started on 21 November 2022, and is set to open on 12 December 2022. The production ran for a limited engagement through 8 January 2023.
## Other ventures
### Philanthropy
Radcliffe has lent his support to various charitable organisations. He designed the Cu-Bed for Habitat's VIP Kids range (a cube made of eight smaller ones which can be made into a bed, chaise-longue or chair) with all the royalties from the sale of the bed going directly to his favourite charity, Demelza House Children's Hospice in Sittingbourne, Kent. Radcliffe has urged fans to make donations to the charity's Candle for Care programme in lieu of giving him Christmas presents. In 2008, he was among several celebrities who donated their old glasses to an exhibit honouring victims of the Holocaust. During the Broadway run of Equus he auctioned off a pair of jeans and other items worn in the show, for New-York-based Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS and was a presenter at the 2011 Gypsy of the Year competition. He has also made donations in support of Get Connected UK, a London-based free confidential national helpline for troubled youth.
### Political and social views
Radcliffe is a supporter of the Labour Party. He previously supported the Liberal Democrats, and endorsed then-Lib Dem leader Nick Clegg in the 2010 general election. In 2012, however, he switched his political alignment to Labour, citing disillusionment with the performance of Clegg and the Liberal Democrats while in government, and approving of then-Labour leader Ed Miliband. In 2015, he endorsed Jeremy Corbyn's Labour Party leadership campaign. He told The Big Issue, "I feel like this show of sincerity by a man who has been around long enough and stuck to his beliefs long enough that he knows them and doesn't have to be scripted is what is making people sit up and get excited. It is great."
Radcliffe supports the concept of abolishing the British monarchy and replacing it with a republic. He also supports British unionism, and opposed the 2014 Scottish independence referendum because he "personally like[s] the UK being how it is".
Radcliffe is supportive of the LGBTQ community. Speaking out against homophobia, he began filming public service announcements in 2009 for The Trevor Project, promoting awareness of gay teen suicide prevention. He first learnt of the organisation while performing Equus on Broadway in 2008 and has contributed financially to it. He said in a 2010 interview, "I have always hated anybody who is not tolerant of gay men or lesbians or bisexuals. Now I am in the very fortunate position where I can actually help or do something about it." In the same interview, he stressed the importance of public figures advocating for equal rights. He received The Trevor Project's Hero Award in 2011 for his contributions. In June 2020, amid controversy over Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling's remarks on gender identity—widely condemned as being transphobic—Radcliffe penned an essay published by The Trevor Project in which he voiced support for the transgender community and expressed regret that Rowling's statements had damaged fans' experience of the Harry Potter books.
## Personal life
Radcliffe splits his time between homes in the Fulham area of London and the West Village neighbourhood of New York City's Manhattan borough. He has been in a relationship with American actress Erin Darke since 2012, after having met on the set of Kill Your Darlings. In March 2023, they were confirmed to be expecting their first child together. Darke gave birth the following month.
In 2008, Radcliffe revealed that he has a mild form of the neurological disorder dyspraxia, which sometimes prevents him from doing simple activities such as writing or tying his shoelaces. He said, "I was having a hard time at school, in terms of being crap at everything, with no discernible talent."
Radcliffe has expressed his fondness for hip hop music and admitted to having "an obsession with memorising complicated, lyrically intricate and fast songs". On 28 October 2014, he rhymed the 1999 Blackalicious song "Alphabet Aerobics" during an appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
Radcliffe is close to his family, whom he credits for keeping him grounded. In August 2010, he became teetotal after finding himself becoming too reliant on alcohol. In March 2020, he appeared as the guest on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs, where he discussed his alcohol misuse during his teens and his decision to become teetotal, and how his parents' support and staying in his native England helped him cope with fame.
Radcliffe stated of his beliefs in 2012: "There was never [religious] faith in the house. I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish, despite the fact that I'm English." He has said that his family are "Christmas tree Jews" also he said: "I'm an atheist, but I'm very proud of being Jewish. It means I have a good work ethic, and you get Jewish humour and you're allowed to tell Jewish jokes." In 2009, he stated that he was an atheist and said, "I'm very relaxed about [being an atheist]. I don't preach my atheism, but I have a huge amount of respect for people like Richard Dawkins who do. Anything he does on television, I will watch." However, he was quoted as saying in 2012, "I'm an atheist, and a militant atheist when religion starts impacting on legislation." In 2019, he described himself as "agnostic leaning toward atheism".
Radcliffe was reported to have earned £1 million for the first Harry Potter film and around £15 million for the sixth. He appeared on the Sunday Times Rich List in 2006, which estimated his personal fortune to be £14 million, making him one of the richest young people in the UK. In March 2009, he was ranked at number one on the Forbes "Most Valuable Young Stars" list, and by April The Daily Telegraph measured his net worth at £30 million, making him the 12th richest young person in the UK. Radcliffe was considered to be the richest teenager in England later that year. In February 2010, he was named the sixth highest-paid Hollywood male star and placed at number five on Forbes' December list of Hollywood's highest-grossing actors with a film revenue of US\$780 million, mainly due to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows being released that year. As of 2021, Radcliffe's net worth is estimated at £95 million.
## Filmography and awards
## Explanatory notes |
30,365 | Taoism | 1,173,820,583 | Religious and philosophical tradition | [
"Chinese astrology",
"Chinese folk religion",
"Classical Chinese philosophy",
"Dualism in cosmology",
"East Asian religions",
"Taoism",
"Three teachings"
]
| Taoism or Daoism (/ˈtaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ ) is a Chinese philosophy, as well as a set of Chinese traditions and religions, that emphasize living in harmony with the Tao (pinyin: Dào; Wade–Giles: Tao <sup>4</sup>; lit. 'Way', 'Path'). The Tao is generally defined as the source of everything and the ultimate principle underlying reality. The Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi are widely considered key Taoist texts and are distinctly philosophical in nature and theme.
Taoism includes various self-cultivation methods, including meditation, internal alchemy, and various rituals. Common aims include becoming one with the natural flow of the Dao, longevity, becoming a sage (zhenren) and even an immortal (xian). Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but they generally tend to emphasize virtues such as "inaction" (无为; 無爲; wúwéi), "naturalness" or "spontaneity" (自然; zìrán), "simplicity" (朴; 樸; pǔ), and the three treasures: compassion (慈; cí), frugality (俭; 儉; jiǎn) and humility (不敢为天下先; 不敢爲天下先; bù gǎn wèi tiānxià xiān).
The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang (also known as "the Naturalists"). Other influences include: Shang and Zhou dynasty religion, Mohism, Confucianism, Legalist theorists like Shen Buhai and Han Fei, and the Chinese classics, especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu.
Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries and Dao masters (道士; dàoshi), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to their lay followers, usually take care to note the distinction between their ritual tradition and the practices of Chinese folk religion and non-Taoist vernacular ritual orders, which are often mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. Chinese alchemy (especially "internal alchemy"—neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several Chinese martial arts including Tai chi, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of Qigong have been associated with Taoism throughout history.
Today, the Taoist religion is one of the five religious doctrines officially recognized by the People's Republic of China (PRC), including in its special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau. It is also a major religion in Taiwan as well as throughout the Sinosphere including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and it has a significant number of adherents in a number of other societies throughout East and Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia, Singapore. Taoism also has adherents in the West, which includes East or Southeast Asian immigrants as well as Western convert Taoists.
## Definition
### Spelling and pronunciation
Since the introduction of the Pinyin system for romanizing Mandarin Chinese, there have been those who have felt that "Taoism" would be more appropriately spelled as "Daoism". The Mandarin Chinese pronunciation for the word [] Error: : no text (help) (way, path) is spelled as tao<sup>4</sup> in the older Wade–Giles romanization system (from which the spelling "Taoism" is derived), while it is spelled as dào in the newer Pinyin romanization system (from which the spelling "Daoism" is derived). The Wade–Giles tao<sup>4</sup> and the Pinyin dào are pronounced identically in Mandarin Chinese (like the unaspirated "t" in "stop"); despite this, "Taoism" and "Daoism" are often pronounced differently in English vernacular.
### Categorization and terminology
The word Taoism is used to translate different Chinese terms:
1. Teachings of the Dao (; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), often interpreted as the "Taoist religion" proper, or the "liturgical" aspect of Taoism—a family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy"; the first of these being the Celestial Masters school.
2. Philosophical School of the Dao (; lit. "school or family of the Tao", sometimes "Taoist philosophy") or "Taology" (道學; dàoxué; lit. "study of the Tao"), or the mystical aspect—the philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching (道德經; dàodéjīng), and the Zhuangzi (莊子; zhuāngzi). One of the hundred schools of thought during the Warring States period. The earliest recorded uses of the term Tao to refer to a philosophy or a school of thought are found in the works of classical historians during Han Dynasty. These works include The Commentary of Zhuo (左传; zuǒ zhuàn) by Zuo Qiuming (左丘明) and in the Records of the Grand Historian (史記; Shǐjì) by Sima Tan. This usage of the term to narrowly denote a school of thought precedes the emergence of the Celestial Masters and associated later religions. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Tao Te Ching, and Zhuangzi himself may have died before the term was in use.
The use of the term Dàojiā dates back to the Han dynasty (around 100 BCE) and was used to refer to the supposed authors of texts like the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuāngzǐ.
The distinction between Taoist philosophy (道家) and religion (道教) is an ancient one, one rooted in Chinese history and language—even though both share concepts. The earliest references to the 道 (Dao) are philosophical—relating either to metaphysics or to the conditions for human flourishing and are completely devoid of liturgical aspects. This distinction has been rearticulated by experts on Chinese history and philosophy like Feng Youlan (馮友蘭; 1895–1990) and Wing-tsit Chan (陳榮捷; 1901–1994) and is accepted amongst modern Chinese and observed in everyday language. This distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars of religion, some of who claim that their interpretive procedures and hermeneutic techniques have superior validity to those of Feng Youlan and Chan Wing-Tsit, as well as the prevailing understanding in modern China. These claims, which emphasize that Taoist religion and philosophy are inseparable and cannot be distinguished, are being made by Western scholars of religion, rather than by scholars of history or philosophy.
Furthermore, the nature of the text of the Dao DeJing and the Zhuangzi, as well as early Chinese encyclopedias and discussions, identify Taoism as originally being a school of thought with no cultic significance. It can be nonetheless said that religious Taoism emerged from the latter-day synthesis of folk religion and the appropriation of the ideas of secular, philosophical Taoism. Because the ideas in original philosophical Taoism were entertained free of cultic aspect by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to inform the lives and actions of Song dynasty neo-Confucianists and others who rejected the state-sanctioned and private cults that later called themselves Taoist or that were labelled as such, it has been proven useful to distinguish between the two. This distinction is observed in the Chinese language—道家 (the Daoist philosophy) and 道教 (the Daoist religion).
This distinction is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects, and movements. Regarding this distinction, Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy". Others would argue that to confute the two would be to ignore the way Chinese people currently think and use language and the way that they have actually thought in the past. Neo-Confucianists and politicians might identify themselves as Taoist without subscribing to any Taoist rituals. For instance, both Shen Kuo and Kuo Hsiang were non-religious.
Similarly, religious Taoism emerged from the synthesis of folk religion and the appropriation of the ideas of secular, philosophical Taoism. Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" (sixiang) and of daojiao with "religion" (zongjiao) is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations." Komjathy argues that none of these terms were understood in this bifurcated "philosophy/religion" manner in the pre-modern era. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts that was eventually applied in the early medieval period for Taoist movements and priests. Meanwhile, Daojiao was originally used to distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, Daojiao included daojia. Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages". Thus, according to Komjathy, "Taoism was a religious tradition from the beginning."
The Chinese-American philosopher Chung-ying Cheng also views Taoism as a religion, one that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different forms, including "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of heaven flows mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of the way (Dao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism can also not be classified as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion. This is because while the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is quite different from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.
Scholars continue to disagree on the nature of Taoist religion. For example, sinologists like Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." Meanwhile, Komjathy sees Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity."
### "Taoists"
Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology, is traditionally used to translate daoshi/taoshih (道士, "master of the Dao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community.
This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters(法師) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism) within Chinese religion.
The term dàojiàotú (道敎徒; 'follower of Dao'), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion.
## History
### Classical Taoism and its sources
Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities. According to Roth, these practitioners emphasized a contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Dao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities.
Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before the Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the Yijing, yin-yang thought, as well as Mohist, "Legalist", and "Confucian" ideas), which were eventually synthesized in the medieval era into the first forms of "Taoism".
Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye, the Zhuangzi, and the Tao Te Ching. The Tao Te Ching, which is attributed to Lao Tzu (the "Old Master"), is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE.
According to tradition, many Taoists believe that Lao Tzu founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure.
While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that the Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among the inhabitants".
Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in the religion of the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty, such as their use of divination and ancestor worship and the idea of Heaven (Tian) and its relationship to humanity. According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Russell Kirkland and Livia Kohn, Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the Warring States Period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including Mohism, Confucianism, Legalist theorists like Shen Buhai and Han Fei which speak of Wu wei, the School of Naturalists (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, yin and yang and the five phases), and the Chinese classics, especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu.
Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Daodejing and Zhuangzi, techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal (xian), and practices for exorcism. Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring States era phenomena of the wu (Chinese shamans) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity").
Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. Female shamans played an important role in the early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements.
During the early period, some Daoists lived as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Daoist principles. Zhuang Zhou (c. 370–290 BCE) was the most influential of the Daoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by Chinese shamanism. Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Daoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Daoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding the properties of plants and geology, diviners, early environmentalists, tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities.
Significant movements in early Daoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in a similar nature to all other life.
Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were the first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning.
### Early Organized Taoism
By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era (2nd century BCE) Huang–Lao movement, which was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on the Daodejing were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary.
The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters (Tianshi Dao), which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Taoling, who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for the coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace (taiping). It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the "Way of Great Peace", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion, and after years of bloody war they were crushed.
The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace the Han. As such they grew and became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.
Another important early Taoist movement was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar, lead, mercury, and realgar, as well as ritual and purificatory practices.
After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian-Legalist tradition.
### Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties eras
The Three Kingdoms Period saw the rise of the Xuanxue (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong, who wrote a key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi (Master Embracing Simplicity).
The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, Shangqing (Supreme Clarity) and Lingbao (Numinous Treasure). Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions." The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures.
Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school, which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called purgations (zhai) in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology, worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created a vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras." Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu).
During this period, Louguan, the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by Buddhist monasticism) was established in the Zhongnan mountains by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition was called the Northern Celestial masters, and their main scripture was the Xisheng jing (Scripture of Western Ascension).
During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on the "three vehicles" of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor. Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated a new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day."
This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones, which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today.
### Later Imperial Dynasties
The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty. This tradition was termed HP: Daojiao/WP: Taochiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism.
Perhaps the most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss.
During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that the Daodejing was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong, the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts (Wudang quan).
Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn, "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced a separate examination system based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin, who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice.
Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of the Daozang. The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school.
In the 12th century, the Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped "ghosts and gods" and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience, monasticism, and asceticism. Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty. The Quanzhen school was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the "three teachings" (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian, a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen.
During the Song era, the Zhengyi tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day.
Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui. During the Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming.
The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting (bigu), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to the mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class.
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism. Thus, during this period, the status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books.
The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple. Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of the Golden Flower. The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class.
### Early modern Taoism
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Taoism suffered much destruction as a result of religious persecution and numerous wars and conflicts that beset China in the so called century of humiliation. This period of persecution was caused by numerous factors including Confucian prejudices, anti-traditional Chinese modernist ideologies, European and Japanese colonialism, and Christian missionization. By the 20th century, only one complete copy of the Tao Tsang survived intact, stored at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. A key Taoist figure during this period was Chen Yingning (1880–1969). He was a key member of the early Chinese Taoist Association and wrote numerous books promoting Taoist practice
During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), many Taoist priests were laicized and sent to work camps, and many Taoist sites and temples were destroyed or converted to secular use. This period saw an exodus of Taoists out of China. They immigrated to Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and to Europe and North America. Thus, the communist repression had the consequence of making Taoism a world religion by disseminating Taoists throughout the world.
In the 1910s, Taoist doctrine about immortals and waiting until after death to live in "the dwelling of the immortals" was one of the faith's most popular and influential beliefs.
The 20th century was also a creative period for Taoism despite its many setbacks. The Taoist influenced practice of Tai Chi developed during this time, led by figures like Yang Chengfu and Sun Lutang. Early proponents of Tai Chi Quan, like Sun Lutang, claimed that Tai Chi was a Taoist internal practice created by the Taoist immortal Zhang Sanfeng (though modern scholars note that this claim lacks credible historical evidence).
### Late modern Taoism
Taoism began to recover during the Reform and Opening up period (beginning in 1979) after which it experienced increased religious freedom in mainland China. This led to the restoration of many temples and communities, the publishing of Taoist literature and the preservation of Taoist material culture. Several Chinese intellectuals, like Hu Fuchen (Chinese Academy of Social Studies) and Liu Xiaogan (Chinese University of Hong Kong) have worked to developed a "New Daojia" (xin daojia), which parallels the rise of New Confucianism.
During the 1980s and 1990s, China experienced the so called Qigong fever, which saw a surge in the popularity of Qigong practice throughout China. During this period many new Taoist and Taoist influenced religions sprung up, the most popular being those associated with Qigong, such as Zangmigong (Tantric Qigong influenced by Tibetan Buddhism), Zhonggong (Central Qigong), and Falungong (which came to be outlawed and repressed by the Chinese Communist Party [CCP]).
Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the People's Republic of China. In mainland China, the government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association. Regarding the status of Taoism in mainland China, Livia Kohn writes:
> Taoist institutions are state-owned, monastics are paid by the government, several bureaus compete for revenues and administrative power, and training centers require courses in Marxism as preparation for full ordination. Still, temple compounds are growing on the five sacred mountains, on Taoist mountains, and in all major cities.
The White Cloud Temple at Beijing remains the most important center for the training of Taoist monastics on the mainland, while the five sacred mountains of China also contain influential Taoist centers. Other key sites include: Wudangshan, Mount Longhu, Mount Qiyun, Mount Qingcheng, Mount Tai, Zhongnan mountains, Mount Mao, and Mount Lao. Meanwhile, Taoism is also practiced much more freely in Taiwan and Hong Kong, where it is a major religion and retains unique features and movements that differ from mainland Taoism. Taoism is also practiced throughout the wider East Asian cultural sphere.
Outside of China, many traditionally Taoist practices have spread, especially through Chinese emigration as well as conversion by non-Chinese. Taoist influenced practices, like Tai chi and qigong, are also popular around the world. As such, Taoism is now a diverse "world religion" with a global distribution.
During the late 20th century, Taoism began to spread to the Western world, leading to various forms of Taoist communities in the West, with Taoist publications, websites, meditation and Tai chi centers, and translations of Taoist texts by western scholars as well as non-specialists. Taoist classics like the Daodejing have also became popular in the New Age movement and in "popular Western Taoism", a kind of popularized hybrid spirituality. According to Louis Komjathy, this "popular Western Taoism" is associated with popular translations and interpretations of the Daodejing and the work of popular figures like James Legge, Alan Watts, John Blofeld, Gia-fu Feng, and Bruce Lee. This popular spirituality also draws on Chinese martial arts (which are often unrelated to Taoism proper), American Transcendentalism, 1960s counterculture, New Age spirituality, the perennial philosophy, and alternative medicine.
On the other hand, traditionally minded Taoists in the West are often either ethnically Chinese or generally assume some level of sinification, especially the adoption of Chinese language and culture. This is because, for most traditional Taoists, the religion is not seen as separate from Chinese ethnicity and culture. As such, most Western convert Taoist groups are led either by Chinese teachers or by teachers who studied with Chinese teachers. Some prominent Western Taoist associations include: Associacion de Taoism de España, Association Francaise Daoiste, British Daoist Association, Daoist Foundation (San Diego, California), American Taoist and Buddhist Association (New York), Ching Chung Taoist Association (San Francisco), Universal Society of the Integral Way (Ni Hua-Ching), and Sociedade Taoista do Brasil.
Particularly popular in the West are groups that focus on internal martial arts like Taijiquan, as well as qigong and meditation. A smaller set of groups also focus around internal alchemy, such as Mantak Chia's Healing Dao. While traditional Daoism initially arrived in the West through Chinese immigrants, more recently, Western run Daoist temples have also appeared, such as the Taoist Sanctuary in San Diego and the Dayuan Circle in San Francisco. Kohn notes that all of these centers "combine traditional ritual services with Daodejing and Yijing philosophy as well as with various health practices, such as breathing, diet, meditation, qigong, and soft martial arts."
## Teachings
### Tao
Tao (or Dao) can mean way, road, channel, path, doctrine, or line. Livia Kohn describes the Dao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes the wicked. Literally 'the way', Dao refers to the way things develop naturally, the way nature moves along and living beings grow and decline in accordance with cosmic laws." The Dao is ultimately indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition. Thus, the Tao Te Ching begins with: "The Dao that can be told is not eternal Dao." Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that the Dao has been described by Taoists as "dark" (xuan), "indistinct" (hu), "obscure" (huang), and "silent" (mo).
According to Komjathy, the Dao has four primary characteristics: "(1) Source of all existence; (2) Unnamable mystery; (3) All-pervading sacred presence; and (4) Universe as cosmological process." As such, Taoist thought can be seen as monistic (the Dao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and panentheistic (the Dao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent). Similarly, Wing-Tsit Chan describes the Dao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course." The Dao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.
Furthermore, the Dao is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves, as well as in natural and social patterns. Thus, the Dao is also the "innate nature" (xing) of all people, a nature which is seen by Taoists as being ultimately good. In a naturalistic sense, the Dao as visible pattern, "the Dao that can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world that can be observed and described. Thus, Kohn writes that Dao can be explained as twofold: the transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Dao and the natural, visible, and tangible Dao.
Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different metaphysical views regarding the Dao. For example, while the Xuanxue thinker Wang Bi described Dao as wú (nothingness, negativity, not-being), Guo Xiang rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was spontaneous "self-production" (zìshēng 自生) and "self-transformation" (zìhuà 自化). Another school, the Chóngxuán (Twofold Mystery), developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka philosophy.
### De
The active expression of Dao is called De (德; dé; also spelled,Te or Teh; often translated with virtue or power), in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao. The term De can be used to refer to ethical virtue in the conventional Confucian sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Dao and practicing wu-wei. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Dao's power and not anything like conventional morality. Louis Komjathy describes De as the manifestation of one's connection to the Dao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.
### Ziran
Ziran (自然; zìrán; tzu-jan; lit. "self-so", "self-organization") is regarded as a central concept and value in Taoism and as a way of flowing with the Dao. It describes the "primordial state" of all things as well as a basic character of the Dao, and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity. According to Kohn, in the Zhuangzi, ziran refers to the fact that "there is thus no ultimate cause to make things what they are. The universe exists by itself and of itself; it is existence just as it is. Nothing can be added or substracted from it; it is entirely sufficient upon itself."
To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Dao and flow with its natural rhythms as expressed in oneself. This involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity. It also involves understanding one's nature and living in accordance with it, without trying to be something one is not or overthinking one's experience. One way of cultivating ziran found in the Zhuangzi is to practice the "fasting of the mind", a kind of Taoist meditation in which one empties the mind. It is held that this can also activate qi (vital energy). In some passages found in the Zhuangzi and in the Tao Te Ching, naturalness is also associated with rejection of the state (anarchism) and a desire to return to simpler pre-technological times (primitivism).
An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (pǔ, pú; p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved log", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual. It is usually referred to as a state one may return to.
### Wu-wei
The polysemous term wu-wei or wuwei (無爲; wúwéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism. Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are nonaction, effortless action, action without intent, noninterference and nonintervention. The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": action without action. Kohn writes that wuwei refers to "letting go of egoistic concerns" and "to abstain from forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disruption in favor of gentleness, adaptation, and ease."
In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature and the effortless way it flows around obstacles. Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching, proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and unintended consequences may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Thus the Daodejing says: "act of things and you will ruin them. Grasp for things and you will lose them. Therefore the sage acts with inaction and has no ruin, lets go of grasping and has no loss."
Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural way of the universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly. "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."
### Aspects of the self (xing, xin, and ming)
The Daoist view of the self is a holistic one that rejects the idea of a separate individualized self. As Russell Kirkland writes, Daoists "generally assume that one's 'self' cannot be understood or fulfilled without reference to other persons, and to the broader set of realities in which all persons are naturally and properly embedded."
In Daoism, one's innate or fundamental nature (xing) is ultimately the Dao expressing or manifesting itself as an embodied person. Innate nature is connected with one's heartmind (xin), which refers to consciousness, the heart, and one's spirit. The focus of Daoist psychology is the heartmind (xin), the intellectual and emotional center (zhong) of a person. It is associated with the chest cavity, the physical heart as well as with emotions, thoughts, consciousness, and the storehouse of spirit (shen). When the heartmind is unstable and separated from the Dao, it is called the ordinary heartmind (suxin). On the other hand, the original heartmind (benxin) pervades Dao and is constant and peaceful.
The Neiye (ch.14) calls this pure original heartmind the "inner heartmind", "an awareness that precedes language", and "a lodging place of the numinous". Later Daoist sources also refer to it by other terms like "awakened nature" (wuxing), "original nature" (benxing), "original spirit" (yuanshen), and "scarlet palace". This pure heartmind is seen as being characterized by clarity and stillness (qingjing), purity, pure yang, spiritual insight, and emptiness.
Taoists see life (sheng) as an expression of the Dao. The Dao is seen as granting each person a ming (life destiny), which is one's corporeal existence, one's body and vitality. Generally speaking, Daoist cultivation seeks a holistic psychosomatic form of training that is described as "dual cultivation of innate nature and life-destiny" (xingming shuanxiu). Daoism believes in a "pervasive spirit world that is both interlocked with and separate from the world of humans."
The cultivation of innate nature is often associated with the practice of stillness (jinggong) or quiet meditation, while the cultivation of life-destiny generally revolves around movement based practices (dongong) like daoyin and health and longevity practices (yangsheng).
### The Taoist body
Many Taoist practices work with ancient Chinese understandings of the body, its organs and parts, "elixir fields" (dantien), inner substances (such as "essence" or jing), animating forces (like the hun and po), and meridians (qi channels). The complex Daoist schema of the body and its subtle body components contains many parallels with Traditional Chinese medicine and is used for health practices as well as for somatic and spiritual transformation (through neidan – "psychosomatic transmutation" or "internal alchemy"). Taoist physical cultivation rely on purfying and transforming the body's qi (vital breath, energy) in various ways such as dieting and meditation.
According to Livia Kohn, qi is "the cosmic energy that pervades all. The concrete aspect of Dao, qi is the material force of the universe, the basic stuff of nature." According to the Zhuangzi, "human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal." Everyone has some amount of qi and can gain and lose qi in various ways. Therefore, Daoists hold that through various qi cultivation methods they can harmonize their qi, and thus improve health and longevity, and even attain magic powers, social harmony, and immortality. The Neiye (Inward Training) is one of the earliest texts that teach qi cultivation methods.
Qi is one of the Three Treasures, which is a specifically Daoist schema of the main elements in Daoist physical practices like qigong and neidan. The three are: jīng (精, essence, the foundation for one's vitality), qì (氣), and shén (神, spirit, subtle consciousness, a capacity to connect with the subtle spiritual reality). These three are further associated with the three "elixir fields" (dantien) and the organs in different ways.
The body in Taoist political philosophy was important and their differing views on it and humanity's place in the universe were a point of distinction from Confucian politicians, writers, and political commentators. Some Taoists viewed ancestors as merely corpses that were improperly revered and respect for the dead as irrelevant and others within groups that followed these beliefs viewed almost all traditions as worthless.
### Ethics
Daoist ethics tends to emphasize various themes from the Daoist classics, such as naturalness (pu), spontaneity (ziran), simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei. The classic Daoist view is that humans are originally and naturally aligned with Dao, thus their original nature is inherently good. However, one can fall away from this due to personal habits, desires, and social conditions. Returning to one's nature requires active attunement through Daoist practice and ethical cultivation.
Some popular Daoist beliefs, such as the early Shangqing school, do not believe this and believe that some people are irredeemably evil and destined to be so. Many Taoist movements from around the time Buddhist elements started being syncretized with Daoism had an extremely negative view of foreigners, referring to them as yi or "barbarians", and some of these thought of foreigners as people who do not feel "human feelings" and who never live out the correct norms of conduct until they became Taoist. At this time, China was widely viewed by Taoists as a holy land because of influence from the Chinese public that viewed being born in China as a privilege and that outsiders were enemies. Foreigners who joined these Taoist sects were made to repent for their sins in another life that caused them to be born "in the frontier wilds" because of Buddhist ideas of reincarnation coming into their doctrines. Some Daoist movements viewed human nature neutrally. However, some of the movements that were dour or skeptical about human nature did not believe that evil is permanent and believed that evil people can become good. Korean Daoists tended to think extremely positively of human nature.
Some of the most important virtues in Daoism are the Three Treasures or Three Jewels (三寶; sānbǎo). These are: ci (慈; cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (儉; jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢爲天下先; bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility). Arthur Waley, applying them to the socio-political sphere, translated them as: "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".
Daoism also adopted the Buddhist doctrines of karma and reincarnation into its religious ethical system. Medieval Daoist thought developed the idea that ethics was overseen by a celestial administration that kept records of people's actions and their fate, as well as handed out rewards and punishments through particular celestial administrators.
### Soteriology and religious goals
Daoists have diverse religious goals that include Daoist conceptions of sagehood (zhenren), spiritual self-cultivation, a happy afterlife, and/or longevity and some form of immortality (xian, variously understood as a kind of transcendent post-mortem state of the spirit).
Daoists' views about what happens in the afterlife tend to include the soul becoming a part of the cosmos (which was often thought of as an illusionary place where qi and physical matter were thought of as being the same in a way held together by the microcosm of the spirits of the human body and the macrocosm of the universe itself, represented and embodied by the Three Pure Ones), somehow aiding the spiritual functions of nature or tiān after death, and/or being saved by either achieving spiritual immortality in an afterlife or becoming a xian who can appear in the human world at will, but normally lives in another plane. "[S]acred forests and[/or] mountains" or a yin-yang, yin, yang, or Tao realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even the virtuous Confucius and Confucianists, such as the mental realm sometimes called "the Heavens" where higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang" were all possibilities for a potential xian to be reborn in. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as xian dragons who eat yin and yang energy and ride clouds and their qi.
More specifically, possibilities for "the spirit of the body" include "join[ing] the universe after death", exploring or serving various functions in parts of tiān or other spiritual worlds, or becoming a xian who can do one or more of those things.
Taoist xian are often seen as being eternally young because "of their life being totally at one with the Tao of nature." They are also often seen as being made up of "pure breath and light" and as being able to shapeshift, and some Taoists believed their afterlife natural "paradises" were palaces of heaven.
Taoists who sought to become one of the many different types of immortals, such as xian or zhenren, wanted to "ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality".
In the Quanzhen school of Wang Chongyang, the goal is to become a sage, which he equates with being a "spiritual immortal" (shen xien) and with the attainment of "clarity and stillness" (qingjing) through the integration of "inner nature" (xing) and "worldly reality" (ming).
Those who know the Dao, who flow with the natural way of the Dao and thus embody the patterns of the Dao are called sages or "perfected persons" (zhenren). This is what is often considered salvation in Daoist soteriology. They often are depicted as living simple lives, as craftsmen or hermits. In other cases, they are depicted as the ideal rulers which practice ruling through non-intervention and under which nations prosper peacefully. Sages are the highest humans, mediators between heaven and earth and the best guides on the Daoist path. They act naturally and simply, with a pure mind and with wuwei. They may have supernatural powers and bring good fortune and peace.
Some sages are also considered to have become one of the immortals (xian) through their mastery of the Dao. After shedding their mortal form, spiritual immortals may have many superhuman abilities like flight and are often said to live in heavenly realms.
The sages as thus because they have attained the primary goal of Daoism: a union with the Dao and harmonization or alignment with its patterns and flows. This experience is one of being attuned to the Dao and to our own original nature, which already has a natural capacity for resonance (ganying) with Dao. This is the main goal that all Daoist practices are aiming towards and can be felt in various ways, such as a sense of psychosomatic vitality and aliveness as well as stillness and a "true joy" (zhenle) or "celestial joy" that remains unaffected by mundane concerns like gain and loss.
The Taoist quest for immortality was inspired by Confucian emphasis on filial piety and how worshipped ancestors were thought to exist after death.
Becoming an immortal through the power of yin-yang and heaven, but also specifically Taoist interpretations of the Tao, was sometimes thought of as possible in Chinese folk religion, and Taoist thoughts on immortality were sometimes drawn from Confucian views on heaven and its status as an afterlife that permeates the mortal world as well.
### Cosmology
Daoist cosmology is cyclic—the universe is seen as being in constant change, with various forces and energies (qi) affecting each other in different complex patterns. Daoist cosmology shares similar views with the School of Naturalists. Daoist cosmology focuses on the impersonal transformations (zaohua) of the universe, which are spontaneous and unguided.
Livia Kohn explains the basic Daoist cosmological theory as:
> the root of creation Dao rested in deep chaos (ch. 42). Next, it evolved into the One, a concentrated state cosmic unity that is full of creative potential and often described in Yijing terms as the Great Ultimate (Taiji). The One then brought forth "the Two", the two energies yin and yang, which in turn merged in harmony to create the next level of existence, "the Three" (yin-yang combined), from which the myriad beings came forth. From original oneness, the world thus continued to move into ever greater states of distinction and differentiation.
The main distinction in Daoist cosmology is that between yin and yang, which applies to various sets of complementary ideas: bright – dark, light – heavy, soft – hard, strong – weak, above – below, ruler – minister, male – female, and so on. Cosmically, these two forces exist in mutual harmony and interdependence. Yin and yang are further divided into five phases (Wu Xing, or five materials): minor yang, major yang, yin/yang, minor yin, major yin. Each of these correlates with a specific substance: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water respectively. This schema is used in many different ways in Daoist thought and practice, from nourishing life (yangsheng) and medicine to astrology and divination.
Daoists also generally see all things as being animated and constituted by qi (vital air, subtle breath), which is seen as a force that circulates throughout the universe and throughout human bodies (as both air in the lungs and as a subtle breath throughout the body's meridians and organs). Qi is in constant transformation between its condensed state (life) and diluted state (potential). These two different states of qi are embodiments of yin and yang, two complementary forces that constantly play against and with each other and where one cannot exist without the other.
Daoist texts present various creation stories and cosmogonies. Classic cosmogonies are non-theistic, presenting a natural undirected process in which an apophatic undifferentiated potentiality (called wuwuji, "without non-differentiation") naturally unfolds into wuji (primordial oneness, "non-differentiation"), which then evolves into yin-yang (taiji) and then into the myriad beings (as in the Daodejing). Later medieval models included the idea of a creator God (mainly seen as Lord Lao), representing order and creativity. Daoist cosmology influences Daoist soteriology, which holds that one can "return to the root" (guigen) of the universe (and of ourselves), which is also the Dao—the impersonal source (yuan) of all things.
In Daoism, human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe, and thus the cosmological forces, like the five phases, are also present in the form of the zang-fu organs. Another common belief is that there are various gods that reside in human bodies. As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.
Another important element of Daoist cosmology is the use of Chinese astrology.
### Theology
Daoist theology can be defined as apophatic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable nature of the Dao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Nearly all the sects share this core belief.
However, Daoism does include many deities and spirits and thus can also be considered animistic and polytheistic in a secondary sense (since they are considered to be emanations from the impersonal and nameless ultimate principle). Some Daoist theology presents the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities, which was a hierarchy emanating from the Dao. Laozi is considered the incarnation of one of the three and worshiped as the ancestral founder of Daoism.
Different branches of Daoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology. Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity. Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the Jade Emperor (Yü-Huang or Yü-Di), one of the Three Pure Ones, as the highest God. Historical Daoist figures, and people who are considered to have become immortals (xian), are also venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.
Despite these hierarchies of deities, most conceptions of Dao should not be confused with the Western sense of theism. Being one with the Dao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu theistic sense.
## Practices
Some key elements of Daoist practice include a commitment to self-cultivation, wu wei, and attunement to the patterns of the Dao. Most Daoists throughout history have agreed on the importance of self cultivation through various practices, which were seen as ways to transform oneself and integrate oneself to the deepest realities.
Communal rituals are important in most Taoist traditions, as are methods of self-cultivation. Daoist self-cultivation practices tend to focus on the transformation of the heartmind together with bodily substances and energies (like jing and qi) and their connection to natural and universal forces, patterns, and powers.
Despite the detachment from reality and dissent from Confucian humanism that the Daodejing teaches, Taoists were and are generally not misanthropes or nihilists and see humans as an important class of things in the world. However, in most Daoist views humans were not held to be especially important in comparison to other aspects of the world and Taoist metaphysics that were seen as equally or more special. Similarly, some Daoists had similar views on their gods or the gods of other religions.
According to Louis Komjathy, Daoist practice is a diverse and complex subject that can include "aesthetics, art, dietetics, ethics, health and longevity practice, meditation, ritual, seasonal attunement, scripture study, and so forth."
Throughout the history of Daoism, mountains have occupied a special place for Daoist practice. They are seen as sacred spaces and as the ideal places for Daoist cultivation and Daoist monastic or eremitic life, which may include "cloud wandering" (yunyou) in the mountains and dwelling in mountain hermitages (an) or grottoes (dong).
Tao can serve as a life energy instead of qi in some Taoist belief systems.
### The nine practices
One of the earliest schemas for Daoist practice was the "nine practices" or "nine virtues" (jiǔxíng 九行), which were taught in the Celestial Masters school. These were drawn from classic Daoist sources, mainly the Daodejing, and are presented in the Laojun jinglu (Scriptural Statutes of Lord Lao; DZ 786).
The nine practices are:
1. Nonaction (wúwéi 無為)
2. Softness and weakness (róuruò 柔弱)
3. Guarding the feminine (shǒucí 行守)
4. Being nameless (wúmíng 無名)
5. Clarity and stillness (qīngjìng 清靜)
6. Being adept (zhūshàn 諸善)
7. Being desireless (wúyù 無欲)
8. Knowing how to stop and be content (zhī zhǐzú 知止足)
9. Yielding and withdrawing (tuīràng 推讓)
### Rituals
Ancient Chinese religion made much use of sacrifices to gods and ancestors, which could include slaughtered animals (such as pigs and ducks) or fruit. The Daoist Celestial Master Zhang Daoling rejected food and animal sacrifices to the gods. Today, many Daoist Temples reject animal sacrifice. Sacrifices to the deities remains a key element of Daoist rituals however. There are various kinds of Daoist rituals, which may include presenting offerings, scripture reading, sacrifices, incantations, purification rites, confession, petitions and announcements to the gods, observing the ethical precepts, memorials, chanting, lectures, and communal feasts.
On particular holidays, such as the Qingming/Ching Ming festival, street parades take place. These are lively affairs that involve firecrackers, the burning of hell money, and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances, human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"), gongfu, and palanquins carrying images of deities. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.
### Ethical precepts
Taking up and living by sets of ethical precepts is another important practice in Taoism. By the Tang dynasty, Daoism had created a system of lay discipleship in which one took a set of Ten precepts (Taoism).
The Five precepts (Taoism) are identical to the Buddhist five precepts (which are to avoid: killing [both human and non-human animals], theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants like alcohol.) The other five were a set of five injuctions:
> \(6\) I will maintain harmony with my ancestors and family and never disregard my kin; (7) When I see someone do good, I will support him with joy and delight; (8) When I see someone unfortunate, I will support him with dignity to recover good fortune; (9) When someone comes to do me harm, I will not harbor thoughts of revenge; (10) As long as all beings have not attained the Dao, I will not expect to do so myself.
Apart from these common ethical precepts, Taoist traditions also have larger sets of precepts that are often reserved for ordained priests or monastics.
### Divination and magic
A key part of many Taoist traditions is the practice of divination. There are many methods used by Chinese Taoists including I Ching divination, Chinese astrological divination, feng shui (geomantic divination) and the interpretation of various omens.
Mediumship and exorcism is also a key element of some Taoist traditions. These can include tongji mediumship and the practice of planchette writing or spirit writing.
### Longevity practices
Daoist longevity methods are closely related to ancient Chinese medicine. Many of these methods date back to Tang dynasty figures like alchemist Sun Simiao (582–683) and the Highest Clarity Patriarch Sima Chengzhen (647–735). The goal of these methods range from better health and longevity to immortality. Key elements of these "nourishing life" (yangsheng) methods include: moderation in all things (drink, food, etc), adapting to the cycles of the seasons by following injunctions regarding healing exercises (daoyin) and breathwork.
A number of physical practices, like modern forms of qigong, as well as modern internal martial arts (i.e. neijia) like Taijiquan, Baguazhang, Xingyiquan, Liuhebafa, are practiced by Daoists as methods of cultivating health and longevity as well as eliciting internal alchemical transformations. However, these methods are not specifically daoist, and are often practiced outside of Daoist contexts.
Another key longevity method is "ingestion", which focuses on what one absorbs or consumes from one's environment, which is seen as affecting what one becomes. Diatectics, closely influenced by Chinese medicine, is a key element of ingestion practice, and there are numerous Daoist diet regimens for different effects (such as ascetic diets, monastic diets, therapeutic diets and alchemical diets that use herbs and minerals). One common practice is the avoidance of grains (bigu). In certain cases, practices like vegetarianism and true fasting is also adopted (which may also be termed bigu).
"Qi ingestion" (fu qi) is a special practice which entails the absorption of environmental qi as well as the light of the sun, moon and stars (and other astral effulgences and cosmic ethers) as a way to enhance health and longevity.
Some Taoists thought of the human body as a spiritual nexus with thousands of shen (often 36,000), gods who were likely thought of as at least somewhat mental in nature because of the word's other meaning of consciousness, that could be communed with by doing various methods to manipulate the yin and yang of the body, as well as its qi. These Taoists also thought of the human body as a metaphorical existence where three "cinnabar fields" that represented a higher level of reality and/or a spiritual kind of cinnabar that does not exist in normal reality. A method of meditation used by these Taoists was "visualizing light" which was thought to be qi or another kind of life energy a Taoist substituted for qi or believed in the existence of instead. The light was then channeled through the three cinnabar fields, forming a "microcosmic orbit", or through the hands and feet for a "macrocosmic orbit".
The 36,000 shen regulated the body and bodily functions through a bureaucratic system "modeled after the Chinese system of government". Death occurs only when these gods leave, but life can be extended by meditating while visualizing them, doing good deeds, and avoiding meat and wine.
### Meditation
There are many methods of Daoist meditation (often referred to as "stillness practice", jinggong), some of which were strongly influenced by Buddhist methods.
Some of the key forms of Daoist meditation are:
- Apophatic or quietistic meditation, which was the main method of classical Daoism and can be found in classic texts like the Zhuangzi, where it is termed "fasting the heartmind" (xinzhai). This practice is also variously termed "embracing the one" (baoyi), "guarding the one" (shouyi), "quiet sitting" (jingzuo) and "sitting forgetfulness" (zuowang). According to Komjathy, this type of meditation "emphasizes emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content." The texts of classical Daoism state that this meditation leads to the dissolution of the self and any sense of separate dualistic identity. Sima Chengzhen's Zuowang lun is a key text which outlines this method. The practice is also closely connected with the virtue of wuwei (inaction).
- Concentration meditation, focusing the mind on one theme, like the breath, a sound, a part of the body (like one of the dantiens), a diagram, or a mental image, a deity etc. A subset of this is called "guarding the one" which is interpreted in different ways.
- Observation (guan) – According to Kohn this method "encourages openness to all sorts of stimuli and leads to a sense of free-flowing awareness. It often begins with the recognition of physical sensations and subtle events in the body but may also involve paying attention to outside occurrences." Guan is associated with deep listening and energetic sensitivity. The term most often refers to "inner observation" (neiguan), a practice which developed through Buddhist influence (see: Vipaśyanā). Neiguan entails developing introspection of one's body and mind, which includes being aware of the various parts of the body as well as the various deities residing in the body.
- Zhan zhuang ("post standing") – standing meditation in various postures
- Visualization (cunxiang) of various mental images, including deities, cosmic patterns, the lives of saints, various lights in the bodies organs, etc. This method is associated with the Supreme Clarity school, which first developed it.
### Alchemy
A key element of many schools of Daoism are alchemical practices, which include various rituals, meditations, exercises, and the creation of various alchemical substances. The goals of alchemy include physical and spiritual transformation, aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, improving physical health and extending one's life, and even becoming an immortal (xian).
Daoist alchemy can be found in early Daoist scriptures like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi. There are two main kinds of alchemy, internal alchemy (neidan) and external alchemy (waidan). Internal alchemy (neidan, literally: "internal elixir"), which focuses on the transformation and increase of qi in the body, developed during the late imperial period (especially during the Tang), and is found in almost all Daoist schools today, though it is most closely associated with the Quanzhen school. There are many systems of internal alchemy with different methods such as visualization, breathwork. In the late Imperial period, neidan developed into complex systems which drew on numerous elements, including: classic Daoist texts and meditations, yangsheng, Yijing symbology, daoist cosmology, external alchemy concepts and terms, Chinese medicine, and Buddhist influences. Neidan systems tend to be passed on through oral master-disciple lineages and to often be secret.
Livia Kohn writes that the main goal of internal alchemy is generally understood as a set of three transformations: "from essence (jing) to energy (qi), from energy to spirit (shen), and from spirit to Dao." Common methods for this include engaging the subtle body and activating the microcosmic orbit. Komjathy adds that neidan seeks to create a transcendent spirit, usually called the "immortal embryo" (xiantai) or "yang spirit" (yangshen).
## Texts
Some religious Daoist movements view traditional texts as scriptures considered sacred, authoritative, and binding, as well as divinely inspired or revealed. However, the Daodejing was originally viewed as "human wisdom" and "written by humans for humans." It and other important texts "acquired authority...that caused them to be regarded...as sacred."
Perhaps the most influential texts are the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi.
### Daodejing
Throughout the history of Daoism, the Daodejing has been a central text, used for ritual, self-cultivation, as well as philosophical purposes.
According to legend, the Daodejing (Scripture of the Dao and its power, also known as the Laozi) was written by Laozi. Authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate, and will probably never be known with certainty. The earliest manuscripts of this work (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE and these contain significant differences from the later received edition (of Wang Bi c. 226–249). Apart from the Guodian text and the Wang Bi edition, another alternative version exists, the Mawangdui Daodejings.
Luis Komjathy writes that the Daodejing is "actually a multi-vocal anthology consisting of a variety of historical and textual layers; in certain respects, it is a collection of oral teachings of various members of the inner cultivation lineages." Meanwhile, Kirkland argues that the text arose out of "various traditions of oral wisdom" from the state of Chu that were written, circulated, edited and rewritten by different hands. He also suggests that authors from the Jixia academy may have been involved in the editing process.
The Daodejing is not organized in any clear fashion and is a collection of different sayings on various themes. The leading themes of the Daodejing revolve around the nature of Dao, how to attain it and De, the inner power of Dao, as well as the idea of wei wu-wei. Dao is said to be ineffable and accomplishes great things through small, lowly, effortless and "feminine" (yin) ways (which are compared to the behavior of water).
Ancient commentaries on the Daodejing are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE. Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er commentary.
### Zhuangzi
The Zhuangzi (Book of Master Zhuang, 莊子), named after its supposed author Zhuang Zhou, is a highly influential composite text of multi-vocal writings from various sources and historical periods. The commentator and editor Guo Xiang (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Daoist thought. One traditional view is that a sage called Zhuang zhou wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and miscellaneous chapters). However, some modern scholars like Russell Kirkland argue that Guo Xiang is actually the creator of the 33-chapter Zhuangzi text and that there is no solid historical data for the existence of Zhuang zhou himself (other than the sparse and unreliable mentions in Sima Qian).
The Zhuangzi uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes – avoiding cultural constructs and instead living in a spontaneous way aligned with the natural world. This way of living might be perceived as "useless" by most people who follow their own "common sense" and social and political rules, but this uselessness is actually a wiser alternative, since it is more in accord with reality.
### Chinese classics
Daoism draws on numerous Chinese classics which are not themselves "Daoist" texts but remain important sources for Daoists. Perhaps the most important of these is the ancient divination text called the Yijing (circa 1150 BCE). The divination method in the Yijing and its associated concepts of yin and yang mapped into 64 "hexagrams" – combinations of the 8 trigrams – has influenced Daoism from its inception until today.
Taoism also drew on other non-Taoist Chinese classic texts including:
- The Mozi, which was later adopted as a Taoist text by Taoists (who also saw master Mo – Mozi – as a Taoist immortal and included the Mozi into the Taoist canon).
- The Hanfeizi (Writings of Master Han Fei), a "legalist" work which also contains themes which are key to Daoism, such as wu-wei
- (Confucian) classics like the Analects and the Mengzi
- Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals (Lüshi Chunqiu), which is widely quoted in early Daoist sources
- Huángdì Nèijīng (The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor), an ancient Chinense medical text which was influential on Daoist inner cultivation theory.
- Huainanzi (circa 139 BCE), an ancient source which includes Taoist, Confucianist, and Legalist ideas.
- Guanzi, which discusses Daoist ideas in several chapters.
### Other important Taoist texts
There are many other important Taoist texts, including:
- Liezi (列子, Writings of Master Lie), a 4th century BCE classic Taoist work which during the Tang was seen as the third great Taoist work alongside the Daodejing and Zhuangzi.
- Neiye (內業, Inward Training, 4th century BCE), an important and ancient text which describes Taoist self-cultivation, Taoist meditation, how to work with qi and how to train one's heart-mind (xin) as well as one's body. The ideas found in this text influenced later Daoist conceptions of internal alchemy.
- Wénzǐ; (文子, Book of Master Wen) a Daoist classic attributed to a Disciple of Laozi but which likely dates to the Han dynasty.
- Huahujing (Classic on converting the barbarians), an old text (5th–6th century) which claims that Laozi traveled to China and is thus the source of Buddhism.
- The Taipingjing (Great Peace Scripture), a key source for Han dynasty Daoism.
- Liexian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals), a Han dynasty text which is the earliest Daoist hagiography of Daoist immortals.
- The Baopuzi neipian (Inner Chapters of Master Embracing Simplicity) a work attributed to Ge Hong, also known as Baopu (Master who embraces simplicity) This text is a major source for Shangqing Daoism and its inner-cultivation practices.
- The Daodong zhenjing (Perfect Scripture of the Great Cavern) and the Lingshu ziwen (Purple Texts Inscribed by the Spirits), the two most influential Supreme Clarity scriptures.
- Cāntóng qì (Kinship of the Three) – one of the earliest sources on Daoist internal alchemy (neidan).
- The Yellow Court Classic (Huang Ting Jing, 黄庭经) is a work on Daoist meditation revealed by Lady Wei Huacun of the Shangqing school in the 288 CE. It remained an influential Shangqin text and was also important for Lu Dongbin.
- Wupian zhenwen (Perfect Writings in Five Sections), the first of the Lingbao scriptures.
- Ling Bao Bi Fai (Complete Methods of the Numinous Treasure), a manual of longevity practices and neidan.
- Zuowanglun (坐忘論 ), a work on zuòwàng ("sitting forgetting") meditation by Sima Chengzhen (647–735) which is influenced by Buddhism.
- Huángdì Yǐnfújīng (黃帝陰符經, c. 8th century CE), a text on internal alchemy and astrology.
- Huàshū (化書), a 10th century classic on internal alchemy.
- Qīngjìng Jīng (清静经, Classic of Clarity and Stillness) which Daoist teachings from the Daodejing with Mahayana Buddhist ideas. The text was adopted as one of the key scriptures of the Quanzhen school.
- Yinfu jing (Scripture on the Inner Talisman), a sixth century text which was adopted by Quanzen school as one of their key scriptures.
- Wùzhēn piān (悟真篇, Folios on Awakening to Reality) is a work on internal alchemy written by Zhang Boduan (張伯端; 987?–1082), a Song era scholar of the three teachings.
- The Lijiao shiwu lun (Fifteen discourses to Establish the Teachings) of Wang Chongyang, the founder of Quanzhen.
- The Book of Balance and Harmony (Zhong he ji, 中和集) a 13th century anthology by Daochun Li which outlines the teachings and practices of the Quanzhen School.
- Taishang Ganying Pian (Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution, C. 12th century) discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries. It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.
- The Secret of the Golden Flower (太乙金華宗旨; Tàiyǐ Jīnhuá Zōngzhǐ), an influential neidan text from the late 17th century.
- The key texts of the Dragon Gate School (Longmen Pai) composed by the founder Wang Changyue (1622?–80) which focus on Daoist monasticism: Chuzhen jie (Precepts for Novices), Zhongji jie (Precepts of the Central Pole), Tianxian jie (Precepts for Celestial Immortals) and Longmen xinfa (Central Teachings of Dragon Gate).
### The Taoist Canon
The Taoist Canon (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Daozang. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The extant version was published during the Ming Dynasty. The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts. Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":
1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
2. The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
3. The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan (茅山) revelations.
Taoist generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.
The Shangqing School has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.
## Symbols and images
The Taijitu (太極圖; tàijítú; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") and the Bagua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are important symbols in Daoism, since they represent key elements of Daoist cosmology (see above). Many Daoist (as well as non-Daoist) organizations make use of these symbols and they may appear on flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century CE.
The tiger and dragon are more ancient symbols for yin and yang respectively, and these two animals are still widely used in Daoist art. Daoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons, tigers, and phoenixes (with the phoenix also standing for yin) made from multicolored ceramic tiles. In general though, Chinese Daoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.
Daoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing, talismans or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc. Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.
Drawings of the Big Dipper (also called the Bushel) are also important symbols. In the Shang Dynasty of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while, in later periods, it came to symbolize Taiji. A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which stands for the pole star and may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.
Some Taoists saw the stars as "knots in the 'net of heaven'" that connected everything in "heaven and earth".
Many Taoists saw the Tao as "the [metaphorical] pearl of the sage" and a "conjunction between yin...[and] yang." Taoists also revered pearls more generally, seeing lung dragon celestials as emerging from the glint of light off of a pearl that existed "in the mists of chaos" and trapped in an endless cycle where they continually retrieve the pearl that makes them out of the mists. Some Internal Alchemy Daoists worshipped mercury as "divine water" and an embodiment of conciousness that was a "'flowing pearl'".
In the later Qing dynasty, Taoists and intellectuals who leaned towards Taoism used the wuxing as symbols of leadership and good governance, using old religious texts and various historiographies made in prior dynasties to assign a phase from the five wuxing to different Chinese dynasties.
Symbols which represent longevity and immortality are particularly popular, and these include: cranes, pine trees, and the peaches of immortality (associated with the goddess Xiwangmu). Natural symbols are also common, and include gourds, caves, clouds, mountains and the animals of the Chinese zodiac. Other symbols used by Daoists include: the Yellow River Map (hetu), the Luo Sho square, Yijing coins, Daoist talismans (fulu), the Four Symbols (mythical creatures), and various Chinese characters, such as the character for Dao and the shòu ("longevity") character.
Daoist priests also wear distinctive robes, such as the Daojiao fushi and Daoist versions of the Daopao, which symbolize their status and school affiliation.
## Society
Daoist communities can include a wide variety of people and groups, including lay priests (daoshi), hermits, monastics, teachers, householders, ascetics, family lineages, teacher-disciple lineages, urban associations, temples and monasteries.
According to Kirkland, throughout most of its history, most Taoist traditions "were founded and maintained by aristocrats, or by members of the later well-to-do 'gentry' class". The only real exception is the Celestial Masters movement, which had a strong basis in the lower classes (though even this movement had a hereditary leadership made up of figures of the Chang clan for generations).
### Adherents
The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million, which is 70% of Chinese. Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices. 12 million people stated that they were "Daoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.
Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist traditions. Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the Chinese Daoist Association was formed to administer the activities of all registered Daoist orders, and received official approval in 1957.
It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao Zedong, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or White Cloud Temple of Beijing, belonging to the Longmen branch of the Quanzhen tradition. Since 1980, many Daoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and clergy ordination has been resumed.
Daoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people, 33% of the population, identify themselves as Taoists. Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong and Singapore show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists.
Followers of Daoism are present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. It has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Daoist temples in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro which are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.
### Art and poetry
Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Daoism. Notable painters influenced by Daoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu. Daoist arts and belles-lettres represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Daoism. Ancient Daoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.
### Political aspects
Daoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang-Lao's positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler, the Daoist "primitivists" (of chapters 8–11 of the Zhuangzi) argued for a kind of anarchism. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.
The syncretist position found in texts like the Huainanzi and some of the Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blend Daoist positions with Confucian views.
### Relations with other traditions
Many scholars believe Daoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism. The philosophical terms Dao and De are indeed shared by both Daoism and Confucianism. Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucian and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Daoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.
The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Daoism. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Daoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.
Daoism especially shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment". Zhuangzi's statements that the Dao was omnipresent and that creation escorts animals and humans to death influenced Chinese Buddhist practitioners and scholars, especially Chan Buddhists. On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. Examples of such influence include monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the I Ching), was a Confucian. The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school.
Christian and Taoist contact often took place in the Tang dynasty, and some scholars believe that the Church of the East influenced Taoist thought on the Three Pure Ones. Emperor Taizong encouraged this, and Taoists who agreed with him and his laws incorporated elements of Christianity, Islam, Manichaeism, Judaism, Confucianism, and Buddhism into their faith.
### Comparisons with other religions
Comparisons between Daoism and Epicureanism have focused on the absence of a creator or gods controlling the forces of nature in both. Lucretius' poem De rerum natura describes a naturalist cosmology where there are only atoms and void (a primal duality which mirrors Ying/Yang in its dance of assertion/yielding), and where nature takes its course with no gods or masters. Other parallels include the similarities between Daoist "wu wei" (effortless action) and Epicurean "lathe biosas" (live unknown), focus on naturalness (ziran) as opposed to conventional virtues, and the prominence of the Epicurus-like Chinese sage Yang Chu in the foundational Daoist writings.
Some authors have undertaken comparative studies of Daoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of the history of religion such as J. J. M. de Groot, among others. A comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been made by several authors, such as Martin Aronson, and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be ignored. In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Daoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang, have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar. In neighboring Vietnam, Daoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism.
## Taoist traditions
Today, there are various living Taoist traditions, the largest and most influential are Quanzhen Taoism (Complete Perfection), particularly the Dragon Gate sect, and Zhengyi ("Orthodox Unity") Taoism. Quanzhen lineages are mainly monastic and ascetic tradition, based on meditation and internal cultivation, while the Orthodox Unity tradition is based on a lay priests (daoshi) who are expected to master an extensive ritual repertoire. These two traditions developed during the Song dynasty and grew to become recognized by the imperial government during late imperial China.
"Some sects are concerned with the ritual control of spirits and the cosmic currents of yin and yang; others specialize in inner disciplines of meditation or breath control and mind-body exercise regimes."
There are also various smaller Daoist groups and traditions of practice. Eva Wong divides the major "systems" of Daoism into the following categories: Magical Daoism, Divinational Daoism, Ceremonial Daoism, Internal-Alchemical Daoism and Action and Karma Daoism.
### Magical Taoism
Magical Taoism is one of the oldest systems of Taoism and its practices are similar to the shamans and sorcerers of ancient China. Magical Taoism believes there are various natural powers, deities and spirits (benevolent and malevolent) in the universe that can be made use of by specialists who know the right methods. Their magic can include rainmaking, protection, exorcism, healing, traveling to the underworld to help the dead and mediumship.
Protection magic can include the use of amulets and fulu, as well as specific rites. Protection rites often include ritual petitions to the celestial deities of the northern bushel. Divination is also a widespread practice. A commonly used method of divination in magical Taoism is sandwriting (planchette writing).
According to Eva Wong, the main sects of magical Taoism today are the Maoshan sect (a very secretive sect, not to be confused with Shangqing), the Celestial Masters and the Kun-Lun sect (which is strongly influenced by Tibetan magic and make use of Daoist and Buddhist deities).
### Divinational Taoism
Divinational Taoism focuses on various divination techniques to help one predict the future and live accordingly. This practice can also carry deeper spiritual significance, since it can help one appreciate the flux of the Tao. This form of Taoism owes much to the ancient fang-shih, the Yin and yang school of thought and often relies on the classic Chinese divination text, the Yijing.
This tradition also relies on the cosmology of Wuji and Taiji, along with the teachings of yin and yang, the five elements and the Chinese calendar. There many forms of Daoist divination, they include: celestial divination (which include various systems of Chinese astrology, like Tzu-wei tu-su), terrestrial divination (feng shui), the casting of incense sticks with hexagrams on them and the interpretation of omens.
Contemporary divinational Taoism is practiced in temples and monasteries by various individuals and may not be sect specific (it is even practiced by non-daoists). This Daoist practice can be found in the Mao-shan sorcerers, the Celestial Masters sect and the Longmen and Wutang-shan sects. There are also many lay practitioners that are not affiliated with any specific sect. These lay Daoist practitioners are called "kui-shih".
### Ceremonial Taoism
Ceremonial Taoism focuses on ritual and devotion towards various celestial deities and spirits. The basic belief of ceremonial Daoism is that through various rites, human beings can honor the deities and these deities may then grant them with power, protection and blessings. Rituals and festivals can include chanting, offerings, and the reading of scripture. These rites are mostly performed by ritual masters who have trained extensively for this role and who may, through their mastery of ritual, intercede on behalf of laypersons.
There are various kinds of festivals in Ceremonial Taoism, including "Great Services" (chai-chiao) and Ritual Gatherings (fa-hui) that can last for days and can focus on repentance, rainmaking, disaster aversion or petitioning. There are feast days which honor specific deities. 164 Funerals and birthday blessings are a common service.
There is a complex and large pantheon in Taoism. It includes various deities classified into various ranks within an administrative structure, at the top of which are the celestial lords (t'ien-tsun). These include judges, heralds, officers, generals, clerks and messengers. The main division is between "earlier heaven" deities, who have existed since the beginning of time and "later heaven" deities, mortals who later became immortal.
146 Key earlier heaven deities include the Three Pure Ones, the Jade Emperor, the Queen Mother of the West, the Mother of the Bushel of Stars, the Seven Star Lords of the Northern Bushel and the Three Officials (Celestial, Earth, and Water). Some key later heaven deities include: Immortal Lu Tung-pin, and Emperor Kuan (Kuan-yu). Taoists may also honor local spirits and deities, as well Buddhist deities (like Guanyin, Amitabha, etc).
The largest and most prominent sect of Ceremonial Taoism is the Way of the Celestial Masters, also known as "Orthodox Unity" (Zhengyi). The patriarch of this sect resides in Taiwan and this tradition performs numerous ceremonies which are often sponsored by the Taiwanese government. The training for Zhengyi priesthood, who are not celibate, focuses mainly on learning extensive rituals and liturgy, so that they can perform them flawlessly.
Ceremonies are practiced, to a lesser extent, in the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of Quanzhen and in the Hsien-t'ien Dao (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, though these schools understand ritual as mainly a way to develop internal alchemy. During the Song dynasty, a popular form of ceremonial Taoism was the Thunder Rites (leifa), which focused on exorcism and protection.
### Internal Alchemy Taoism
Internal Alchemy Daoism or Transformation Daoism focuses on internal transformation through the use of various self-cultivation techniques like Qigong, Neidan (internal alchemy), Yangsheng and so forth.
The basic worldview of this Taoist tradition is that all beings are born with certain forms of energy (mainly the three treasures of jing, qi and shen), which become dissipated, weak and lost as we age. To prevent this and to increase our inner vital energies, one must practice various methods of "internal alchemy" (neidan) to harmonize the internal energy in one's body and refine the "golden elixir" (jindan) inside the body. These meditative inner alchemical practices are believed to lead to greater longevity and even immortality (union with the Dao at death).
Another worldview is that beings must "harmonize yin and yang forces internally to achieve immortality."
`A term used by some Taoists that sums up traditions that do not use these practices is "singular path". Most traditions follow the "singular path". These include the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of Quanzhen Daoism, the Hsien-t'ien Dao (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, the Wu-liu sect, and the Wudang quan sect.`
The Quanzhen School was founded by Wang Chongyang (1112–1170), a hermit in the Zhongnan mountains who was said in legends to have met and learned secret methods from two immortals: Lu Dongbin and Zhongli Quan. He then moved to Shandong and preached his teachings, founding various religious communities. His school popularized Internal Alchemy Daoism and the usage of the term.
One of his "seven perfected" disciples, Qiu Chuji (1148–1227), founded the Longmen (Dragon Gate) lineage. Chuji was also made the leader of all religions in China by Chinggis Khan, making his tradition the most powerful in all of China, and contributing to Longmen's lasting influence. Another important Quanzhen lineage is the Qingjing pai, founded by the nun Sun Buer (1119–1182), the only female member of the "seven perfected". Today, Quanzhen is mainly made up of celibate monastics who practice vegetarianism, sobriety, internal alchemy and recite daily liturgies. The largest lineage is Longmen.
Much like Daoists who see writings made by influential members of their faith as having a divine nature, some Daoists view self-cultivation as a way for emotions and self to partake in divinity, and a smaller subset of these view some mythological beings such as xian as being divine. Xian were viewed in many lights and as completely different types of beings over different times and in different places. They were sometimes viewed as deities, parts of the celestial hierarchy, metaphorical ideals that people should strive to be like, reclusive Taoist masters who know how to control and harness spiritual energies, and/or shamans.
#### Hygiene Taoism
Hygiene Taoism is a Taoist tradition meant to increase life and "physical and mental harmony". Some Daoists from the "Hygiene School" believed that they could survive only on their own breath and saliva to purify their bodies.
### Karmic Taoism
Karmic Daoism, or "Action and Karma Taoism", according to Wong, focuses on ethics and is grounded in the idea that the sacred celestial powers aid and reward those who do good and punish those who do evil. This tradition can be traced back to Song dynasty Taoist Li Ying-chang and his Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao (T'ai-shang kan-ying p'ien). Li sparked a popular movement which focused on the everyday life of ordinary persons instead of on temples, monasteries and sages. At the core of this tradition is living in harmony with the Dao and with the Way of Heaven, which means acting with benevolence, kindness and compassion. Doing evil is considered a transgression against the way and this evil will be punished by deities, celestial ministers and judges.
These ideas are quite ancient, the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace) states: "accumulate good deeds, and prosperity will come to you from the Dao". Besides wealth and prosperity, Karmic Taoism also believes that doing good increases longevity, while doing evil decreases it. Another common idea in this group of Taoist traditions is that there deities, like the Kitchen Lord, who monitor our actions and report to Heaven and the Jade Emperor (who tallies them and metes out punishment and reward).
Karmic Taoism is a nonsectarian tradition adopted by many Taoist sects. The Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Dao is studied in Quanzhen Daoism, Hsien-t'ien Dao and in the Wu-Liu sect. All major schools of Daoism view ethics as the foundation for spirituality. Furthermore, there are those who are not affiliated with a Daoist sect who may still follow Karmic Taoism in daily life.
### Other divisions of Taoism
Taoism has traditionally been divided into religious Taoism and philosophical Taoism (Dàojiào and Dàojiā), respectively.
#### Religious Taoism
Some Daoist sects are expressly religious in the Western sense. "Lord Heaven" and "Jade Emperor" were terms for a Taoist supreme deity also used in Confucianism and Chinese folk religion, and some conceptions of this deity thought of the two names as synonymous.
The Taoist Jade Emperor in the first millennium AD was a primary deity among polytheists who had a heaven that contained numerous ministries and officials and which was "modelled on...the earthly emperor['s rule]".
Polytheist Daoists venerated one or more of these kinds of spiritual entities: "deified heroes...forces of nature" and "nature spirits", xian, spirits, gods, devas and other celestial beings from Chinese Buddhism, Indian Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion, various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, ghosts, "mythical emperors", Laozi, a trinity of high gods that varied in how it was thought of, and the Three Pure Ones. Some Daoists chose not to worship beings they saw as gods, and only worshipped guardian spirits or "celestials", such as devas, various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, and xian. In some Daoist sects, the Dao was the primary thing that was venerated and beings that would be gods in other sects were merely treated as supernatural beings similar to gods who could only act in accordance with the Dao's wishes.
When the Tao Te Ching was written, many Taoists told stories and legends about heroes "whose bodies had been rendered invulnerable". This could be achieved by making contact with "dragon's blood" or a river in the afterlife, or drinking the "waters of the 'Well of Life' and eating the 'fungus or immortality'".
Ordinary Chinese in the early Tang dynasty often worshipped local gods, Buddhist gods and devas, and Taoist gods simultaneously, and this population included a significant amount of the Taoists who have ever worshipped devas throughout history.
The trinity is thought by scholars to have evolved into the Three Pure Ones. It was thought of in the early Han dynasty as the three gods Tianyi, Diyi, and "the Taiyi". These beings were varyingly interpreted as relatively simple heavenly, earthly, and all-purpose gods respectively, the "supreme deity" (an intangible god that represented the mind of the Dao), "his disciple", the Lord Dao (a more physical god representing the Dao), and Lord Lao (Laozi "deified"), or an emanation of the Dao that was ultimately singular in nature.
An unrelated trinity was the Three Great Emperor-Officials, three of the highest shen in some branches of religious Taoism thought to be able to pardon sins.
The Tao was not worshipped alone, although gods do exist that anthropomorphize it in various ways. Laozi was sometimes thought to be a god or "the image of the Tao".
"Some Taoist adepts" worshipped thousands of gods that were thought to exist in the body.
## See also
### Schools and organizations
- Dragon Gate Taoism
- Hong Kong Taoist Association
- Lingbao School
- Quanzhen Taoism
- Shangqing School
- Way of the Celestial Masters
- Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
- Yao Taoism
- Zhengyi Taoism
### Concepts and objects
- Bagua
- Five precepts
- Ten precepts
- Pu
- Taiji
- Taoist coin charm
- Wu wei
- Zhizha
### Practice
- Geomancy
- Feng shui
- Neidan
- Taoist diet
- Taoist music
- Taoist Tai Chi
### Deities
- Three Pure Ones
- Four heavenly ministers
- Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
### Texts
- Baopuzi
- Daozang
- Liezi
- Qingjing Jing
- Tao Te Ching
- Zhuangzi
### Regional Taoism
#### China
- Chinese culture
- Chinese gods and immortals
- Chinese ritual mastery traditions
- Chinese spiritual world concepts
- Taoism and Confucianism
- Taoism in Hong Kong
#### Japan
- Onmyōdō
#### Southeast Asia
- Taoism in Malaysia
- Taoism in Singapore
- Taoism in Vietnam
#### Europe
- Taoist Church of Italy |
1,085,698 | The One with the Prom Video | 1,168,244,218 | null | [
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]
| "The One with the Prom Video" is the fourteenth episode of the second season, and the 38th episode overall, of the American television situation comedy Friends, which first aired on NBC on February 1, 1996. The episode focuses on the main characters watching Monica (Courteney Cox) and Rachel (Jennifer Aniston) getting ready for their high-school prom in the titular video. A subplot sees Joey (Matt LeBlanc), now earning more income, buying roommate Chandler (Matthew Perry) an unusual gift.
The episode was directed by James Burrows and written by Alexa Junge and features guest stars Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles as Jack and Judy Geller, Michael Ray Bower as Monica's date, and Patrick Kerr as the restaurant manager.
## Plot
Joey, now earning substantial money after landing a role on Days of Our Lives, gives Chandler a gaudy gold bracelet as thanks for paying for head shots and food in the past. Chandler mocks it when it scares off a potential date, upsetting Joey when he overhears. Chandler promises to never take it off again but discovers it slipped off his wrist at some point and is now missing. He buys a replacement, but the original is found by Rachel shortly afterwards at Central Perk. He gives one to Joey, repairing their friendship.
Monica struggles to find a job after being fired. After a disastrous restaurant interview where the manager has a food play fetish, she relents to Ross' prodding to ask for money from their parents Jack and Judy, who have visited the apartment to bring boxes of her possessions. Though Judy is disappointed she was fired, Jack encourages her to use her savings from her bank account and assures her that they will be there to lend money to her whenever she needs it. Despite this encouragement, Ross ends up writing her a check.
Ross continues to seek forgiveness from Rachel after insulting her, but she tells him that they as a couple will never happen. Whilst looking through the box her parents brought, Monica finds a video of her and Rachel getting ready for their senior prom. The friends decide to watch the video, although Ross objects to everyone seeing the tape. On the video, Rachel's date, Chip Matthews, has not arrived, and Monica refuses to go to the prom without her. Judy convinces Ross to wear Jack's tuxedo and take Rachel to the prom himself. Ross reluctantly agrees, but by the time he is dressed and ready to go, Chip has arrived and the girls leave. The video ends with Ross looking disappointed and dejected. Rachel, touched by Ross' gesture, gets up and passionately kisses him, forgiving him for what happened between them.
Monica later watches the video alone which features her and Jack dancing before the prom. It suddenly cuts to Jack and Judy making love in bed, which disgusts her.
## Production
The producers had kept Ross and Rachel from being together throughout the first season, eventually bringing them together in the second-season episode "The One Where Ross Finds Out", only to split them up in the following episode. Writer Alexa Junge incorporated many of her own experiences into the script, in particular Phoebe's line about Ross and Rachel being "lobsters", something Junge's husband once said. Aniston wore a false nose for the scenes in the video while Cox wore a "fat suit". While a previous episode had already established Monica as being overweight as a child, this was the first on-screen appearance of "Fat Monica" (the fat suit made frequent return appearances). Rachel's large nose was added because Junge believed that the characters "were so good-looking, you wanted to feel they had some realness in their past".
At first, Schwimmer did not want to wear the afro wig and mustache because he thought he would look like Gabe Kaplan in Welcome Back, Kotter (a similarity referenced in the episode). He relented because it enabled him to "tap into a part of himself that was very vulnerable and shy" and incorporate it into his performance. An early script draft featured a scene in the prom video in which an episode of All My Children is on in the background. The scene was intended to feature the character "Bryce", played by Gunther (as revealed in "The One Where Eddie Won't Go").
## Reception
In 1997, TV Guide ranked this episode \#100 on their list of the "100 Greatest Episodes of All Time".
"The One with the Prom Video" received acclaim from critics. Entertainment Weekly rates the episode "A", welcoming the return of Burrows as director and calling the prom video "witty character development disguised as a standard flashback." The authors of Friends like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends write that it is "a watershed in the history of the show" and "It's the sign of a good show that they can switch so effortlessly from comedy to pathos to romance in one short scene." Robert Bianco wrote in USA Today in 2004, "If any one outing can take credit for moving Friends from good to great, it's Prom Video" and describes the resolution as an "ingenious, unexpected twist."
The episode is popular among fans of the series. It appeared on one of the first region 1 "best of" DVD releases and is one of the two episodes to feature an audio commentary on the region 1 DVD release of the complete second season. In a poll conducted shortly before the series finale, "The One with the Prom Video" was voted the best episode of Friends, with 1.6 million people polling on the Internet. The episode is the favorite of Schwimmer, who liked the comedic and emotional origins of the Ross/Rachel relationship, as well as the exchange between Monica and Chandler as she defends her weight on the video.
In 2014, Gawker published a list of every episode of Friends ranked from \#236 through \#1. "The One With The Prom Video" was ranked as the \#1 best episode on the list. |
67,260,530 | Abdollah Mirza Qajar | 1,160,814,670 | Prince of Qajar Iran (1796–1846) | [
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"Qajar governors of Zanjan",
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| Abdollah Mirza Qajar (Persian: شاهزاده عبدالله میرزا قاجار; 25 November 1796 – 18 June 1846) was an Iranian prince (shahzadeh) of the Qajar dynasty, the 11th son of Fath-Ali Shah, king of Qajar Iran from 1797 to 1834. Abdollah was the governor of Zanjan. He had two children, Mohsen Mirza and Shams al-Molok, with his wife. Other than that, he had 19 sons and 9 daughters from his concubines.
Abdollah Mirza distinguished himself early on in the Russo-Iranian War of 1826. Though his administration was accompanied by growth and development, he was twice ousted from the government due to complaints. The second time, Fath-Ali Shah handed over the rule of Zanjan to his other son, Fathollah Mirza. Following the death of Fath-Ali Shah, Abdollah tried to reclaim his rule by mobilizing and attacking Zanjan but failed. When during the early reign of Mohammad Shah (r. 1834-1848) the eldest sons of Fath-Ali Shah rebelled against him, Abdollah Mirza, unlike his other brothers, went on to confirm his rule.
He spent the last years of his life in the capital Tehran away from government jobs and spent time with scholars and writers, writing literary works and poetry. He wrote poetry under the pseudonym "Dara" and in addition to two books, wrote a divan of over fifty thousand verses.
## Early life
Abdollah Mirza was born on 25 November 1796 in Shiraz as the eleventh son of Baba Khan (later known as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar; r. 1797-1834) and a sayyida mother named Kulthum Khanum, a Mazandarani lady from a local landholder family. After the death of Fath-Ali Shah, she was one of few of his wives that were allowed to visit his successor and grandson, Mohammad Shah Qajar (r. 1834-1848). At Abdollah Mirza's birth, Agha Mohammad Khan was the ruling monarch. In 1797, when Abdollah Mirza was one year old, his father Baba Khan was crowned as Shah of Iran with the regnal name of Fath-Ali Shah after his predecessor's assassination.
Abdollah Mirza lived in his father's court in Tehran until he was thirteen years old. He benefited from the "wise men" there and received the education fit for a prince.
## Career
### Rule over Zanjan
In March 1809, Abdollah Mirza, who was thirteen at the time, was appointed by his father to rule the cities of Zanjan, Sojas, Sohrevard, Abhar, and Soltanieh. He was also the governor of the Khamseh province. Mohammad Taqi Saheb Ali Abadi, Fath-Ali Shah's favorite poet, was appointed as Abdollah Mirza's regent. Because of his guardian's teachings, Abdollah Mirza developed a taste in poetry. Ali Abadi served as regent for Abdollah Mirza until 1819, when Fath-Ali Shah ordered him to return to Tehran. Abdollah Mirza's rule over Zanjan was a period of prosperity and development. By his order, the Jameh Mosque of Zanjan (built in 1826) and Zanjan Government House were built. The Zanjan Bazaar was expanded as well.
In 1810, Abdollah Mirza was informed of valuables being discovered in an area by a mountain near Zanjan. Abdollah sent for an investigation. They discovered the tomb of Arghun Khan, Ilkhan of Ilkhanate which was filled with gold and jewelry. Abdollah Mirza brought the findings to Tehran and presented them to Fath-Ali Shah. They were placed in the treasury by the Shah's order. After this incident, Prince Hossein Ali Mirza Farman Farma, governor of Fars and brother of Abdollah Mirza, immediately opened tombs of Achaemenid kings in Marvdasht and found them empty.
In 1811 (or according to another source, 1812), Abdollah Mirza, aged fifteen, married the daughter of Soleyman Khan Qajar Etezad ol-Dowleh, laleh of Abbas Mirza. As a result of the marriage, Abdollah Mirza was considered a relative of Malek Jahan Khanom, wife of Mohammad Shah Qajar and mother of the future Naser al-Din Shah (r. 1848-1896). According to tradition, Abdollah Mirza's family took a summer trip to Soltanieh, where Fath-Ali Shah held a wedding party there for the new couple. Abdollah Mirza had two children, Mohsen Mirza and Shams al-Molok, with his wife. Otherwise, he had 19 sons and 9 daughters from his many concubines.
### Presence in wars
In 1822, during the Ottoman-Persian War, Abdollah Mirza joined his nephew Muhammad Hussein Mirza Heshmat al-Dawlah, son of Dowlatshah by his father's order. They were on their way to Iraq to conquer Baghdad and Shahr-e Zur. Abdollah Mirza took command of soldiers from Astarabad, Damghan, and Semnan and headed to Shahr-e Zur with his army. He initially succeeded, but with an outbreak of cholera among the army, the troops dispersed.
During the Second Russo-Persian War, Abdollah Mirza moved to Ardabil with an army to help Abbas Mirza, the crown prince and his older brother. During the war, Abdollah Mirza fought Valerian Madatov, a veteran of both Russo-Persian wars, and successfully looted horses, guns, and supplies.
### Removal from Zanjan government
In 1827, vassals complained to Fath-Ali Shah about Abdollah Mirza and the Shah removed him from the government, but by offering 12,000 tomans to his father, he was able to regain the governorship. The date of his second removal from governorship is unknown, but in 1834, the governor of Zanjan was Fathollah Mirza (35th son of Fath Ali Shah), and at that time Abdollah Mirza was serving his father. The exact reasons why Abdollah Mirza was ousted are unknown, but according to James Edward Alexander, a Scottish soldier and traveller, who met him in 1821, Abdollah's character was greedy and tyrannical and his subjects were the most oppressed people in Iran. As a result of his government, people suffered from poverty and the temperament of plunder and shamelessness had prevailed over them.
### Attempted overthrow of Fathollah Mirza
Abdollah Mirza accompanied Fath-Ali Shah on his trip to Fars in 1834. However, the shah died while in Isfahan. After his father's death, Abdollah Mirza rushed to Zanjan to oust Fathollah Mirza and take over. Abdollah Mirza had buried property under government buildings in Zanjan during his rule, he feared that if he did not take control of the city, he would lose all of it. He reached Zanjan in a short time and gathered and mounted three thousand men from the villages of that area and the Valusi tribe. Ten days later, he went to Zanjan and camped a mile from the city. In return, Fathollah Mirza prepared an experienced and well-equipped army to confront his brother.
Abdollah Mirza's troops, who were from different clans, were aware of the situation of Fathollah Mirza's forces and predicted the severity of the battle ahead. They dispersed two hours before dawn before any confrontation took place, and Abdollah Mirza was forced to flee to Qazvin. A few days later, Prince Mohammad Mirza (the son of the late crown prince, Abbas Mirza), who was heading from Tabriz to Tehran to sit on the throne, arrived in Zanjan and ratified the rule of Fathollah Mirza. Abdollah Mirza, who had failed to reclaim his rule, returned to Tehran and pledged allegiance to his nephew, Mohammad Shah, as King of Iran.
### Final years and death
During the reign of Mohammad Shah, Abdollah Mirza resigned from government affairs. He often traveled with the Shah and took part in Mohammad Shah's expedition of Herat. According to the modern historian, Ardakani, Abdollah Mirza foretold his own death and died on that exact date, 18 June 1846.
## Studies and writings
Abdollah Mirza studied Islamic astronomy under his brother Mohammad Vali Mirza. Abdollah Mirza was also a writer and poet. He wrote poetry under the pseudonym "Dara" and knew the principles of poetry and prose. His divan consists of fifty thousand verses and contains poems and lyric poems. Another divan he wrote was Divan-e Marathi. He also co-wrote a satirical mathnavi called Golnameh or Kalnameh about the life of a balding person with his brother Mohammad Reza Mirza. The only known prose work of Abdollah Mirza is a satirical book that was completed in 1845, Qanun va Basat Neshat. |
14,271,902 | SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis | 1,173,704,709 | 2007 episode of SpongeBob SquarePants directed by Andrew Overtoom | [
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"Animated films based on animated series",
"Films set in Atlantis",
"Nickelodeon animated films",
"SpongeBob SquarePants",
"SpongeBob SquarePants episodes"
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| SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis is the first television film and the 92nd episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, and a 2007 made-for-television musical comedy film directed by Andrew Overtoom. It first aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 12, 2007, serving as the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. In the special, SpongeBob and Patrick discover a half of an ancient medallion that helps them and their friends get to the lost city of Atlantis.
It was written by Casey Alexander, Zeus Cervas, Steven Banks, and Dani Michaeli. British musician and actor David Bowie guest starred as the voice of Lord Royal Highness. Upon release, it attracted an estimated 9.22 million viewers, becoming the most watched episode of the entire series. Despite this, it received mixed reviews from critics and audiences alike, while the Patchy subplot received mixed to negative reviews.
## Plot
### Patchy the Pirate subplot
Patchy the Pirate is stuck in traffic on US 101 near Encino, and becomes angry that he is going to miss the new SpongeBob episode. His cell phone rings, and Potty tells him to hurry because the episode is about to start. Patchy tells Potty to record the episode, but Potty tells him that he threw the Betamax machine in the garbage, angering Patchy. The traffic line moves, but Patchy soon discovers that Encino has vanished.
Later in, Patchy hallucinates finding a man dressed in a tall SpongeBob outfit, who tells him that he is SpongeBob SquarePants. The SpongeBob then tells him that he will be back in Encino if he "believes". He is woken up by Potty, but learns that Encino is still missing.
After the end of the SpongeBob special, Patchy finds Encino shrunk to a very small size, and meets three aliens, which explain that their son, Norbluck 5, was playing with his shrink ray. Patchy demands that the aliens return his town to full size, and they do so. After gratefully arriving back to his house in Encino, Patchy is crushed by a giant Potty the Parrot.
### SpongeBob plot
SpongeBob and Patrick are trying to take photos of bubbles they blew, but fail to do so. SpongeBob blows another bubble they can fit in, and they end floating away in it to a cave, where they find a piece of a medallion to the lost city of Atlantis. Unaware of what it is, they take it to the Bikini Bottom Museum and run into Squidward, who thinks they stole the other displayed half of the medallion. He soon realises they found the missing half and tells them it was the key to Atlantis. After hearing the story of Atlantis, the only thing SpongeBob and Patrick want to see is the city's attraction, the "World's Oldest Bubble." Squidward proceeds to reconnect the two-halves of the amulet, opening the "path to Atlantis", which is a bus that runs on "song fuel". The trio is joined by Mr. Krabs and Sandy, with the characters crash-landing into Atlantis. The group is unknowingly followed by Plankton, who plans to use the city's powerful weapons for his own ends.
Inside Atlantis, they meet the Atlantean Emperor, Lord Royal Highness, who shows them a grand tour of the fortress. During the tour, Mr. Krabs, Sandy, and Squidward each get distracted by places in Atlantis; Mr. Krabs by the treasury room, Sandy by the science laboratory, and Squidward by the art gallery. Meanwhile, Plankton enters the armory vault and steals a tank. SpongeBob and Patrick get to see the world's oldest living bubble, but Patrick takes a picture of it, horrifying the pair as it pops.
As Mr. Krabs, Sandy, and Squidward relate their experiences to Lord Royal Highness, SpongeBob and Patrick attempt to conceal the bubble's destruction until Patrick blurts it out. Lord Royal Highness reveals that the bubble they popped was just a prop for the tourists, and shows them the real oldest bubble, which Patrick pops. Angered, Lord Royal Highness summons the Atlantean Royal Guards to attack the group, but they manage to escape. Just as they flee outside, Plankton arrives in the stolen tank and fires at them, only to discover that it shoots ice cream. Lord Royal Highness captures Plankton, and decides that "a talking speck" would be a fantastic replacement for the bubble. SpongeBob and his friends leave for Bikini Bottom on the bus, as Lord Royal Highness takes the medallion and orders one of his guards to throw it away.
## Cast
- Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants, Gary the Snail, and Patchy the Pirate
- Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star
- Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs
- Rodger Bumpass as Squidward Tentacles
- Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks
- Mr. Lawrence as Plankton
- David Bowie as Lord Royal Highness
- Paul Tibbitt as Potty the Parrot
- David Glen Eisley as Singer
- Deric Battiste as Nigite
- David J. Steinberg as SpongeBob hallucination (uncredited)
## Production
Atlantis SquarePantis was written by Casey Alexander, Zeus Cervas, Steven Banks and Dani Michaeli, with Alexander and Cervas serving as storyboard directors, and the animation was directed by Andrew Overtoom. Although it was promoted by Nickelodeon as the first made-for-television film of the series, Atlantis SquarePantis is an extended episode, running 45 minutes. "[Atlantis SquarePantis is] an adventurous quest kind of a story," said Tom Kenny, the voice of SpongeBob, "about SpongeBob and his friends journeying and discovering the lost continent of Atlantis, which is ruled by a character voiced by David Bowie."
The film stars the series main cast members including Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Carolyn Lawrence, and Mr. Lawrence. In addition to the regular series voice cast, famed British musician and artist David Bowie guest starred as the voice of the Atlantean King, Lord Royal Highness. Writing on his blog, David Bowie said:
> It's happened. At last. I've hit the Holy Grail of animation gigs. Yesterday I got to be a character on ... tan-tara ... SpongeBob SquarePants. Oh Yeah!! We, the family, are thrilled. Nothing else need happen this year, well, this week anyway. My character in this special longform (I think a half-hour special) show is called 'Lord Royal Highness'. Alrighteee!!
Tom Kenny said "the people who [watch] are often surprising to me and unexpected. You don't picture David Bowie, the Thin White Duke, sitting on the couch in his pajamas eating Cheerios watching SpongeBob cartoons. [With] our little basic-cable budget we could never afford to pay a legend like David Bowie what he's worth, but the fact he wants to be in something his kid likes is what gets the ball rolling."
The film includes 33 minutes of animation. Its animators at the Nickelodeon Animation Studios at Burbank, California sketched the outlines of the story in a year. Paul Tibbitt, the show's supervising producer who also serves as the showrunner, explained "We're one of the last shows that does it the old-fashioned way, like they used to do it back in the Warner Brothers days."
## Release
Atlantis SquarePantis originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 12, 2007, preceding a 12-hour SpongeBob marathon. After the premiere, the Behind the Pantis special aired featuring the production of the film from story pitch and animation to voice-recording sessions. It was proclaimed "the most special special that's ever been called a special." Jim Blake's music track "Food Fight" was used for promotional material such as the aforementioned special and the teaser trailer for the movie that aired on the American network.
On November 13, 2007, the episode was released on the DVD compilation of the same name in the United States and Canada, and on October 27, 2008 in region 2. It also became available in the SpongeBob SquarePants: Season 5, Vol. 2 DVD on November 18, 2008. On September 22, 2009, "Atlantis SquarePantis" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: The First 100 Episodes DVD, alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five.
### Marketing
The film begun production in May 2006, and was delivered to Nickelodeon roughly a year later, allowing time for the network's marketers to promote it. A SpongeBob marathon is a key part of the channel's effort to stave off increasing competition from Disney Channel, Cartoon Network and other rivals. Cyma Zarghami, then president of the Nickelodeon networks, said "We do know that kids like events as much as adults do [...] There's a certain amount of water-cooler talk that goes on among kids."
The video game of the same name that was based on the film was released for PlayStation 2, Wii, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS. It was released on November 12, 2007 for Wii, and on October 27 for the PS2, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS. The game was developed by Blitz Games and Altron, and was published by THQ.
## Reception
### Ratings
Atlantis SquarePantis was broadcast on November 12, 2007 on Nickelodeon, and was preceded by an "Z-A" countdown of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes picked by viewers. It attracted 9.22 million viewers, the largest audience of a series broadcast at 8:00 p.m. show on November 12, 2007, with the exception of Dancing with the Stars, and currently the highest audience in the series' history.
### Critical response
Ian Jane of DVD Talk said "[the season five DVD] is a fun selection of solid episodes and [the film] is excellent [...] Paramount has done a nice job on this release and SpongeBob SquarePants: Atlantis SquarePantis comes recommended."
In her review for About.com, Nancy Basile's review was mixed and gave it a score of 2.5 out of 5. She wrote "Kids will enjoy this, but adults, who love the crazy antics, tongue-in-cheek humor and naive blunderings of early SpongeBob will be disappointed." Jerry Vonkramer of ToonZone gave the episode a score of 7/10 and wrote "Atlantis SquarePants [sic] is not a masterpiece, but neither does it deserve the awful reputation it seems to have."
Tom Shales, a television critic of The Washington Post, lambasted the film in a November 11, 2007 review. In his review, Shales wrote that "the funniest thing about the film is its title" and "a typical episode has about as many laughs as this inflated version does." Shales also criticized the musical numbers in Atlantis SquarePantis, calling them "numbing." He concluded the review saying that the special was "flat" and "unimpressive". |
39,926,917 | Artpop (song) | 1,151,866,663 | 2013 song by Lady Gaga | [
"2010s ballads",
"2013 songs",
"Lady Gaga songs",
"Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga",
"Songs written by DJ White Shadow",
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"Songs written by Nick Monson"
]
| "Artpop" (stylized in all caps) is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her third studio album of the same name. She co-wrote and co-produced the song with Paul "DJ White Shadow" Blair, Nick Monson, and Dino Zisis. "Artpop" was the first song developed for the album and led the composers to pursue other avenues of musical production. Described as the backbone of the record, Gaga did not want to experiment with the production of "Artpop", as she believed it to have an infinite aspect in it.
A techno song, "Artpop" features instrumentation from piano and guitars and has computerized musical sounds interspersed in between. The lyrics have been interpreted in a multitude of ways, including a romantic relationship, Gaga's bonding with her fans, the merging of art and pop, as well as using them to portray her brand value and generate further interest in her. "Artpop" received mixed reviews from critics who praised the low-key composition of the song compared to other tracks on the album, but panned the lyrics and the dated production.
"Artpop" was used in a "not safe for work" video for the album, which featured Gaga in various bizarre attires and a montage of the different promotional material leading to the release. Gaga had premiered "Artpop" during her 2013 iTunes Festival performance. She subsequently performed it at her ArtRave album release party, on the Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular on ABC with singer Elton John, and The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. It also served as the opening song to her 2014 ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour.
## Background and development
Development of Lady Gaga's third studio album, Artpop, began shortly after the release of her second one, Born This Way (2011), and by the following year, the album's concepts were "beginning to flourish" as Gaga collaborated with producers Fernando Garibay and DJ White Shadow. However, while on tour for the Born This Way Ball, Gaga had to undergo a hip surgery in February 2013 which forced the singer into a six-month hiatus, and this rehabilitation became one of the inspirations behind the album. According to White Shadow, the title track was one of the first songs penned for the album, which created the backbone for the record. Calling it a "defining moment" of Artpop's creation, the producer explained that the title track led them to explore other avenues in terms of musical aspirations. Written and produced by Gaga, White Shadow, Monson and Dino Zisis, "Artpop" was called the swan song of the album by the singer. Talking to Sirius XM Radio, where she gave an in-depth analysis of each song from the album, Gaga explained:
> 'Artpop' is really an inferno and it's the only song on the record that I didn't really wanna go anywhere or explode or orgasm. Because then it would just be like composing something that would be just like every other sort of orgasm that I've ever had. And because its really the center of the record, I really wanted there to be a more infinite tone, to this concept of Art+Pop, that we can put art in the front and not have the corporate world to control in art anymore. How can we the artist back our ideas and for our visions to be the most important thing. The thing that's driving culture, driving these corporations. I didn't wanted ['Artpop'] to grow too much, I wanted it to kind of hypnotize people and become like a mantra.
## Recording and composition
Initial recording sessions for Artpop coincided with the Born This Way Ball. Gaga spent the majority of her recording time on "Artpop" with White Shadow but she did not want the final version to be edited further, unlike her other songs. The song was recorded at Record Plant Studios, Hollywood, California, by Dave Russell and Benjamin Lader, with Lader and Daniel Zaidenstadt also working as assistants during the final mix. Russell also did the mixing of the track for the track at Record Plant and at Heard It! Studios with additional mixing being done by Dino "SpeeedoVee" Zisis. Instrumentation for "Artpop" included piano and guitars by Gaga and Monson. Background vocals were sung by Nichole Ganther, Natalie Ganther and Lyon Gray with vocal arrangement by Gaga. Finally, Rick Pearl did the additional programming and Gene Grimaldi did the audio mastering at Oasis Mastering Studios in Burbank, California. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, "Artpop" is set in the time signature of common time, with a dance-pop tempo of 117 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of D minor with Gaga's vocals spanning the tonal nodes of F<sub>3</sub> to A<sub>4</sub>. The song follows a basic sequence of Dm–Gm–F–C as its chord progression.
In a review for Billboard, Jason Lipshutz described "Artpop" as Gaga's manifesto about her creativity, calling it a "lurching electro-jazz beast" who's beats became louder and complex as it reached climax. Consisting of strings, the techno song has a beat similar to Selena Gomez & the Scene's 2011 single "Love You like a Love Song" with its electronic composition, and a groove comparable to singer Kylie Minogue's 2001 hit single "Can't Get You Out of My Head". Interspersed between are computerized musical sounds and the chorus, which has a coo-ing accompanied with the main vocals, like Michael Jackson. Both Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine and Kevin Harley from The Independent described "Artpop" as a Euro disco song, with Cinquemani also comparing its sound to Madonna's 2005 album Confessions on a Dance Floor. "Artpop"'s lyrics have been deduced to be a statement about "the subjectivity of art". It begins with the singer uttering the lines "Come to me with all your subtext of fantasy", the line being an indicative of enigma around her, according to The Huffington Post. Gaga explained the lyrics were a metaphor about love with the chorus line "We could belong together, Artpop". She believed that if her fans and herself could be together, that would probably mean a bonding for art and pop too. On the contrary, Jim Farber from New York Daily News believed that the love relationship was sidelined for that between art and pop with the lyrics.
There are other dimensions to the lyrics, with Gaga playing off her image of self-promotion and criticisms directed at her with the line "I try to sell myself, but I am really laughing because I just want the music not the bling". In a review for Artpop, Simon Chandler from Tiny Mix Tapes gave a detailed analysis of the lyrical composition. According to him, Gaga wanted to portray her music as boundless in its meaning with "Artpop", but it appeared to be arrogant since most of the conclusions derived about her music is from her public persona created and its media coverage. Chandler believed that the lyrics wanted to drive home a point about Gaga being the center for any discussion. With the previous lyrics, the implication is that Gaga's impassive personality utilizes her music to sell her brand name to the general crowd, and primarily fuels the public interest in her.
## Release and reception
A teaser for "Artpop" was previewed as part of snippets from the parent album until its final release on November 11, 2013. A "not safe for work" short film, An Artpop Film Starring Lady Gaga, set to the song was released as promotion for the album, on November 20, 2013. Shot by Dutch fashion photographer duo Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin, the video consisted of the material that Gaga created with them as promotion leading to Artpop. The video begins with a nude Gaga uttering a monologue: "This album is a celebration. My pain exploding in electronic music. It's heavy, but after I listen to it I feel happy again. I feel lighter." Following these are the black-and-white promotional scenes from Artpop campaign announcement, the music video for the first single "Applause", the nude images for her interview with V magazine and the artwork for promotional single, "Dope". Gaga shows a range of emotion in the film, including caressing a mannequin and applying dirt on her body, but most of the time she simply stares towards the camera. Zayda Rivera from New York Daily News expressed her difficulty in understanding the film, but added that "hypnotic musical backdrop of her single 'Artpop' perfectly matches the artsy, bewildering and even disturbing images that run through the fast and slow editing." Gaga admitted that she had performed for 12 hours while making the film.
The track received mixed reviews from music critics. Mike Wass from Idolator called it an "obtuse synth track" believing the composition to be "ingenious" or "pretentious", and felt that Gaga's endeavors kept the pop music scene interesting. Evan Sawdey from PopMatters believed that the vibe of the previous track on the album, "Do What U Want", carried off to "Artpop" which he described as "strange" and "hypnotic" and the best thing on the parent album. Harley listed "Artpop" as one of the more aurally pleasurable tracks from the album. Calling it a "standout" track, Andrew Barker from Variety compared Gaga's vocals to those of Debbie Harry, with their cold disposition. Emily McKey from NME called the song "slow and purringly sexy", believing that the line "My artpop could mean anything" referred to the trivial concept of the album itself. Critic Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune believed that "Artpop" was the only song on the album, where there was a hint of what the actual composition of the over all record should have been. Justin Miller from Harper's Bazaar called the song more intimate that the previous tracks in the album, but felt it was a techno-ballad and the most diffused composition for Gaga.
Negative reviews came from Holly Williams of Contactmusic.com, who was extremely disappointed with the track. Williams felt a rapid decline in the quality of music with the title track, which she believed should have been "climactic, inventive and a little bit trippy with such a title" but found its tempo to be slow and mundane. Maura Johnson from Spin felt that lyrics like "I just love the music, not the bling" appeared insincere on Gaga's behalf since her career graph showed that the singer was more infatuated with Fame in the 21st century. "Not the deepest statement, but also not that unique to the new millennium," Johnson concluded. Los Angeles Times's Mikael Wood believed that the line was not something that worked in a pop record and believed that along with first single "Applause", Gaga's ideas seemed unattainable and not exciting. John Walker from MTV News rated it two out of five stars, calling it boring. Chris Bossman from Consequence of Sound compared the composition of the track to a "dying, old school war dialer". Melinda Newman from HitFix called the song "too quirky" and felt that it could only be successful if remixed properly. Robert Copsey from Digital Spy believed that the chorus line "My artpop could mean anything" made the concept of the album all the more confusing, instead of simplifying Gaga's brash statements about her musical outputs. Ericka Welch from The Huffington Post called the song as "pretentious" and the least interesting endeavor on the album. She believed that "Artpop" failed to embody the concept of the album and was plagued with the same inconsequential lyrics that was visible during her Born This Way era. She concluded by giving the example: "Like a mad scientist trying to create life, Gaga's experiment to fuse ART and POP sometimes results in overly ambitious deformities with six legs."
## Live performances
Previous to the release of the album or the teasers, Gaga performed "Artpop" live on September 1, 2013, at the iTunes Festival in London. The song was the third performance that evening, from a set list containing eight tracks. Following the performance of "Manicure" and a piano interlude, Gaga stripped off her clothes onstage until she was in a sea-shell bikini and an enormous blond wig, and started singing the song. Ashley Percival from The Huffington Post complimented the performance, saying that the song "showed the most promise onstage". A review at Capital FM website found the song akin to her 2009 single, "Paparazzi". Jenn Selby from Glamour called the performance a "heartfelt piece of pop music accompanied with its own, YMCA-like arm dance." Digital Spy's Copsey was confused with the performance, but enjoyed the downtempo composition of "Artpop" and rated it three-and-a-half stars out of five. Writing for The Guardian, Kitty Empire criticized the absence of clothing but praised the overall performance. Gaga next performed "Artpop" during her ArtRave party for the release of the album. Wearing an ensemble that was described by the New York Post's Hardeep Phull as a combination of S&M gear and the Michelin Man, Gaga performed "Artpop" after opening the ArtRave concert with "Aura", the first track of the album. The singer had to wade through the crowd of her fans in order to reach the main stage where the rest of the performance took place.
Gaga performed the song on Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular, her second Thanksgiving television special which aired on ABC on November 28, 2013. She had invited singer Elton John as special guest star for the performance. After a performance of John's 1974 single "Bennie and the Jets", the duo started singing "Artpop". They were seated opposite to each other on piano, and Gaga was ornamented in a dress made of Coca-Cola cans. During the chorus, they were joined by The Muppets who aided with background vocals. Chris Willman from Billboard called John as the best guest performer of the special. Maricela Gonzales from Entertainment Weekly was impressed with the performance, saying that although she did not understand the message behind the song, "[w]hat is clear is that Gaga and Elton John belong together. I'm serious, I want to go to that show."
She also performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on February 18, 2014. The performance was the restart of Gaga's emergence under media spotlight, following a self-imposed sabbatical due to depression and stories about betrayal surrounding the release of Artpop. The singer wore a white dress and sported a platinum blond wig; the ensemble made her look like fashion designer Donatella Versace. Starting the song as an acoustic version, Gaga played a crystal piano placed atop a ramp at the end of the stage. By the second chorus, the electronic beats of the song started and she descended to the front of the stage to complete the performance with a dance. Carl Williot from Idolator complimented the performance, saying that it made him appreciate the track more. It was praised by Melinda Newman from HitFix who said that "Gaga excels when it is just her at a piano performing the songs with the barest of accompaniment."
At the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour of 2014, "Artpop" was added as the opening song of the set list. The show starts off with a video introduction about the tour, followed by dancers appearing on stage with balloons and blue gazing balls. The video continues to play as Gaga emerges from beneath the stage, wearing a golden leotard with wings and a blue ball attached to her bosom. Dry ice and confetti accompanied her arrival on stage, as Gaga sang the song standing atop two male dancers wearing scuba diving masks.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Artpop.
### Management
- Recorded at Record Plant Studios, Hollywood, California
- Stefani Germanotta P/K/A Lady Gaga (BMI) Sony ATV Songs LLC/House of Gaga Publishing, LLC/GloJoe Music Inc. (BMI), Maxwell and Carter Publishing, LLC (ASCAP), administered by Universal Music Publishing Group and Maxwell and Carter Publishing, LLC (BMI) administered by Universal Music Publishing Group
### Personnel
- Lady Gaga – songwriter, lead vocals, producer, piano, guitar, vocal arrangement
- Paul "DJ White Shadow" Blair – songwriter, producer
- Nick Monson – songwriter, producer, guitar
- Dino Zisis – songwriter, producer
- Dave Russell – recording, mixing
- Benjamin Rice – recording and mixing assistant
- Daniel Zaidenstadt – recording assistant
- Dino "SpeedoVee" Zisis – additional recording
- Rick Pearl – additional programming
- Nicole Ganther – background vocals
- Natalie Ganther – background vocals
- Lyon Gray – background vocals
- Ivy Skoff – union contract administrator
- Gene Grimaldi – mastering
## Charts
Following the release of Artpop, the song debuted and reached a peak position of number 185 in France, staying on the chart for 1 week. It also reached a peak of number 64 on the Gaon Digital Chart for non-domestic of South Korea, selling 3,157 copies. |
51,889,495 | Jordan Williams (American football) | 1,163,324,018 | American football player (born 1993) | [
"1993 births",
"21st-century African-American sportspeople",
"African-American players of American football",
"American football defensive ends",
"American football defensive tackles",
"American football linebackers",
"Gainesville High School (Florida) alumni",
"Living people",
"Miami Dolphins players",
"New York Giants players",
"New York Jets players",
"Players of American football from Gainesville, Florida",
"Tennessee Titans players",
"Tennessee Volunteers football players"
]
| Jordan Cornell Williams (born March 23, 1993) is an American football outside linebacker for the Memphis Showboats. He played his senior season of high school football at Gainesville High School in Gainesville, Florida. He played college football at Tennessee for four years. Williams played in 44 games, of which he started 21, during his college career, recording 66 tackles and 6.5 sacks. After going undrafted in the 2015 NFL Draft, he signed with the New York Jets and spent time on the team's practice squad before being released in September 2015. He was then signed by the Miami Dolphins, where he spent time on both the practice squad and active roster, before being released in September 2016. He was then signed to the Giants' practice squad in December 2016.
## Early years
Williams played his first three years of high school football at P. K. Yonge Developmental Research School in Gainesville, Florida. During his junior year, he broke his collarbone in the fifth game and missed the rest of the season. While at P. K. Yonge, he spent time at middle linebacker, nose tackle and tight end.
After his junior year at P. K. Yonge, he transferred to play his senior year of football at Gainesville High School in Gainesville. In Williams' senior season in 2010, he played defensive end and tight end while also spending some time at long snapper. In 2010, he was named to both the Super 11 team and Class 5A-AA First-team of the Gainesville Sun. Gainesville High finished with an 11–2 record and advanced to the state semifinals. He played in the Florida Athletic Coaches Association (FACA)/Reebok North-South All Star Football Classic on December 22, 2010. He played at Gainesville High with future Tennessee teammate Trevarris Saulsberry.
In the class of 2011, Williams was rated a three-star recruit by Rivals.com, Scout.com, ESPN.com and 247Sports.com. He was also rated the No. 42 strongside defensive end in the country by Rivals.com, the No. 45 defensive end in the country by Scout.com, the No. 61 defensive end in the country by ESPN.com, and the No. 34 strongside defensive end in the country by 247Sports.com. He was also rated both a three-star recruit and the No. 40 strongside defensive end in the country on 247Sports.com's composite rating, which takes into account the ratings of all the other major recruiting services in the country.
He committed to play college football for Tennessee in October 2010. He also received offers from other schools, some of which included Arkansas, NC State, Oregon, South Florida, Vanderbilt, Syracuse, Maryland, Duke, Louisville, Iowa State, Troy, UCF, Michigan State and Marshall.
## College career
Williams played for the Tennessee Volunteers of the University of Tennessee from 2011 to 2014 under head coaches Derek Dooley and Butch Jones. He majored in Arts & Sciences at Tennessee. He was a recipient of the Horne Athletic Scholarship.
He played in nine games his freshman year in 2011 as a defensive end, recording four tackles and a sack.
He was moved to jack linebacker his sophomore season in 2012. Williams appeared in ten games, of which he started in half of them, and totaled two sacks and 17 tackles, four of which were tackles for loss. In April 2012, he was one of four recipients of the team's John Stucky Award, which is given to the "player who shows the most dedication and work discipline to improve strength as selected by the strength and conditioning staff."
Williams was shifted back to defensive end for 2013 and played in 12 games, with three starts. He recorded 1.5 sacks and 18 tackles, 1.5 of which were tackles for loss. He was named to the 2013 Fall SEC Academic Honor Roll.
He moved to defensive tackle his senior year in 2014. He played in 13 games, all starts, and totaled two sacks, four pass breakups and 27 tackles, four of which were tackles for loss. He was named to the 2014 Fall SEC Academic Honor Roll. He played in the 2015 Medal of Honor Bowl as part of the National Team.
Throughout his college career, Williams played in 44 games and started 21 of them. He recorded career totals of 6.5 sacks and 66 tackles, 10.5 of which were tackles for loss.
## Professional career
Williams was rated the 54th best defensive end in the 2015 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com.
### New York Jets
Williams signed with the New York Jets in May 2015 after going undrafted in the 2015 NFL Draft. He was released by the Jets on September 5 and signed to the team's practice squad the following day. He was released by the Jets on September 22, 2015.
### Miami Dolphins
Williams was signed to the Miami Dolphins' practice squad on October 6, 2015. He was promoted to the active roster on December 5. He made his NFL debut and only appearance of the 2015 season on December 6 against the Baltimore Ravens. He was released by the Dolphins on December 26 and signed to the team's practice squad three days later. He signed a reserve/future contract with the Dolphins in January 2016. He was released by the team on September 3 and signed to the Dolphins' practice squad the next day. He was released by the Dolphins on September 20, 2016.
### New York Giants
On December 6, 2016, the New York Giants signed Williams to their practice squad. He signed a reserve/future contract with the Giants on January 9, 2017. On September 2, 2017, he was waived by the Giants and was signed to the practice squad the next day. He was promoted to the active roster on November 1. He was waived by the Giants on November 7, 2017, and was re-signed to the practice squad. He signed a reserve/future contract with the Giants on January 1, 2018.
On September 1, 2018, Williams was waived/injured by the Giants and was placed on injured reserve.
### Tennessee Titans
On August 1, 2019, Williams signed with the Tennessee Titans. He was waived/injured on August 12, 2019 and was placed on injured reserve. His contract was terminated on July 28, 2020.
## Personal life
Williams' father, Keith, was a defensive lineman at Florida in the mid-1980s, was drafted by the Minnesota Vikings in the 12th round of the 1987 NFL Draft, and later played for the Chicago Bruisers, Dallas Texans and Orlando Predators of the Arena Football League from 1988 to 1991. Williams's sister, Janine, played volleyball at Florida and UCF. He held the first annual Jordan Williams Skills Camp on July 14, 2016. |
24,713,950 | Rated R (Rihanna album) | 1,171,706,959 | null | [
"2009 albums",
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"Albums produced by Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers",
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"Albums produced by Justin Timberlake",
"Albums produced by Ne-Yo",
"Albums produced by Stargate",
"Albums produced by The-Dream",
"Albums produced by Tricky Stewart",
"Albums produced by will.i.am",
"Albums recorded at Westlake Recording Studios",
"Contemporary R&B albums by Barbadian artists",
"Def Jam Recordings albums",
"Hip hop albums by Barbadian artists",
"Pop albums by Barbadian artists",
"Rihanna albums"
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| Rated R is the fourth studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It was released on November 20, 2009, by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records. Recording sessions for the album began in March 2009 and took place at recording studios throughout United States and Europe. Rihanna, together with Antonio "L.A." Reid and The Carter Administration, was the executive producer of the album and worked with various record producers, including Chase & Status, Stargate, The-Dream, Ne-Yo, and Brian Kennedy. The record featured several vocalists and instrumentalists, including Young Jeezy, will.i.am, Justin Timberlake and Slash, who played the guitars in "Rockstar 101".
Musically, the album represents a departure from her previous effort Good Girl Gone Bad (2007), which contained up-tempo and ballad-oriented songs. Conceived after Rihanna's assault by her then-boyfriend, singer Chris Brown, Rated R is a rock-influenced pop, hip hop and R&B album; it features a foreboding and atmospheric tone in terms of musical and lyrical direction, and it incorporates elements of dubstep. It also explores other genres, such as dancehall in "Rude Boy" and Latin-infusion in "Te Amo". Rated R received positive reviews from music critics, who commended Rihanna's mature performance and called the album her most layered and heartfelt effort. The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 181,000 copies in its first week. It also attained top ten positions in over twelve other countries.
The album produced six singles, "Russian Roulette", "Wait Your Turn", "Hard", "Rude Boy", "Rockstar 101", and "Te Amo". "Russian Roulette" was released as the album's lead single and managed to reach top-ten in over 25 countries. "Hard" became her thirteenth US top-ten single, while "Rude Boy" topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks. "Te Amo" attained top-ten positions around Europe and reached number one in Brazil. To further promote the album, Rihanna embarked on her third worldwide concert tour Last Girl on Earth (2010–2011). Rated R is deemed as an important album in Rihanna's career and a groundwork inspiration for her follow-up releases.
## Background
Rihanna's previous album Good Girl Gone Bad (2007) was a commercial success and received generally positive reviews from most music critics. The album featured five top ten singles—three US number one songs—including the international breakthrough single "Umbrella". Following the assault of Rihanna's boyfriend Chris Brown on her in February 2009, there was much speculation as to whether any song featured on the upcoming album would be about him. In an interview with MTV News, regular Rihanna collaborator Ne-Yo clarified that he would not write a song for Rihanna about Brown, because he considered the idea unnecessary. Producer Chuck Harmony mused that no matter what song Rihanna released as the lead single, it would immediately be looked at as a song about Brown.
During an interview at the MTV Video Music Awards, Ne-Yo stated that listeners should expect an "edgier" and "angrier" Rihanna on the album. He later told In Touch Weekly that the album is definitely more edgy than Rihanna's prior work, describing the album as "liberated". American singer Akon, on the other hand, stated that he was "going to lighten her up" and did not want an angry Rihanna. With the success of her last album, Rihanna wanted to make sure that she did not fall into one sound or vibe. At the "Justin Timberlake & Friends Concert in Las Vegas", Timberlake told MTV News that the Rated R is a whole new sound and that the new material significantly differs from the one on her last album. "She broke onto the scene so hard with the last record — to have that many songs on the charts is impressive. I think that the smartest thing she's doing is not trying to emulate what she did but move forward", Timberlake explained.
After the release of the lead single, "Russian Roulette", Harmony was aware of the mixed reaction from fans who had heard the track. He assured fans that the song was not fully representative to the rest of the album, though it reflected Rihanna's growth as an artist. In an interview with Rap-Up, Tricky Stewart announced that he had collaborated with The-Dream on the project and said that the album is different from her past works. In February 2010, Rihanna expressed a positive opinion on the album, but commented that her future work would be less intense. She asserted, "I really like the bottom, the grime of it. But if I were to combine that with more energetic, up-tempo pop records, then I think that would be a happy marriage. And that's where we'll probably go next".
## Recording
Rihanna began recording songs for the album in March 2009. The recording sessions for the album took place at Milk Studios in Manhattan, Metropolis Studios in London, Studios Davout in Paris, and at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles. Rihanna worked with several different songwriters and producers on the album, including Chuck Harmony, The-Dream, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Chase & Status, Stargate, Demo, and Justin Timberlake. Rihanna wanted the album to be less influenced by synthpop, attempting to avoid the "lighthearted commercial pop" of her previous albums. By doing so, she incorporated a production style with more bass, and utilized Gothic imagery. In the early stages of the production, she worked with Adonis Shropshire, who stated that Rihanna had brainstormed a large number of ideas over the course of a few weeks. Rihanna also worked with Norwegian producer duo Stargate, who mused that the collaboration was "very rewarding" and "inspiring for us", commenting: "I don't think we should talk about titles just yet. We don't really know which songs are gonna make it, but it feels exciting." It was later revealed that Stargate originally produced a collaboration between Rihanna and Canadian rapper Drake, however, the song did not make the final cut for the album.
Rihanna was involved with writing most of the lyrics on the album with the help of Timberlake and Ne-Yo, who helped the singer to translate her emotions into the songs. She worked with Ne-Yo on a number of songs although he was often unclear as to which songs would actually make the album. While working together, he felt that Rihanna was not the same girl as the one he worked with a few years before, complimenting her growth musically. In terms of musical direction, Rihanna requested more somber songs for the album. Ne-Yo and Harmony co-wrote "Russian Roulette", pushing a darker and more morbid aesthetic.
After listening to the track "Saxon" performed by Nicki Minaj and production duo Chase & Status, Rihanna got in contact with the latter and wanted to collaborate. Chase & Status had a pair of sessions with Rihanna and worked together for a few weeks in an undisclosed location. The songs they worked on had a "big beats and big bass", although Rihanna had some disagreements with the duo. In October 2009, she concluded recording sessions with Tricky Stewart and The-Dream. Dream and Tricky flew out to Paris and played a few songs for Rihanna which included "Hard" and "Rockstar 101." She felt that "Hard" stood out from all the songs, due to its arrogance. In the song "Rockstar 101," guitarist Slash contributed a bass guitar on the track while "Photographs" is a duet with singer-songwriter will.i.am. In addition, Ester Dean co-wrote "Rude Boy". "The Last Song" was one of the last tracks crafted for the album. Rihanna recorded the song within the final twelve hours of the album's conception; "when the label finally said we had 12 hours to turn in the album, I was like, Okay, I have to do it. I just drank some red wine, dimmed the lights, got in the booth and sang it", she explained.
## Music and lyrics
Rated R features a darker and more foreboding tone than Rihanna's previous albums. Primarily a pop, hip hop and R&B album, it also incorporates musical elements of rock music. The album's production is typified by a sleek sound and incorporates ominous synthesizers, intertwining guitar licks, tense beats, minor-key melodies, and polyrhythmic vocal harmonies. Songs such as "G4L", "Mad House", and "Wait Your Turn" incorporate elements of dubstep, including brooding synths and grumbling basslines. The album also incorporates other musical genres, such as dancehall in the Jamaican inspired "Rude Boy" and Latin music-infusion in "Te Amo". Rihanna discussed the musical direction of the project in an interview for Glamour magazine, stating "The songs are really personal. It's rock 'n' roll, but it's really hip-hop: If Lil Wayne and Kings of Leon like my album, then I'll feel good."
The lyrical content of the album features generally bleak views on love and boastful lyrics concerning perseverance and overcoming adversity. Its lyrics are characterized by grim and angry tones, and songs that contain boastful and persevering themes are characterized by images of violence and brutality. While journalists Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times, Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine, and Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice perceived its lyrics as allusions to Rihanna's assault by Chris Brown, Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that the album "doesn't specifically address those events, but it hardly ignores them". According to Powers, regret is a significant theme on the album: "The songs on 'Rated R' never have their singer apologize for the man who so seriously wronged her, but they do acknowledge the other emotions that come with separation, even from a partner who's also a perpetrator. Those feelings include regret, tenderness and deep sadness".
## Artwork and fashion
The final image from the photoshoot for the album was made by German fashion photographer Ellen von Unwerth. Von Unwerth, who has also shot other album covers such as The Velvet Rope (1997) by Janet Jackson, Back to Basics (2006) by Christina Aguilera, and Blackout (2007) by Britney Spears, said that Rihanna was "fantastic to work with — very giving, very creative, very involved in every aspect of the shoot and ready to push the boundaries." The album cover was released on October 27, 2009, and features Rihanna in a moody, contemplative pose wearing a leather top with her hand covering her right eye and each finger wrapped in an intricate set of rings. The black-and-white cover was compared to the 1980s album covers by singer Grace Jones.
The brand and styling of Rated R was conceived by British artist and director Simon Henwood. "We spent a lot of time developing ideas, yes. We went to Paris for Fashion Week, met with designers, sat and made drawings/designs together for the photo shoot/costume pieces, etc," Henwood revealed in an interview with MuuMuse. "Everything comes from the music, and this is her most personal album to date—so everything draws from it in one way or another." For the visual creation of the era, Henwood took inspiration from the film The Omega Man and the book The Lathe of Heaven, "We wanted to create her a world that was personal... The whole thing was a dark dream; a chance for her to express all these things without being specific/literal." Henwood also conceived the look and feel of the album's artwork, videos and TV spots, and also contributed to Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth Tour, including the show's stage design, costumes, and background visuals.
## Release and promotion
On October 13, 2009, Rihanna released a statement along with a picture of a metal 'R' on her official website saying, "The Wait is Ova. Nov 23 09", indicating the release date for Rated R. Two days later, a countdown timer appeared on her official website and was scheduled to end on October 20, 2009. After the timer ended, "Russian Roulette" premiered on BBC Radio 1, the singer's official website and on American radio stations. On October 16, Rihanna shot a music video for "Wait Your Turn" in Washington Heights, New York City; it premiered on her official website on November 3, 2009. A snippet of the song with the title "The Wait is Ova" also appeared as background music for a promotional video of the album. On November 5, 2009, Rihanna's first televised interview since her altercation with Brown aired on Good Morning America in support of the album. In addition to appearing on Good Morning America, the interview continued the following day on ABC's 20/20.
In November 2009, Island Def Jam convened with Nokia for a special promotional concert held on November 16, 2009, in the United Kingdom. Rihanna shot a promotional video for the event which took place at the Brixton Academy in London. She premiered songs from the album during the event which was her first solo concert since the incident with Brown. Nokia hosted listening parties around the globe on the same date of the event. The Nokia Music Store offered an enhanced version of the album on its release date, a remix and exclusive track titled "Hole in My Head" which featured Justin Timberlake. Rated R was first released on November 20, 2009, in Australia, France and Germany. Three days after, on November 23, it was launched in North America and the United Kingdom.
On February 4, 2010, Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam on VH1 along with performers Timbaland and Justin Bieber. She sang a "hard-rocking version" of "Wait Your Turn", "Live Your Life", "Disturbia" and "Russian Roulette" among others. Rihanna performed a medley of "Hard", "Rude Boy" and "Don't Stop the Music" at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards on March 27, 2010. To further promote Rated R, Rihanna embarked on her third concert tour titled Last Girl on Earth Tour (2010–2011). It started on April 16, 2010, in Belgium, Europe and ended on March 12, 2011, in Australia; it also visited Asia, North America and Oceania. Ten songs from Rated R were remixed by electronic disc jockey Chew Fu and released as a remix album under the title Rated R: Remixed. The majority of the remixes were remastered to incorporate sounds from the genre of house music, and incorporate heavy usage of synthesizers as part of their instrumentation.
## Singles
"Russian Roulette" was sent to US radio stations on October 26, 2009, as the lead single from Rated R. The pop ballad received positive reviews from music critics, with Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times praising Rihanna's vocal performance and its lyrics. It peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and at number two on the UK Singles Chart. The music video for the song was directed by Anthony Mandler and features American actor Jesse Williams.
"Hard", which features rap vocals by Jeezy, was released as the album's second US single, being sent to radio on November 10, 2009. Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly praised the singer's vocal performance and the decision to include Jeezy as a featured artist. It became Rihanna's thirteenth top ten US Billboard Hot 100 single, peaking at number eight.
The album's third single, "Wait Your Turn", alongside its music video, was released three days after "Hard" on November 13, 2009. Mandler shot the video, which was filmed in a black and white grainy fashion.
"Rude Boy", the album's fourth single, was released to Italian radio stations on February 5, 2010. It was received enthusiastically and was the biggest success from the album, eventually becoming Rihanna's sixth song to reach number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. By doing so, she equaled Paula Abdul and Diana Ross as the female artists with the fifth-most number one singles on the Hot 100 chart in its fifty-one year history. It stayed on the summit for five consecutive weeks.
"Rockstar 101" was released as the fifth single on May 18, 2010. The song peaked at number 24 in Australia and number 64 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. An accompanying music video was shot in April 2010 and was directed by Melina Matsoukas.
"Te Amo" was released as the sixth and final single from Rated R; it was sent to Italian radio on May 28, 2010. It peaked within the top-ten in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland, and reached number one in Brazil. The Mandler-directed music video was shot at Castle of Vigny in Paris and featured French model Laetitia Casta as Rihanna's love interest.
## Critical reception
Rated R received positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 75, based on 21 reviews. It is currently her highest rated album on the site. Jody Rosen, writing for Rolling Stone, called it one of the year's best pop albums. AllMusic's Andy Kellman gave the album four out of five stars and said that Rated R is exaggerated, but "compelling" and performed convincingly by Rihanna, who sings "many memorably belligerent lines". Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune rated it three-and-half stars out of four and called it "powerful and moving art" that Rihanna personalizes in a way that suggests she had more creative input than on her previous albums. Pareles of The New York Times, said that, although its personal subject matter is brave, it does not compromise the creativity of the music.
Powers of the Los Angeles Times gave the album four out of four star rating and called it "a complex and fascinating portrait" of an abused woman's emotional range and resolve. Alex Macpherson of Fact said that, apart from its interesting music, Rated R is important for how Rihanna has "seized back control of her public story" during "our current panoptic age". Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe praised it as a brief look at both Rihanna's development as an artist and "the confluence of tabloid culture and pop art". For MSN Music, Robert Christgau gave the album a two-star honorable mention, indicating a "likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy." He cited "Hard" and "Rude Boy" as highlights and credited Rihanna for "concocting a persona of interest out of one dynamite musical trick" and a difficult period in her personal life.
In a mixed review, Sean Fennessey of Spin felt that the album does not suit Rihanna's ballad-based strengths and found her voice too flat and unexpressive to convey the anger of the songs. Pitchforks Ryan Dombal similarly said that her "artistic aspirations are currently loftier than her abilities". Michaelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club rated the album C+ and viewed the music as bloated and compared its lyrics negatively to "excerpts from a therapy session". Alexis Petridis, writing in The Guardian, criticized its allusions to Brown's assault of her and said that the album does not offer anything beyond "the public's prurient interest in her private life." Harvilla of The Village Voice found the subtext uncomfortable and commented that the album's highlights, "thrilling as they are, might make you feel even worse" than the low points.
Rated R was included in three top-10 albums lists by critics for 2009. In her year-end list of best albums, Entertainment Weekly's Leah Greenblatt named it the best pop album of the year. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune ranked it number eight on his list of 2009's best albums. Jonah Weiner of Slate ranked Rated R number 10 on his list and hailed Rihanna as one of the women that "have a stranglehold on the pop zeitgeist."
## Commercial performance
Rated R debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 181,000 copies in the country, giving Rihanna her highest first-week sales at that time. It surpassed the first week sales of her previous album Good Girl Gone Bad, which entered at number two on the chart in 2007, with sales of 162,000 copies sold. It topped the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and became her first number-one on the chart. On March 26, 2018, Rated R was certified two-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and had sold over 1,130,000 copies in the US as of June 2015. The album debuted and peaked at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart and it received a platinum certification from Music Canada (MC).
For the issue dated November 29, 2009, the album entered at number sixteen on the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in just four days. For the issue dated March 7, 2010, the album broke into the top ten, and reached its number nine peak in the 15th week on the chart. It had sold over 710,000 copies in the country, as of 2015, and earned a two-times platinum certification from BPI. The album debuted at number 15 on the Australian Albums Chart. In August, the album was certified Platinum for shipping 70,000 units. For the issue dated March 14, 2010, Rated R set a new high of 12. It entered and peaked at number 14 on the New Zealand Albums Chart.
Rated R debuted at number 12 on the Norwegian Albums Chart. In its tenth week, it peaked atop the chart and became Rihanna's first number-one album in the country. It was certified gold by IFPI Norway, denoting sales of over 15,000 copies. The album opened at number one on the Swiss Albums Chart for the issue dated December 6, 2009, and spent a total of 43 weeks on the chart. It received a platinum certification from IFPI Switzerland for shipment of 15,000 copies in the country. Rated R debuted and peaked at number four on the German Albums Chart for the issue dated December 4, 2009. It became Rihanna's second top-five album and received a platinum certification from Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for shipments of over 200,000 copies in the country. In Poland, the album peaked at number five and received a gold certification, selling 20,000 copies in one month, beating Good Girl Gone Bad's sales of 20,000 achieved in two years. It also peaked at number 7 at the Austrian and Irish Albums charts, and number 10 on the Croatian, French and Japanese Albums charts. Worldwide, Rated R had sold over three million copies, as of November 2010.
## Legacy
Rated R is deemed a pivotal record in Rihanna's career as it was released nine months after the domestic violence case with Brown. In 2019, ten years after the album release, Chuck Arnold of Billboard described the record as a "coming-of-age manifesto" and also Rihanna's version of Jackson's Control (1986). According to him, Rated R is "her declaration of independence from Brown and her taking charge of a narrative that had turned her into a victim." Similarly, Blavity's Jordan Simon compared it to Jackson's The Velvet Rope, and described it as "a dark portrait of a Black woman's journey to self-healing".
## Track listing
## Personnel
Credits for Rated R adapted from AllMusic and album's liner notes.
Recording and mixing locations
- The Boom Boom Room, Burbank (tracks 3, 5)
- Chalice Recording Studios, Universal City (tracks 2, 6)
- Chung King Studios, New York City (tracks 4, 8, 10, 11)
- Germano Studios, New York City (tracks 7, 10, 12, 13)
- Larrabee Studios, Universal City (track 3)
- Legacy Recording Studio, New York City (tracks 1, 3)
- Metropolis Studios, London (tracks 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13)
- The Palms Studios, Las Vegas (track 12)
- The Record Plant, Hollywood (tracks 7, 13)
- Roc the Mic Studios, New York City (tracks 6, 12, 13)
- Serenity Sound Studios, Los Angeles (tracks 5, 7)
- Studios Davour, Paris (track 3)
- TheStudio215 (track 12)
- Triangle Sound Studios, Atlanta (tracks 3, 5)
- Westlake Studios, Los Angeles (tracks 7, 12)
Musicians and technical'
- Mykael Alexander – assistant engineer (tracks 1, 6, 13)
- Davis Barnett – viola (track 12)
- Beardyman – additional vocals (track 1)
- Jessie Bonds – guitar (track 6)
- Jay Brown – A&R
- Bobby Campbell – assistant (track 12)
- Chase – producer (tracks 1, 2, 10), instrumentation (track 2)
- James J. Cooper III – cello and cello soloist (track 12)
- Cédric Culnaërt – assistant engineer (track 3)
- Kevin "KD" Davis – mixing (tracks 1, 2, 4, 6–8, 10, 11, 13)
- Steven Dennis – assistant engineer (tracks 3, 5)
- Dylan Dresdow – mixing (track 9)
- Mikkel S. Eriksen – producer and instrumentation (tracks 2, 4, 8, 11), engineer and vocal producer (tracks 2, 11)
- James Fauntleroy – producer (track 12), backing vocals (track 13)
- Glenn Fischbach – cello (track 12)
- Paul Foley – engineer and mixing assistant (track 12)
- Rick Friedrich – assistant strings engineer (track 12)
- Future Cut – additional keyboards (track 1)
- Rathablos Fvanz – art direction, design
- Chris Gehringer — mastering
- Mariel Haenn – stylist
- Alex Haldi – design
- Kevin Hanson – assistant engineer (track 6)
- Chuck Harmony – producer (track 6)
- Keith Harris – strings (track 9)
- Ben Harrison – guitar and additional production (track 13)
- Karl Heilbron – vocal engineer for Jeezy (track 3)
- Simon Henwood – art direction, design, photography, stylist
- Tor Erik Hermansen – producer and instrumentation (tracks 2, 4, 8, 11)
- Jean-Marie Horvat – mixing (track 12)
- Ghazi Hourani – mixing assistant (tracks 7, 13)
- Jeezy — rap (track 3)
- Mike "TrakGuru" Johnson – engineer (track 6)
- Jaycen Joshua – mixing (tracks 3, 5)
- Brian Kennedy – producer and keyboards (tracks 7, 13), additional programming (track 10)
- Padraic "Padlock" Kerin – engineer (track 9)
- Rob Knox — producer (track 12)
- Olga Konopelsky – violin (track 12)
- Emma Kummrow – violin (track 12)
- Giancarlo Lino – mixing assistant (tracks 3, 5)
- Pater Martinez – assistant engineer (track 12)
- Luigi Mazzocchi – violin and violin soloist (track 12)
- Terius "The-Dream" Nash – producer (tracks 3, 5)
- Luis Navarro – assistant engineer (tracks 3, 5)
- Ne-Yo – co-producer (tracks 4, 6)
- Monte Neuble – additional keyboards (tracks 3, 5)
- Jared Newcomb – mixing assistant (tracks 2, 6)
- Peter Nocella – viola (track 12)
- Chris "Tek" O'Ryan – engineer (tracks 3, 5)
- Anthony Palazzole – mixing assistant (tracks 1, 4, 8, 10, 11)
- Paper-Boy – additional production (track 9)
- Ciarra Pardo – art direction, design
- Charles Parker – violin (track 12)
- Ross 'Dights' Parkin – assistant engineer (tracks 4, 7, 8, 10, 11)
- Daniel Parry – assistant engineer (track 2)
- Kevin Porter – assistant engineer (tracks 7, 10, 12, 13)
- Antonio Reid – executive producer
- Antonio Resendiz – assistant engineer (track 12)
- Makeba Riddick – vocal producer (tracks 1, 4–6, 8, 12, 13), backing vocals (track 1)
- Rihanna – vocals, executive producer, art direction, design
- Montez Roberts – assistant strings engineer (track 12)
- JP Robinson – art direction, design, photography
- Evan Rogers – co-executive producer
- Sébastien Salis – assistant engineer (track 3)
- Jason Sherwood – assistant engineer (tracks 3, 5)
- Slash – guitar (track 5)
- Tyran "Ty Ty" Smith – A&R
- Caleb Speir – bass (track 9)
- Status – producer (tracks 1, 2, 10), instrumentation (track 2)
- Xavier Stephenson – assistant engineer (track 2)
- Christopher "Tricky" Stewart – producer (tracks 3, 5)
- Tim Stewart – guitar (track 5)
- Bernt Rune Stray – guitar (track 11)
- Carl Sturken – co-executive producer
- Rob Swire – producer (track 8)
- Igor Szwec – violin (track 12)
- Sean Tallman – engineer (track 7)
- Gregory Teperman – violin (track 12)
- Brian "B-Luv" Thomas – engineer (tracks 3, 5)
- Justin Timberlake — producer (track 12)
- Pat Thrall – additional engineering (tracks 3, 5)
- Marcos Tovar – engineer (all tracks)
- Neil Tucker – assistant engineer (track 11), guitar engineer (track 13)
- Tyler Van Dalen – assistant engineer (track 3)
- Ellen von Unwerth – photography
- Alain Whyte – acoustic guitar (track 9)
- will.i.am – producer, engineer, vocals, and drum programming (track 9)
- Andrew Wuepper – engineer (tracks 3, 5)
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
## See also
- List of number-one albums in Norway (2010)
- List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2009 |
18,490,211 | Grapico | 1,171,265,010 | Soft drink of the southeastern US made since 1916 | [
"American soft drinks",
"Economy of Birmingham, Alabama",
"Economy of New Orleans",
"Grape sodas",
"Products introduced in 1914"
]
| Grapico is a caffeine-free, artificially flavored carbonated soft drink with a purple color and a grape taste that is sold in the Southeastern United States. When introduced in 1916, the product quickly became a success, which in part was due to implying that Grapico contained real grape juice even though it contained fake juice. In the spring of 1926, J. Grossman's Sons sold the Grapico business to the Pan American Manufacturing Company in New Orleans. Pan American continued J. Grossman's Sons' improper practice of implying that Grapico contained real grape juice and lost the right to use the word "Grapico" to designate their artificial grape drink in 1929.
Although the J. Grossman's Sons line of the brand had ended, the Grapico brand continued on through Alabama businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham, Alabama-based Grapico Bottling Works. R. R. Rochell had first become a wholesale syrup customer of J. Grossman's Sons in the summer of 1917 to serve the Alabama soft drink market. By the time Pan American had lost their artificial grape drink name in 1929, Rochell was selling bottled Grapico in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Rochell received the federal trademark on Grapico in 1940, giving his Grapico Company of America the right to use the name "Grapico" everywhere in the United States. In 1955, Grapico Company of America attempted to expand its fruit-flavored brands with Orangico, a sister product to Grapico that included real orange juice. The orange juice-based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired. In September 1981, both the franchising rights to the Grapico brand name and The Pepsi Bottling Group in Newnan, Georgia were acquired by Buffalo Rock, an independent Pepsi bottler based in Birmingham, Alabama. Buffalo Rock revived the Orangico trademark in 1999 for an artificially flavored orange drink and introduced Diet Grapico in 2005. Grapico is now produced at Buffalo Rock's Birmingham, Alabama bottling facility.
## History
Grapico was first sold in 1914 in New Orleans, Louisiana by J. Grossman's Sons. In the summer of 1917, businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham, Alabama-based Grapico Bottling Works purchased Grapico syrup barrels from J. Grossman's Sons and bottled and sold Grapico to the Alabama soft drink market, becoming the first bottler to buy the syrup wholesale. Present Grapico distributor Buffalo Rock, an independent Pepsi bottler based in Birmingham, Alabama, purchased the Grapico business in 1981. The J. Grossman's Sons' Grapico retail sales line ended in 1929 and the present Grapico traces its roots to the summer of 1917 in Birmingham, Alabama through R. R. Rochell's Grapico.
### J. Grossman's Sons' Grapico
J. Grossman's Sons was a business that had been operating in New Orleans, Louisiana since at least 1884. By the early 1900s, the business was being run by both Adolph Grossman and Isidore Grossman. Prior to developing Grapico, J. Grossman's Sons served as creditors. In 1905 for example, a collection attorney successfully sued J. Grossman's Sons to recover legal fees for reducing to judgment a debt of \$875 owed to J. Grossman's Sons. Also in 1905, J. Grossman's Sons unsuccessfully prevented the sale of their securing collateral, a debtor's home, to the debtor's daughter. In January 1912, J. Grossman's Sons lent \$1000 to a Lewisburg, Louisiana saloon owner who they successfully sued eleven months later to recover the amount against his real estate.
J. Grossman's Sons began manufacturing Grapico in 1914. At that time, Grapico consisted of a syrup that, when mixed with soda water, had the taste, smell, and color of a genuine grape drink. The product was artificially colored and flavored with only an infinitesimal amount of grape juice or fruit of the grape.
Prior to 1916, J. Grossman's Sons contacted American jazz composers Peter DeRose and Ivan Reid to write a song about Grapico. DeRose, who would later be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame, produced the piano accompanied song, Meet Me in the Land of Grapico. Meet Me in the Land of Grapico is a sentimental ballad from Tin Pan Alley that imagined a faraway Land of Grapico where love lives forever. The song (see below) and its cover sheet alluded to a grape vine-covered arbor in the Land of Grapico, even though Grapico contained no grape juice. Dedicating the song to all the drinkers of Grapico, J. Grossman's Sons published the song in 1916 and provided it free on request.
In the summer of 1917, businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham, Alabama based Grapico Bottling Works began purchasing Grapico syrup barrels from J. Grossman's Sons to bottle and sell the Alabama soft drink market. In that same year, Laurel, Mississippi based Grapico Bottling Company also became a wholesale customer of J. Grossman's Sons and began bottling and selling Grapico in Mississippi. In 1918, Rochell's Grapico Bottling Works opened a bottling plant in Hattiesburg, Mississippi as a second Mississippi bottler and seller of Grapico.
By 1919, Grapico manufacturer J. Grossman's Sons was successful enough in their efforts to distribute Grapico that they awarded the Grapico advertising account to the Chambers Agency, Inc. of New Orleans. As early as November 1919, businessman J. C. Kramer was doing business in Louisiana under the name of the Grapico Bottling Works (Louisiana), a business unconnected with Rochell's Grapico Bottling Works.
In 1920, the demand for soft drinks significantly increased as a result of the prohibition against alcohol in the United States that began on January 29, 1920. The Grapico product was so successful by 1920, that Grapico specifically was listed in the Louisiana law among generic items, Coca-Cola, and RC Cola as items to be taxed: Section 22 of Act No. 233 of 1920, which read:
> That all persons, associations of persons, firms and corporations engaged in the sale of soda water, ice cream, confections, soda pop, Coca Cola, Chero-Cola, Grapico or other similar soft drinks or beverages or refreshments, shall pay license based on the gross annual sales, and such licenses are hereby fixed and graded as follows.
In addition to experiencing taxes as a result of its success, the Grapico efforts found labor troubles. In 1920, the International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers presented Grapico Bottling Company (Mississippi) with a union agreement. When the company refused to sign the agreement, the 112 employees at Grapico Bottling Company were called to strike. The Grapico Bottling Co. eventually signed the agreement.
In June 1922, Grapico Bottling Works furthered the connection between the artificially flavored beverage and real grape juice through an advertisement campaign. On June 1, 1922, The Jacksonville Metropolis published a Grapico Bottling Works advertisement announcing a ten-day writing contest that offered US\$116 in prize money for essays on why a consumer would prefer "Sparkling Grapico" over real, fresh grapes. The advertisement indicated that Grapico was made from Pure Grape Juice with pure sugar and carbonated water and had no coloring or preservatives. Although not true, this information was consistent with the Grapico product labels used by J. Grossman's Sons on the barrels that were shipped to and received by R. R. Rochell.
Mississippi based Grapico Bottling Company troubles did not end with its union problems. In September 1924, John Henry Ennis of Ellisville, Mississippi purchased a Grapico. On drinking it, Ennis discovered that the contents were filled with flies, some of which he swallowed and became sick. On filing a lawsuit against Grapico Bottling Company and its sole stockholder, Philip Carriere, Ennis learned that Grapico Bottling Company had filed for and successfully dissolved itself as a corporation between the time Ennis consumed the flies and filed suit against Grapico Bottling. On appeal, the Supreme Court of Mississippi issued an opinion that serve as precedent in Mississippi for the rule that a stockholder of a corporation is not liable for the debts, liabilities, and other acts of the corporation. After Grapico Bottling Company (Mississippi) dissolved in 1925, Rochell's Grapico Bottling Works became the sole supplier of Grapico to Mississippi.
#### Unfair competition through deceptive advertising
Since almost its inception in 1914, Grapico was associated with real grape juice by J. Grossman's Sons through its advertisements and business stationery. Publicly associating Grapico with genuine grape juice allowed J. Grossman's Sons to compete directly with real grape juice producers such as Welch Grape Juice Co. and have an advantage over other imitation grape flavored beverage producers. A problem with this approach was that Grapico was an artificial grape drink that included neither real grape juice nor fruit from the grape.
In May 1926, J. Grossman's Sons became a defunct corporation and sold its Grapico formula and all rights connected to that formula to Pan American Manufacturing Co., Inc., a Louisiana corporation that had been manufacturing and selling extracts, ice cream powder, and syrups and flavors for soft drinks from New Orleans since 1911. Pan American began manufacturing Grapico syrup and concentrate and continued supplying its wholesale customers outside of Louisiana with one-gallon bottles of concentrated Grapico to allow them to make Grapico. In addition, through its subsidiary corporation, World Bottling Co., Pan American continued supplying its retail customers in Louisiana with bottled Grapico for consumption. At the time Pan American acquired the Grapico business, it had three wholesale Grapico customers: Rochell's Grapico Bottling Works in Birmingham, Alabama and two bottling plants operating in Mississippi. Grapico concentrate was sold by Pan American to its wholesale customers for \$7.50 per gallon and the finished bottled Grapico was by sold by Pan American and its three wholesale customers at 5 cents per 7-oz bottle.
Pan American continued associating their artificial grape drink with real grape juice in advertisements in trade periodicals, display cards, newspapers, boys' caps for customers' use, and in its company stationery. Typically, advertising material displayed images of grape vineyards and bunches of grapes together with the qualifying statements:
In addition, Pan American continued J. Grossman's Sons practice of using 7-oz clear bottles with molded labels prominently featuring a pictorial representation of a bunch of grapes with word "Grapico". Given that the product was artificially colored and flavored to simulate the appearance, taste and smell of grape juice, the combination of the advertisements, the bottle grape bunch mold, and the product itself implied to others that the Grapico product was composed of pure grape juice.
In July 1928, the Federal Trade Commission charged Pan American with unfair methods of competition and deceptive practices. After learning of the Federal Trade Commission complaint, Pan American altered the labels it used on its one-gallon concentrate jugs. However, the efforts were too little, too late and Pan American and its "representatives, agents, servants, employees, and successors" lost the right to use the word "Grapico" to designate their artificial grape drink as of 1929. Pan American's wholesale customers, including R. R. Rochell, were seen as victims of Pan American's unfair competition and the cease and desist order regarding the Grapico name did not extend to them.
### R. R. Rochell's Grapico
R. R. Rochell was a successful business man operating in Birmingham, Alabama. His success came despite the fact that he was illiterate. He was one of two major stock holders in the Edgewood Amusement Company, which dissolved in 1924. Rochell began selling bottled Grapico in Alabama in 1917 and then in Mississippi in 1918. In June 1920, Rochell's Grapico Bottling Works formally incorporated in Alabama as "The Grapico Bottling Works".
Rochell's early Grapico efforts were not without problems. For example, in November 1921, Grapico Bottling Works acquired a US\$648 Baltimore Semi-Automatic Machine, Model B-1485 from New Orleans based Crown Cork and Seal Co. to cork and seal soda water bottles. Within three months, the bottle capper began to fail. Frequently, the neck of the moving bottles became stuck in the machine, which additionally broke bottles whose contents drenched workers. In addition, the caps made by the machine did not seal properly so that carbonation gas escaped from the Grapico bottles. After Grapico refused to pay the US\$358 balance, the Sheriff seized the bottling machine from Grapico. The matter was resolved 31⁄2 years later by the Louisiana First Circuit Court of Appeal, who set aside the machine sales contract so that Grapico Bottling Works no longer owed the balance.
By 1922, R. R. Rochell's Grapico had been expanded into the Florida soft drink market. With Grapico Bottling Company (Mississippi) dissolved in 1925 and Pan American prohibited from using the name "Grapico" in connection with the Grapico artificial grape drink, Rochell became the sole supplier of bottled Grapico in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana in 1929.
In 1938, R. R. Rochell was doing business in Alabama as "Orange Crush 7-Up Bottling Company." At that time, it cost .44312 cents to produce a case of Grapico at Rochell's plant in Birmingham and to deliver that same case approximately 100 miles (160 km) away cost .32734 cents, making a total cost of approximately .77 cents per case to deliver a case of soft drinks to the areas surrounding Birmingham. The product was sold at .80 a case, for a .03 cent profit per case.
Just before he died in early 1940, R. R. Rochell filed for a federal trademark on Grapico on behalf of Orange Crush 7-Up Bottling Company. The federal trademark issued just after Rochell. secured the national rights to the Grapico mark to the Orange Crush 7-Up Bottling Company. In that same year, Grapico was sold using the trademarked slogan,
In June 1947, Rochell's business began using the names "The Grapico Bottling Company" and "The Grapico Company of America." In October 1949, "The Grapico Bottling Company" name was changed to "Orange Crush 7 Up Bottling Company" to reflect the work it was doing in Alabama on behalf of the Seven-up Company. Despite the Alabama company's efforts, the Seven-up Company refused to grant The Grapico Company of America a bottling franchise to handle Seven-up soft drinks. The business was operating as Orange Crush-Grapico Bottling Company by 1953. In July 1957, the bottling business name was officially changed to "Orange Crush Grapico Company."
In 1955, Grapico Company of America expanded its fruit-flavored brands into orange with Orangico, a play on the name Grapico. Orangico was to include real orange juice. The orange juice based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired in 1999.
In September 1981, both the franchising rights to the Grapico brand name and The Pepsi Bottling Group in Newnan, Georgia were acquired by Buffalo Rock, an independent Pepsi bottler founded in Birmingham, Alabama in 1901. Both Buffalo Rock and R.R. Rochell's businesses were located in Birmingham since the early 1900s. For example, in October 1940, R.R. Rochell's business was located at 1031 11th Avenue North and Buffalo Rock's business was located at 10th Avenue and 26th Street North—a distance of about three miles (5 km).
Between at least 1981 and 1988, Grapico was distributed in only three states: Alabama, Florida and Georgia. In August 1988, Buffalo Rock announced that they would expand distribution of Grapico the rest of the Southeastern United States. The announcement coincided with the new, more contemporary Grapico packaging. By June 1990, Grapico was being sold in South Carolina.
Buffalo Rock revived the Orangico trademark in 1999, this time to be used on an artificial orange syrup rather than a real orange-based drink. Buffalo Rock introduced Diet Grapico in 2005. Grapico is produced by Buffalo Rock through its Columbus, Georgia bottling facility, Sun Fresh Beverages, Inc.
At the request of Buffalo Rock, a cupcake shop in Homewood introduced a Grapico cupcake in 2012.
## In popular culture
Grapico is mentioned in Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe, 1987 best selling novel by Fannie Flagg. Anne George's 1996 novel Murder on a Bad Hair Day: A Southern Sisters Mystery, and the 2004 novel Making Waves by Cassandra King, Grapico mixed with Absolut Peppar jalapeño flavored vodka is a drink called the Ex-girlfriend. It's called the Ex-girlfriend because "it's sweet and seems like a good idea, but eventually it's going to burn you and make you sick." Grapico and coconut rum is called a "grapicolada."
## Gallery |
4,045,920 | Rey Bucanero | 1,166,275,155 | Mexican professional wrestler | [
"1974 births",
"20th-century professional wrestlers",
"21st-century professional wrestlers",
"Bullet Club members",
"CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champions",
"CMLL World Tag Team Champions",
"CMLL World Trios Champions",
"Living people",
"Mexican male professional wrestlers",
"NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champions",
"Professional wrestlers from Mexico City"
]
| Arturo García Ortiz (born July 19, 1974) is a Mexican luchador or professional wrestler best known under the ring name Rey Bucanero. Ortiz, as Rey Bucanero, has worked for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) since 1996. His ring name is Spanish for "Buccaneer King", which was originally reflected in his mask that featured a skull face and an eye patch. Ortiz was unmasked in 1999 and has worked unmasked ever since.
He is the nephew of Pirata Morgan, from whom he took the Pirate character, as well as the nephew of Hombre Bala and El Verdungo. While he has primarily worked for CMLL through most of his career he has made appearances in the United States, most notably for the World Wrestling Federation and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling as well as in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW).
Rey Bucanero, along with Último Guerrero and Tarzan Boy were the founders of the long running Los Guerreros del Infierno ("The Infernal Warriors") group in 2001. Bucanero later left the group to become a member of La Peste Negra and later on help found La Fuerza TRT with El Terrible and El Texano Jr. and the trio TGR (Terriblemente Guapo el Rey, "Terribly Handsome King"; with El Terrible and Shocker). For the majority of the first decade of the 21st century Rey Bucanero and Último Guerrero formed a very popular and successful tag team, a team that was voted "Best Tag Team of the Decade (2000–2009) " in the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards.
He is a former four time holder of the CMLL World Tag Team Championship, has held the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship twice and the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship and CMLL World Trios Championship on one occasion. He has also won CMLL's CMLL Torneo Gran Alternativa and Leyenda de Azul tournaments.
## Personal life
Arturo García Ortiz was born on July 19, 1974, in Mexico City, Distrito Federal into the Ortiz family which would later have several family members become professional wrestlers. Three of Ortiz's uncles were professional wrestlers and often took him to wrestling shows when he was younger. He is the nephew of Aurelio Ortiz (better known under the ring names Hombre Bala and later "The Monsther"), Pedro Ortiz (best known as Pirata Morgan) and Francisco Ortiz (best known under the name "El Verdungo"), all of whom inspired him to become a wrestler and trained García for his in-ring career. García is the cousin of professional wrestlers El Hijo de Pirata Morgan (Antheus Ortiz Chávez), Pirata Morgan Jr. (real name not revealed), Hombre Bala Jr. (real name not revealed) and the most recent wrestler to work as "The Monsther" (real name not revealed).
García moved in with his uncle Pedro Ortiz when his parents divorced. From that point on his uncle brought him to Arena México, home of Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL), for whom Ortiz worked at the time. Whole spending time backstage he would be introduced to the other side of professional wrestling, being trained from a very early age by all three of his uncles.
## Professional wrestling career
Ortiz made his in-ring debut on November 18, 1991, at the age of 17, as the wrestling masked character "Rey Bucanero Jr." ("Buccaneer King Jr."). Records are unclear if there was a wrestler known as "Rey Bucanero". He performed as "Rey Bucanero Jr." from 1991 through 1994, working primarily smaller shows in Puebla City and other smaller venues. In 1995 he briefly wrestle as "El Hijo de Pirata Morgan" and "Pirata Morgan Jr.", but that stint did not last long, leaving those names behind him on case his uncle Pedro Ortiz's sons wanted to follow in his footsteps when they got older and wanted to wrestle as Pirata Morgan Jr. and El Hijo de Pirata Morgan.
In 1995 he shortened his ring name to simply "Rey Bucanero". The first indication that CMLL had faith in the Rey Bucanero character came in 1996 when the promotion teamed him up with Emilio Charles Jr. for the 1996 Gran Alternativa tournament, which the duo won by defeating Héctor Garza and Mr. Niebla in the finals. The two were joined by El Satánico and together the trio defeated Apolo Dantés, Black Warrior, and Dr. Wagner Jr. in a tournament to win the vacant CMLL World Trios Championship. Their reign only lasted 39 days as they lost the championship to Atlantis, Lizmark and Mr. Niebla on April 29, 1997.
In late 1998 Ortiz was one of many Mexican wrestlers who began working for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now known as WWE) as part of the WWF Super Astros show, WWF's attempt to expand into the Latin American markets. On Super Astros Ortiz was known under the ring name Rey "Pirata" Ortiz and wrestled without his mask on. He later stated that he wished the WWF had more respect for the mask, but that a paycheck was a paycheck so he did not complain about it. His stint on Super Astros ended in early 1999.
Months after he returned to CMLL full-time Rey Bucanero was one of eight competitors in a Ruleta de la Muerte ("Roulette of death"), or "Losers advance" tournament. After losing the first two matches Rey Bucanero faced Shocker in the finals with both wrestlers putting their mask on the line under Lucha de Apuestas. or "bet match", rules. In the end Shocker pinned Rey Bucanero, forcing Bucanero to remove his mask and never wear it again.
### Los Infernales
In 1999 El Satánico reformed the group Los Infernales, recruiting Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero; Rey's uncle Pirata Morgan had been part of the original Los Infernales. Working with the veteran El Satánico allowed both Rey Bucanero and Último Guerrero to rise up the ranks as well as develop into a regular tag team in CMLL. In the summer of 2000 Bucanero and Guerrero were one of sixteen teams entered into a tournament for the vacant CMLL World Tag Team Championship. In the end they defeated Villano IV and Mr. Niebla to win the championship.
Throughout the summer of 2000 El Satánico had been working a storyline against Tarzan Boy, which was used to turn both Bucanero and Último Guerrero against El Satánico. Bucanero, Guerrero and Tarzan Boy claimed that they deserved the name Los Infernales and that El Satánico was holding them back. For the storyline El Satánico recruited two other wrestlers to even the numbers, which on TV was presented as if he used his "Satanic powers" to turn wrestler Rencor Latino into Averno (Spanish for "Hell") and transformed the Astro Rey Jr. into a character known as Mephisto.
When Tarzan Boy was injured and unable to wrestle Bucanero and Guerrero recruited Máscara Mágica to even the numbers. The storyline between the two factions reaches its high point at the CMLL 68th Anniversary Show where all seven wrestlers faced off in a steel cage match. The stipulation of the match was that the winning side would gain the rights to use the name Los Infernales while the loser on the opposite side would be forced to unmask or have their hair shaved off. In the end El Satánico pinned Máscara Mágica, forcing him to unmask. After losing the match Guerrero, Bucanero and Tarzan Boy became known collectively as Los Guerreros del Infierno (The Infernal Soldiers).
### Los Guerreros del Infierno
After the feud with El Satánico ended Bucanero and Guerrero moved on to a storyline feud with Negro Casas and El Hijo del Santo over the CMLL World Tag Team Championship. After a match with an inconclusive finish in October, Los Guerreros lost to Santo and Casas on November 2, 2011. In 2002, Guerrero and Bucanero regained their tag team title from Santo and Casas. defeating them on May 31 to become three-time champions. The team successfully defended their title against Damián 666 and Halloween of La Familia de Tijuana in July. Los Guerreros del Infierno then began feuding with Vampiro Canadiense and Shocker. Los Guerreros successfully defended their tag team championship against the duo but Bucanero lost his hair to Vampiro in a Luchas de Apuestas match in December.
In 2003, they retained the championship against Vampiro and Lizmark, Jr. and Negro Casas and Perro Aguayo, Jr. but were defeated in December by the team of Shocker and the newly arrived L.A. Park. Los Guerreros regained the tag team championship in early 2004, but Bucanero suffered a knee injury and was temporarily replaced by Black Warrior. Los Guerreros lost the tag team title to Atlantis and Blue Panther on June 25. Bucanero and new Los Guerreros member Olímpico challenged Atlantis and Panther for the tag team championship on the first Arena México show of 2005 but they lost when Olímpico injured his neck while attempting a dive.
Bucanero and Olímpico teamed up to unsuccessfully challenge the visiting Hiroshi Tanahashi and Shinsuke Nakamura for the IWGP World Tag Team Championship. After Atlantis turned heel and joined the group, they became known as Los Guerreros de la Atlántida, it was teased that Bucanero would break up with Guerrero but Bucanero stayed with the group and Los Guerreros feuded with Perro Aguayo, Jr.'s Los Perros del Mal faction into 2006. At the end of April, he teamed with Tarzan Boy to win a double hair vs. hair match against Mr. Águila and Damián 666 in the main event of the 50. Aniversario de Arena México show.
The following week, he teamed with Atlantis against Último Dragón and Keiji Mutoh but his team lost after Atlantis hit Rey Bucanero by accident. For the following weeks, Bucanero kept having trouble with his teammates and magazines hinted at a possible face turn. Later that month, Averno and Mephisto turned on him during an Arena México match. Shortly afterwards, Tarzan Boy and Guerrero turned on him as well, ripping his tights, signifying he was no longer a member of Los Guerreros.
On July 14, he defeated Guerrero for his CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship, ending Guerrero's three and a half year title reign. He later feuded with Kenzo Suzuki and Último Guerrero. In 2008 Bucanero participated in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling's World X Cup as a part of Team Mexico, who ended up winning the whole tournament. By early 2010 Bucanero returned to Los Guerreros del Atlantida.
### La Peste Negra
In July and August 2010 Rey Bucanero filled in for Mr. Niebla while he was out with a knee injury and teamed up with La Peste Negra ("The Black Plague") members Negro Casas and El Felino. When he began teaming with La Peste Negra Bucanero wore ring gear that looked more like Jack Sparrow from the Pirates of the Caribbean movie series and less like his fellow Guerreros de la Atlantida members. He was also given a mascot, a Mini-Estrella wearing a parrot outfit that accompanied him to the ring. The parrot was later named Zacarias.
In August 2010, Rey Bucanero announced that he had left Los Guerreros and joined La Peste Negra because Los Guerreros were more interested in teaming with Olímpico than him. On December 3 at Sin Piedad 2010 Bucanero defeated Los Invasores leader Mr. Águila in a Lucha de Apuesta match, forcing Mr. Águila to have his orange mohawk shaved off. On January 29, 2011, Bucanero made an appearance for American promotion Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), during the WrestleReunion 5 weekend, in a match, where he was defeated by Mr. Águila.
### TRT / TGR
In April 2011 Bucanero left La Peste Negra to form a new group with El Texano, Jr. and El Terrible, abandoning Zacarias in the process. The following month, the group was named La Fuerza TRT. On June 21 Bucanero defeated El Hijo del Fantasma to win the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship. On July 31, 2011, Bucanero and Atlantis made an appearance for American promotion Chikara, losing to F.I.S.T. ("Friends In Similar Tights"; Chuck Taylor and Johnny Gargano) via disqualification, when Gargano faked taking a low blow from Atlantis.
On September 30 at CMLL's 78th Anniversary Show, Bucanero took part in a ten-man hair vs. hair steel cage match, which came down to Bucanero and former Peste Negra partner El Felino. In the end, El Felino managed to pin Bucanero, forcing Bucanero to have all his hair shaved off. In October 2011, Bucanero became one of four CMLL wrestlers featured in an A&E Latinoamericano documentary series titled El Luchador. When El Texano, Jr. left CMLL in late November, Bucanero and El Terrible chose Tiger as the new third member of La Fuerza TRT.
On June 4, 2013, Bucanero's near two-year reign as the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champion ended, when he lost the title to Diamante Azul. On August 11, Bucanero and Terrible removed Tiger from the La Fuerza TRT group and replaced him with Vangelis. With Vangelis joining the group, the stable was renamed TRT: La Máquina de la Destrucción ("TRT: The Machine of Destruction"). On September 14, Bucanero captured the CMLL World Tag Team Championship alongside Tama Tonga, while on tour with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). Bucanero's tour with NJPW lasted until September 29, and upon his return to CMLL, Bucanero and Tonga began teaming with El Terrible as "Bullet Club Latinoamerica".
On October 18, Bucanero was sidelined with an injury and both he and Tonga were stripped of the CMLL World Tag Team Championship. On March 8, 2015, Bucanero defeated La Sombra in a tournament final to win the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship for the second time. On April 3, Bucanero, El Terrible and Shocker formed a new trio named TGR (Terriblemente Guapo el Rey, "Terribly Handsome King").
## Championships and accomplishments
- Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
\*CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
\*CMLL World Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Último Guerrero (3) and Tama Tonga (1)
\*CMLL World Trios Championship (1 time) – with El Satánico and Emilio Charles, Jr.
\*NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
\*Carnaval Incredible Tournament (2000) – with Último Guerrero and Mr. Niebla
\*Copa de Arena Mexico (1999) – with El Satánico and Último Guerrero
\*Torneo Gran Alternativa (1996 (II)) – with Emilio Charles, Jr.
\*Leyenda de Azul: 2006
- Federación Universitaria de Lucha Libre
\*FULL World Championship (1 time,current)
- International Wrestling Revolution Group
\*Copa Higher Power (1999) – with Astro Rey Jr., Máscara Mágica, El Satánico and Último Guerrero
- Pro Wrestling Illustrated
\*PWI ranked him \#39 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2005
- Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
\*TNA World X Cup (2008) – with Volador Jr., Último Guerrero and Averno
- Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
\*Best Tag Team of the Decade (2000–2009) – with Último Guerrero
## Luchas de Apuestas record |
63,095,793 | William Griswold (museum director) | 1,170,371,676 | American museum director and curator | [
"1960 births",
"Alumni of the Courtauld Institute of Art",
"American art curators",
"Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres",
"Directors of museums in the United States",
"Living people",
"People associated with the J. Paul Getty Museum",
"People associated with the Metropolitan Museum of Art",
"People from Camp Hill, Pennsylvania",
"People from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania",
"Recipients of the Royal Order of Sahametrei",
"Trinity College (Connecticut) alumni"
]
| William M. Griswold (born September 19, 1960) is an American museum director and curator who is director of the Cleveland Museum of Art.
After earning a PhD on the drawings of Piero di Cosimo in 1988, Griswold held positions as a drawings curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Morgan Library & Museum. Moving into museum administration, he became associate director of the J. Paul Getty Museum in 2001 and served as its interim director from 2004 to 2005. He then served as director of the Minneapolis Institute of Art from 2005 to 2007 and director of the Morgan from 2007 to 2014.
Griswold assumed his position at the Cleveland Museum of Art in 2014, succeeding David Franklin as the ninth director of the museum. In his tenure, he has overseen initiatives to grow and diversify the museum's audience and address barriers present for members of underrepresented groups within its operations. In the two instances that museum staff discovered the questionable provenance of one of its objects, he has personally led negotiations resulting in their return to their respective countries of origin.
## Early life and education
William Griswold was born in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania on September 19, 1960. His father, Robert Edward Griswold, worked as a clinical chemist, while his mother was a homemaker. Growing up in Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, Griswold's family regularly went on road trips to visit museums.
Griswold obtained a bachelor's degree in art history from Trinity College in Connecticut, where he also took classes on French and English literature. Afterwards he went to the Courtauld Institute of Art in London, where he studied the Florentine drawings of the early Renaissance period. In 1988, he completed his dissertation on the collected drawings of Piero di Cosimo, whose "originality and eccentricity" he was drawn to. He would first visit the Cleveland Museum of Art in the 1980s, where he would later serve as director. He admired its holdings of Asian art and The Crucifixion of Saint Andrew.
## Curatorial work
Griswold first worked at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City from 1988 to 1995, where he cataloged Italian drawings as a curator of drawings and prints. From 1995 to 2001, he was the Charles W. Engelhard Curator at the Pierpont Morgan Library and managed its department of drawings and prints. He oversaw the creation of the museum's Drawing Study Center and organized its first major exhibition of 20th-century art and acclaimed exhibitions of the collections of Pierre Matisse and the Hermitage and Pushkin Museums. From 1996 to 2001, Griswold was an associate editor of Master Drawings, a periodical that primarily covers drawings in America and Europe from the fourteenth-century onward.
In 2001, Griswold joined the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California. As its associate director, he worked with the museum's six curatorial departments. In collaboration with Peggy Fogelman, the museum's assistant director for education and interpretation, he worked on projects such as a family space and the expansion of museum's education programs. After the sudden resignation of director Deborah Gribbon, Griswold became interim director of the Getty Museum in 2004. In 2005, he was selected as the director of the Minneapolis Institute of Art (Mia), succeeding Evan Mauer.
## Administrative positions
When Griswold became director of the Mia in 2005, the museum was nearing completion of a \$113 million expansion designed by American architect Michael Graves. In his tenure, he worked to complete the museum's expansion, oversee the installation of more than thirty of its galleries, and organize a funding campaign supporting the museum's endowment. He was later named to the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his work with the French Regional & American Museum Exchange while Mia director. In 2007, the Morgan Library & Museum announced its intention to name Griswold as its director.
Griswold returned to the Morgan in 2008 to direct the museum. There, he oversaw the expansion and diversification of the Morgan's collections, exhibitions, and curatorial departments. Previously, the museum's collection mainly covered Western art before 1900. In an effort to make the museum more relevant to younger audiences, Griswold expanded the museum's drawings department and added a photography department, appointing Princeton University Art Museum curator Joel Smith as the museum's first photography curator in 2012. He oversaw the installation of temporary sculptures by artists such as Mark di Suvero and Xu Bing and presented exhibitions of contemporary art. He also initiated the digitization of over fifteen thousand works that comprised the museum's collection of Old Master drawings. Four years after a renovation and expansion of the museum designed by Renzo Piano, he preceded over a \$4.5 million project that restored the McKim building that originally housed the museum.
### Cleveland Museum of Art
The Cleveland Museum of Art named Griswold their ninth director in May 2014. His appointment followed the completion of an eight-year \$320 million renovation and expansion designed by Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly which increased the museum's size by fifty-one percent. Griswold commented on the circumstances preceding his appointment in a 2017 interview with arts journalist Lee Rosenbaum:
> I came to Cleveland after a period of repeated changes in the director's office over a number of years... I had incurred a real moral obligation and to serve that institution [the Cleveland Museum of Art] for a good, long period of time, and to break the cycle of departures. It wouldn't be right to consider anything else right now.
After becoming director, Griswold filled vacancies left by curators during or in the aftermath of the directorship of his predecessor, David Franklin. In 2016, he coordinated with museum staff to produce events and exhibitions for a celebration of the museum's centennial. In 2017, his tenure as director was extended through 2024. In 2018, the museum announced an initiative aimed at growing and diversifying its audience and eliminating "barriers for historically underrepresented groups in every aspect of the museum's operations".
In two instances, the museum discovered the questionable provenance of objects in its collection, following research by staff members. These objects were a tenth-century Cambodian sculpture of Hanuman and an ancient Roman portrait of Drusus Julius Caesar, both purchased by the museum in good faith. Griswold led negotiations with the governments of Italy and Cambodia that resulted in the return of the objects to Cambodia and Italy. The resolution of the situation with the Cambodian government in 2015 also resulted in the museum obtaining a fragment required in the reconstruction of a Krishna statue. Griswold was awarded a medal of the Royal Order of Sahametrei following the exchange with Cambodia. The Cleveland Arts Prize awarded him their inaugural Barbara Robinson Prize in 2018, citing his "proactive approach to returning undocumented antiquities to their rightful origin."
In 2019, Griswold announced that the museum had released more than thirty thousand images of its works and data for 61,500 works from its collection into the public domain as part of its open access initiative. In 2020, Griswold announced temporary staffing reductions due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2023, museum trustees extended his tenure, originally set to end in 2024, through early 2027.
## Personal life
Griswold lives with his partner, Christopher Malstead, who has worked for Wells Fargo. |
563,367 | John Pope (general) | 1,169,526,400 | United States Army general (1822–1892) | [
"1822 births",
"1892 deaths",
"Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery",
"Military personnel from Louisville, Kentucky",
"People from Sandusky, Ohio",
"People of Kentucky in the American Civil War",
"Union Army generals",
"United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers",
"United States Military Academy alumni"
]
| John Pope (March 16, 1822 – September 23, 1892) was a career United States Army officer and Union general in the American Civil War. He had a brief stint in the Western Theater, but he is best known for his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas) in the East.
Pope was a graduate of the United States Military Academy in 1842. He served in the Mexican–American War and had numerous assignments as a topographical engineer and surveyor in Florida, New Mexico, and Minnesota. He spent much of the last decade before the Civil War surveying possible southern routes for the proposed First transcontinental railroad. He was an early appointee as a Union brigadier general of volunteers and served initially under Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont. He achieved initial success against Brig. Gen. Sterling Price in Missouri, then led a successful campaign that captured Island No. 10 on the Mississippi River. This inspired the Lincoln administration to bring him to the Eastern Theater to lead the newly formed Army of Virginia.
He initially alienated many of his officers and men by publicly denigrating their record in comparison to his Western command. He launched an offensive against the Confederate army of General Robert E. Lee, in which he fell prey to a strategic turning movement into his rear areas by Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson. At Second Bull Run, he concentrated his attention on attacking Jackson while the other Confederate corps led by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet attacked his flank and routed his army.
Following Manassas, Pope was banished far from the Eastern Theater to the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota, where he commanded U.S. Forces in the Dakota War of 1862. He was appointed to command the Department of the Missouri in 1865 and was a prominent and activist commander during Reconstruction in Atlanta. For the rest of his military career, he fought in the Indian Wars, particularly against the Apache and Sioux.
## Early life
Pope was born in Louisville, Kentucky, the son of Nathaniel Pope, a prominent Federal judge in early Illinois Territory and a friend of lawyer Abraham Lincoln. He was the brother-in-law of Manning Force, and a distant cousin married the sister of Mary Todd Lincoln. He graduated from the United States Military Academy, 17th in a class of 56, in 1842, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Topographical Engineers.
He served in Florida and then helped survey the northeastern border between the United States and Canada. He fought under Zachary Taylor in the Battle of Monterrey and Battle of Buena Vista during the Mexican–American War, for which he was appointed a brevet first lieutenant and captain, respectively. After the war Pope worked as a surveyor in Minnesota. In 1850 he demonstrated the navigability of the Red River. He served as the chief engineer of the Department of New Mexico from 1851 to 1853 and spent the remainder of the antebellum years surveying a route for the Pacific Railroad.
## Civil War
Pope was serving on lighthouse duty when Abraham Lincoln was elected and he was one of four officers selected to escort the president-elect to Washington, D.C. He offered to serve Lincoln as an aide, but on June 14, 1861, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers (date of rank effective May 17, 1861) and was ordered to Illinois to recruit volunteers.
In the Department of the West under Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont, Pope assumed command of the District of North and Central Missouri in July, with operational control along a portion of the Mississippi River. He had an uncomfortable relationship with Frémont and politicked behind the scenes to get him removed from command. Frémont was convinced that Pope had treacherous intentions toward him, demonstrated by his lack of action in following Frémont's offensive plans in Missouri. Historian Allan Nevins wrote, "Actually, incompetence and timidity offer a better explanation of Pope than treachery, though he certainly showed an insubordinate spirit."
Pope eventually forced the Confederates under Sterling Price to retreat southward, taking 1,200 prisoners in a minor action at Blackwater, Missouri, on December 18. Pope, who established a reputation as a braggart early in the war, was able to generate significant press interest in his minor victory, which brought him to the attention of Frémont's replacement, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck.
Halleck appointed Pope to command the Army of the Mississippi (and the District of the Mississippi, Department of the Missouri) on February 23, 1862. Given 25,000 men, he was ordered to clear Confederate obstacles on the Mississippi River. He made a surprise march on New Madrid, Missouri, and captured it on March 14. He then orchestrated a campaign to capture Island No. 10, a strongly fortified post garrisoned by 12,000 men and 58 guns. Pope's engineers cut a channel that allowed him to bypass the island. Assisted by the gunboats of Captain Andrew H. Foote, he landed his men on the opposite shore, which isolated the defenders. The island garrison surrendered on April 7, 1862, freeing Union navigation of the Mississippi as far south as Memphis.
Pope's outstanding performance on the Mississippi earned him a promotion to major general, dated as of March 21, 1862. During the Siege of Corinth, he commanded the left wing of Halleck's army, but he was soon summoned to the East by Lincoln. After the collapse of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's Peninsula Campaign, Pope was appointed to command the Army of Virginia, assembled from scattered forces in the Shenandoah Valley and Northern Virginia. This promotion infuriated Frémont, who resigned his commission.
Pope brought an attitude of self-assurance that was offensive to the eastern soldiers under his command. He issued an astonishing message to his new army on July 14, 1862, that included the following:
> Let us understand each other. I have come to you from the West, where we have always seen the backs of our enemies; from an army whose business it has been to seek the adversary and to beat him when he was found; whose policy has been attack and not defense. In but one instance has the enemy been able to place our Western armies in defensive attitude. I presume that I have been called here to pursue the same system and to lead you against the enemy. It is my purpose to do so, and that speedily. I am sure you long for an opportunity to win the distinction you are capable of achieving. That opportunity I shall endeavor to give you. Meantime I desire you to dismiss from your minds certain phrases, which I am sorry to find so much in vogue amongst you. I hear constantly of "taking strong positions and holding them," of "lines of retreat," and of "bases of supplies." Let us discard such ideas. The strongest position a soldier should desire to occupy is one from which he can most easily advance against the enemy. Let us study the probable lines of retreat of our opponents, and leave our own to take care of themselves. Let us look before us, and not behind. Success and glory are in the advance, disaster and shame lurk in the rear. Let us act on this understanding, and it is safe to predict that your banners shall be inscribed with many a glorious deed and that your names will be dear to your countrymen forever
Despite this bravado, and despite receiving units from McClellan's Army of the Potomac that swelled the Army of Virginia to 70,000 men, Pope's aggressiveness exceeded his strategic capabilities, particularly since he was now facing Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Lee, sensing that Pope was indecisive, split his smaller (55,000-man) army, sending Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson with 24,000 men as a diversion to Cedar Mountain, where Jackson defeated Pope's subordinate, Nathaniel Banks.
As Lee advanced on Pope with the remainder of his army, Jackson swung around to the north and captured Pope's main supply base at Manassas Station. Confused and unable to locate the main Confederate force, Pope walked into a trap in the Second Battle of Bull Run. His men withstood a combined attack by Jackson and Lee on August 29, 1862, but on the following day, reluctantly obeying Pope's orders, Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter swung to attack Jackson, exposing his (and by extension the whole Union army's) flank. Maj. Gen. James Longstreet launched a surprise flanking attack, and the Union Army was soundly defeated and forced to retreat. Pope compounded his unpopularity with the Army by blaming his defeat on disobedience by Maj. Gen. Porter, who was found guilty by court-martial and disgraced.
Brigadier General Alpheus S. Williams, who served briefly under Pope, held the general in particularly low esteem. In a letter to his daughter, he wrote:
> All this is the sequence of Gen. Pope's high sounding manifestoes. His pompous orders ... greatly disgusted his army from the first. When a general boasts that he will look only on the backs of his enemies, that he takes no care for lines of retreat or bases of supplies; when, in short, from a snug hotel in Washington he issues after-dinner orders to gratify public taste and his own self-esteem, anyone may confidently look for results such as have followed the bungling management of his last campaign ... I dare not trust myself to speak of this commander as I feel and believe. Suffice it to say (for your eye alone) that more insolence, superciliousness, ignorance, and pretentiousness were never combined in one man. It can with truth be said of him that he had not a friend in his command from the smallest drummer boy to the highest general officer. All hated him."
Pope himself was relieved of command on September 12, 1862, and his army was merged into the Army of the Potomac under McClellan. He spent the remainder of the war in the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota, dealing with the Dakota War of 1862. His months campaigning in the West paid career dividends because he was assigned to command the Military Division of the Missouri on January 30, 1865, and received a brevet promotion to major general in the regular army on March 13, 1865, for his service at Island No. 10.
## Postbellum years
In April 1867, Pope was named governor of the Reconstruction Third Military District and made his headquarters in Atlanta, issuing orders that allowed African Americans to serve on juries, ordering Mayor James Williams to remain in office another year, postponing elections, and banning city advertising in newspapers that did not favor Reconstruction. President Andrew Johnson removed him from command December 28, 1867, replacing him with George G. Meade. Following this, Pope was appointed head of the Department of the Lakes (based in Detroit, Michigan) from January 13, 1868, to April 30, 1870.
Pope returned to the West as commander of the Department of the Missouri (the nation's second-largest geographical command) during the Grant presidency, and held that command through 1883. He served with distinction in the Apache Wars, including the Red River War relocating Southern Plains tribes to reservations in Oklahoma. General Pope made political enemies in Washington when he recommended that the reservation system would be better administered by the military than the corrupt Indian Bureau. He also engendered controversy by calling for better and more humane treatment of Native Americans, but author Walter Donald Kennedy notes that he also said "It is my purpose to utterly exterminate the Sioux" and planned to make a "final settlement with all these Indians".
Pope's reputation suffered a serious blow in 1879 when a late-convened Board of Inquiry called by President Rutherford B. Hayes and led by Maj. Gen. John Schofield (Pope's immediate predecessor in the Department of the Missouri and then head of the Department of the Pacific) concluded that Major General Fitz John Porter had been unfairly convicted of cowardice and disobedience at the Second Battle of Bull Run. The Schofield report used evidence of former Confederate commanders and concluded that Pope himself bore most of the responsibility for the Union loss. The report characterized Pope as reckless and dangerously uninformed about events during the battle, also criticized General Irvin McDowell (whom Pope detested), and credited Porter's perceived disobedience with saving the Union army from complete ruin.
Pope was promoted to major general in the Regular Army in 1882 and was assigned to command of the Military Division of the Pacific in 1883 where he served until his retirement.
## Death and legacy
Pope retired as a major general in the Regular Army on March 16, 1886, and his wife, Clara Pope, died two years later. The National Tribune serialized his memoirs, publishing them between February 1887 and March 1891. General Pope died on September 23, 1892, at the Ohio Soldiers' Home near Sandusky, Ohio. He is buried beside his wife in Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis, Missouri.
## See also
- List of American Civil War generals (Union)
- The Court-martial of Fitz John Porter |
36,057,361 | The 2nd Law | 1,172,288,735 | null | [
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"Albums recorded at AIR Studios",
"Albums recorded at EastWest Studios",
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| The 2nd Law is the sixth studio album by English rock band Muse, first released on 28 September 2012 through Warner Bros. Records and the band's own Helium-3 imprint. Recording of the album took place in studios between London and Los Angeles County, beginning in October 2011 and ending in August 2012. The 2nd Law was Muse's second album to be solely self-produced, following The Resistance (2009), and features a plethora of additional musicians that performed brass, strings, and choir vocals.
The 2nd Law is a concept album about a deteriorating planet that its inhabitants can no longer live on. Major lyrical themes of the album include societal collapse, totalitarianism, and the second law of thermodynamics, which the album's title references. Musically, the band chose to experiment significantly and create a sound that was distinct from their previous records. The album's sound incorporates art rock, progressive rock, and electronic music with Muse's traditional alternative rock style. Acts such as Queen, David Bowie, and Skrillex also served as key influences on the album. The album's cover art features a map of the human brain's pathways, which was taken from the Human Connectome Project.
The singles "Survival", "Madness", "Follow Me", "Supremacy", and "Panic Station" were released in promotion. "Survival" had been chosen as the official song for the 2012 Summer Olympics, "Madness" became an international hit, most notably topping the Billboard Alternative Songs chart for a record-breaking 19 weeks, and "Supremacy" was performed live to begin the 2013 Brit Awards. The 2nd Law received positive reviews from critics and performed well commercially; it was a top ten-charting album in 31 countries and a number one album in 13 countries. For its sales figures, it was certified platinum in four countries, including the United Kingdom, and triple-platinum in France. At the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, the album was nominated for Best Rock Album and "Madness" was nominated for Best Rock Song. "Panic Station" was later nominated for Best Rock Song at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards the following year. As of 2018, The 2nd Law has sold over 2.3 million copies worldwide.
## Background and recording
The 2nd Law was primarily recorded at AIR Studios in London, England and EastWest Studios in Los Angeles, California, with additional recording taking place at Shangri La Studios in Malibu, California and Capitol Studios in Hollywood. In an interview with Billboard on 18 October 2011, the band's manager Anthony Addis revealed that Muse had begun recording their sixth album in London and that he expected it to be released by October 2012. Muse bassist Chris Wolstenholme had stated in an interview with BBC Radio 1 that they had aimed to begin recording The 2nd Law in either September or October 2011. During the recording of the album, band frontman Matt Bellamy jokingly described the album as a "Christian gangsta rap jazz odyssey, with some ambient rebellious dubstep and face-melting metal flamenco cowboy psychedelia" on his Twitter account.
In an interview with Kerrang! on 14 December 2011, Wolstenholme stated that the next Muse album would be "something radically different" from their prior releases. He also said that it felt as if the band were "drawing a line under a certain period" of their career with their sixth album. In another interview Chris mentioned that the band had experimented with music and sounds in particular. It was revealed via Muse's publicist Tom Kirk on his Twitter account that composer David Campbell was helping the band compose the album. In an interview in the April 2012 issue of NME, Bellamy said that the band were set to include elements of electronic music, with influences coming from acts such as French house duo Justice and UK dance-punk group Does It Offend You, Yeah?.
## Composition
The 2nd Law has been described by The Arts Desk as a concept album with main themes of "chaos, control, societal collapse and totalitarianism". The iTunes review of the album similarly described it as a concept album telling the story of "a resource-strapped planet that can no longer support its inhabitants". The music of The 2nd Law has been described as art rock, alternative rock, progressive rock, and electronic music. The album's first track, "Supremacy", has been compared to James Bond theme songs. "Madness", according to NME, features influences which draw from Queen's "I Want to Break Free" and David Bowie's Scary Monsters album. Instead of using a bass guitar for the song, Wolstenholme opted to use a Misa Kitara, a digital MIDI controller, to create the song's main bass riff. "Panic Station", the third track, has been noted as a funk rock song and features collaborations from people who had worked on Stevie Wonder's "Superstition". It also includes explicit lyrics, making The 2nd Law Muse's first album to feature the Parental Advisory label.
Bellamy stated that dubstep producer Skrillex was an influence when writing one of the final two tracks on the album – "The 2nd Law: Unsustainable". He also stated that the song "Follow Me" was written about his newborn son, Bingham Bellamy. The song was produced by electronic music trio Nero. Bassist Chris Wolstenholme wrote two songs for the album about his battle with alcoholism – "Save Me" and "Liquid State" – and provided lead vocals on both tracks, thus marking the first time Wolstenholme sang lead vocals on a Muse song. Bellamy revealed that during the recording of The 2nd Law he was reading the novel World War Z, which became a major influence on the album, especially the tracks "The 2nd Law: Isolated System" and "Survival". "The 2nd Law: Isolated System" was featured in the film adaptation of the novel.
## Packaging
The name "The 2nd Law" references the second law of thermodynamics, which is quoted in the track "Unsustainable" as follows:
> All natural and technological processes proceed in such a way that the availability of the remaining energy decreases. In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves an isolated system, the entropy of that system increases. Energy continuously flows from being concentrated, to becoming dispersed, spread out, wasted, and useless. New energy cannot be created and high-grade energy are being destroyed. An economy based on endless growth is unsustainable.
The album's cover art, taken from the Human Connectome Project, represents the map of the human brain's pathways, "tracking the circuits in our heads and how we process information with bright, neon colors." The artwork was subsequently used by Muse in a social Connectome Project on 21 September 2012. As more fans joined the online project, the album art was built, representing the network of the neurons within the brain. As the album art branched and more fans joined the network, incremental segments of the album track "The 2nd Law: Isolated System" were released.
The album was released as a digital download, CD, CD+DVD (with The Making of The 2nd Law and bonus feature), and vinyl. A deluxe edition box set of The 2nd Law included a CD, DVD, double vinyl and three posters.
## Promotion
On 6 June 2012, Muse released a trailer for The 2nd Law with a countdown on the band's website suggesting a 17 September release date. The trailer, which included dubstep elements, was met with mixed reactions from fans. "Survival" was released as the album's first single on 27 June 2012 and premiered on BBC Radio 1's Zane Lowe show, along with the song's counterpart intro, "Prelude". The song served as the official song of the London 2012 Olympic Games and peaked at number 22 on the UK Singles Chart.
It was revealed by the band in an interview with NME magazine that "Madness" would be released as the second single. Released on 20 August, it was announced that the song would make its world premiere on BBC Radio 1 at 19:30 BST, but the track was leaked online beforehand, due to an unintentional early release in South Korea. The official music video for the song was uploaded on 5 September to the band's YouTube channel. The song had significant chart performance by peaking in the top 40 in several countries. It has peaked at number 25 in the UK, as well as number 45 in the Billboard Hot 100, making "Madness" the band's second-highest-charting song in the US, behind "Uprising". The song was also notable for topping the Billboard Alternative Songs chart for a cumulative amount of nineteen weeks, making it the longest-running number-one song on the chart. The previous record was eighteen weeks, held by the Foo Fighters with their song "The Pretender". The song has been certified platinum by the FIMI in Italy and the MC in Canada. The song has also been certified double-platinum by the RIAA in the US for 2,000,000 copies of the song sold.
"Follow Me" was revealed as the third single when several promo CD's allegedly sent to radio stations appeared on eBay. The official lyric video was released on 1 November and the official music video was released on 11 December, both on the band's official YouTube channel. The song failed to chart in the UK, but it ended up charting in Belgium, France, Italy, and Japan. "Supremacy" was released as the fourth single from the album on 25 February 2013. The song gained popularity when it was performed at the beginning of the 2013 Brit Awards. Due to this performance, the song charted and peaked at number 58 on the UK singles chart. The band conducted a competition to produce a music video for "Animals". The winning video was created by Inês Freitas and Miguel Mendes (Oneness Team) from Portugal. The winning entry was released on 20 March 2013. "Panic Station" was released as the fifth single on 31 May 2013, accompanied by a music video shot during the Japanese dates of The 2nd Law Tour. The music video was released on 22 April 2013 at 10:00 AM PDT on the official Muse YouTube channel. An interactive lyric video for the song was released, as well. The band had previously performed this track, as well as "Madness", on the 6 October 2012 episode of Saturday Night Live. The song failed to chart in the UK, but it peaked at number two on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart. Furthermore, "Big Freeze" was released in April 2013, but only for French radios and without a commercial release.
### Tour
On 7 June 2012, Muse announced a European Arena tour; the first leg of The 2nd Law World Tour. The leg included dates in France, Italy, Ireland, Spain, Finland and the United Kingdom as well as other countries. They had also added North American dates to the tour.
Furthermore, the tour has an official live release on CD/DVD/Blu-ray: Live at Rome Olympic Stadium, with the Italian date which was held on 6 July 2013 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, in front of a crowd of 60,963 people. A show in Tokyo described by drummer Dom as 'the funniest ever' was also filmed. However, a release date for this recording has yet to be confirmed, with only one song from the concert being released as a Muse website members 'Christmas present.' At the conclusion of 2013, the tour was placed on Pollstar's annual "Year End Top 20 Worldwide Tours", and appeared 13th worldwide, earning over \$103 million with 79 shows in 2013.
## Reception
### Critical
The 2nd Law received generally positive reviews upon release. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 70 based on 30 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". BBC music critic Ian Winwood also gave the album a positive review, highlighting "Supremacy", "Liquid State" and "The 2nd Law: Isolated System", saying that Muse "present themselves in any guise they please". The Telegraph's Helen Brown rated the album four out of five stars, noting the album's eclectic influences and reserving praise for "Madness" in particular. The Observer's Kitty Empire also alluded to Muse's bombastic tendencies, saying "Bellamy is not blind to the contradictions of his band's attempts continually to ramp the ludicrousness up to 11; endless growth is, of course, unsustainable. But for now they remain pretty comfortable with the idea of obscene over-inflation. So should we."
AllMusic rated the album three out of five stars, noting "their excursions into dubstep and dance music on tracks like "Madness" and "Follow Me" feel more like remixes than original songs. Songs like these definitely have the spine of Muse tracks, but the production that's built up around them feels almost alien." Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a grade of C+, claiming that "the band goes overboard with Queen-isms" and expressing disappointment at the lack of electronic music elements compared to the band's expectations that the album would be a departure from previous releases. The Guardian's Alexis Petridis rated the album four out of five stars, complimenting the band's ambition but finding fault with the album's bombastic tendencies which were also present on their previous albums, stating "no one goes to see a blockbuster for its profundity and deep characterisation. They go for the stunts and the special effects, both of which The 2nd Law delivers."
### Accolades
The album was a nominee for Best Rock Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards. The song "Madness" was also nominated for Best Rock Song. The album listed at number 46 on Rolling Stone's list of the top 50 albums of 2012, saying "In an era of diminished expectations, Muse make stadium-crushing songs that mix the legacies of Queen, King Crimson, Led Zeppelin and Radiohead while making almost every other current band seem tiny."
### Commercial
The 2nd Law had a very positive commercial performance, selling around 475,000 copies worldwide on its release. It debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 with 102,000 copies sold in its first week, giving Muse the highest charting debut of their career in the US, although it sold fewer copies than the debut of their previous album The Resistance, which debuted at number three with 128,000 copies. It has sold 485,000 copies in the US as of May 2015. It also debuted at number 2 in Australia, Germany, Ireland, Korea and Spain. The album gave Muse their fourth number 1 debut in the UK with first week sales of 108,536 copies, while also debuting at number 1 in 13 other countries. It has sold 255,000 copies in the UK in 2012 alone.
## Track listing
## Personnel
Personnel adapted from album liner notes.
Muse
- Matt Bellamy – lead vocals (tracks 1–3, 5–9, 12), guitar, keyboards, synthesizers, orchestral arrangements, production, additional mixing (track 6)
- Chris Wolstenholme – bass guitar (tracks 1, 3–12), Misa Kitara (track 2), synthesizers, backing vocals, lead vocals (tracks 10–11), production
- Dominic Howard – drums, electronic percussion, synthesizers, production
Additional musicians
- David Campbell – conductor and additional orchestral arrangements
- Alyssa Park – first violinist
- Gerardo Hilera, Josefin Vergara, Kevin Connolly, Mario Deleon, Michele Richards, Ruth Bruegger, Sara Parkins, Sara Thornblade, Serena McKinny, Songa Lee, Tamara Hatwan – violins
- Andrew Duckles – principal viola
- Alma Fernandez, David Walther, Matthew Funes – violas
- Steve Richards – principal cello
- Erika Duke-Kirkpatrick, George Kim Scholes, Suzie Katayama – cellos
- Dave Stone, Oscar Hidalgo – basses
- Rodrigo D'Erasmo – additional violin (tracks 4, 8)
- Daniela Savoldi – additional cello (tracks 4, 8)
- Wayne Bergeron – trumpet solo (1)
- Joseph Meyer, Nathan Campbell – French horns
- Alan Kaplan, Charles Morillas, Craig Gosnell, Nick Lane – trombones
- Charles Findlay, Steven Madaio – trumpets (track 3)
- Tom Saviano – tenor saxophone
- Donald Markese – baritone saxophone
- Katie Razzall – spoken words (tracks 12–13)
- Tom Kirk – additional chanting (track 5)
- Bingham Bellamy – Additional sound effects (track 6)
- Aaron Page, Antonio Sol, Baraka Williams, Beth Anderson, Bobbi Page, Christian Ebner, Chyla Anderson, Clydene Jackson, Edie Lehmann Boddicker, Francesca Proponis, Gabriel Mann, Gerald White, Gregory Jasperse, Gregory Whipple, Guy Maeda, Joannna Bushnell, John Kimberling, Karen Harper, Karen Whipple Schnurr, Kathryn Reid, Kimberley Lingo Hinze, Michael Geiger, Oren Waters, Raven Kane, Reid Bruton, Robert Joyce, Scottie Haskell, Susie Stevens Logan, Teri Koide, Walter Harrah – choir
Production
- Tommaso Colliva – additional production, engineering, mixing (tracks 4, 6)
- Adrian Bushby – additional production, engineering
- Paul Reeve – additional vocal production (tracks 10–11)
- Nero – additional production and mixing (track 6)
- Chris Lord-Alge – mixing (tracks 1, 5, 7, 9, 12)
- Mark Stent – mixing (tracks 2, 8, 10)
- Rich Costey – mixing (tracks 3, 11, 13)
- Alessandro Cortini – additional synthesizer engineering
- Brendan Dekora – engineering assistance
- Olga Fitzroy – engineering assistance
- Sean Oakley – engineering assistance
- Tom Bailey – engineering assistance
- Ted Jensen – mastering
Additional personnel
- Gavin Bond – photography
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history |
2,772,971 | Barry Fuller | 1,164,027,447 | Footballer (born 1984) | [
"1984 births",
"AFC Wimbledon players",
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"Charlton Athletic F.C. players",
"Dorking Wanderers F.C. players",
"England men's semi-pro international footballers",
"English Football League players",
"English men's footballers",
"Footballers from Kent",
"Gillingham F.C. players",
"Living people",
"Men's association football defenders",
"National League (English football) players",
"Sportspeople from Ashford, Kent",
"Stevenage F.C. players"
]
| Barry Marc Fuller (born 25 September 1984) is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for Dorking Wanderers. He previously played for Stevenage Borough, forming part of the squad that won the 2006–07 FA Trophy in the first competitive final at the new Wembley Stadium after they beat Kidderminster Harriers 2–1 on 12 May 2007 in front of a record FA Trophy crowd of 53,262. Fuller has also made over 200 appearances for Gillingham and was captain of the squad that beat Shrewsbury Town 1–0 in the League Two play-off final at Wembley Stadium on 23 May 2009 to win promotion to League One.
## Club career
### Early years
Born in Ashford, Kent, Fuller was spotted playing for his local club, Kennington Juniors FC, by Premier League side Charlton Athletic who signed him to their youth Academy at the age of thirteen. The full-back progressed through the Addicks' Academy up until the age of nineteen, signing his first professional contract on 1 July 2004. On 17 July 2004, he featured for Charlton Athletic in a pre-season friendly win over Southern League side Sittingbourne; he scored in the 83rd minute to confirm a 3–0 win following a brace by fellow youngster Lloyd Sam. The young right-back was selected to captain Charlton Athletic's Reserves side during the 2004–05 season, helping the club to finish as Champions of the Premier Reserve League Southern Division. He also represented Charlton in the first ever Premier Reserve League Shield national play-off final on 12 May 2005, which saw Northern Division champions Manchester United Reserves beat the Addicks 4–2 at The Valley. Despite his success with the Reserves, however, he failed to break into the first team and was subsequently loaned out to League Two side Barnet on an initial one-month deal on 12 January 2006. The 21-year-old defender made his Football League debut on 14 January 2006 in a 4–1 defeat by Lincoln City. On 15 February 2006, it was announced that he would remain with Barnet for a further month. On 18 March 2006, he scored his first Football League goal in a 2–2 draw with Peterborough United. On 24 March 2006, Barnet manager Paul Fairclough extended Fuller's loan for a third and final time up until 22 April. He played his final game for the Bees on 22 April 2006 in a 0–0 draw with Chester City before subsequently returning to Charlton Athletic. In total, he made fifteen league appearances for Barnet during the 2005–06 season, which proved to be a vital contribution in helping the club avoid relegation from the Football League. Despite impressing on his loan spell, the 20-year-old defender was released by Charlton Athletic manager Alan Curbishley at the end of the season.
### Stevenage Borough
On 28 June 2006, Fuller signed for Conference side Stevenage Borough. He made his debut for the Boro in a 2–1 defeat by York City on 15 August 2006. The defender scored his only goal for the club in a 2–0 win over Grays Athletic on 17 February 2007. He was ever-present throughout the 2006–07 season, making thirty-seven league appearances in all. He was also indispensable to the club's FA Trophy success, featuring in both semi-final legs which saw Stevenage Borough beat Grays Athletic 3–1 on aggregate. He was part of the squad that played in the 2007 FA Trophy Final against Kidderminster Harriers on 12 May 2007 in front of a record FA Trophy crowd of 53,262. Stevenage came back from 2–0 down to ultimately triumph 3–2 following an 88th-minute goal by Steve Morison; the victory was all the more significant for Fuller as he became a member of the first team to win a competitive final at the new Wembley Stadium. He would go on to make 24 league appearances for the Boro during the 2007–08 season before subsequently leaving the club to sign a two-year deal with League One side Gillingham on 28 January 2008 along with teammate Stuart Lewis; reuniting him with the manager who had previously recruited him at Stevenage Borough, Mark Stimson.
### Gillingham
Fuller made his debut for Gillingham in the 2–0 defeat to Tranmere Rovers on 29 January 2008. The defender would go on to make nine more appearances for the Gills in the 2007–08 season. On 10 October 2008, despite having only been with the Gills for nine months, the 24-year-old was appointed as club captain. He made forty league appearances in total during the 2008–09 season, making him integral to the club's push for promotion. In spite of this level of consistency, however, his season was wrought with difficulty. The defender's troubles began when he was sent off for a second yellow card offence after a foul on Sam Wood in the 88th minute of a 1–1 draw with Brentford on 20 December 2008, resulting in a one match ban. His troubles did not end there however, as in January 2009 he was rushed to hospital after contracting bacterial pneumonia. He made a rapid recovery, however, and returned just five weeks later to play a full match in a 2–0 defeat by Rotherham United at Millmoor on 14 February 2009. Despite these set-backs, he was able to help Gillingham finish the season in 5th place, making them eligible for the League Two play-offs. Gillingham faced Rochdale in the play-off semi-final, drawing 0–0 in the first leg on 7 May 2009, before securing a place in the play-off final by beating Rochdale 2–1 at the Priestfield Stadium in the second leg on 10 May 2009. Gillingham faced Shrewsbury Town in the 2009 League Two play-off final at Wembley Stadium on 23 May 2009, in which Fuller captained his side to a 1–0 win over "The Shrews" in front of a crowd of 53,706 to seal promotion to League One, a dramatic turn of events considering that he had been suffering with a life-threatening illness just five months before.
Fuller made 36 league appearances for "The Gills" in their first season back in League One, however, once again the latter half of his season was blighted by injury. The 25-year-old Gillingham captain suffered a broken arm after taking a kick on the forearm in a 1–1 draw with Leyton Orient on 23 February 2010. A specialist subsequently confirmed that this injury would sideline him for approximately six weeks. By the time of his return the Gills were embroiled in a battle to avoid relegation and their fortunes took a turn for the worse when Fuller suffered a broken nose mere seconds after kick-off after a clash of heads with teammate Darren Dennehy in what would go on to be a 3–2 win over Leeds United on 17 April 2010; he was substituted by Jack Payne in the fourth minute of play. Fuller was unable to prevent the Gills' relegation slide back into League Two after he was sidelined for the rest of the season, undergoing surgery on his broken nose a few days after the incident. In spite of this, however, he was offered a two-year contract extension, along with teammate Garry Richards, by new Gills manager Andy Hessenthaler on 25 March 2010. He accepted the terms and on 4 June 2010 it was announced that he had signed a new contract along with striker Dennis Oli.
Gillingham began the 2010–11 season in poor form, winning just three of their first sixteen games of the season which brought the Gills captain under fire. However, the side quickly turned their form around by going on to win six of their next eight league games and were unbeaten for 16 league matches between a 2–1 win over Aldershot Town on 29 January 2011 and a 1–1 draw with Morecambe on 16 April 2011. Fuller made his 100th league appearance for Gillingham on 30 October 2010 in a 2–1 defeat by Northampton Town. The Gills ultimately finished in 8th place, just missing out on the League Two play-offs. He made forty-two league appearances for Gillingham throughout the season. On 27 July 2011, Gillingham announced that Fuller would be relieved of the captain's armband, having worn it for three seasons, and would be replaced by new signing Andy Frampton. The right-back once again found himself plagued by injury worries in the 2011–12 season, making just nine league appearances. He suffered an injury to his knee in a 6–1 win over Hereford United on 17 September 2011. On further examination the injury was found to be serious and on 13 October 2011 it was announced that he would be out for the rest of the season and had to undergo a "career-saving" knee operation immediately which would prevent him from playing again for nine months. This proved to be a devastating blow for Fuller, whose contract was due to expire at the end of the 2012 season, as his deal was not renewed by new Gillingham manager Martin Allen and he was subsequently released by the club on 28 July 2012 having made 137 league appearances.
### Barnet
On 13 August 2012, Fuller signed for League Two side Barnet on a free transfer, along with Gillingham teammate Curtis Weston. He made his debut for the Bees in a 1–1 draw with Bristol Rovers on 21 August 2012. He would go on to make 39 league appearances, cementing his place as the club's first choice right-back. Barnet started the 2012–13 season poorly, failing to win any of their first 12 league matches and were ultimately relegated to the Conference on goal difference after finishing in 23rd place. Barnet's relegation required manager Edgar Davids to release a number of players as an austerity measure to accommodate the fact that the club would be operating on a smaller wage budget in the 2013–14 season, and it was announced on 22 May 2013 that Fuller would be released along with 12 other players.
### AFC Wimbledon
On 28 May 2013, Fuller signed for League Two side AFC Wimbledon along with former Havant & Waterlooville midfielder Chris Arthur. Shortly after his signing, Fuller disclosed to the media that he hoped to establish himself as a key member of the squad and expressed his loyalty to the club by stating that he hoped to see out the rest of his professional career with AFC Wimbledon. A month later, he found himself reunited with former teammate and fellow ex-Gillingham captain, Andy Frampton, when it was announced that he had also signed a contract with the South London club on 28 June 2013. On 31 July 2013, manager Neal Ardley appointed Alan Bennett as club captain and declared that Fuller would act as vice-captain for the 2013–14 season. Fuller made his league debut for "The Dons" in a 1–1 draw with Torquay United on 3 August 2013. He was an ever-present for the club throughout the season, making forty five league appearances in total. Fuller's consistently committed performances and dogged attitude quickly established him as a favourite with supporters, culminating in him being voted as Player of the Year at the end of season awards. He scored his first goal for the Dons when he scored the winner in a 1–0 win over Dagenham & Redbridge.
He was released by AFC Wimbledon at the end of the 2017–18 season.
### Return to Gillingham
On 2 June 2018, Fuller returned to Gillingham, signing a one-year contract. He made 38 league appearances in the 2018–19 season and was voted as the club's Player of the Season.
On 5 April 2019 he signed a one-year contract extension with the club. Fuller made his 200th appearance for the club in a 1–0 defeat to Coventry City on 24 August 2019.
In June 2020 he triggered a one-year extension to his contract with the Kent club, but was informed by manager Steve Evans that he was free to pursue other options with Evans citing a desire to build a more youthful squad.
On 6 August 2020 it was confirmed that Fuller had left Gillingham after he, along with the club, decided to terminate his contract by mutual consent.
### Dorking Wanderers
On 27 August 2020 Fuller joined National League South side Dorking Wanderers. Fuller captained the Surrey side to promotion to the National League at the end of the 2021–22 season, defeating Ebbsfleet United in a play-off final.
## International career
Fuller's only appearance for a national team came when he was selected to represent the England C team, along with fellow Stevenage Borough teammates Ronnie Henry and Steve Morison, in an international friendly against Northern Ireland on 13 February 2007 which ended as a 3–1 win for England.
## Career statistics
A. The "Other" column constitutes appearances (including substitutions) and goals in either the Football League Trophy the FA Trophy or the National League South Play-Offs.
## Honours
### Club
Stevenage Borough
- FA Trophy: 2006–07
Gillingham
- Football League Two play-offs: 2009
AFC Wimbledon
- Football League Two play-offs: 2016
Dorking Wanderers
- National League South play-offs: 2022
- Surrey Senior Cup: 2021–22
### Individual
- AFC Wimbledon Player of the Season: 2013–14
- AFC Wimbledon Player's Player of the Season: 2013–14, 2015–16
- AFC Wimbledon Team of the Decade (2010s)
- Gillingham Player of the Season: 2018–19
- National League South Team of the Year: 2021–22 |
3,379,675 | Sierra Leone at the 2000 Summer Olympics | 1,137,381,894 | null | [
"2000 in Sierra Leonean sport",
"Nations at the 2000 Summer Olympics",
"Sierra Leone at the Summer Olympics by year"
]
| Sierra Leone sent a delegation to compete at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia from 15 September to 1 October 2000. This was the African nation's sixth time appearing at a Summer Olympic Games. The delegation consisted of three competitors, two track and field athletes; Alpha B. Kamara and Ekundayo Williams; and weightlifter Joseph Bellon. Neither of the track athletes advanced beyond the first round of their events, while Bellon finished 16th in the men's under 77 kg event.
## Background
The National Olympic Committee of Sierra Leone was recognised by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1964. The nation made its Olympic debut four years later in the 1968 Summer Olympics, but did not make their second appearance until the 1980 Moscow Olympics. They have sent athletes to every Summer Olympic Games since Moscow, making these Sydney Games their seventh appearance. Sierra Leone has yet to appear at the Winter Olympic Games. The 2000 Summer Olympics were held from 15 September to 1 October 2000; a total of 10,651 athletes represented 199 National Olympic Committees. Their delegation to Sydney consisted of three competitors, two track and field athletes; Alpha B. Kamara and Ekundayo Williams; and weightlifter Joseph Bellon. Williams was chosen as the flag-bearer for the opening ceremony.
## Athletics
Alpha B. Kamara was 21 years old at the time of the Sydney Olympics, and was making his only Olympic appearance. On 22 September he participated in the first round heats of the men's 100 metres, and was drawn into heat ten. He finished his heat in a time of 10.74 seconds, eighth out of nine competitors in that heat, and was therefore eliminated. The gold medal was eventually won in 9.87 seconds by Maurice Greene of the United States; the silver was won by Ato Boldon of Trinidad and Tobago, and the bronze was earned by Obadele Thompson of Barbados.
Ekundayo Williams was 22 years old at the time of these Games, and was likewise making her only appearance in Olympic competition. On 23 September, she participated in the first round of the women's 100 metres, and was assigned to heat six. She finished the race in a time of 12.19 seconds, contemporaneously sixth out of nine in her heat, and was not allowed to progress to the next round. In the event overall, the gold medal is vacant due to original gold medallist Marion Jones of the United States admitting to steroid use and forfeiting her medals and results from the Sydney Games. Officially, the medals in the event are held by Ekaterini Thanou of Greece and Tayna Lawrence (the original bronze medallist) of Jamaica sharing silver, and Merlene Ottey, also of Jamaica, the original fourth-place finisher, being awarded a bronze. Gold was left vacant because Thanou, the original silver medalist, had her own issue with missing a drug test at the 2004 Summer Olympics. After Jones' disqualification, Williams is now considered to have came fifth in her heat, as the original winner of that race was Jones.
## Weightlifting
Joseph Bellon was 24 years old at the time of the Sydney Olympics, and was making his only appearance in the Olympics. On 22 September, he competed in the men's under 77 kg bodyweight category. Each athlete received three attempts in the snatch, and those that recorded a mark in the snatch received three attempts at the clean and jerk. Final placement was determined by the sum of an athlete's best mark in both disciplines, and ties were broken by whichever of the athletes had weighed in with a lower bodyweight. In the snatch, Bellon lifted 90 kg, 92.5 kg, and 95 kg in his three attempts, making his total for the snatch 95 kg. In the clean and jerk, he lifted 95 kg, 100 kg, and 105 kg, making his mark for the clean and jerk portion of the competition 105 kg. His total mark for the event was therefore 200 kg, the least weight lifted of any of the 16 competitors who set a mark for both disciplines. Both Zhan Xugang of China and Viktor Mitrou of Greece lifted a total of 367.5 kg, but Zhan, as the lighter athlete, won the gold medal, and Mitrou received the silver. Bronze was earned by Arsen Melikyan of Armenia. |
3,509,711 | New York State Route 9A | 1,167,997,715 | Highway in New York | [
"State highways in New York (state)",
"Transportation in Manhattan",
"Transportation in Westchester County, New York",
"Transportation in the Bronx",
"U.S. Route 9",
"West Side Highway"
]
| New York State Route 9A (NY 9A) is a state highway in the vicinity of New York City in the United States. Its southern terminus is at Battery Place near the northern end of the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel in New York City, where it intersects with both the unsigned Interstate 478 (I-478) and FDR Drive. The northern terminus of NY 9A is at U.S. Route 9 (US 9) in Peekskill. It is predominantly an alternate route of US 9 between New York City and Peekskill; however, in New York City, it is a major route of its own as it runs along the West Side Highway and Henry Hudson Parkway. It is also one of only two signed New York State routes in Manhattan (the other is NY 25). In northern Westchester County, NY 9A follows the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway.
The origins of NY 9A date back to the 1920s when an alternate route of then-NY 6 from Yonkers to Tarrytown was designated as NY 6A. NY 6 was redesignated as US 9 in 1927; however, NY 6A was not renumbered to NY 9A until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. NY 9A was extended south into New York City in 1934 and north to Ossining in the late 1930s. In 1933, the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway opened as NY 404. All of NY 404 was incorporated into an extended NY 9A on January 1, 1949. NY 9A was extended northward to Peekskill in 1967 following the completion of the Croton Expressway and southward to the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel in the mid-1990s.
## Route description
NY 9A begins in Lower Manhattan at Battery Place near the north end of the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel (unsigned I-478) and heads north on the West Side Highway and Henry Hudson Parkway, crossing US 9 for the first time at the east end of the George Washington Bridge. After crossing into the Bronx via the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority-owned Henry Hudson Bridge, NY 9A proceeds to leave the parkway at exit 23, joining US 9 on Broadway. The portions of NY 9A between Lower Manhattan and 72nd Street, and from 125th Street to the New York City line (with the exception of the Henry Hudson Bridge) are owned by the New York State Department of Transportation, the portion between 72nd and 125th Streets is owned by the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation and the entire highway within city limits is maintained on a daily basis by the New York City Department of Transportation. The concurrency between US 9 and NY 9A runs for 2.87 miles (4.62 km) within the city of Yonkers. All of NY 9A within Yonkers is maintained by the city.
NY 9A separates from US 9 along Ashburton Avenue and heads north as Saw Mill River Road. It parallels the Saw Mill River Parkway through Ardsley and Elmsford, to the west side of Hawthorne. The route meets the southbound New York State Thruway (I-87) at a partial interchange and later meets I-287 (the Cross-Westchester Expressway) at a full interchange that provides a route to the northbound Thruway (I-87). NY 100 merges with NY 9A to form a 3.11-mile (5.01 km) concurrency carrying the names Saw Mill River Road and Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway, parallel to the Taconic State Parkway. NY 9A exits off this highway along the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway, while NY 100 continues straight as Saw Mill River Road. NY 9A merges to form a brief concurrency with US 9 as the Croton Expressway in Ossining just south of the Croton River.
The second concurrency between US 9 and NY 9A runs for 1.10 miles, with NY 9A leaving the Croton Expressway at NY 129 in Croton-on-Hudson. The highway heads north along Riverside Avenue and eventually joins old Albany Post Road. After crossing US 9 once more in Cortlandt, NY 9A ends at the Welcher Avenue interchange in southern Peekskill.
## History
### Origins
Prior to the establishment of the U.S. Highway System, US 9 was designated as NY 6. An alternate route from Yonkers to Tarrytown was assigned the NY 6A designation by 1926. This ran along the present alignment of NY 9A from Yonkers to north of Elmsford, where it turned west on Old Saw Mill River Road, Neperan Road, County House Road and Bedford Road to end at NY 6 in Tarrytown. NY 6 was redesignated as US 9 when U.S. Highways were first posted in New York in 1927; however, NY 6A was not renumbered at this time. It was finally renumbered to NY 9A as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York.
New York City initially did not mark numbered routes within its limits. In 1932, the New York Automobile Club drafted a plan establishing alignments for several routes through the city. In this plan, NY 9A went south through the Bronx and into Manhattan on Broadway while US 9 used Riverdale Avenue north of 230th Street. As a result, the two routes would have had a short concurrency across Spuyten Duyvil Creek. NY 9A would have split to the south on Tenth Avenue at 218th Street in order to join the Harlem River Drive via Nagle Avenue and Dyckman Street. From there it would head west on 155th Street to Amsterdam Avenue, where it would head south to 79th Street, heading west there to rejoin US 9 at Riverside Drive. US 9 would have continued south through lower Manhattan to Staten Island via the Staten Island Ferry; however, it is unclear whether NY 9A would have continued south with US 9 to lower Manhattan.
The New York Automobile Club released another plan in 1933. This plan made no changes to NY 9A; however, US 9 was changed to use Broadway all the way through the Bronx and to travel to New Jersey by way of the Holland Tunnel. In the final plan implemented in mid-December 1934, no route was assigned to the Harlem River Drive–Amsterdam Avenue corridor. Instead, NY 9A used what had been planned as US 9, splitting at Broadway and Dyckman Street. NY 9A ran south along the west side of Manhattan on Riverside Drive and the West Side Elevated Highway (detouring around an unfinished section via 57th Street, Eleventh Avenue and 48th Street) to end at the entrance and exit plazas of the Holland Tunnel. US 9 was shifted northward to enter New Jersey via the George Washington Bridge.
### Westchester County
In Westchester County, Saw Mill River Road originally followed the Saw Mill River Parkway corridor from Eastview to Hawthorne. This section of Saw Mill River Road gained a number c. 1931, becoming part of NY 142, a route that began at NY 100 on the Greenburgh–Mount Pleasant town line and followed Grasslands Road, NY 9A, and Saw Mill River Road north to Hawthorne, where it rejoined NY 100. The route went unchanged until it was removed c. 1938. Its former routing was split into two routes—an extended NY 141 north of NY 9A and the new NY 100C along Grasslands Road—by 1940. NY 9A was extended northward c. 1939 from Tarrytown to Archville, a small hamlet midway between Tarrytown and Ossining, by way of Sleepy Hollow Road.
Farther north, a new limited-access highway was built around Ossining from Saw Mill River Road (NY 100) in Briarcliff Manor to US 9 north of Ossining. The highway, known as the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway, was completed c. 1933 and initially designated as NY 404. On January 1, 1949, NY 9A was altered to continue north along a slightly realigned Saw Mill River Road from NY 100C near Elmsford to the south end of the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway in Briarcliff Manor. At this point, NY 9A left Saw Mill River Road and followed the parkway to its end at US 9, supplanting NY 404. The realignment created a 3-mile (5 km) overlap between NY 9A and NY 100 from Hawthorne to Briarcliff Manor and resulted in the truncation of NY 141 back to its previous terminus in Hawthorne.
Construction on the Croton Expressway, the only piece of the failed Hudson River Expressway project that was ever built, began in the mid-1960s. It became part of a realigned US 9 when it was completed by 1967. The former surface routing of US 9 along Albany Post Road between Croton-on-Hudson and Buchanan became a northward extension of NY 9A, which reached the old alignment by way of an overlap with US 9 from the north end of the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway to Croton-on-Hudson.
### New York City
As the Henry Hudson Parkway replaced Riverside Drive in the mid-1930s, NY 9A was moved onto it, eventually using the new parkway to where it crossed US 9 (Broadway) in the Bronx. Here, NY 9A exited the parkway and ran concurrent with US 9 to the split in Yonkers. The Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel connecting Manhattan's Battery Park to Brooklyn was completed in 1950. By 1960, an extension of the West Side Elevated Highway south to the Manhattan tunnel portal became part of NY 27A, which had ended in Brooklyn prior to the construction of the tunnel. On January 1, 1970, NY 27A was truncated on its western end to eastern Nassau County while NY 27 was extended northward over NY 27A's former routing through the Battery Tunnel and the West Side Elevated Highway.
However, by 1973, NY 27 had been cut back to its interchange with the Gowanus Expressway in Brooklyn while unsigned I-478 was assigned to both the Battery Tunnel and all of the West Side Elevated Highway south of the Lincoln Tunnel. NY 9A was cut back to the Lincoln Tunnel as a result. The extension of I-478 into Manhattan was eliminated following the collapse of part of the Elevated Highway in 1973, an event which led to the demolition of the highway south of 59th Street. Demolition was completed in 1989. NY 9A was shifted onto 12th Avenue, one of the surface streets that the Elevated Highway had run atop of, but was otherwise unaffected as the route's south end was initially kept at the Lincoln Tunnel.
In the mid-1990s, NY 9A was extended south to the Battery Tunnel by way of 12th Avenue and two other streets the Elevated Highway had previously run atop of, West Street and 11th Avenue. Construction began in early 1996 on a project to convert the section of NY 9A south of 59th Street into the West Side Highway, a six-lane urban boulevard with a parkway-style median and decorative lightposts. The first of the project's seven segments—between Clarkson and Horatio streets in the Greenwich Village neighborhood—was completed in 1998. Completion of the project was originally set for October 2001; however, it was delayed for years due to damage caused by the September 11 attacks. It was finished by 2014.
## Major intersections
All exits on the Briarcliff–Peekskill Parkway and Croton Expressway are unnumbered.
## See also
- New Jersey Route 139, which continued NY 9A back to US 9 in Jersey City when it was US 9 Business. |
33,628,763 | K-143 (Kansas highway) | 1,055,518,500 | Highway in Kansas | [
"State highways in Kansas",
"Transportation in Saline County, Kansas",
"U.S. Route 81"
]
| K-143 is a 4.658-mile-long (7.496 km) north–south state highway in Saline County, Kansas. The route runs through lands mostly used for agriculture from an interchange at Interstate 70 (I-70) and U.S. Route 40 (US-40) in northern Salina, Kansas generally northward to a junction with US-81 north of Salina. The southern part of the route is a four-lane divided highway while the rest is a two-lane highway. It has an annual average daily traffic (AADT) between 1,580 and 4,133 vehicles. The route is paved with three different pavement types, and is not a part of the National Highway System. It was first designated as US-81 Alternate in the early 1970s with the designation being changed to K-143 in the early 1980s.
## Route description
K-143's southern terminus is at a diamond interchange with I-70 in the northernmost parts of Salina, Kansas. For the first 0.9 miles (1.4 km) of the route, the highway travels due north through commercial and agricultural land within the Salina city limits. A short distance after this, K-143 transitions from a divided four-lane highway into a two-lane highway. It then crosses the Saline River and continues north through primarily agricultural land north of Salina. At 2.7 miles (4.3 km), K-143 turns northwest and follows a gently curving path in that direction for the remainder of the route. The highway then reaches its northern terminus at US-81.
K-143 has an AADT of 4,133 vehicles in the southernmost 0.9 miles (1.4 km) of the route, with an AADT of 1,580–1,595 vehicles in the remainder of the route. The route is paved with a combination of full-design bituminous pavement, composite pavement, and partial-design bituminous pavement. K-143 is not a part of the National Highway System.
## History
K-143's route was established between 1970 and 1971 as US-81 Alternate. The numbering was changed to K-143 between 1981 and 1983.
## Major intersections |
5,539,468 | Ontario Highway 400A | 1,114,819,751 | Controlled-access highway in Ontario | [
"400-series highways"
]
| King's Highway 400A, once known as the Highway 400 Extension, was a 400-series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that was unsigned and is now the southern end of Highway 11. The short 1.1-kilometre (0.7 mi) freeway link connected Highway 400 with Highway 11 and Simcoe County Road 93, formerly Highway 93. The highway was created in late 1959 by the opening of Highway 400 to Coldwater, although it has always featured Highway 400 signage in the southbound direction and Highway 11 signage northbound.
## Route description
The redesignated highway features a narrow grass median for the majority of its length, and has a speed limit of 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph). On average, the highway is used by approximately 11,900 vehicles daily. The route began as Highway 400 exits on the right, with the northbound lanes rising up to cross Highway 400A on an overpass. After the overpass, the highway ascends, with grasslands to the east and an embankment to the west, then gently curves to the northeast. As it crosses Simcoe County Road 93 (Penetanguishene Road), formerly Highway 93, the former highway ended as it continued as Highway 11.
## History
Highway 400A formed the original routing of Highway 400 from 1950 to 1959. In 1950, the then-incomplete freeway was extended north through the city of Barrie to the junction of Highway 11 and Highway 93 in Crown Hill; the entirety of Highway 400 would open on Dominion Day in 1952. In the late-1950s, the construction of the Trans-Canada Highway prompted the Department of Highways to extend the route north to Highway 12 and Highway 103 (both designated as branch routes of the TCH) in Coldwater, deemed the Highway 400 Extension. This section opened as a super two on December 24, 1959, redirecting Highway 400 southwest of the Crown Hill junction. To remedy this situation, the 1.1 km (0.68 mi) gap between the original terminus and the new turnoff was internally designated as Highway 400A.
The highway has never been signed as Highway 400A. Instead, northbound it is indicated as Highway 11 and southbound as Highway 400. Restructuring of the provincial highway system resulted in Highway 11 south of the Crown Hill interchange being transferred, or downloaded, to local municipalities on April 1, 1997. That highway's southern terminus was then shifted to meet Highway 400 by redesignating Highway 400A as Highway 11.
Unusually, traffic to and from the Highway 400 extension enters and exits at the right of the roadway, while traffic to and from Highway 400A/11 simply continues on the same roadway. The interchange is also incomplete; drivers must either use the Forbes Road and Penetanguishene Road interchanges, or continue southbound into Barrie and switch direction at Duckworth Street in order to travel from southbound Highway 400A to northbound Highway 400 or from southbound Highway 400 to northbound Highway 400A.
## Exit list |
976,094 | Northern crested newt | 1,173,335,565 | Species of amphibian | [
"Amphibians described in 1768",
"Amphibians of Europe",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Fauna of the United Kingdom",
"Taxa named by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti",
"Triturus"
]
| The northern crested newt, great crested newt or warty newt (Triturus cristatus) is a newt species native to Great Britain, northern and central continental Europe and parts of Western Siberia. It is a large newt, with females growing up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long. Its back and sides are dark brown, while the belly is yellow to orange with dark blotches. Males develop a conspicuous jagged crest on their back and tail during the breeding season.
The northern crested newt spends most of the year on land, mainly in forested areas in lowlands. It moves to aquatic breeding sites, mainly larger fish-free ponds, in spring. Males court females with a ritualised display and deposit a spermatophore on the ground, which the female then picks up with her cloaca. After fertilisation, a female lays around 200 eggs, folding them into water plants. The larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into terrestrial juveniles (efts). Both larvae and land-dwelling newts mainly feed on different invertebrates.
Several of the northern crested newt's former subspecies are now recognised as separate species in the genus Triturus. Its closest relative is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus). It sometimes forms hybrids with some of its relatives, including the marbled newt (T. marmoratus). Although today the most widespread Triturus species, the northern crested newt was probably confined to small refugial areas in the Carpathians during the Last Glacial Maximum.
While the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as Least Concern species, populations of the northern crested newt have been declining. The main threat is habitat destruction, for example, through urban sprawl. The species is listed as a European Protected Species.
## Taxonomy
The northern crested newt was described as Triton cristatus by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768. As Linnaeus had already used the name Triton for a genus of sea snails ten years before, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque introduced the new genus name Triturus in 1815, with T. cristatus as type species.
Over 40 scientific names introduced over time are now considered as synonyms, including Lacertus aquatilis, a nomen oblitum published four years before Laurenti's species name. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus) female were mistakenly described as distinct species Triton blasii, and the reverse hybrids as Triton trouessarti.
T. cristatus was long considered as a single species, the "crested newt", with several subspecies. Substantial genetic differences between these subspecies were, however, noted and eventually led to their recognition as full species, often collectively referred to as "T. cristatus species complex". There are now seven accepted species of crested newts, of which the northern crested newt is the most widespread.
## Description
The northern crested newt is a relatively large newt species. Males usually reach 13.5 cm (5.3 in) total length, while females grow up to 16 cm (6.3 in). Rare individuals of 20 cm (7.9 in) have been recorded. Other crested newt species are more stockily built; only the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus) is more slender. Body shape is correlated with skeletal build: The northern crested newt has 15 rib-bearing vertebrae, only the Danube crested newt has more (16–17), while the other, more stocky Triturus species have 14 or less.
The newts have rough skin, and are dark brown on the back and sides, with black spots and heavy white stippling on the flanks. The female has a yellow line running along the lower tail edge. The throat is mixed yellow–black with fine white stippling, the belly yellow to orange with dark, irregular blotches.
During the aquatic breeding season, males develop crest up to 1.5 cm (0.59 in) high, which runs along the back and tail but is interrupted at the tail base. It is heavily indented on the back but smoother on the tail. Also during breeding season, the male's cloaca swells and it has a blue–white flash running along the sides of the tail. Females do not develop a crest.
## Range
The northern crested newt is the most widespread and northerly crested newt species. The northern edge of its range runs from Great Britain through southern Fennoscandia to the Republic of Karelia in Russia; the southern margin runs through central France, southwest Romania, Moldavia and Ukraine, heading from there into central Russia and through the Ural Mountains. The eastern extent of the great crested newt's range reaches into Western Siberia, running from the Perm Krai to the Kurgan Oblast.
In western France, the species co-occurs and sometimes hybridises (see section Evolution below) with the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus). In southeast Europe, its range borders that of the Italian crested newt (T. carnifex), the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus), the Macedonian crested newt (T. macedonicus) and the Balkan crested newt (T. ivanbureschi).
## Habitat
Outside of the breeding season, northern crested newts are mainly forest-dwellers. They prefer deciduous woodlands or groves, but conifer woods are also accepted, especially in the far northern and southern ranges. In the absence of forests, other cover-rich habitats, as for example hedgerows, scrub, swampy meadows, or quarries, can be inhabited.
Preferred aquatic breeding sites are stagnant, mid- to large-sized, unshaded water bodies with abundant underwater vegetation but without fish (which prey on larvae). Typical examples are larger ponds, which need not be of natural origin; indeed, most ponds inhabited in the United Kingdom are human-made. Examples of other suitable secondary habitats are ditches, channels, gravel pit lakes, or garden ponds. Other newts that can sometimes be found in the same breeding sites are the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the palmate newt (L. helveticus), the Carpathian newt (L. montadoni), the alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris) and the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus).
The northern crested newt is generally a lowland species but has been found up to 1,750 m (5,740 ft) in the Alps.
## Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny
### Hybridization
In certain areas of France, the northern crested newt and the marbled newt overlap, and hybrids are present. As the northern crested newt's population grows, and marbled newt population struggles, these hybrids have been shown to possess good qualities of both. They have more fecundity than the two newts however have a hard time keeping their eggs alive.
## Life cycle and behaviour
Like other newts, T. cristatus develops in the water as a larva and returns to the water each year for breeding. Adults spend around seven months of the year on land. After larval development in the first year, juveniles pass another year or two before reaching maturity; in the north and at higher elevations, this can take longer. The larval and juvenile stages are the riskiest for the newts, while survival is higher in adults. Once the risky stages passed, adult newts usually have a lifespan of seven to nine years, although individuals have reached 17 years in the wild.
Adult newts begin moving to their breeding sites in spring when temperatures stay above 4–5 °C (39–41 °F), usually in March. In the aquatic phase, crested newts are mostly nocturnal and, compared to smaller newt species, usually prefer the deeper parts of a water body, where they hide under vegetation. As with other newts, they have to occasionally move to the surface to breathe air. The aquatic phase serves not only for reproduction, but also offers more abundant prey, and immature crested newts frequently return to the water in spring even if they do not breed.
During the terrestrial phase, the newts use hiding places such as logs, bark, planks, stone walls, or small mammal burrows; several individuals may occupy such refuges at the same time. Since the newts generally stay very close to their aquatic breeding sites, the quality of the surrounding terrestrial habitat largely determines whether an otherwise suitable water body will be colonised. Great crested newts may also climb vegetation during their terrestrial phase, although the exact function of this behaviour is not known at present.
The juvenile efts often disperse to new breeding sites, while the adults in general move back to the same breeding sites each year. The newts do not migrate very far: they may cover around 100 metres (110 yd) in one night and rarely disperse much farther than one kilometre (0.62 mi). Over most of their range, they hibernate in winter, using mainly subterranean hiding places, where many individuals will often congregate.
### Diet and predators
Northern crested newts feed mainly on invertebrates. During the land phase, prey include earthworms and other annelids, different insects, woodlice, and snails and slugs. During the breeding season, they prey on various aquatic invertebrates (such as molluscs, microcrustaceans, and insects), and also tadpoles of other amphibians such as the common frog or common toad, and smaller newts. Larvae, depending on their size, eat small invertebrates and tadpoles, and also smaller larvae of their own species.
The larvae are themselves eaten by various animals such as carnivorous invertebrates and water birds, and are especially vulnerable to predatory fish. Adults generally avoid predators through their hidden lifestyle but are sometimes eaten by herons and other birds, snakes such as the grass snake, and mammals such as shrews, badgers and hedgehogs. They secrete the poison tetrodotoxin from their skin, albeit much less than for example the North American Pacific newts (Taricha). The bright yellow or orange underside of crested newts is a warning coloration which can be presented in case of perceived danger. In such a posture, the newts typically roll up and secrete a milky substance.
### Courtship and reproduction
Northern crested newts, like their relatives in the genus Triturus, perform a complex courtship display, where the male attracts a female through specific body movements and waves pheromones to her. The males are territorial and use small patches of clear ground as leks, or courtship arenas. When successful, they guide the female over a spermatophore they deposit on the ground, which she then takes up with her cloaca.
The eggs are fertilised internally, and the female deposits them individually, usually folding them into leaves of aquatic plants. A female takes around five minutes for the deposition of one egg. They usually lay around 200 eggs per season. Embryos are usually light-coloured, 1.8–2 mm in diameter with a 6 mm jelly capsule, which distinguishes them from eggs of other co-existing newt species that are smaller and darker-coloured. A genetic particularity shared with other Triturus species causes 50% of the embryos to die.
Larvae hatch after two to five weeks, depending on temperature. As in all salamanders and newts, forelimbs develop first, followed later by the back legs. Unlike smaller newts, crested newt larvae are mostly nektonic, swimming freely in the water column. Just before the transition to land, the larvae resorb their external gills; they can at this stage reach a size of 7 centimetres (2.8 in). Metamorphosis into terrestrial efts takes place two to four months after hatching, again depending on temperature. Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4%. In unfavourable conditions, larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water, although this seems to be less common than in the small-bodied newts.
## Evolution
The northern crested newt sometimes hybridises with other crested newt species where their ranges meet, but overall, the different species are reproductively isolated. In a case study in the Netherlands, genes of the introduced Italian crested newt (T. carnifex) were found to introgress into the gene pool of the native northern crested newt. The closest relative of the northern crested newt, according to molecular phylogenetic analyses, is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus).
In western France, the northern crested newt's range overlaps with that of the marbled newt (T. marmoratus), but the two species in general prefer different habitats. When they do occur in the same breeding ponds, they can form hybrids, which have intermediate characteristics. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt female are much rarer due to increased mortality of the larvae and consist only of males. In the reverse cross, males have lower survival rates than females. Overall, viability is reduced in these hybrids and they rarely backcross with their parent species. Hybrids made up 3–7% of the adult populations in different studies.
Little genetic variation was found over most of the species' range, except in the Carpathians. This suggests that the Carpathians was a refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum. The northern crested newt then expanded its range north-, east- and westwards when the climate rewarmed.
## Threats and conservation
The northern crested newt is listed as species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, but populations are declining. It is rare in some parts of its range and listed in several national red lists.
The major reason for decline is habitat destruction through urban and agricultural development, affecting the aquatic breeding sites as well as the land habitats. Their limited dispersal makes the newts especially vulnerable to fragmentation, i.e. the loss of connections for exchange between suitable habitats. Other threats include the introduction of fish and crayfish into breeding ponds, collection for the pet trade in its eastern range, warmer and wetter winters due to global warming, genetic pollution through hybridisation with other, introduced crested newt species, the use of road salt, and potentially the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans.
The northern crested newt is listed in Berne Convention Appendix II as "strictly protected". It is also included in Annex II (species requiring designation of special areas of conservation) and IV (species in need of strict protection) of the EU habitats and species directive, as a European Protected Species. As required by these frameworks, its capture, disturbance, killing or trade, as well as the destruction of its habitats, are prohibited in most European countries. The EU habitats directive is also the basis for the Natura 2000 protected areas, several of which have been designated specifically to protect the northern crested newt.
Preservation of natural water bodies, reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use, control or eradication of introduced predatory fish, and the connection of habitats through sufficiently wide corridors of uncultivated land are seen as effective conservation actions. A network of aquatic habitats in proximity is important to sustain populations, and the creation of new breeding ponds is in general very effective as they are rapidly colonised when other habitats are nearby. In some cases, entire populations have been moved when threatened by development projects, but such translocations need to be carefully planned to be successful.
Strict protection of the northern crested newt in the United Kingdom has created conflicts with local development projects, but the species is also seen as a flagship species, whose conservation also benefits a range of other amphibians. Government agencies have issued specific guidelines for the mitigation of development impacts. |
41,668,925 | NH10 (film) | 1,169,424,909 | 2015 film by Navdeep Singh | [
"2010s Hindi-language films",
"2010s road movies",
"2010s slasher films",
"2010s survival films",
"2015 films",
"2015 thriller films",
"Films about honor killing",
"Films scored by Samira Koppikar",
"Films scored by Sanjeev Darshan",
"Films set in Haryana",
"Hindi films remade in other languages",
"Hindi-language thriller films",
"Indian drama road movies",
"Indian road movies",
"Indian slasher films",
"Indian thriller films"
]
| NH10 is a 2015 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film directed by Navdeep Singh and written by Sudip Sharma. It stars Anushka Sharma, Neil Bhoopalam, Darshan Kumar, and Deepti Naval. NH10 was jointly produced by Clean Slate Filmz, Phantom Films, Eros International and marked the production debut of Sharma. It tells the story of a young couple whose road trip goes awry after an encounter with a group of violent criminals. The title refers to the National Highway 10 that connects Delhi to the town of Fazilka in Punjab.
The film was conceived by Singh and written by Sudip Sharma, who were inspired by some real-life honour killing murder cases. The soundtrack album was composed by Sanjeev-Darshan, Bann Chakraborty, Abhiruchi Chand, Ayush Shrestha, Savera Mehta and Samira Koppikar. Arbind Kannabiran served as the film's cinematographer and Jabeen Merchant was its editor.
NH10 was originally scheduled for release on 6 March 2015, but was postponed because it had not been cleared by the Indian Central Board of Film Certification. It was released theatrically on 13 March 2015 to high critical acclaim. The film went on to become a sleeper hit, earning over ₹320 million (US\$4.0 million) nett at the box office.
## Plot
Meera and Arjun are a married couple and corporate businesspeople in Gurugram. One night, they are enjoying a party when Meera receives a telephone call from her office. She leaves for her office but is attacked by thugs who smash her car's window. Meera escapes but is shaken by the incident; Arjun buys Meera a gun. Arjun suggests a road trip for Meera's upcoming birthday; the couple start their journey the next day.
While stopping at a roadside dhaba for lunch, a young woman called Pinky arrives and pleads for help; Pinky tells the couple she and her husband are about to be murdered. Meera and Arjun see a gang of men round up Pinky and a young man, beat them and drag them into their vehicle. Arjun intervenes but Satbir, the gang leader, slaps him and tells him Pinky is his own sister.
Arjun drives after the gang; he and Meera witness the ongoing honour killing: Pinky and the young man are beaten and Pinky poisoned by Satbir. Arjun and Meera escape but the gang finds them. As the gang dig a grave for their victims, Satbir uses Meera and Arjun's gun to shoot Pinky and the man in front of them. A fight ensues and Arjun shoots a gang member named Chhote, and runs away with Meera.
At night, one of the gang members injures Arjun; Meera shoots the gangster dead. At a railway bridge, Meera leaves Arjun to get help. She finds a police station and asks the officer to help but he rejects her when she says she has witnessed an honour killing. Outside, she meets an Inspector in his SUV and they drive back to find Arjun. Meera then realises the Inspector is connected with the attackers; she kills the inspector and drives off in his car, chased by the gang.
Meera overturns the SUV and finds a hut. The hut's occupants hide Meera from a gang member who comes asking about her; they advise Meera seek help from the sarpanch (chief) of a nearby village. Meera tells the village's chief Ammaji her story; after telling her of the honour killing, Meera sees a pillow cover with the word Pinky stitched on it on Ammaji's lap and a pic of Pinky in the room.
Ammaji locks Meera in the room, calls the gang and hands Meera over to them. Satbir drags her out in front of Ammaji and beat her ruthlessly by slapping her repeatedly and also punches her hard in the stomach. However, Meera manages to escape with the gang's SUV by threatening to harm Satbir's son and rushes to the railway bridge where she finds Arjun has been murdered. Grief-stricken, Meera returns to the village to avenge Arjun's death; she drives the SUV at the gang members and kills them. Ammaji arrives, finds the dead men; she tells Meera Pinky was her daughter who broke rules and needed to be punished, Meera tells Ammaji that Arjun was her husband and they killed him and needed to be punished. Meera leaves the village as dawn breaks.
## Cast
- Anushka Sharma as Meera
- Neil Bhoopalam as Arjun
- Darshan Kumar as Satbir
- Deepti Naval as Ammaji
- Kanchan Sharma as Pinky
- Ravi Jhankal as Fauji
- Sushil Tyagi as Police Inspector
- Ravi Beniwal as Chhote
- Tanya Purohit as Manju
## Production
### Development
Director Navdeep Singh made his directorial debut with Manorama Six Feet Under (2007). After that, he read several scripts for his next project and began work on the zombie comedy Rock the Shaadi and the spy thriller Basra, but both films were shelved. Singh said that he wanted to attempt genres that were rarely attempted in Indian cinema. He then chose to work on NH10, a "trip gone wrong" film as it would be "fairly cheap" to make. He said the idea of the film was to "show the stark contrast between two Indias, something that has been creating a lot of economic and social problems". He chose a female character for the role of sarpanch to show the "role of women in the upholding and dissemination of patriarchy [sic]", and stated that the film's main theme is gender.
Some of the scenarios in NH10 depicted such real-life events as honour killing cases; the scene in which a couple are murdered by their own families was inspired by a real-life case that Sharma and Singh came across while researching for the story. Singh drew likenesses between NH10's love story and the story of Savitri and Satyavan, where the wife fights to save her husband. Singh avoided scenes depicting sexual assault, which he thought could become "voyeuristic" or inadvertently "titillating". His production team had "self-censored" from showing blood in the film because he thought the mainstream Indian audience does not have an "appetite for gore". The title of the film refers to National Highway 10, which connects Delhi with the town of Fazilka, Punjab.
In 2013, it was announced that Singh would be making NH10 with Freida Pinto and Rajkummar Rao. The script was first offered to Sharma, but she declined because she was busy with other films at that time. It was then offered to several other actors. While she was filming for Bombay Velvet (2015), its director Anurag Kashyap told Sharma that Singh was trying to make NH10. She read the script again and agreed to join the project, which was at that time without a producer. Sharma then decided to co-produce it. NH10 was Sharma's first film as a producer; it was made under her label Clean Slate Filmz. She agreed to film because the story felt real to her and its story could happen to anyone; she said, "when bad people attack you, they don't see [your sex]. I liked that about the story." Sharma called the personal struggle "very relatable", as she felt this could happen to anyone. Neil Bhoopalam said he agreed to appear in the film because he liked Singh's earlier film Manorama Six Feet Under. To prepare for the role, Sharma underwent interval training for around three months to physically suit the character. With Bhoopalam, she also took acting workshops conducted by Singh and Atul Mongia for the characters.
### Filming
Principal photography for NH10 started on 17 January 2014. The film was shot in Gurgaon, Haryana and in the interior of Rajasthan in its second schedule. Singh said he chose Haryana as the backdrop because several incidents similar to those depicted in the film had happened there. A sandstorm occurred during the shoot, causing a halt. It was extensively filmed in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, for a month in its second schedule. Most of the night scenes were shot in Rajasthan because of several problems, including crowd control, fog and a sandstorm. While filming in Haryana, some local actors were hired after auditions from Hisar and Rohtak because budget constraints prevented the hiring of a language coach; the producers also thought that casting locals would make the characters more realistic.
Sharma performed all the stunts herself. She suffered some bruises and back pain while shooting, and was later hospitalised. While filming a night scene, a moon box light weighing around 900 kilograms (2,000 lb) attached to a crane was swaying in high winds; Sharma noticed the skimmer holding the box was torn and could fall, so the team evacuated the area. Darshan Kumar did not interact with Sharma on the sets because he wanted to be in-character for the film. Sharma said hearing Kumar talk while filming the scene in which they confront each other made her fear him. To further prepare for his role, Kumar listened to Haryanvi songs and interacted with locals around National Highway 10 to observe how they behaved. He also participated in workshops to learn the local body language and dialect.
NH10 was filmed over the course of 44 days. On one occasion, around 2,000 people had gathered at a filming location on the outskirts of Gurgaon; Singh said the crowd had gathered out of curiosity but turned hostile after they were told to stay away from the set. Some people in the crowd started performing bicycle stunts and firing bullets. The shoot was eventually cancelled. Sharma said this incident "instilled some fear and anxiety" into her, which she channelled into the film. NH10 was jointly produced by Phantom Films, Eros International and Clean Slate Filmz and was distributed by Eros International. Sharma did not take a fee for the film; she "instead put it into the film". The film's director of photography was Arbind Kannabiran, while Jabeen Merchant served as the editor. The prosthetics in the film were made by French makeup artist Romy Angevin.
## Soundtrack
The soundtrack album of NH10 was composed by Sanjeev-Darshan, Bann Chakraborty, Abhiruchi Chand, Ayush Shrestha, Savera Mehta and Samira Koppikar. It was released on 17 February 2015 on the label Eros International. The album has nine songs, which have vocals by artists including Kanika Kapoor, Dipanshu Pandit, Mohit Chauhan, Neeti Mohan and Shilpa Rao. The lyrics were written by Kumaar, Chakraborty, Manoj Tapadia, Neeraj Rajawat and Varun Grover.
The album received mostly positive reviews. T. Sukesh of News18 called it "dark and gloomy" and said it complements the film's story. Joginder Tuteja wrote that the album has "consistently good music" and is "worth a listen", but felt that it lacked a commercial appeal. Surabhi Redkar of Koimoi wrote in her review the film's "gloom is captured well in the soundtrack". A review in The Financial Express said the soundtrack fits the "overall modest expectations". Rucha Sharma of Daily News and Analysis called it a "brilliant album" and "one of the best so far for the year 2015".
## Marketing and release
NH10 was screened at the Beijing International Film Festival. India's Central Board of Film Certification removed some scenes and dialogues in the film; Singh expressed his disappointment over the censorship and said, "words can be violent and deleting them reduced that impact besides diluting the flavour". The film's original release date was 6 March, but its release was postponed to 13 March because it had not been cleared by the censor board. It was cleared with an "A (adult only)" certificate and had nine cuts. The first look of the film, which showed Sharma bruised and holding a rod, was released on 4 February 2015 via Sharma's twitter account. It was followed by a motion poster.
The official trailer of NH10 was released on 5 February 2015 at a suburban multiplex in Mumbai in the presence of the cast and producers. It accrued a million views in 48 hours on its YouTube channel. Before the film's release, several film distributors and exhibitors predicted it would recover its production costs, depending on the content. NH10 received its theatrical release on 13 March 2015. The film was premiered at television on 31 October 2015 on & Pictures. It was released on DVD on 25 April 2015 and is also available on ZEE5.
## Reception
### Critical reception
NH10 received highly positive reviews from critics, with particular praise directed towards Sharma's performance. Anubhav Parsheera of India Today called NH10 a "gripping" film that "provides a rare perspective of the female". Others called it "a non-stop, relentless, edge-of-the-seat experience" and a "taut and riveting thriller [that was] eminently watchable". Rajeev Masand wrote that the film is a "standard genre movie on the surface" with layers of "rich subtext" that delivers "so much more than your average thriller". He also complimented Sharma's performance, saying she "sinks her teeth into the character". Saurabh Dwivedi of India Today labelled the film "a very important film of today's times" and a "cry of protest against patriarchy".
Srijana Mitra Das of The Times of India gave a positive response, saying, "It's easy to hate NH10 while watching it because it's one of the most terrifying Hindi films ever—while simultaneously, you love its brilliance". Anupama Chopra said the film keeps you at the edge of your seat. She praised the supporting cast and Sharma, writing: "NH10 rests on the able shoulders of Sharma, who doesn’t hit a false note". Raja Sen gave a positive response and called it a "strikingly believable horror film" and a "far scarier and more socially impactful film than anything slasher has a right to be". Mihir Fadnavis of Firstpost praised Sharma's performance, calling it "terrific" and the film a "gripping and entertaining thriller".
Contrasting with the highly positive reviews, Shubhra Gupta wrote that Sharma's character was not believable; "Meera, dragging a sharp bhala on the ground, with the soundtrack helpfully amplifying the sound, does not leave me cheering". Faiza S Khan of The Guardian called the film "a misogynistic slasher movie with a topical twist". Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times stated that the film's second half "lacks the same fluidity and penetration power" as the first half, saying,"NH10 displays a great potential and then fails to capitalise on it". Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com called the film a "compelling thriller" but said the climax is a "letdown". Deepanjana Pal wrote that the film has stereotypical rural characters, but praised Sharma's performance, writing, "NH10 was not an easy film to make and it isn't an easy film to watch, but give it five minutes, and it will suck you into its menace-riddled story".
### Box office
NH10 was made on a production budget of ₹80 million (US\$1.0 million) with ₹50 million (US\$630,000) spent on prints and advertising, totalling ₹130 million (US\$1.6 million). It earned ₹33.5 million (US\$420,000) on its opening day, followed by a collection of ₹45.0 million (US\$560,000) on the second day, making ₹78.5 million (US\$980,000) over two days. The film earned ₹130 million (US\$1.6 million) on its opening weekend. It had earned ₹284 million (US\$3.6 million) at the end of second week. NH10 earned ₹7.4 million (US\$93,000) on the Saturday and ₹8.9 million (US\$110,000) on the Sunday of its third weekend, making a domestic total of ₹306 million (US\$3.8 million). The film collected ₹330 million (US\$4.1 million) in its entire theatrical run, emerging as a sleeper hit.
## Sequel and remake
After the film's critical and commercial success, the producers of NH10 confirmed they would be making a sequel named NH12, which will explore a similar theme. As of June 2018, NH10 was being remade in the Tamil language with the title Garjanai and starring Trisha in the lead role. However, the film was never released.
## Awards and nominations |
64,683 | Maurice (emperor) | 1,173,531,644 | Byzantine emperor from 582 to 602 | [
"539 births",
"602 deaths",
"6th-century Byzantine emperors",
"6th-century Byzantine writers",
"7th-century Byzantine emperors",
"7th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire",
"7th-century murdered monarchs",
"Ancient Greek military writers",
"Byzantine Cappadocians",
"Comites excubitorum",
"Executed Byzantine people",
"Executed monarchs",
"Justinian dynasty",
"Magistri militum",
"Maurice (emperor)",
"Patricii",
"People executed by decapitation",
"People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars",
"Roman military writers"
]
| Maurice (Latin: Mauricius; Greek: Μαυρίκιος, translit. Maurikios; 539 – 27 November 602) was Byzantine emperor from 582 to 602 and the last member of the Justinian dynasty. A successful general, Maurice was chosen as heir and son-in-law by his predecessor Tiberius II.
Maurice's reign was troubled by almost constant warfare. After he became emperor, he brought the war with Sasanian Persia to a victorious conclusion. The empire's eastern border in the South Caucasus was vastly expanded and, for the first time in nearly two centuries, the Romans were no longer obliged to pay the Persians thousands of pounds of gold annually for peace.
Afterward, Maurice campaigned extensively in the Balkans against the Avars—pushing them back across the Danube by 599. He also conducted campaigns across the Danube, the first Roman emperor to do so in over two centuries. In the west, he established two large semi-autonomous provinces called exarchates, ruled by exarchs, or viceroys of the emperor. In Italy Maurice established the Exarchate of Italy in 584, the first real effort by the empire to halt the advance of the Lombards. With the creation of the Exarchate of Africa in 591 he further solidified the power of Constantinople in the western Mediterranean.
Maurice's successes on battlefields and in foreign policy were counterbalanced by mounting financial difficulties of the empire. Maurice responded with several unpopular measures which alienated both the army and the general populace. In 602, a dissatisfied officer named Phocas usurped the throne, having Maurice and his six sons executed. This event would prove a disaster for the empire, sparking a twenty-six-year war with Sassanid Persia which would leave both empires devastated prior to the Muslim conquests.
Maurice's reign is a relatively well-documented era of late antiquity, in particular by the historian Theophylact Simocatta. The Strategikon, a manual of war which influenced European and Middle Eastern military traditions for well over a millennium, is traditionally attributed to Maurice.
## Life
### Origins and early life
Maurice was born in Arabissus in Cappadocia in 539. His father was Paul. He had one brother, Peter, and two sisters, Theoctista and Gordia, the latter of whom was later the wife of the general Philippicus. He is recorded to have been a native Greek speaker, unlike the previous emperors since Anastasius I Dicorus. Sources conflict over his birthplace, with Evagrius Scholasticus recording a descent from “elder Rome”, while the majority of other sources call him a native Cappadocian Greek and the first emperor "from the race of the Greeks".
Maurice first came to Constantinople as a notarius to serve as secretary to Tiberius, the comes excubitorum (commander of the Excubitors, the imperial bodyguard). When Tiberius was named Caesar in 574, Maurice was appointed to succeed him as comes excubitorum.
### Persian War and accession to the throne
In late 577, despite a complete lack of military experience, Maurice was named as magister militum per Orientem, effectively commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army in the east. He succeeded General Justinian in the ongoing war against Sassanid Persia. At about the same time he was raised to the rank of patrikios, the empire's senior honorific title, which was limited to a small number of holders.
In 578, a truce in Mesopotamia came to an end and the main focus of the war shifted to that front. After Persian raids in Mesopotamia, Maurice mounted attacks on both sides of the Tigris, captured the fortress of Aphumon and sacked Singara. Sassanid emperor Khosrow sought peace in 579, but died before an agreement could be reached and his successor Hormizd IV (r. 579–590) broke off the negotiations. In 580, Byzantium's Arab allies the Ghassanids scored a victory over the Lakhmids, Arab allies of the Sassanids, while Byzantine raids again penetrated east of the Tigris. Around this time the future Khosrow II was put in charge of the situation in Armenia, where he succeeded in convincing most of the rebel leaders to return to Sassanid allegiance, although Iberia remained loyal to the Byzantines.
The following year an ambitious campaign by Maurice, supported by Ghassanid forces under al-Mundhir III, targeted Ctesiphon, the Sassanid capital. The combined force moved south along the river Euphrates accompanied by a fleet of ships. The army stormed the fortress of Anatha and moved on until it reached the region of Beth Aramaye in central Mesopotamia, near Ctesiphon. There they found the bridge over the Euphrates destroyed by the Persians.
In response to Maurice's advance, Sassanid general Adarmahan was ordered to operate in northern Mesopotamia, threatening the Roman army's supply line. Adarmahan pillaged Osrhoene, and was successful in capturing its capital, Edessa. He then marched his army toward Callinicum on the Euphrates. With the possibility of a march to Ctesiphon gone Maurice was forced to retreat. The retreat was arduous for the tired army, and Maurice and al-Mundhir exchanged recriminations for the expedition's failure. However, they cooperated in forcing Adarmahan to withdraw, and defeated him at Callinicum.
The mutual recriminations were not laid to rest by this. Despite his successes, al-Mundhir was accused by Maurice of treason during the preceding campaign. Maurice claimed that al-Mundhir had revealed the Byzantine plan to the Persians, who then proceeded to destroy the bridge over the Euphrates. The chronicler John of Ephesus explicitly calls this assertion a lie, as the Byzantine intentions must have been plain to the Persian commanders.
Both Maurice and al-Mundhir wrote letters to Emperor Tiberius, who tried to reconcile them. Maurice visited Constantinople himself, where he was able to persuade Tiberius of al-Mundhir's guilt. The charge of treason is almost universally dismissed by modern historians; Irfan Shahîd says that it probably had more to do with Maurice's dislike of the veteran and militarily successful Arab ruler. This was compounded by the Byzantines' habitual distrust of the "barbarian" and supposedly innately traitorous Arabs, as well as by al-Mundhir's staunchly Monophysite faith. Al-Mundhir was arrested the following year on suspicion of treachery, triggering war between Byzantines and Ghassanids and marking the beginning of the end of the Ghassanid kingdom.
In June of 582 Maurice scored a decisive victory against Adarmahan near Constantina. Adarmahan barely escaped the field, while his co-commander Tamkhosrau was killed. In the same month Emperor Tiberius was struck down by an illness which shortly thereafter killed him. In this state Tiberius initially named two heirs, each of whom was to marry one of his daughters. Maurice was betrothed to Constantina, and Germanus, related through blood to the great emperor Justinian I, was married to Charito. It appears that the plan was to divide the empire in two, with Maurice receiving the eastern provinces and Germanus the western.
According to John of Nikiû, Germanus was Tiberius' favored candidate for the throne but declined out of humility. On 5 August, Tiberius was on his deathbed and civilian, military and ecclesiastical dignitaries awaited the appointment of his successor. He then chose Maurice and named him Caesar, after which he adopted the name "Tiberius". Maurice was crowned emperor soon after, on 13 August. Tiberius had reportedly prepared a speech on the matter but at this point was too weak to speak. The quaestor sacri palatii (the senior judicial official of the empire) read it for him. The speech proclaimed Maurice as Augustus and sole successor to the throne. On 14 August 582 Tiberius died and his last words were spoken to his successor: "Let my sovereignty be delivered to thee with this girl. Be happy in the use of it, mindful always to love equity and justice." Maurice became sole emperor, marrying Constantina in the autumn.
Shortly after his ascension the advantage he had gained at the Battle of Constantina was lost when his successor as magister militum of the east, John Mystacon, was defeated at the River Nymphios by Kardarigan. The situation was difficult: Maurice ruled a bankrupt Empire; it was at war with Persia; he was paying extremely high tribute to the Avars, 80,000 gold solidi a year; and the Balkan provinces were being thoroughly devastated by the Slavs.
Maurice had to continue the war against the Persians. In 586 his troops defeated them at the Battle of Solachon south of Dara. In 588, a mutiny by unpaid Byzantine troops against their new commander, Priscus, seemed to offer the Sassanids a chance for a breakthrough, but the mutineers themselves repulsed the ensuing Persian offensive. Later in the year they secured a major victory before Martyropolis. The Sassanid commander, Maruzas, was killed, several of the Persian leaders were captured along with 3,000 other prisoners, and only a thousand men survived to reach refuge at Nisibis. The Byzantines secured much booty, including the Persian battle standards, and sent them, along with Maruzas' head, to Maurice in Constantinople.
In 590, two Parthian brothers, Vistahm and Vinduyih, overthrew King Hormizd IV and made the latter's son, Prince Khosrow II, the new king. The former Persian commander-in-chief, Bahram Chobin, who had rebelled against Hormizd IV, claimed the throne for himself and defeated Khosrow. Khosrow and the two Parthians fled to the Byzantine court. Although the Senate unanimously advised against it, Maurice helped Khosrow regain his throne with an army of 35,000 men. In 591 the combined Byzantine-Persian army under generals John Mystacon and Narses defeated Bahram Chobin's forces near Ganzak at the Battle of the Blarathon. The victory was decisive; Maurice finally brought the war to a successful conclusion with the re-accession of Khosrow.
Subsequently, Khosrow was adopted by the emperor in order to seal their alliance. The adoption was made through a rite of adoptio per arma, which ordinarily assumed the Christian character of its partakers. However, the chief Byzantine bishops, "despite their best attempts", failed to convert Khosrow. Khosrow rewarded Maurice by ceding to the empire western Armenia up to the lakes Van and Sevan, including the large cities of Martyropolis, Tigranokert, Manzikert, Ani, and Yerevan. Maurice's treaty brought a new status-quo to the east territorially. Byzantium was enlarged to an extent never before achieved by the empire. During the new "perpetual peace" millions of solidi were saved by the remission of tribute to the Persians.
### Balkan war
The Avars arrived in the Carpathian Basin in 568. Almost immediately they launched an attack on Sirmium, the keystone to the Byzantine defences on the Danube, but were repulsed. They then sent 10,000 Kotrigur Huns to invade the Byzantine province of Dalmatia. There followed a period of consolidation, during which the Byzantines paid them 80,000 gold solidi a year. In 579, his treasury empty, Tiberius II stopped the payments.
The Avars retaliated with another siege of Sirmium. The city fell in 581. After the capture of Sirmium, the Avars demanded 100,000 solidi a year. Refused, they used the strategically important city as a base of operations against several poorly defended forts along the Danube and began pillaging the northern and eastern Balkans. The Slavs began settling the land from the 580s on.
In 584, the Slavs threatened the capital and in 586 the Avars besieged Thessalonica, while the Slavs went as far as the Peloponnese. After his victory on the eastern frontier in 591, Maurice was free to focus on the Balkans. He launched several campaigns against the Slavs and Avars. In 592 his troops retook Singidunum (modern Belgrade) from the Avars. His commander-in-chief Priscus defeated the Slavs, Avars and Gepids south of the Danube in 593. The same year he crossed the Danube into modern-day Wallachia to continue his series of victories. In 594, Maurice replaced Priscus with his rather inexperienced brother Peter, who, despite initial failures, scored another victory in Wallachia. Priscus, now in command of another army further upstream, defeated the Avars again in 595. The latter now only dared to attack peripherally, in Dalmatia two years later. In the same year the Byzantines concluded a peace treaty with the Avar leader Bayan I, which allowed the Byzantines to send expeditions into Wallachia.
In 598, Maurice broke the treaty to permit a retaliation campaign inside the Avar homeland. In 599 and 601 the Byzantine forces wreaked havoc amongst the Avars and Gepids. In 602, the Slavs suffered a crushing defeat in Wallachia. The Byzantine troops were now able to hold the Danube line again. Meanwhile, Maurice was making plans for repopulating devastated areas in the Balkans by using Armenian settlers. Maurice also planned to lead further campaigns against the Avar Khaganate, so as to either destroy them or force them into submission.
### Domestic policy
In the west, Maurice organised the threatened Byzantine dominions in Italy into the Exarchate of Italy. The Late Roman administrative system provided for a clear distinction between civil and military offices, primarily to lessen the possibility of rebellion by over-powerful provincial governors. In 584, Maurice created the office of exarch, which combined the supreme civil authority of a praetorian prefect and the military authority of a magister militum and enjoyed considerable autonomy from Constantinople. The Exarchate was successful in slowing the Lombard advance in Italy. In 591, he created a second Exarchate in Byzantine North Africa, along similar lines.
In 597, an ailing Maurice wrote his last will, in which he described his ideas of governing the empire. His eldest son, Theodosius, would rule the eastern provinces from Constantinople; his second son, Tiberius, would rule the western exarchates from Rome. Some historians believe he intended for his younger sons to rule from Alexandria, Carthage, and Antioch. His intent was to maintain the unity of the empire; this idea bears a strong resemblance to the Tetrarchy of Diocletian. However, Maurice's violent death prevented these plans from coming to fruition.
In religious matters, Maurice was tolerant towards Monophysitism, although he was a supporter of the Council of Chalcedon. He clashed with Pope Gregory I over the latter's defence of Rome against the Lombards.
Maurice's efforts to consolidate the empire slowly but steadily succeeded, especially after the peace with Persia. His initial popularity apparently declined during his reign, mostly because of his fiscal policies. In 588 he announced a cut in military wages by a quarter, leading to a serious mutiny by troops on the Persian front. He refused to pay a small ransom in 599 or 600 to free 12,000 Byzantine soldiers taken prisoner by the Avars. The prisoners were killed, and a protesting military delegation, headed by an officer named Phocas, was humiliated and rejected in Constantinople.
## Family
Maurice's marriage produced nine known children:
- Theodosius (4 August 583/585 – after 27 November 602). According to John of Ephesus, he was the first heir born to a reigning emperor since the reign of Theodosius II (408–450). He was appointed Caesar in 587 and co-emperor on 26 March 590.
- Tiberius (died 27 November 602)
- Petrus (died 27 November 602)
- Paulus (died 27 November 602)
- Justin (died 27 November 602)
- Justinian (died 27 November 602)
- Anastasia (died c. 605)
- Theoctista (died c. 605)
- Cleopatra (died c. 605)
A daughter, Miriam/Maria, is recorded by the 12th-century chronicler Michael the Syrian and other eastern sources as married to Khosrow II but not in any Byzantine Greek ones; she is probably legendary.
His brother Petrus (c. 550 – 602) became the curopalates and was killed at the same time as Maurice. Petrus married Anastasia Aerobinda (born c. 570), daughter of Areobindus (born c. 550), and had female issue. Maurice's nephew Domitian of Melitene was probably a son of Petrus.
## Death
In 602, Maurice, with the lack of money as always dictating policy, decreed that the army should stay for winter beyond the Danube. The exhausted troops mutinied against the emperor. Probably misjudging the situation, Maurice repeatedly ordered his troops to start a new offensive rather than return to winter quarters. His troops gained the impression that Maurice no longer understood the military situation and proclaimed Phocas their leader. They demanded that Maurice abdicate and proclaim as successor either his son Theodosius or General Germanus. Both men were accused of treason. As riots broke out in Constantinople, the emperor, taking his family with him, left the city on a warship heading to Nicomedia, while Theodosius headed east to Persia (historians are not sure whether he had been sent there by his father or if he fled there). Phocas entered Constantinople in November and was crowned emperor. His troops captured Maurice and his family and brought them to the Harbor of Eutropius at Chalcedon.
Maurice was murdered at the harbor of Eutropius on 27 November 602. The deposed emperor was forced to watch his five younger sons executed before he was beheaded himself.
Empress Constantina and her three daughters were temporarily spared and sent to a monastery. The palace eunuch Scholasticus aided their escape to St. Sophia, but the church turned them over to Phocas, who sent them back to the monastery. A few years later, they were all executed at the harbor of Eutropius when Constantina was found guilty of a conspiracy against Phocas. The entire family of Maurice and Constantina was buried at the monastery of St. Mamas or Nea Metanoia that had been founded by Maurice's sister Gordia. The Persian king Khosrow II used this coup and the murder of his patron as an excuse for a renewed war against the empire.
## Legacy
### Assessment
Maurice is seen as an able emperor and commander-in-chief, though the description of him by Theophylact may exaggerate these traits. He possessed insight, public spirit, and courage. He proved his expertise on military and foreign affairs during his campaigns against the Persians, Avars and Slavs, and during peace negotiations with Khosrow II. His administrative reforms reveal him as a farsighted statesman, all the more since they outlasted his death by centuries and were the basis for the later introduction of themes as military districts.
His court still used Latin, as did the army and administration, and he promoted science and the arts. Maurice is traditionally named as author of the military treatise Strategikon, which is praised in military circles as the only sophisticated combined arms theory until World War II. Some historians now believe the Strategikon is the work of his brother or another general in his court, however.
His greatest weakness was his inability to judge how unpopular his decisions were. The historian C. W. Previté-Orton, listed a number of character flaws in the emperor's personality:
> His fault was too much faith in his own excellent judgment without regard to the disagreement and unpopularity which he provoked by decisions in themselves right and wise. He was a better judge of policy than of men.
It was this flaw that cost him throne and life, and thwarted most of his efforts to prevent the disintegration of the empire of Justinian I. The death of Maurice was a turning point. The war against Persia which it caused weakened both empires, enabling the Slavs to permanently settle the Balkans and paving the way for the Arab-Muslim expansion.
Historian A. H. M. Jones characterises the death of Maurice as the end of the era of Classical Antiquity, as the turmoil that shattered the empire over the next four decades permanently and thoroughly changed society and politics.
### Legends
The first legendary accounts of Maurice's life are recorded in the ninth century, in the work of the Byzantine historian Theophanes the Confessor. According to his chronicle Chronographia, the death of the imperial family is due to divine intervention: Christ asked the emperor to choose between a long reign or death and acceptance in the kingdom of heaven. Maurice preferred the second choice.
The same story has been recorded in a short Syriac hagiography on the life of the emperor. It is of East Syrian origin. This was later sanctified by the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to the Syriac author, the emperor asked in prayer to receive a punishment in this world and a "perfect reward" in the kingdom of heaven. The choice was offered by an angel. Anthony Alcock has published an English translation.
According to another legend in the same text, Maurice prevented a nurse from substituting one of his sons so as to save at least one of the heirs of the empire.
In a Montenegrin epic the legendary Prince Nahod Momir (Momir the foundling) and his sister Grozdana are related to the Emperor and his sister Gordia. In the epic, the epithet "the foundling" reflects Maurice's adoption by the Emperor Tiberius, and by the imperial dynasty of Justin. In the Bosnian epic, the Emperor is called Mouio Tcarevitch (Mouio the son of the emperor).
## See also
- List of Byzantine emperors |
66,068,061 | Thomas Hawkes Nash III | 1,133,579,008 | American lichenologist | [
"1945 births",
"Acharius Medal recipients",
"American botanists",
"American lichenologists",
"American taxonomists",
"Arizona State University faculty",
"Duke University alumni",
"Living people",
"People from Arlington County, Virginia",
"Rutgers University alumni"
]
| Thomas Hawkes Nash III (born November 13, 1945) is an American lichenologist. His research is about the biology and ecology of lichens, and the effects of air pollution on plants and lichens. He is known as an authority on the family Parmeliaceae. During his long career at the Arizona State University, he helped develop the lichen herbarium into a world-class collection with over 100,000 specimens representing more than 5000 species. In 2010, the year of his retirement, he was awarded the Acharius Medal for lifetime achievements in lichenology, and the following year had a Festschrift published in his honor.
## Biography
Nash was born in Arlington, Virginia, in 1945. He received a B.Sc. from Duke University in 1967. It was around this time that he was introduced to lichens by ecologist Larry Bliss; he would later take an advanced undergraduate class on lichens given by William Culberson, and a lichenology summer course given by Mason Hale. Nash later went on to earn an M.Sc. (1969, botany) and Ph.D. (1971, botany and statistics) from Rutgers University, under the supervision of ecologist Murray Fife Buell. His Ph.D. thesis, titled Effect of Effluents from a Zinc Factory on Lichens, was later published in the journal Ecological Monographs.
Shortly after graduation, he accepted an assistant professorship from Arizona State University in Tempe, where he has spent much of his scientific career. He was promoted to associate professor of botany in 1976, and became a full professor with this institution in 1981. He taught courses in ecology, lichenology, statistics, and, on one occasion, bryology. Nash retired from Arizona State University in 2010. For thirty years Nash and his students investigated Southern California's lichen communities and used them as biomonitors of air quality in the Los Angeles air basin. After his retirement, Nash volunteered with the Wisconsin State Herbarium at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Nash has developed a collection of over 110,000 lichen samples for the Arizona State University herbarium, for which he was the curator; about 40,000 of these were collected by Nash himself during his nearly four decades at Arizona State University. The collection features about 450 type specimens, and is represented by about 5,500 different species – about one-quarter of the known lichen species in the world. It is among the ten largest collections of lichens in the United States. His research is largely focused on the biology of lichens and the effects of air pollution on plants. He uses an interdisciplinary approach to research, and the topics of his research publications include ecophysiology, ecology, taxonomy, floristics, and biomonitoring. He developed an interest in lichen physiology after working for a while with Otto Ludwig Lange at the University of Würzburg. Nash's interest in taxonomy developed with his work on the flora of the southwestern United States, and he is considered a leading expert in the family Parmeliaceae, particularly the genera Hypotrachyna and Xanthoparmelia.
Major works by Nash include a revision of Xanthoparmelia species in South America, a monograph on Hypotrachyna for the journal Flora Neotropica, and a three-volume set on the lichen flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert. The latter project, funded by the National Science Foundation, was a large collaborative work involving more than 90 scientists from 23 countries. Taking almost 18 years to complete, much of the effort was taken up through numerous field trips to hundreds of localities throughout the region. As a result, this work, which covers almost 2,000 species – about 40% of the lichens known in North America – is considered an "authoritative taxonomic treatment" that "profoundly increased the understanding of the lichen biodiversity of the Sonoran Desert and surrounding environs". These collecting expeditions resulted in the discovery of about 175 species new to science.
In 2008, Nash was the chair of the organizing committee for the sixth International Lichenological Symposium, which was held at the Asilomar Conference Grounds in Monterey, California. As of 2011, Nash had mentored 30 graduate students (19 Ph.D. and 11 Masters), and authored or co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed scientific publications.
### Personal
Thomas Nash is married to Corinna Gries, who is a professional in biodiversity informatics. She was a researcher in the Long Term Ecological Research Network in Arizona, and later at the University of Wisconsin.
## Memberships and awards
Nash was secretary of the International Association for Lichenology in the years 1971–1977, and the president of the American Bryological and Lichenological Society from 1981 to 1983. He was an associate editor for the scientific journal Bibliotheca Lichenologica from 1996 to 2008, and a member of several scientific societies: the American Institute of Biological Sciences, the Ecological Society of America, the Organization for Tropical Studies, and Sigma Xi.
Nash has been a Fulbright scholar, a fellow of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, and thrice an Alexander von Humboldt fellow.
## Recognition
In 2010, Nash was awarded the Acharius Medal for lifetime achievements in lichenology. In 2011, he was honored with a Festschrift in the journal Bibliotheca Lichenologica. This volume, published on the occasion on his 65th birthday, contains 33 articles written by 70 authors.
### Eponymy
There are many lichen species that have been named in honor of Thomas Nash. These include:
Xanthoparmelia nashii Elix & J.Johnst. (1986); Tephromela nashii Kalb (1991); Lecanactis nashii Egea & Torrente (1992); Physcia nashii Moberg (1997); Usnea nashii P.Clerc & Herrera-Camp. (1997); Evicentia nashii Barreno (2000); Harpidium nashii Scheid. (2000); Caloplaca nashii Nav.-Ros., Gaya & Hladún (2001); Cladonia nashii Ahti (2002); Plectocarpon nashii Hafellner (2002); Toninia nashii Timdal (2002); Fusicladium nashicola K.Schub. & U.Braun (2003); Gyalectidium nashii Herrera-Camp. & Lücking (2003); Phaeophyscia nashii Essl. (2004); Buellia nashii Bungartz (2004); Fellhanera nashii van den Boom (2004); Lecanora nashii B.D.Ryan (2004); Lecidella nashiana Knoph & Leuckert (2004); Sticta nashii D.J.Galloway (2004); Aspicilia nashii Owe-Larss. & A.Nordin (2007); Tremella nashii Diederich (2007); Acarospora nashii K.Knudsen (2011); Buellia tomnashiana Giralt & van den Boom (2011); Caloplaca tomnashii S.Y.Kondr., Elix & Kärnefelt 2011); Bulbothrix thomasiana Benatti & Marcelli (2011); Niebla nashii Sipman (2011); Canoparmelia nashii Jungbluth & Marcelli (2011); Punctelia nashii Marcelli & Canêz (2011); Lobariella nashii Moncada & Lücking (2013). The genus Trinathotrema Lücking, Rivas Plata & Mangold (2011) (family Stictidaceae) also honors Nash; it is constructed from parts of his name: tho from Thomas, na from Nash and tri referring to III. Tomnashia S.Y.Kondr. & Hur (2017) (family Teloschistaceae) is another generic eponym.
## Selected publications
A comprehensive list of Nash's publication from the period 1971 to 2010 is given in Bates and colleagues' 2011 Festschrift. Some representative publications include:
Books
- (reprinted in 2008)
Articles
## See also
- :Category:Taxa named by Thomas Hawkes Nash III |
15,219,445 | Japanese aircraft carrier Shin'yō | 1,162,113,738 | Escort carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy | [
"1934 ships",
"Escort carriers of the Imperial Japanese Navy",
"Maritime incidents in November 1944",
"Ships built in Bremen (state)",
"Ships sunk by American submarines",
"Turbo-electric steamships",
"World War II escort carriers of Japan",
"World War II shipwrecks in the Yellow Sea"
]
| Shin'yō (神鷹) "Divine Hawk") was an escort carrier operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy, converted from the German ocean liner Scharnhorst. The liner had been trapped in Kure, Japan following the outbreak of World War II in Europe, which prevented any attempt for the ship to return to Germany. The Japanese Navy then purchased the ship, and after the Battle of Midway in June 1942, decided to convert her into an aircraft carrier. Conversion work lasted from 1942 to late 1943, and Shin'yō was commissioned into the Japanese Navy in November 1943. After entering service, Shin'yō was employed as a convoy escort in the western Pacific. She served in this capacity for less than a year; in November 1944, the US submarine Spadefish torpedoed Shin'yō while she was en route to Singapore. As many as four torpedoes hit the ship and detonated her aviation fuel tanks. The resulting explosion destroyed the ship and killed most of her crew.
## Background and conversion
Scharnhorst was a passenger ship operated by Norddeutscher Lloyd in the 1930s. She was trapped in Japan after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939. The Japanese Navy purchased the ship on 7 February 1942, under the agreement they would pay Norddeutscher Lloyd twice the value of the ship after the end of the war. The ship was intended for use as a troop ship, but after the Japanese defeat at the Battle of Midway, the Navy decided to convert her into an escort carrier.
Conversion work on Scharnhorst began in September 1942 in the Kure Navy Dockyard. Steel from the uncompleted hull of the canceled fourth Yamato-class battleship was used in the conversion process. Work lasted until December 1943, and the rebuilt ship was commissioned into the Japanese Navy on 15 December 1943. Scharnhorst's design was similar to the Japanese passenger liners of the Nitta Maru class, which were also converted into the Taiyō-class escort carriers, so her conversion followed a similar plan. The main differences were retention of the original propulsion machinery, and addition of external bulges which helped increase stability.
## Characteristics
As rebuilt, Shin'yō was 606 ft 11 in (184.99 m) long between perpendiculars and 621 ft 3 in (189.36 m) overall. She had a beam of 84 ft (26 m) and a draft of 26 ft 10 in (8.18 m). A 590.5 by 80.5 ft (180.0 by 24.5 m) flight deck was installed, along with a pair of elevators and a single large hangar. This arrangement allowed for 27 combat aircraft and six spare airframes, for a total of 33 aircraft.
The ship was powered by a pair of geared turbines that were supplied with steam by four boilers. The propulsion system produced 26,000 shaft horsepower (19,000 kW) and a top speed of 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph). At a speed of 19 kn (35 km/h; 22 mph), the ship could steam for approximately 9,000 nautical miles (17,000 km; 10,000 mi). The original high-pressure, high-temperature, oil-fired boilers proved to be highly problematic and so the Japanese replaced them shortly after Shin'yō was completed. Steering was controlled by a single rudder.
Shin'yō was armed with eight 127 mm (5 in) Type 89 dual-purpose guns in four twin mounts. She also carried thirty 25 mm (1 in) Type 96 anti-aircraft guns in ten triple mounts. Later, twelve additional 25 mm guns in single mounts were added. When Shin'yō was refitted in July 1944, eight more 25 mm guns were added, bringing the total to fifty.
## Service history
On 1 November 1943, Shin'yō was readied for sea trials and ran a shake-down cruise. The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 15 November 1943, and was subsequently assigned to the Grand Escort Command on 20 December. For the first six months of 1944, the ship conducted training maneuvers in the Home Islands. On 13 July 1944, she escorted the convoy Hi-69, including the escort carriers Taiyō and Kaiyō, which were carrying additional aircraft for the Philippines. Shin'yō was tasked with providing aerial cover for the convoy. The convoy arrived on 20 July; on 25 July, Shin'yō left with another convoy, bound for Singapore. The ship arrived on 31 July, and departed again four days later with the convoy Hi-70. The convoy consisted of eight transports, headed for Moji; Shin'yō was joined by a pair of light cruisers and several smaller craft. The convoy arrived on 15 August, while Shin'yō put in at Kure the following day.
On 8 September, Shin'yō escorted the convoy Hi-75, consisting of nine transports and several destroyers and smaller craft, bound for Singapore. On 13 September, the convoy stopped briefly in Takao, Formosa, before departing later that day. The convoy arrived on 22 September. Another convoy, Hi-76, left Singapore for Moji on 3 October, with Shin'yō and several destroyers escorting it. The convoy temporarily stopped in Mihara on 19–20 October; on 22 October, Shin'yō departed from the convoy and proceeded to the Saiki airbase, arriving on 24 October. The following day, she left for Kure. While there, she replenished fuel and supplies. On 7 November, she was ordered to cover the return of the carrier Jun'yō.
On 9 November, she was assigned to convoy Hi-81, carrying aircraft for the Philippines. Fourteen B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers were assigned to the ship for the operation. The convoy left Japan on 14 November. The escort consisted of six destroyers, protecting seven troopships carrying an army division and a tanker. On 15 November, while in the East China Sea, a US submarine sank one of the transports; two days later, another transport was sunk and the tanker was damaged. Later that night, Shin'yō was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine USS Spadefish. The submarine hit her with as many as four torpedoes in quick succession. The carrier's unarmored fuel tanks exploded and started a massive fire that destroyed the ship and killed most of her crew. Only 70 men from her crew of 1,200 officers and men survived. Shin'yō quickly sank stern first. Spadefish attempted to attack the convoy again, but was driven off by the escorts. Shin'yō was formally stricken from the naval register on 10 January 1945. |
2,215,034 | Ike's Wee Wee | 1,172,885,045 | null | [
"1998 American television episodes",
"American television episodes about cannabis",
"Circumcision",
"Jewish comedy and humor",
"South Park (season 2) episodes",
"Television episodes about Jews and Judaism",
"Television episodes about drugs",
"Television episodes about termination of employment",
"Television episodes set in Nebraska",
"Works about brothers"
]
| "Ike's Wee Wee" is the third episode of the second season of the American animated television series South Park. The 16th episode of the series overall, it first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on May 20, 1998. In the episode, school counselor Mr. Mackey is fired, and turns to drugs. Meanwhile, the boys misconstrue what circumcision entails, and try to save Kyle's younger brother Ike from his upcoming bris.
The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker. "Ike's Wee Wee" satirizes certain attitudes towards drug users, and explores whether family can only mean those who are related by blood. This episode introduced Ike's backstory as an adopted Canadian child. "Ike's Wee Wee" received positive responses from critics, who especially praised the episode for its touching moments.
## Plot
Mr. Mackey, the school counselor, is giving a drug and alcohol prevention lecture to the class, emphasizing that smoking, drinking, marijuana and LSD are bad. He passes a sample of marijuana around the class so that the children can learn its smell, but it is never returned (it's later revealed that Mr. Garrison stole it, as he is seen watching Teletubbies while high). As a result, Mr. Mackey is fired and later kicked out of his house, leaving him homeless. A desperate Mackey gives in to trying marijuana one night in an alley, and later LSD. Soon enough, Mr. Mackey becomes a drug-addled hippie and meets a female hippie, with whom he decides to get married. While on honeymoon in India, Mr. Mackey is captured and taken into rehab. Mr. Mackey emerges clean from rehab and is given his job back.
Meanwhile, Kyle invites Stan, Cartman and Kenny to his younger brother Ike's bris. When they learn more about what a bris is, and misconstrue it as a party where they are going to cut off his penis, Kyle tries to find a way to hide his brother from his parents and the circumcision process. Kyle puts Ike on a train to Lincoln, Nebraska and makes an Ike-style doll out of meat bones in an attempt to not arouse his parents' suspicions. This backfires when the doll is mauled by a rabid dog that subsequently gets run over by a truck, which leads Kyle's parents to think that Ike is dead. At the funeral, Kyle finds out that Ike is not his biological brother, but was adopted from Canada due to the tombstone featuring the Canadian flag. Upon discovering this, Kyle declares that Ike is no longer his brother and reveals the truth to his shocked parents, who retrieve Ike from Nebraska. Kyle is so upset, that when Kenny falls into a gravesite and is crushed by a gravestone, Kyle flatly says his line "you bastards".
The day of the bris arrives, and Kyle is grounded for sending Ike away. When the mohel arrives to perform the bris, Ike flees to Kyle's room in terror. Seeing Ike in distress and some old pictures prompts a change of heart in Kyle, and he defends his brother fiercely before it is explained to him what a circumcision actually is, at which point Stan and Cartman decide they want to be circumcised too. They watch the process; even though the boys pass out momentarily, Kyle is relieved to see Ike unharmed. Furthermore, Kyle realizes that he considers his friends to be family too, except for Cartman, who subsequently decides that he doesn't want a circumcision after all.
## Production
"Ike's Wee Wee" was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker. The scene where Mr. Mackey loses the marijuana cigarette in class was inspired by a real event from Parker's life, where a counselor came into his class in seventh grade, and passed around a lit piece of marijuana, which then disappeared. At the beginning and end of the episode, there are scenes where the kids imitate Mr. Mackey's voice to him, while he is oblivious to the fact that he is being made fun of. Parker and his classmates used to do the same thing to their counselor in junior high school, who was the basis for Mr. Mackey's character. Parker said that he was especially proud of Chef's line, "There's a time and a place for everything, and it's called college", which is something Parker believes in, noting that if he had a child, he would tell him: "Do whatever you want, just wait till college because you don't know what the fuck's up right now." Chef's sentence would later return in the season four episode "The Tooth Fairy Tats 2000".
The episode introduced Ike's backstory as a Canadian child adopted by the Broflovskis. Ever since the recurring characters Terrance and Phillip were established to be Canadians in the season one finale "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", and the subsequent season two premiere "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus", all Canadian characters on South Park have shared the same simplistic design: having simple beady eyes and a floppy head made up of two halves. While Ike had been on the show since its first episode, the writers originally did not know that he was going to be Canadian; he was retroactively made one based on his visual similarity to Terrance and Phillip. Ike's backstory would play an important role in the film South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, which involves a fictional American–Canadian war, as well as in future episodes of the series, such as the season seven episode, "It's Christmas in Canada", in which Ike's biological parents take him away from the Broflovskis and bring him back to Canada.
"Ike's Wee Wee" features regular voice acting from series creators Parker and Matt Stone for most characters, Mary Kay Bergman (credited as Shannen Cassidy) for female characters, and Isaac Hayes for Chef. Additional dialogue was provided by South Park audio engineer Bruce Howell, while Ike's lines were uttered by Howell's then-five-year-old son Jesse.
## Themes
"Ike's Wee Wee" raises the question of who really can be considered one's family. At first, Kyle's implicit idea is that family consists of "those for whom we care that are related by blood". Based on this viewing of family, he no longer feels the need to help Ike when he learns that they are not related by blood. As the story progresses, Kyle questions his initial beliefs, and forms the episode's central moral by saying that "Family isn't about whose blood you have. It's about who you care about." Thus, Kyle's reformed view of family not only includes his adopted brother, but his friends as well. Kyle's questioning of his own morals has been likened to engaging in the dialectical Socratic method of inquiry.
The subplot of "Ike's Wee Wee" satirizes certain drug subcultures, as well as drug use, and societal attitudes towards drug users. The way the episode portrays Mr. Mackey's lack of real knowledge about drug use and addiction has been described as an example of South Park satirizing left-wing politics, when "they lead to the sort of hypocrisy inconsistent with a proper open society".
## Cultural references
Part of the episode revolves around the practice of religious male circumcision in Judaism, and the related ceremony called the brit milah or bris, and the boys' misunderstanding of the tradition. The boys believe that circumcision entails the cutting off of one's penis, which they refer to by the childish colloquial term "wee wee", except for Cartman, who insists on calling it "fireman". Cannabis is also referred to by various names, including weed, grass, pot, and marijuana, in which Mr. Mackey constantly pronounces the letter j as (as in jam), which makes Kyle mispronounce the drug as "marry-Jew wanna".
Drug use is often portrayed in conjunction with the hippie subculture, through hippie characters, such as the two teenagers that give LSD to Mackey, and the woman that he befriends and eventually marries. Jimbo and Cartman both use the term hippie pejoratively. During their argument, Jimbo tells Mackey that he should just go to a Grateful Dead concert, to which Mackey says he can't since Jerry Garcia is deceased. On two occasions, the episode shows people watching Teletubbies while high on marijuana or in rehab. In his drug prevention speech, Mackey claims that LSD was made famous by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, former members of The Beatles. Both Lennon and McCartney are known to have experimented with the drug.
While walking home, Mr. Mackey drunkenly sings the 1983 Pat Benatar song "Love Is a Battlefield". During Ike's supposed funeral, a bagpipe player starts playing the Hebrew folk song "Hava Nagila". At the funerals, the priest uses the phrase "Ashes to ashes, dust to dust", from the Anglican burial service. When the townspeople start to harass Mackey, one of them shouts, "Now we see what you and Homer Simpson have in common... Dope!". This references the famous catchphrase from The Simpsons, "D'oh!", which sounds similar to the word dope, meaning illicit drugs. At Kyle's house, Kyle's parents offer the boys a dish called "GaHekgafuga", which is not a real dish. When Mackey is in India, he is captured by members of The A-Team, and driven away in their van. Mackey is taken to rehabilitation to the Betty Ford Clinic, which is based on a real-life hospital.
A common plot device is referenced, where a shoulder angel (represents conscience) and a shoulder devil (representing temptation) appear near a character. This concept is spoofed in the episode, as both the devil and the angel suggest to Mackey that he should drink the beer. When Stan tells Kyle what he thinks a bris means, a dolly zoom is used, which is an unsettling filmmaking effect often used to show that a character is undergoing a major realization. The hallucinogenic effects of certain drugs are portrayed by different means. When inhaling cannabis, the alley that Mr. Mackey is in suddenly turns very colorful. After taking LSD, Mackey's head inflates like a giant balloon, and then literally detaches from his body, and floats away (the boys interact with Mackey by looking up at his head as it floats over them).
In the scene where the boys are talking to Chef, he leaves without answering the boys' sexual question, angrily saying, "Dammit, children, why do I always have to be the one to explain all this stuff to you. Ask your parents for once!". This is in reference to Chef's tendency to give advice to the boys. While the children are trying to think of what is the most important thing for a man, Cartman says "Ham?", to which Kyle angrily replies, "No, not ham, you fat fuck!". This exchange was used verbatim between Stan and Cartman in The Spirit of Christmas, the 1995 short film that was the precursor to South Park.
The scene in which the rabbi says to Kyle "and... his [Ike's] brother had it" (the circumcision) is a reference to the similar scene in Star Wars: Return of the Jedi in which Luke Skywalker tells Princess Leia that "and... his sister has it" (The Force)).
## Broadcast, reception, and impact
Two episodes preceded "Ike's Wee Wee" in the second season of the show. The episode scheduled for April 1, 1998 promised to resolve the cliffhanger ending of the first season finale, "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", regarding the identity of Cartman's father, but was in fact an April Fools' Day joke on the creators' part: "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus", an entire episode revolving around the two title characters. The April 1 episode was supposed to be a one-off, with the rest of the season starting in May. However, following overwhelmingly negative fan reaction, the episode resolving the Cartman's father storyline, "Cartman's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut", was moved from its planned May 20 air date to April 22. "Ike's Wee Wee" then started a six-episode run of the season when it was broadcast on Comedy Central in the United States on May 20, 1998.
"Ike's Wee Wee" was met with favorable reviews. Critics especially praised the episode for its touching moments, in contrast with the off-color humor often employed in the series. In his review of the episode in the Chicago Tribune, Allan Johnson praised the episode, especially in comparison with the first two episodes of the season, considering it to be one of the better episodes of the series. When the series reached its 100th episode in 2003, the same writer also listed "Ike's Wee Wee" as one of the "top 10 episodes that have made one of the most provocative comedies on TV". A review in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said that "n the midst of all this potty-mouthed humor, there are moments that are downright touching", and particularly highlighted the ending of "Ike's Wee Wee" as an example, explaining that "all's well in the end, and Kyle and the boys learn a lesson about family values that even Dan Quayle would approve of". In 2000, visitors of the Comedy Central website chose "Ike's Wee Wee" as their favorite episode during a voting called "South Park e-Lections", held around the time of the United States presidential election that year.
Mr. Mackey's line, "drugs are bad, m'kay?", has entered popular culture. The Eminem song, "The Kids" (which is featured on the B-side of the single "The Way I Am" and the clean version of The Marshall Mathers LP), is thematically about drug use, and makes numerous references to South Park and impressions of the show's characters, including an impression of Mr. Mackey's voice and the repetition of his line. The song "Hip Hop Quotables" by Ludacris, from his album Chicken-n-Beer, also contains the line. In 2008, the line was referenced in the dissenting opinion of a judge, in a case of the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Also, in a 2010 marijuana-related court case at the Maryland Court of Appeals, Judge Clayton Greene, Jr. referenced the episode in his dissenting opinion, calling Mr. Mackey's words "immortal". In 2011, during a judiciary committee hearing about a marijuana-related bill in Denver, Colorado, a representative showed off a potential packaging for edible marijuana products. According to a group called the Cannabis Therapy Institute, the label on the package, which bore the placeholder text, "Legal and governmentally approved statement describing that pot is bad, M-ok", was a reference to the South Park episode.
## Home media
"Ike's Wee Wee" was released on VHS in April 1999, along with the episode "Chickenlover", on a video titled South Park: Volume 8. The episode saw its first DVD release in December 1999, on a disc called South Park: Volume 4, which also included "Chickenlover", as well as "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut" and "Cartman's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut". South Park: The Complete Second Season was released on DVD on June 3, 2003. On these home releases, "Ike's Wee Wee" has a humorous introduction by series co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone, who are playing music to the elderly in a retirement home. Episodes of season two have also been released digitally, on services such as Amazon Video, the iTunes Store, and Xbox Live Marketplace. Like most episodes of South Park, "Ike's Wee Wee" is available to watch for free on the show's website, SouthParkStudios.com. |
7,123,421 | Greens Ledge Light | 1,170,235,991 | Lighthouse in Connecticut, U.S. (1902) | [
"Buildings and structures in Norwalk, Connecticut",
"Historic American Engineering Record in Connecticut",
"Lighthouses completed in 1902",
"Lighthouses in Fairfield County, Connecticut",
"Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut",
"National Register of Historic Places in Fairfield County, Connecticut"
]
| Greens Ledge Lighthouse (also known as Greens Ledge Light, or Rowayton Lighthouse) is a historic offshore lighthouse in the western Long Island Sound near Norwalk, Connecticut and Darien, Connecticut. It is one of 33 sparkplug lighthouses still in existence in the United States and remains an active aid to navigation. It sits in ten feet of water on the west end of Greens Ledge, a shallow underwater reef that runs a mile west of Sheffield Island and is roughly a mile south of the entrance to Five Mile River at Rowayton. Completed in 1902 by the Philadelphia Construction Company, the cast-iron structure is approximately 90 feet tall including roughly 15 feet of the submerged caisson. In 1933, more than 30,000 tons of rocks from the excavation of Radio City Music Hall were added to the riprap foundation. The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Greens Ledge Lighthouse on May 29, 1990.
In 2017, Greens Ledge was acquired from the US Government by the Greens Ledge Light Preservation Society, a 501(c)3 nonprofit organization established by a group of local residents with the mission of restoring and preserving the lighthouse. The acquisition was made through a founding donation by The Pettee Family and restoration began in June 2018 to address the critical structural deficiencies of the lighthouse.
## Design
In the 1890s, the lighthouse was first formally proposed to mark the Norwalk Harbor. In 1899, the United States Congress appropriated \$60,000 for the establishment of a light and fog signal at Greens Ledge. In 1900, the Philadelphia Construction Company was contracted to construct the foundation and the superstructure. The design for this type of lighthouse was first realized in 1873, from Major Eliiot of the Lighthouse Board. The foundation form is made of identical curved-iron plates with top inward-pointing flanges that are bolted together and secured with knees. The assembled rings are lowered into the water and filled with concrete or stone, concrete for the Greens Ledge Light. A series of photographs from the work in 1901 shows the assembly of the three lower courses at Wilson's Point, the lowering of the cylinder and the light in the fall of 1901 prior to a deposit of protective riprap.
The 52-foot (16 m) tall Greens Ledge Light was completed in 1902 and serves as a typical example of a sparkplug lighthouse. Located in 10 feet (3.0 m) of water, the foundation flares out to support the deck the lighthouse is built on and includes a cavity for the lighthouse's brick basement and cisterns. The four-story structure of the lighthouse is assembled from five courses of curved iron plates. The interior is lined with brick to insulate and strengthen the tower and to "provid[e] an anchorage for the winding cast-iron stairs which rise on the periphery of each story," writes historian Dorothy Templeton.
The plain prefabricated features underwent a period of development of which the Greens Ledge Light was part of a second phase. Templeton describes, "the brackets which support the watchroom gallery and covered deck [as having] a simplified classical detailing and [the] rectilinear window sashes are enclosed in shallower, plainer cast-iron surrounds." A deck encircles the light on above the first story, the watchroom and lantern. The original roofing and some cast-iron stanchions of the decks are able to be seen atop the riprap. The cast-iron door to the lighthouse faces south and at the time of nomination the windows were sealed with plywood. The first floor of the lighthouse serves as the kitchen. The second level has two rooms split by a partition with the smaller room being a bathroom. The third level was not divided, but did not have a description in the National Historic Register of Places survey. The fourth floor has six porthole windows and has had much of its woodwork removed and part of the cast-iron floor and brick wall are exposed. The lighthouse's lantern measures 7 feet (2.1 m) in diameter. Once active, the Sheffield Island Light was discontinued.
## Service
Originally, the light had a fifth-order Fresnel lens, but a fourth-order Fresnel lens was installed in May 1902, just three months into its operation. The light characteristic was a fixed white light with a red flash every 15 seconds. In 1972, the light was automated and the Fresnel lens was replaced with a modern optic. The light continues to serve as an active aid to navigation. In 1987, a FA-251 was installed before the current lens, a VRB-25 was installed. The current light characteristic is an alternating white and red flash every 24 seconds. The white and red flashes can be seen for 18 nautical miles and 15 nautical miles, respectably.
During its service, the tower began to tilt and the keepers moved all the furniture to one side of the tower. The problem was reported to have been exacerbated following the 1938 New England hurricane.
## Importance
The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Greens Ledge Lighthouse on May 29, 1990. It is listed as "significant as a typical example of a pre-fabricated cast-iron conical lighttower on a cast-iron tubular foundation."
The lighthouse served as a source of inspiration for Walter DuBois Richards, an artist, for over forty years. Since 1935, swimmers have been competing annually in the Arthur J. Ladrigan Swim Race, a one-mile (1.6 km) race from the lighthouse to Bayley Beach in the Rowayton section of Norwalk.
## List of keepers
This list includes known keepers, but excludes assistants and non-officers of the Coast Guard.
## Sold
In September 2016, Green's Ledge Light was put up for auction to the public. It was sold on September 15, 2016 for \$150,000 to The Pettee Family, the highest of 4 bidders. The Pettee Family donated the lighthouse to a newly founded 501(c)3 nonprofit, The Greens Ledge Light Preservation Society, to spearhead the restoration and preservation efforts.
Sale-Lot Number:
BOSTN116008001
Sale Type:
Online Auction
City, State:
Norwalk, CT
Bidders:
4
Close Time:
09/15 03:03 PM CT (Closed)
Time Remaining:
Case \#:
1-X-CT-0551
## See also
- List of lighthouses in Connecticut
- List of lighthouses in the United States
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Fairfield County, Connecticut |
37,574 | Cordelia Chase | 1,169,931,685 | Character in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel | [
"American female characters in television",
"Angel (1999 TV series) characters",
"Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters",
"Buffyverse demons",
"Female characters in comics",
"Female characters in television",
"Female soldier and warrior characters in television",
"Fictional actors",
"Fictional characters from California",
"Fictional characters from the 20th century",
"Fictional characters with precognition",
"Fictional cheerleaders",
"Fictional demon hunters",
"Fictional goddesses",
"Fictional half-demons",
"Fictional high school students",
"Fictional occult and psychic detectives",
"Fictional princesses",
"Fictional private investigators",
"Fictional vampire hunters",
"Teenage characters in television",
"Television characters introduced in 1997"
]
| Cordelia Chase is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer; she also appeared on Buffy's spin-off series, Angel. Portrayed by Charisma Carpenter, the character appears as a series regular in the first three seasons of Buffy, before leaving the show and becoming a series regular during the first four seasons of Angel. The character made her last television appearance in 2004, appearing as a special guest star in Angel's 100th episode. Cordelia also appears in both canonical and apocryphal Buffy and Angel material such as comic books and novels.
Cordelia is introduced in "Welcome to the Hellmouth" as one of Sunnydale High's popular students, attending school alongside vampire slayer Buffy Summers. Through her interactions with Buffy and her friends, she comes to accept the existence of supernatural forces and helps Buffy fight against them. In the television series Angel, Cordelia joins Angel, a heroic vampire with a soul, in forming a detective agency dedicated to stopping supernatural forces and helping the helpless. After Cordelia acquires the ability to see visions of those in need, she becomes a more compassionate and heroic character. In the middle of the third season, she becomes a love interest of the protagonist Angel. In the fourth season of Angel, she appears to take on a villainous role before it is revealed that she is possessed by a malevolent deity; this storyline eventually leads to her death and subsequent exit from the series. The character makes further canonical appearances in the comic books Buffy Season Eight and Angel: After the Fall, in a dream flashback and as a spirit guide.
Created as a foil for Buffy's titular heroine, Cordelia was initially characterized as "shallow", "vain" and "self-centered", and was used in the series to create conflict for the other characters. The character went through changes as she gradually redeemed herself throughout the course of Buffy and Angel, and has received attention in academic texts related to gender studies and social status.
## Appearances
### Television
Cordelia Chase first appears in the premiere episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, titled "Welcome to the Hellmouth". Introduced as a potential friend for Sunnydale High's newest student, Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), Cordelia reveals her true colors by cruelly mocking Willow (Alyson Hannigan) whom Buffy befriends instead. Ignorant of the supernatural, Cordelia shows up regularly throughout the first season of Buffy to insult and ridicule the other characters. She plays a larger role in the episode "Out of Mind, Out of Sight", in which she falls victim to a social outcast who wants revenge on popular students for ignoring her so much that she turned invisible. In the season finale, Cordelia helps Buffy and her friends battle vampires, finally coming to terms with the existence of supernatural forces. In season two, Cordelia becomes a more active ally to the "Scooby Gang" and begins a romantic relationship with Xander Harris (Nicholas Brendon) in "Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered." Dating someone of Xander's social status causes Cordelia's ostracism from her popular peers and she reluctantly breaks up with him. However, when Xander performs a love spell to pay her back for hurting him, Cordelia realises how much he cares about her and takes him back, rejecting her superficial friends in the process. In season three's "Lovers Walk", Cordelia is heartbroken to see Xander kissing Willow and ends their relationship. By the season three episode "The Wish", Cordelia slips back into her antagonistic persona from the first season, disassociating herself from the Scooby Gang altogether. In the episode "The Prom", she reveals that her house and her family's entire wealth has just been seized for tax fraud and both of her parents (never named or seen on-camera) are now in prison. Cordelia later attempts an unsuccessful relationship with Wesley (Alexis Denisof) and makes peace with Xander at the prom. In the season three finale, she rallies alongside Buffy and her friends at graduation against the demonic Mayor of Sunnydale (Harry Groener), where Cordelia slays her first vampire.
After three seasons on Buffy, Cordelia left the series to move over to star in Angel, a spin-off series focusing on Buffy's vampire ex-lover Angel (David Boreanaz). The first season of Angel sees Cordelia move to Los Angeles, in the hopes of escaping her new-found poverty by becoming an actress. After Angel saves her life in the series pilot, Cordelia helps him found the supernatural detective agency Angel Investigations, working in an administrative position. She also becomes close to half-demon co-worker Doyle (Glenn Quinn), but their budding romance is ended by his death nine episodes into the series. Before dying in the episode "Hero", Doyle passes his ability to see people in distress over to Cordelia when he kisses her. Although she initially views the visions as a curse, in the season one finale, a demon causes Cordelia's visions to overwhelm her - causing her to experience worldwide pain - and upon her recovery she vows to help those in need. In season two's "Reunion", Cordelia and the other staff at Angel Investigations are fired by Angel, who is becoming increasingly obsessed with bringing down the evil law firm Wolfram & Hart. Cordelia joins Wesley and Charles Gunn (J. August Richards) in re-forming the agency on their own. Angel and Cordelia eventually reconcile in the episode "Epiphany". As her acting career continues to flounder, Cordelia is sucked into and made princess of a medieval hell dimension called Pylea in the season two episode "Over the Rainbow". When presented with the opportunity to pass her visions over to a champion named the Groosalugg (Mark Lutz), Cordelia refuses and returns to L.A. with her friends in the season two finale.
In season three's "Birthday", Cordelia learns from the demon Skip (David Denman) that her visions are slowly killing her because human beings are not strong enough to control them. To save her life, Cordelia accepts Skip's offer to alter history so that she never met Angel in L.A., instead landing her big break as an actress. However, even in this alternate timeline, Cordelia feels compelled to help others and eventually crosses paths with Angel again, who received the visions in her place and is now insane. Unable to let her friend suffer, Cordelia has Skip return the timeline to normal, and agrees to become half-demon, with new powers, in order to harbor the visions safely. This season also sees Angel become a father, with Cordelia stepping in to mother the infant Connor until he is kidnapped into a hell dimension in the episode "Sleep Tight", only to emerge as a disturbed teenager (Vincent Kartheiser) in "The Price". In the episode "Waiting in the Wings", Angel realizes he has romantic feelings for Cordelia, but is prevented from voicing them by the return of Groosalugg. Cordelia dates Groosalugg for the remainder of the season, but Groo notices she loves Angel instead and decides to leave. In the season finale, Cordelia arranges to meet Angel to confess her feelings, but is prevented from doing so by Skip, who informs her that she has become a higher being. Cordelia accepts her duty, and leaves Earth for another dimension. In season four, Cordelia feels trapped in her position as a higher being, and so in the episode "The House Always Wins" she returns to Earth in an amnesiac state. In "Spin the Bottle", her memories are returned via a spell, along with a vision of a mysterious Beast (Vladimir Kulich). Afterward, she admits to Angel the feelings she once had for him. As L.A. succumbs to the apocalypse in season four's "Apocalypse, Nowish", Cordelia begins to behave out-of-character; she seduces Connor, murders Lilah (Stephanie Romanov) in the episode "Calvary", commands the Beast in "Salvage", and magically battles former friend Willow to keep Angel from his soul in the episode "Orpheus". In season four's "Players", the team realize that the now pregnant Cordelia is possessed, so Cordelia takes the unstable Connor on the run with her so they may give birth to their supernatural offspring, Jasmine (Gina Torres). In "Inside Out", Skip explains that Jasmine is his master, and a higher being who possessed Cordelia before her returning to Earth, manipulating events to be born in a new body of her own.
Cordelia falls into a post-natal coma for the remainder of season four. Following an eleven-episode absence, Cordelia returns to Angel in season five, in the 100th episode "You're Welcome". Having (apparently) awoken from her coma, Cordelia reunites with Angel Investigations, who she discovers have taken over Wolfram & Hart since their defeat of Jasmine. She chastises Angel for accepting W&H's "deal with the devil" and reminds him of his true mission and higher calling. Together, they face and defeat their old enemy, Lindsey McDonald (Christian Kane) who had been impersonating Doyle in an attempt to destroy Angel. In the episode's closing moments, Cordelia reiterates to Angel that she loves him and kisses him, shortly before he receives a phone call reporting that Cordelia died that morning in the hospital. When Angel turns around, Cordelia is gone. It is later revealed that this encounter - the Powers That Be repaying their debt to Cordelia - allowed Cordelia to pass one last vision over to Angel, giving him the knowledge he needs to bring down the Circle of the Black Thorn.
Between 2001 and 2004, Joss Whedon and Jeph Loeb developed a 4-minute pilot episode for Buffy the Animated Series, which was set during the show's first season. Had the series been picked up by a network, it would have featured Cordelia (voiced by Charisma Carpenter) in more high-school adventures. Following a 2008 leak of the pilot to YouTube, Loeb expressed some hope that the series may be resurrected in some form.
### Literature
Cordelia also appears in comic books and novels based on the Buffy and Angel television series. The Cordelia Collection, Vol. 1 by Nancy Krulik is a novelization of the Buffy episodes "Out of Mind, Out of Sight", "Some Assembly Required" and "Homecoming". These episodes tell specific incidents in which Cordelia becomes targeted: by a scorned classmate, to become a zombie's bride and by hunters in a case of mistaken identity. She appears in numerous Angel novels as a member of Angel Investigations, but some feature Cordelia more prominently; in Not Forgotten she uncovers exploitation of child immigrants, while in Haunted she appears as a contestant on a supernatural-themed reality television show when she has a vision about another applicant. Cordelia appears in the majority of Angel comics, published by Dark Horse Comics during 2000–2002 and set between episodes of the television series. She appears less frequently in those by IDW Publishing between 2005 and 2011, mainly in stories set in and after the fifth season. Cordelia typically plays a minimal role in the Dark Horse Angel comics. However, issue seventeen was a "Cordelia Special", in which demonic items are stashed in Cordelia's apartment. In the Dark Horse Presents story "Lovely dark and deep", Cordelia lands a role as the star of a demonic movie. Cordelia appears in the IDW Publishing comic mini-series Angel: The Curse, set after season five, in flashback scenes. She subsequently reappears in the mini-series Angel: Old Friends, which sees Angel battle evil clones of his friends. Cordelia claims to be the genuine article, having returned from the dead, but Angel is unconvinced and kills her; his suspicions prove correct when her body immediately disintegrates like the other clones.
Angel: After the Fall, a canonical comic book continuation of the television series plotted by Joss Whedon and written by Brian Lynch, features the characters of Angel and all of Los Angeles condemned to Hell after the events of the series finale "Not Fade Away". Cordelia does not appear until the twelfth issue, in which she acts as a guide to Angel in his dying moments; it is revealed she serves in some capacity as a higher power now. The character departs in issue thirteen. Cordelia also appears in a dream sequence within the twentieth issue of Buffy's canonical continuation, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight, titled "After These Messages... We'll Be Right Back!". Buffy dreams of when she was in her first year at Sunnydale High; Cordelia's physical appearance is based on the art style of Loeb and Whedon's unproduced Buffy animated series.
## Conception and casting
Cordelia was originally intended to serve as a dramatic foil to the series' main character Buffy Summers. Adapting the concept of the movie into a television series, Whedon decided to reinvent the character of Buffy. The shallow cheerleader of the 1992 Buffy film, as played by Kristy Swanson, had grown more mature and open-minded. Buffy now identified with the social outcasts, such as Willow and Xander. As a result, Cordelia Chase was created to embody the traits of that shallower Buffy. Despite portraying a shallow, valley girl stock character, actress Charisma Carpenter felt that Cordelia in early seasons was not "one-dimensional", nor was she "as superficial as people thought". At the same time, Carpenter was critical of her frequent role as the damsel in distress. Angel co-creator and executive producer David Greenwalt describes Cordelia in her Buffy years as "a somewhat shallow, somewhat vain, somewhat self-centered but [a] lively and honest character who spoke her mind". Indeed, even not when superhuman, she showed a lot of hardiness.
Charisma Carpenter had originally planned to read for the role of Buffy, but was late for her audition and instead tried out for Cordelia. Carpenter, who had dressed casually for the role of Buffy—who she believed "could really be herself"—felt unprepared to read for Cordelia because she "was definitely a character to dress for". Although she had only fifteen minutes to prepare for the character, the producers were "really responsive" to Carpenter's audition, and she left feeling confident she had got the part. After Carpenter's audition, actress Sarah Michelle Gellar, who had been offered the role of Cordelia before Carpenter, was asked to come back and audition for the part of Buffy. Bianca Lawson originally won the role of Cordelia Chase, but turned it down due to other contractual obligations. Lawson would later be cast as vampire slayer Kendra in the show's second season. Carpenter, proud of her own character's growth across the two series, did not envy Gellar for winning the role of Buffy over her.
## Characterization
### Characteristics and analysis
Cordelia's representation of an assertive modern woman and her character arc in Buffy has been commented on in several academic texts, particularly in gender studies, such as "Praising Cordelia: Aggression and Adaptation Among Adolescent Girls", or Sex and the Slayer. In the latter, Dr. Lorna Jowett of the University of Northampton describes Cordelia's initial place in the series where "At first glance, Cordelia seems to have the 'normal life' Buffy often longs for. She is a familiar character from the teen drama: popular, a cheerleader, the center of cliques (power as status). Elizabeth Rambo notes how Cordelia's status is highlighted by her nickname, "Queen C", and Harmony's remark to her, "Cordy, you reign." Cordelia functions recognizably as the typical female victim of horror, often screaming and running away, and this makes her a perfect contrast for other female characters."
"Praising Cordelia" argues that both Buffy and Cordelia are representations of assertive and competitive young women, who "represent two kinds of aggressive adolescent girls". The article focuses on the competitive relationship between the characters. Buffy's initial friendship with Cordelia is compromised once Cordelia sees the attractive, socially competent Buffy as a threat to her. Even after Cordelia joins the Scooby Gang and becomes Buffy's friend, theirs is not a friendship of "mutual support, warmth, and intimacy" but rather one of "mutual antipathy". The authors opine that Cordelia, unlike Buffy, is a "representation of the archetypal 'feminine type'", one who conforms to the "pervasive stereotypes of femininity while, at the same time, dominating the other girls in the school" and commanding the attention of the boys. Describing her character arc in Buffy, Mary Alice Money views Cordelia as one of many transformed or redeemed Buffy characters, one who "reveals a previously unexpected vulnerability that nullifies some of their less attractive traits." Jowett argues that Cordelia's assimilation within the main group is due largely to her relationship with main character Xander, and she is rendered sympathetic to the audience once they witness her rebuff the peer pressure from her old friends. She is further endeared to the viewer when Xander betrays her because the scenes showing her pain are shown only to the viewer. After Cordelia is cheated on by Xander with Willow she chooses not to go back to him and instead retains her autonomy.
Others such as Susanne Kord and Elisabeth Krimer note how Cordelia is also a subversive representation of feminine stereotypes, describing "Although superficially, Cordelia conforms to the stereotype of the insensitive bitch", what she actually does is "offers her viewers the clandestine pleasures of female self-assertion". One of Cordelia's strongest traits, her honesty, is also highlighted in "Earshot", where Buffy temporarily develops telepathic powers and can hear the thoughts of her friends, who avoid her to hide these thoughts. For Cordelia however, "her thought processes and actual utterances are completely identical" and because of this, she embodies an "antithesis of female self-sacrifice" in these years but also "the opposite of the kind of hypocrisy that is typically attributed to women". Writer Jennifer Crusie interprets this as Cordelia's "lack of depth" becoming "her strength". She does not mean to argue that Cordelia is stupid, however, pointing out "Cordy's solipsism could easily be mistaken for stupidity, but it comes coupled with a keen intelligence and a fixity of purpose that makes her almost invincible." Jowett feels Cordelia's confidence is based in her wealth. Despite becoming more sympathetic as the series progressed, "bitchiness enhances Cordelia's comic appeal", as it offers viewers an opportunity to relish its honest truth-telling.
### Development
In early seasons of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Cordelia was often used both as comic relief and occasionally for the damsel in distress plot device, which would require series' heroine Buffy to save her. Any concerns that she was simply one-dimensional were alleviated for the actress when writers developed the character through her relationships with Xander and later Wesley, which led Carpenter to become more convinced of her potential. In an article about the psychology of characters in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Steven C. Schlozman writes about how "Cordelia is wealthy and, at first glance, superficial, appearing to care most about her own popularity. However, as the show progresses, we learn that her mother has chronic fatigue syndrome and her father was prosecuted for income tax evasion. She is a reluctant participant, baffled at her own loyal feelings and bewildered at her attraction to the unpopular Xander." He goes on to describe how Cordelia, and "all the characters of Buffy the Vampire Slayer are particularly compelling for their depictions of important adolescent themes." Discussing Cordelia's relationship with Xander, Carpenter says, "A lot of Cordy's conflict, and a lot of who she is, comes out around Xander. Because she is in love with him in spite of herself, or in spite of him. I have my best moments with [Nicholas Brendon]." However, her character's growing involvement with Buffy and her friends caused the actress some concern; "I wasn't sure how I felt about it, because I didn't want to lose my edge. I didn't want her to be nice; I didn't want her to change because that's who she is." Carpenter's challenge was to find a balance between the good and bad sides of Cordelia, and she explains, "That's why I enjoy playing her so much. She's got to be somewhat tolerable or why would they hang out with her? But I [try] not to lose her edge, her honesty." Carpenter claims that Cordelia's "rough edges" made for difficult experiences with fans, who expected her to be snobby like her character. Charisma continually pleaded to get to slay a vampire, which the writers let her do in her final Buffy appearance, "Graduation Day, Part Two".
Over the course of her appearances in Angel, Cordelia would develop enormously as a character. Describing this evolution, Carpenter comments, "When I first started playing Cordelia, she wasn't nice. She has really deepened and has a stronger sense of responsibility. She's a team player, which was not the case in the beginning." Carpenter cherishes what playing a multi-faceted character like Cordelia meant for her as an actress, describing
> The road Cordelia has traveled, the journey she has taken up to now has been such a joy to play as an actress, because there have been so many chances to do so many different emotions. Heroic, vulnerable, just angry, possessed, funny – I get to be all those different things rolled into one. Getting this role, in hindsight... God I made a good decision, or they did.
Cultural critic Jennifer Crusie points out how Cordelia was initially perfect for the transition to "selfish, superficial Los Angeles", which turned out to be her "trial by fire".
Executive producer David Greenwalt was very keen to acquire the character of Cordelia for the spin-off series, commenting, "I desperately wanted her to come to Angel because Angel being dark and broody, we need a big bright smile." At the same time, Whedon felt her presence was sorely missed in the fourth season of Buffy where "All of our characters got to the point where they were loving and hugging, and it was sort of like, where's Cordelia?", leading him to introduce Spike (James Marsters) to the cast to accommodate her absence. According to Marsters, his request for a salary equal to what he was paid on Buffy caused Whedon to remove Carpenter as a regular cast member.
Kelly A. Manners describes Cordelia as a "rich gal whose family ended up losing everything to the IRS. So in episode one of Angel, Cordelia showed up in LA trying to start a career as an actress because her family was in jail, actually." Crusie states that in mourning for Doyle Cordelia also begins "finding within herself a new level of humanity".
Greenwalt discusses how Cordelia "is sort of forced to become a deeper character" when she starts to receive the visions of the suffering and helpless, "She's sort of living with one foot in the world of 'I want to be an actress' and with another foot in the world of 'I want to save and help people, and I have a deeper purpose and mission.'" Greenwalt felt that this development allowed Cordelia to develop from a "vainglorious high schooler to someone who's almost like a superhero"; this also provided Carpenter with the opportunity to stretch her potential as an actress. From the tenth episode, "Parting Gifts", Cordelia begins to actively function as a supernatural character in the series while the introduction of Wesley also contributes some added comic relief to the series. It is from this episode Cordelia is also forced to mature as she mourns the death of Doyle, whose visions serve as a painful reminder of him. The first-season finale saw Cordelia's visions inflict all the suffering of the human world upon her, and to effectively act this, Carpenter's acting coach showed her pictures of real human pain as motivation. The scene took over eight hours to film, and Carpenter was relieved when it was over. The experience saw Cordelia further resolve to help those in need, stating "I saw the world and there's so much pain. We have to help them." Carpenter explains, "Through the suffering of the world, and through her own experiences, she discovers what's important in life."
Carpenter pleaded to the producers to let her cut her hair in the second season of Angel, but they were dissatisfied with the darker tone and cut which created a "dark edge of Cordelia" which wasn't as "warm and effervescent as she usually is", so for the third season they wanted her to "go shorter and blonder". Angel's third season demonstrates Cordelia's development into a full-fledged heroine. The episode "Birthday" saw her being offered the chance to live a life where she never met Angel, but her inner desire to help others sees her sacrifice this life and her humanity to become a half-demon who can better withstand the visions she carries. In "Billy", Cordelia begins to train alongside Angel to become a better fighter and learns quickly. Carpenter began to train extensively with the show's stunt co-ordinators both to learn how to fight and to handle weaponry. In the episode "Waiting in the Wings", both Angel and Lorne remark on what a fine woman Cordelia has finally become, with Cordelia noting she is more like a superhero than she ever expected to be growing up in Sunnydale. Also in this episode, she and Angel both realize they have fallen for one another, but their love goes unconsummated. Critically, Jennifer Crusie considers Cordelia's ascension to the heavens at the end of season three to be the "point that the Mutant Enemy Productions writers evidently lost their minds". She goes on to describe how Cordelia's compliance with Skip seems entirely out of character. Jes Battis also argues that a paradox is created when "the character who embraces her privilege (Cordelia) gets to become a higher being and exit Angel, and as an overwhelmingly positive force" where later Fred (Amy Acker), "the character who is conflicted about her privilege" in season five "ends up being possessed by a millennia-old demon".
Angel season four played with audience's expectations of the now heroic Cordelia by revealing her to be the season's Big Bad; it was later established that Cordelia had been possessed by a manipulative deity called Jasmine. The storyline was controversial with fans, and Carpenter has admitted hating how a possessed Cordelia seduced Angel's teenage son. Carpenter has said, "I'm in denial about that whole storyline. It was creepy." She tried to keep a positive attitude about the situation, though; director Terrence O'Hara commented that he thought Carpenter had "a lot of fun" playing a manipulative Cordelia in the episode "Orpheus" because she enjoyed coming up with Cordelia's new "schizophrenic madwoman" characterization. David Boreanaz was also unsettled by the incestuous pairing. At a 2004 convention, he admitted that the season four storyline "freaked him out." The episode "Inside Out" saw the height of this inversion of Cordelia's character, where she is seen urging Connor to murder an innocent girl in order to expedite the birth of the child they conceived together. In an effort to stop Connor, the Powers That Be send the spirit of Connor's mother Darla (Julie Benz) to convince him not to go through with it. The episode sees Carpenter dressed in black, while Benz appears in heavenly white as she becomes the voice of reason and morality. Steven S. DeKnight, who wrote and directed the episode, felt this was a brilliant role-reversal for both actresses as Carpenter is accustomed to playing the benevolent Cordelia where Darla is normally seen as a sinister vampire. Much of season four's storyline had to be adjusted due to Carpenter's real-life pregnancy; after Cordelia gives birth to Jasmine in the episode "Inside Out" she is left in a coma for the remainder of the fourth season. Crusie discusses what she felt were the flaws in the execution of the fourth season,
> It's that she betrays the man she trusts above all others and who trusts her absolutely; it's that she seduces a boy she once diapered; it's that she dresses like a drag queen and talks like a Dynasty reject. It's that she's not Cordy, and what might have been fun to watch had we been let into the secret before the Beastmaster seduced Connor becomes the extended rape and death of a much-beloved character.
Matt Hills and Rebecca Williams also discuss the treatment of Cordelia (and Darla) in "Angel's Monstrous Mothers and Vampires with Soul: Investigating the Abject in 'Television Horror'", from Reading Angel: The TV Spin-off With a Soul by Stacey Abbot. They see the send-offs of Cordelia, Fred and other characters as part of a pattern of highly gendered "elaborated abjection" seen in Angel. They also see Cordelia's possession in season four as part of a recurring pattern: "More so than other characters in [Buffy] and Angel, Cordelia has suffered or been threatened with bodily invasion and rape, either symbolically or literally" and recounts the demon impregnation in "Expecting", and similarly in "Epiphany", where she develops a gestating demon in her head and then told she must mate with the Groosalugg in "Through the Looking Glass". Cordelia even remarks on this, as Hills and Williams quote her as she remarks on her "status as a violated and devalued character"; Cordelia states, "If you ever figure out how to get us out of here, I want you to find me a dimension where some demon doesn't want to impregnate me with his spawn!" They liken the horror motif in these examples, and in "Inside Out", to what Barbara Creed called the 'monstrous womb' in her book The Monstrous-feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis. Jes Battis also comments how, in comparison with the Fred-Illyria season five storyline, Cordelia's storyline is not as positive as Fred's rebirth, because Fred got to "'live on' through Illyria, whereas Cordelia is taken right out of the show and receives no interesting blue-haired reincarnation". Continuing, they say that in fact, there is no meaningful connection between the "real" Cordelia and Jasmine, as the Cordelia who did those bad things is killed the moment Jasmine is, "and the 'true' Cordy wakes up from her coma". Further illustrating the comparisons, "Fred/Illyria become a joined mother/daughter subjectivity, a dual being whose constituent essences are inseparable; Cordelia is never so intimately connected with her evil child and is remembered as the healthy, vibrant Cordy that everyone knew." Pointing out symbolic parallels in the subtexts of these gestations, Battis notes
> Cordelia, a vocal advocate of her own privilege, creates a fully formed supernatural being, Jasmine, who attempts (shockingly) to control the world. Fred, on the other hand, who internalizes her own privilege and cannot express it except in terms of insecurity and awkwardness, has her body devoured from the inside by the demon Illyria.
For Angel's fifth season, as with Buffy's fourth, Spike steps in to replace Cordelia as a source of comedic dialogue within the series. It is also noted by critics that, in the fifth season, "it doesn't take long for Illyria to become a version of Cordelia, giving everyone the cold and honest truth whether they want it or not". Concerning Cordelia's last appearance in Angel's fifth and final season, Joss Whedon says he used the 100th episode to reinforce the "mission statement" of the show, as well as assess where the characters are now compared to how they began. Whedon explains this episode presents an ideal opportunity to—through Cordelia, who was "there at the beginning"—ask of Angel, "Where are you now? Where were you when you started and where are you now and how do you feel about that?" The return to the show's "original concerns" is echoed by the flashback to Doyle's first season advertisement; Sara Upstone points out aerial images of Los Angeles reappear at the same time Cordelia tells Angel "You forgot who you are," bringing back the show's link to the city. Buffy Summers was originally intended to appear in the 100th episode to get Angel 'back on track', but Sarah Michelle Gellar had other obligations. Writer/director David Fury explains that since "we couldn't get Sarah" the episode was instead written for Cordelia. He adds, "This turned out to be a Godsend because Charisma was fantastic." In the original script, Fury wrote a conversation between Wesley and Angel while driving to the hospital that set up Cordelia as a possible vegetable. The scene was never shot because "the shock of seeing her up and around after a 9-month coma was enough. We just didn't want to tip it too soon," says Fury.
## Reception
For her role as Cordelia Chase, as she appeared in the television series Angel, Charisma Carpenter has been nominated four times by the Saturn Awards. Carpenter earned back-to-back nominations in 2000 and 2001 for Best Genre TV Supporting Actress and Best Actress on Television, respectively. The actress did not receive any nominations in 2002, but again obtained two back-to-back nominations in 2003 and 2004 for Best Actress in a Television Series and Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series, respectively. |
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