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49,219,489 | Ace (video game) | 1,148,587,686 | 1985 video game | [
"1985 video games",
"Amiga games",
"Amstrad CPC games",
"Amstrad PCW games",
"Combat flight simulators",
"Commodore 16 and Plus/4 games",
"Commodore 64 games",
"DOS games",
"Single-player video games",
"VIC-20 games",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"ZX Spectrum games"
]
| Ace (stylized as ACE as acronym for Air Combat Emulator) is a combat flight simulator video game published for the Commodore 64, VIC-20, and Plus/4 in 1985 by Cascade Games. It was ported to the Amstrad CPC, Amstrad PCW, Amiga, and ZX Spectrum.
The player takes the role of a fighter jet pilot defending the English coastland against an enemy invasion, having to fight off aerial, ground and naval forces while Allied bases evacuate. The display shows the plane's instrumentation and cockpit view.
The game was well-received and, despite various issues, it was lauded by critics as one of the best air combat simulators of the time and particularly praised for its accessible gameplay. The game was developed with a budget of £40k by the small UK-based Cascade Games, who later produced two sequels to the game.
## Plot
The game is set on the Southern coastland of England during an enemy invasion against the remaining Allied forces. The player takes the role of a fighter plane pilot, who must defeat the invasion. To accomplish this, the player pilots one of the three available Mark 2.1 AWAT (All-Weather All-Terrain) combat aircraft and is charged with defending the last three Allied airbases being evacuated in front of the enemy's advance. Despite being the lone defender and greatly outnumbered, they must fight enemy forces on all fronts: aerial, ground and naval. The player progresses through the game engaging different contingents of the invaders. Initially, they must intercept enemy fighter planes, helicopters and landing ground forces, including tanks, land bases and SAM sites. Once the enemy is sufficiently driven back, the player can engage the naval fleet.
## Gameplay
At the start of the game, the player is presented with a range of options that determine the experience. The game offers nine selectable levels of difficulty, including a tutorial difficulty in which the enemy forces do not fire back. Among the options, the player can choose to play either in summer or winter time and either daytime or nighttime, altering the scenery. The player must choose from the range of weapons that will be mounted on their AWAT plane. These include air-to-air, air-to-ground, air-to-sea and multipurpose missiles, depending on what enemies the player chooses to engage. In addition, the plane is equipped with a machine gun and decoy flares against hostile missiles.
The in-game screen shows the cockpit view split between top half for plane's front view and bottom half for plane's instrumentation. The control panel shows the plane's crucial data, including speed, altitude, thrust, fuel, roll/pitch indicators and a compass. The panel also features a radar that provided an overview of important nearby objects. An onboard screen displays various flight information and warning messages, and features a speech synthesizer that occasionally announces dangers, such as approaching enemies or missile attacks. Finally, a small rear-view camera allows the player to observe enemies and missiles on their tail. The game also features a two player mode, where one player flies the plane and the other aims and fires the guns.
At the start of the game, the player has to take off the runway at an Allied base. Afterwards they can fly around and look for enemies to engage. The player can open their Satellite Intelligence Map, which shows a live map of the immediate coastline with items of interest, such as, friendly bases, enemy positions, and refuelling locations. The player can perform various flight manoeuvres and stunts mid-air, such are loops, rolls, or dummy stalls. Flying, especially at high altitudes, spends the plane's fuel and the player must either return to their base or perform an aerial refueling. To refuel mid-air, the player has to rendezvous with a refuelling plane at the specified coordinates and perform a probe and drogue refuelling manoeuvre.
The game ends in defeat if the player crashes, runs out of fuel, or is shot down by taking too much damage. The player can also eject, but can only do so safely over Allied territory. The player is victorious if they defeat all enemy forces. During the game, points are awarded and displayed in the control panel for destroyed enemies and on game end tallied up in a high score table.
## Development and release
The game was developed by Cascade Games founded in 1983 by Guy Wilhelmy and Nigel Stevens. Wilhelmy had a pilot's license and had experience with aircraft control and responsiveness, while Stevens' father had been in British Royal Air Force. Wilhelmy explained that he wanted to create a fast-paced flying game with responsive graphics that other games of the time struggled with. Cascade hired programmer Ian Martin and graphics designer Damon Redmond to work on the project in 1985. The first version known as A.C.E.: Air Combat Emulator was released in 1985 for the Commodore 16 and VIC-20 home computers. Martin describes that an advertisement erroneously promising a Plus/4 version forced them to develop it under threat of action by Advertising Standards Agency.
Martin recalls that afterwards the team had creative freedom to pursue different ideas for the planned Commodore 64 version, and after several months of development and a small delay, the C64 version called simply ACE was released in September 1985. ZX Spectrum version followed the next year. An Amstrad CPC version was announced and Cascade Games promised a quick delivery with "speed and smoothness exceeding previous simulators". Having sold over half a million copies on 8-bit machines, the game's port was announced for Amiga. ComTec was tasked with porting the game to Amstrad PCW and Amiga (for AmigaDOS). The game was marketed to America, and the C64 and Amiga versions were released and published in US by UXB in 1986.
Before the release of Ace, Cascade Games was infamous for their Cassette 50 (1983) game compilation that featured simplistic and subpar games. Stevens points out that without the income from the compilation, the project would not have been possible. The developers estimate the production cost of Ace at £40k. Following the release of Ace, Cascade moved into mainstream AAA game development. Wilhelmy says that Cascade boasted over a million GBP in turnover over the following years. The company produced two sequels, Ace 2 (1987) and ACE 2088 (1989), and various other games before closing down in 1990.
## Reception
The first version for C16 and Plus/4 received positive reviews. Commodore Horizons awarded 8 stars to gameplay, describing it is "as good as anything" within the C16's limitations. Commodore User noted the C16 version for fast, but involved action. Their review of Plus/4 described it similarly, and called it one of the best dedicated Plus/4 games, only giving sound a lower score. Computer Gamer gave both the C16 and Plus/4 version 5 out of 5 stars and described Ace as easy to use and understand. They later noted that Plus/4 version was the best yet among the available platforms. Your Commodore criticized the Plus/4 version for poor innovation, but scored it highly on gameplay and graphics, describing them as "realistic".
The expanded C64 and ZX Spectrum versions received the highest critic attention and praise on release. Zzap!64 rated Ace 90% and described it as the most exciting flight simulator on C64 to date. They noted good instruction, many available options, and easy controls. Computer and Video Games rated C64 version very positively, awarding gameplay 9/10 points calling it the new title for the best of flight simulators. They described it as very well presented with a clear layout. Commodore User lauded Ace for having found the right balance between simulation and action. Crash rated it 81%, criticizing quite sound and calling out the graphics and overall quality as average for the genre. Sinclair User awarded the game 5/5 stars and praised the game's intentionally accessible gameplay as the high point. They felt the environment graphics were not great, while important objects and effects stood out well. Your Sinclair gave the game 8/10 noting it as unrealistic for a simulator, however easy to get into and addictive. Your Computer gave Ace 4/5 points calling it a simulation that would appeal to arcade players. However, they gave the sound 1/5 points. ZX Computing review labeled it a "monster hit" and called it a quality flying experience praising good sound, excellent graphics with use of horizon line, and well-defined objects.
Several reviewers regarded Ace as one of the best available flight simulators of the time. Overall, the critics agreed that the game's arcade-like gameplay was easy to get into and play, but ultimately difficult to master and challenging to finish. Reviewers also negatively remarked upon the inclusion of Lenslok copy protection system where the game would display a garbled image and the player would need to use the provided colored lens to view the two-letter code. ZX Computing and Computer Gamer reviewers had trouble getting it to work and pass. Retro Gamer called it "notorious Lenslok" in retrospect.
Computer Gamer gave the Amstrad version 85%, praising the gameplay and graphics. They noted that it was an approachable flight simulator that can be played without reading the manual. Amstrad Action rated this version at 54% calling it challenging, but lacking in action. They described environmental detail and fighting as the high points, but criticized sound as poor and graphics as slow.
The game was later sold at bargain prices, bundled with Ace 2 and received several retrospect reviews. Commodore User rated the C64 bargain game 8/10 comparing it more to aerial combat simulator than just a flight simulator. They noted plenty of gameplay and some simulation to keep the player occupied. Computer and Video Games awarded the game 90% for C64 and 87% for the Spectrum version praising the game and describing it as "essential purchase". Zzap!64 gave Ace 67% and felt that, while the original reviewer's opinions held true, the game did not stand up to time, with graphics being tacky and sparse and having programming issues. Commodore Force later gave the game 57% and noted that, although receiving praise during release, its lacking gameplay did not age well. On the other hand, Commodore Format gave the game 3/4 points and lauded the game even by 1991's standards. While they noted simple start, they also noted good graphics, fast-paced gameplay with superb dogfights and basic simulation. Commodore Format rated the Ace and Ace 2 bundle at 89% calling it an "indisputable bargain". They praised the fast and uncluttered gameplay with simple objectives, while remarked that the graphics were not the best. Your Commodore rated the bundle 87/100 describing the bundle as closer to arcade games rather than flight simulators, concluding that they were good games "with a few bugs". |
30,247,710 | Vicki Leekx | 1,166,127,740 | null | [
"2010 mixtape albums",
"Albums free for download by copyright owner",
"Albums produced by Danja (record producer)",
"Albums produced by Diplo",
"Albums produced by M.I.A. (rapper)",
"M.I.A. (rapper) albums"
]
| Vicki Leekx is a mixtape by British recording artist M.I.A. which was released on 31 December 2010. Following the release of her album Maya earlier in 2010, the artist announced via Twitter that she would be releasing a mixtape on the last day of the year, and subsequently made it available free to download. It incorporates reworked versions of tracks from Maya and new material and was reported as having been inspired by the 2010 WikiLeaks controversy, although much of its content is not politically inspired.
## Background
M.I.A. released her third album Maya in July 2010 to mixed reviews. In early December, she announced on Twitter that she would be following it up with a mixtape to be released on 31 December, stating "vicky leekx [sic] mixtape coming new years eve! layin bad minds to rest 2010!" The mixtape was uploaded online from Bangkok, Thailand, after she sent it via YouSendIt to a friend, stating "VICKILEEKX up/loaded in BANGKOK! thank u, for being a dope ass people/city. cant seem to leave please kick me out! or i wont go!" Exclaim! writer Josiah Hughes contended that the latter portion of the message referred to events which had occurred during the year including the album's mixed reviews and her clashes with journalists and former collaborator Diplo.
Shortly before Christmas, the website vickileekx.com began displaying a countdown to the mixtape's release in the form of animated water rising up a dateline, and on 30 December M.I.A. uploaded a TwitPic showing the track listing and credits. Zach Baron, writing for The Village Voice, contended that the singer deliberately chose to release the mixtape at the point in the year when internet traffic is traditionally at its lowest, so as "not to feed the online content machines that chewed her up this year".
## Music and lyrics
The material included reworked tracks and out-takes from Maya, with previously unreleased material. Some of the tracks, including "Let Me Hump You" and "Gen-N-E-Y", had been made available by M.I.A. earlier in the year at a series of website addresses. The tracks "Meds and Feds" and "Steppin' Up" from Maya appear in radically altered forms, including the removal of the heavy guitar played by Derek E. Miller of the group Sleigh Bells on the original version of the former.
A number of reviewers made a connection between the mixtape's title and the 2010 WikiLeaks controversy. Although the mix opens with a quote about the leaking of information and subsequent legal and political attacks from Julian Assange, founder of Wikileaks, delivered by a female voice, much of the content is not related to the controversy or politically themed. Musically, the mixtape is less abrasive in style than the industrial-influenced Maya, but the lyrics contain a number of attacks on "imitators, haters, and [...] psychos" and "bitches who are fame hoes". The female voice heard at the start, identified by reviewers as the "title character", returns sporadically during the mix speaking internet slogans. At different points the music incorporates heavy percussion, Auto-Tuned vocals, and "bhangra-style" sounds similar to those heard on her second studio album Kala. Most of the mix is at a high tempo, although it slows towards the end, where the longest sections are found.
## Release and reception
Vicki Leekx has been downloadable for free since 31 December 2010. In its review of the mixtape, Sputnikmusic commented that "Maya Arulpragasam might have had a rough year, but with Vicki Leekx, she's ended it with a bang". Tom Breihan, a writer from Pitchfork, commented that in "its brief onslaught of sneery fun, Vicki Leekx only occasionally reaches the dizzy pop heights of Arular and Kala. But it does give us an M.I.A. who, once again, seems to be having a blast doing what she's doing. And it's great to learn this M.I.A. still exists". As of 6 January 2011, the track "Bad Girls" has been listed as "Best New Music" by the same website.
Matthew Cole, reviewing the mixtape in Slant Magazine, described Maya as "an act of musical self-immolation from a self-styled outsider uncomfortable with her own marketability" but that Vicki Leekx was an "ensuing ground-zero dance party" to follow up such a "levelling of her image". Mike Schiller, writing for webzine PopMatters, was positive in his review but stated that the mix sounded like "an artist throwing ideas at a wall and seeing what sticks". In consumer guide for MSN Music, critic Robert Christgau gave Vicki Leekx a B+ rating, indicating "remarkable one way or another, yet also flirts with the humdrum or the half-assed".
## Track listing
Although the mixtape consists of a single 36-minute file, the artwork released to accompany it lists twenty "tracks".
## Personnel
The artwork released to accompany the mixtape credits the producers, listed as M.I.A. herself, Danja, Munchi, Diplo, Blaqstarr, Switch, Rusko, VIIXIIV (a pseudonym for her brother Sugu Arulpragasam) and So Japan, and featured vocals by Rosaly Pfeffer, credited mononymously as Rosaly. The name of Nguzunguzu, a duo which includes Asma Maroof, M.I.A.'s tour DJ, is also prominently displayed, although it is unclear what involvement the duo had in the project. |
32,616,680 | Novacane (song) | 1,166,446,599 | 2011 single by Frank Ocean | [
"2011 debut singles",
"2011 songs",
"Frank Ocean songs",
"Music videos directed by Nabil Elderkin",
"Song recordings produced by Tricky Stewart",
"Songs about drugs",
"Songs about loneliness",
"Songs written by Frank Ocean",
"Songs written by Tricky Stewart"
]
| "Novacane" is the debut solo single by American singer Frank Ocean. It was released as the lead single from his mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra. The song was written by Ocean, Tricky Stewart and Victor Alexander, and produced by Stewart. Lyrically, the song narrates a tale of a young female dental student who makes a living doing porn and who recreationally uses local anesthetic drugs that she acquires from her place of study. The song explores themes of isolation, loneliness and a lack of feeling caused by numbness. The song received highly positive reviews from music critics and was listed as one of the best songs of the year by publications such as The New York Times, Spin, Ology, Zimbio and Pitchfork. Reviews praised the dark subject matter of the song, and praised Ocean's ability to create narratives and the sonic atmosphere of the track. The cover for Novacane is similar to the Roxy Music album Stranded.
When Nostalgia, Ultra was expected to be released as an EP by Def Jam, "Novacane" was released as the first single, though the EP release was later cancelled. The song peaked at number 82 on the Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top 10 on the Heatseekers Songs chart. The song received a music video directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin released on June 16. The highly stylized video shows a long take of Ocean sitting around in a darkly lit room. Ocean performed the song during a show in New York City with alternative hip hop group OFWGKTA, and during his seven show tour through North America and Europe. It was also performed during his fourteen-show North American tour in support of his debut studio album, Channel Orange.
## Background
"Novacane" was written by Frank Ocean and Victor Alexander with co-writing by Tricky Stewart who also produced the track. The song appears on his debut mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra which was released on February 18, 2011. When asked by The Quietus if the song drew from his personal experiences, Ocean commented that "I don't do cocaine for breakfast!", a reference to the lyrics from the song. He continued, "My kitchen is usually pretty clean, you know. But you have fun with the imagery, and for me the whole concept that everything has to be... Like, nobody gets upset with a director when a director's film isn't about his life. People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life, but it's not. It's imagery, and a little bit of satire." When asked if the song was an R&B track, Ocean replied that he disliked how that in the United States, "if you're a singer and you're black, you're an R&B artist. Period." Ocean stated that the song does contain R&B influences, though he didn't feel it wasn't entirely one in nature. The track was released as a digital download on May 31, 2011 by Def Jam Recordings.
## Composition
"Novacane" expresses a story through its lyrics, and has been described as "nightmarish" in nature. It has been called a "love song of sorts", with influence taken from alternative hip hop group The Pharcyde. Lyrically the track explores a narrative in which the singer meets a girl attempting to pay her way through dental school by working in porn, or at least that's what she told him. Protagonist meets the girl at Coachella, a musical festival which takes place in Indio, California. Ocean serves as the protagonist in the song, in love with a girl "so gone on drugs that Ocean, wanting to be close to her, has no choice but to get gone on those same drugs". The pair get high using dental local anesthetics. Though Ocean serves as an unreliable narrator, Pitchfork wrote that he was "probably still the most reliable character in the whole song." The song contains reference to film director Stanley Kubrick and his 1999 drama Eyes Wide Shut. In addition, it also makes a comparison of the numbness that drugs produce with the use of auto-tune in the music business. Summing up the song, Pitchfork also commented that "Novacane" "is a song about personal connection but also about all the stupid numb human shit that gets in the way of personal connection, which means it's probably the most honest song about personal connection on the radio." Rappers Joe Budden, Tyga and Prodigy have all released freestyles to "Novacane".
## Reception
"Novacane" received highly positive reviews from music critics, and has been described as the best song on Nostalgia, Ultra. Pitchfork editor Tom Breihman made the song "Best New Track" and commented that the song had a "stripped-back melodic construction with Ocean crooning over a synthetic backing that practically fades into nonexistence" and that "it draws its power from tiny little details, like throwaway observations or catches in Ocean's voice. Andrew Noz of NPR also praised the details in Ocean's song writing, stating "in 'Novacane,' Ocean sings about falling for a porn star who wants to be a dentist, it's easy to believe that he's more enticed by her dentistry aspirations than her day job. The New York Times critic Jon Caramanica described the song as a "story of meeting a cute girl at Coachella, tripping hard on intoxicants and getting quickly to love that he may or may not remember the next day", and called the song "bliss." Ology writer JT Langley noted that though the song was "massively depressing" and that "Frank makes a foul mouth sound sweeter than your usual R&B through his brand of crooning ... Tricky Stewart's production adds yet another morose element to provide the more macabre side of the drugs-for-love-lost genre."
The song was listed as one of the best songs of the year by several publications. The New York Times placed the song amongst the best tracks of 2011. Pitchfork named the song the 41st best song of the year, musing that "he might be fronting like the Drakes and post-"808s" Kanyes of the world, but there's too much self-effacement happening for Ocean not to realize the inherent humor in his own drama. If Ocean really is on that visionary Kubrick shit like he claims, then "Novacane" could very well be his Dr. Strangelove. Zimbio placed the song at number 2 on their best hip-hop songs of the year list, writing "while every track on his mixtape, nostalgia, Ultra, warrants a listen, it's the radio-friendly "Novacane" that stands out as his most mature and enjoyable song to date." Spin named the song the fifth best of the year, describing the track as "a fully evolved Drake song, where you're slyly immersed in youthful, aww-shit decadence, while simultaneously watching your dreams of recreational stripper booty and complimentary cocaine breakfasts get methodically dismantled."
## Promotion
According to Ocean, the music video for "Novacane" was a simple process. Talking about the concept of the video, he stated "I was just trying to connect or articulate visually the feeling of being numb. The feeling of wanting to feel something you can't feel. A lot of things can cause that numbing, but in the video it was some sort of topical aesthetic and a little bit of special effects." The video doesn't last the entirety of the song, which director Nabil Elderkin stated was for artistic reasons. In an interview with Pitchfork, he reasoned "to me, videos don't always have to be the length of the song. I like the idea of people thinking, 'What was that?'"
The video is shot as one long take, shot in a mostly dark room. Ocean sits in the room, smoking an unspecified drug. Eventually, he gets up and begins to smear an unknown substance onto his face. Random shots of pandas and rain forest imagery are also spliced into the video, and it ends with Ocean being slapped by the ghostly image of a woman. MTV further summarized the video; "Ocean is surrounded by ghostly incarnations of beautiful women, tigers and pandas. At one point, Ocean smears what appears to be novocaine — or Procaine — on his solemn-looking face." Supposedly, it required several takes to achieve the correct angle for the slapping moment, and the spliced images were placed in the video because Ocean asked the director whether or not they "can we put some kind of Asian-rain-forest stuff in there?" Billboard wrote that the video was "minimalist" and "eerie". Pitchfork named the video amongst the best of the year.
Ocean embarked on a solo tour through North America and Europe to promote both the mixtape and his other musical projects. The set lists to the various shows varied, though "Novacane" was performed at all shows. Ocean performed "Novacane" and "She" with Tyler, The Creator at an OFWGKTA performance in New York City. The track was included during Ocean's setlist at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival. Complex magazine stated that he "left his most popular and best for last, wrapping the evening with "Novacane," which shouts out the festival itself." Ocean performed the track during his 14 show Channel Orange tour through North America.
## Personnel
- Frank Ocean – vocals
- Christopher "Tricky" Stewart – production, keyboards
- Monte Neuble – keyboards
- Alex Al – bass
- Andrew Wuepper – mixing, recording engineering
- Brian "B-Luv" Thomas – engineering
## Charts
### Weekly
### Year-end
## Certifications |
1,286,213 | Oroville Dam | 1,171,431,180 | Dam in California | [
"1968 establishments in California",
"Buildings and structures in Butte County, California",
"California Department of Water Resources dams",
"California State Water Project",
"Dams completed in 1968",
"Dams in California",
"Dams in the Feather River basin",
"Dams with fish ladders",
"Earth-filled dams",
"Energy infrastructure completed in 1968",
"Feather River",
"Hydroelectric power plants in California",
"Oroville, California",
"Underground power stations",
"United States Army Corps of Engineers dams",
"Water in California"
]
| Oroville Dam is an earthfill embankment dam on the Feather River east of the city of Oroville, California, in the Sierra Nevada foothills east of the Sacramento Valley. At 770 feet (235 m) high, it is the tallest dam in the U.S. and serves mainly for water supply, hydroelectricity generation, and flood control. The dam impounds Lake Oroville, the second-largest reservoir in California, capable of storing more than 3.5 million acre-feet (1.1×10^<sup>12</sup> US gal; 4.3×10<sup>9</sup> m<sup>3</sup>).
Built by the California Department of Water Resources, Oroville Dam is one of the key features of the California State Water Project (SWP), one of two major projects passed that set up California's statewide water system. Construction was initiated in 1961, and despite numerous difficulties encountered during its construction, including multiple floods and a major train wreck on the rail line used to transport materials to the dam site, the embankment was topped out in 1967 and the entire project was ready for use in 1968. The dam began to generate electricity shortly afterwards with completion of the Edward Hyatt Power Plant, then the country's largest underground power station.
Since its completion in 1968, the Oroville Dam has allocated the flow of the Feather River from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta into the SWP's California Aqueduct, which provides a major supply of water for irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley, as well as municipal and industrial water supplies to coastal Southern California, and has prevented large amounts of flood damage to the area—more than \$1.3 billion between 1987 and 1999. The dam stops fish migration up the Feather River and the controlled flow of the river; as a result, the Oroville Dam has affected riparian habitat. Multiple attempts at trying to counter the dam's impacts on fish migration have included the construction of a salmon/steelhead fish hatchery on the river, which began shortly after the dam was completed.
In February 2017, the main and emergency spillways threatened to fail, leading to the evacuation of 188,000 people living near the dam. After deterioration of the main spillway largely stabilized and the water level of the dam's reservoir dropped below the top of the emergency spillway, the evacuation order was lifted.
The main spillway was reconstructed by November 1, 2018, and water releases were successfully tested, up to 25,000 cu ft/s (710 m<sup>3</sup>/s), during April 2019.
## History
### Planning
In 1935, work began on the Central Valley Project, a federal water project that would develop the Sacramento and San Joaquin River systems for irrigation of the highly fertile Central Valley. However, after the end of World War II in 1945, the state experienced an economic boom that led to rapid urban and commercial growth in the central and southern portions of the state, and it became clear that California's economy could not depend solely on a state water system geared primarily towards agriculture. A new study of California's water supplies by the Division of Water Resources (now California Department of Water Resources, DWR) was carried out under an act of the California State Legislature in 1945.
In 1951, California State Engineer A.D. Edmonston proposed the Feather River Project, the direct predecessor to the SWP, which included a major dam on the Feather River at Oroville, and aqueducts and pumping plants to transfer stored water to destinations in central and southern California. The proposed project was strongly opposed by voters in Northern California and parts of Southern California that received water from the Colorado River, but was supported by other Southern Californians and San Joaquin Valley farmers. However, major flooding in the 1950s prompted the 1957 passage of an emergency flood-control bill that provided sufficient funding for construction for a dam at Oroville – regardless of whether it would become part of the SWP.
### Construction
Groundbreaking on the dam site occurred in May 1957 with the relocation of the Western Pacific Railroad tracks that ran through the Feather River Canyon. The Burns-Porter Act of the California Legislature, which authorized the SWP, was not passed until November 8, 1960, and only by a slim margin. Engineer Donald Thayer of the DWR was commissioned to design and head construction of Oroville Dam, and the primary work contract was awarded to Oro Dam Constructors Inc., a joint venture led by Oman Construction Co.
Two concrete-lined diversion tunnels, each 4,400 ft (1,341 m) long and 35 ft (11 m) in diameter, were excavated to channel the Feather River around the dam site. One of the tunnels was located at river level and was to carry normal water flows, while the second one was only to be used during floods. In May 1963, workers poured the last of 252,000 cu yd (6.8 million cu ft; 193,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of concrete that comprised the 128 ft (39 m) high cofferdam, to protect the construction site from floods. This structure later served as an impervious core for the completed dam. With the cofferdam in place, an 11-mile (18 km) rail line was constructed to move earth and rock to the dam site. An average of 120 train cars ran along the line each hour, transporting fill that was mainly excavated from enormous piles of hydraulic mining debris that was washed down by the Feather River after the California Gold Rush.
On December 22, 1964, disaster nearly struck when the Feather River, after days of heavy rain, reached a peak flow of 250,000 cu ft/s (7,100 m<sup>3</sup>/s) above the Oroville Dam site. The water rose behind the partially completed embankment dam and nearly overtopped it, while a maximum of 157,000 cu ft/s (4,400 m<sup>3</sup>/s) poured from the diversion tunnels. This Christmas flood of 1964 was one of the most disastrous floods on record in Northern California, but the incomplete dam was able to reduce the peak flow of the Feather River by nearly 40%, averting massive damage to the area.
Ten months later, four men died in a tragic accident on the construction rail line. On October 7, 1965, two 40-car work trains, one fully loaded and the other empty, collided head-on at a tunnel entrance, igniting 10,000 US gallons (38,000 L) of diesel fuel, completely destroying two locomotives. The burning fuel from the collision started a forest fire that burned 100 acres (40 ha) before it could be extinguished. The crash delayed construction of the dam by a week while the train wreckage was cleared. Overall, 34 men died in the construction of the dam.
Oroville Dam was designed to withstand the strongest possible earthquake for the region, and was fitted with hundreds of instruments that serve to measure water pressure and settlement of the earth fill used in its construction, earning it the nickname "the dam that talks back". (A M<sub>L</sub> 5.7 earthquake in the Oroville area in 1975 is believed to have been caused by induced seismicity from the weight of the Oroville Dam and reservoir on a local fault line.) The embankment was finally topped out on October 6, 1967, with the last of 155 million tons (140.6 million t) of material that took over 40,000 train trips to transport. On May 4, 1968, Oroville Dam was officially dedicated by the state of California. Among the notable figures present were California governor Ronald Reagan, who spoke, Chief Justice (formerly California governor) Earl Warren, Senator Thomas Kuchel, and California Representative Harold T. "Bizz" Johnson. The dedication was accompanied by a week of festivities in nearby Oroville, attended by nearly 50,000 people.
### 2005 dam relicensing
On October 17, 2005, three environmental groups filed a motion with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) urging federal officials to require that the dam's emergency spillway be armored with concrete, rather than remain as an earthen spillway, as it did not meet modern safety standards. "In the event of extreme rain and flooding, fast-rising water would overwhelm the main concrete spillway, then flow down the emergency spillway, and that could cause heavy erosion that would create flooding for communities downstream, but also could cause a failure, known as 'loss of crest control.'" FERC water agencies responsible for the cost of the upgrades said this was unnecessary and that concerns were overblown.
In 2006, a senior civil engineer sent a memorandum to his managers stating, "The emergency spillway meets FERC’s engineering guidelines for an emergency spillway," and "The guidelines specify that during a rare flood event, it is acceptable for the emergency spillway to sustain significant damage."
### 2009 river valve accident
At around 7:30 am on July 22, 2009, several workers were deep below the reservoir operating flow controls to test a river valve chamber in the Oroville Dam. When the flow reached 85%, suction pulled a breakaway wall downstream into a 35-foot (11 m) diversion tunnel, cutting lights and nearly sending three workers to their deaths in the roaring current.
One of the workers who was badly injured survived by clinging to a bent rail, where he was struck by tools and equipment being sucked into the tunnel. He was hospitalized for four days with head trauma, a broken leg and arm, cuts, and bruises.
Cal OSHA concluded opening the valves without an energy-dispersion ring, which reportedly was absent, "created water flow with such great turbulence that it blocked an air vent and created a vacuum."
The U. S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration sanctioned the DWR with six citations, including five classified as serious, and the department was initially fined \$141,375. Two of the "serious" citations were overturned on appeal.
This river valve system was one of the first parts of the dam to be built when the dam project started in 1961, because its initial purpose was to divert the river while the dam was under construction. After that, it served various purposes, including as a possible emergency release valve. Since the accident, DWR had implemented a standing order that prohibited the operation of the river outlet system and significantly limited access to the river valve chamber. Following the accident, DWR entered into a 2012 agreement with CalOSHA to hire a third-party expert to improve the safety of the river valve outlet system (RVOS) and make it operational again. In 2014, DWR embarked on an accelerated refurbishment program to respond to concerns about operational needs during the ongoing drought. The system was mostly refurbished and was used during 2014 and 2015 to meet Endangered Species Act temperature requirements for the Feather River. Some additional refurbishments were being made to portions of the RVOS and were expected to conclude in early 2017.
### 2013, 2015 spillway cracks and inspection
The spillway cracked in 2013. A senior civil engineer with the DWR was interviewed by the Sacramento Bee, and explained, "It’s common for spillways to develop a void because of the drainage systems under them", and "There were some patches needed and so we made repairs and everything checked out."
In July 2015, the state Division of Safety of Dams inspected the dam spillway visually "from some distance" and did not walk it.
## 2017 spillway failure
### Initial spillway damage
The rainy season of 2016–2017 was Northern California's wettest winter in over 100 years. Heavy rainfall resulted in record inflows from the Feather River, and the spillway was opened in January to relieve pressure on Oroville Dam. After a second series of heavy storms in February, the spillway flow was increased to 50,000 cu ft/s (1,400 m<sup>3</sup>/s), and on February 7, DWR employees noticed an unusual flow pattern. This halted spillway outflow, and DWR brought engineers onto the spillway to inspect its integrity. The engineers found a large area of concrete and foundation erosion. This erosion feature was too massive to repair without diverting water to the emergency spillway, and halted outflow along the main spillway for a period to fix the hole. High inflows to Lake Oroville forced dam operators to continue using the damaged spillway, causing additional damage. The spillway hole continued to grow. Debris from the crater in the main spillway was carried downstream, and caused damage to the Feather River Fish Hatchery due to high turbidity.
Although engineers had hoped that using the damaged spillway could drain the lake enough to avoid use of the emergency spillway, they were forced to reduce its discharge from 65,000 cu ft/s (1,800 m<sup>3</sup>/s) to 55,000 cu ft/s (1,600 m<sup>3</sup>/s) due to potential damage to nearby power lines.
### Emergency spillway use and evacuation
Shortly after 8:00 pm on February 11, 2017, the emergency spillway began carrying water for the first time since the dam's construction in 1968. The water flowed directly onto the earthen hillside below the emergency spillway, as designed. However, headward erosion of the emergency spillway threatened to undermine and collapse the concrete weir.
On February 12, an evacuation was ordered for low-lying areas, due to possible failure of the emergency spillway. The flow over the main spillway was increased to 100,000 cu ft/s (2,800 m<sup>3</sup>/s) to try to slow erosion of the emergency spillway.
By 8:00 pm on the evening of February 12, the increased flow had lowered the water level, causing the emergency spillway to stop overflowing. On February 14, the sheriff of Butte County lifted the mandatory evacuation order.
### Investigation and reconstruction
On May 19, 2017, the spillway was shut down for the summer, to allow demolition and repair work to begin. The total cost of the repair was projected to exceed \$400 million, with the \$275 million primary contract awarded to Kiewit Construction. FEMA was expected to cover a large portion of the expenses.
According to an independent forensics team led by John France, the exact cause of the spillway failure remains uncertain, though they identified "24 possible causes for the spillway failure, including a faulty drainage system, variations in concrete thickness, and corrosion in the structure’s rebar."
The DWR has planned for 2018, to demolish and reconstruct the portion of the spillway which was undamaged by the flood, but which also has been identified as structurally defective. In addition, crews are working to extend a cutoff wall under the emergency spillway to prevent erosion should that structure be used again in the future.
On November 1, 2017, DWR director Grant Davis said, "Lake Oroville’s main spillway is indeed ready to safely handle winter flows if needed". While this completes phase 1 of the construction, there remains a phase 2 to be completed in 2018. The second phase would include rebuilding the top section of the spillway (which was not rebuilt this season), putting slabs over the roller compacted concrete section, and constructing a concrete secant cutoff wall for the emergency spillway. The cost estimate at this point is over \$500 million. In October 2017, hairline cracks were found in the rebuilt spillway. Things that added to the cost included relocating power lines, dredging the river downstream of the dam, as well as the discovery that the bedrock under the spillway was weak, necessitating deeper excavations and more concrete.
The DWR commissioned an independent board of consultants (BOC) to review and comment on repairs to Oroville Dam. Memoranda (reports) prepared by the BOC are posted at the DWR web site. The independent forensic team (IFT) has been selected to determine the cause of the spillways incident, including effects of operations, management, structural design and geological conditions.
According to its 2017–18 operations plan, the DWR maintained Lake Oroville at a lower-than-normal level to reduce the possibility that the spillway would have to be used the following winter.
In a second phase of spillway repairs in 2018–19, temporary repairs on the main spillway done during phase one were being torn out and replaced with steel-reinforced structural concrete.
On April 2, 2019, due to heavy rainfall upstream, the DWR began releasing water over the newly reconstructed spillway at a rate of 8,300 cfs. Releases were increased to 25,000 cfs on April 7 to test how the spillway performed in higher flows. They were decreased to 15,000 cfs on April 9.
#### 2020 Safety assessment
The DWR released an assessment, dated October 1, 2020, concluding that Oroville Dam was suitable for continued safe and reliable operation.
Meanwhile, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission has demanded that California submit a plan by September 2022, for addressing the issue of greater amounts of rain predicted in the future.
## 2020–21 drought
Due to the low precipitation in the catchment area, water levels were below normal beginning in 2020. In August 2021, the Hyatt power plant had to be shut down because the water level fell below its water inlets. After falling to a record low of 22% capacity by September 30, winter storms increased the lake level by December and the plant was restarted on January 4, 2022.
## Operations
### Hydroelectricity
Construction of the underground Edward Hyatt Pump-Generating Plant was finished shortly after the completion of Oroville Dam. At the time, it was the largest underground power station in the United States, with three 132-megawatt (MW) conventional turbines and three 141 MW pump-generators for a total installed capacity of 819 MW. The Hyatt Powerplant is capable of pumping water back into Lake Oroville when surplus power is available. The pump-generators at Hyatt can lift up to 5,610 cubic feet per second (159 m<sup>3</sup>/s) into Lake Oroville (with a net consumption of 519 MW), while the six turbines combined use a flow of 16,950 cu ft/s (480 m<sup>3</sup>/s) at maximum generation.
Since 1969, the Hyatt plant has worked in tandem with an extensive pumped-storage operation comprising two offstream reservoirs west of Oroville. These two facilities are collectively known as the Oroville–Thermalito Complex. Water is diverted into the upper Thermalito reservoir (Thermalito Forebay) via the Thermalito Diversion Dam on the Feather River. During periods of off-peak power use, surplus energy generated at Hyatt is used to lift water from Thermalito's lower reservoir (the Thermalito Afterbay) to the forebay, which releases water back into the afterbay to generate up to 114 MW of power at times of high demand. The Hyatt and Thermalito plants produce an average of 2,200 gigawatt hours (GWh) of electricity each year, about half of the total power produced by the SWP's eight hydroelectric facilities.
### Water supply
Water released from Oroville Dam travels down the Feather River before joining with the Sacramento River, eventually reaching the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, where the SWP's California Aqueduct diverts the fresh water for transport to the arid San Joaquin Valley and Southern California. Oroville–Thermalito hydroelectric facilities furnish about one-third of the power necessary to drive the pumps that lift the water in the aqueduct from the delta into the valley, and then from the valley over the Tehachapi Mountains into coastal Southern California. Water and power from the dam contribute to the irrigation of 755,000 acres (306,000 ha) in the arid San Joaquin Valley Westside and municipal supplies to some 25 million people. At least 2.8 million acre⋅ft (910 billion US gal; 3.5 trillion L) of water is released.
### Flood control
During the winter and early spring, Lake Oroville is required to have at least 750,000 acre⋅ft (240 billion US gal; 930 billion L), or a fifth of the reservoir's storage capacity, available for flood control. The dam is operated to maintain an objective flood-control release of 150,000 cubic feet per second (4,200 m<sup>3</sup>/s), which may be further reduced during large storms when flows below the Feather's confluence with the Yuba River exceed 300,000 cubic feet per second (8,500 m<sup>3</sup>/s). In the particularly devastating flood of 1997, inflows to the reservoir hit more than 331,000 cubic feet per second (9,400 m<sup>3</sup>/s), but dam operators managed to limit the outflow to 160,000 cubic feet per second (4,500 m<sup>3</sup>/s), sparing large regions of the Sacramento Valley from flooding.
### Feather River Fish Hatchery
Oroville Dam completely blocks the anadromous migrations of Chinook salmon and steelhead trout in the Feather River. In 1967, in an effort to compensate for lost habitat, the DWR and the California Department of Fish and Game completed the Feather River Fish Hatchery. The Fish Barrier Dam, built in 1962, intercepts salmon and trout before they reach the base of the impassable Thermalito Diversion Dam and forces them to swim up a fish ladder to the hatchery, which is located on the north bank of the Feather River. The hatchery produces 10 million salmon smolt, along with 450,000 trout smolt, to stock in the river each year. The salmon smolt are released in two runs, with 20% for the spring run and 80% for the fall run. This facility has been successful enough that concern exists that salmon of hatchery stock are outcompeting remaining wild salmon in the Feather River system.
## See also
- New Bullards Bar Dam
- List of hydroelectric power station failures
- List of dams and reservoirs in California
- List of lakes in California
- List of largest reservoirs of California
- List of power stations in California
- List of tallest dams in the United States
- New Bidwell Bar Bridge |
417,834 | Fanny (band) | 1,170,640,196 | American all-female rock band | [
"All-female bands",
"Casablanca Records artists",
"Fanny (band)",
"Musical groups disestablished in 1975",
"Musical groups established in 1969",
"Musical groups from Los Angeles",
"Reprise Records artists"
]
| Fanny was an American rock band, active in the early to mid 1970s. They were one of the first all-female rock groups to achieve critical and commercial success, including two Billboard Hot 100 Top 40 singles.
The group was founded by guitarist June Millington and her sister, bassist Jean, who had been playing music together since they moved from the Philippines to California in the early 1960s. After playing through several variations of the band, they attracted the interest of producer Richard Perry who signed them to Reprise Records in 1969 as Fanny. The band recorded four albums together before June Millington quit the group, leading to the original line-up splitting. Following a final album, Fanny disbanded in 1975. The Millington sisters have continued to play music together since the split, and with a former drummer, Brie Howard-Darling, formed the spin-off group Fanny Walked the Earth in 2018.
The group had attracted critical acclaim for rejecting typical girl group styles and expectations of women in the rock industry, and emphasizing their musical skills. Later groups such as the Go-Go's, the Bangles, and the Runaways cited Fanny as a key influence.
## Career
Sisters June and Jean Millington moved with their family from the Philippines to Sacramento, California in 1961. They began to play music together on ukuleles, which helped them gain friends. In high school they formed an all-female band called the Svelts with June on guitar, Jean on bass, Addie Lee on guitar, and Brie Brandt on drums. Brandt left to get married and was later replaced by Alice de Buhr.
Lee and de Buhr later formed another all-female band, Wild Honey. The Millington sisters later joined this band as well. Wild Honey played Motown covers and eventually moved to Los Angeles. Frustrated by a lack of success or respect in the male-dominated rock scene, Wild Honey decided to disband after one final open-mic appearance at the Troubadour Club in Los Angeles in 1969. They were spotted at this gig by the secretary of producer Richard Perry, who had been searching for an all-female rock band to mentor.
Perry convinced Warner Bros. Records to sign the band, still known as Wild Honey, to Reprise Records. The group won the contract without the label hearing them play, on the grounds of being a novelty act, despite their genuine musical talent. Warner Bros. installed the band in a rented mansion formerly owned by Hedy Lamarr, on Marmont Lane near Sunset Boulevard. Prior to recording their first album, the band recruited keyboardist Nickey Barclay while bringing in early Svelts member Brie Brandt.
The band was then renamed Fanny, not with a sexual connotation but to denote a female spirit. The initial lineup consisted of June Millington on guitar, Jean Millington on bass, de Buhr on drums, Barclay on keyboards, and Brandt on lead vocals and percussion. Perry dismissed Brandt because he wanted the group to be a self-contained four-piece band like the Beatles. The Millingtons and Barclay all assumed lead vocal duties on alternating songs, while de Buhr sang lead occasionally on later albums.
Perry produced the band's first three albums, beginning with Fanny in 1970. Because of the connection to Perry and Reprise Records, Barclay was invited to tour with Joe Cocker as a backing singer, and consequently appeared on the album Mad Dogs and Englishmen. The group's cover of Cream's "Badge" from the first album earned significant radio airplay. The follow-up album, Charity Ball was released the following year, and its title track reached \#40 on the Billboard Hot 100. The members of Fanny also worked as session musicians, and played on Barbra Streisand's 1971 album Barbra Joan Streisand, after Streisand had wanted to record with a small band.
The group continued to pick up well-known fans; David Bowie sent the group a letter admiring their work and invited the band to a post-show party where he showed them mime techniques. With young engineer Leslie Ann Jones as their road manager and live sound mixer, Fanny toured worldwide, opening for Slade, Jethro Tull and Humble Pie, gaining widespread popularity in the United Kingdom. A 1971 article in Sounds remarked that the group "seems that they are the support group to everyone these days". The group made several live television appearances during tours, including The Sonny and Cher Show, American Bandstand, The Old Grey Whistle Test and Beat-Club.
The group's third album, Fanny Hill (1972) featured the Beatles' engineer Geoff Emerick in addition to Perry's production. It included covers of the Beatles' "Hey Bulldog" and Marvin Gaye's "Ain't That Peculiar". The latter featured regular Rolling Stones saxophonist Bobby Keys, and was released as a single, reaching \#85 on the Billboard Hot 100. Fellow Stones sideman Jim Price also played brass on the album. Rolling Stone wrote a rave review of the album, praising the group's musical skills and particularly June Millington's ability to play both lead and rhythm guitar.
Their fourth album, Mothers Pride (1973), was produced by Todd Rundgren. By the time Mothers Pride was released, June Millington was feeling constrained by the group format. The record label wanted her to wear certain designer clothes and adopt a hard rock image, which she resisted. She decided to quit the group, later saying "I needed to figure out who I was" and regularly clashed with Barclay due to conflicting personalities. June moved to Woodstock to study Buddhism, but insisted that the group continue without her.
De Buhr also left the band, with a returning Brandt replacing her on drums. Patti Quatro (sister of Suzi Quatro) replaced June on guitar. This lineup signed with Casablanca Records and released the final Fanny album, Rock and Roll Survivors, in 1974. The first single, "I've Had It" reached \#79 on the Billboard Hot 100. Brandt left the band shortly after the album's completion when she married composer James Newton Howard, and was briefly replaced by Cam Davis. Barclay quit the group at the end of 1974, thinking it was not working without June Millington. The second single, "Butter Boy" was written by Jean Millington about Bowie, and became their biggest hit, reaching \#29 on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 1975. By the time that single was released, the group had split.
## Post-split activities
After the breakup, in 1975 the Millington sisters put together a new line-up of Fanny for a short tour, though no older Fanny material was played. This group ultimately morphed into a new all-women band called the L.A. All-Stars, which generated some interest from record labels, but with the stipulation that the band tour as Fanny and play only old Fanny songs, which June Millington opposed.
June Millington subsequently released three solo albums in the 1980s and has had a career as a producer for artists including Holly Near, Cris Williamson and Bitch and Animal. She operates the Institute for Musical Arts, a non-profit organization supporting girls and women in music. Jean Millington was married to Bowie's guitarist Earl Slick for a time and later became an herbalist. The Millingtons continued to record together after Fanny as well, most recently on the 2011 album Play Like a Girl on June's label Fabulous Records. Nickey Barclay released a solo album titled Diamond in a Junkyard in 1976 then withdrew from the music industry. De Buhr later worked in marketing for several major record labels, and promoted the Go-Go's, who cited Fanny as an influence. She collaborated with Real Gone Music in a reissue program for the group's albums.
Patti Quatro continued to work as a session musician for her sister Suzi and was involved in the reissue of material by the Quatro sisters' early band the Pleasure Seekers. Brie Brandt, later known as Brie Howard-Darling and currently as Brie Darling, had an active post-Fanny career, fronting the bands American Girls, which released one album in 1986, and Boxing Gandhis, which has released four albums since the mid-1990s. She has also acted in films such as 1982's Android and is the mother of Playboy Playmate Brandi Brandt. Quatro and Brandt both toured with Electric Light Orchestra and appeared on the album A New World Record in 1976.
In 2002, Rhino Records released the limited edition 4-CD box set First Time in a Long Time, which collected Fanny's first four studio albums along with live recordings, outtakes, and promotional items. A reunion concert featuring the Millington sisters and de Buhr (Barclay declined to appear for health reasons) was held at Berklee College of Music on April 20, 2007, where the band members received the ROCKRGRL Women of Valor award for their achievements. The first four original Fanny albums are available on Real Gone records, with updated liner notes, pictures, and new mixes.
In 2016, Brie Howard joined a live performance by the Millington sisters. This inspired the formation of a new band called Fanny Walked the Earth. An album also titled Fanny Walked the Earth was released in March 2018. The album marks the first time June, Jean, and Brie all recorded at the same time in nearly 50 years.
Fanny is the subject of the documentary film Fanny: The Right to Rock, released in 2021 and directed by Bobbi Jo Hart. Fanny performed at Yerba Buena Gardens on May 20, 2023.
## Musical style and legacy
Though Fanny was not the first all-female rock band to sign with a major label (after Goldie and the Gingerbreads and the Pleasure Seekers), they were the first to release an album on a major label and one of the first to achieve top 40 success on the Billboard Hot 100. Fanny's music was influenced by the Beatles and the Funk Brothers, the loose studio musician collective on Motown records.
The band resisted suggestions by the record company to dress in a typical girl group style, or emphasise any sex appeal, and rehearsed regularly, wanting to acquire a reputation based on their musical talent. Jean Millington later said that Fanny had to have a strong live presence in order to overcome audience's perceptions that women could not play rock music well. June added, "We knew we had to prove we could play and deliver live. Otherwise, no one would believe it." The group were more successful in the UK and Europe, where audiences appreciated their music and respected their work, as opposed to the US. De Buhr was disappointed to discover that some record company executives merely treated Fanny as a gimmick that should not be taken seriously. Promoter Bill Graham was reluctant to give the group a headlining slot at venues, for fear the group would split up as the members got married and had children, though the group have stressed this was due to business pragmatics and not chauvinism. During tours, female fans would ask the group how to form a band. Later all-female bands such as the Runaways and the Bangles have cited Fanny as a key influence.
A retrospective review of the group's career in Rebeat stressed that Fanny were simply a good band, irrespective of gender. June Millington has been praised for her guitar skills, and was described by Guitar Player as the hottest female guitar player in the music industry. During her time in Fanny, she initially favored the Gibson ES-355 and Fender Twin Reverb amp, before acquiring a Gibson Les Paul Junior guitar and Traynor amplifiers. She used the Les Paul primarily for slide guitar playing. Jean Millington's main instrument in Fanny was a 1963 Fender Precision Bass, which is still in her possession.
Little Feat bandleader Lowell George was a fan of Fanny and jammed with the group when they were in Los Angeles. In a 1999 interview with Rolling Stone, Bowie revealed his respect for the band:
> They were extraordinary: they wrote everything, they played like motherfuckers, they were just colossal and wonderful, and nobody's ever mentioned them. They're as important as anybody else who's ever been, ever; it just wasn't their time.
## Personnel
### Original line-up
- Jean Millington – bass, vocals (1969–1975)
- June Millington – guitar, vocals (1969–1973)
- Nickey Barclay – keyboards, vocals (1970–1974)
- Alice de Buhr – drums, vocals (1969–1973)
### Later members
- Patti Quatro – guitar, vocals (1974–1975)
- Brie Howard – drums, vocals (1973–1974)
- Cam Davis – drums (1974–1975)
## Discography
Studio albums
- Fanny (1970)
- Charity Ball (1971) (No. 150)
- Fanny Hill (1972) (No. 135)
- Mothers Pride (1973)
- Rock and Roll Survivors (1974)
Live albums
- Fanny Live (1998; recorded 1972) (reissued as Fanny: Live in 1972)
Compilation albums
- First Time in a Long Time – The Reprise Recordings (4-CD box set, 2002)
Fanny Walked the Earth
- Fanny Walked the Earth (2018)
## See also
- List of all-female bands
- List of guests appearing on The Midnight Special
- List of sibling musical groups |
5,195,881 | Buddy Alliston | 1,172,663,491 | American football player (1933–2021) | [
"1933 births",
"2021 deaths",
"American football fullbacks",
"American football guards",
"American football linebackers",
"Canadian football guards",
"Denver Broncos (AFL) players",
"Oakland Raiders players",
"Ole Miss Rebels football players",
"Players of American football from Jackson, Mississippi",
"Players of Canadian football from Jackson, Mississippi",
"Winnipeg Blue Bombers players"
]
| Vaughn Samuel "Buddy" Alliston Jr. (December 14, 1933 – October 1, 2021) was a professional American football player who played the positions of guard and linebacker. He played college football at the University of Mississippi before being drafted by the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL) in the 15th round of the 1956 NFL Draft. Alliston first played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL) with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. In 1956, he was the runner-up for the CFL's Most Outstanding Lineman Award. After years of military service, he played in the American Football League (AFL) for the Denver Broncos in 1960.
## Early career
Alliston played high school football at Florence High School as a fullback. He also contributed on special teams, blocking 21 punts over the course of his high school career. In 1951, he blocked five punts in a single game.
In college, he played for the Ole Miss Rebels from 1952 to 1955. As a rookie in 1952, Alliston played as a guard on Ole Miss' rookie "B team". He went on to play as both a left and right guard for the Rebels in the following seasons. In 1954, Alliston became known as a quick player who was able to easily tackle opponents on the defensive side of the ball.
By his senior season, Ole Miss head coach Johnny Vaught considered Alliston to be a contender for All-American honors and the Associated Press expected him to be one of "the best guards of 1955". The Associated Press went on to recognize Alliston several times throughout the season on their "SEC checklist of stars today". At the conclusion of the season, Alliston received a variety of honors, including second-team All-SEC and an honorable mention on the All-American team. He was also selected as an honorable mention for both best offensive and best defensive guard in his conference among a poll of SEC coaches. He was voted "Colonel Rebel" by the Ole Miss student body in December 1955. The Ole Miss Rebels defeated the TCU Horned Frogs 14–13 in the 1956 Cotton Bowl Classic, with Alliston being named the best lineman of the game.
## Professional career
The Green Bay Packers of the National Football League selected Alliston in the 15th round of the 1956 NFL Draft with the 176th overall pick, but he didn't play for the Packers. Instead, Alliston played for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League in all sixteen regular season games during their 1956 season, recording two interceptions and a fumble recovery. He was named a Western Interprovincial Football Union all-star at the offensive guard position during his rookie season. Alliston was also named a runner-up for the CFL's Most Outstanding Lineman Award.
After his rookie season in the CFL, he took a break from professional football to join the United States Air Force. While with the Air Force, he was a player on the Eglin Air Force Base team which won the 1958 Shrimp Bowl against the Brooke Army Medical Center. Alliston rejoined the Blue Bombers in 1959 but played in only one game. In 1960, Alliston initially joined the Oakland Raiders in their training camp before moving to the Denver Broncos. Alliston played in eleven regular season games for the Broncos as a linebacker. He retired after the 1960 season. Alliston died on October 1, 2021, at the age of 87. |
49,208,430 | 1990 Nebraska gubernatorial election | 1,163,600,783 | Election for the governorship of the U.S. state of Nebraska | [
"1990 Nebraska elections",
"1990 United States gubernatorial elections",
"1990 in Nebraska",
"Nebraska gubernatorial elections",
"November 1990 events",
"November 1990 events in North America",
"November 1990 events in the United States"
]
| In the 1990 Nebraska gubernatorial election, Democratic challenger Ben Nelson narrowly defeated first-term Republican incumbent Kay Orr for the governorship of the state of Nebraska.
Orr's popularity had suffered due to changes in the state's income-tax structure enacted in 1987, which were seen as a violation of her pledge not to increase taxes. The impending construction of a low-level radioactive-waste repository in north central Nebraska also occasioned discontent with her administration. In the Republican primary, she easily defeated "perennial candidate" Mort Sullivan, but her winning margin was significantly smaller than expected.
Seven Democrats, four of them regarded as serious contenders, vied for their party's gubernatorial nomination. School funding, abortion, and the question of whether to establish a state lottery were among the issues that figured in the campaign. The primary election was so close that it took 48 days to declare Nelson the winner, by a margin of 41 votes.
The contest between Orr and Nelson was generally seen as an unusually negative one. Orr accused Nelson of questionable business dealings; Nelson accused Orr of violating the public trust. Each accused the other of negative campaigning. Salient issues included the 1987 tax changes; the radioactive-waste site; and a bill shifting a large portion of school funding from local property taxes to the state general fund, which included increases in the sales and income taxes, and which had passed over Orr's veto.
When the election was held, Nelson defeated Orr by a margin of 4,030 votes, with 49.91% of the vote to her 49.23%. It was suggested that a winter storm on the day of the election might have contributed to Orr's defeat, by reducing turnout among elderly and rural voters.
## Background
In 1986, Republican Kay Orr, who had been Nebraska's state treasurer for five years, defeated Democrat Helen Boosalis for the governorship. During the campaign, Orr pledged not to increase taxes.
In 1987, at Orr's urging, the state legislature passed LB773, which changed Nebraska's method of calculating its personal income tax. Up to that time, the state's income tax had been a percentage of the taxpayer's federal liability. Under the new system, Nebraska would base its tax on federal adjusted gross income, with the state establishing its own system of exemptions and deductions. Proponents argued that such a measure was necessary to produce stability and give Nebraska greater control over its state revenues; opponents objected to the fact that the measure would increase taxes on lower- and middle-income taxpayers, while decreasing them for upper-income Nebraskans. The plan as proposed by Orr would have been revenue-neutral, neither increasing nor decreasing state revenue. The final version, however, as passed by the legislature and signed by Orr, increased receipts by an estimated \$11–14 million.
The increase in revenues was seen as a breach of Orr's pledge concerning taxes, and her popularity fell as the new system went into effect. In December 1987, a poll indicated that 60% of Nebraskans approved of her performance and 25% disapproved; by March 1988, her approval rating had dropped to 48%, while those disapproving had increased to 38%. In December 1989, the numbers stood at 47% approval and 46% disapproval.
Orr's popularity was further damaged by the proposed siting of a low-level nuclear waste disposal facility in the state. In 1983, during the tenure of governor Bob Kerrey, Nebraska had joined Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma to form the Central Interstate Low-Level Radioactive Waste Compact, under which a single disposal site would be constructed for all five states. In 1987, the members of the compact voted 4–1 to place the facility in Nebraska. At that time, Orr declared that she was not pleased with the choice, but had to acquiesce in the other states' decision. U.S. Ecology, the company chosen to construct and operate the facility, considered a variety of sites in the state. In January 1989, they announced that they had narrowed their choices to sites in Boyd, Nemaha, and Nuckolls counties; in January 1990, they declared that they had chosen the Boyd County location.
## Democratic primary
### Governor
#### Candidates
Seven candidates ran in the Democratic primary. Four of them were regarded as serious contenders for the nomination.
- Mike Boyle, former mayor of Omaha, Nebraska's largest city. Boyle had been elected mayor in 1981 and re-elected in 1985, but in 1987 had lost a recall election brought about by a petition drive.
- Bill Harris, mayor of Lincoln, Nebraska's capital and second-largest city. Harris had represented a Lincoln district in the state legislature from 1982 until his election as mayor in 1987.
- Bill Hoppner, a former staffer for elected officials J. James Exon and Bob Kerrey. Hoppner had served on Exon's staff from 1973 to 1982, initially as legal counsel while Exon was governor, then as chief of staff when Exon was elected to the U.S. Senate. He had then returned to Nebraska and served as chief of staff for governor Kerrey from 1982 to 1984; in 1989, when Kerrey took a seat in the U.S. Senate, Hoppner had again served for a year as his chief of staff.
- Ben Nelson, an attorney and insurance executive. Nelson was making his first bid for elective office. In 1986, he had been the state chairman of Boosalis's unsuccessful gubernatorial campaign. In 1975–76, he had served as director of the Nebraska Department of Insurance.
The other three candidates in the Democratic primary were regarded as unlikely to win; when the election was held, the three combined drew less than 3% of the vote.
- Don Eret, a farmer from Dorchester, who had served in the state legislature from 1982 to 1986.
- Robb Nimic, a philosopher and theologian from Lincoln, who had filed as a pauper.
- Robert Prokop, a forensic pathologist from Wilber, who had held a seat on the University of Nebraska Board of Regents from 1971 to 1982.
#### Issues
##### Taxes and school funding
One of the foremost issues in the Democratic primary concerned school funding. In April 1990, the legislature passed LB1059, which made major changes to the financing of public education in the state. Prior to its passage, roughly 70% of the money for primary and secondary schools came from property taxes and other local sources. The expressed goal of the bill's supporters was to increase the state's contribution to school districts from 25% of operational costs to 45%; this would be funded through a 25% increase in the sales tax and a 17.5% increase in the personal income tax. Proponents maintained that the measure would lessen inequality among school districts and would avert a significant increase in property taxes; they also noted that courts in several other states had struck down locally financed educational systems such as Nebraska's. Opponents argued that the increased taxes would prove burdensome to Nebraskans, particularly the poor, and expressed doubt that the measure would prevent substantial property-tax increases. The bill passed; Orr vetoed it, but was overridden.
Of the four leading Democratic candidates, Boyle, Harris, and Nelson declared that they would have vetoed the bill, arguing that it would not in fact lead to long-term property-tax relief. Hoppner expressed enthusiastic support for the measure, "because it's at the heart of the traditional Democratic message of this state, because the people of this state care about our children".
##### Other issues
Another issue raised in the Democratic primary was the question of whether a state lottery should be established in Nebraska; and, if established, what use should be made of the revenues generated thereby. Of the four major candidates, Harris indicated that he was generally opposed to a lottery. Boyle proposed that proceeds be used for property-tax relief; Hoppner declared that they should be used for special one-time expenses, and not for routine spending; and Nelson maintained that they should be used to augment basic spending on education.
Harris and Hoppner both declared themselves supporters of abortion rights, and were endorsed by the pro-choice organization Nebraska Voters for Choice. Boyle expressed opposition to abortion, and received the endorsement of pro-life organizations Metro Omaha Right to Life and the Nebraska Coalition for Life. Nelson also declared himself an opponent of abortion, but said that if the legislature passed abortion-rights legislation, he would neither veto nor sign it, allowing it to become law without his signature.
All four of the major Democratic candidates asserted that illegal drug use was one of the critical issues in the campaign; Harris stated that it was the number-one issue facing Nebraska and the nation. All four were opposed to drug abuse and crime.
##### Nelson and junk bonds
In the final two weeks before the primary election, Nelson came under attack from Harris and Hoppner for his involvement with life-insurance holding company First Executive, for which he had acted as a consultant and director; he and his law firm had collected over \$1.8 million in fees from the company. First Executive had large holdings in junk bonds, which had recently received a great deal of unfavorable attention related to investment banking firm Drexel Burnham Lambert's February 1990 declaration of bankruptcy, and to Drexel employee Michael Milken's April 1990 conviction for securities fraud. Nelson maintained that he had played no part in the junk-bond investment decisions of First Executive, having only joined the company's board in 1988.
#### Strategy and spending
Nelson led the field in campaign contributions and spending; by the end of April, his campaign had spent \$593,000. In the same time period, Hoppner had spent \$326,000; Harris, \$156,000; and Boyle, less than \$60,000. Nelson was criticized for accepting large contributions from insurance companies in Chicago and California; he had also loaned his campaign over \$360,000, a sum far greater than that borrowed by any of the other candidates.
The number of viable candidates complicated the devising of campaign strategies. Under more ordinary circumstances, a candidate could win a statewide Nebraska Democratic primary by winning heavily in five eastern counties, containing just over half of the state's registered Democrats: Douglas and Sarpy counties, which include the Omaha metro area; Lancaster County, including Lincoln; and Dodge and Saunders counties. In this election, however, every Democratic vote had to be sought, which made it necessary to direct campaign efforts to the Third Congressional District, consisting of the western three-quarters of the state. Although the Third District was one of the most Republican congressional districts in the nation, its small population of Democrats might prove crucial in the final vote count.
The four candidates had four different strategies. Boyle's was based on securing a strong lead in Omaha, from voters who had supported him as mayor, and on doing well among conservative Democrats in the Third District, attracted by his pro-life stance and endorsements. Harris expected to win heavily in Lancaster County, and to draw votes from more socially-liberal Democrats throughout the state because of his pro-choice position; he had secured the endorsement of Democratic former governor Frank Morrison, who campaigned with him throughout Nebraska. Hoppner depended on the support of activist and party-line Democrats, drawn by his pro-choice stance, his support for LB1059, and his association with Exon and Kerrey; four days before the election, he received a formal endorsement from Kerrey, and began broadcasting a television commercial in which the senator declared his support for Hoppner.
Nelson's strategy was the most focused on the Third District: his campaign's goal was to minimize his losing margin in Omaha and Lincoln, while winning heavily in rural Nebraska. His advantage in funding proved important in this. While Hoppner relied on television advertising on stations in Omaha, Lincoln, Grand Island, Hastings, Kearney, and North Platte, Nelson bought advertising in all of those markets and also on Sioux City, Iowa television, which reached northeastern Nebraska, and on radio station KRVN in Lexington, Nebraska, with a large listenership in rural central and western Nebraska. To reach more voters who were outside of the areas covered by the eastern and central television stations, he staged a direct-mail campaign, sending up to three letters to registered Democrats in rural areas near the state's northern, southern, and western borders.
#### Newspaper endorsements
There was no consensus among the daily newspapers of the state regarding the Democratic candidates. The state's largest newspaper, the Omaha World-Herald, which then circulated throughout Nebraska, endorsed Harris, noting in particular his opposition to gambling. The Grand Island Independent also endorsed Harris alone. The Lincoln Journal found Harris, Hoppner, and Nelson all worthy candidates. The Lincoln Star and the Fremont Tribune endorsed Hoppner; the Kearney Hub, Boyle; and the North Platte Telegraph, both Boyle and Hoppner.
#### Results
Polls conducted days before the May 15 election showed no clear winner in the Democratic primary: any of the four major candidates might have won. Further polling showed no clear outcome in hypothetical matchups between any of the four and Orr.
Of the 363,778 registered Democrats in the state, 172,812, or 47.5%, voted in the primary; 166,744 of them cast ballots in the gubernatorial race. As the ballots were counted, Harris quickly fell behind the other three major candidates; in Lancaster County, on which he had counted heavily, he ran in third place, behind Hoppner and Nelson. Harris attributed his poor showing to the fact that he and Hoppner had split the pro-choice vote, and to Kerrey's late endorsement of Hoppner. Boyle led Hoppner in Douglas County by 11,000 votes, and until about midnight he held the lead; however, his support outside of the Omaha area was not strong, and he was forced to admit defeat soon thereafter.
On the morning of May 16, Hoppner and Nelson were virtually tied, with only a few hundred votes between them, absentee ballots still to be counted, and a recount almost certain to be held, as required by state law for cases when two leading candidates were within one percentage point of one another. The recount in fact proved necessary; and so close was the contest that only on July 3, some 48 days after the election, was Nelson certified the winner, by a margin of 41 votes: 44,556 to Hoppner's 44,515.
### Lieutenant governor
Under the state constitution as it existed in 1990, parties chose their nominees for governor and lieutenant governor in separate votes in the primary; the two nominees from each party then ran as a ticket in the general election. In the Democratic lieutenant-gubernatorial race, five candidates ran; the winner was Maxine Moul.
#### Candidates
- Keith B. Edquist, businessman, owner of Husker-Hawkeye Distributing Co., former member of the Bellevue, Nebraska, City Council, and member of the Omaha Public Power District board
- Ken L. Michaelis, disbarred attorney from West Point, Nebraska, who was an unsuccessful candidate for lieutenant governor in 1986 and US Senator in 1988
- Maxine Moul, co-owner with her husband of Maverick Media, which published five newspapers and several shoppers from Syracuse, Nebraska
- Gary L. Rogge, farmer from Auburn, Nebraska, and past vice president of Concerned Citizens of Nemaha County, seeking the office to address issues with radioactive waste
- Steve Wiitala, former member of the Nebraska Legislature in District 31 from 1981 to 1983, former Douglas County election commissioner, and former campaign manager for Bob Kerrey's 1982 gubernatorial campaign from Omaha, Nebraska.
#### Results
## Republican primary
### Governor
Orr faced only nominal opposition in the Republican primary, which drew little media attention. Only two names appeared on the Republican ballot.
#### Candidates
- Kay Orr, one-term incumbent governor.
- Mort Sullivan, described by the Omaha World-Herald as a "perennial candidate". Sullivan owned an Omaha company that operated automatic telephone-dialing machines; in 1989, he had run in the Omaha mayoral election, placing sixth.
#### Results
In the Republican primary, Orr had been expected to win easily, and did. However, Sullivan received about 31% of the vote, unpleasantly surprising Orr, who had expected him to win from 15% to 25%. Orr attributed this to Republican dissatisfaction with some of her decisions as governor, including the tax changes of 1987. Sullivan's unexpectedly high percentage was also attributed in part to Orr's failure to oppose the proposed radioactive-waste repository: he defeated her in Boyd County, chosen for the site; in Nuckolls County, which had been one of the three finalists considered by U.S. Ecology; and in Webster County, which borders Nuckolls County and which had been among the locations initially considered for the disposal site.
### Lieutenant governor
Orr's incumbent lieutenant governor, Bill Nichol, did not run for re-election. Jack Maddux, backed by much of the state's Republican establishment and endorsed by Nichol, won with 67.2% of the vote to Brettman's 32.5%.
#### Candidates
- Roy Brettmann, businessman and owner of Big Sur and Tops Real Estate from Omaha, Nebraska
- Jack Maddux, cattleman, former mayor of Wauneta, Nebraska, and member of the Ameritas board, the Nebraska Wesleyan University board of trustees, and the University of Nebraska Foundation board
#### Results
## General election
The campaign leading up to the general election was regarded as an unusually negative one; an Omaha World-Herald editorial described it as a "long, cruel, issue-less campaign". Nelson's campaign manager accused Orr's campaign of "negative cheap shots"; Orr's campaign manager accused Nelson of "stridently negative attacks". Nelson's campaign declared that Orr had "no credibility because she has violated the public trust"; Orr's accused Nelson of "vicious attacks". In an October debate, Nelson accused Orr of "constant attacks on my character, constant attacks on my family relations", while Orr accused Nelson of "the worst type of negative campaigning this state has ever seen".
### Issues
#### Junk bonds redux
In July, Nelson announced that he would not seek re-election to First Executive's board when his term expired at the end of the month, stating that his campaign would not leave him time to fulfill his duties as a director, and that his resignation had nothing to do with the company's history of junk-bond dealings. In September, Orr's campaign ran a commercial stating that Nelson, as a consultant and director of the company, must have been involved in its decisions to invest in junk bonds. In an October radio interview, she said "My opponent owns a company with Mike Milken"; she subsequently issued a partial retraction, calling Nelson "a business associate with Mike Milken". Nelson declared that Orr had "resorted to negative campaigning in order to save her job", and denied any relationship with Milken.
Orr called for Nelson to make his income-tax return public, providing her own to the Omaha World-Herald in a sealed envelope, to be opened if Nelson's were also made available. Nelson declined to do so, for reasons of "privacy and security", declaring that he had provided all the records required by the law, and accusing Orr of demanding them as a diversionary tactic.
#### Taxes and spending
Nelson pressed the issue of taxes, maintaining that the 1987 restructuring had increased taxes on lower- and middle-class taxpayers, while decreasing them for the wealthy. Orr responded by citing a Deloitte and Touche study finding that taxes on most low and middle incomes were lower in 1989 than they had been in 1986; state senator Don Wesely, a Nelson consultant, denounced the study as "political propaganda to mislead the public".
Nelson accused Orr of profligate spending, noting that the state budget had increased by 40% during the first three years of her governorship. Orr's campaign responded that the steep increase was partly due to essential spending deferred during the nationwide recession of the early 1980s and the farm recession of the mid-80s; partly due to the state takeover of the welfare system, which had previously received some of its funding from the counties; and partly due to a 65% increase in Medicaid costs.
A petition drive was launched to repeal school-finance bill LB1059. Orr ran radio commercials in support of the repeal, calling the bill "a record tax increase" and noting that she had vetoed it. Nelson declined to sign the petition, stating that the bill, though flawed, should be corrected by the legislature rather than repealed altogether. Orr's campaign condemned this, declaring that Nelson was "trying to get votes from people on both sides by riding the fence".
#### Boyd County
In July 1990, Kerrey withdrew his support from the proposed radioactive-waste repository in Boyd County, asserting that the facility might no longer be needed and might not be economically feasible. Nelson joined Kerrey in calling for a moratorium on further work. Orr declared that she would be willing to suspend the process, if Kerrey could guarantee that Nebraska taxpayers and power consumers would not suffer, but expressed concern that such a move might be a violation of federal law; an Orr staffer cited a study indicating that costs of withdrawing from the waste-disposal compact would be at least \$150 million, and might be as high as \$425 million.
Nelson declared that "[i]f I am elected governor, it is not likely that there will be a nuclear dump in Boyd County or in Nebraska". He called for a debate in Boyd County, and accused Orr of a "lack of leadership" on the matter; in mid-October, he held a rally in the county at which he chided his opponent for her unwillingness to campaign there, and declared that more forceful opposition by Orr would have prevented the decision to locate the site in Nebraska. Following the rally, the Boyd County Republican Committee announced its unanimous endorsement of Nelson over Orr.
#### Other issues
Orr accused Nelson of "lacking leadership" on abortion, declaring that she would veto any bill that relaxed restrictions on the procedure. The Nebraska Coalition for Life endorsed Orr, with the comment that "[Nelson's] position is no position at all".
The candidates differed on a measure on the ballot, promoted by the Veterans of Foreign Wars, that would legalize video slot machines. Nelson supported the measure, and stated that if elected, he would propose an amendment to the Nebraska constitution that would authorize a statewide lottery. Orr opposed the video-slot measure, and any attempt to establish a state lottery.
Orr claimed credit for the state's 2% unemployment rate. She emphasized her party affiliation, declaring "This is a Republican state." She asserted that Nebraskans knew her and her record as a public official, while Nelson was an unknown quantity.
### Campaigns and spending
Orr spent twice as much as Nelson, in what the Omaha World-Herald described as "the most expensive governor's race in state history". President George H. W. Bush visited Omaha to raise funds for her and for two Republican Congressional candidates. She secured an endorsement from University of Nebraska athletic director Bob Devaney, revered in Nebraska for his success as the coach of the university football team.
Twelve of Nebraska's daily newspapers, including the World-Herald and the Lincoln Star, endorsed Orr. Nelson garnered two endorsements, from the McCook Daily Gazette and the Fremont Tribune (the latter of which endorsed Orr as well). The Lincoln Journal declined to endorse either candidate, accusing both of negative and mean-spirited campaigning.
Two weeks before the election, the Orr campaign discovered that Dresner Sykes, their media-consulting firm, had charged the campaign for television advertising time that was never purchased. A World-Herald analysis after the election determined that Creative Media, the firm's advertising placement agency, had charged the campaign \$34,860 for October advertising on Omaha station KMTV, while actually purchasing \$6,115 worth of time, or 17.5% of that ordered. A similar pattern obtained on other stations in Omaha, Lincoln, North Platte, and Sioux City, with Creative Media actually purchasing between 12% and 88% of the time ordered by the campaign. Although the campaign had ordered advertisements placed on Omaha television stations every day during the period October 5–22, nothing ran on at least four days of the period. Dresner Sykes reimbursed the Orr campaign with a \$50,000 check and with the cancellation of unpaid bills; but Orr could not recover the lost advertising time in the past, and found that the most desirable advertising times for the rest of the campaign's duration were already taken.
### General election results
On November 6, the day of the election, a winter storm struck central Nebraska, depositing up to 12 inches (300 mm) of snow and ice. Secretary of State Allen Beerman estimated that up to 50,000 voters might have been kept from the polls by the weather. The storm reduced turnout in the Third District and among elderly voters, who historically tended to support Republicans. Before ballot-counting was complete, Beerman suggested that the weather might have cost Orr the election.
Unofficial results on election night gave Nelson a lead of 4,658 votes out of nearly 570,000. As absentee ballots were counted, it became clear that they would not change the outcome; Orr conceded to Nelson on November 9.
The official results gave Nelson 292,771 votes (49.91%) to Orr's 288,741 (49.23%). Sullivan, running as a write-in, garnered 1887 votes (0.32%); other write-ins received 3143 votes (0.54%). Nelson won 19 counties that the Republicans had won in the 1986 gubernatorial election, many of them in areas that had been suggested as locations for the radioactive-waste disposal site.
#### Other votes
Nebraska voted on four seats in the U.S. Congress: one in the Senate and three in the House of Representatives. All three incumbents running were re-elected. Exon, a Democrat, won re-election to the Senate, securing 59% of the vote to defeat Republican Hal Daub. Republican Doug Bereuter was re-elected to the First District House seat, with 65% of the vote to Democrat Larry Hall's 35%. In the Second District, one-term incumbent Peter Hoagland, a Democrat, received 58% of the vote to Republican Ally Milder's 42%. In a race for an open House seat in the Third District, Republican Bill Barrett defeated Democrat Sandra K. Scofield, taking 51.1% of the vote to her 48.8%.
The LB1059 repeal effort, which Orr had supported and Nelson opposed, failed: 44% of the votes cast supported repeal, while 56% favored keeping the measure. A World-Herald article noted that opposition to repeal was especially high in areas where rural school districts were receiving large amount of state aid, and that support for repeal was strongest in Douglas County.
The ballot measure to legalize and regulate video lotteries, which Nelson had supported and Orr opposed, also failed. Votes in favor of the measure amounted to only 35% of the total, while 65% were opposed.
Nationally, the Democratic Party made small gains in the U.S. Congress, with an increase of one seat in the Senate and eight in the House of Representatives. Incumbent governors fared poorly: the incumbent party lost in 14 of the 36 contests, including two in which independent candidates won. Governors who had reneged on pledges not to allow tax increases suffered badly; beside Orr, Republicans Mike Hayden of Kansas and Bob Martinez of Florida were rejected by the voters. |
47,029,972 | Kapiʻolani | 1,171,351,170 | Queen consort of Hawaiʻi (1834–1899) | [
"1834 births",
"1899 deaths",
"Burials at the Royal Mausoleum (Mauna ʻAla)",
"Grand Cordons of the Order of the Precious Crown",
"Grand Crosses of the Order of St. Sava",
"Hawaiian Kingdom Anglicans",
"Hawaiian ladies-in-waiting",
"Hawaiian queens consort",
"Hawaiian royal consorts",
"House of Kalākaua",
"People from Hilo, Hawaii",
"Recipients of the Royal Order of Kalākaua",
"Recipients of the Royal Order of Kapiolani",
"Women who experienced pregnancy loss"
]
| Kapiʻolani (December 31, 1834 – June 24, 1899) was the queen of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi as the consort of Mōʻī (king) Kalākaua, who reigned from 1874 to his death in 1891, when she became known as the Dowager Queen Kapiʻolani. Deeply interested in the health and welfare of Native Hawaiians, Kapiʻolani established the Kapiʻolani Home for Girls, for the education of the daughters of residents of the Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement, and the Kapiʻolani Maternity Home, where Hawaiian mothers and newborns could receive care.
## Early life and family
Kapiʻolani was born December 31, 1834, in Hilo on Hawaiʻi Island to High Chief Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole of Hilo and High Chiefess Kinoiki Kekaulike of Kauaʻi, the daughter of King Kaumualiʻi, the last king of an independent Kauaʻi before its cession to Kamehameha the Great. Her two younger sisters were Kapoʻoloku Poʻomaikelani (1839–1895), who married Hiram Kahanawai, and Kinoiki Kekaulike (1843–1884), who married David Kahalepouli Piʻikoi.
Her full name was Kapiʻolani Napelakapuokakaʻe. Her namesake was her great-aunt High Chiefess Kapiʻolani, who plucked the ʻōhelo berries and openly defied the goddess Pele as a dramatic demonstration of her new faith in Christianity. Kapiʻolani is composed of three words (ka piʻo lani) and literally means "the arch [of] heaven (rainbows signified the presence of royalty)". Her secondary name, Napelakapuokakaʻe, translates to "the sacred flesh of Kakae".
She was raised in Hilo until the age of eight when she was sent to be raised in the district of Kona, on the western side of the island of Hawaiʻi. She went to Honolulu on Oʻahu when she was sixteen and came under the guardianship of King Kamehameha III.
Kapiʻolani was brought up to read and write in the Hawaiian language. Although she learned to understand a few English words and phrases, like many Native Hawaiians she never learned to speak it fluently and required a Hawaiian translator when communicating with English speakers. Kapiʻolani became a member of the Anglican Church of Hawaiʻi after it was established in 1862.
## Marriage to Nāmākēhā
On March 7, 1852, Kapiʻolani married High Chief Bennett Nāmākēhā, a member of the House of Nobles in Honolulu. She was almost eighteen years old, while her husband was thirty years her senior. He was an uncle of Queen Emma, the wife of Kamehameha IV, on her father George Naʻea's side. This made her aunt by marriage to Queen Emma, whom she served as her highest ranking lady-in-waiting. Nāmākēhā and Kapiʻolani had no children, although a pregnancy resulted in a miscarriage. For his health the couple voyaged on The Morning Star, a missionary vessel, for months among the Gilbert Islands (present day Kiribati) but in vain. Nāmākēhā died on December 27, 1860, at Honolulu.
Nāmākēhā and Kapiʻolani were appointed the caretakers of Prince Albert Kamehameha, the only child of Emma and Kamehameha IV. Kapiʻolani was the royal child's chief nurse. The prince died at the age of four, on August 27, 1862, possibly from appendicitis. Historian Helena G. Allen later claimed that Queen Emma blamed Kapiʻolani for the child's death. The prince was under Kapiʻolani's care when he was doused with cold water by the king to calm him during a tantrum. This was traditionally thought to have induced the brain fever which killed the prince. Historian George Kanahele concludes there is little to no evidence of this animosity. Queen Emma wrote Kapiʻolani a very kind reply in her March 1863 letter, "Dear Kapiʻolani, my companion in the caring of my son. You were my son's favorite, your chest must be filled with hurt. You were our third companion... ."
Visiting British dignitaries Jane, Lady Franklin and her niece Sophia Cracroft met "Madame Nāmākēhā" in June 1861. Cracroft wrote:
> At last she [Queen Emma] yielded, but sent for his [Prince Albert's] nurse, whom we had not before seen—only heard of. She is the widow of a petty Chief and fulfills her duties exceedingly well. She is rather young and very nice-looking—dressed like us, and in mourning. She went with us, but the dear little child wanted no keeping in order—he was perfectly good.
## Queen of Hawaiʻi
Kapiʻolani was remarried on December 19, 1863, to David Kalākaua in a quiet ceremony conducted by an Anglican minister. Their wedding was heavily criticized since it fell during the time of mourning for King Kamehameha IV. Her second husband was an aspiring high chief and politician who served in the House of Nobles, the Privy Council of State and held many other court and government posts during the reigns of Kamehameha IV, Kamehameha V and Lunalilo. Although unsuccessful in his attempt for the throne in 1873, Kalākaua defeated Queen Dowager Emma to succeed Lunalilo as the monarch of Hawaiʻi on February 12, 1874. Kapiʻolani became queen consort of Hawaii upon the accession of her husband to the Hawaiian throne. One of the couple's first acts was to conduct a royal progress of the Hawaiian Islands. From March to May 1874, they toured the main Hawaiian Islands of Kauaʻi, Maui, Hawaiʻi Island, Molokaʻi and Oʻahu. The royal pair were enthusiastically received by the people.
Their marriage remained childless. A clinical analysis into the cause of Kalākaua's death led to speculation that the king may have been infertile since Kapiʻolani had a miscarried pregnancy with her previous marriage. Thus, she and her sister Poʻomaikelani adopted, in the tradition of hānai, their sister Kekaulike's three sons. Kapiʻolani took David Kawānanakoa and Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole and Poʻomaikelani adopted Edward Abnel Keliʻiahonui. In 1883, Kalākaua made Kapiʻolani's nephews princes of Hawaiʻi with the style of Highness in honor of his coronation. After the death of Kekaulike in 1884, Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani assumed legal guardianship over all three boys.
## Coronation
Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani were crowned in a coronation ceremony on February 12, 1883. They were denied this in 1874 because of the civil unrest following the election. Under Minister of Finance Walter M. Gibson, the 1880 legislature appropriated \$10,000 for a coronation. The coronation ceremony and related celebratory events were spread out over a two-week period. A special octagon-shaped pavilion and grandstand were built for the February 12, 1883, ceremony. Preparations were made for an anticipated crowd exceeding 5,000, with lawn chairs to accommodate any overflow. Two crowns of gold and precious stones were commissioned in the United Kingdom, while the wardrobes of Kapiʻolani, the other royal ladies and their attendants were also ordered from abroad.
Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani, accompanied by their royal retinue, came out of the palace onto the event grounds. The coronation was preceded by a choir singing and the formal recitation of the King's official titles. The news coverage noted, "The King looked ill at ease". Chief Justice of Hawaii's Supreme Court Albert Francis Judd officiated and delivered the oath of office to the king. The crown was then handed to Kalākaua, and he placed it upon his head. Kalākaua then placed the smaller crown on Kapiʻolani and stated, "I place this crown upon your head to share the honours of my throne." According to a later apocryphal tale, the king had trouble fitting the crown on the queen's elaborate hair. Her ladies-in-waiting tried in vain to rearrange her hairpins and combs, but the crown still could not fit into place. Thus, the king impatiently jammed the crown onto her head causing her to wince in pain.
The ceremony ended with the choir singing, and a prayer. A planned post-coronation reception by Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani was cancelled without advance notice. Today, Kalākaua's coronation pavilion serves as the bandstand for the Royal Hawaiian Band. That evening, the royal couple hosted a state dinner, and there was a luau at a later day. The hula was performed nightly on the palace grounds. Regattas, horse races and a number of events filled the celebration period. Due to weather conditions, the planned illumination of the palace and grounds on the day of the coronation happened a week later, and the public was invited to attend. Fireworks displays lit up the sky at the palace and at Punchbowl Crater. A grand ball was held the evening of February 20.
## Medical philanthropy
Kapiʻolani shared in her husband Kalākaua's vision of Hoʻoulu Lāhui (increasing the nation) and developed an interest in the health problems plaguing the Hawaiian population at the time. She established the Kapiʻolani Maternity Home, where Hawaiian mothers, as well as their newborn babies, could receive care.
Kapiʻolani frequently visited Kakaʻako Branch Hospital on Oʻahu, which served as a receiving station for leprosy patients from all over the islands, and befriended Mother Marianne Cope and the other Sisters of Saint Francis. Sister Leopoldina Burns later described how the queen would sit with the sisters drinking coffee and attempting to learn each other's languages.
On July 21, 1884, Kapiʻolani visited the Kalaupapa Leper Settlement on Molokaʻi. Accompanying her was her sister-in-law Princess Liliʻuokalani, the latter's husband John Owen Dominis, and Dr. Eduard Arning. The queen met Father Damien, the Belgian priest who had been caring for the patients for the last decade, and was given a tour of the peninsula including the every homes of the afflicted by luna (resident superintendent) and patient Ambrose K. Hutchison. One of the concerns Hutchison brought to the queen's attention included the welfare of non-leprous children living on the island born to couples with leprosy. Kapiʻolani promised to build a home for these children. After the royal visit, the patients' living conditions improved significantly.
On November 9, 1885, the Kapiʻolani Home for Girls at Kakaʻako was founded for the education of daughters of parents with leprosy with funds raised by the queen's charitable organization. Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani officiated at the dedication ceremony along with Walter Murray Gibson, who was also the president of the Board of Health. During the ceremony, the queen unlocked the doors of the home and presented the key to Mother Marianne Cope. On the same occasion, Cope was decorated with the Royal Order of Kapiʻolani by the king for her service to Hawaiians afflicted with leprosy.
## Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria
In April 1887, Kalākaua sent a delegation to attend the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in London. It included Kapiʻolani, Princess Liliʻuokalani and Liliʻuokalani's husband John Owen Dominis, as well as Court Chamberlain Colonel Curtis P. Iʻaukea acting as the king's official envoy of the King and Colonel James Harbottle Boyd acting as aide-de-camp to the Queen.
The party landed in San Francisco and traveled across the United States visiting Washington, D.C., Boston and New York City, where they boarded a ship for the United Kingdom. While in the American capital, they were received by President Grover Cleveland and his wife Frances.
In London, Kapiʻolani and Liliʻuokalani were granted an audience with Queen Victoria at Buckingham Palace. She greeted both Hawaiian royals with affection and recalled Kalākaua's visit in 1881. They attended the special Jubilee service at Westminster Abbey and were seated with other foreign royal guests, and with members of the Royal Household. Kapiʻolani wore a peacock feathered dress design by her Special Equerry James Washington Lonoikauoalii McGuire.
Shortly after the Jubilee celebrations, they learned of political unrest in Hawaii. Under the threat of death, Kalākaua was forced to sign the Bayonet Constitution which limited the power of the monarch and increased the influence of Euro-American interests in the government. The royal party canceled their tour of Europe and returned to Hawaii.
## Widowhood, death and funeral
In declining health, Kalākaua traveled to California aboard the USS Charleston on November 25, 1890. While traveling, the king suffered a stroke in Santa Barbara and was rushed back to San Francisco. He died two days later on January 20. The news of Kalākaua's death did not reach Hawaiʻi until January 29 when the Charleston returned to Honolulu with the king's remains. In Kalākaua's will drafted in 1888, he left all his private property to Kapiʻolani. A proposed line of succession also stated placed Kapiʻolani third-in-line to the throne after Liliʻuokalani and their niece Princess Kaʻiulani with a provision that Kapiʻolani would serve as a regent in the case that Kaʻiulani ascended before reaching the age of majority.
After the death of her husband and the accession of her sister-in-law Liliʻuokalani to the throne, Queen Dowager Kapiʻolani retired from public life and seldom attended formal social events. Liliʻuokalani ruled for two years before she was overthrown, on January 17, 1893. After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaiʻi was established on July 4, 1894, with Sanford B. Dole as president. During this period, the de facto government, which was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, sought to annex the islands to the United States against the wishes of the Native Hawaiians who wanted to remain an independent nation ruled by the monarchy. Kapiʻolani lived out the remainder of her life at her private residence Pualeilani in Waikīkī where the Hyatt Regency Waikiki now stands. Prior to her final illness, she signed over her vast landholdings worth over \$250,000 to her nephews Prince Kawānanakoa and Prince Kūhiō. Her health began to fail two years before her death, and she suffered three strokes over this period. During her last days, she was in a comatose state and died on June 24, 1899, at age sixty-four.
Hawaii was annexed to the United States under the Newlands Resolution, a joint resolution of Congress, on August 12, 1898, but the territorial government was not formally established until April 30, 1900. Thus, the Republic of Hawaii's Minister of Foreign Affairs Ernest Augustus Mott-Smith announced the royal funeral to the foreign consular agents in Honolulu. Her body lay in state at Kawaiahaʻo Church for public viewing and her funerary services were performed by the Anglican Bishop Alfred Willis at 2:00 pm on July 2. After the service, a state funeral procession brought her remains for burial at the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii at Mauna ʻAla. Included among the members of Hawaiian society at her funeral procession were the former royal family: her nephews Prince Kawānanakoa and Prince Kūhiō, her brother-in-law Archibald Scott Cleghorn and her sister-in-law Liliʻuokalani. Officials of the Republic of Hawaii including Sanford B. Dole (still referred to as president) and members of the United States Army and Navy also attended the procession. She was interred in the mausoleum joining her husband and the rest of the House of Kalākaua. In a ceremony officiated by Liliʻuokalani on June 24, 1910, her remains, and those of her husband's family, were transferred for a final time to the underground Kalākaua Crypt after the main mausoleum building had been converted into a chapel.
## Legacy
Her medical legacy Kapiʻolani Maternity Home survives today as the Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children. Kapiʻolani Park in Waikīkī was named after the Queen by her husband Kalākaua. She is also the namesake of Kapiʻolani Boulevard, Kapiʻolani Community College and numerous businesses in Honolulu. One of her noted contributions to Hawaiian music was a love song she composed for her husband, "Ka Ipo Lei Manu". Kalākaua died in San Francisco before he could hear the song from his queen.
A portrait of Queen Kapiʻolani painted in August 1884 by Charles Furneaux, hangs at ʻIolani Palace. |
59,703,190 | Azar Bigdeli | 1,172,729,852 | Iranian poet and anthologist (1722–1781) | [
"1722 births",
"1781 deaths",
"18th-century Iranian writers",
"18th-century Persian-language writers",
"18th-century pseudonymous writers",
"Anthologists",
"Iranian Turkmen people",
"People from Afsharid Iran",
"People of the Zand dynasty",
"Writers from Isfahan"
]
| Hajji Lotf-Ali Beg Azar Bigdeli, better known as Azar Bigdeli (Persian: آذر بیگدلی; "Azar" was his pen name; 1722–1781), was an Iranian anthologist and poet. He is principally known for his biographical anthology of some 850 Persian-writing poets, the Atashkadeh-ye Azar (lit. 'Azar's Fire Temple'), which he dedicated to Iranian ruler Karim Khan Zand (r. 1751–1779). Written in Persian, the Persian studies academic J.T.P. de Bruijn considers it "the most important Persian anthology of the eighteenth century". Azar was a leading figure of the bazgasht-e adabi (lit. 'literary return') movement, which sought to return the stylistic standards of early Persian poetry.
## Life
Azar was born on 7 February 1722 in Isfahan, the royal capital of Safavid Iran, during a time of chaos and instability. The year he was born, the Safavid state had entered the final stages of collapse and the rebellious Afghans had reached Isfahan. Azar and his family were forced to move from Isfahan to Qom, where they owned property, and he lived there for 14 years. Azar's family descended from the Bigdeli branch of the Turkoman Shamlu tribe. His ancestors and other Shamlu-tribe members moved from Syria to Iran in the 15th century during the last few years of Timur's reign and settled in Isfahan, where they served the rulers of Iran. Many of Azar's relatives were prominent in the late Safavid era and during the subsequent reign of Nader Shah (r. 1736–1747) as diplomats and bureaucrats.
Around 1735 or 1736, Azar's father Agha Khan Bigdeli Shamlu was appointed governor of Lar and the coastal areas of Fars Province by Nader Shah and Azar, and his family moved to Shiraz, the provincial capital of Fars. In 1737 or 1738, after the death of his father, Azar made pilgrimages to Mecca and the Shi'ite shrines in Iran and Iraq. His subsequent arrival in Mashhad coincided with Nader Shah's return from his successful Indian campaign. Azar subsequently enlisted in Nader's army and accompanied his troops to Mazandaran, Azerbaijan, and Persian Iraq. After Nader's death in 1747, Azar served his nephews and successors Adel Shah (r. 1747–1748) and Ebrahim Shah (r. 1748), and the Safavid pretenders Ismail III and Suleiman II before retiring to his modest manor in Qom.
When Karim Khan Zand (r. 1751–1779) ascended to the throne, Azar decided to devote his time to scholarly pursuits and returned to Isfahan, where he and other poets of the bazgasht-e adabi movement benefitted from the peaceful conditions under Karim Khan's rule and the support of the cities' Zand governor Mirzā ʿAbd ol-Vahhāb (died 1760), who was a patron of the arts. The city was sacked by Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari in 1750, and Azar reportedly lost about 7,000 of his early written verses; however, he was still a respected poet during his lifetime. In 1774 or 1775, Azar was forced to leave Isfahan again, due to misrule by Zand governor Hājji Mohammad Ranāni Esfahāni (in office; 1760–1765). He and his friend Hatef Esfahani (died 1783), who was also a native of Isfahan and a member of the bazgasht-e adabi movement, eventually ended up at Kashan, where their mutual friend Sabahi Bidgoli (died 1803) had lived most of his life. The friendship of Azar, Hatef and Sabahi is attested in many of their poems in which they declare their admiration of and devotion to one another. Azar was at Kashan when the 1778 Kashan earthquake struck, in which he lost his brother and his house. Thus he was forced to move once again, most likely to Qom, where he died three years later in 1781.
## Literary career
### Atashkadeh-ye Azar
Azar is principally known for his Persian anthology (tazkereh) of some 850 Persian-writing poets, the Atashkadeh-ye Azar ("Azar's Fire Temple"), which he started writing in 1760/1 and which is considered "the most important Persian anthology of the eighteenth century" by the Persian studies academic J.T.P. de Bruijn. Its chapter titles are based metaphorically on "fire". The Persian studies academic Jalal Matini explains that Azar chose such titles to underline his mission to defend Persian poetry as a member of the bazgasht-e adabi movement.
The book consists of two sections, both of which Azar called a majmareh (literally, "censer"). The first majmareh is further divided into one sholeh ("flame") on the poetry of kings, princes and amirs; three aḵgars ("embers") on the poets of Iran, Central Asia (Turan) and India (Hindustan); and one forūḡ ("light") consisting of an appendix dealing with female poets. The three aḵgars are divided further by geographical divisions into five, three and three sharārehs ("sparks") respectively, each one beginning with a brief description of the involved region. Azar's main reference for this part of the book was an anthology written by the Safavid-period poet Taqi ol-Din Kashani (died after 1607/8), known as the Kholāṣat ol-ashʿār ("The essence of the poems"). The second majmareh i.e. section consists of two partows ("beams")'. The first partow deals with the contemporaneous poets of Azar's own lifetime (some of whom were his friends), whereas the second partow consists of Azar's biography and a selection of his poetry.
All poets in the Atashkadeh-ye Azar are mentioned by their pen names, and the book is arranged in alphabetical order. All verses of each poet, which were incorporated into the book, were ordered according to the rhyme in question. The length of text he wrote about each poet varies; while a few received detailed biographies, for the most part, two or three lines were devoted to each poet, and he is equally sparing in the selections he chose from their oeuvres. Azar dedicated the Atashkadeh-ye Azar, completed shortly before his death, to Iranian ruler Karim Khan Zand. Although the work primarily deals with poets, it also contains information on the history of Iran since the Afghan invasion of 1722, a brief autobiography, and a selection of Azar's poems.
The prose of the Atashkadeh-ye Azar, although exhibiting some specific weaknesses frequently seen in 18th-century Persian literature, is mostly straightforward and articulate. The elaborate introduction to the account of contemporaneous poets incorporates several passages of poetic prose, which Matini describes as being well-written. For the passages in which contemporaneous poetic works are written, Azar's principle was apparently to provide first choice to those verses which he had heard himself directly from the poets in question; however, his claims, in his selection from earlier poets, that he had thoroughly studied the divans of those poets, is refuted through careful examination the earlier tazkerehs available to Azar.
Azar's Atashkadeh was often copied after it was written. It was lithographed on several occasions in 19th-century British India, starting from 1833/4. An account of the entire work was provided in 1843 by the Anglo-Irish scholar Nathaniel Bland. Bland published the first opening section on royal poets a year later in 1844 in London under the name The Atesh Kedah, or Fire-Temple. An abridgement of the Atashkadeh was written by Azar's brother Esḥāq Beg ʿUdhrī (died 1771/2) under the name Tazkereh-ye Eshaq, which only contains Azar's poems. The 1860/1 lithograph edition from Bombay (now Mumbai) was reprinted in Tehran, Iran's capital, in 1958. Hasan Sadat Nasiri's commentated printed edition of the Ataskadeh (4 vols., Tehran 1957–99) is still underway.
### The bazgasht-e adabi
Azar's teacher, Mir Sayyed Ali Moshtaq Esfahani (c. 1689–1757), began a "literary return" movement (bazgasht-e adabi) to the stylistic standards of early Persian poetry. The Atashkadeh, like much other contemporary poetry from Isfahan and Shiraz, was an example of the bazgasht-e adabi, of which Azar was a leading figure. The movement rejected what was considered excessive "Indian style" (sabk-e Hendi) in Persian poetry and sought, according to the Iranologist Ehsan Yarshater, "a return to the simpler and more robust poetry of the old masters as against the effete and artificial verse into which Safavid poetry had degenerated". Due to his links with the basgasht-e adabi, Azar is very praiseworthy of authors who shunned the Indian style and attempted to bring back the locution of the early Persian poets. He is censorious of the Persian Saib Tabrizi (died 1676), one of the majors of "Indian style" Persian poetry, as well as his followers.
Azar praises his teacher, Mir Sayyed Ali Moshtaq Esfahani, in the Atashkadeh:
> after he [i.e., Moshtāq] had broken the chain of verse that for years had been in the unworthy grip of poets of the past, with great effort and indescribable exertions he repaired it. Having destroyed for contemporary poets the foundation of versifying, he renewed the edifice of poetry built by the eloquent ancients.
The poetry that defined Azar was also influenced by his paternal uncle, Wali Mohammad Khan Bigdeli (died 1763).
After the disastrous 1778 Kashan earthquake, Azar (as well as Hatef and Sabahi) wrote poetry commemorating the event, in which they not only expressed their personal grief, but also sought to help the audience understand the disaster of the earthquake, as the Persian studies academic Matthew C. Smith explains, "within a meaningful historical and spiritual context, and to show the path forward". These particular poems, which provide insight into the bazgasht-e adabi movement "beyond mere imitation of earlier styles", underline the engagement of the members of the movement within Iran's social sphere at the time, and the relevance of their poetry to the contemporaneous audience. Azar (and Hatef) chose the tarkib-band, which is a stanzaic form often used for elegiac themes.
### Other works
The Persian studies academics J.T.P. de Bruijn and Matini explain that, in addition to Azar's divan (collected poems of a particular author) comprising qasidehs (panegyrics), ghazals (short lyric poems of syntactically independent couplets), and qaṭʿehs (lyric poems on a single theme), four extant masnavis (poems in rhyming couplets on any theme) have been attributed to him: Yusof o Zolaykha (fragments appear in the Atashkadeh); Masnavi-e Azar, a short love poem mirroring Suz-u godaz ("Burning and Melting"), a poem by Agha Mohammad Sadeq Tafreshi which was popular in Azar's time; Saqi-nameh ("Book of the Cup-bearer"), and Moghanni-nameh ("Book of the Singer"). Azar may have also written the Ganjinat ol-haqq ("The Treasury of Truth", a work in the style of Saadi Shirazi's Golestan) and the Daftar-e noh aseman ("The Book of the Nine Skies"), an anthology of contemporary poetry. |
45,178,686 | Cupid at the Circus | 1,167,143,610 | null | [
"1910 drama films",
"1910 films",
"1910 lost films",
"1910s American films",
"1910s English-language films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American drama short films",
"American silent short films",
"English-language drama films",
"Lost American drama films",
"Silent American drama films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
]
| Cupid at the Circus is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film is a romance with a storyline focused around a country boy who follows a circus parade to the circus grounds and becomes intent on sneaking into the show. He is discovered, but before he can be ejected, a girl asks her father to buy him a ticket of admission. Thankful, the boy gives her his pocket knife. Years later the two meet again and when he sees her using his pocket knife. He proposes and she accepts. Not too much is known for certain about the production of this film, including the writer, director and photographer credits. The circus scenes were done with special arrangement by Barnum & Bailey. The film was released on May 20, 1910, to favorable reviews. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a surviving official synopsis was published in The Moving Picture World. It states: "Tom Wilk is a poor country lad, living alone with his stepfather, who ill-treats him. Tom leaves his work one day to follow a circus parade. He is fascinated with the wonders of the parade and follows it to the circus grounds, around which he stays all morning, and is finally tempted by his great wish to see the show, to crawl under the tent. He is discovered by a circus guard, and ordered off the ground. A small girl, Lillie Lockwood, and her father come to the circus, and witness Tom's ejection. Urged by his daughter, Lillie's father buys Tom a ticket of admission, giving him his first happy day. In return, Tom gives Lillie, as a keepsake, his most treasured possession, his pocket knife. On returning home, Tom is severely chastised by his step-father, after which he decides to run away. He walks to a neighboring town, and is there engaged as an office boy by Gates, a lawyer. After some years of faithful service, in various capacities, Tom becomes a member of the firm. Lillie obtains a position as a stenographer in their office. She and Tom do not recognize each other, until Tom accidentally sees in her hand the little knife he had given her in the long ago. He declares he had loved her through the years, and has been patiently waiting for her, so the romance that began at the circus finds a happy climax at the altar."
## Cast
- Frank H. Crane as Tom Gates (adult) / alternatively Tom Wilk in the synopsis
- Anna Rosemond as Lillie Lockwood (adult)
## Production
The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it may have been Lloyd Lonergan. Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser, averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915. While the director of the film is not known, two Thanhouser directors are possible. Barry O'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy, who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures, including its first two-reeler, Romeo and Juliet. Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little, a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time, moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910. Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman. Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The two known credits in the film are for the leading players, Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane. Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company and joined in the autumn of 1909. Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909. Crane's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser.
The setting of the film included Barnum and Bailey circus that were shot by a special arrangement with Mr. Barnum and Bailey. The date of the filming is unknown, but the 1910 route of Barnum & Bailey's Greatest Show on Earth indicates that it the circus was in New York between March 24 through April 30. The circus was at Madison Square Garden from March 24 through April 22 and it moved to Brooklyn, New York for April 25 through April 30. The circus would go to Philadelphia, Washington D. C., Baltimore, Maryland, and Wilmington, Delaware before moving back up through New Jersey on May 14 through May 18. According to one review in the Santa Cruz Sentinel, the film showed "...the Barnum and Bailey circus from the time they arrive at the lot until after the show."
## Release and reception
The one reel film was released on Friday May 20, 1910. There are different records for the length of the reel. According to Bowers, the film was 975 feet long, but one trade publication listed it as being 940 feet long. The film was advertised in theaters in Kansas, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Minnesota, Indiana, and California. The film was released one day before the Barnum and Bailey tent caught fire in Schenectady, New York. The May 21 fire did not result in injury or loss of life, but was caused an estimated \$10,000 in damages, .
The film was met with favorable reviews from critics. The Morning Telegraph offers general praise for the good photography and the well-told story. The Nickelodeon was equally positive and began to reflect the acting, staging and photography was up to the regular standard of the Thanhouser company. The New York Dramatic Mirror offered additional comments on the Thanhouser company's higher standards in their productions, but gave an otherwise positive review that focused on the novelty of the circus scenes.
## See also
- List of American films of 1910 |
2,358,320 | Revolt of the Comuneros | 1,164,762,411 | 1520 rebellion in Spain | [
"1520 in Spain",
"1520s conflicts",
"1520s in Spain",
"1521 in Spain",
"16th-century rebellions",
"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor",
"Rebellions in Spain",
"Revolutions in Spain",
"Wars involving Spain"
]
| The Revolt of the Comuneros (Spanish: Guerra de las Comunidades de Castilla, "War of the Communities of Castile") was an uprising by citizens of Castile against the rule of Charles I and his administration between 1520 and 1521. At its height, the rebels controlled the heart of Castile, ruling the cities of Valladolid, Tordesillas, and Toledo.
The revolt occurred in the wake of political instability in the Crown of Castile after the death of Queen Isabella I in 1504. Isabella's daughter Joanna succeeded to the throne. Due to Joanna's mental instability, Castile was ruled by the nobles and her father, King Ferdinand II of Aragon, as a regent, while Joanna was confined. After Ferdinand's death in 1516, Joanna's sixteen-year-old son Charles was proclaimed her co-monarch of both Castile and Aragon; while Joanna also succeeded as Queen of Aragon, during her co-regency with her own son, she remained confined.
Charles had been raised in the Netherlands with little knowledge of Castilian. He arrived in Spain in October 1517 accompanied by a large retinue of Flemish nobles and clerics. These factors resulted in mistrust between the new king and the Castilian social elites, who could see the threat to their power and status.
In 1519, Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor. He departed for Germany in 1520, leaving the Dutch cardinal Adrian of Utrecht to rule Castile in his absence. Soon, a series of anti-government riots broke out in the cities, and local city councils (Comunidades) took power. The rebels chose Charles' own mother, Queen Joanna, as an alternative ruler, hoping they could control her madness. The rebel movement took on a radical anti-feudal dimension, supporting peasant rebellions against the landed nobility. On April 23, 1521, after nearly a year of rebellion, the reorganized supporters of the emperor struck a crippling blow to the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar. The following day, rebel leaders Juan López de Padilla, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado were beheaded. The army of the comuneros fell apart. Only the city of Toledo kept alive the rebellion led by María Pacheco, until its surrender in October 1521.
The character of the revolution is a matter of historiographical debate. According to some scholars, the revolt was one of the first modern revolutions, notably because of the anti-noble sentiment against social injustice and its basis on ideals of democracy and freedom. Others consider it a more typical rebellion against high taxes and perceived foreign control. From the 19th century onwards, the revolt has been mythologized by various Spaniards, generally liberals who drew political inspiration from it. Conservative intellectuals have traditionally adopted more pro-Imperial stances toward the revolt, and have been critical of both the motives and the government of the comuneros. With the end of Franco's dictatorship and the establishment of the autonomous community of Castile and León, positive commemoration of the Comunidades has grown. April 23 is now celebrated as Castile and León Day, and the incident is often referred to in Castilian nationalism.
## Origins
Discontent had been brewing for years before the Revolt of the Comuneros. The second half of the 15th century saw profound political, economic, and social changes in Spain. Economic growth created new urban industries and offered a route to power and wealth not tied to the aristocracy. Support from these urban elites was critical to Ferdinand and Isabella's centralization of power, and they acted as a counterweight to the landed aristocracy and the clergy.
However, with Isabella I's death and Joanna's accession in 1504, this alliance between the national government and the budding middle class faltered. The Castilian government decayed with each successive administration, becoming rife with corruption. Joanna's husband, Philip I, reigned briefly; he was replaced by Archbishop Cisneros as regent for a short time, and then by Isabella's widower Ferdinand who ruled from Aragon. Ferdinand's claim to continue ruling Castile as regent was somewhat tenuous after Isabella's death, but no plausible alternatives existed as the sovereign, their widowed daughter Joanna, was mentally unfit to reign on her own. The landed nobility of Castile took advantage of the weak and corrupt Royal Council to illegally expand their territory and domain with private armies while the government did nothing. In response, the towns signed mutual defense pacts, relying on each other rather than the national government.
The budgets of both Castile and Aragon had been in poor condition for some time. The government had expelled the Jews in 1492 and the Muslims of Granada in 1502, moves that undercut lucrative trades and businesses. Ferdinand and Isabella had been forced to borrow money to pay troops during and after the Reconquista, and Spanish military obligations had only increased since then. A large number of troops were required to maintain stability in recently conquered Granada, threatened by revolt from the maltreated moriscos (former Muslims who had converted to Christianity) and frequent naval raids from Muslim nations along the Mediterranean. Additionally, Ferdinand had invaded and occupied the Iberian part of Navarre in 1512, and forces were required to garrison it against Navarrese revolts and French armies. Very little money was left to pay for the royal army in Castile proper, let alone service foreign debts. The corruption in the government since Isabella's death only made the budget shortfalls worse.
### Succession of Charles
In 1516, Ferdinand died. The remaining heir was Ferdinand and Isabella's grandson Charles, who became King Charles I of both Castile and Aragon in coregency with his mother Queen Joanna I of Castile. Joanna, who had been confined in Tordesillas, also succeeded as Queen of Aragon, but during the coregency with her own son, she remained confined and largely powerless.
Charles was brought up in Flanders, the homeland of his father Philip, and barely knew Castilian. The people greeted him with skepticism, but also hoped he would restore stability. With the arrival of the new king in late 1517, his Flemish court took positions of power in Castile; young Charles only trusted people he knew from the Netherlands. Among the most scandalous of these was the appointment of the twenty-year-old William de Croÿ as Archbishop of Toledo. The Archbishopric was an important position; it had been held by Archbishop Cisneros, the former regent of the country. Six months into his rule, discontent openly simmered among rich and poor alike. Even some monks began to agitate, denouncing the opulence of the royal court, the Flemish, and the nobility in their sermons. One of the first public protests involved placards posted in churches, which read:
> You, land of Castile, very wretched and damned are you to suffer that as noble a kingdom as you are, you will be governed by those who have no love for you.
With the unrest growing, Charles' paternal grandfather Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I died in 1519. A new election had to be held to choose the next emperor. Charles campaigned aggressively for the post, vying with King Francis I of France to bribe the most prince-electors. Charles I won the election, becoming Emperor Charles V and cementing the power of the House of Habsburg. He prepared to head to Germany to take possession of his new domains in the Holy Roman Empire.
### New taxes: The Cortes of Santiago and Corunna
Charles had already stressed the treasury to its limit with his extravagant Flemish court, and over 1 million florins were spent in bribes for the election. Taxes had to be raised to cover the debt, but any new taxes had to be approved by the Cortes (Castile's own parliamentary body). Thus, in late March 1520, Charles convened the Cortes in Santiago de Compostela. Charles ensured the Cortes would only have limited power, and further attempted to stack the Cortes with pliable representatives he could bribe. Support for the opposition only increased in response, and the representatives demanded that their grievances be heard first before any new tax was granted.
A group of clerics soon circulated a statement in protest of the king. It argued three points: any new taxes should be rejected; Castile should be embraced and the foreign Empire rejected; and if the king did not take into account his subjects, the Comunidades themselves should defend the interests of the kingdom. It was the first time where the word comunidades (communities, communes) was used to signify the independent populace, and the name would stick to the councils later formed.
At this point, most of the members of the Cortes in Santiago intended to vote against the king's requested duties and taxes, even with the Cortes stacked with royalists. In response, Charles decided to suspend the Cortes on April 4. He convened them again in Corunna on April 22, this time getting his program passed. On May 20, he embarked for Germany, and left as regent of his Spanish possessions his former tutor, Adrian of Utrecht (better known as the future Pope Adrian VI).
## Beginnings of the Revolt
### Rebelliousness in Toledo
In April 1520, Toledo was already unstable. The city council had been at the forefront of protests against Charles' bid to become Holy Roman Emperor. They decried the short-term expenses that would be borne by Castile and questioned the role of Castile in this new political framework, given the possibility that the land would become a mere imperial province. The situation erupted when the royal government summoned the most radical of the city councilors away from the city, intending to send back more easily controllable replacements on a royal salary. The order came on April 15; one day later, as the councilors prepared to leave, a large crowd opposed to the departure rioted and drove out the royal administrators instead. A citizen's committee was elected under the leadership of Juan López de Padilla and Pedro Laso de la Vega, naming themselves a Comunidad. On April 21, the remaining administrators were driven from the fortifications of the Alcázar of Toledo.
Following Charles' departure to Germany, the riots multiplied in the cities of central Castile, especially after the arrival of legislators who had voted "yes" to the taxes Charles had asked for. Segovia had some of the earliest and most violent incidents; on May 30, a mob of woolworkers murdered two administrators and the city's legislator who had voted in favor. Incidents of a similar size occurred in cities such as Burgos and Guadalajara, while others, such as León, Ávila, and Zamora, suffered minor altercations.
### Proposals to other cities
With widespread discontent circulating, on June 8 Toledo's council suggested to cities with a vote in the Cortes to hold an emergency meeting. They proffered five goals:
1. Cancel the taxes voted in the Cortes of Corunna.
2. A return to the local-controlled encabezamiento system of taxation.
3. Reserve official positions and church benefices for Castilians.
4. Prohibit money from leaving the kingdom to fund foreign affairs.
5. Designate a Castilian to lead the kingdom in the absence of the king.
These claims, especially the first two, spread quickly through society. Ideas began to circulate of replacing the king; Toledo's leaders floated the possibility of turning the cities of Castile into independent free cities, similar to Genoa and other Italian republics. Competing proposals suggested keeping the monarchy, but dethroning Charles. They proposed that he be replaced by either his mother Queen Joanna or his Castilian-born brother Ferdinand. With these ideas, the revolt shifted from a simple protest against taxes to a broader revolution. Many cities, while not quite in outright revolt, stopped sending taxes to the Royal Council and began to self-govern.
## Expansion of the Revolt
### Blockade of Segovia
The situation moved closer to armed conflict on June 10. Rodrigo Ronquillo had been sent to Segovia by the Royal Council to investigate the recent murder of Segovia's legislator, but Segovia refused him entry. Unable to besiege a city of 30,000 with only a small force, Ronquillo instead set out to blockade foodstuffs and other supplies from entering Segovia. The people of Segovia, led by militia leader and noble Juan Bravo, rallied around the Comunidad. Segovia requested aid against Ronquillo's army from the Comunidades of Toledo and Madrid. The cities responded by sending their militias, captained by Juan López de Padilla and Juan de Zapata, who won in the first major confrontation between the forces of the king and the rebels.
### The Junta of Ávila
Other cities now followed the lead of Toledo and Segovia, deposing their governments. A revolutionary Cortes, La Santa Junta de las Comunidades ("Holy Assembly of the Communities"), held its first session in Ávila and declared itself the legitimate government deposing the Royal Council. Padilla was named Captain-General, and troops were assembled. Still, only four cities sent representatives at first: Toledo, Segovia, Salamanca, and Toro.
### Burning of Medina del Campo
Faced with the situation in Segovia, Regent and Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht decided to use the royal artillery, located in nearby Medina del Campo, to take Segovia and defeat Padilla. Adrian ordered his commander Antonio de Fonseca to seize the artillery. Fonseca arrived on August 21 in Medina, but encountered heavy resistance from the townspeople, as the city had strong trade links to Segovia. Fonseca ordered the setting of a fire to distract the resistance, but it grew out of control. Much of the town was destroyed, including a Franciscan monastery and a trade warehouse containing goods valued at more than 400,000 ducats. Fonseca had to withdraw his troops, and the event was a public relations disaster for the government. Uprisings throughout Castile occurred, even in cities that previously had been neutral such as Castile's capital, Valladolid. The establishment of the Comunidad of Valladolid caused the most important core of the Iberian plateau to declare for the rebels, upending the stability of the government. New members now joined the Junta of Ávila and the Royal Council looked discredited; Adrian had to flee to Medina de Rioseco as Valladolid fell. The royal army, with many of its soldiers unpaid for months, started to disintegrate.
### The Junta of Tordesillas
The comunero army now properly organized itself, integrating the militias of Toledo, Madrid, and Segovia. Once told of Fonseca's attack, the comunero forces went to Medina del Campo and took possession of the artillery that had just been denied to Fonseca's troops. On August 29, the comuneros' army arrived at Tordesillas with the goal of declaring Queen Joanna the sole sovereign. The Junta moved from Ávila to Tordesillas at the Queen's request and invited cities that had not yet sent representatives to do so. A total of thirteen cities were represented in the Junta of Tordesillas: Burgos, Soria, Segovia, Ávila, Valladolid, León, Salamanca, Zamora, Toro, Toledo, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Madrid. The only invited cities that failed to attend were the four Andalusian cities: Seville, Granada, Cordova, and Jaén. Since most of the kingdom was represented at Tordesillas, the Junta renamed itself the Cortes y Junta General del Reino ("General Assembly of the Kingdom"). On September 24, 1520, the mad Queen, for the only time, presided over the Cortes.
The legislators met with Queen Joanna and explained the purpose of the Cortes: to proclaim her sovereignty and restore lost stability to the kingdom. The next day, September 25, the Cortes issued a declaration pledging to use arms if necessary and for the whole to aid any one city that was threatened. On September 26, the Cortes of Tordesillas declared itself the new legitimate government and denounced the Royal Council. Oaths of self-defense were taken by all the cities represented over the week, finishing by September 30. The revolutionary government now had structure and a free hand to act, with the Royal Council still ineffective and confused.
### Scope of the rebellion
The comuneros were strong in the central plateau of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as scattered other places such as Murcia. The rebels sought to propound their revolutionary ideas to the rest of the kingdom, but without much success. There were few attempts at rebellion elsewhere, such as in Galicia to the northwest or in Andalusia to the south. Comunidades in the south were set up in Jaén, Úbeda, and Baeza, unique in Andalusia, but with time they were drawn back into the royalists. Murcia stayed with the rebel cause, but did not coordinate much with the Junta, and the rebellion there had a character closer to the nearby Revolt of the Brotherhoods in Valencia in Aragon. In Extremadura to the southwest, the city of Plasencia joined the Comunidades, but this was undermined by the close proximity of other royalist cities such as Ciudad Rodrigo and Cáceres. A close correlation can be drawn between poor economic fortunes over the previous twenty years and the rebellion; central Castile suffered from agricultural failure and other setbacks under the Royal Council, while Andalusia was relatively prosperous with its maritime trade. Andalusia's leadership also feared that in the instability of a civil war, the Moriscos of Granada would likely revolt.
## Popular and governmental response
### Turning of the nobles
The growing success of the comuneros emboldened people to accuse members of the old government of complicity with royal abuses. The protests attacked the landed nobility as well, many of whom had illegally taken property during the reign of the regents and weak kings after Isabella's death. In Dueñas, the Count of Buendía's vassals revolted against him on September 1, 1520, encouraged by rebel monks. This uprising was followed by others of a similar anti-feudal nature. The leadership of the comuneros was forced to take a stance on these new rebellions; reluctant to openly endorse them, the Junta initially denounced them but did nothing to oppose them. The dynamics of the uprising thus changed profoundly, as it could now jeopardize the status of the entire manorial system. The nobles had previously been somewhat sympathetic to the cause due to their loss of privileges to the central government. However, these new developments lead to a dramatic drop in support for the comuneros from aristocrats, who were frightened by the more radical elements of the revolution.
### Response of Charles I
At first, Charles seemed not to grasp the magnitude of the revolt. He continued to demand payments from Castile; with the government of Castile still in arrears, Cardinal Adrian found it impossible to secure any new loans. A letter from Cardinal Adrian on August 25 warned Charles of the severity of the situation:
> Your Highness is making a great error if you think that you will be able to collect and make use of this tax; there is no one in the Kingdom, not in Seville or Valladolid or any other city who will ever pay anything of it; all the grandees and members of the council are amazed that Your Highness has scheduled payments from these funds.
Once he realized that a full-fledged revolution was underway, Charles responded vigorously. Through Cardinal Adrian, he undertook new policy initiatives, such as canceling the taxes granted in the Cortes of Corunna. Most important was the appointment of two new Castilian co-regents: the Constable of Castile, Íñigo Fernández, and the Admiral of Castile, Fadrique Enríquez. This negated two of the most salient complaints of the rebels. In addition, Adrian approached the nobles to convince them that their best interests lay with the king. The Royal Council was re-established in the fief of Admiral Enríquez, Medina de Rioseco, which enabled the Council to be nearer to the revolting cities and reassure skeptical supporters. While the royal army was still in tatters, many high nobles maintained their own well-trained mercenary armies—armies that with the revolt's recent radicalization would now fight for the king.
## Organization, funding, and diplomacy
The first political defeats of the comuneros came in October 1520. The comuneros' attempt to use Queen Joanna for legitimacy did not bear fruit, as she blocked their initiatives and refused to sign any edicts. In turn, dissenting voices inside the comuneros now began to be heard, especially in Burgos. The wavering position of Burgos was soon known to the royalists, and the Constable of Castile negotiated with Burgos's government. The Royal Council granted a number of significant concessions to Burgos in exchange for them leaving the Junta.
Following this incident, the Royal Council hoped that other cities would imitate Burgos and leave the comuneros peacefully. Valladolid, the former seat of royal power, was considered especially likely to turn, but too many supporters of the king had left city politics and lost their influence. It remained rebel-controlled. The Admiral of Castile continued his campaign to try to convince the comuneros to return to the royal government and thereby avoid a violent suppression. This attitude concealed a great shortage of funds on the royal side.
During October and November 1520, both sides accepted that a military conclusion would soon be necessary and actively devoted themselves to fundraising, recruiting soldiers, and training their troops. The comuneros organized their militias in the major cities and levied new taxes on the countryside; they also took measures aimed at eliminating waste, routinely auditing their treasurers and dismissing those thought to be corrupt. The royal government, which had lost much of its revenue due to the revolt, sought loans from Portugal and from conservative Castilian bankers, who saw reassuring signs in the switch of the allegiance of Burgos.
## Battle of Tordesillas
### Leadership disputes
Gradually, both the city of Toledo and its leader Juan López de Padilla lost influence within the Junta, though Padilla retained popularity and prestige among the commoners. Two new figures emerged within the Comunidades, Pedro Girón and Antonio Osorio de Acuña. Girón was one of the most powerful nobles who supported the comuneros; his rebellion is thought to originate from Charles' refusal to grant Girón the prestigious Duchy of Medina-Sidonia a year prior to the war. Antonio de Acuña was the Bishop of Zamora. Acuña was also the head of the Comunidad in Zamora and the leader of its army, which included more than 300 priests.
On the royalist side, the nobles could not agree on what tactics to use. Some preferred to directly challenge the rebels in combat, while others such as the Constable of Castile favored continued waiting and the building of defensive fortifications. The Admiral of Castile preferred negotiations and exhausting all the possible peaceful options first. Patience, however, began to run thin; armies were expensive to maintain once assembled. In late November 1520, both armies took positions between Medina de Rioseco and Tordesillas, and a confrontation was inevitable.
### Royal capture
With Pedro Girón in command, the army of the comuneros advanced on Medina de Rioseco, following the orders of the Junta. Girón established his headquarters in Villabrágima, a town merely 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from the royalist army. The royalists occupied nearby villages to cut communication lines back to other comuneros.
This situation continued until December 2, when Girón, apparently thinking the royal army would remain entrenched, moved his forces west to the small town of Villalpando. The town surrendered the next day without resistance, and the troops began looting the estates in the area. However, with this movement, the comuneros left the path to Tordesillas completely unprotected. The royal army took advantage of the blunder, marching by night on December 4 and occupying Tordesillas the next day. The small rebel garrison was overwhelmed.
Seizure of Tordesillas marked a serious defeat for the comuneros, who lost Queen Joanna and with her their claim to legitimacy. In addition, thirteen representatives of the Junta were imprisoned, though others fled and escaped. Morale fell among the rebels, and much angry criticism was directed towards Pedro Girón for his maneuvering of the troops out of position and for his failure to attempt to retake Tordesillas or capture Medina de Rioseco. Girón was obliged to resign from his post and withdrew from the war.
## Events of December and January
### Reorganization of the comuneros
Following the loss of Tordesillas, the comuneros regrouped in Valladolid. The Junta reconvened on December 15, but with only eleven cities represented, down from a height of fourteen. Soria and Guadalajara's representatives did not return, and Burgos had left earlier. Valladolid would be the third capital of the rebels, after Ávila and Tordesillas.
The situation was somewhat worse for the army, with a large number of desertions in Valladolid and Villalpando. This forced the rebels to intensify their recruitment drives, especially in Toledo, Salamanca, and Valladolid itself. With these new recruits and the arrival of Juan de Padilla to Valladolid, the rebel military apparatus was rebuilt and morale bolstered. At the beginning of 1521, the comuneros prepared for an all-out war, despite disagreements within the movement. Some suggested seeking a peaceful resolution, while others favored continuing the war. Those who favored war were divided between two tactics: occupy Simancas and Torrelobatón, a less ambitious proposal defended by Pedro Laso de la Vega; or lay siege to Burgos, a tactic favored by Padilla.
### Military initiatives in Palencia and Burgos
In the far north of Castile, the rebel army began a series of operations conducted by Antonio de Acuña, bishop of Zamora. They received orders from the Junta on December 23 to try and raise a rebellion in Palencia. They were tasked with expelling royalists, collecting taxes on behalf of the Junta, and creating an administration sympathetic to the comuneros cause. Acuña's army made a series of raids into the area around Dueñas, raising more than 4,000 ducats and inspiring the peasantry. He returned to Valladolid in early 1521, then came back to Dueñas on January 10 to begin a major offensive against the nobles of Tierra de Campos. The nobles' land and holdings were completely devastated.
In mid-January, Pedro de Ayala, Count of Salvatierra, joined the comuneros and organized an army of about two thousand men who set about raiding the north of Castile. Nearby, Burgos awaited the fulfillment of the pledges made by Cardinal Adrian after they had joined the royalist cause two months prior. The slow response led to dissatisfaction and uncertainty in the city. Ayala and Acuña, aware of this situation, decided to besiege Burgos, Ayala from its north and Acuña from its south. They also sought to undermine the defenses by encouraging a revolt of the inhabitants of Burgos.
### Royalist response
Still in Germany, Charles V issued the Edict of Worms on December 17, 1520 (not to be confused with the Edict of Worms of May 25, 1521, against Martin Luther), which condemned 249 prominent Comunidad members. For secular rebels, the punishment was death; clergy were to receive lighter penalties. Similarly, the edict also declared that those who supported the Comunidades were traitors, disloyal, rebels, and infidels.
The Royal Council's next move was the occupation of Ampudia in Palencia, a town loyal to the Count of Salvatierra. The Junta sent Padilla to meet Acuña; their combined force besieged the royal army at the castle of Mormojón. The royal army slipped away by nightfall, and Mormojón was forced to pay tribute to avoid being pillaged. Ampudia was recovered by the rebels the next day, January 16.
Meanwhile, the rebellion in Burgos scheduled for January 23 was a failure due to poor coordination with the besieging army; it started two days early and was easily crushed. The comuneros of Burgos had to surrender, and this was the last rebellion to be seen in Castile.
## Rebel campaigns of early 1521
### Padilla's decision on the rebels' next move
After abandoning the siege of Burgos due to the failure of its revolt, Padilla decided to return to Valladolid, while Acuña opted to resume his skirmishing and harassment of noble properties around Tierra de Campos. With this series of actions, Acuña intended to destroy or occupy the homes of the prominent nobles. The rebels now set themselves completely against the manorial system. This would be one of the strongest features of the second phase of the rebellion.
After the recent setbacks suffered by the comuneros, Padilla realized that they needed a victory to raise morale. He decided to take Torrelobatón and its castle. Torrelobatón was a stronghold halfway between Tordesillas and Medina de Rioseco, and was very close to Valladolid. Taking it would grant the rebels an excellent fortress for launching military operations and remove a threat on Valladolid.
### Battle of Torrelobatón
On February 21, 1521, the siege of Torrelobatón began. Outnumbered, the town nevertheless resisted for four days, thanks to its walls. On February 25, the comuneros entered the town and subjected it to a massive looting spree as a reward to the troops. Only churches were spared. The castle resisted for another two days. The comuneros then threatened to hang all of the inhabitants, at which point the castle surrendered. The defenders did secure an agreement to spare half of the goods inside the castle, thus avoiding further looting.
The victory in Torrelobatón lifted the spirits of the rebel camp while worrying the royalists about the rebel advance, exactly as Padilla hoped. The faith of the nobles in Cardinal Adrian was again shaken, as he was accused of having done nothing to avoid losing Torrelobatón. The Constable of Castile began to send troops to the Tordesillas area to contain the rebels and prevent any further advances.
Despite the renewed enthusiasm among the rebels, a decision was made to remain in their positions near Valladolid without pressing their advantage or launching a new attack. This caused many of the soldiers to return to their home communities, tired of waiting for salaries and new orders. This was a problem the comunero forces had throughout the war; they possessed only a small number of full-time soldiers, and their militias were constantly "dissolving and recruiting." A serious attempt to negotiate a peaceful end to the war was tried again by the moderates, but was undercut by extremists of both sides.
In the north, after the failure of the siege of Burgos in January, the Count of Salvatierra resumed his campaign. He set off to cause an uprising in Merindades, the homeland of the Constable of Castile, and besieged Medina de Pomar and Frías.
### Acuña's southern campaign
William de Croÿ, the young Flemish Archbishop of Toledo appointed by Charles, died in January 1521 in Worms, Germany. In Valladolid, the Junta proposed to Antonio de Acuña that he submit himself as a candidate for the seat.
Acuña departed for Toledo in February with a small force under his command. He traveled south, declaring his impending claim on the archdiocese to every village as he passed. This raised enthusiasm among the commoners, who received him with cheers, but aroused suspicion in the aristocracy. They feared Acuña might attack their holdings as he did in Tierra de Campos. The Marquis of Villena and Duke of Infantado contacted Acuña and persuaded him to sign a pact of mutual neutrality.
Acuña soon had to confront Antonio de Zúñiga, who had been appointed commander of the royalist army in the Toledo area. Zúñiga was a prior in the Knights of St. John, who maintained a base in Castile at the time. Acuña received information that Zúñiga was in the area of Corral de Almaguer, and pursued battle with him near Tembleque. Zúñiga drove the rebel forces off, and then launched a counterattack of his own between Lillo and El Romeral, inflicting a crushing defeat on Acuña. Acuña, a relentless self-promoter, tried to minimize the loss and even claimed that he had emerged victorious from the confrontation.
Undaunted, Acuña continued into Toledo. He appeared at the Zocodover Plaza in the heart of the city on March 29, 1521, Good Friday. The crowd gathered around him and took him directly to the cathedral, claiming the archbishop's chair for him. The next day he met with María Pacheco, wife of Juan de Padilla and de facto leader of the Toledo Comunidad in her husband's absence. A brief rivalry emerged between the two, but it was resolved after mutual attempts at reconciliation.
Once settled in the archdiocese of Toledo, Acuña began to recruit any men he could find, enlisting soldiers from fifteen to sixty years old. After royalist troops burned the town of Mora on April 12, Acuña returned to the countryside with roughly 1,500 men under his command. He moved into Yepes, and from there conducted raids and operations against royalist-controlled rural areas. He first attacked and pillaged Villaseca de la Sagra, then faced Zúñiga again in an inconclusive battle near the Tagus river in Illescas. Light skirmishing near Toledo would continue until news of Villalar ended the war.
## Battle of Villalar
In early April 1521, the royalist side moved to combine their armies and threaten Torrelobatón. The Constable of Castile moved his troops (including soldiers recently transferred from the defense of Navarre) southwest from Burgos to meet with the Admiral's forces near Tordesillas. Meanwhile, the comuneros reinforced their troops at Torrelobatón, which was far less secure than the comuneros preferred. Their forces were suffering from desertions, and the presence of royalist artillery would make Torrelobatón's castle vulnerable. Juan López de Padilla considered withdrawing to Toro to seek reinforcements in early April, but wavered. He delayed his decision until the early hours of April 23, losing considerable time and allowing the royalists to unite their forces in Peñaflor.
The combined royalist army pursued the comuneros. Again, the royalists had a strong advantage in cavalry, with their army consisting of 6,000 infantry and 2,400 cavalry against Padilla's 7,000 infantry and 400 cavalry. Heavy rain slowed Padilla's infantry more than the royalist cavalry and rendered the primitive firearms of the rebels' 1,000 arquebusiers nearly useless. Padilla hoped to reach the relative safety of Toro and the heights of Vega de Valdetronco, but his infantry was too slow. He gave battle with the harrying royalist cavalry at the town of Villalar. The cavalry charges scattered the rebel ranks, and the battle became a slaughter. There were an estimated 500–1,000 rebel casualties and many desertions.
The three most important leaders of the rebellion were captured: Juan López de Padilla, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado. They were beheaded the next morning in the Plaza of Villalar, with a large portion of the royalist nobility present. The remains of the rebel army at Villalar fragmented, with some attempting to join Acuña's army near Toledo and others deserting. The rebellion had been struck a crippling blow.
## End of the war
After the Battle of Villalar, the towns of northern Castile soon succumbed to the king's troops, with all its cities returning their allegiance to the king by early May. Only Madrid and Toledo kept their Comunidades alive.
### Resistance of Toledo
The first news of Villalar arrived in Toledo on April 26, but was largely ignored by the local Comunidad. The magnitude of the defeat became apparent in a few days, after the first survivors began arriving in the city and confirmed the fact that the three rebel leaders had been executed. Toledo was declared in mourning over the death of Juan de Padilla.
After the death of Padilla, Bishop Acuña lost popularity in favour of María Pacheco, Padilla's widow. People began to suggest negotiating with the royalists, seeking to avoid further suffering in the city. The situation looked even worse after the surrender of Madrid on May 11. The fall of Toledo seemed only to be a matter of time.
However, one ray of hope remained for the rebels. Castile had withdrawn some of its troops from occupied Navarre to fight the comuneros, and King Francis I of France used the opportunity to invade with support from the Navarrese. The royalist army was forced to march on Navarre to respond rather than besiege Toledo. Acuña left Toledo to travel to Navarre, but he was recognized and caught. It is disputed whether he was seeking to join the French and continue fighting, or was simply fleeing.
María Pacheco took control of the city and the remains of the rebel army, living in the Alcázar, collecting taxes, and strengthening defenses. She requested the intervention of her uncle, the respected Marquis of Villena, to negotiate with the Royal Council, hoping he would be able to obtain better concessions. The Marquis eventually abandoned the negotiations, and María Pacheco took on personal negotiations with Prior Zúñiga, the commander of the besieging forces. Her demands, though somewhat galling to honor, were ultimately minor, such as guaranteeing the property and reputation of her children.
Still concerned about the French, the royal government gave in. With the support of all parties, the surrender of Toledo was orchestrated on October 25, 1521. Thus, on October 31 the comuneros left the Alcázar of Toledo and new officials were appointed to run the city. The truce guaranteed the freedom and property of all the comuneros.
### Revolt of February 1522
The new administrator of Toledo restored order and brought the city back under royal control. However, he also provoked former comuneros. María Pacheco continued her presence in the city and refused to hand over all the hidden weapons until Charles V personally signed the agreements reached with the Order of St. John. This unstable situation came to an end on February 3, 1522, when the generous terms of the surrender were annulled. Royal soldiers filled the city and the administrator ordered Pacheco's execution. Riots broke out in protest. The incident was temporarily remedied thanks to the intervention of María de Mendoza, the sister of María Pacheco. Another truce was granted, and while the former comuneros were defeated, the distraction was exploited by María Pacheco to escape to Portugal disguised as a farmer.
### Pardon of 1522
Charles V returned to Spain on July 16, 1522. Acts of repression and retaliation against former comuneros did occur, but only sporadically. Embarrassingly large numbers of important people had supported the comuneros, or at least were suspiciously slow to declare allegiance to the king, and Charles thought it unwise to press the issue too much.
Back in Valladolid, Charles declared a general pardon on November 1. The pardon gave amnesty to everyone involved in the revolt with the exception of 293 comuneros, a small figure given the huge number of rebels. Both Pacheco and Bishop Acuña were among the 293 excluded from the pardon. More pardons were issued later, after pressure from the Cortes; by 1527, the repression was completely at end. Of the 293, 23 were executed, 20 died in prison, 50 purchased amnesty, and 100 were pardoned later. The fates of the rest are unknown.
## Aftermath
María Pacheco successfully escaped to Portugal, where she lived in exile the remaining ten years of her life. Bishop Acuña, captured in Navarre, was stripped of his ecclesiastical standing and executed after he killed a guard while trying to escape. Pedro Girón received a pardon conditional on him going into exile to Oran in North Africa, where he served as a commander against the Moors. Queen Joanna continued to be locked in Tordesillas by her son, where she remained for thirty-five more years, the rest of her life.
Emperor Charles V would go on to rule one of the largest and most sprawling empires in European history. As a consequence, Charles was nearly constantly at war, fighting France, England, the Papal States, the Ottoman Turks, the Aztecs, the Incas, and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League during his reign. Spain would provide the bulk of the Habsburgs' armies and financial resources over this period. Charles placed Castilians in high governmental positions in both Castile and the Empire at large, and generally left the administration of Castile in Castilian hands. In that sense, the revolt could be considered successful.
Some of the reforms of Isabella I which reduced noble power were reversed as a price for luring the nobility to the royalist side. However, Charles understood that noble encroachment of power had helped cause the revolt, and embarked upon a new reform program. Unpopular, corrupt, and ineffective officials were replaced; judicial functions of the Royal Council were limited; and local courts were revitalized. Charles also adjusted the membership of the Royal Council; its hated president was replaced, the aristocracy's role reduced, and more gentry were added to it. Realizing that the urban elite needed to have a stake in the royal government once more, Charles gave many of them positions, privileges, and government salaries. The Cortes, while not as important as the comuneros had hoped, nevertheless maintained its power; it was still required to approve new taxes and could advise the king. Charles also discouraged his officials from using overly coercive methods, after seeing his heavy-handed treatment of the Cortes of Corunna backfire. If anything, the co-option of the middle class worked too well; when Charles' successor King Phillip II demanded a ruinously large tax increase in the 1580s, the Cortes was too dependent on the Crown for money to effectively resist policies that would wreck the economy.
## Later influence
The revolt, fresh in the memory of Spain, is referenced in several literary works during Spain's Golden Age. Don Quixote references the rebellion in a conversation with Sancho, and Francisco de Quevedo uses the word "comunero" as a synonym for "rebel" in his works.
In the 18th century, the comuneros were not held in high regard by the Spanish Empire. The government was not amenable to encouraging rebellions, and only used the term to condemn opposition. In the Revolt of the Comuneros in Paraguay, the rebels did not take the name willingly; it was only meant to disparage them as traitors. Another Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada (modern Colombia) was similarly unrelated to the original except in name.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the image of the comuneros began to be rehabilitated by scholars such as Manuel Quintana as precursors of freedom and martyrs against absolutism. The decline of Castilian liberty was linked to the later decline of Spain. The first major commemorative event came in 1821, the third centenary of the Battle of Villalar. Juan Martín Díez, a nationalistic liberal military leader who had fought in the resistance against Napoleon, led an expedition to find and exhume the remains of the three leaders executed in 1521. Díez praised the comuneros on behalf of the liberal government in power at the time, likely the first positive governmental recognition for their cause. This view was challenged by conservatives who viewed a centralized state as modern and progressive, especially after the anarchy and fragmentation of the 1868 Revolution in Spain. Manuel Danvila, a conservative government minister, published the six-volume Historia critica y documentada de las Comunidades de Castilla from 1897 to 1900, one of the most important works of scholarship on the revolt. Drawing on collected original sources, Danvila emphasized the fiscal demands of the comuneros, and cast them as traditionalist, reactionary, medieval, and feudal. Though a liberal, intellectual Gregorio Marañón shared the dim view of the comuneros that again prevailed in Spain; he cast the conflict as one between a modern, progressive state open to beneficent foreign influence against a conservative, reactionary, and xenophobic Spain hypersensitive to religious and cultural deviance with an insistence on spurious racial purity.
General Franco's government from 1939 to 1975 also encouraged an unfavorable interpretation of the comuneros. According to approved historians such as José María Pemán, the revolt was fundamentally an issue of petty Spanish regionalism, something which Franco did his best to discourage. Additionally, the comuneros did not properly appreciate Spain's "imperial destiny."
Since the mid-twentieth century, others have sought more materialist reasons for the revolt. Historians such as José Antonio Maravall and Joseph Pérez portray the developing revolt as alliances of different social coalitions around shifting economic interests, with the "industrial bourgeoisie" of artisans and woolworkers combining with the intellectuals and the low nobility against the aristocrats and the merchants. Maravall, who views the revolt as one of the first modern revolutions, especially stresses the ideological conflict and intellectual nature of the revolt, with features such as the first proposed written constitution of Castile.
With Spain's transition to democracy following Franco's death, celebration of the comuneros started to become permissible again. On April 23, 1976, a small ceremony was held clandestinely in Villalar; only two years later, in 1978, the event had become a huge demonstration of 200,000 in support of Castilian autonomy. The autonomous community of Castile and León was created in response to public demand in 1983, and it recognized April 23 as an official holiday in 1986. Similarly, each February 3 since 1988 has been celebrated by the Castilian nationalist party Tierra Comunera in Toledo. The celebration highlights the roles of Juan López de Padilla and María Pacheco, and is done in memory of the rebellion in 1522, the last event of the war.
## See also
- Italian War of 1521–1526
- List of people associated with the Revolt of the Comuneros
- Military history of the Revolt of the Comuneros
- Revolt of the Brotherhoods
- Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre |
25,964,217 | Cyclone Vaianu | 1,170,478,068 | Category 3 South Pacific cyclone in 2006 | [
"2005–06 South Pacific cyclone season",
"Category 3 South Pacific cyclones",
"Tropical cyclones in 2006",
"Tropical cyclones in Tonga"
]
| Severe Tropical Cyclone Vaianu was the fourth named tropical cyclone of the 2005–06 South Pacific cyclone season. The system formed on February 11, and moved generally towards the south throughout its life. Vaianu ultimately peaked with winds corresponding to Category 1 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, and passed between Fiji and Tonga. Moving into cooler waters, the storm dissipated on February 16. Although the cyclone avoided land for the most part, it caused heavy rainfall and gusty winds in portions of Tonga. Flooding hit the capital city of Nuku'alofa, and on some islands, the storm destroyed crops.
## Meteorological history
Late on February 9, the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC) in Nadi, Fiji reported that Tropical Depression 12F had developed within a convergence zone which was located about 140 km (87 mi) to the northeast of Vanua Levu. The depression tracked southeastward, although further development was initially inhibited by wind shear. During the next day, the depression turned towards the southeast and moved into a more favorable environment for intensification. It was then designated as Tropical Depression 11P at 1800 UTC by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). On February 11, the system significantly organized, and at 1200 UTC that day, RSMC Nadi reported that the depression had intensified into a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale; it was assigned the name Vaianu.
At the time of being upgraded to a cyclone, Vaianu was situated about 190 km (120 mi) to the northwest of Vavaʻu, a Tonga island chain. The storm turned southwestward under the steering currents of a ridge to the southeast. The JTWC recognized the system as a tropical storm on February 12, and upgraded it into a tropical cyclone shortly thereafter. Vaianu continued to strengthen, and passed west of Tonga. The JTWC reported that the cyclone peaked in intensity at 1200 UTC on February 13, with maximum sustained 1-minute winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). RSMC Nadi assessed the storm as having peaked slightly later, with 10-minute winds of 130 km/h (80 mph), which made it a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone.
The storm held its strength for some time as it moved southward between Ono-i-Lau and Tongatapu. Beginning to accelerate, Vaianu entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Wellington, New Zealand. It curved southeastward and slowly deteriorated due to increasing wind shear and colder sea surface temperatures. The JTWC downgraded it to a tropical storm on February 15, and by the next day it was undergoing extratropical transition. At 0600 UTC, the JTWC classified it as extratropical, but it remained a powerful storm system for several days as it tracked over the open ocean.
## Preparations and impact
Early on February 10, RSMC Nadi placed Niuafo'ou and Niuatoputapu under a tropical cyclone alert, before early the next day extending the alert to the whole of Tonga. Later that day the Vavau, Haapai, and Nomuka islands were placed under a gale warning. The warnings stayed in force until late on February 12 when the gale warning was canceled, and concurrently, southern Tonga was placed under a tropical cyclone warning. These warnings were canceled on February 14. During the cyclone, RSMC Nadi placed the Lau Islands under a strong wind warning, and a damaging swell warning was declared for Fiji. Businesses in Nuku'alofa closed as the storm passed by.
At the Fuaʻamotu station, sustained winds blew at 68 km/h (42 mph) during the worst of the storm, with gusts reaching 100 km/h (62 mph). Barometric pressure there fell to 995 millibars at 1400 UTC on February 13, and 97.7 mm (3.85 in) of rain fell. Since the cyclone remained predominantly over water, its effects were limited. Nonetheless, portions of Tongan experienced torrential rainfall and high winds. On Tongatapu and Eua, the storm inflicted extensive crop damage, and it is estimated that 70% of the banana crop was destroyed. While little property damage took place, the storm caused power outages across its path that took up a week to fully restore. In Nuku'alofa, the capital of Tonga, flooding of low-lying areas reportedly shut down the city for two days. The high winds brought down trees and dispersed debris throughout the region, while schools were forced to close.
## See also
- 2005–06 South Pacific cyclone season |
411,607 | Battle of Magdhaba | 1,129,191,090 | 1916 WWI battle on the Sinai peninsula | [
"1916 in Egypt",
"Battles of World War I involving Australia",
"Battles of World War I involving Germany",
"Battles of World War I involving New Zealand",
"Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire",
"Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom",
"Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign",
"Conflicts in 1916",
"December 1916 events",
"History of the Royal Air Force during World War I",
"Sinai Peninsula"
]
| The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 during the Defence of Egypt section of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War. The attack by the Anzac Mounted Division took place against an entrenched Ottoman Army garrison to the south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some 18–25 miles (29–40 km) inland from the Mediterranean coast. This Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) victory against the Ottoman Empire garrison also secured the town of El Arish after the Ottoman garrison withdrew.
In August 1916, a combined Ottoman and German Empire army had been forced to retreat to Bir el Abd, after the British victory in the Battle of Romani. During the following three months the defeated force retired further eastwards to El Arish, while the captured territory stretching from the Suez Canal was consolidated and garrisoned by the EEF. Patrols and reconnaissances were carried out by British forces, to protect the continuing construction of the railway and water pipeline and to deny passage across the Sinai desert to the Ottoman forces by destroying water cisterns and wells.
By December 1916, construction of the infrastructure and supply lines had sufficiently progressed to enable the British advance to recommence, during the evening of 20 December. By the following morning a mounted force had reached El Arish to find it abandoned. An Ottoman Army garrison in a strong defensive position was located at Magdhaba, some 18–30 miles (29–48 km) inland to the south east, on the Wadi el Arish. After a second night march by the Anzac Mounted Division (Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division), the attack on Magdhaba was launched by Australian, British and New Zealand troops against well-entrenched Ottoman forces defending a series of six redoubts. During the day's fierce fighting, the mounted infantry tactics of riding as close to the front line as possible and then dismounting to make their attack with the bayonet supported by artillery and machine guns prevailed, assisted by aircraft reconnaissances. All of the well-camouflaged redoubts were eventually located and captured and the Ottoman defenders surrendered in the late afternoon.
## Background
At the beginning of the First World War, the Egyptian police who had controlled the Sinai Desert were withdrawn, leaving the area largely unprotected. In February 1915, a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal. After the Gallipoli Campaign, a second joint German and Ottoman force again advanced across the desert to threaten the canal, during July 1916. This force was defeated in August at the Battle of Romani, after which the Anzac Mounted Division, also known as the A. & N. Z. Mounted Division, under the command of the Australian major general Harry Chauvel, pushed the Ottoman Army's Desert Force commanded by the German general Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein out of Bir el Abd and across the Sinai to El Arish.
By mid-September 1916 the Anzac Mounted Division had pursued the retreating Ottoman and German forces from Bir el Salmana 20 miles (32 km) along the northern route across the Sinai Peninsula to the outpost at Bir el Mazar. The Maghara Hills, 50 miles (80 km) south west of Romani, in the interior of the Sinai Desert, were also attacked in mid-October by a British force based on the Suez Canal. Although not captured at the time, all these positions were eventually abandoned by their Ottoman garrisons in the face of growing British Empire strength.
### Consolidation of British territorial gains
The British then established garrisons along their supply lines, which stretched across the Sinai from the Suez Canal. Patrols and reconnaissances were regularly carried out to protect the advance of the railway and water pipeline, built by the Egyptian Labour Corps. These supply lines were marked by railway stations and sidings, airfields, signal installations and standing camps where troops could be accommodated in tents and huts. At this time the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) had a ration strength of 156,000 soldiers, plus 13,000 Egyptian labourers.
### Ottoman positions in the Sinai
The Ottoman Army's Desert Force commanded by Kress von Kressenstein which operated in the Sinai region was sustained and supported by their principal desert base at Hafir El Auja, located on the Ottoman side of the Egyptian-Ottoman frontier. Hafir el Auja was linked to Beersheba, Gaza, and northern Palestine by road and railway.
This major German and Ottoman base in the central Sinai desert, supplied and supported smaller garrisons in the area with reinforcements, ammunition and rations, medical support, and periods of rest away from the front line. If left intact, the Ottoman forces at Magdhaba and Hafir el Auja could seriously threaten the advance of the EEF along the north route towards Southern Palestine.
### Problems of an advance to El Arish
#### Water
The area of oases which extended from Dueidar, 15 miles (24 km) from Kantara along the Darb es Sultani, along the old caravan route, and on to Salmana 52 miles (84 km) from Kantara could sustain life. But from Salmana to Bir el Mazar, (75 miles (121 km) from Kantara) there was little water, and beyond the Mazar area there was no water, until El Arish was reached on the coast 95 miles (153 km) from Kantara.
Before the British advance to El Arish could begin, the 20 miles (32 km) stretch without a water supply between El Mazar and El Arish had to be thoroughly explored. By mid-December 1916, the pipeline's eastward progress made it possible to store sufficient water at Maadan (Kilo. 128) and it was also possible to concentrate sufficiently large numbers of Egyptian Camel Transport Corps camels and camel-drivers to carry water forward from Maadan in support of an attacking force.
#### Conditions
The campaign across the Sinai desert required great determination, as well as conscientious attention to detail by all involved, to ensure that ammunition, rations and every required pint of water and bale of horse fodder was available when needed. While the Ottoman Empire's main desert base at Hafir el Auja was more centrally located, the British Empire base was some 30 miles (48 km) to the west of El Arish; almost at the limits of their lines of communication. Mounted operations so far from base in such barren country were extremely hazardous and difficult.
For these long-range desert operations, it was necessary for all supplies to be well-organised and suitably packaged for transportation on camels, moving with the column or following closely behind. It was vital that the soldiers were well trained for these conditions. If a man was left behind in the inhospitable Sinai, he might die in the burning desert sun during the day, or bitter cold at night. If a water bottle was accidentally tipped up or leaked, it could mean no water for its owner, for perhaps 24 hours in extreme temperatures.
In these extreme and difficult conditions, mounted troops of the EEF worked to provide protective screens for the construction of the infrastructure, patrolling the newly occupied areas and carrying out ground reconnaissance to augment and verify aerial photographs, used to improve maps of the newly occupied areas.
### British War Office policy
The British War Office's stated policy in October 1916 was to maintain offensive operations on the Western Front, while remaining on the defensive everywhere else. However, the battle of attrition on the Somme, coupled with a change of Britain's prime minister, with David Lloyd George succeeding H. H. Asquith on 7 December, destabilised the status quo sufficiently to bring about a policy reversal, making attacks on the Central Powers' weak points away from the Western Front desirable. The commander of the EEF, General Sir Archibald Murray, was encouraged to seek success on his eastern frontier, but without any reinforcements. He thought that an advance to El Arish was possible, and that such an advance would threaten forces in the southern Ottoman Empire and, if not prevent, at least slow the transfer of German and Ottoman units to other theatres of war from the Levant.
### Creation of Eastern Force and Desert Column
After the victory at Romani, Murray moved his headquarters back from Ismailia on the canal to Cairo. This move to Cairo was to enable him to be in a more central position to carry out his duties and responsibilities which extended from the Western Frontier Force, waging a continuing campaign against the Senussi in Egypt's Western Desert, to the Eastern Force in the Sinai. Another consequence of the victory was that Major General H. A. Lawrence, who had been in command of the Northern Sector of the Suez Canal defences and Romani during the battle, was transferred to the Western Front.
As a consequence of pushing the German and Ottoman forces eastwards away from the canal, during October, Lieutenant General Charles Dobell was appointed to command the newly created Eastern Force. With his headquarters at Kantara, Dobell became responsible for the security of the Suez Canal and the Sinai Peninsula.
> Yesterday we were inspected by General Chauvel who is just back from his trip to England. We were all pleased to see him as he is well liked by both officers and men. A chap feels pretty safe with a leader like him. I saw him riding backwards and forwards under heavy fire at Romani and Bir-el-Abd and it seemed that he did not know what danger was. Now that he is back we don't think it will be long before we are at the Turks again.
Dobell's Eastern Force consisted of two infantry divisions, the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division commanded by Major General W. Douglas and the 52nd (Lowland) Division commanded by Major General W. E. B. Smith, as well as the Anzac Mounted Division, a mounted infantry division commanded by Chauvel, the 5th Mounted Brigade commanded by Brigadier General E. A. Wiggin and the Imperial Camel Brigade commanded by Brigadier General Clement Leslie Smith. Murray considered this force to be under strength by at least a division for an advance to Beersheba, but felt he could gain El Arish and form an effective base on the coast, from which further operations eastwards could be supplied.
In October Chauvel was granted six weeks' leave, and he travelled to Britain on 25 October, returning to duty on 12 December 1916. While he was away Desert Column was formed and on 7 December 1916, five days before Chauvel's return, Murray appointed the newly promoted Lieutenant General Sir Phillip Chetwode commander of the column. As a major general, Chetwode had been in command of cavalry on the Western Front, where he was involved in pursuing retreating Germans after the First Battle of the Marne.
On formation, Chetwode's Desert Column consisted of three infantry divisions, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, currently serving in the Suez Canal Defences and commanded by A. E. Dallas, and the 42nd (East Lancashire) and the 52nd (Lowland) divisions. Chetwode's mounted force consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division, the 5th Mounted Brigade and the Imperial Camel Brigade.
## Prelude
By early December 1916, construction of the railway had reached the wells at Bir el Mazar, the last water sources available to the EEF before El Arish. Bir el Mazar was about halfway between Kantara on the Suez Canal and the Egyptian-Ottoman territorial border. British intelligence had reported Ottoman Army plans to strengthen the garrison at Magdhaba, by extending the railway (or light rail) south east from Beersheba (and Hafir el Auja) towards Magdhaba.
### Advance to El Arish
Mounted patrols to the outskirts of El Arish discovered 1,600 well-entrenched Ottoman troops holding the town, supported by forces based 25 miles (40 km) to the south-east on the banks of the Wadi el Arish at Magdhaba and Abu Aweigila.
On 20 December, a week after Chauvel returned from leave, the advance to El Arish began when the Anzac Mounted Division left Bir Gympie at 21:45. They moved out without the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, which was in the rear assisting with patrolling the lines of communication stretching 90 miles (140 km) back to Kantara on the Suez Canal. So it was the 1st and 3rd Light Horse Brigades, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, the 5th Mounted Brigade and the newly formed battalions of the Imperial Camel Brigade with the mountain guns of the Hong Kong and Singapore Camel Battery which made the 20-mile (32 km) trek to El Arish.
On the day they set out, Australian airmen reported that the garrisons at El Arish and Maghara Hills, in the centre of the Sinai, appeared to have been withdrawn.
As the Anzac Mounted Division approached Um Zughla at 02:00 on 21 December, a halt was called until 03:30 when the column continued on to El Arish. At 07:45, the advanced troops entered the town, unopposed, to contact the civil population and arrange water supplies for the mounted force. One prisoner was captured, while lines of observation were set up, which maintained a close watch over the country east and south of the town. By 16:00 the 1st and 3rd Light Horse, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and the Imperial Camel Brigades were in bivouac at El Arish, the only casualties during the day being two members of the 1st Light Horse Brigade, who were blown up by a stranded mine on the beach.
The day after El Arish was occupied, on 22 December, the leading infantry brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division reached the town and, together with the 5th Mounted Brigade, garrisoned the town and began fortifying the area. At 10:00, Chetwode landed on the beach opposite the Anzac Mounted Division Headquarters to begin his appointment as commander of Desert Column. Chetwode reported that he had arranged a special camel convoy with rations and horse feed to arrive at El Arish at 16:30 that day, with a view to the Anzac Mounted Division advancing on Magdhaba, 18 miles (29 km) away. (On the following day 23 December, the first supplies to be transported to El Arish by ship from Port Said were landed.) With essential rations organised, Chauvel led the mounted division out of El Arish at 00:45 on the night of 22/23 December towards Magdhaba, after reconnaissances had established that the retreating Ottoman force from El Arish had moved to the south east along the Wadi el Arish towards Magdhaba.
### Ottoman force
After their retreat from El Arish, the Ottoman garrison withdrew down the Wadi el Arish 25 miles (40 km) south east of El Arish, to Magdhaba and Abu Aweigila, about another 15 miles (24 km) further away from the coast, on the banks of the wadi. At Magdhaba the garrison had increased from 500 to about 1,400 Ottoman soldiers; there may have been as many as 2,000, consisting of two battalions of the 80th Infantry Regiment (27th Ottoman Infantry Division but attached to the 3rd Ottoman Infantry Division for most of 1916). These two battalions, the 2nd Battalion, commanded by Izzet Bey, of about 600 men and the 3rd Battalion, commanded by Rushti Bey, were supported by a dismounted camel company and two squads from the 80th Machine Gun Company. (The remainder squads of the 80th Machine Gun Company had been moved north to Shellal.) The defending force was also supported by a battery of four Krupp 7.5 cm Gebirgskanone M 1873 guns (on loan from the 1st Mountain Regiment), since the 80th Regiment's own artillery battery was stationed at Nekhl. Also attached to the Ottoman garrison at Magdhaba were a number of support units, including elements of the 3rd Company of the 8th Engineer Battalion, 27th Medical Company, 43rd Mobile Hospital and the 46th Cooking Unit. The garrison was under the command of Kadri Bey, the commanding officer of the 80th Infantry Regiment.
The series of six well-situated and developed redoubts making up the strong Ottoman garrison position at Magdhaba reflected considerable planning; the redoubts were almost impossible to locate on the flat ground on both sides of the Wadi el Arish. Clearly, the move of the Ottoman garrison from El Arish had not been a sudden, panicked reaction; indeed it was first noticed by Allied aerial reconnaissance planes as early as 25 October.
These fortified redoubts, which were situated on both sides of the wadi, were linked by a series of trenches. The whole position, extending over an area of about 2 miles (3.2 km) from east to west, was more narrow from north to south. On 22 December 1916, the day before the attack, the garrison had been inspected by Kress von Kressenstein, commander of the Ottoman Desert Force, who drove from his base at Hafir el Auja. At the time he expressed satisfaction with the garrison's ability to withstand any assault.
Von Kressenstein's satisfaction that the garrison could withstand any assault may have had something to do with its remoteness. Magdhaba was about 40 miles (64 km) from the British railhead and 25 miles (40 km) from El Arish. There were two other important pieces of information von Kressenstein did not have. Firstly, he would have been unaware of the speed, flexibility and determination of the Australian, British and New Zealand mounted force, which they were about to demonstrate. Secondly, the arrival of the new British commander, Chetwode, and his staff and their vital forward planning to organise the necessary logistical support for an immediate long range attack by the Anzac Mounted Division.
### British Empire force
Chauvel's force for the attack on Magdhaba consisted of three brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division; 1st Light Horse Brigade (1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments), the 3rd Light Horse Brigade (8th, 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments), the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (Auckland, Canterbury and Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments), together with three battalions from the Imperial Camel Brigade in place of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade. These nine regiments and three battalions were supported by the Inverness and Somerset Artillery Batteries, Royal Horse Artillery, and the Hong Kong and Singapore Artillery Battery.
This force, which may have been 7,000 strong, moved out from El Arish just after midnight, following an unexpected delay caused by incoming infantry columns of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, which crossed the long camel train carrying water which followed the mounted division. Nevertheless, the Anzac Mounted Division (riding for forty minutes, dismounting and leading their horse for ten minutes and halting for ten minutes every hour) reached the plain 4 miles (6.4 km) from Magdhaba, at about 05:00 on 23 December. The column had been successfully guided by brigade scouts, until the garrison's fires had become visible for about an hour during their trek, indicating the Ottomans did not expect an attacking force to set out on a second night march, after their 30 miles (48 km) ride to El Arish.
#### Aerial support
Aerial reconnaissances were routinely carried out; one carried out on 15 November by the Australian Flying Corps made a detailed reconnaissance behind enemy lines over the areas of El Kossaima, Hafir el Auja and Abu Aweigila, taking 24 photographs of all camps and dumps.
The Royal Flying Corps's 5th Wing under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel P B Joubert de la Ferté stationed at Mustabig supported the Anzac Mounted Division. The Wing was a composite formation of the No. 14 Squadron and the Australian Flying Corps's No. 1 Squadron. It was ordered to provide close air support, long-range scouting and long-range bombing. One British and ten Australian planes had dropped a hundred bombs on Magdhaba on 22 December and during the battle bombed and machine gunned the area, but targets were difficult to find.
#### Medical support
The evacuation of wounded had been reviewed following the problems encountered during the Battle of Romani, with particular attention given to the development of transport by railway. By the time the advance to El Arish occurred in December 1916, two additional hospital trains were available on the Sinai railway, and medical sections had been deployed at the following:
close to the battlefield at railhead, where the immobile sections of divisional field ambulances could accommodation 700 casualties,
at Bir el Abd No. 24 Casualty Clearing Station (CCS), which could accommodate 400 cases, and Nos. 53 and 54 CCS could each accommodate 200,
at Bir el Mazar No. 26 CCS, which could accommodate 400 cases,
at Mahamdiyah No. 2 (Australian) Stationary Hospital with 800 beds,
at Kantara East No. 24 Stationary Hospital with 800 beds.
## Battle
At 06:30 the No. 5 Wing attacked the Ottoman defences, drawing some fire which revealed the locations of machine guns, trenches and five redoubts. The redoubts were arranged around the village, which protected the only available water supply in the area. During the day, pilots and their observers provided frequent reports; fourteen were received between 07:50 and 15:15, giving estimated positions, strength, and movements of the Ottoman garrison. These were most often given verbally by the observer, after the pilot landed near Chauvel's headquarters, as the aircraft did not at this time have wireless communication.
The main attack, from the north and east, was to be made by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Edward Chaytor, which moved in line of troop columns. The New Zealanders were supported by a machine gun squadron armed with Vickers and Lewis guns, and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade all under the command of Chaytor. This attack began near the village of Magdhaba and the Wadi El Arish, on the virtually featureless battleground, when the British Empire artillery opened fire at the same time as Chaytor's group moved towards the Ottoman garrison's right and rear.
Chauvel's plan of envelopment quickly began to develop. Despite heavy Ottoman fire, Chaytor's attacking mounted troops found cover and dismounted, some about 1,600 yards (1,500 m) from the redoubts and entrenchments, while others got as close as 400 yards (370 m). At the same time, units of the Imperial Camel Brigade were moving straight on Magdhaba, in a south easterly direction, following the telegraph line, and by 08:45 were slowly advancing on foot, followed by the 1st Light Horse Brigade, in reserve.
Chauvel's envelopment was extended at 09:25, when Chaytor ordered a regiment to circle the entrenched positions and move through Aulad Ali, to cut off a possible line of retreat to the south and south east. The 10th Light Horse Regiment with two sections of the brigade Machine Gun Squadron, led by Brigadier General J. R. Royston, commander of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, succeeded in capturing Aulad Ali and 300 prisoners.
The Ottoman artillery batteries and trenches were difficult to locate, but by 10:00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was advancing towards the firing line. At this time, an aerial report described small groups of the Magdhaba garrison beginning to retreat, and as a result the still-mounted reserve, the 1st Light Horse Brigade, was ordered to move directly on the town, passing the dismounted Imperial Camel Brigade battalions on their way. After meeting severe shrapnel fire as they trotted over the open plain, they were forced to take cover in the Wadi el Arish where they dismounted, continuing their advance at 10:30 against the Ottoman left. Meanwhile, the battalions of the Imperial Camel Brigade, continued their advance over the flat ground for 900 yards (820 m), section by section, covering fire provided by each section in turn.
By 12:00 all brigades were hotly engaged, as the 3rd Light Horse Brigade's 10th Light Horse Regiment continued their sweep round the garrison's right flank. An hour later, the right of the Imperial Camel Brigade battalions had advanced to reach the 1st Light Horse Brigade and 55 minutes afterwards, fierce fighting was beginning to make an impact on the Ottoman garrison. Reports continued of small numbers of Ottoman troops retreating, but by 14:15 the 10th Light Horse Regiment was continuing its trek after capturing Aulad Ali; moving across the Wadi el Arish, round Hill 345 to attack the rear of Redoubt No. 4. By 14:55 the frontal attack by the Imperial Camel Brigade was within 500 yards (460 m) of the Ottoman defences and, together with the 1st Light Horse Brigade, at 15:20, they attacked No. 2 redoubt. Ten minutes later the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, with fixed bayonets, attacked the trenches to the east of some houses and the 10th Light Horse Regiment, by now advancing from the south, captured two trenches on that side, effectively cutting off any retreat for the Ottoman garrison.
By 16:00 the 1st Light Horse Brigade had captured No. 2 redoubt, and Chaytor reported capturing buildings and redoubts on the left. After a telephone call between Chauvel and Chetwode, pressure continued to be exerted and an attack by all units took place at 16:30. The Ottoman garrison held on until the dismounted attackers were within 20 yards (18 m), but by that time, there was no doubt that the Ottoman garrison was losing the fight, and they began to surrender in small groups. All organised resistance ceased ten minutes later and as darkness fell, sporadic firing petered out, while prisoners were rounded up, horses collected and watered at the captured wells. Then Chauvel rode into Magdhaba and gave the order to clear the battlefield.
At 23:30 the Anzac Mounted Division's headquarters left Magdhaba with an escort and arrived in El Arish at 04:10 on 24 December 1916.
### Casualties and captures
Of the 146 known British Empire casualties, 22 were killed and 124 were wounded. Five officers were killed and seven wounded, and 17 other ranks were killed and 117 wounded. Included in the 146 figure, which may have been as high as 163, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade suffered the loss of two officers and seven other ranks killed and 36 other ranks wounded.
No more than 200 Ottoman soldiers escaped before the surviving garrison of between 1,242 and 1,282 men were captured. The prisoners included the 80th Regiment's commander Khadir Bey, and the 2nd and 3rd Battalions commanders, Izzat Bey, Rushti Bey among 43 officers. Over 300 Ottoman soldiers were killed; 97 were buried on the battlefield, and 40 wounded were cared for.
## Aftermath
With the victory at Magdhaba the occupation of El Arish was secure. This was the first town captured on the Mediterranean coast and infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division and the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade quickly began to fortify the town. The Royal Navy arrived on 22 December 1916, and supplies began landing on the beaches near El Arish on 24 December. After the arrival of the railway on 4 January 1917 followed by the water pipeline, El Arish quickly developed into a major base for the EEF.
Aerial reconnaissance found Ottoman forces moving their headquarters north from Beersheba, while the garrison at their main desert base of Hafir El Auja was slightly increased. Other Ottoman outposts at El Kossaima and Nekhl remained, along with their strong defensive system of trenches and redoubts at El Magruntein defending Rafa on the frontier between Egypt and the southern Ottoman Empire.
### Return to El Arish
Chauvel's force had left El Arish the previous night, carrying one water bottle per man. Additional water was organised by Desert Column staff and sent from El Arish to Lahfan, and a water convoy from Lahfan, ordered to move to Magdhaba at 15:10 on the day of battle, was reported to be on its way at 15:20.
After filling up from the water convoy after its arrival at Magdhaba, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 3rd Light Horse Brigades left to ride back to El Arish in their own time.
Material assistance was given to the returning columns by the 52nd (Lowland) Division, in form of the loan of camels, water fantasses, sandcarts and gun horse teams, the latter going out on the commanding generals' initiative to meet the returning teams.
### Clearing the battleground
At a dressing station set up 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Magdhaba, by the New Zealand Field Ambulance Mobile Section and the 1st Light Horse Field Ambulance, 80 wounded were treated during the day of battle. Field ambulances performed urgent surgery, gave tetanus inoculations, and fed patients. On the night after the battle, treated wounded were evacuated in sandcarts and on torturous cacolets to El Arish, with the No. 1 Ambulance Convoy assisting.
Part of the 1st Light Horse Regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel C. H. Granville, with two squadrons of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment plus one squadron from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, bivouacked for the night at Magdhaba. A convoy of supplies was ordered from El Arish to support these troops, who continued clearing the battlefield the following morning. The remaining 44 British Empire and 66 Ottoman Empire wounded, collected on 23 and 24 December, were taken to an Ottoman hospital within the Magdhaba fortifications, before being sent to the dressing station. From there, at 17:00 the ambulance convoy set out on its 23 miles (37 km) march to the receiving station.
The convoys of wounded were met a few miles from El Arish by infantry with sandcarts lent by the 52nd (Lowland) Division, so the wounded who had endured the cacolets travelled in comfort to the receiving station, arriving at 04:00 on 25 December. The 52nd (Lowland) Division supplied medical stores and personnel to assist, but although arrangements were made for evacuation to the railhead two days later, evacuation by sea was planned. This had to be postponed due to a gale with rain and hail on 27 December and it was not until 29 December that the largest single ambulance convoy organised in the campaign, 77 sandcarts, nine sledges and a number of cacolet camels, moved out in three lines along the beach with 150 wounded. A few serious cases, who had not been ready to be moved, were evacuated the following day to begin their journey to Kantara on the Suez Canal.
### Recognition
In an address to the troops after the battle, Chetwode expressed his appreciation for the mounted rifle and light horse method of attack. He said that in the history of warfare he had never known cavalry to not only locate and surround the opponent's position, but to dismount and fight as infantry with rifle and bayonet.
On 28 September 1917 Chauvel, who by this time had been promoted by Allenby to command three mounted divisions in Desert Mounted Corps, wrote to General Headquarters:
> The point is now that, during the period covered by Sir Archibald's Despatch of 1-3-17, the Australia and New Zealand Troops well know that, with the exception of the 5th Mounted [Yeomanry] Brigade and some Yeomanry Companies of the I.C.C., they were absolutely the only troops engaged with the enemy on this front and yet they see that they have again got a very small portion indeed of the hundreds of Honours and Rewards (including mentions in Despatches) that have been granted. My Lists when commanding the A. & N.Z. Mounted Division, were modest ones under all the circumstances and in that perhaps I am partly to blame but, as you will see by attached list, a good many of my recommendations were cut out and in some cases those recommended for decorations were not even mentioned in Despatches. |
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| Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera, which has aired since 18 March 1985. It was created by television executive Reg Watson. The Seven Network commissioned the show following the success of Watson's earlier soap Sons and Daughters. Although successful in Melbourne, Neighbours underperformed in the Sydney market and was cancelled by Seven four months after it began airing. It was immediately commissioned by rival Network Ten for a second production season, which began screening on 20 January 1986. Neighbours became the longest-running drama series in Australian television history. In 2005, it was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame.
The storylines concern the lives of the people who live and work in Erinsborough, a fictional suburb of Melbourne, Victoria. The series centres on the residents of Ramsay Street, a cul-de-sac, and its neighbouring area, the Lassiters complex, which includes a bar, hotel, café, police station, lawyers' office and park. Neighbours began with a focus on three households created by Watson – including the Ramsay and Robinson families, who have a long history, and an ongoing rivalry. Over the serial's early years, three additional houses on the street were introduced as regular settings. Pin Oak Court, in Vermont South, is the real cul-de-sac that has doubled for Ramsay Street. The houses featured are real and the residents allow the production to shoot external scenes in their yards. The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill.
Until 2022, Neighbours was screened in Australia as a 22-minute episode on weeknights, in an early-evening slot. It moved to Ten's digital channel, Eleven (later rebranded 10 Peach) on 11 January 2011, and was broadcast each weeknight at 6:30 pm. The show was produced by Fremantle Australia and has been sold to over sixty countries around the world, making it one of Australia's most successful media exports. Neighbours had been especially successful in the United Kingdom, where it was first screened on 27 October 1986 on BBC One, and achieved huge popularity among British audiences in the late 1980s and 1990s. In 2008, it moved in the UK to Channel 5; since 2008 it had been largely paid for by the UK broadcaster as it was no longer commercially viable for Ten to fund it alone. In 2018, the show became the first Australian drama to air all year round after securing a new deal with Channel 5. In February 2022, Channel 5 announced that they would be dropping Neighbours from their network and the cancellation of the show was confirmed the following month. The show's finale was broadcast as a 90-minute long episode in Australia on 28 July 2022 on Network 10 and 10 Peach, while the finale in the United Kingdom aired on 29 July 2022 as a normal 30 minute episode in the regular day time schedule followed by an hour-long primed-time episode. Due to timing, some scenes were cut from the UK showing. The finale was broadcast in Ireland on 3 August 2022 and in New Zealand on 2 September 2022.
In November 2022, it was announced that Amazon Freevee and Fremantle had agreed to a deal that would restart the series, and production resumed on 17 April 2023. Neighbours is scheduled to restart on 18 September 2023.
## History
Neighbours was created by Australian TV executive Reg Watson. Watson got the idea for Neighbours during his time working on Crossroads and watching fellow soap Coronation Street in Britain. He had already created successful Australian made soap operas The Young Doctors, Prisoner and Sons and Daughters. Watson proposed the idea of making a show that would focus on more realistic stories and portray teens and adults who talk openly to each other and solve their problems together. He also wanted the show to appeal to both Australian and British audiences. Several titles were discussed, including People Like Us, One Way Street, No Through Road and Living Together, before Neighbours was chosen. Watson said "In the end it came down to being what it is, a story around neighbours." Reporters from the Herald Sun said that Watson took his idea to the Nine Network in 1982, but it was rejected. He then went to the Seven Network, who commissioned the show in September 1984. The serial went into production that November with an \$8 million budget. The show's initial premise focused on three households, made up of 12 core characters, living in Ramsay Street, dealing with everyday life with humour and drama. The first episode was broadcast on 18 March 1985 and reviews for the show were favourable. However, the Melbourne-produced program underperformed in the Sydney market and Seven announced on 12 July 1985 that it was cancelling the show.
Neighbours was immediately bought by Seven's rival Network Ten. The new network had to build replica sets when it took over production after Seven destroyed the original sets to prevent the rival network obtaining them. Ten began screening the series with episode 171 on 20 January 1986. In 1986, the series was bought by the BBC as part of their new daytime schedule in the United Kingdom. Neighbours made its debut on BBC1 on 27 October 1986 starting with the pilot episode. It soon gained a loyal audience and the show became particularly popular with younger viewers, and before long was watched by up to 16 million viewers – more than the entire population of Australia at the time. In 1988, Neighbours became the only television show to have its entire cast flown over to the UK to make an appearance at the Royal Variety Performance in front of the Queen. Neighbours has since become the longest running drama series in Australian television and the seventh longest running serial drama still on the air in the world. In 2005, Neighbours celebrated its 20th anniversary and over twenty former cast members returned for a special episode, which saw the characters sitting down to watch a documentary about Ramsay Street and its residents. At the Logie Award ceremony that year, the show was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame.
In 2007, the show underwent a revamp, which included a switch to recording in HDTV, the introduction of a new family, the departure of several existing characters and a new version of the show's theme song and opening titles. In addition, episode titles were abandoned, having been in use for the previous three years. Daniel Bennett, the new head of drama at Network Ten, announced that the crux of the Ramsay Street story would go "back to basics" and follow a less sensational path than of late with the emphasis on family relations and suburban reality. Executive producer Ric Pellizzeri said new writers, actors and sets would bring the soap back to its glory days. He added "We moved too far into event-driven stories rather than the character-driven stories that made Neighbours what it is". The relaunch failed to attract more viewers in Australia. Pellizzeri left the series at the end of 2007 and former Neighbours scriptwriter, Susan Bower, became the new executive producer. In 2008, Neighbours was branded "too white" by black and Asian viewers in Britain and in Australia there was talk of a "White Australia policy" when it came to casting actors for soaps. In response to the criticism, Bower made a decision to add more ethnically diverse extras, small walk-on roles and speaking parts, as well as introducing the character of Sunny Lee (played by Hany Lee), an exchange student from South Korea.
On 18 March 2010, Neighbours celebrated its 25th anniversary. In April, Channel 5 in the UK launched a search to find a female actress to play the part of Poppy Rogers. The search was similar to the Dolly magazine competition in Australia. August saw Neighbours air its 6,000th episode. Digital Spy revealed that the week-long 6,000th episode celebrations would see the wedding of regular characters, Donna Freedman (Margot Robbie) and Ringo Brown (Sam Clark). It was later announced that an attempt on the life of long term regular, Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) would be the focus of the actual 6,000th episode. Bower said "Last week I saw episode 6,000. This marks Australian television history. The 6,000th episode falls on a Friday so the whole week is a special one. As Stefan Dennis – Paul Robinson – was in the first episode 25 years ago, it was decided that his character play a most important role in this very special event".
In late 2010, the TV Tonight website reported Neighbours was to reduce crew operations in 2011 so production could be upgraded. The changes meant that the location manager and catering team were no longer required, studio shoots would be reduced from three cameras to two, and location shooting would be restricted. Of the changes, FremantleMedia said "Neighbours is undergoing a work flow upgrade to accommodate advances in technology and production techniques to ensure we are at the forefront of professionalism and efficiency." They added that the show's production model had been in place since 1985 and that it was time to evolve it. On 14 March 2011, The Australian reported that Neighbours has become the first television show available to watch on a free iPhone application. Viewers are able to watch whole episodes within three hours of them airing on Eleven. Nick Spooner, the head of Ten digital media said "This is part of what we call our 'three-screen approach' – broadcast, online and mobile – and it is intended to build viewer engagement with a show and our brand. This is a way for us to stay in touch with our audience and to keep them coming back." To celebrate the wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton, Neighbours filmed a specially commissioned scene for the UK episode airing on the same day as the wedding. The episode, which had already aired in Australia, marked the first time an Australian show recorded extra scenes for a UK broadcaster.
On 25 October 2011, it was announced Bower would leave Neighbours in December 2011 to move into a new international role with FremantleMedia. Of her departure, Bower told Colin Vickery of the Herald Sun, "I love Neighbours, it is a wonderful show and because of this I felt it was important that fresh eyes and brains take over to keep this Australian icon contemporary. Having said that, I'm really excited about the new role and thank FremantleMedia for this wonderful opportunity." Former City Homicide producer, Richard Jasek, took over Bower's role, while Alan Hardy took over the role of producer. On 4 December 2013, it was confirmed that Jasek would be leaving Neighbours and Jason Herbison had been promoted to series producer. FremantleMedia's head of drama Jo Porter became executive producer, while Laurence Wilson became the associate producer. The show celebrated its 7,000th episode on 24 October 2014. In March 2015, Neighbours celebrated its 30th anniversary and twelve former cast members returned for the anniversary episodes that revolved around an Erinsborough Festival. Network Ten and Channel 5 aired a documentary special titled Neighbours 30th: The Stars Reunite, which featured interviews with current and former cast members, including Kylie Minogue, Jason Donovan and Guy Pearce, reflecting on their time on the show. Natalie Lynch succeeded Wilson as producer in early 2016.
In 2017, there was speculation that Neighbours would cease production following the breakdown of its deals in the United Kingdom, and Network Ten entering voluntary administration. On 9 October 2017, Stewart Clarke of Variety reported that Channel 5 and FremantleMedia had agreed a new deal that would see the yearly episode count increased from 240 to 258, as well as plans for new primetime specials. The deal meant that from 2018, Neighbours would run across the full year for the first time in its history, including over December and January. Herbison stated, "We value our global audiences and are delighted to stay on this journey together. Come the end of 2018 we will also make history by becoming the first Australian drama series to screen all year round." Following the departure of Sonya Rebecchi in 2019, actor Eve Morey stated that the killing off of her character was a measure to reduce production costs for the program as part of its new negotiations. When the cast and crew returned from their annual production break on 13 January 2020, they filmed a scene addressing the Australian bushfires for the episode airing on 15 January. The scene features the characters Sheila Canning (Colette Mann), David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) and Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) discussing the fires and a charity event Sheila is organising. Channel 5 directed its viewers to a dedicated information page on their website at the end of the episode. Neighbours suspended production for two days amid the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, after a crew member came into contact with someone who had the virus. Production shut down early for the scheduled Easter break before resuming after four weeks on 27 April 2020, making Neighbours the first mainstream scripted show to resume production during the pandemic. In order to adhere to government guidelines and social-distancing, Neighbours created separate areas to spread out the cast and crew. They removed intimate scenes between characters and editing allows producers to give the illusion of large crowds and groups. Daily temperature checks for cast and crew will also be carried out. Herbison said that the pandemic would not be included in storylines. He stated, "We are currently plotting episodes that won't air until much later in the year, so anything we write now might feel very outdated. Further to this, there's a creative question: will our viewers want to switch on Neighbours and relive it again, or is our job to provide escapism? I tend to feel it's the latter."
In February 2022, it was announced that Channel 5 would be dropping the serial from its schedule later that year, and that production would cease if an alternative British broadcaster was not secured. In response to the threat to the series' future, a fan-run petition on Change.org asking Channel 5 to reconsider its decision was launched, which was signed by over 50,000 people, including cast member Lucinda Cowden. The petition reached 50,000 signatures after one week. This also sparked \#saveneighbours to trend on social media. Former star Jason Donovan and Home and Away actor Shane Withington also expressed their support for the soap on Twitter. Neighbours actor Jackie Woodburne said in an interview with The Project that the cast were "in shock" upon hearing the news, while Alan Fletcher said the soap needs "a hero" to save it and Cowden explained that "the idea of no longer playing Mel is devastating." Numerous current and former cast members, such as Annie Jones, Natalie Bassingthwaighte and Geoff Paine, expressed their sadness online, specifically Rob Mills, who called on the Morrison government to step in and help. After the decision to cut the show's funding by British broadcaster Channel 5, an online campaign was launched trying to get Barry Crocker's version of the Neighbours theme song to number one in the UK charts. This success had the tune at number one on the iTunes chart for almost 24 hours. An article in the Sydney Morning Herald noted that following the merger of Viacom and CBS, Channel 5 in the UK and Channel 10 in Australia became owned by the same corporate umbrella. Despite the soap being the 4th most popular in the UK (behind the country's traditional top 3 soaps), the funding arrangements meant that one part of ViacomCBS was cross-subsidising another.
On 3 March 2022, it was confirmed that the show would end after 37 years on air, after production company Fremantle could not obtain a new UK broadcaster. Dennis said of the cancellation, "Simply put, it is all about the quickly changing landscape in the way we view our favourite TV shows. Drama on free-to-air television is dying a rapid death because nowadays viewers are used to being able to watch what they want when they want. Ultimately, Neighbours is a product in the big business of film and television and like any other business, if a product isn't making money, it will make way for one that will. All TV shows come to an end – even the likes of long-time legends such as Coronation Street and Days of Our Lives will eventually cease. Survival of these shows is in the viewers' hands."
Cast member Georgie Stone revealed that she discovered the cancellation on Twitter and was initially unsure whether to believe it, until she was contacted by a producer who told her it was true. The final episode was initially intended to be aired on 1 August 2022 in both the UK and Australia, after 10 Peach decided to close the broadcasting gap between the two countries by airing double episodes from 13 June. It was later announced that the finale would air on 28 July at 7:30 pm on Network 10 and 10 Peach simultaneously in Australia as a one-and-half-hour-long episode. It was broadcast on 29 July 2022 in the UK as a one-hour-long episode.
On 17 November 2022, it was announced Fremantle and Amazon Freevee had reached a deal that would allow Neighbours production to restart in 2023. New episodes will be free to stream from the UK and US from the second half of 2023, and Network 10 will retain the rights to broadcast the serial first in Australia. Archive episodes will also be released prior to the relaunch. Lauren Anderson of Amazon Studios said, "With the power of streaming, we're able to offer a catalogue of thousands of Neighbours episodes for new audiences to discover this legendary series and current fans to relive their favourite moments. We look forward to immersing the audience in new Ramsay Street experiences when we relaunch the show next year for Amazon Freevee and Prime Video customers." Herbison will continue as executive producer, with Dennis, Fletcher, Woodburne and Moloney returning to the cast, all of whom were informed of the revival when Herbison visited their houses and told them in-person. Fletcher, Woodburne and Moloney all expressed their pleasure of the revival either during interviews or on social media. Other cast members were not informed prior to the announcement of the show's return. It has been revealed that Neighbours will be produced for at least the next two years, with 200 new episodes being released per year.
In February 2023, the returns of Rebekah Elmaloglou, Jones, Tim Kano and Stone as series regulars were announced; Melissa Bell, April Rose Pengilly and Ian Smith were also announced to returning in guest capacities. Production recommenced on 17 April.
## Setting
Neighbours''' focus is the fictional Ramsay Street, a residential cul-de-sac in the fictional Melbourne suburb of Erinsborough. The street was named after the grandfather of original character Max Ramsay (Francis Bell). Other locations include Erinsborough High School, the garage (local mechanic), hospital, and the Lassiter's complex, which contains the Lassiter's Hotel, Waterhole bar, Harold's Café, the lawyers office Rebecchi Law, and the police station. Ahead of the 25th anniversary the Erinsborough village set underwent a makeover. The café and bar remained the same, but the centre of the complex was upgraded. Lassiter's Hotel was given a new logo and gained a second floor with outdoor seating area. The hospital and police station received new facades, a used car lot was created near the garage and a new university set was created.
Pin Oak Court, in Vermont South, is the real cul-de-sac that doubles for Ramsay Street. All of the houses featured in the show are real and the residents allow Neighbours to shoot external scenes in their front and back yards and on occasions, in their garages. Neighbours has been filmed in Pin Oak Court since the series began in 1985 and it has since become popular with tourists. Tours to the cul-de-sac run throughout the year. The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill, the adjoining suburb in which Pin Oak Court is located. Under the contract for filming to take place on the street, the residents of Pin Oak Court require permission to alter the exterior of their properties; between the series' cancellation and revival in 2022 and 2023, some residents took the opportunity to make renovations without hindrance.
Through much of the show's run, it was not stated in which Australian city Erinsborough was located. The rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne meant that scripts did not mention that Erinsborough was a suburb of the latter city until 1994. Since 2016, the show has begun filming more scenes in and around the city. Other Australian locations mentioned and sometimes seen in the series include the fictitious suburbs of West Waratah, Eden Hills, and Ansons Corner. Real-life Australian towns in the state of Victoria such as Colac, Frankston and Shepparton are sometimes referred to. Oakey in Queensland is also mentioned and sometimes seen.
On 27 August 2010, Neighbours filmed scenes in Sydney's Darling Harbour and on board a cruise ship. The episodes marked only the third time that the show has filmed scenes outside of Victoria. In October 2011, Neighbours filmed scenes in Port Douglas, Queensland and around the Great Barrier Reef region. Two storylines were filmed in Geelong and the Gold Coast in 2016. In March 2019, Neighbours filmed scenes at the 2019 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras for an episode airing in 2020. The serial also had its own float during the parade. Later that year, scenes for Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) and Terese Willis' (Rebekah Elmaloglou) wedding were filmed at a resort in Queensland.
Filming locations outside of Australia have included Kenya, the United States and the United Kingdom, which has seen Neighbours episodes filmed there on a number of occasions. In February 1990, Lyme Park in Cheshire doubled as the Ledgerwood estate set in Yorkshire. Derek Nimmo guest-starred as the fictitious Lord Ledgerwood in two of the episodes. In November 1992, the characters Rick Alessi (Dan Falzon) and Debbie Martin (Marnie Reece-Wilmore) visit London to attend a Michael Jackson concert. However, producers could not film at the concert after negotiations with Jackson's tour management failed. The second London-based storyline was broadcast in late March 2007. Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) are shown taking a ride on the London Eye and being married on a boat on the River Thames.
Three further storylines shot on location in London aired in March 2017, March 2018, and September 2019. The show was due to film in Ireland for the first time in March 2020, before the shoot was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The following year, a sixth storyline was filmed on location in London, featuring Amanda Holden and Sophie Ellis-Bextor alongside regular cast member Jemma Donovan (Harlow Robinson).
## Broadcast
Through its entire run in Australia, Neighbours was screened as a 22-minute episode each weeknight in an early-evening slot. In its final run, it aired at 6:30 pm on 10 Peach (formerly Eleven). Until 2018, Neighbours was broadcast from early January to early December, before going off air for around four to five weeks during the Christmas and New Year period. From 2018 the show aired all year round, although a three-week Christmas break occurred in 2021–2022. The last month's worth of episodes shown are available to watch on the Neighbours official Australian website, as a part of Network Ten's Catch Up TV service. 10 Peach also broadcast the last five aired episodes shown in an omnibus edition each Sunday.
When the show began in 1985, the first season was broadcast on the Seven Network, at 5:30 pm in Sydney, at 6:00 pm in Melbourne and Adelaide and at 7:00 pm in Brisbane. The show's transmission in other areas was varied and many regional channels declined to purchase the series. When the show debuted on Network Ten in 1986 it screened at 7:00 pm. On 9 March 1992 the show moved to 6:30 pm to avoid direct competition from rival soap opera Home and Away on the Seven Network. Repeat episodes of Neighbours episodes from the 1988–1991 period were broadcast between 2000 and 30 June 2003 on Network Ten. These episodes were seen at 3:30 pm, before moving to 11:30 am. During 2008, Ten HD broadcast the previous week's episodes in an omnibus edition each Sunday. These omnibus editions did not return in 2009, as Ten HD was replaced by One HD from March 2009.
In August 2010, Sydney's Daily Telegraph reported that Neighbours would be moving to Ten's new digital channel, to make way for a new current affairs show. They said "It's part of a re-branding of Ten's free-to-air channel, targeting the older demographic. The 'younger' shows, like Neighbours, will go on to one of Ten's digital channels". It was later confirmed that the show would be moving to digital channel, Eleven. Network Ten's programmer, David Mott said "We believe Neighbours is perfectly suited to Eleven's audience strategy and will find a successful and enduring home on Eleven". Neighbours moved to Eleven on 11 January 2011, the channel's launch day. Throughout 2013, Eleven had broadcast repeat episodes of Neighbours from the 2007 period, titled Old School Neighbours, during weekday mornings. In 2015, Network Ten had broadcast an encore of the previous day's episode at 7:00 am weekdays. In 2018, for the first time in the series' history, the show's classification became PG, due to the series' increasingly adult subject matter.
On 15 July 2021, David Knox of TV Tonight confirmed that from 26 July Neighbours would begin airing four times a week. This marked the first time in the show's history that it had not aired five episodes per week. Knox said the new schedule was likely an attempt at getting the Australian episodes to synchronise with the UK broadcast, which had fallen behind due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The move caused some viewers to speculate that the soap was on the verge of being cancelled, but April Rose Pengilly (who plays Chloe Brennan) confirmed that the rumours were not true. On 23 November 2021, a spokesperson from Channel 5 confirmed that Neighbours episodes would continue airing five times a week in 2022, while 10 Peach would be keeping the episodes at four, putting the UK ahead of Australia.
When Neighbours returns on 18 September 2023, episodes will debut on Network 10 every Monday to Thursday at 4.30 pm with a second airing on the same day in the former 6:30 pm timeslot on 10 Peach. Episodes will then be available to stream Amazon Prime Video on a week delay from 10’s broadcast from 25 September 2023.
### International
Neighbours has been sold to over 60 countries and is one of Australia's most successful media exports.
#### United Kingdom
Neighbours has been very successful in the United Kingdom, and has proved to be more popular there than in Australia. It was broadcast on BBC One for over 21 years from October 1986 until February 2008. The series started airing on 27 October 1986, as part of BBC One's revamped daytime schedules. Neighbours went out with a lunchtime broadcast and then a morning broadcast repeat the following day. Michael Grade, the channel's then controller, was advised by his daughter to move the morning broadcast repeat to a late afternoon slot, as she and her friends kept missing it due to their being at school, which took place from 4 January 1988. The show then started attracting larger audiences, peaking at over 21 million viewers on 26 January 1990, an aggregated figure that combined the lunchtime debut and the teatime repeat. Towards the late 2000s, Neighbours was normally attracting an average of 3 million viewers for its lunchtime showing and 2.6 million viewers for its early-evening repeat. It was frequently the highest-rating daytime program in the UK, outside of news bulletins.
In 2008, the UK broadcast moved to rival channel Channel 5 following the BBC's decision not to keep the show after being asked to pay £300m over eight years by FremantleMedia (three times the show's usual fee). Both Channel 5 and FremantleMedia were owned at that time by the German RTL Group. The last Neighbours episode to be shown on BBC One aired on 8 February 2008. The first episode to be shown on Channel 5 was watched by 2.4 million viewers on 11 February 2008 (an audience share of 14.2%), a drop of 300,000 from the BBC's average. However, the move boosted Channel 5's usual share for the 5.30 pm slot by three and a half times. UK viewers are able to catch up with episodes with Channel 5's video catch up service, My5, similar to the catch up service in Australia. Channel 5 also had a deal with YouTube, allowing viewers to watch episodes for free on the video sharing site after they have been transmitted. From 4 January 2016, Channel 5 began broadcasting episodes on the same day as Australia. Channel 5's commissioning editor Greg Barnett explained that closing the transmission gap would reduce spoilers and the number of viewers watching the show illegally online. From mid-2016, the show also began airing every week-night on Nickelodeon as part of their Nick at Nite programming block, broadcasting the same episode that was seen earlier on Channel 5. In March 2017, it was reported that negotiations to continue Neighbours on Channel 5 had become "very fraught", and it was possible that the show could stop airing in Britain. In late 2021, Channel 5 moved Neighbours to a 6 pm timeslot, as it extended its news coverage to a one-hour-long broadcast from 5 pm. The 1:45 pm showing was unchanged.
On 5 February 2022, a report from The Sun, later confirmed by Digital Spy, stated that Neighbours had been cancelled in the UK after Channel 5 pulled its funding for budget reasons. In an official statement, a channel spokesperson said "Neighbours will no longer air on Channel 5 beyond this summer. It's been a much-loved part of our schedule for more than a decade, and we'd like to thank the cast, Fremantle and all of the production team for their fantastic work on this iconic series." Neighbours concluded on Channel 5 in July 2022. The channel's spokesperson confirmed that 5 wants to increase its investment in original UK dramas.
New episodes of Neighbours, along with archive episodes, will be released on Amazon Freevee from 18 September 2023 in the United Kingdom.
#### Elsewhere
In Ireland, RTÉ began broadcasting Neighbours on 2 January 2001. The show aired weekdays at 2:00 pm on RTÉ One and was repeated at 6:00 pm on RTÉ Two. Episodes were also available via catch-up on RTÉ Player. Prior to the move from BBC One to Channel 5 in the UK, RTÉ broadcast Neighbours at the same pace as the BBC. From the move to Channel 5, RTÉ sat one episode behind the UK broadcast. In 2007, RTÉ secured a long-term deal with FremantleMedia to continue broadcasting the show in Ireland after it moved from the BBC to Channel 5. While RTÉ had only broadcast Neighbours since 2001, it had been popular with Irish viewers since it debuted on BBC One Northern Ireland in October 1986. To mark the ending of the show, RTÉ have made several classic episodes available to viewers in Ireland on the RTÉ Player. Neighbours is set to return to RTÉ and premier on Amazon Prime Video on 18 September 2023.
In New Zealand, Neighbours was broadcast primarily on the TVNZ network. The show was initially broadcast by TVNZ on 25 July 1988, but by 1996 it was removed from the schedule. TV4 (now Bravo) picked the show up and began broadcasting it from 1997. They dropped it in 2000 and it returned to TVNZ in 2002. Repeats of the previous day's episode of Neighbours were formerly shown at 2:30 pm weekdays, and later on TVNZ 2 at around 4:30 am Tuesdays to Fridays. The show moved to 5:25 pm weeknights on TV One in late 2007. After a couple of months, the show moved to 3:50 pm weekdays. The show eventually moved back to TV2, screening weeknights at 6:00 pm and, later, 6:30 pm before moving back to 6:00 pm. Its timeslot in 2022 was at 4:30 pm on TVNZ 1. The finale aired, in its 90-minute iteration as Neighbours: The Final Farewell, in a primetime slot on TVNZ 1, on 2 September 2022. This episodes will also air on 18 September 2023 at 5.30pm Weeknights on TVNZ 2.
In Iceland, Neighbours has been aired on Stöð 2 since 1986 with Icelandic subtitles. The show is currently on weeknights at 5.25 pm.
In Belgium, Neighbours has aired since 1988 as Buren, with Dutch subtitles on Één, the main TV network of VRT, the Flemish public broadcaster. On 14 June 2021, after more than 30 years on Eén, commercial broadcaster VTM 2 began broadcasting the series.
In Kenya, Neighbours is broadcast on the KTN network Monday to Friday at 12:30 pm with an omnibus on Sunday mornings.
In Barbados, Neighbours is broadcast on the CBC8 channel at 1:00 pm Monday to Friday.
In Canada, CFMT-TV in Toronto broadcast Neighbours on weeknights at 11:00 pm, starting in September 1990. From 20 May 1991, CFMT moved the show to 4:00 pm. After announcing its cancellation, CFMT decided to keep Neighbours on its schedule throughout September 1994, following numerous letters and telephone calls. From April 2017 to April 2019, Neighbours aired on OutTV. Episodes were broadcast on weekdays at 2:30 pm ET and 5:30 pm ET, with an omnibus on Saturdays. Episodes aired on the same day as the Australian broadcast and were also available for streaming.
In the United States, Neighbours premiered on KCOP-TV in Los Angeles on 3 June 1991 at 5:30 pm weekdays. KCOP planned to cancel the show by the end of the month due to low ratings, but brought it back due to viewer demand at a 9:30 am daily time slot from 1 July to 30 August 1991. New York City station WWOR-TV showed Neighbours weekdays 5:30 pm from 17 June to 17 September 1991. Sixty-five selected episodes were aired from the beginning to where Charlene leaves Ramsay Street in 1988 in both markets. In April 2004, the show began broadcasting nationally on the television channel Oxygen. A spokeswomen from the channel said "Now our viewers can join in on the good, the bad and the endlessly entertaining lives of our Aussie neighbours." The episodes started from the Scully family's arrival in 1999 and were aired for a six-week trial basis. The show was broadcast in the afternoon with two episodes being shown back to back at 1:00 pm and 2:00 pm. After a couple of weeks, and only 65 episodes aired, the show was moved to a late-night time slot and it eventually left the air. On 7 July 2014, Todd Spangler from Variety reported that FremantleMedia International had signed a deal with U.S. subscription service Hulu giving it exclusive rights to the most recent season of Neighbours. The soap began airing from 14 July, with new episodes airing daily from Monday through to Friday, on Hulu and Hulu Plus services. The episodes were four weeks behind the Australian broadcast. All episodes of Neighbours were later removed from Hulu.
From 18 September 2023, new episodes will be released on Amazon Freevee in the United States, and on Amazon Prime Video in New Zealand, Canada and South Africa with archive episodes also due to be added to these services. New episodes will also be added to Prime Video in Australia seven-days after launch.
## Popularity and viewership
### 1985–1990s
Neighbours initially aired on Seven Network. It struggled to attract high ratings, leading to its cancellation by the network four months after it premiered. The series was then picked up by Network Ten. After the usual break in broadcast over the summer non-ratings period, the series made its debut on Ten in 1986. Ten revamped the show, adding several new, younger cast members including Jason Donovan as Scott Robinson and Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell. When the show began on Ten it initially attracted low ratings, so the Network worked hard to publicise the series. Ten's publicity drive was designed to promote the show in a star-focused campaign recalling that of the Hollywood star system where stars were packaged to feed into a fan culture. This paid off, and by the end of 1987, ratings had improved for the show. The episode featuring Scott and Charlene's wedding achieved the highest ever ratings for Neighbours, and it became one of the highest rating soap episodes ever in Australia. The same episode attracted 19.6 million viewers when it was aired in the United Kingdom.
By the early 1990s, Australian audiences had decreased, although viewing figures had recovered slightly by the end of the decade. In 1992, due to the decline in ratings, producers began to overhaul the show to win back viewers. They brought in more "fresh-faced teens", moved out older characters and gave some of their parent characters "un-neighborly [sic] subplots". Executive producer Ian Bradley said the changes were an attempt to return to the show's original concept. In 1994, Network Ten told TV Week that they would be introducing a "younger, livelier look with six regular characters under the age of 18" in a bid to generate interest. It was then that they introduced the characters of Stonefish Rebecchi, played by Anthony Engelman, and Serendipity Gottlieb, played by Raelee Hill.
In 1996, Kimberley Davies, who played Annalise Hartman, quit the series. Then Caroline Gillmer fell ill and her character Cheryl Stark was temporarily recast with former Prisoner actress Colette Mann. This made producers nervous that viewing figures might decrease, so they implemented a series of plots to keep viewers interested. These included a cameo from Clive James and an explosion, which destroyed the doctor's surgery in the Lassiter's complex.
### 2000s
In the 2000s, rival soap opera Home and Away emerged as more popular than Neighbours in Australia. As of 2004, Neighbours was regularly attracting just under a million viewers per episode. In 2007, Home and Away was averaging 1.4 million viewers in Australia to Neighbours' 700,000. During the revamp of 2007, the episode broadcast on 23 July 2007 saw the introduction of a new family, updated sets, new theme music and graphics. Ratings for that episode averaged 1.05 million viewers in the 6:30 pm. slot. It was the first time the programme's viewing figures had topped 1 million in 2007. By the end of 2007 it was reported that producers had hoped the Neighbours revamp would push the ratings up to between 900,000 to 1 million an episode. It had, however, resulted in a more modest boost, with ratings hovering at about 800,000 a night. The same viewing period had shown an increase in ratings for Home and Away, which was now averaging 1.4 million viewers every night.
In February 2008, new executive producer Susan Bower announced that she would be implementing further changes to the program. Bower promised to retain the return to traditional Neighbours values, but with an injection of drama that remains recognisable and relevant. Ratings rose to almost 900,000 in mid-2008, but generally ratings begin to fall towards the end of each year, usually averaging around 700,000. On 17 July 2009, during the aftermath of the Parker family's car accident and the dramatic death of Bridget Parker (Eloise Mignon), Neighbours achieved higher ratings than Home and Away. Neighbours achieved 998,000 viewers and placed 6th for the night, while Home And Away placed 7th.
### 2010s
In January 2010, Neighbours returned to Australian screens to an audience of 563,000. On 20 January, the ratings fell to a low of 426,000, making it one of the program's lowest ever ratings in Australia. A July 2010 report showed figures had dropped 20%, from having 1.2 million viewers in 1991 to a low of 618,000 in 2010. A Network Ten spokesperson commented "Most of the show's budget is covered by its UK deal with Channel 5 and the 50-odd other countries it is seen in, so it's not a financial problem for Ten despite the low ratings. And Ten needs the show to score the Australian content and drama points required for it to hold on to a broadcasting licence". On 29 October 2010, Neighbours' ratings dropped to a low figure of 386,000 viewers. Viewing numbers for Network Ten that night were down across all programmes. The show's highest figure of the week was 590,000 on 25 October 2010.
Since moving to digital multichannel Eleven, Neighbours has traditionally rated between 250,000 and 350,000 viewers. The show attracted 254,000 viewers for its first episode broadcast on 11 January 2011. This was half the number of viewers that watched it on Network Ten; the Herald Sun reported that it was a good result as "bosses were only expecting 133,000." Neighbours became Eleven's most-watched show and the third highest rating show on digital multichannels that night. Programming chief David Mott stated, "Last night's strong result for Neighbours already suggests the audience will follow the folks from Ramsay Street to their brand new neighbourhood on Eleven." On 24 January 2011, Neighbours achieved 330,000 viewers, and three days later, 355,000 viewers tuned in, becoming the show's highest rating yet on Eleven at the time. The show had more viewers than the Ten Evening News in the 16–39 and 18–49 demographics. On 13 June 2011, Neighbours was watched by 455,000 viewers, making it the highest rating show on digital multichannels that night, and breaking its previous ratings record on the channel. On 27 May 2013, episode 6651 of Neighbours was watched by an audience of 405,000 viewers, which was the highest rating the series had achieved in nearly two years. Neighbours began going through a ratings decline in 2016, with episodes now averaging below 200,000 viewers. Executive producer Jason Herbison told TV Tonight, "We know that our show is performing really solidly in the UK. We're not sure why it's not here [in Australia] but we're taking a real look at it." He further added, "We're all trying to figure out what we need to do in order to keep our audience." The first episode screened on Eleven in March 2018 gained only 118,000 viewers.
### 2020s
In 2021, Neighbours audience figures were around 1.5 million per episode in the UK. The finale was viewed by 4.02 million viewers in the UK when catchup and recordings were counted.
The finale, which aired on Network 10 on 28 July 2022, was watched by a total of 1.2 million viewers (live viewers in Australia alone), making it the most-watched program of the evening. These figures were the highest the program had received since 2009.
## Storylines
Neighbours storylines frequently focus on family problems, intergenerational clashes, school problems, romances and domestic issues. Despite the restrictive 6:30 pm time slot, Neighbours has also covered many serious problems such as teenage pregnancy, marital breakdown, imprisonment, career problems, financial problems, pregnancy, abortion, terminal illness, eating disorders, alcoholism, adultery, drug use and drug trafficking, robbery, stalking, kidnapping, accidental death, hit-and-runs, murder, shootings, stabbings, and incest. In the 2000s and 2010s, the show dealt with issues such as homosexuality, gambling, prostitution, surrogacy, and exotic dancing. Health issues were also focused on, including multiple sclerosis, bipolar disorder, epilepsy, amnesia, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and Alzheimer's disease. In September 2014, the show featured a natural disaster storyline, in which a tornado descended on Erinsborough and Ramsay Street.
## Characters
In 1985, Neighbours started out with three households created by Watson – the Ramsays, the Robinsons and the Clarkes. Watson said that he wanted to show three families living in a small street, who are friends. Max Ramsay (Francis Bell), his wife Maria (Dasha Blahova) and their sons Shane (Peter O'Brien) and Danny (David Clencie) lived at No.24 Ramsay Street. Single father, Jim Robinson (Alan Dale) lived next door with his children, Paul (Stefan Dennis), Julie (Vikki Blanche), Scott (Darius Perkins) and Lucy (Kylie Flinker). His mother-in-law, Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy) also lived with him. Bachelor Des Clarke (Paul Keane) invited Daphne Lawrence (Elaine Smith) to live at No. 28 with him and they were later married. The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a long history in the street and they were often involved in an ongoing rivalry. When Network Ten picked up the show and revamped it, they brought in new and younger actors including Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell and Jason Donovan, who replaced Darius Perkins as Scott Robinson. Many families, including the Alessi, Bishop, Hancock, Hoyland, Rebecchi, Scully, Timmins and Willis families have moved in and out of the street over the years.
When storylines for certain characters become tired, the scriptwriters simply move one family out and replace it with a new one. By the time Neighbours concluded, Ramsay Street was a mixture of older characters like Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney), and Karl (Alan Fletcher) and Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne), as well as newer characters such as the Canning and Brennan families. Watson originally wanted to show young people communicating with older people, which means that the cast is a mix of young actors in their teens or early 20s and older, more experienced hands. The last remaining original character, Helen Daniels, departed the show in 1997 due to the ill-health of Anne Haddy. In 2004, original cast member Stefan Dennis returned to Neighbours full-time as Paul Robinson. Paul was the only original character to be a regular in the series from this point until the final episode.
In February 2009, it was announced that producers would be introducing a new generation of the Ramsay family to the show, over a decade after the family had last appeared. Kate (Ashleigh Brewer), Harry (Will Moore) and Sophie Ramsay (Kaiya Jones) made their first appearances in May 2009.
As the show continued, more diverse sexualities and gender identities began to be explored. Following a number of gay male characters in the preceding decade, Lana Crawford (Bridget Neval) became the first lesbian character in 2004. In 2010, the first regular gay character, Chris Pappas (James Mason) was introduced. In 2018, Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) and David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) were married, the first same-sex marriage to feature in an Australian television drama following the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Australia. The first transgender character, Mackenzie Hargreaves (Georgie Stone), was introduced in late 2019, after Stone approached the producers with a pitch for the character.
### Celebrity guest appearances
Throughout its run, Neighbours has featured several guest appearances from celebrities playing themselves or characters. Early cameos included former Skyhooks musician Red Symons, Warwick Capper, Molly Meldrum, Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys, and Clive James. During the 2000s and 2010s, the series featured appearances from The Wiggles, Shane Warne, former Spice Girls singer Emma Bunton, Little Britain's Matt Lucas and David Walliams, The Veronicas, Daryl Braithwaite, wrestler Dave Bautista, Lily Allen, Russell Brand (performing his own monologue), Katherine Kelly Lang, André Rieu, Paula Abdul and Jamie Lawson. Mischa Barton will appear when Neighbours returns later in 2023.
## Theme tune
The theme tune to Neighbours was composed by Tony Hatch whose then wife, Jackie Trent, wrote the lyrics. Since 1985, there have been eight versions of the theme tune. Barry Crocker performed the song until 1992. The song has been voted the world's most recognised television theme song and the lyrics were quoted by John Smith, then British Shadow Chancellor, in a House of Commons debate on Government economic policy. From 2007, the theme tune to Neighbours was sung by Sandra de Jong. In February 2013, Network Ten and FremantleMedia announced that they were searching across Australia and the United Kingdom for a singer to record a new version of the theme tune. The competition resulted in a tie and the new theme was sung as a duet by Daniel Boys and Stephanie Angelini. That version of the theme tune began airing from 15 April 2013. A new retro-inspired theme tune sung by Garth Ploog debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show's 30th anniversary celebrations. The final version of the theme, sung by Neighbours actress and professional singer Bonnie Anderson, debuted on 25 March 2020.
## Titles
Since Neighbours began in 1985, it used its opening titles sequence to introduce the major characters featuring in the show. The sequences often feature the characters in family or domestic groups. Each episode's titles sequence was preceded by a recap of events from recent episodes featuring the characters who were to appear in the new episode.
In 2002, Neighbours debuted an all new style of titles with a remixed version of the theme tune. The titles showed characters together in groups according to gender and against a standardised backdrop, a change from the previous ones which were taken outside. 2007 saw Neighbours debut an updated theme, a new logo and new "optimistic, contemporary" titles. A photo booth montage was played and characters were seen rowing boats, walking along piers and eating outside. The sequence also contained shots of upcoming scenes. In August 2009, Neighbours introduced a new titles format. The first episode of each week begins with a trailer previewing the week's events. The usual recap of storylines switched to after the opening titles of each episode for the first time since 1998. The end of episode teasers returned and are now made in-house by the Neighbours production team.
In September 2009, Susan Bower announced that Neighbours would introduce new opening titles for the 25th anniversary and they would feature a bit of "bling". The titles were created by Visual Playground, who shot a series of scenes featuring the cast in settings familiar to viewers. The titles made their debut on 18 March 2010. A new set of opening titles made their debut on 15 April 2013, along with a new version of the theme tune. Visual Playground once again created and produced the titles. The titles depict the Ramsay Street residents gathering outside their houses for a street party. A writer for Visual Playground explained that they "invented a bokeh graphic device that uses the play of light in a formation to locate the houses in the cul-de-sac. Six overlapping circles represent the six houses of Ramsay St and the off street cast members. All the circles together reinforce the sense of community that makes up Neighbours." A new retro-inspired logo, theme tune and opening titles debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show's 30th anniversary celebrations. The new logo is a reimagined contemporary version of the original Neighbours logo from 1985. The titles show characters in a variety of familiar settings around Erinsborough and ends with a look at Ramsay Street from above.
On 9 January 2017, a new set of opening titles debuted. The titles featured the cast members posing in front of green screen, instead of on the sets. Viewers also noticed that actors Ryan Moloney, Colette Mann and Zoe Cramond had their names misspelled. The spelling errors were corrected by the production team and the edited titles debuted the following day. The opening title sequence was updated in April 2017, following the arrival of the new Rebecchi family. The style of the titles was not changed, but most of the cast shots were re-filmed. On 21 May 2018, a new title sequence debuted. They are a return to the previous style of a live-action sequence filmed on the set. This style remained with periodic updates in subsequent years. In January 2022, new location shots of Melbourne and its surroundings were introduced to the title sequence, reflecting the series' ambition to expand its filming locations.
## Awards and nominations
Neighbours has received a wide variety of awards and nominations throughout its run. The show has received 89 Logie Award nominations, of which it has won 31. It was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame in 2005. It has also been nominated for "Most Popular Daytime Programme" at the UK's National Television Awards in five of the six years from 2000 to 2006. In 1997, the show won an award for Best Episode in A Television Drama Serial at the Australian Film Institute Awards. Two Neighbours actors have been nominated for Rose D'Or awards, once in 2004 for Ryan Moloney and again in 2005 for Jackie Woodburne. Neighbours has also won six Australian Writers' Guild awards.
## Home media and spin-offs
Since the show's inception, several spin-offs have been produced, including books, music, DVDs and internet webisodes. In 1991, an officially licensed video game of Neighbours was created by Ian Copeland and developed by Zeppelin Games under their Impulze label for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Atari ST, and Amiga; it was re-released by Zeppelin in 1992 on budget price. In the game, the player took on the role of Scott Robinson and had to skateboard around four whole courses.
Episodes of Neighbours have been released on several DVDs. Neighbours: Defining Moments was the first DVD box set released in 2002. It is a compilation of fifteen classic episodes and a photo gallery. The Neighbours: The Iconic Episodes Volume 1 DVD box set was released in 2008 and contains twenty-three episodes, the 1000th episode party celebration special and a photo gallery. Neighbours: The Iconic Episodes Volume Two contains twenty-four episodes over three discs. One disc is dedicated to the character of Charlene. In 2012, early episodes of Neighbours were released on three DVD box sets in Germany. From April 2012, Shock Entertainment began releasing DVD box sets of Neighbours episodes in broadcast order from the beginning. As of October 2014, five box sets have been released.
Neighbours has released several internet webisode series via their YouTube channel. The first series was titled Steph in Prison and coincided with Stephanie Scully's (Carla Bonner) return to Neighbours in April 2013. The following year, Brennan on the Run focusing on Mark Brennan's (Scott McGregor) time in witness protection was released. Neighbours vs Zombies was launched in October 2014 and featured the returns of many former characters who had previously died in the show. In October 2017, the five-part Neighbours vs Time Travel series was released. It features Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) going back to 1985 and giving his younger self some advice, which alters the future.
The first full-length spin-off, a five-part series entitled Neighbours: Erinsborough High, was distributed on video on demand and catch up TV services My5 and 10 Play in November 2019.
## International versions and cooperations
The serial's format has occasionally been licensed to international networks by the original producers Reg Grundy Organisation/Fremantle. Based on the Neighbours story and character outlines from 2012, Komşular began screening in Turkey in 2017.
Moreover, FremantleMedia Italia, which is part of Reg Grundy Organisation/Fremantle (company), in association with the Italian national broadcaster RAI, produces a serial Un posto al sole (English: A Place in the Sun), broadcast since 1996 in Italy on Rai 3. Un Posto al Sole is based on an original format, developed by Wayne Doyle with Adam Bowen, Gino Ventriglia e Michele Zatta, with different settings, characters, stories, and contents in comparison to Neighbours. During the creation process of Un Posto al Sole in 1996, the producer company Reg Grundy Organisation/Fremantle (company) replicated the same working method and organisation of the already well-established Neighbours to produce Un Posto al sole, transferring knowledge to its Italian leg and its Italian partner Rai Fiction. In fact, in 1996, Un Posto al Sole was considered the first serial of its genre (daily drama) to be produced in Italy.
## Cultural impact
### Parody
Kenny Everett parodied the show in the final series of The Kenny Everett Television Show (1987–88). Titled Cobbers, the sketches featured a group of stereotypical Australians dressed in swimwear conflicting with Everett's suit-wearing middle class British personality.
### Language
Neighbours has been cited as the cause of language change in the United Kingdom, including the adoption of Australian colloquialisms such as "no worries". A speech pattern, high rising terminal, sometimes called "Australian Question Intonation", has been linked to the popularity of Neighbours'' in Britain; however, linguists have traced its origin to California in the 1970s.
## See also
- Television in Australia
- List of longest-running Australian television series |
14,076,670 | Blond Ambition World Tour Live | 1,170,355,876 | null | [
"1990 television specials",
"1990 video albums",
"Concert films",
"Films directed by David Mallet (director)",
"Films shot in Nice",
"Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video",
"HBO network specials",
"LaserDisc releases",
"Live video albums",
"Madonna video albums",
"Sire Records video albums",
"Warner Records video albums"
]
| Blond Ambition World Tour Live is a video album by American singer-songwriter Madonna released exclusively on LaserDisc by Pioneer Artists on December 13, 1990. It contained the Blond Ambition World Tour's final show, filmed at the Stade Charles-Ehrmann in Nice, France, on August 5, 1990. The concert had previously been broadcast on American network HBO as Live! Madonna: Blond Ambition World Tour 90, and became one of its highest rated specials. The decision to release it exclusively on Laserdisc grew when Pioneer Artists signed up to sponsor the tour; the company also wanted to use Madonna to reach a new demographic and increase Laserdisc sales. It received positive reviews, with some critics saying it captured the concert better than the documentary Madonna: Truth or Dare (1991) and the HBO broadcast. At the 34th Annual Grammy Awards, it won for Best Music Video-Long Form, becoming the first Grammy award Madonna received in her career. With over 100,000 copies sold, Blond Ambition World Tour Live was one of the highest selling laserdiscs of its time.
## Background
The Blond Ambition World Tour was Madonna's third concert tour. It supported her fourth studio album Like a Prayer and the Dick Tracy soundtrack I'm Breathless. Contemporary critics praised its fashion and theatricals and it grossed over US\$62.7 million (\$ million in dollars) from 57 concerts. It was subject to controversy due to its sexual and Catholic imagery. In Italy, a private association of Roman Catholics called for a boycott of the shows in Rome and Turin; Pope John Paul II urged the general public and the Christian community not to attend the tour. During the first show in Toronto, on May 27, local police threatened to arrest Madonna for "lewd and indecent display", specifically the masturbation scene during the performance of "Like a Virgin" (1984).
In May 1990, Jonathan Takiff from The Pittsburgh Press reported that the first Japanese shows from the tour were recorded and set to be released on Laserdisc by Pioneer Artists, one of the tour's main sponsors. Takiff also reported that the final show on Nice, France, would be broadcast on MTV. Two months later, HBO confirmed they had signed on Madonna and would broadcast the tour's final show in what would be her first television special. HBO spokesperson Betty Bitterman stated that "it's a very hot item that attracted all major players. We're not concerned about any negative feedback. We decided to do the show and that was that". When asked if the network would edit or censor the singer's "lewd" behavior, Bitterman responded that "if she's doing it, the audience will see it. We're not editing anything out. [...] We want it to feel live - as if you were there". During the concert Madonna told the cameras: "You know what I have to say to America? Get a fucking sense of humor, okay?".
It was not a pay-per-view special, as the channel wanted to distinguish itself from its pay-TV rival, Showtime, and it was predicted to be HBO's highest rated special since Mike Tyson and Frank Bruno's heavyweight fight, which aired in February 1989. Advertised as "America's No. 1 female pop star in a live-by-satellite performance of one of the summer's biggest pop music events", Live! Madonna: Blond Ambition World Tour 90 aired on Sunday August 5, 1990, at 9 p.m. and gave HBO a record for the highest ratings ever for an entertainment special at the time; around 4.5 million people tuned in.
## Release and reception
The special was released exclusively on Laserdisc under the title Blond Ambition World Tour Live on December 13, 1990. Steven Galloway, president of Pioneer Artists, said that the idea of an exclusive came about when the company signed up to sponsor the tour; they also wanted to use the singer to increase Laserdisc sales and reach a demographic of 18–35 year olds. Billboard called this "the marketing coup of the year". Laserdisc sales were reported to have increased 285%; due to the overwhelmingly strong sales, the concert was not released on VHS until the end of 1991. Although Madonna's then manager Caresse Henry said in 2002 that a DVD was on the works, no release date was ever given. In addition to HBO, other concerts from the tour were also recorded and broadcast; one of the Yokohama dates was recorded and released exclusively in Japan under the title Blond Ambition - Japan Tour 90. Spanish broadcaster TVE aired the Barcelona concert in 30 countries. One of the shows at London's Wembley Stadium was broadcast on BBC Radio 1, which led to controversy over the profanity Madonna used live on air.
The Los Angeles Times gave the original broadcast a negative review, saying that the show didn't work as a television experience because it was "less a concert than an unfolding passion play" that was "rendered ponderous by distracting camera angles". Ty Burr, from Entertainment Weekly, gave the release an A and felt that it captured the Blond Ambition show better than Madonna: Truth or Dare, "because it's a laserdisc with digital sound, the music is re-created with startling fidelity. You get this two-hour spectacle as it was meant to be: uninterrupted and over the top". Burr also praised the "gymnastic dance productions" of numbers such as "Where's the Party" and "Like a Prayer". Los Angeles Times' Robert Willburn felt that "the new, edited laser version offers much more of the vitality and charm of the show itself than the HBO special". Allmusic gave a rating of three out of five stars.
Blond Ambition World Tour Live debuted on the fourth position of the Top Videodisc Sales chart the week of January 9, 1991, eventually peaking at number two three weeks later. In April 1991, Pioneer applied for an RIAA gold certification, indicating that the release had sold, at least, 25,000 units. Later that year, the compilation sold 40,000 copies of laserdiscs worldwide. By May 1992, it was the top US selling laserdisc release up at the time, with 60,000 copies sold. Two years later, sales exceeded 100,000 units and it was awarded a "five-star" designation by the Laserdisc Association. In the United Kingdom, the laserdisc sold 1,000 copies by 1992, and nearly 10,000 units as of 1993.
## Impact and accolades
According to Jornal do Brasil, Madonna's record was released exclusively on LaserDisc by Pioneer in order to boost both format and device sales for CD Videos in the United States, where only half-million electronic devices existed. It ultimately helped boost CD Videos market up that point in the U.S. The title "brought much-needed publicity to the laser format", commented Chris McGowan from Billboard. Complimenting Madonna's release, CD Review's Tim Riley said "launching a laserdisc collection is an exercise in frustration".
Blond Ambition World Tour Live earned Madonna her first Grammy win for Best Long Form Music Video at the 34th ceremony. Of this win, Galloway said that "we couldn't be more thrilled [...] Hopefully it will bring an even higher level of awareness and attention to the laserdisc format, and music videos in particular on laserdisc". The HBO broadcast also won a category at the CableACE Awards.
## Track listing
Notes
- "Express Yourself" contains an excerpt from "Everybody."
- "Like a Prayer" contains an excerpt from "Act of Contrition".
- "Into the Groove" contains an excerpt from "Ain't Nobody Better".
- "Holiday" contains an excerpt from "Do the Bus Stop".
## Credits and personnel
- David Mallet – director
- Anthony Eaton – producer
- Freddy De Mann – executive producer
- Christopher Ciccone – art direction
- Vince Patterson – choreographer
- Kevin Alexander Stea – assistant choreographer
Credits per the notes of Blond Ambition World Tour Live
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end chart
## Sales |
8,132,359 | United Armenia | 1,161,070,367 | Armenian irredentist concept | [
"Armenian irredentism",
"Armenian nationalism",
"Armenia–Turkey relations",
"Middle East"
]
| United Armenia (Armenian: Միացեալ Հայաստան, romanized: Miats'eal Hayastan), also known as Greater Armenia or Great Armenia, is an Armenian ethno-nationalist irredentist concept referring to areas within the traditional Armenian homeland—the Armenian Highland—which are currently or have historically been mostly populated by Armenians. The idea of what Armenians see as unification of their historical lands was prevalent throughout the 20th century and has been advocated by individuals, various organizations and institutions, including the nationalist parties Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun) and Heritage, the ASALA and others.
The ARF idea of "United Armenia" incorporates claims to Western Armenia (eastern Turkey), Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh), the landlocked exclave Nakhchivan (Nakhichevan) of Azerbaijan and the Javakheti (Javakhk) region of Georgia. Nagorno-Karabakh and Javakhk are overwhelmingly inhabited by Armenians. Western Armenia and Nakhchivan had significant Armenian populations in the early 20th century, but no longer do. The Armenian population of Western Armenia was almost completely exterminated during the 1915 Armenian genocide, when the millennia-long Armenian presence in this region largely ended and Armenian cultural heritage was mainly destroyed by the Ottoman government. In 1919, the ARF-dominated government of the First Republic of Armenia declared the formal unification of Armenian lands. The ARF bases its claims to Western Armenia, now controlled by Turkey, on the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, which was effectively negated by subsequent historical events. These territorial claims are often seen as the ultimate goal of the recognition of the Armenian Genocide and as part of Armenian genocide reparations.
The most recent Armenian irredentist movement, the Karabakh movement which began in 1988, sought to unify Nagorno-Karabakh with then-Soviet Armenia. As a result of the subsequent war with Azerbaijan, Armenian forces established effective control over most of Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding districts, thus succeeding in the de facto unification of Armenia and Karabakh. Some Armenian nationalists consider Nagorno-Karabakh "the first stage of a United Armenia."
## History of the claims
### Origins
In its current meaning, the term "United Armenia" was coined during the Armenian national awakening in the second half of the 19th century. During this period, the Armenian-populated areas were divided between the Russian Empire (Eastern Armenia) and the Ottoman Empire (Western Armenia). One of the earliest uses of the phrase "United Armenia" is by the English Society of Friends of Russian Freedom in an 1899 edition of Free Russia monthly. It quotes a confidential report of Grigory Golitsin (the Russian governor of the Caucasus) sent to Tsar Nicholas II "containing suggestions for a future policy." Golitsin writes of a nationalist movement which "aims at the restoration of the independent Armenia of the past", and that "their ideal is one great and united Armenia."
The idea of an independent and united Armenia was the main goal of the Armenian national liberation movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. By the 1890s, a low-intensity armed conflict developed between the three major Armenian parties—the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnak), Hnchak and Armenakan— and the Ottoman government. Calls from the great powers for reforms in the Armenian provinces and Armenian aspirations to independence resulted in the Hamidian massacres between 1894 and 1896, during which up to 300,000 Armenian civilians were slaughtered by the order of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, after whom the massacres were named. After the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, some Armenians felt that the situation would improve; however, a year later the Adana massacre took place and Turkish-Armenian relations deteriorated further. After the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, the Ottoman government was pressured to accept the Armenian reform package concerning the Armenian provinces in early 1914.
### World War I and the Armenian genocide
The Armenians of eastern Ottoman Empire were exterminated by the Ottoman government in 1915 and the following years. An estimated 1.5 million Armenians were killed, while the survivors found refuge in other countries. These events, which are known as the Armenian genocide, are officially denied by the Turkish state, which falsely claims the killings were a result of a "civil war." The Ottoman government successfully ended the over two thousand year Armenian presence in Western Armenia.
By 1916, most of Western Armenia was occupied by the Russian Empire as part of the Caucasian Campaign of World War I. In parts of the occupied areas, especially around Van, an Armenian autonomy was briefly set up. The Russian army left the region due to the Revolution of 1917. The Ottoman Empire quickly regained the territories from the small number of irregular Armenian units. In the Caucasus, the Special Transcaucasian Committee was set up after the February Revolution.
The Bolsheviks took power in Russia through the October Revolution and soon signed the Armistice of Erzincan to stop the combat in Turkish Armenia. Russian forces abandoned their positions and left the area under weak Armenian control. The Bolsheviks set up the Transcaucasian Commissariat in the Caucasus. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March 1918 and the Ottoman army started to regain the lost territories, taking over Kars by 25 April. Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Ottoman Empire and by April 1918 the Transcaucasian Federation proclaimed its independence from Russia. This fragile federation of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan collapsed when the Turks invaded the Caucasus region. The Armenian units defeated the Turks at the Battle of Sardarabad, just 40 kilometers away from Armenia's future capital Yerevan, preventing the complete destruction of the Armenian nation.
A 1918 book by American scholars Lothrop Stoddard and Glenn Frank, titled Stakes of the War listed 8 solutions to the Armenian Question as proposed by different parties. The second proposal, titled "United Armenia", is described as follows:
> A union of territories of Turkish, Russian, and Persian Armenia would result in enough area to constitute an independent state, but in no considerable section of this area would the Armenians form a clear majority of the population. To be sure, the Armenians would be the most intelligent and progressive element; but their numbers and their vitality has been greatly reduced by the long series of persecutions and massacres, and there has been such extensive destruction of property in these territories, that their potential force has been reduced as to form a serious bar to their gaining the ascendancy over the more numerous racial elements in the territory.
### First Republic of Armenia: 1918–1920
The Armenian National Council declared the independence of the Armenian provinces on 28 May 1918. It was recognized by the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Batum on 4 June 1918. After its defeat in World War I, the Ottoman Empire and the Allies signed the Armistice of Mudros by which the Turkish troops left the Caucasus and by 1919 the Republic of Armenia established control over the former Kars Oblast, the city of Iğdır and its surrounding territory, including Mount Ararat.
On 28 May 1919, on the first anniversary of the Republic of Armenia, the government of the newly founded country symbolically declared the union of Eastern and Western Armenia, the latter of which was still under the full control of the Turks. Alexander Khatisian, the Armenian Prime Minister, read the declaration:
> To restore the integrity of Armenia and to secure the complete freedom and prosperity of its people, the Government of Armenia, abiding by the solid will and desire of the entire Armenian people, declares that from this day forward the separated parts of Armenia are everlastingly combined as an independent political entity.
>
> Now in promulgating this act of unification and independence of the ancestral Armenian lands located in Transcaucasia and the Ottoman Empire, the Government of Armenia declares that the political system of United Armenia is a democratic republic and that it has become the Government of the United Republic of Armenia.
>
> Thus, the people of Armenia are henceforth the supreme lord and master of their consolidated fatherland, and the Parliament and Government of Armenia stand as the supreme legislative and executive authority conjoining the free people of United Armenia.
#### Treaty of Sèvres
Almost two years after the Republic of Armenia was established, on 23 April 1920, the United States officially recognized it. Its frontiers were to be determined later. On 26 April 1920, the Supreme Council of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers in Paris (British Prime Minister Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and Italian Prime Minister Francesco Saverio Nitti) requested that the United States accept the mandate over Armenia and to make an Arbitral Decision to determine the boundaries of Armenia with what is now Turkey. President Woodrow Wilson agreed to act as arbitrator and draw a mutually acceptable border between the two nations. In July 1920, the US State Department founded the Committee upon the Arbitration of the Boundary between Turkey and Armenia, headed by William Westermann. The Treaty of Sèvres was signed on 10 August 1920 between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied Powers. On 28 September 1920, the Committee submitted a report that defined the border between the two countries. It guaranteed access to the Mediterranean sea for Armenia via Trebizond and proclaimed present-day Turkey's border regions demilitarization frontier line.
A territory of 100,000 square kilometres (40,000 sq mi), formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, was given to Armenia. Based on the calculations the committee made, the ethnic structure of the 3,570,000 population would have been: 49% Muslims (Turks, Kurds, Tartar Azerbaijanis, and others), 40% Armenians, 5% Laz, 4% Greeks, and 1% others. It was expected that in the case Armenian refugees' return, they would make up to 50% of the population. Two months after the committee submitted the report to the State Department, President Woodrow Wilson received it on 12 November 1920. Ten days later, Wilson signed the report entitled "Decision of the President of the United States of America respecting the Frontier between Turkey and Armenia, Access for Armenia to the Sea, and the Demilitarization of Turkish Territory adjacent to the Armenian Frontier." The report was sent to the US ambassador in Paris Hugh Campbell Wallace on 24 November 1920. On 6 December 1920, Wallace delivered the documents to the secretary-general of the peace conference for submission to the Allied Supreme Council.
Treaty of Sèvres was later annulled following the successful Turkish War of Independence against Allied Powers and affiliated forces, which led to the abolition of the empire and founding of the modern Republic of Turkey with the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
#### Fall of the First Republic
In late September 1920, a war erupted between Armenia and the Mustafa Kemal-led Turkish nationalists (Government of the Grand National Assembly) led by Kâzım Karabekir took place. Turks captured Kars on 30 October 1920. With the Turkish army in Alexandropol, the Bolsheviks invaded the country from the north east, and on 29 November 1920, they proclaimed Armenia a Soviet state. On 2 December 1920, Armenia became a Soviet state according to a joint proclamation of Armenia's Defence Minister Dro and Soviet representative Boris Legran in Yerevan. Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Alexandropol with the Government of the Grand National Assembly on the night of 2–3 December 1920. The Treaty of Sèvres and Wilson's award remained "dead letters."
Just after the Soviet invasion of Armenia in November 1920, the Soviet Azerbaijani leader Nariman Narimanov declared that "the old borders between Armenia and Azerbaijan are declared null and void. Mountainous Karabagh, Zangezur, and Nakhichevan are recognized as integral parts of the Socialist Republic of Armenia." Despite these assurances, both Nakhichevan and Karabakh were kept under Azerbaijani control for another eight months. On 16 March 1921, Soviet Russia and the Government of the Grand National Assembly signed the Treaty of Moscow. By this treaty, Kars and Ardahan were ceded to Turkey, and Nakhichevan was put under "protectorate" of Azerbaijan. The Treaty of Kars was signed between the Grand National Assembly Government on one side and Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR and Azerbaijan SSR on the other, reaffirming the Treaty of Moscow.
### Post-World War II: 1945–1953
After the end of World War II in Europe, the Soviet Union made territorial claims to Turkey. Joseph Stalin pushed Turkey to cede Kars and Ardahan, thus returning the pre-World War I boundary between the Russian and Ottoman empires. Besides these provinces, the Soviet Union also claimed the Straits (see Turkish Straits crisis). "Stalin, perhaps, expected that the Turks, shocked by the Red Army's triumph, would give up, and Washington and London accept it as a fait accompli," writes Jamil Hasanli. Athena Leoussi added, "While Stalin's motives can be debated, for Armenians at home and abroad the re-emergence of the Armenian Question revived hopes for territorial unification". On 7 June 1945 Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed the Turkish ambassador in Moscow that the USSR demanded a revision of its border with Turkey.
To repopulate the claimed areas with Armenians, the Soviet government organized a repatriation of Armenians living abroad, mostly survivors of the Armenian Genocide. Between 1946 and 1948, 90,000 to 100,000 Armenians from Lebanon, Syria, Greece, Iran, Romania, France, and elsewhere moved to Soviet Armenia.
An Office of Strategic Services (predecessor of the CIA) document dated 31 July 1944 reported that the Armenian Revolutionary Federation changed its extreme anti-Soviet sentiment due to the rise of the Soviet power at the end of the war. In a memorandum sent to the Moscow Conference, Head of the Armenian Church Gevorg VI expressed hope that "justice will finally be rendered" to the Armenians by the "liberation of Turkish Armenia and its annexation to Soviet Armenia." Armenia's Communist leader Grigor Harutunian defended the claims, describing Kars and Ardahan "of vital importance for the Armenian people as a whole." The Soviet Armenian élite suggested that the Armenians have earned the right to Kars and Ardahan by their contribution in the Soviet struggle against fascism. Armenian diaspora organizations also supported the idea.
As the relations between the West and the Soviet Union deteriorated with the US and the UK backing Turkey, Soviet claims were out of the agenda by 1947. However, it was not until 1953, after Stalin's death, that they officially abandoned their claims, thus ending the dispute.
### Late Cold War: 1965–1987
A wave of Armenian nationalism started in the mid-1960s in the Soviet Union after Nikita Khrushchev came to power and granted relative freedom to the Soviet people during the De-Stalinization era. On 24 April 1965, the 50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide, a mass demonstration took place in Yerevan. Thousands of Armenians poured into the streets of Yerevan to commemorate the victims of the genocide; however, their goal was not to "challenge the authority of the Soviet government", but "draw the government's attention" to the genocide and persuade the "Soviet government to assist them in reclaiming their lost lands." The Kremlin, taking into account the demands of the demonstrators, commissioned a memorial for the genocide. The memorial, which was built on Tsitsernakaberd hill, was completed in 1967.
The 1960s and 1970s saw a rise in underground political and armed struggle against the Soviet Union and the Turkish state in and outside of Armenia. In 1966, an underground nationalist party called the National United Party was founded by Haykaz Khachatryan in Yerevan. It secretly operated in Soviet Armenia from 1966 to the late 1980s and, after the imprisonment of its founding members in 1968, it was led by Paruyr Hayrikyan. It advocated for the creation of United Armenia through self-determination. Most of its members were arrested and the party was banned. Though the NUP was blamed for the 1977 Moscow bombings, according to historian Jay Bergman it the mastermind of the bombing has "never been determined conclusively."
According to Gerard Libaridian, "by the 1970s, the recognition of the Armenian genocide became a very important objective of the Armenian cause and diaspora political parties linked the recognition of the genocide and the dream of a greater Armenia because Turkey's recognition of the genocide would constitute the legal basis for the Armenian claims on Western Armenia." From the mid-1970s to the late 1980s, several Armenian militant (often considered terrorist) groups operated in the Middle East and Western Europe. Most notably the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) carried out armed attacks on Turkish diplomatic missions around the world. Two ARF-affiliated groups—the Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide (JCAG) and the Armenian Revolutionary Army (ARA)—also carried out similar attacks, mainly in Western Europe. David C. Rapoport argues that these organizations were inspired by Gourgen Yanikian, a 77-year-old Armenian genocide survivor, who assassinated two Turkish consular officials in California in 1973 as an act of revenge against Turkey.
The ASALA was the largest of the three and was mostly composed of Lebanese Armenian young adults, who claimed revenge for the Armenian genocide, which the Turkish state denies. The concept of United Armenia was one of the ultimate goals of ASALA. William Dalrymple and Olivier Roy claim that Armenian Genocide became internationalized as a result of the activities of the Armenian militant groups in the Western European countries.
### Nagorno-Karabakh Wars: 1988–2020
In February 1988 a popular nationalist movement emerged in Soviet Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO), a small Armenian-populated enclave under the jurisdiction of Soviet Azerbaijan since 1923. The movement demanded the unification of the two entities, reviving the idea of a united Armenia.
On 20 February 1988, the Nagorno-Karabakh Supreme Council (the regional legislature) issued a request to transfer the region from Soviet Azerbaijan to Soviet Armenia. The Moscow government declined the claims, while hundreds of thousands of people demonstrated in Yerevan in support of the idea. Few days later, on 26 February, an anti-Armenian pogrom broke out in the Azerbaijani seaside industrial city Sumgait, forcing thousands of Armenians to leave Azerbaijan en masse.
On 15 June 1988, the Supreme Council of Soviet Armenia voted to accept Nagorno-Karabakh into Armenia. On 17 June 1988, the Azerbaijan Supreme Soviet refused to transfer the area to Armenia, saying that it was part of Azerbaijan. The leading members of the Karabakh Committee, a group of intellectuals leading the demonstrations, were arrested in December 1988, but were freed in May 1989. On 1 December 1989, the Soviet Armenian Supreme Council and NKAO Supreme Council declared the unification of the two entities (օրենք «Հայկական ԽՍՀ-ի եւ Լեռնային Ղարաբաղի վերամիավորման մասին»). In January 1990, another pogrom took place against Armenians, this time in Baku. In the meantime, most Azerbaijanis of Armenia and Armenians of Azerbaijan left their homes and moved to their respective countries.
Pro-independence members were elected in the majority to the Armenian parliament in the 1990 election. On 23 August 1990, the Armenian parliament passed a resolution on sovereignty. The tensions grew even larger after the Soviet and Azeri forces deported thousands of Armenian from Shahumyan during Operation Ring in April and May 1991. After the unsuccessful August Putsch, more Soviet republics declared independence. On 2 September 1991, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic proclaimed independence. On 21 September 1991, the Armenian independence referendum was held with the overwhelming majority voting for the independence of Armenia from the Soviet Union. On 26 November 1991, the Azerbaijani parliament abolished the autonomy of Nagorno-Karabakh. On 10 December 1991, an independence referendum was held in Nagorno-Karabakh, boycotted by the Azeri minority, and gained a vote of 99% in favor of independence.
The conflict escalated into a full-scale war with the captured Shusha by Armenian forces on 9 May 1992. By 1993, the Armenian forces took control over not only the originally disputed Nagorno-Karabakh, but also several districts surrounding the region. A ceasefire agreement was eventually signed on 5 May 1994 in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. According to Thomas de Waal, three factors contributed to the victory of the Armenian side: "Azerbaijan's political and military chaos, greater Russian support for the Armenians, and the Armenians' superior fighting skills." Since the 1994 ceasefire, the Armenian Nagorno-Karabakh Republic had de facto control of the territories taken over in the war.
In the wake of Armenia's defeat in 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Armenian forces lost control of the occupied territories around Nagorno-Karabakh, as well as Shusha and Hadrut in Nagorno-Karabakh. In accordance with Russian-brokered ceasefire agreement, Russian peacekeepers are deployed in the Lachin corridor connecting Armenia to Nagorno-Karabakh.
## Proponents
### Armenian Revolutionary Federation
Since its foundation in 1890, the left-wing nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation (also known as Dashnaktsutyun or Dashnak/Tashnag) has been known as the main advocate for United Armenia. Having affiliated organizations throughout the Armenian communities abroad, the ARF is regarded as one of the most influential Armenian institutions in the world, especially in the diaspora. According to researcher Arus Harutyunyan, the party has "made it abundantly clear that historical justice will be achieved once ethnic Armenian repatriate to united Armenia, which in addition to its existing political boundaries would include" Western Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh, Nakhichevan and Javakhk. In the 1998 party program, it states that the ARF's first goal is "The creation of a Free, Independent and United Armenia. United Armenia should include inside its borders the Armenian lands [given to Armenia] by the Sevres Treaty, as well as Artsakh, Javakhk and Nakhichevan provinces." "Free, Independent and United Armenia" is the party's main slogan, and was adopted as its "supreme objective" in the 10th Party Congress in Paris (1924–25). Hrant Markarian, ARF Bureau Chairman, stated at the 2004 party congress:
### Heritage Party
Although the platform of the national liberal Heritage party makes no explicit reference to territorial claims, its leader and some its members have expressed their support for them. Heritage supports the formal recognition of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic by Armenia and has introduced bills for the recognition of the NKR to the Armenian National Assembly in 2007, 2010, and 2012. Although all three attempts were voted down by the ruling Republican Party. Its leader, Raffi Hovannisian (post-Soviet Armenia's first foreign minister), has hinted at Western Armenia, Javakhk and Nakhichevan with "vague formulations." For instance, during a 2013 speech about his future plans Hovannisian stated that "only with [the existence of a] government belonging to the people will we have awareness of our national interest—with Artsakh, Javakhk, Western Armenia—and future for our children." In 2011, a leading party member, Zaruhi Postanjyan, stated in an open letter to presidents of Armenia and NKR that by organizing a repatriation of diaspora Armenians to Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh, "we will [create a] base for the liberation of our entire homeland."
In an April 2015 conference on the Armenian Genocide centenary Postanjyan stated that Armenia should "restore its territorial integrity" by claiming the "territory of its historic homeland." When asked about how realistic Armenian claims to its historic lands are, Heritage leader Hovannisian responded: "Today's romantic will become tomorrow's realist." In an opinion piece published in The Jerusalem Post on 11 April 2015 Hovannisian wrote that Turkey occupies Western Armenia and called for "the creation of an Armenian national hearth in historic Western Armenia." He added, "negotiations between the republics of Turkey and Armenia triggering the first-ever sovereign reciprocal demarcation of the official frontier, including but not limited to provisions for an Armenian easement to the Black Sea."
### Other
The Armenian Democratic Liberal Party (ADL, Ramgavar), a diaspora bourgeois conservative party, is also an advocate of Armenian territorial claims to historical territories. In August 1990, Edmond Azadian, a leader of the ADL told the Armenian parliament:
> We have always maintained that the territory of this Republic of Armenia is the nucleus of tomorrow's Greater Armenia. In this respect, we expect the newly formed government to commit itself to the restoration of our historic rights. More specifically, the new Republic must include in its on-going agenda the recognition of the Armenian genocide and our historic territorial claims by the international community.
## Territories claimed
The modern use of United Armenia by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) encompasses the following areas:
### Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh)
In the aftermath of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, supported by the Republic of Armenia, took control over the territory of some 11,500 km<sup>2</sup>, including several districts outside of the originally claimed borders of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast of the Azerbaijani SSR, creating a "buffer zone". Kelbajar and Lachin districts guarantee solid land corridor between Armenia proper and Nagorno-Karabakh. Between 500,000 and 600,000 Azerbaijanis were displaced from the area. In the meantime, almost all Armenians from Azerbaijan (between 300,000 and 400,000) and Azerbaijanis from Armenia (over 150,000) were forced to move to their respective countries as remaining in their homes became nearly impossible since tensions between the two groups have grown worse since the start of the conflict in 1988.
The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (also known as Artsakh among Armenians) remains internationally unrecognized. Today, the Republic of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh Republic are de facto functioning as one entity, although the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic territory is internationally recognized as de jure part of Azerbaijan. Nagorno-Karabakh is more monoethnic than the Republic of Armenia, with 99.7% of its population being Armenian. The Azerbaijani minority was forced to leave during the war. The areas outside the original NKAO borders taken over by the Armenian forces during the war are mostly uninhabited or very sparsely inhabited, with the city of Lachin being an exception. Between 2000 and 2011, 25,000 to 30,000 people settled in NKR.
Since the end of the conflict, Armenia and Azerbaijan are negotiating through the OSCE Minsk Group. Presidents and Foreign Affairs Ministers of the two countries have been meeting each other alongside the Russian, French and American co-chairmen trying to find a solution for the "frozen conflict" as described by experts. Armenia and Azerbaijan regularly exchange fires in clashes throughout their border.
### Javakhk (Javakheti)
The region of Javakheti or Javakhk as known to Armenians comprises the districts of Akhalkalaki and Ninotsminda, both part of Samtskhe-Javakheti region of Georgia. It is overwhelmingly Armenian-populated (around 95%). The area is geographically isolated from the rest of Georgia and remains economically and socially isolated from Georgia. According to Svante Cornell, Javakhk enjoys "wide cultural autonomy" and "certain Georgian analysts observe that the region is in practice as much 'Armenia' as 'Georgia'. It is distinctively easier to get around using Armenian than Georgian in this region; indeed, foreign visitors claim that at first they had difficulties determining which country they are in." Generally, Javakheti Armenians live in "reasonable inter-ethnic harmony" within Georgia, although there is a "fairly strong fear for the future, a sense of insecurity." Javakheti, along with Lori and Borchali, was disputed by Armenia and Georgia from 1918 to 1920. A brief armed conflict took place between the two nations in December 1918, mostly over Lori.
United Javakhk Democratic Alliance, a local civil organization, is the main organization advocating for an Armenian autonomy in the region. It was founded in 1988, during the disintegration of the Soviet Union. It campaigns for a referendum in Javakheti on autonomy. It is believed that the organization has close links with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Although the ARF claims Javakhk as part of United Armenia, the ARF World Congresses "have agreed with the demands raised by the Armenians of Javakhk that a Javakhk with a high degree of self-government within a federal Georgia would be able to sustain itself and would become a strong link in Georgian-Armenian relations." ARF Bureau Chairman Hrant Markarian declared in the 2004 party congress: "We want a strong, stable and autonomous Javakheti that is part of Georgia and enjoys state care." The leader of the United Javakhk Democratic Alliance, Vahagn Chakhalian, was arrested in 2008 and freed in 2013. A 2014 article suggested that the alliance has little influence today.
During Zviad Gamsakhurdia's presidency (1991), Javakheti remained de facto semi-independent and only in November 1991 was the Tbilisi-appointed governor able to take power. The issue of Javakheti was in the 1990s "clearly been perceived as the most dangerous potential ethnic conflict in Georgia", however, no actual armed conflict ever occurred. Taking into account the importance of the bilateral relations, the governments of Armenia and Georgia have pursued a careful and calming policy to avoid tension. The Armenian government has not made territorial claims to Georgia, nor has called for an autonomy in Javakheti. Armenia–Georgia relations have traditionally been friendly, however, from time to time tensions arise between the two countries. In recent years, the status of Armenian churches in Georgia and the status of the Armenian language in Georgian public schools had been a matter of dispute. Svante Cornell argues that "Armenia seems to have had a calming influence on Javakhk" as it is highly dependent on Georgia for imports. This viewpoint is shared by Georgian analysts.
Armenian nationalist activist Alexander Yenikomshian has suggested that there are three long-term solutions to the Javakhk issue: 1) the region remains part of a Georgia, where the rights of the Armenian population are protected 2) "Artsakhization", i.e. de facto unification with the Republic of Armenia 3) "Nakhichevanization", i.e. Javakhk loses its Armenian population.
### Western Armenia (eastern Turkey)
Western Armenia refers to an undefined area, now in eastern Turkey, that had significant Armenian population prior to the Armenian genocide of 1915. As a result of the genocide, officially no Armenians live in the area today. However, at least two distinct groups of Armenian origin reside in the area. Hemshin peoples, an islamisized group with Armenian ethnic origin, live in the Black Sea coast, particularity in the Rize province. Another group, "Hidden Armenians", live throughout Turkey, especially the eastern parts of the country. Many of them have been assimilated by Kurds. It is impossible to determine how many there are due to the fact that they keep their identity hidden, but estimates range from below 100,000 to millions. Since the Armenian Genocide, the area has been mostly settled by Kurds and Turks, with smaller numbers of Azerbaijanis (near the Turkish-Armenian border) and Georgians and Laz people in the northeastern provinces of Turkey.
Generally, the Armenian nationalist groups claim the area east of the boundary drawn by US President Woodrow Wilson for the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation and groups supporting the concept of United Armenia claim that the Treaty of Sèvres, signed on 10 August 1920 between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies, including Armenia is the only legal document determining the border between Armenia and Turkey. Armenia's Former Deputy Foreign Minister Ara Papian claims that "Wilsonian Armenia," the territory granted to the Republic of Armenia in 1920 by Wilson in the scope of the Treaty of Sèvres, is still de jure part of Armenia today. According to him the Treaty of Kars, which determined the current Turkish-Armenian border, has no legal value because it was signed between two internationally unrecognized subjects: Bolshevik Russia and Kemalist Turkey. Papian has suggested that the Armenian government can file a suit at the International Court of Justice to dispute the border between Armenia and Turkey.
22 November is celebrated by some Armenians as the anniversary of the Arbitral Award. In 2010 and 2011, posters with maps of the Treaty of Sèvres were hung throughout Yerevan.
On August 10, 2020 the three traditional Armenian parties—the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF, Dashnaks), Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchaks) and the Armenian Democratic Liberal Party (Ramgavars)—issued a joint statement on the centenary of the Sevres Treaty, stating that the treaty is the only international document defining the border between Armenia and Turkey. "The Treaty of Sevres is a valid international treaty, although it has not been ratified by all signatories, but it has not been legally replaced by any other international instrument. At least from the point of view of the rights of the Armenian Cause, the Republic of Armenia and the Armenian nation, it remains a promissory note based on international law."
#### Official position of Armenia
Since Armenia's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the Armenian government has not officially made any territorial claims to Turkey. However, the Armenian government has avoided "an explicit and formal recognition of the existing Turkish-Armenian border." In 2001, Armenian president Robert Kocharyan stated that the "genocide recognition will not lead to legal consequences or territorial claims."
In 2010, Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan addressed the Conference Dedicated to the 90th Anniversary of Woodrow Wilson's Arbitral Award:
> It was probably one of the most momentous events for our nation in the 20th century which was called up to reestablish historic justice and eliminate consequences of the Armenian Genocide perpetrated in the Ottoman Empire. The Arbitral Award defined and recognized internationally Armenia's borders within which the Armenian people, who had gone through hell of Mets Eghern, were to build their statehood.
On 23 July 2011, during a meeting of Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan with students in Tsaghkadzor resort city, a student asked Sargsyan if Turkey "will return Western Armenia" in the future. Sargsyan responded:
> It depends on you and your generation. I believe, my generation has fulfilled the task in front of us; when it was necessary in the beginning of the 1990s to defend part of our fatherland—Karabakh—from the enemy, we did it. I am not telling this to embarrass anyone: my point is that each generation has its responsibilities and they have to be carried out, with honor. If you, boys and girls of your generation spare no effort, if those older and younger than you act the same way, we will have one of the best countries in the world. Trust me, in many cases the country's standing is not conditioned by its territory: the country should be modern, it should be secure and prosperous, and these are conditions which allow any nation to sit next to the respectable, powerful and reputed nations of the world. We simply must fulfill our duty, must be active, industrious, must be able to create bounty. And we can do that, we very easily can do that, and we have done it more than once in our history. I am certain about it, and I want you to be certain too. We are a nation that always rises from the ashes like phoenix—again and again.
Sargsyan's statements "were considered by Turkish officials an encouragement for young students to fulfill the task of their generation and occupy eastern Turkey." During his visit to Baku a few days later, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan denounced Sargsyan's statements and described them as "provocation" and claimed that Sargsyan this "told young Armenians to be ready for a future war with Turkey." Erdoğan demanded apology from Sargsyan calling his statements a "blunder". In response, Armenian Deputy Foreign Minister Shavarsh Kocharyan stated that Sargsyan's words were "interpreted out of context."
On 5 July 2013, during a forum of Armenian lawyers in Yerevan on the 100th Anniversary of the Armenian Genocide organized by the Ministry of Diaspora, Armenia's Prosecutor General Aghvan Hovsepyan made a "sensational statement". Hovsepyan particularly stated:
> Indeed, the Republic of Armenia should have its lost territories returned and the victims of the Armenian Genocide should receive material compensation. But all these claims must have perfect legal grounds. I strongly believe that the descendants of the genocide must receive material compensation, churches miraculously preserved in Turkey's territory and church lands must be returned to the Armenian Church, and the Republic of Armenia must get back its lost lands.
According to ArmeniaNow news agency "this was seen as the first territorial claim of Armenia to Turkey made on an official level. The prosecutor general is the carrier of the highest legal authority in the country, and his statement is equivalent to an official statement." In response, the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 12 July 2013 denouncing Hovsepyan's statements. According to the Turkish side his statements reflect the "prevailing problematic mentality in Armenia as to the territorial integrity of its neighbor Turkey." The statement said that "one should be well aware that no one can presume to claim land from Turkey."
On August 10, 2020 Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan, President Armen Sarkissian and parliament speaker Ararat Mirzoyan issued statements on the centenary of the Sevres Treaty. Pashinyan noted that although it was never implemented, "it continues to be a historical fact, which reflects our long journey to restore our independent statehood. We are bound by duty to remember it, realize its importance and follow its message." Sarkissian stated that the treaty "even today remains an essential document for the right of the Armenian people to achieve a fair resolution of the Armenian issue." Mirzoyan called the treaty an expression of "dreamy naivety."
### Nakhichevan
Armenian tradition says that Nakhichevan (Նախիջեւան Naxidjevan in Armenian and Naxçıvan in Azerbaijani) was founded by Noah. Armenians have been living in Nakhichevan since ancient times. It was one of gavars of Vaspurakan province of the Kingdom of Armenia. In 189 BC, Nakhchivan became part of the new Kingdom of Armenia established by Artaxias I. Within the kingdom, the region of present-day Nakhichevan was part of the Ayrarat, Vaspurakan and Syunik provinces.
By the 16th century, control of Nakhichevan passed to the Safavid dynasty of Persia. Because of its geographic position, it frequently suffered during the earlier wars between Persia and the Ottoman Empire in the 14th to 18th centuries. In 1604–1605, Shah Abbas I, concerned that the lands of Nakhichevan and the surrounding areas could potentially pass into Ottoman hands, decided to institute a scorched earth policy. He forced some 300,000 Armenians, including the Armenian population of Nakhichevan to leave their homes and move to the Persian provinces south of the Aras River. After the last 1826-1828 Russo-Persian War, Nakhichevan became part of Russia per the Treaty of Turkmenchay after Persia's forced ceding. Alexandr Griboyedov, the Russian envoy to Persia, reported that 1,228 Armenian families from Persia migrated to Nakhichevan, while prior to their migration there were 2,024 Muslim and 404 Armenian families living in the province.
According to the 1897 Russian Empire Census, the Nakhichevan uyezd of the Erivan Governorate had a population of 100,771, of which 34,672 were Armenian (34.4%), while Caucasian Tatars (Azerbaijanis) numbered 64,151 or 63.7% of the total population. The proportion of Armenian was around 40% prior to World War I. Nakhichevan was disputed between Armenia and Azerbaijan from 1918 to 1920 during the countries' brief independence. The Armenian population of Nakhichevan largely fled the area during the Ottoman invasion in 1918. By June 1919, after the British troops left the area, Armenia succeeded in establishing control over Nakhichevan. Some of the Nakhichevan Armenians returned to their homes in summer 1919. Again, more violence erupted in 1919 leaving some 10,000 Armenians dead and some 45 Armenian villages destroyed.
After the Soviet takeover of the Caucasus region in 1920 and 1921, the Treaty of Moscow, also known as the Treaty of Brotherhood, was signed between the Government of the Grand National Assembly and Soviet Russia on 16 March 1921. According to this treaty Nakhichevan became "an autonomous territory under the auspices of Azerbaijan, under the condition that Azerbaijan will not relinquish the protectorate to any third party." The Treaty of Kars was signed between the Grand National Assembly and Armenian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Georgian SSR on 13 October 1921. The treaty reaffirmed that the "Turkish Government and the Soviet Governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan are agreed that the region of Nakhichevan ... constitutes an autonomous territory under the protection of Azerbaijan." By the mid-1920s, the number of Armenians in Nakhichevan dwindled significantly and according to the 1926 Soviet census the 11,276 Armenians made up only 10.7% of the autonomous republic. During the Soviet period, the Armenians of Nakhichevan felt "pressured to leave." According to the Soviet census of 1979, only 3,406 Armenians resided in Nakhichevan or 1.4% of the total population. The last few thousand Armenians left Nakhichevan in 1988 amid the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
In August 1987, the Armenian National Academy of Sciences started a petition to transfer Nakhichevan and Nagorno-Karabakh under jurisdiction of Armenia. In the nationalist movement to unite Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia, Armenians "used the example of the slow "de-Armenianization" of Nakhichevan in the course of the twentieth century as an example of what they feared would happen to them." During the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, clashes occurred between Armenian and Azeri forces in the Nakhichevan-Armenia border, however, the war did not spill over into Nakhichevan. Turkey, Azerbaijan's close ally, threatened to intervene if Armenia invaded Nakhichevan. Nakhichevan was in center of attention during the destruction of the Armenian cemetery in Julfa in the 2000s. According to the Research on Armenian Architecture, most of the Armenian churches, monasteries and cemeteries were destroyed by Azerbaijan in the 1990s.
The Armenian government has never made any claims to Nakhichevan, although there have been calls by nationalist circles (including Hayazn, Heritage youth wing and prominent First Nagorno-Karabakh War veteran Jirair Sefilian) to forcibly annex Nakhichevan in case Azerbaijan attacks Nagorno-Karabakh. Rəfael Hüseynov, the Director of the Nizami Museum of Azerbaijani Literature, in his written question to the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 2007 claimed that the "seizure Nakhichevan is one of the main military goals of Armenia." Writing in the Harvard International Review in 2011 US-based Azerbaijani historian Alec Rasizade suggested that "Armenian ideologues have lately started to talk about the return of Nakhichevan."
### "Kura-Arax Republic"
A potential military advancement toward central Azerbaijan, especially up to the Kura river, has become part of the Armenian political discourse in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. A maximalist and expansionist option, advancing up to the Kura river is seen by analysts and military figures as a method of forcing Azerbaijan to surrender and give up its claims to Karabakh. For others, it is a realistic policy which should be persuaded by the government of Armenia to take control of territories that are, according to its advocates, historical or natural part of Armenia.
The phrase "Kura-Arax Republic" was coined in 2016 by Levon Shirinyan, a political science professor and a former member of the ARF, to advocate Armenian military advancement into the territory of Azerbaijan west of the Kura river (including Nakhichevan) to achieve complete surrender of Azerbaijan. Following the April 2016 war in Karabakh with Azerbaijan, he stated that Armenia should "transfer the military operations" into Yevlakh and the confluence of the rivers Kura and Arax (Aras or Araxes). The explained the importance of the two as follows: Yevlakh is a major hub of the Baku-Tbilisi railway and the oil and gas pipelines, while the second would give Armenia an opportunity to assist the Talysh in reviving an independent state in the south of Azerbaijan. He argues that Armenia cannot have peace "unless we get to Kura-Araks" and "destroy Azerbaijan as a Turkic state." Shirinyan set up the Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party prior to the 2018 parliamentary election, which proclaimed "Kura-Araxian Armenia" as one of its main objectives.
The idea was adopted by the hard-line nationalist group led by Jirair Sefilian that took over a police base in Yerevan in July 2016. Varuzhan Avetisyan, leader of the armed group, explicitly supported the idea from prison in 2017. Sefilian did so in April 2018. Following their release from prison after the 2018 Armenian Velvet Revolution, members of the armed group formed the Sasna Tsrer Pan-Armenian Party, which officially adopted "Kura-Arax Republic" as one of its objectives. Their party program stated Nakhichevan and the areas of Azerbaijan west of the Kura should become part of Armenia and, thus, establish the Kura-Araxian Republic. Sefilian stated:
## Public opinion
There are no public opinion data concerning the United Armenia concept, however, it is popular among Armenians according to Hürriyet Daily News. Moshe Gammer of the Tel Aviv University and Emil Souleimanov of the Charles University in Prague both suggest that the concept is popular in the Armenian diaspora. Gerard Libaridian wrote in 2007:
A 2014 survey in Armenia asked what kind of demands should Armenia make to Turkey. Some 80% agreed that Armenia should make territorial claims (30% said only territorial claims, while another 50% said territorial, moral, financial, and proprietary). Only 5.5% said no demands should be made. According to a 2012 survey, 36% of Armenians asked agree or somewhat agree that Turkish recognition of the Armenian Genocide will result in territorial compensation, while 45% believe it will not. The online publication Barometer.am wrote: "It appears that our pragmatic population believes that all possible demands should be forwarded to Turkey [...] but a relative majority consider the practival realization of territorial claims to Turkey is unrealistic."
### On Artsakh
One researcher wrote in the Jacobin magazine in 2016 that "[f]ew in Armenia support [the] pleas to use Karabakh as a springboard to recreate 'Greater Armenia.' But the idea that Karabakh must be held no matter the cost is widespread." According to a 2017 survey in Armenia 86.4% of respondents opposed any territorial concessions in the Karabakh conflict, while 8.2% accepted concessions for the sake of settlement.
According to a 2013 Caucasus Barometer survey, when asked about having Nagorno-Karabakh as a formal part of Armenia, 77% of respondents "definitely favor" such a status, 13% would be "accepting under certain circumstances", and 7% oppose it.
## In culture
The concept of creating a united state that would include all Armenian-populated areas has been the main theme of the Armenian revolutionary songs. Nersik Ispiryan and Harout Pamboukjian are among the most famous performers of such songs. One of the most widely known examples of these songs is "We must go" (Պիտի գնանք, Piti gnank) by gusan Haykazun written in 1989:
From 2005 to 2008, four short animated cartoons were released by the National Cinema Center of Armenia called Road home (Ճանապարհ դեպի տուն) produced by Armenian animator Robert Sahakyants. It tells a story of a group of school children from Karin (Erzurum) in 2050 taking a trip throughout the "liberated from enemy" territories: Tigranakert, Baghesh (Bitlis), Mush and Akdamar Island. The country they live in is called Hayk' (Հայք) after the historical name of Armenia. The series was aired by the Public Television of Armenia. In one of his last interviews, Sahakyants stated: "If today I'm shooting a film about how we are going to return Western Armenia, then I'm convinced that it will definitely take place."
## Reactions
### In Armenia
Leading Armenian communist Anastas Mikoyan stated in 1919 that "Armenian chauvinists relying on the allies of imperialism push forward a criminal idea—the creation of a ‘Great Armenia’ on the borders of Historic Armenia. The absence of Armenians and the presence of an absolute Muslim population there does not concern them... our party cannot support the idea of either a ‘Great’ or ‘Small’ Turkish Armenia."
Armenia's first president Levon Ter-Petrosyan (1991-98), in a widely publicized 1997 essay on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict titled "War or Peace? Time to Get Serious", argued that if Armenia was to officially demand "the return of Armenian lands" from Turkey and cancellation of the Treaty of Kars, it would only play into the hands of Turkey. He argued that it would "provide Turkey with more evidence of Armenia's expansionist ambitions" and direct more negative international opinion towards Armenia. Petrosyan has called the idea of "Kura-Arax republic" a "fairy tale."
Gerard Libaridian, a former adviser to President Ter-Petrosyan, criticized August 2020 statements by Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan and President Armen Sarkissian on the 100th anniversary of the Sevres Treaty as being "equivalent to a declaration of at least diplomatic war against Turkey." According to Libaridian, "Adopting the Treaty of Sevres as an instrument of foreign policy Armenia placed the demand of territories from Turkey on its agenda."
### In Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev in 1998 stated in his "Decree of President of Republic of Azerbaijan about genocide of Azerbaijani people" that the "artificial territorial division in essence created the preconditions for implementing the policy of expelling Azerbaijanis from their lands and annihilating them. The concept of 'greater Armenia' began to be propagated."
In 2012, President of Azerbaijan and son of Heydar Aliyev, Ilham Aliyev, who has made several statements toward Armenia and Armenians in past such as "our main enemies are Armenians of the world", stated that "Over the past two centuries, Armenian bigots, in an effort to materialize their 'Great Armenia' obsession at the expense of historically Azerbaijani lands, have repeatedly committed crimes against humanity such as terrorism, mass extermination, deportation and ethnic cleansing of our people."
### In Turkey
In December 1991, Turkey became one of the first countries to recognize the independence of Armenia from the Soviet Union. Armenia–Turkey relations deteriorated during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, during which Turkey aligned itself with Azerbaijan. Turkey shares its Turkic heritage with Azerbaijan and the two countries are generally seen as allies in the region. The expression "one nation, two states" has been often used to describe the relations of the two countries.
In Turkey, "many believe that Armenia's territorial claims are the main reason why the Armenian administration and lobbyists are pushing for global recognition" of the Armenian Genocide. The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism credits the idea of "Great Armenia" to Armenian President Levon Ter-Petrosyan. According to Prof. İdris Bal "Turkey considers Armenian policy (and the activities of its powerful diaspora groups) since 1989 to be against its national security interests and territorial integrity. Armenia's failure to recognize the Kars Agreement, along with the frequent public references to eastern Turkey as 'Western Armenia,' provides a serious irritant to Turkey. The Turkish Mount Ararat is pictured in the official Armenian state emblem, which Turkey interprets as a sign that the 'greater Armenia' vision is still very much alive."
According to Hürriyet Daily News some "foreign policy experts draw attention to the fact that Armenia has territorial claims over Turkey, citing certain phrases in the Armenian Constitution and Declaration of Independence." The Armenia Declaration of Independence was passed on 23 August 1990 officially declaring "the beginning of the process of establishing of independent statehood positioning the question of the creation of a democratic society." It was signed by Levon Ter-Petrosyan, the President of the Supreme Council, who became the first President of Armenia in 1991. Article 11 of the declaration read:
: : "The Republic of Armenia stands in support of the task of achieving international recognition of the 1915 Genocide in Ottoman Turkey and Western Armenia."
Turkish historian and political scientist Umut Uzer characterized Armenian territorials claims to eastern Turkey as "a racist and irredentist demand with regard to a territory which has never in history had an Armenian majority population. And these demands are buttressed with genocide claims which in fact deny the very existence of Turkey in its current borders."
## See also
- Armenia–Turkey border
- Armenian national liberation movement
- Armenian nationalism
- Armenian Question
- Foreign relations of Armenia
- National Revival (Artsakh) in Artsakh
- Repatriation of Armenians
Other irredentist concepts (Western Asia)
- Pan-Turkism
- Whole Azerbaijan
- Megali Idea
- Greater Israel
- Greater Kurdistan
- Pan-Iranism |
759,289 | M-205 (Michigan highway) | 1,167,482,337 | Former state highway in Cass County, Michigan, United States | [
"Former state highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Cass County, Michigan"
]
| M-205 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan. The route was turned back to local control in October 2002 by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) after the completion of M-217 (Michiana Parkway). MDOT swapped roadways with the Cass County Road Commission ending the 67-year history of M-205.
## Route description
M-205 ran through an agricultural landscape from a connection with State Road 19 (SR 19) at the state line north of Elkhart, Indiana, northward for about one-half mile (0.80 km) along Cassopolis Road before turning easterly through a sweeping curve. The roadway is bordered by houses in the area as it continues to an intersection with US Highway 12 (US 12, the former US 112) between Union and Adamsville. The highway went through no towns within Michigan, but did connect with some short local roads.
## History
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919, a highway numbered M-23 ran north from the state line near Union and turned east, eventually connecting all the way to Ypsilanti in Washtenaw County, east of Detroit. On the original approved US Highway plan, M-23 was replaced by US 112, running over the border into Indiana. Michigan diverted that highway along a route entirely within Michigan, and the very short, but locally important segment of cut-off highway became M-205. The curve between Cassopolis and Redfield roads was realigned to give M-205 a more sweeping curve in 1950. As part of the swap between MDOT and Cass County, M-217 was designated several miles to the east as a new connector to the toll road, and M-205 was transferred to local control on October 10, 2002, decommissioning the trunkline.
The highway is now identified as "Old M-205" on road signs. Its old northern end, an intersection on US 12 was rebuilt as a traffic circle after the highway was decommissioned.
## Major intersections
## See also |
2,399,020 | Black Friday (2004 film) | 1,173,401,367 | 2004 film by Anurag Kashyap | [
"1993 Bombay bombings",
"2000s Hindi-language films",
"2000s crime action films",
"2004 crime drama films",
"2004 crime thriller films",
"2004 films",
"Censored films",
"Cockfighting in film",
"D-Company",
"Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police",
"Film censorship in India",
"Films about Islamic terrorism in India",
"Films about corruption in India",
"Films about jihadism",
"Films about organised crime in India",
"Films about religious violence in India",
"Films based on Indian novels",
"Films based on non-fiction books",
"Films directed by Anurag Kashyap",
"Films set in 1993",
"Films set in Delhi",
"Films set in Dubai",
"Films set in India",
"Films set in Mumbai",
"Films set in Pakistan",
"Films set in Rajasthan",
"Films set in Uttar Pradesh",
"Films set in the United Arab Emirates",
"Films shot in Maharashtra",
"Films shot in Mumbai",
"Films with screenplays by Anurag Kashyap",
"Indian crime action films",
"Indian crime drama films",
"Indian crime thriller films",
"Indian docudrama films",
"Indian films about revenge",
"Indian gangster films",
"Indian police films",
"India–Pakistan relations in popular culture",
"Works subject to a lawsuit"
]
| Black Friday is a 2004 Indian Hindi-language crime film written and directed by Anurag Kashyap. Based on Black Friday: The True Story of the Bombay Bomb Blasts, a book by Hussain Zaidi about the 1993 Bombay bombings, it chronicles the events that led to the blasts and the subsequent police investigation. Produced by Arindam Mitra of Mid-Day, the film stars Pawan Malhotra, Kay Kay Menon, Aditya Srivastava, Kishor Kadam and Zakir Hussain.
Mitra, director of operations for Mid Day, approached Kashyap with the book and wanted him to write a television series based on it for the Aaj Tak TV news channel. Kashyap wrote the script in episodes for the six-part miniseries but later felt a feature film was more appropriate for the topic. Aaj Tak backed away from the project, and it was shelved. Kashyap then suggested to the director Aditya Bhattacharya that he make it into a film. When Kashyap told him he felt there was a film to be made about the event, Bhattacharya gave it to him to direct. The film's soundtrack album and the background score were composed by the band Indian Ocean, while the lyrics were written by Piyush Mishra. Natarajan Subramaniam served as the director of photography, while Aarti Bajaj was its editor.
Black Friday premiered at the 2004 Locarno International Film Festival and was supposed to be released the same year in India. However, after a petition filed by a group accused of the 1993 bomb blasts challenging the film's release, the Bombay High Court issued a stay. Until judgement was delivered on the case, it could not be released. On 9 February 2007, after the verdict was announced, the Supreme Court of India allowed its release. The film received critical acclaim. It won the Grand Jury Prize at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles and was a nominee for the Golden Leopard award at the Locarno International Film Festival. Made on a production budget of ₹6.5 crore (US\$810,000), it grossed a total of ₹8 crore (US\$1.0 million) at the box office.
## Plot
On 9 March 1993, a small-time thug, Gul Mohammed, is detained at the Nav Pada police station in Bombay and confesses to a conspiracy underway to bomb major locations around the city. The police dismiss his confession as bluff and three days later, a series of explosions take place in the city, leaving 257 dead and close to 1400 injured. Investigators discover the bombs, made of RDX, were smuggled into the city with the aid of customs officials and the border police.
Tiger Memon is an underworld don whose office is burned during the Bombay riots. The persecution of Muslim minorities in the riots leads to a meeting of underworld leaders in Dubai who take it upon themselves to seek retribution. Memon suggests an attack on Bombay would send the strongest message of retaliation.
Asgar Muqadam, his secretary, is arrested on 14 March 1993. He is beaten until he provides whatever information he has about the bomb blasts. This initiates a full-scale police inquiry. Deputy Commissioner of Police, Rakesh Maria, is put in charge of the case. Badshah Khan, one of the henchmen who had left Bombay and gone into hiding, is arrested by the police on 10 May 1993. Following the blast, accomplices to the crime are forced to lead a life of anonymity and secrecy as it becomes evident the Mumbai police have begun picking up the suspects one by one. To make matters worse, their passports seem to have been destroyed at the behest of Memon.
Despite assurances to the contrary, the high command blatantly refuses any help once the bombings have occurred. Tired of being let down by his own people, and without a place to hide, Badshah Khan realises there is no justification for his acts and decides to become a police witness. On 4 November 1993, the police file a charge sheet against 189 accused. The Central Bureau of Investigation takes over the case. On 5 August 1994, Tiger's brother, Yaqub Memon, willingly turns himself in to the authorities. In a candid Newstrack interview on national television, Yaqub states that it was Tiger and his underworld associates who orchestrated the conspiracy.
## Cast
## Production
On 12 March 1993, a series of 12 bomb blasts took place in Mumbai, Maharashtra. The attacks were carried out in retaliation for the Bombay riots that occurred earlier in the year. They resulted in 257 deaths and 713 injuries. Anurag Kashyap's feature film directorial debut Paanch ran into censorship trouble and had been shelved when Arindam Mitra, director of operations for Mid-Day, approached him with the book Black Friday: The True Story of the Bombay Bomb Blasts written by Hussain Zaidi, their chief crime correspondent. He wanted Kashyap to write a television series based on it for Aaj Tak, to be directed by Aditya Bhattacharya. Kashyap read an unedited version of the book, which had not been released at that point, and was "fascinated" by it. He wrote the script in episodes for the mini series but later felt it was better suited as a feature film.
Aaj Tak backed off from the project after their executives read the first episode and the project was abandoned. Kashyap then suggested Bhattacharya to make it into a film to which Bhattacharya offered him to direct instead. Zaidi wrote the book following three years of research on the subject. Kashyap researched for a year, including attending court to see how criminals look and to observe how court procedures work. He discovered criminals look normal and cast his actors based on this observation. The film's characters are all real people, including: Kay Kay Menon playing investigating officer Rakesh Maria, Pawan Malhotra as Tiger Memon and Aditya Srivastava as Badshah Khan, the police approver who helped them crack the case. Filmmaker Imtiaz Ali portrayed the role of Yakub Memon. To get their perspective, Kashyap also read Voices, a book recommended by Zaidi, which includes the testimony of several individuals who were arrested. He asked Devashish Makhija, who was his assistant director, to do the research. Makhija described the research material he found, and Kashyap continued to write. This resulted in the script being completed in 36 hours.
To recreate several of the film's locations, Kashyap watched actual footage from the government's Film Division, read all the newspapers describing the incident, and looked at press photographs. The most challenging thing for the crew, since the film was being shot in 2003, was to recreate 1993 when there were no cell phones or satellite television in India. The film was shot on the streets of Mumbai to avoid modern cars. It could not be shot from low angles because the hoardings and neon signs were contemporary. The crew had to make sure there were no mobile phones visible in the film. Kashyap said in an interview that he needed the city and had to "trim" it: "I shot mostly from the top angle and focused on my characters. There was a lot of guerrilla type shooting where nobody in the city came to know-we shot with hidden cameras. The police were [sic] supportive, Mid Day was at the job for permissions and all those things." He retained the actual names of people in the film who were involved in the blast.
Kashyap shot the film without permission on actual locations. In the film, Dawood's house was shot in three locations including Dubai and Lonavala. Because of the film's low-budget, the crew slept inside buses at night, shot the film during the day and moved to the next location. Kashyap shot at Behrampura, the site where the actual bomb was planted, using two hidden cameras, while the crew used walkie-talkies to communicate to avoid attracting a crowd. The film's principal photography began in October 2003 and was completed in 70 days. A twelve-minute police chase sequence in the film was improvised and shot in the Dharavi slums. It was neither in the script nor in the book. Kashyap wanted it because he felt it was boring to show normal arrests. He also wanted to use the chase to show the criminals' background and the exhaustion of the police. Natarajan Subramaniam served as the director of photography, while Aarti Bajaj was the editor.
## Soundtrack
The band Indian Ocean composed the soundtrack album and the background score, while Piyush Mishra wrote the lyrics. It was Indian Ocean's first film soundtrack and consisted of nine tracks—three songs and six instrumentals. The album was released on 15 June 2005 under the Times Music label, and in DVD format on 23 July 2005. Kashyap said he opted for the band because he "wanted to use someone away from the pollution of Mumbai kind of music, sounds that are virgin, which have an eccentricity too". K. J. Singh served as the sound producer.
The album received a generally positive response. Devdulal Das of The Times of India wrote that songs like "Bandey" "just re-established this quartet from Delhi as having a distinct sound of their own - something that most bands from India can't boast of." Bhasker Gupta of AllMusic called it a "full-blown and outright stylish contemporary and musically rich album" and wrote: "It's rare that one hears Indian classical music amalgamated with Western electric jazz and Sufi music, and this is where the beauty of this album lies."
## Release
Black Friday premiered at the 2004 Locarno International Film Festival and was screened at festivals in Germany, Estonia, South Korea and the United States. It was ready for screening in India on 29 December 2005. A petition was filed by Mustaq Moosa Tarani, one of the accused, who stated the film could prejudice the case. His petition noted the final verdict in the trial had not yet been released and demanded a ban on the film until then. The Bombay High Court agreed and directed that the film not be released. Mid Day appealed to the Supreme Court, challenging the High Court's judgment. However, the court lifted the ban only after the verdicts were delivered in 2006.
Kashyap did not feel the long delay before the film's release would "impair" its impact. He said: "It's a timeless film with a universal theme of religious intolerance leading to terrorism." He said that he was getting dressed in a suit, ready for the film's premiere on the release day, when he heard of the ban. He wore the same suit for a month and went into depression. The film was released after a twenty-month ban on 9 February 2007 on 100 screens in India, 10 in the United States, and three in South Africa. The worldwide distribution rights were acquired by Adlabs Films. The film was released in DVD format on 5 April 2007 and is also available on online streaming services Hotstar and Netflix.
Black Friday was made on a production budget of ₹6.5 crore (US\$810,000) and grossed a total of ₹8 crore (US\$1.0 million) at the box office. It won the Grand Jury Prize at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles, and was a nominee for the Golden Leopard (Best Film) at the 57th Locarno International Film Festival.
## Critical reception
Upon its release, Black Friday received critical acclaim. Rajeev Masand gave it a positive review and said it is "one of the best" films he'd watched in recent years. He wrote: "Please don't dismiss it as a boring art film, don't confuse it for a documentary, it's a dramatic feature that will rock your boat." Prithiviraj Hegde of Rediff.com noted: "While the film stays true as a dark, brooding, evil tale, it is told with a droll, dry humour that brings a smile even as the protagonists head toward their final unforgiving denouement." Anupama Chopra said the film had "several memorable sequences" but felt it was "static" as the screenplay does not allow the "characters to evolve or engage". Taran Adarsh praised the actors' performances calling the film "hard-hitting" with "the courage to say what it says". Nikhat Kazmi called it a "powerful, pointed and hard-hitting cinema that needs to be seen."
Deepa Gahlot of Sify called it a "fabulously crafted and superbly enacted film, but not stark enough to be documentary and not fictional enough to be a feature". She felt that Kashyap tried to justify Memon's actions in the film. Rahul Desai of Film Companion wrote that the film is "more of a feeling—singularly shocking, stirring, cataclysmic, yet journalistic and depressingly objective, and one of the great achievements in Indian cinema". Baradwaj Rangan mentioned in his review that the film is a series of "superbly-orchestrated sequences" saying the "only thing you could fault it for is that it doesn't know when to stop". Namrata Joshi of Outlook called it an "audacious, daring and explosive piece of cinema". In 2014, Raja Sen called it Kashyap's "possibly best" and a "gripping, gloriously gritty film". Khalid Mohamed called the film "defiantly uncompromising" and Kashyap's direction "unbelievably mature and searching". A review carried by The Hindu cited it as "one of the finest Indian films of recent years".
Among overseas critics, Matt Zoller Seitz of The New York Times described the film as "epic and raw, and cut out from the same bloody cloth as Salvador and Munich". The Hollywood Reporter's Kirk Honeycutt compared the film's "journalistic inquiry into cataclysmic social and political events" to that of Gillo Pontecorvo's The Battle of Algiers. He noted the film is objective without any "lurid sensationalism". Maitland McDonagh felt the film "humanizes the bombers without excusing their actions". She also said it "owes more to films like Munich than mainstream commercial spectacle".
David Chute of LA Weekly described it as "a rigorously naturalistic docudrama about a complex police investigation". Ethan Alter of Film Journal International called it "a potent reminder that Indian filmmaking isn't limited to Bollywood super-productions". Variety's Derek Elley called it a "fact-based procedural whose drama gets lost amid its analytical detail." A review carried by Time Out called the film a "post-9/11 food for thought and a vivid reminder not to get arrested in India, where the prisoners' bill of rights is very short".
## Legacy
Black Friday is cited by several critics and film scholars as Kashyap's best work. The film was included in IBN Live's 2013 list of the 100 greatest Indian films of all time and Mint's list of 70 iconic films of Indian cinema. In 2010, Raja Sen mentioned it in The Top 75 Hindi Films of the Decade list. It was included in critic and author Shubhra Gupta's book, 50 Films That Changed Bollywood, 1995-2015. Danny Boyle cited Black Friday as an inspiration for his 2008 Academy award-winning film Slumdog Millionaire. He stated that a chase in one of the opening scenes was based on a "12-minute police chase through the crowded Dharavi slum" in Black Friday. In 2014 filmmaker Vikramaditya Motwane, when asked about the most important films in last decade, replied Lage Raho Munna Bhai (2006) and Black Friday. |
17,732,130 | Zach Bogosian | 1,167,440,315 | American ice hockey player | [
"1990 births",
"American men's ice hockey defensemen",
"American people of Armenian descent",
"Atlanta Thrashers draft picks",
"Atlanta Thrashers players",
"Buffalo Sabres players",
"Chicago Wolves players",
"Ethnic Armenian sportspeople",
"Ice hockey players from New York (state)",
"Living people",
"National Hockey League first-round draft picks",
"People from Massena, New York",
"Peterborough Petes (ice hockey) players",
"Stanley Cup champions",
"Tampa Bay Lightning players",
"Toronto Maple Leafs players",
"Winnipeg Jets players"
]
| Zachary M. Bogosian (Armenian: Զաքարի Պողոսյան) (born July 15, 1990) is an American professional ice hockey defenceman with the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has previously played for the Atlanta Thrashers, Winnipeg Jets, Buffalo Sabres and Toronto Maple Leafs. Bogosian won the Stanley Cup as a member of the Lightning in 2020.
Nicknamed "Bogo", Bogosian was regarded as a complete, physical defenseman who could contribute on both offense and defense; he was rated as one of the top players heading into the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, where the Atlanta Thrashers selected him third overall. Bogosian first played in an international tournament when he joined the American national team at the 2009 IIHF World Championship.
## Playing career
### Junior
In 2004, Bogosian entered high school at Cushing Academy, a prep school in Massachusetts. The assistant coach of the school's hockey team was Ray Bourque, a former NHL defenseman who was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Bogosian's teammates at Cushing included his older brother, Aaron, and Bourque's son, Ryan. While at Cushing he was used mostly as a fifth or sixth defenseman and played few minutes as a result. After his second year at the school, Bogosian was selected 19th overall in the 2006 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Priority Draft by the Peterborough Petes Bogosian's decision to play in the OHL rather than go to the NCAA differed from most of his teammates, including his brother. As his father and uncle had also played college football in the NCAA, it was expected that Bogosian would follow them in going to university. He cited watching Ottawa 67's games at age nine as a major influence in deciding to play in Canada.
Bogosian began playing for the Petes in the 2006–07 season. He played 67 games for the team and finished with 7 goals and 26 assists for 33 points, which was second on the team in points for both rookies and defensemen. In recognition of his season, he was named to the OHL's Second All-Rookie Team, as one of the top four rookie defensemen in the league. The next season, Bogosian appeared in 60 games for the Petes. He led his team in scoring with 61 points (11 goals, 50 assists), the only defenseman in the league do so; the 50 assists he scored were second in the league among defensemen. The Petes reached the playoffs after missing the previous year, and Bogosian added another three assists in five games. During the season, he participated in both the OHL All-Star Classic and the CHL Top Prospects Game, an all-star game of prospects from the three leagues in the Canadian Hockey League (Western Hockey League, Quebec Major Junior Hockey League and OHL). At the conclusion of the season, Bogosian was named one of the five draft-eligible finalists for the Red Tilson Trophy as most outstanding player in the OHL, and was also named to the OHL First All-Star Team as one of the two best defensemen in the league.
Prior to the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, Bogosian was ranked by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau as the second best North American skater for the draft and the third ranked prospect out of the OHL. He was drafted third overall by the Atlanta Thrashers behind Steven Stamkos and Drew Doughty. He was noted by his coach in Peterborough, Vince Malette, to be a "very physical defenseman who is a complete player" and defensively solid who could skate well with the puck and not lose speed. Thrashers general manager Don Waddell liked the physical aspect Bogosian brought to a game, as well as his ability to help score goals while at the same time stop other teams' top players. Bogosian had been noted prior for the draft for his dedication to training, as he drove more than 90 minutes to Ottawa to get a better work out.
### Professional
#### Atlanta Thrashers / Winnipeg Jets
In July 2008, Bogosian attended the Thrashers prospect development camp. The youngest player of the 32 at the camp, he stood out as one of the best players there and effectively assured himself a roster spot on the team. On September 4, 2008, Bogosian signed a three-year, entry-level contract worth \$2.625 million with the Thrashers. He was named to the team's opening day lineup, and made his NHL debut in the first game of the season on October 10 against the Washington Capitals. Bogosian became the youngest person to play for the Thrashers that night at 18 years and 87 days, surpassing Ilya Kovalchuk (18 years, 172 days). Twenty-four seconds into his first shift, Bogosian was called for a holding penalty, while later in the contest, he had a fight with Capitals enforcer Donald Brashear. Eight games into the season, however, on October 28, Bogosian broke his left leg in a game against the Philadelphia Flyers. Prior to rejoining the Thrashers, Bogosian was sent to their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Chicago Wolves, for conditioning. After playing five games with the Wolves, including scoring his first professional goal on January 3, 2009, against the Rockford IceHogs, Bogosian rejoined the Thrashers for the remainder of the season. He scored his first NHL goal and recorded his first assist in his twelfth game on January 17, 2009, against Pekka Rinne of the Nashville Predators. Bogosian finished his first professional season with 19 points in 47 NHL games and 1 goal in 5 AHL games as the Thrashers finished out of the playoffs.
Throughout the 2009–10 season Bogosian was bothered by an injury. During a game against the Ottawa Senators on October 31, 2009, Bogosian fell behind his team's net; with his left hand lying on the net's iron frame along the ice, another player fell on top of him. The impact broke his left thumb and injured his wrist. Though he did not miss any time from the injury, it had an effect on his offensive play; Bogosian was perceived to be more hesitant with the puck, choosing to pass it more often than shooting. In the first 17 games of the season, he had scored 8 goals, then went 29 contests without scoring. In the final 64 games, he only scored 2 goals. After he recovered, Bogosian admitted he did not play at his full capacity, but had decided not to disclose the injury to the team until the season finished in April 2010. Regardless of his injury, Bogosian only missed one game throughout the season, a game on March 14 against the Phoenix Coyotes. Even with these setbacks, Bogosian set career highs for games played (81), goals (10), assists (13) and points (23). The 10 goals he scored tied a team record for most by a defenseman in a season, first set by Yannick Tremblay in 1999–2000, the Thrashers' inaugural year. He also set a team record with 196 hits. Again the Thrashers missed the playoffs. After the Atlanta Thrashers were sold to True North Sports & Entertainment and were relocated to Winnipeg, Bogosian agreed to terms on a new two-year, \$5 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets on September 14, 2011.
#### Buffalo Sabres
During the 2014–15 season, his seventh with the Thrashers/Jets franchise, Bogosian was traded alongside Evander Kane and the rights to Jason Kasdorf, to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for Tyler Myers, Drew Stafford, Brendan Lemieux, Joel Armia, and a conditional first-round pick (Jack Roslovic) in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft.
On February 14, 2020, the Sabres placed Bogosian on waivers. After going unclaimed, he was assigned to the Rochester Americans the following day. Three days later, Bogosian was suspended by the Sabres for failing to report to Rochester. On February 21, Bogosian was placed on unconditional waivers for the purpose of a contract termination.
#### Tampa Bay Lightning
As a free agent, Bogosian drew league interest before signing a one-year, \$1.3 million contract with the Tampa Bay Lightning on February 23, 2020. On August 3, 2020, Bogosian skated in his first career NHL playoff game. On August 15, 2020, Bogosian recorded his first career NHL playoff assist and point in a 3–2 game 3 victory over the Columbus Blue Jackets. On September 28, 2020, Bogosian won the Stanley Cup for the first time.
#### Toronto Maple Leafs
As a free agent, Bogosian signed a one year, \$1 million contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 10, 2020. In the season, Bogosian was a regular physical presence on the blueline with the Maple Leafs, registering 4 assists through 45 regular season games. He collected 1 assist in 7 game first-round series defeat in the post-season to the Montreal Canadiens. Bogosian's play was praised by analysts for his performance in a depth role, and the team made attempts to re-sign him, although were unable to among rumors that Bogosian was unhappy with the Canadian and Ontario governments' public health restrictions in response to COVID-19.
#### Return to Tampa Bay
As a free agent from the Maple Leafs, Bogosian opted to return to the two time defending champion Tampa Bay Lightning in agreeing to a three-year, \$2.55 million contract on July 28, 2021.
## International
Bogosian made his international debut with the American national team at the 2009 IIHF World Championship in Switzerland. He appeared in all nine games for the team, and recorded one assist, in a game against France, as the Americans finished fourth overall. During the 2009–10 season he was mentioned as a candidate to join the American team at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, but a wrist and thumb injury led to a decrease in performance and he was ultimately not selected. He was invited to join the American team at the 2010 IIHF World Championship, but declined in order to heal his injuries.
## Personal life
Bogosian was born to Ike and Vicky Bogosian in Massena, New York, a town of 13,000 adjacent to the Saint Lawrence River. Zach is the first NHL player of Armenian descent; his great-grandfather, Stephen Bogosian, left Western Armenia in 1923 at the age of 16 as a result of the Armenian genocide. Zach's father Ike was an athlete when he was younger, playing college football with Syracuse University from 1979 to 1981. In his senior season at Syracuse Ike was co-captain of the team with future New York Giants running back Joe Morris. He currently runs a carpet and floor cleaning business with his brother in Massena. Vicky works as a hairdresser. Zach has two older brothers, Ike Jr. and Aaron. Aaron was also a professional ice hockey player who attended St. Lawrence University where he played four seasons with the Saints and served as team captain. Aaron most recently played in the ECHL with the Florida Everblades.
Bogosian joined the Massena Minor Hockey Association when he was 3, staying in the program until he was 14, when he left for Cushing Academy. Bogosian first began to play defense at the Squirt level (under-10); though he was smaller than most of his peers, he was a good skater. He alternated between forward and defense throughout minor hockey. When he began attending Cushing Academy he was a forward the first year, before he converted to a defender full-time. After leaving the school and moving to Canada with two years of high school to complete, Bogosian took courses on the internet.
Bogosian is married to Boston Breakers and former United States women's national under-23 soccer team midfielder Bianca D'Agostino. The pair married in August 2015. They met in Winnipeg.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International
## Awards and honors |
40,368,561 | Thames Valley Royals proposal | 1,165,191,866 | Unsuccessful proposal to merge football teams | [
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"20th century in Oxford",
"Association football controversies",
"History of Oxford",
"History of Reading, Berkshire",
"History of football in England",
"Oxford United F.C.",
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"Robert Maxwell",
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"Sport in Reading, Berkshire",
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]
| The Thames Valley Royals proposal was a controversial and ultimately unsuccessful 1983 proposal to merge the Oxford United Football Club with nearby team Reading.
Shortly before the end of the 1982–83 Football League season, Robert Maxwell, the then-owner and chairman of Oxford United Football Club, announced that he had made a deal with the owners of nearby Reading to amalgamate the two teams to create a new club he proposed to name "Thames Valley Royals". This appellation combined a loose term for the geographical region, "Thames Valley", with the Reading team's nickname, "the Royals". With each team having financial problems, Maxwell claimed that both were on the verge of going out of business and that uniting them was necessary for the region to retain a Football League club.
Maxwell envisioned the Thames Valley Royals' future home as an unspecified location somewhere between Oxford and Reading where a new stadium would be built, perhaps in Didcot; home matches would alternate between Oxford and Reading in the meantime. Both sets of supporters promptly embarked on mass demonstrations against the merger, including protest marches and a 2,000-man sit-in on the pitch at Oxford before a match on 23 April. Maxwell pressed on with his plan regardless, insisting that "nothing short of the end of the Earth" would prevent its fruition.
The proposed amalgamation was stopped by the actions of one of Reading's board directors, Roy Tranter, and Roger Smee, a businessman and former Reading player. Smee disputed the legitimacy of the controlling interest in Reading held by the faction of three Reading board members that backed the merger plan, including the chairman Frank Waller, and Tranter launched a legal challenge to the sale of certain shares on 22 April 1983. Waller and his boardroom allies resigned under pressure from the rest of the Reading board on 12 May 1983, and at an extraordinary shareholders' meeting in July, Smee took over the club, ending the amalgamation plans.
## Context
During the 1982–83 Football League season, both Oxford United and Reading competed in the Football League Third Division, then the third tier of English football—equivalent to today's League One. Managed by Jim Smith, Oxford challenged for promotion throughout the season, while Maurice Evans' Reading team languished near the relegation zone for much of the year, despite possessing one of the division's top-scoring forwards in Kerry Dixon. The colourful media mogul and former MP Robert Maxwell owned and chaired Oxford, having prevented the club's bankruptcy by buying it in 1982. One of the world's oldest football teams (established in 1871), Reading were a public limited company, chaired by Frank Waller, a prominent local businessman; while owning Oxford, Maxwell also held 19% of Reading's shares. The two clubs share a local rivalry. At the time, both were in financial difficulties, particularly Reading. Maxwell sought to build a new stadium for Oxford United; he had negotiated with the council over potential locations since the time of his takeover, favouring a site in the northern suburb of Marston, but had yet to win council permission to buy the land.
## Proposal
On 16 April 1983, about a month before the end of the 1982–83 season, Maxwell told the BBC that he was close to acquiring a controlling interest in Reading, and that he was intent on merging that club with Oxford. The merged club would be called Thames Valley Royals, a combination of "Thames Valley", a loose term for the geographical area, and the nickname of Reading Football Club, "the Royals". "If we in Thames Valley are to retain a League club we've got to unite Reading and Oxford," he explained. "Everything in the world that cannot pay its way must go the way of merger to combine into stronger units."
Maxwell made this announcement on a Saturday when most Football League clubs, including Oxford and Reading, were playing League fixtures. Oxford were playing away at Doncaster Rovers. Jim Smith learned of the announcement shortly before kick-off at Doncaster's Belle Vue ground from John Ley, a journalist with the Oxford Mail, who had heard the news from another newsman by telephone. Smith immediately called Maxwell to ask whether or not he would be retained to manage Thames Valley Royals, and was told that he would be.
Maxwell issued a statement announcing that Oxford United were poised to acquire Reading by purchasing all of that club's issued share capital, comprising 73,000 shares, at £3 per share (a total cost of £219,000), and that Waller and a group of Reading board directors, holding a majority of the shares in Reading F.C., had "irrevocably accepted" this offer. The two clubs would continue separately for the last few weeks of the 1982–83 campaign, and Thames Valley Royals would begin play at the start of the 1983–84 League season. Maxwell claimed to have support in principle for this from the Football League. He said that the amalgamated team would ultimately be based at a new stadium to be built somewhere between Oxford and Reading, and that in the meantime home games would alternate between the two old grounds, Elm Park in Reading and the Manor Ground in Oxford, both of which would eventually be sold. The general public learned of the proposed merger in the late afternoon on 16 April, when it was announced by David Coleman on the television show Grandstand following the report of the day's football results.
## Reactions
The majority of both teams' supporters reacted negatively to the merger proposal. While many Oxford supporters acknowledged that Maxwell had been instrumental in saving the club the previous year, most perceived merging with another club as tantamount to killing both Oxford United and professional football in the city. A spokesman for the Oxford United Supporters Club called the idea "crazy and unworkable". Most Reading fans likewise reacted to the scheme with revulsion; Mike Habbits, chairman of the Reading Supporters Club, said "Our fans can't stand Oxford fans and I can't see them travelling to Oxford to watch the new team". Supporters and pressmen alike ridiculed the "Thames Valley Royals" name, which the sports historian John Bale later described as "mid-Atlantic"; observers at the time variously perceived it as sounding more like an American football, ice hockey or speedway team than a football club. Some Oxford fans supported Maxwell's proposal, saying that with a new stadium and the pooled financial resources of Oxford and Reading, an amalgamated team might be successful, but these were a minority. One angry fan wrote to the Oxford Mail that "I will not follow Thames Valley Royals or whatever their name is if they played at the end of my street".
Players at both clubs received the news with apprehension. As Ley put it, "When you merge two clubs into one, you cannot have a squad of 45." The Oxford team learned of the impending merger and the new name from Smith in the dressing room at Belle Vue just before the match against Doncaster on 16 April. Mark Jones, one of the Oxford midfielders, recalled that the room "went totally quiet", and that his first thought was that it might be hard to him to keep his place in the first team with Reading's players also on the books. According to Jones, Smith attempted to assuage the Oxford players' fears by telling them that "we're only doing it so we can buy Kerry Dixon. All your places are safe". Alan Judge, the Reading goalkeeper, reported his team reacting in a similar way—indeed, he described the Reading players as even more worried as Oxford had far outperformed them in the League that season. Ley, who accompanied the Oxford team on the bus ride home after the game, recalled that the players were almost silent, their victory over Doncaster overshadowed by "a feeling of incredulity, confusion, worry and fear".
Oxford United's board of directors unanimously supported Maxwell's proposed amalgamation at a board meeting held on 20 April 1983. Their only reservation was regarding the name; they preferred "Thames Valley United". The chairman of the Football League, Jack Dunnett, described Maxwell's proposal as "a bold and imaginative move which I'll be watching with interest". Meanwhile, Maxwell re-entered talks with Oxford City Council over local stadium sites, repeating his preference for the Marston location. The council again refused. The mayor of Didcot, a small town about halfway between Oxford and Reading, suggested that Thames Valley Royals could build a ground there, on a site that had already been picked out for non-League amateurs Didcot Town. Wallingford, a similar proposition just east of Didcot, was also proposed. The residents of neither Didcot nor Wallingford showed much interest in hosting Thames Valley Royals home matches, partly because they were concerned about football hooliganism.
## Controversy
Oxford and Reading supporters embarked on a series of demonstrations against Maxwell's proposed merger. The Reading Evening Post set up a campaign called "Save Our Soccer", while Oxford fans launched a similar initiative called "Save Oxford Soccer". Before Oxford's match against Wigan Athletic at the Manor Ground on 23 April 1983, about 2,000 fans conducted a sit-in in the centre of the pitch, delaying the start of the game by half an hour. Maxwell, in the directors' box, was jeered by supporters, some of whom spat at him, and was confronted by a number of banners around the stadium reading "Judas". After the match (which Oxford won 2–0), Maxwell called the demonstration a "bloody disgrace". He reaffirmed his commitment to the Thames Valley Royals project a few days later through a phone-in on BBC Radio Oxford. "If they want to become supporters of someone else, they're entirely welcome," he said. "If the deal does not go through, both Reading and Oxford will be dead before the beginning of next season. Nothing short of the end of the Earth will prevent this from going through." Steve Daniels, an Oxford fan opposed to a merger, called in and claimed that Maxwell's amalgamation proposal was a ploy intended to alter the council's line regarding a new stadium in Oxford.
Meanwhile, efforts to stop the merger were stepped up at Reading by Roger Smee, a former Reading player, born and raised in the town, who had become a millionaire in the construction industry. Smee, who strongly opposed the merger plan, had read the club's accounts the previous year, and so was aware of how the team's stock was allocated. He knew that Waller and his boardroom allies, Leslie Davies and John Briggs, had not held a controlling interest in the club in 1982 and that a large number of Reading shares had then been noted as unissued. His interest was therefore piqued when the Thames Valley Royals deal was declared "irrevocable" on the basis that Waller's faction controlled the majority of the shares in Reading. "A year ago they didn't have a majority," Smee later said, "so how on earth have they issued these shares to themselves while Reading was a public company? That would be against the law." Smee contacted Roy Tranter, a director at Reading who opposed the merger, and Tranter's legal team filed a complaint with the High Court objecting to the sale of the unissued shares.
On 22 April 1983, just as Waller and Maxwell were about to officially announce the merger, Tranter's solicitors handed Waller a High Court injunction temporarily blocking sale of the disputed stock. Three days later, the High Court imposed a further injunction preventing any dealing in Reading shares until a further hearing on 3 May. Maxwell insisted that there was no problem, calling the legal challenge a "side show"; he made a fresh bid to all of Reading's shareholders. On 1 May, the Oxford chairman told the press that he and his supporters at Reading controlled 40% of the shares. Meanwhile, Oxford City Council offered Oxford United a new "£6 million sports complex" in the western suburb of Botley. Maxwell said that he was still pursuing the merger with Reading, but would look into the Botley proposal.
Reading supporters marched from the town centre to Elm Park in protest against the merger before the team's match against Millwall on 30 April. Two days later, Oxford and Reading met at the Manor Ground in what the Glasgow Herald commented might be "the last Thames Valley derby". Oxford fans held another protest march before the game, which Reading won 2–1. At the High Court on 3 May, Mr Justice Harman sided with Tranter and Smee, and handed down a new injunction forbidding trading in Reading stock until 13 June 1983. Following a Reading board meeting on 12 May, Waller, Davies and Briggs resigned their positions, and returned the disputed unissued shares to the club. The Reading Evening Post saw this as the end of the episode, and jubilantly bannered the news across its front page on 13 May: "We've won! Merger off". The next day, Reading played Wrexham at home on the last day of the League season, needing to win to have any chance of avoiding relegation to the Fourth Division; they won 1–0, but still went down because of results elsewhere. The club held an extraordinary meeting of shareholders in July 1983, at which a vote was taken to decide between Maxwell's takeover bid and a rival offer from Smee, supported by Tranter. The latter proposition narrowly won, and Smee took over as chairman of Reading, putting an end to the planned merger.
## Aftermath
Maxwell reluctantly dropped his amalgamation plans, but retained his 19% stake in Reading. Under Smee's chairmanship, the team won promotion back from the Fourth Division at the end of the 1983–84 season, and won the Third Division title two years later, taking it into the Second Division. Smee remained at the helm until 1990, when amid a financial crisis at the club he sold it to John Madejski. Meanwhile, Maxwell made Oxford United profitable, and oversaw two successive promotions for the club during the 1983–84 and 1984–85 seasons. The team played in the First Division, then the top level of English football, for the first time during 1985–86, and won its first major trophy, the League Cup, in April 1986. Despite Maxwell's reservations about the Manor Ground, the club remained there throughout this time.
Maxwell ended his chairmanship of Oxford in 1987, when he took control of Derby County and became that club's chairman; still owning Oxford as well, he installed his son Kevin as chairman there. In late 1987 he attempted to buy Watford from Elton John, prompting the Football League to institute new regulations preventing the major shareholder of any member club from owning more than 2% of another League team. While Maxwell was able to keep his stakes in Derby, Oxford and Reading under a grandfather clause, the new rules prevented him from adding Watford to his football empire. He grudgingly accepted this. He retained his football club shares until his mysterious death in November 1991, when he apparently fell off his yacht near the Canary Islands. |
65,628,859 | John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant | 1,172,137,865 | Sewage treatment plant in Danbury, Connecticut, US | [
"Danbury, Connecticut",
"Last Week Tonight with John Oliver",
"Sewage treatment plants in the United States"
]
| The John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant is a sewage treatment plant in Danbury, Connecticut, named after the British-American comedian and political satirist John Oliver. The plant was completely renovated in response to a 2008 order from state and federal agencies to address the inability of the existing sewage system to curtail phosphorus concentrations in wastewater, as well as other environmental issues. After Oliver made fun of Danbury on his show, Last Week Tonight, Danbury mayor Mark Boughton responded by offering to rename their \$100-million sewage plant for Oliver. Boughton later told reporters that it was a joke, but after Oliver offered \$55,000 to local charities in exchange for the plant's renaming, the city agreed to officially term the site the "John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant". Construction began in 2019, and was finished in October 2020, with Oliver personally attending the ribbon-cutting ceremony.
## History and function
The reconstruction of the plant resulted from a 2008 order from the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, ordering Danbury, Connecticut, and around a dozen other Connecticut municipalities to upgrade their waste treatment facilities. The order specified that 98 percent of phosphorus in water leaving the plant must be removed; at the time, Danbury's sewage system only removed 90 percent of phosphorus. The municipalities contested the order, but their efforts were unsuccessful.
In November 2017, Danbury agreed to pay \$100,000 for a violation of the Clean Water Act, after a lawsuit from the Connecticut Fund for the Environment alleged that Danbury had allowed over 45,000 US gallons (170,000 L; 37,000 imp gal) of untreated sewage to flow into local streams, including the Still River. Danbury mayor Mark Boughton blamed the release of the sewage on heavy storms that overwhelmed the existing wastewater infrastructure, and mentioned that plans were already underway for the sewage plant to help rectify the issue.
Following the finalization of the order to build the plant in 2018, the Danbury City council considered a referendum to approve the use of funds necessary to begin construction, estimating the cost at \$102 million. City officials warned, however, that construction would have to proceed whether the referendum was passed or not, since the city was ordered to build the plants. They further warned that if the referendum did not pass, the city would lose out on opportune contracts and miss deadlines, both of which would increase the cost. The referendum was eventually put on the ballot by the city council and approved by the voters. It was initially thought to be a two to three year project; Antonio Iadarola, Danbury's public works director, said that construction would be delayed by six to eight months while contracts were drawn up, with construction expected to begin in Spring 2019. Boughton also proposed a "Regional Water Pollution Control Authority" to help administer construction and maintenance of the plant instead of the city council. He also stated that this would be in line with other municipalities and states that have done the same. The plant was reopened in October 2020, marking the completion of the factory's most significant overhaul in nearly twenty years.
A major overhaul of the sewage plant—including a major upgrade of its facilities and vehicle fleet—cost \$103 million for the 2019–20 fiscal year. The sewage fund represented over 80 percent of the city's \$127 million municipal budget that year. 20 percent of the plant's total cost was covered by Connecticut, and other 20 percent was paid for by customers in neighboring municipalities who benefit. Customers of the sewer, which made up less than a quarter of Danbury's population, saw rate increases of 2.95 percent, with Boughton commenting that he expected this trend to continue as the plant was constructed. In addition to phosphorus removal and other water treatment services, the sewage plant's upgrade plans included a technology to harvest grease and other heating fuel from wastewater. According to The News-Times, the plant is expected to produce 250,000 US gallons (950,000 L) of fuel through this process, saving the city \$300,000 per year.
### Name
On August 16, 2020, John Oliver, a comedian and satirist, went on a tangential diatribe on his television program Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, while airing a segment on jury selection in the United States, to satirize the city of Danbury. Oliver was discussing computer errors in a Connecticut jury selection system that caused it to ignore Hartford and New Britain in jury selection when he remarked: "If you're going to forget a town in Connecticut, why not forget Danbury? Because, and this is true, fuck Danbury!" While Oliver mentioned the Danbury Railway Museum and Hearthstone Castle in his segment, referring to the former as "charming", he further declared that "Danbury, Connecticut, can eat my whole ass". It is unclear why Oliver chose to single out Danbury for mention.
Danbury citizens responded to Oliver's segment, with the city's hockey team Danbury Hat Tricks referring to Oliver tongue-in-cheek as an "intrepid, serious reporter" and proceeding to poke fun at his roles in The Smurfs, Wonder Park and The Love Guru on their YouTube channel. In addition, Boughton announced on Facebook that the city would be renaming their sewage plant the "John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant", explaining that "it's full of crap, just like you, John".
Oliver responded positively to the proposed name change on his show, but then aired a clip of the mayor telling reporters that he was joking and did not actually intend to rename the sewer plant, and proceeded to further insult Boughton and Danbury, remarking: "You had the first good idea in your city's history and you chicken out on the follow-through. What a classic Danbury move." Oliver ended the segment by offering \$55,000 to local Connecticut charities, including \$25,000 to the Connecticut Food Bank, in exchange for the plant being renamed after him. If Danbury declined the offer, Oliver threatened to donate the same amount to neighboring towns, including Waterbury and Torrington. On September 6, Boughton said that he would accept Oliver's offer, on the condition that Oliver be physically present upon the sewer plant's opening ceremony, which featured a ribbon cutting. On October 9, Danbury's city council voted 18-1 to rename the plant after Oliver. On October 18, Oliver aired a segment on his show in which he gave a speech at the opening ceremony of the John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant wearing a makeshift hazmat suit:
> This place takes the worst that humanity can produce, and transforms it into something that we can live with. And now more than ever, there's something inspirational in that, because at the end of this awful, awful year, what could be more important than evidence that, if we want to, we can come together, overcome our differences and sort our shit out. |
51,312,809 | Clare Palmer | 1,173,301,729 | US-based philosopher, theologian and scholar of environmental- and religious studies | [
"1967 births",
"Academics of Lancaster University",
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"British Christian theologians",
"British animal welfare scholars",
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"Environmental studies scholars",
"Living people",
"Process philosophy",
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"Texas A&M University faculty",
"Washington University in St. Louis faculty",
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| Clare Palmer (born 1967) is a British philosopher, theologian and scholar of environmental and religious studies who is currently a professor in the Department of Philosophy at Texas A&M University. She has previously held academic appointments at the University of Greenwich, the University of Stirling, Lancaster University and Washington University in St. Louis, among others. Palmer is known for her work in environmental and animal ethics.
She has published three sole-authored books—Environmental Ethics (ABC-CLIO, 1997), Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking (Oxford University Press, 1998) and Animal Ethics in Context (Columbia University Press, 2010)—as well as the co-authored Companion Animal Ethics (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015) and seven sole- or co-edited collections and anthologies. She is a former editor of the religious studies journal Worldviews: Environment, Culture, Religion, and a former president of the International Society for Environmental Ethics.
In Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking, which was based on her doctoral research, Palmer explores the possibility of a process philosophy-inspired account of environmental ethics, focussing on the work of Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne. She ultimately concludes that a process ethic is not a desirable approach to environmental questions, despite the fact that process thought has been co-opted by some environmentalist thinkers. In Animal Ethics in Context, Palmer asks about responsibilities to aid animals, in contrast to the typical focus in animal ethics on not harming animals. She defends a contextual, relational ethic according to which humans will typically have duties to assist only domestic, and not wild, animals in need. However, humans will often be permitted to assist wild animals, and may be obligated to do so if there is a particular (causal) relationship between humans and the animals' plight.
## Career
Palmer read for a BA (Hons) in theology at Trinity College, Oxford, graduating in 1988, before reading for a doctorate in philosophy at the same university. From 1988 to 1991, she was based at Wolfson College, before becoming a Holwell Senior Scholar at The Queen's College. In 1992, having previously published book reviews, Palmer published her first research publication, "Stewardship: A Case Study in Environmental Ethics", in the edited collection The Earth Beneath: A Critical Guide to Green Theology, published by SPCK. She was also, along with Ian Ball, Margaret Goodall, and John Reader, a co-editor of the volume. She graduated from Oxford in 1993 with a doctorate from The Queen's College; her thesis focussed on process philosophy and environmental ethics. She worked as a research fellow in philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1992 to 1993, before becoming a lecturer in environmental studies at the University of Greenwich. She worked at Greenwich from 1993 until 1997, after which she spent a year as a research fellow at the University of Western Australia. In 1997, she published her first book: Environmental Ethics was published with ABC-CLIO. Additionally, the first issue of Worldviews: Environment, Culture, Religion (later renamed Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology), a peer reviewed academic journal in religious studies, was published. Palmer was the founding editor, and she remained editor until 2007.
Palmer returned to working in the UK in 1998, becoming a lecturer in religious studies at the University of Stirling. That same year, she published Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking with the Clarendon Press imprint of Oxford University Press. This was based ultimately on her doctoral dissertation. The book was reviewed by William J. Garland in Ethics, Richard J. Matthew in Environment, and Stephen R. L. Clark in Studies in Christian Ethics, Timothy Sprigge in Environmental Ethics, and Randall C. Morris in The Journal of Theological Studies. It was also the subject of a "forum" in the journal Process Studies. Introduced by David Ray Griffin, the forum's editor, it featured a "Palmer on Whithead: A Critical Evaluation" by John B. Cobb and "Clare Palmer's Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking: A Hartshornean Response" by Timothy Menta, as well as a reply by Palmer herself. The next year, Cobb published "Another Response to Clare Palmer" in the same journal.
Palmer remained at Stirling for several years before taking up the post of senior lecturer in philosophy at Lancaster University in 2001. While at Lancaster, she became the vice-president of the International Society for Environmental Ethics (ISEE). In 2005, she moved to Washington University in St. Louis, where she took up the role of associate professor, jointly appointed in departments of philosophy and environmental studies. The same year, the five-volume encyclopaedia Environmental Ethics, co-edited by Palmer and J. Baird Callicott, was published by Routledge, and, in the subsequent year, she was part of "The Animal Studies Group" which published the collection Killing Animals with the University of Illinois Press. While at Washington, she was also the editor of both Teaching Environmental Ethics (Brill, 2007) and Animal Rights (Ashgate, 2008). In 2007, she was elected president of the ISEE, a position she held until 2010.
In 2010, Palmer was appointed professor in the Department of Philosophy at Texas A&M University. The same year saw the publication of her Animal Ethics in Context with Columbia University Press. Among reviews of this book were pieces by Bernard Rollin in Anthrozoös, Jason Zinser in The Quarterly Review of Biology, J. M. Dieterle in Environmental Ethics, Scott D. Wilson in Ethics and Daniel A. Dombrowski in the Journal of Animal Ethics. She has subsequently published papers on the theme of assisting animals in the wild—ideas discussed in her Animal Ethics in Context—in animal-focussed journals, prompting commentary from Joel MacClellan, Gordon Burghart, and Catia Faria.
While at Texas A&M, Palmer co-edited the 2011 Veterinary Science: Humans, Animals and Health with Erica Fudge and the 2014 Linking Ecology and Ethics for a Changing World: Values, Philosophy, and Action with Calliott, Ricardo Rozzi, Steward Pickett, and Juan Armesto. In 2015, Palmer's Companion Animal Ethics, co-authored with Peter Sandøe and Sandra Corr, was published with Wiley-Blackwell.
## Thought
### Environmental ethics
In Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking, Palmer examines whether process philosophy, in particular the philosophies of Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne, can provide an appropriate background for engaging in environmental ethics. Process thought, Clark notes, has frequently appealed more to theologically inclined environmental ethicists than classical theism; in particular, the views of Hartshorne and Cobb have been influential.
Palmer first sets forth a process ethic. The ethic she presents is similar to John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism, but while Mill's approach locates value in pleasure, Palmer's process ethic locates value in "richness" of experience. She then compares this ethic to several dominant schools in environmental ethics: "individualist consequentialism" (as championed by Peter Singer, Donald VanDeVeer and Robin Attfield), "individualist deontological environmental ethics" (including the diverse positions presented by Albert Schweitzer, Kenneth Goodpastor, Tom Regan and Paul W. Taylor), "collectivist environmental ethics" (including those thinkers who advocate doing what is best for nature as a whole, such as Aldo Leopold and Callicott in his earlier work) and deep ecology.
Process ethics, Palmer argues, is closer to individualist consequentialism than individualist deontological environmental ethics. In considering collectivist environmental ethics, Palmer asks how process thinkers could approach natural collectives, such as ecosystems. She argues that Whitehead could view them as single entities with a good of their own, while Hartshorne could not. The primary difference between process ethics and collectivist environmental ethics, however, is that the former has a theological basis. The advocates of deep ecology have previously sought support from the views of Whitehead; two affinities are the shared holism and a shared concern with the extension of the self, but Palmer finds that the views of Whitehead and the views of the deep ecology advocate Arne Næss differ in these areas.
The book was not intended to either present or defend any particular position in environmental ethics, but rather to explore what process philosophers could say or have said about environmental issues. There are, for Palmer, two key problems with a process approach to environmental ethics. The first concerns the value of human and nonhuman life; for process thinkers, the latter will always be trumped by the former in terms of value. The second concerns human perspectives; as process philosophy invariably models interpretation of all entities on human experience, it is not well-suited to characterising non-human nature. Palmer thus concludes that process philosophy does not provide a suitable basis for environmental ethics.
The book was hailed as an important addition to the literature in both environmental ethics and process philosophy. Garland offered two challenges to Palmer's claims. First, he challenged her linking of process ethics with individualist consequentialism, arguing that it is instead somewhere between individualist consequentialism and deep ecology. Second, he challenged Palmer's claim that process philosophers will always favour human ends over nonhuman ends. Cobb and Menta, though both welcoming her consideration of process philosophy, challenged Palmer's interpretation of the philosophy of Whitehead and Hartshorne on a number of points.
In addition to writing on process approaches to the environment, Palmer has contributed to Christian environmental ethics more broadly, urban environmental ethics, and scholarship on the environment in the work of English writers. Much of her work in environmental ethics has explored questions concerning animals, including the tension between protecting individuals and protecting species.
### Animal ethics
Palmer does not explicitly connect Environmental Ethics and Process Thought to Animal Ethics in Context, her second monograph; the latter does, however, address environmental ethics, insofar as it offers an attempt to bridge environmental ethics and animal ethics. In contrast to more typical approaches to animal ethics which focus on the ethics of harming animals, Palmer asks, in Animal Ethics in Context, about the ethics of aiding animals, with a focus on the distinction between wild and domestic animals. She follows mainstream animal ethics approaches in arguing that humans have a prima facie duty not to harm any animal. However, when it comes to aiding animals, she argues that human obligations differ depending on the context.
Palmer begins by defending the claim that animals have moral standing, and then surveys three key approaches to animal ethics; utilitarian approaches, animal rights approaches, and capabilities approaches. All are lacking, she argues, as they are fundamentally capacity-oriented, and thus unable to properly take account of human relationships to animals. However, her approach leans more strongly towards a Regan-inspired rights view. She next identifies different kinds of relations humans may have with animals: affective, contractual and, most significantly, causal.
Palmer identifies the laissez-faire intuition (LFI), which is the intuition that humans do not have an obligation to aid wild animals in need. There are three forms of the LFI:
1. The strong LFI, according to which humans may not harm or assist wild animals.
2. The weak LFI, according to which humans may not harm wild animals, but may assist them, despite lacking an obligation to do so.
3. No-contact LFI, according to which humans may not harm wild animals, but may assist them, and may gain obligations to assist them if humans are responsible for the animals' plight.
Ultimately, Palmer endorses the no-contact version of the LFI. She defends the distinction between doing and allowing harm, and then defends the idea that humans have different positive obligations towards domestic animals and wild animals. At the centre of Palmer's approach is the fact that humans are causally responsible for the hardship faced by some animals, but not the hardship faced by others. She then deploys this philosophy in a number of imagined cases in which humans have varying relations to particular animals in need. She closes the book by considering possible objections, including the idea that her approach would not require someone to save a drowning child at little cost to themselves.
Thus, Palmer argues that humans are not normally required to aid wild animals in need. The philosopher Joel MacClellan, a critic of intervention, challenges Palmer on three grounds: first, he says that the difference between our obligations to domestic and wild animals in Palmer's thought experiments could be justified on scientific, rather than moral, grounds; second, he challenges Palmer's characterisation of wildness as a relationship, rather than a capacity, arguing that a description of an animal as wild likely conveys that the animal has certain capacities lacked by domestic animals; and, third, he suggests that just as a utilitarian approach to wild animal suffering may demand too much, Palmer's contextual approach may permit too much, by allowing the policing of nature. The affinities between utilitarian and contextualist approaches, MacClellan argues, come from their shared idea of what is and is not valuable. The pro-intervention philosopher Catia Faria criticises Palmer's argument from the other direction. Faria challenges Palmer's account by pointing to the counter-intuitive conclusions it would reach, Faria claims, in cases of assisting humans with whom an individual does not have significant relationships. Unless Palmer is willing to deny that humans have obligations to help suffering distant humans, Faria argues, the account cannot justify not aiding animals.
In addition to contextual animal ethics and her exploration of animals in environmental ethics, Palmer has written on disenhanced animals (i.e., animals that have been engineered to lose certain capacities) and companion animals. The latter topic was the focus of her co-authored text Companion Animal Ethics, which explores ethical issues concerning companion animals, including feeding, medical care, euthanasia and others.
## Selected bibliography
In addition to her books, Palmer has written or co-written over 30 articles in peer-reviewed journals and over 25 articles in scholarly collections, as well as various encyclopaedia articles and book reviews. Editorial duties have included acting as an associate editor for Callicott and Robert Frodeman's two-volume encyclopaedia Environmental Philosophy and Ethics and editing the journal Worldviews. Palmer has served on the editorial boards of two Springer series (first, the International Library of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Ethics, and, second, Ecology and Ethics) and one Sydney University Press series: Animal Publics. She has served on the editorial boards of various journals, including Environmental Humanities; Ethics, Policy and Environment; Environmental Ethics; Environmental Values; the Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics; and the Journal for the Study of Religion, Culture and Nature.
### Books
- Palmer, Clare (1997). Environmental Ethics. Santa Barbara and Denver: ABC-CLIO.
- Palmer, Clare (1998). Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
- Palmer, Clare (2010). Animal Ethics In Context. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Sandøe, Peter, Sandra Corr and Clare Plamer (2015). Companion Animal Ethics. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
- Palmer, Clare, Bob Fischer, Christian Gamborg, Jordan Hampton and Peter Sandøe (2023). Wildlife Ethics: The Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation. Oxford: Wiley.
### Edited collections and anthologies
- Ball, Ian, Margaret Goodall, Clare Palmer and John Reader, eds. (1992). The Earth Beneath. London: SPCK.
- Callicott, J. Baird, and Clare Palmer, eds. (2005). Environmental Philosophy, Vols. 1–5. London and New York: Routledge.
- The Animal Studies Group, ed. (2006). Killing Animals. Champaign-Urbana: Illinois University Press.
- Palmer, Clare, ed. (2007). Teaching Environmental Ethics. Leiden: Brill.
- Palmer, Clare, ed. (2008). Animal Rights. Farnham: Ashgate.
- Fudge, Erica, and Clare Palmer, eds. (2014). Veterinary Science: Humans, Animals and Health. London: Open Humanities Press.
- Rozzi, Ricardo, Steward Pickett, Clare Palmer, Juan Armesto and J. Baird Callicott, eds. (2014). Linking Ecology and Ethics for a Changing World: Values, Philosophy, and Action. Dordrecht: Springer. |
1,885,927 | Hatfield Government Center station | 1,147,702,532 | Light rail station in Hillsboro, US | [
"1998 establishments in Oregon",
"MAX Blue Line",
"MAX Light Rail stations",
"Railway stations in Washington County, Oregon",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1998",
"Transportation in Hillsboro, Oregon"
]
| Hatfield Government Center is a light rail station on the in downtown Hillsboro, Oregon, United States, owned and operated by TriMet. The station is the western terminus of the MAX Blue Line. Opened in 1998, it is located in the same block as the Hillsboro Post Office and adjacent to the Washington County Courthouse and the Hillsboro Civic Center. The block is bounded by First and Adams streets on the east and west and Washington and Main streets on the south and north. The station is named in honor of Mark O. Hatfield, a former United States Senator from Oregon and light rail proponent. It is the furthest west light rail station in the Continental United States.
## History
Construction of the Westside MAX project began in 1993. In November 1996, Hillsboro and TriMet named the yet-to-be-completed station at the western end of the project as the Mark O. Hatfield Government Center Station. Hatfield was retiring from 30 years as U.S. Senator and previously used his political clout as Chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee to ensure funding for the project. In June 1998, after completion of the station but prior to its opening, government officials held a dedication ceremony at the station. Hatfield, who had by then retired, was in attendance as the station was officially dedicated in his honor.
On September 12, 1998, Hatfield Government Station opened along with the Westside MAX line. Dedication ceremonies for the line at the station included a speech by then U.S. Vice President Al Gore and U.S. Transportation Secretary Rodney E. Slater. Oregon politicians speaking at the dedication included Governor John Kitzhaber, former Congressman Les AuCoin, then Congresswoman Elizabeth Furse, U.S. Senators Ron Wyden and Gordon Smith, and former Senator and station namesake Mark Hatfield. Scheduled train service began at 11:00 a.m., which was followed by a two-day opening party.
The station was the busiest stop on the Westside line by 1999 with an average of 3,005 daily boardings. In March 2008, TriMet added additional capacity during the morning and evening commuting period. This was accomplished by extending three Red Line trains from the Beaverton Transit Center stop each morning and evening during peak ridership times.
## Amenities
Located at the Hatfield Government Center station is a parking garage for park-and-ride passengers. The garage includes 250 parking spaces accessible 24-hours a day. The stop is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act, contains bike racks and bike lockers, and has an electronic reader board listing up-to-date arrivals of trains.
Hatfield Government Center is part of TriMet's Blue Line and has three sets of tracks and three platforms. One track is only used when passenger demand is high. The central island platform includes a covered shelter, and each platform has ticket vending machines. The parking structure is located across Washington Street, to the south.
The north end of the station features a light-red brick and green-roof building that contains space for use by the train and bus operators. The building is postmodern in style and includes rose windows, false chimneys, and gables. The entire station was designed by the architectural firm OTAK Inc. and also includes an electrical substation. Hatfield's name is etched in the façade of the main station building in stone.
Trains lay over at this station to reverse and go eastward to Beaverton, Portland, and Gresham. Development built near the station includes many civic and Washington County offices. Near the station is the Washington County Sheriff's office, the county jail, the courthouse, the Hillsboro Civic Center, and other government offices. Retail shops are located at street level in the parking structure. Portland Community College's Hillsboro Education Center is also housed in the street level space at the garage.
### Art
As with all the stops on the Westside MAX, displays of public artwork were included in the construction of the stop. Overall the artwork at the station reflects the gathering and dispersal of people and the harvest. Christine Bourdette, a sculptor, working with the architects from OTAK designed some of the artwork at Hatfield Station. Described as a "clash of sensibilities" and "organically abstract", items include sculptures of bronze baskets and granite balls installed at the southern end of the station. Attached to the station's building is a bronze work entitled "Gathering Rail" which resembles twine woven together and is intended to represent the various themes of the community coming together.
Other station artwork includes a three-part bronze plaque featuring Hatfield's face in relief and other images representing the entire Blue line. Designed by graphic artist Elizabeth Anderson and sculpted by Bill Bane, the other images are the Robertson Tunnel that runs through the West Hills, Mount Hood, the Oregon Convention Center, and the Steel Bridge. On the roof of the passenger shelter is a wind vane designed by artist Miles Pepper. Representing agriculture, the design includes an abstract scarecrow, crows on the corners of the roof, and a portion that extends into the shelter that displays a seed, all moving with the wind. |
51,786,571 | Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire | 1,173,261,786 | null | [
"2016 American television episodes",
"Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 4) episodes",
"Television episodes directed by Brad Turner (director)",
"Television episodes written by Matt Owens"
]
| "Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire" is the fourth episode of the fourth season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they deal with the Watchdogs terrorist group and a group of ghosts. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by Matt Owens, and directed by Brad Turner.
Clark Gregg reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, and is joined by series regulars Ming-Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, Henry Simmons, and John Hannah. A central action scene sees a car chase featuring Coulson's flying car Lola and Robbie Reyes's (recurring guest Gabriel Luna) "Hell Charger" Lucy. The episode also guest stars José Zúñiga as Reyes' uncle, Eli Morrow, as backstory for the Ghost Rider character is explored, as well as seeing Axle Whitehead return as J. T. James to continue the season's Inhuman and Watchdogs storyline. It is part of the first "pod" of eight episodes for the season, subtitled Ghost Rider.
"Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire" originally aired on ABC on October 18, 2016, and was watched by 4.78 million viewers within a week of its release. The episode received a positive critical response, with praise going to the car chase, the episode's use of James, and its balance of the season's various storylines.
## Plot
While looking at apartments for herself and S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Leo Fitz, agent Jemma Simmons comes across former agent Daisy Johnson, now the Inhuman vigilante Quake, injured. Simmons tends to Johnson's injuries while the latter explains that she has been tracking the Watchdogs terrorist group, who she believes has hacked into S.H.I.E.L.D.'s list of registered Inhumans. Johnson wants access to the list as well, to see who the Watchdogs' next target is.
Agent Phil Coulson visits Eli Morrow in prison to ask him about his work at Momentum Energy labs; Morrow's co-workers there appear to have been killed in an explosion and returned as ghosts. Coulson promises to get Morrow released if he cooperates, but Morrow refuses. Outside the prison, Morrow's nephew Robbie Reyes arrives to also ask his uncle about Momentum, but agent Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie recognizes Reyes as the vigilante Ghost Rider, and he and Coulson chase Reyes in Coulson's car. The chase ends when Reyes drives into S.H.I.E.L.D.'s invisible quinjet, and the agents take Reyes into custody. Coulson convinces Reyes to help their investigation into Momentum by speaking to Morrow on S.H.I.E.L.D.'s behalf, and he learns that Momentum's misfortunes came about from studying a mysterious book, the Darkhold.
With Simmons' help, Johnson discovers that the Watchdogs have hacked S.H.I.E.L.D.'s list using tracking wristwatches given to all registered Inhumans. The next Inhuman on the list is J. T. James, an Inhuman with explosive abilities who spent time with Johnson under the influence of the parasitic Inhuman Hive. Johnson and Simmons remove James's wristwatch, but he betrays them to the Watchdogs with the promise that they would kill him once he helped destroy the other Inhumans—James admits being so traumatized after being freed from Hive that he regrets going through Terrigenesis and has come to hate himself and his Inhuman identity. Before they can investigate the Darkhold, Coulson and Mack are alerted to James's wristwatch being removed, and arrive along with Reyes to help Johnson and Simmons fight off the Watchdogs and arrest James.
Coulson, Mack, Simmons, Johnson, and Reyes join up with agent Melinda May, who has been recovering from a mysterious illness, to go find the Darkhold. Her recovery was overseen by Aida, the new assistant of S.H.I.E.L.D. ally Holden Radcliffe, and Simmons immediately recognizes Aida as an android.
## Production
### Development
Promotion for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s fourth season at San Diego Comic Con featured flaming chains, leading to speculation that the series would be introducing the character of Ghost Rider. Though this speculation turned out to be true, with Gabriel Luna cast in that role and introduced with the start of the season, some commentators noted that the series already featured a character who wielded a flaming chain, Axle Whitehead's James. In October 2016, Marvel revealed that James would also be returning for the season alongside Luna's Ghost Rider, with both characters set to appear in the fourth episode of the season. Titled "Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire", a line from the Jimi Hendrix song "Fire", the episode was written by Matt Owens, with Brad Turner directing. Owens previously wrote for the Marvel Television Netflix series Luke Cage. "Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire" is part of the season's Ghost Rider "pod" of episodes, consisting of the first eight episodes.
### Casting and writing
In October 2016, Marvel confirmed that main cast members Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson, Ming-Na Wen as Melinda May, Chloe Bennet as Daisy Johnson / Quake, Iain De Caestecker as Leo Fitz, Elizabeth Henstridge as Jemma Simmons, Henry Simmons as Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie, and John Hannah as Holden Radcliffe would be starring in the episode.
In addition to Gabriel Luna as Robbie Reyes and Axle Whitehead as J. T. James, guest stars for the episode include Mallory Jansen as Aida, José Zúñiga as Eli Morrow, Kerr Smith as Joseph, Phil Tyler as watchdog \#1, Sergio Enrique as guard, Tanner Fontana as Elliot and Lilli Birdsell as Lucy Bauer. Luna, Jansen, Whitehead, and Birdsell reprise their roles from earlier in the series.
Following the airing of the previous episode, executive producer Jed Whedon teased that "Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire" would explore the dynamic between Luna's Ghost Rider, Robbie Reyes, and Elias Morrow, his uncle, but would be "pivoting from the storyline in the comics. We're pulling the characters, the character names and the relationships, but I think you can already feel that we've changed it. Those dynamics will be entirely different. We're using them as inspiration."
When asked whether the series still wanted to pursue stories about Inhumans such as James, Whedon said they are "still in our world, so we still have some of these people in the mix ... but right now we're on the Ghost Rider kick." On having Johnson and Reyes join up with S.H.I.E.L.D., Whedon called it uneasy "for everyone involved. Daisy has made it very clear that she doesn't want to be with our team. There's all that history and pain there. For Robbie, this is a guy who has never had a team, and probably doesn't function well within one. We'll see pretty quickly that it's an uneasy alliance and it's going to cause a lot of drama."
Discussing Simmons' actions in the episode, Henstridge noted that the previous episodes in the season had established the character's new position high in the S.H.I.E.L.D. hierarchy so that this episode could see her abuse that power, using her position to help her friends, including the now ex-S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Johnson, rather than the agency of its director. Henstridge said that "this is the whole reason that she [got herself into a position of power] but it is a turning point for because in that moment she could've gone the other way" and chose to protect her new position. Henstridge appreciated the episode exploring the relationship between Simmons and Johnson, feeling that there was "so much bad blood" between them after the events of the third season that could be explored. She compared this to a relationship between sisters.
### Filming and effects
The episode's central car chase features Coulson's flying 1962 Chevrolet Corvette, Lola, chasing Reyes' fiery "Hellcharger", a 1969 Dodge Charger nicknamed Lucy. The sequence was filmed in Los Angeles, with location scouting for the sequence beginning by searching for an ideal corner for the Charger to make "a big hard left". The streets around the corner were then augmented with directed traffic in a "near-miss configuration", to make the sequence more dynamic—it sees the Charger weaving between the other vehicles, and them veering away in the opposite direction for added effect. One stunt sees a large truck backing out of a driveway, with the stunt team timing it so that the Charger can drive around the back, but the much smaller Lola has to drive underneath it.
In the episode's climactic fight between Reyes and James in a fireworks factory, a moment sees James burn through a brick wall, and the two falling 10 feet (3 m) into the factory below. The sequence was choreographed with two stunt doubles descending through a fake wall on wires, but on the day the filming schedule was changed and there was no longer time to set up the wire rig. Instead, the stunt team had the doubles fall through the wall without wires, and land on pads below, which stunt coordinator Tanner Gill said ultimately "worked really effectively". For the subsequent fireworks factory explosion, a practical explosion was created by the series effects team, and then CG fireworks were added by Pixomondo. The practical explosion shook all the stages around the ABC Studios lot.
## Release
"Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire" was first aired in the United States on ABC on October 18, 2016. Ahead of the episode's airing, Marvel released a teaser poster depicting Ghost Rider and his Hellcharger, with the pod's promotional title Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Ghost Rider. The poster was drawn by comic book artist Francesco Francavilla. Luna promoted the episode as Lola vs. Lucy, referring to the episode's car chase. The episode began streaming on Netflix, along with the rest of the fourth season, on June 15, 2017.
## Reception
### Ratings
In the United States the episode received a 0.7/3 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 0.7 percent of all households, and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 2.34 million viewers. Within a week of its release, "Let Me Stand Next to Your Fire" had been watched by 4.78 million U.S. viewers, above the season average of 4.22 million.
### Critical response
Writing for Nerdist, Joseph McCabe praised the chemistry between the series' main characters and the performance of Jansen as Aida, but said "most of this is just preamble to the sight of two guys with a lot of attitude and similar pyrokinetic powers unleashing holy hell on one another in a building chock full of explosives. I am more than okay with this." The A.V. Club's Alex McLevy graded the episode a "B", praising the episode for focusing the season's overarching storyline and for the emotional reunions between Johnson and the core S.H.I.E.L.D. agents. He was positive of the ongoing Ghost Rider storyline and the episode's action sequences, but thought Aida's story was "the much more intriguing long-term story ... it offers the unusual opportunity for Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. to dig into some juicy subtext and weighty concepts".
Kevin Fitzpatrick of ScreenCrush felt the line "had to see that coming" applied to many elements of the episode, but said "there's a lot of fun to be had" and praised the use of the character James, dealing with the character's "self-loathing" well while acknowledging his status as the series' pre-Ghost Rider Ghost Rider. Fitzpatrick added that he was "still not crazy about whatever's going on with "Lucy" and her terrible ghost effects", and felt the Aida story was being pushed aside in favor of a seemingly corporate-mandated Ghost Rider focus. Terri Schwartz at IGN gave the episode a "great" 8.5 out of 10, praising the executive producers for their timing in bringing the season's different groups of characters together in this episode. Schwartz praised the car chase, the handling of the relationship between Simmons and Fitz in regards to his keeping Aida a secret from her, and the use of James, taking advantage of the audience's familiarity of him from the previous season.
At Den of Geek, Marc Buxton scored the episode 3.5 stars out of 5, praising the episode for balancing all of its different plot lines. He appreciated the time spent with Johnson and Simmons, and called the car chase "an absolute blast". He felt the newly introduced origin for Ghost Rider was diluting the "elegance" of the source material, while Aida's storyline was "more effective" (though he said it "seems so redundant when compared to the utter perfect exploration of the same subject on Westworld). Collider's Evan Valentine gave the episode a "very good" 4 stars out of 5, calling it "wall-to-wall fun" and praising the car chase as "probably one of the highlights of the season so far for me", and calling the Ghost Rider vs. Hellfire fight "a blast to watch". Valentine also praised the episode's handling of Aida, and its balancing of the different stories and characters. |
61,252,692 | K-152 (Kansas highway) | 1,054,633,147 | Highway in Kansas | [
"State highways in Kansas",
"Transportation in Linn County, Kansas"
]
| K-152 is an approximately 12.92-mile-long (20.79 km) east–west state highway located entirely within Linn County in the U.S. state of Kansas. K-152's western terminus is at K-7 east of the city of Parker and south of Cadmus, and the eastern terminus is at U.S. Route 69 (US-69) east of the city of La Cygne. The only city that the highway passes through is La Cygne, and it also passes by Prairie View High School west of La Cygne. K-152 is a two-lane road its entire length.
K-152 was first designated in 1926, as K-35. At that time it ran from K-7 eastward to K-5. By 1927, K-5 became US-73E. US-73E was redesignated as US-69 sometime between 1933 and 1936. Before 1937, K-152 ended west of Fontana at K-7. Then on January 7, 1937, K-35 was realigned to continue west from Maddox Road and to end at K-7 further south, which is its current route. On October 15, 1957, K-35 was renumbered to K-135 to avoid confusion with the newly constructed Interstate 35 (I-35). On September 13, 1976, I-35W was renumbered to I-135. Then in order to avoid confusion with I-135, K-135 was renumbered to K-152.
## Route description
K-152's western terminus is at an intersection with K-7 south of Cadmus. The highway begins traveling east through small rolling hills with rural farmlands and scattered trees. It passes an intersection with Kettle Road then Lamb Road and after roughly 2.5 miles (4.0 km) reaches an intersection with Long Road. At this point, the highway turns northward for one mile (1.6 km) then passes Prairie View High School as it turns back eastward. The roadway continues east and passes through a dip that an unnamed creek runs through then levels out again. It continues east for about one mile (1.6 km) through flat rural farmlands and passes a group of houses surrounded by scattered trees, then intersects Maddox Road. The land then opens up slightly as K-152 continues east for one mile (1.6 km), where it crosses an unnamed creek then begins to parallel a levee. The highway soon intersects Linn County Route 1095, and then continues parallel to the levee for about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) before crossing the Marais des Cygnes River. After crossing the river, it enters the city of La Cygne as Market Street. It soon reaches a junction with Railroad Street then has an at-grade crossing with a BNSF Railway track. K-152 continues east through the city for another one mile (1.6 km) then exits the city. Roughly .5 miles (0.80 km) after exiting the city it crosses Middle Creek, a tributary of Marais des Cygnes River. From here, it continues another roughly two miles (3.2 km) through small rolling hills covered with a mix of grasslands, farmlands and scattered trees. The highway then makes a series of three curves around a small hill with a house on it. From the curves, K-152 continues east for a short distance before reaching its eastern terminus at US-69 east of La Cygne.
The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) tracks the traffic levels on its highways, and in 2019, they determined that on average the traffic varied from 915 vehicles per day near the western terminus to 3,120 vehicles per day slightly east of La Cynge. K-152 is not included in the National Highway System, but does connect to the National Highway System at its eastern terminus at US-69. From the western terminus, the first 8 miles (13 km) is paved with partial design bituminous pavement and the remainder is paved with composite pavement.
## History
Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails, which were an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century. K-152's western terminus, K-7, closely follows the Jefferson Highway. The eastern terminus, US-69, closely follows the Ozark Trails and the Kansas City–Fort Scott–Miami–Tulsa Short Line.
K-152 was first designated in 1926, as K-35 by the State Highway Commission of Kansas, now known as KDOT. At that time it ran from K-7 eastward to K-5. By 1927, K-5 was redesignated as US-73E. US-73E was redesignated as US-69 sometime between 1933 and 1934. Before 1937, the highway curved north onto Maddox Road from La Cygne. It continued north into Miami County for about two miles (3.2 km) then curved west by Fontana and ended at K-7. Then on January 7, 1937, K-35 was realigned to continue west from Maddox Road and to end at K-7 further south, which is its current route. In a June 13, 1938, resolution K-35 was realigned at the crossing of the Marais Des Cygnes River, by La Cygne, to eliminate 3 unsafe sharp curves. Then on October 15, 1957, K-35 was renumbered to K-135 to avoid confusion with the newly constructed Interstate 35 (I-35). On September 13, 1976, I-35W was renumbered to I-135. Then in order to avoid confusion with I-135, K-135 was renumbered to K-152.
## Major intersections |
14,549,373 | 2000–01 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season | 1,157,489,227 | Cyclone season in the Southwest Indian Ocean | [
"2000–01 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season",
"2000–01 Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone season",
"Articles which contain graphical timelines",
"South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons",
"Tropical cyclones in 2000",
"Tropical cyclones in 2001"
]
| The 2000–01 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a fairly quiet season with only five named storms, although there was an additional unnamed tropical storm and two subtropical cyclones with gale-force winds. It started early, with a tropical disturbance forming on August 1 – the first day of the cyclone year. However, the first named storm, Ando, was not named until January 2, which at the time was the 4th latest on record. Ando would become the most intense cyclone of the year, reaching peak winds of 195 km/h (121 mph) according to the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion, the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin. The agency tracked storms south of the equator and west of 90°E to the east coast of Africa.
In addition to being the strongest storm, Cyclone Ando was one of two deadly storms during the season. It passed about 205 km (127 mi) west of Réunion, producing 1,255 mm (49.4 in) of rainfall in the mountainous peaks. The rains led to flooding that killed two people. Ando was one of three storms to attain tropical cyclone status – winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph) – in the month of January. The others were Bindu, which alternated its trajectory several times over open waters, and Charly, which rapidly weakened after encountering hostile wind shear. The next storm to form was Tropical Cyclone Dera, which intensified near Mozambique in early March and killed two people there due to flooding rains. It later moved southward through the Mozambique Channel, maintaining its intensity unusually far to the south before becoming extratropical. There was a month of inactivity in March, including three weeks in which there were no storms worldwide, the first such instance. Subsequently, two storms formed in early April; one was a small, unnamed tropical storm, and the other was Severe Tropical Storm Evariste, which brought light rainfall to two islands. The season ended with an unusual subtropical storm forming rapidly in the southern Mozambique Channel on June 19, the only such storm to form in that body of water in the month. It became the strongest storm on record for so late in the season, although it weakened without affecting land, dissipating on June 24.
## Season summary
During the season, the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin. The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique, and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90° E, south of the equator to 30° S. At the time, the cyclone year was from August 1 to July 31 of the subsequent year. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force, also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean in an unofficial capacity.
Aside from a tropical disturbance in August, the season began later than usual, the fourth consecutive season to do so. At the time it had the 4th latest start on record for the first named storm. Only about 20% of seasons have their first storm form after the middle of December, and the first named storm of this season, Ando, did not become a tropical storm until early January. However, January was active with three tropical cyclones, two of which became intense tropical cyclones, due to the active phase of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). February returned to a period of inactivity, and generally there was minimal convection across the basin due to unusually dry air. This was spread by a powerful and persistent ridge that extended eastward from Madagascar, as well as an inactive phase of the MJO. Drought conditions occurred on Réunion due to the lack of rainfall. After three weeks of no tropical cyclones developing worldwide, an event unseen since 1995, the tropics became active again in early April.
In contrast with the busy preceding season, this season had much lower activity than usual, with only 36 days in which there was a tropical storm or cyclone active; this was 17 less than normal. However, the number of days with a tropical cyclone was slightly above normal at 15. In general, the southern hemisphere as a whole had the least active season since 1954. There were only five named storms, only the fifth such time since the beginning of the satellite era in 1967. As most storms formed toward the eastern periphery of the basin, damage was much less than the preceding year.
## Systems
### Intense Tropical Cyclone Ando
The beginnings of Ando can be traced to a circulation within the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) about 400 km (250 mi) south-west of Diego Garcia, which became evident on satellite imagery on December 30. Associated convection, or thunderstorms, gradually organized into a central dense overcast, and the system became Tropical Disturbance 3 at 06:00 UTC on December 31. The upper-level environment generally favored further development, but the system failed to develop more initially due to some easterly wind shear. A large ridge to the south steered the nascent disturbance to the west-southwest. After the shear subsided, the system intensified into a moderate tropical storm on January 2, given the name "Ando" by the Mauritius Meteorological Service. Also on that day, the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 04S, and around that time, Ando was passing about 465 km (289 mi) east-southeast of Agaléga island.
Ando rapidly intensified after forming and attained tropical cyclone status early on January 4, developing an eye in the center of the thunderstorms and outflow to the east. A tropical low over the southern Mozambique Channel weakened the ridge, causing Ando to turn more to the southwest. Late on January 4, the storm intensified further into an intense tropical cyclone, and early the next day passed about 120 km (75 mi) northeast of Tromelin Island. According to the JTWC, however, Ando attained peak 1 minute winds of 220 km/h (135 mph) late on January 5. In contrast, the MFR assessed Ando as weakening due to the becoming larger and less defined, while still maintaining a small cloud diameter of about 400 km (250 mi). However, the eye re-organized, and Ando attained peak 10 minute winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) on January 6, with a 60 km (37 mi) eye at the time. Continuing around the ridge, the cyclone passed about 205 km (127 mi) west of Réunion that day before starting to weaken due to increased wind shear. On January 8, Ando weakened below tropical cyclone status, and the convection increasingly separated from the circulation while turning to the southeast. On January 10, the storm became extratropical, although the remnants turned back to the northwest due to the ridge, dissipating on January 13.
As a developing storm, Ando produced some heavy rain between December 30 and January 2 over Seychelles. Swaziland also reported that Ando drew moisture from the continent, aggravating a persistent dry spell. While near Agaléga island, Ando dropped 108 mm (4.3 in) of rainfall, compared to a January average precipitation there of 150 mm (5.9 in). On Tromelin Island, gusts peaked at 125 km/h (78 mph) and rainfall reached 141 mm (5.6 in). Passing north of Réunion, Ando produced gusts of 70 km/h (45 mph) along the coast, but 133 km/h (83 mph) was recorded at Plaine des Cafres in the mountainous peaks. Most parts of the island did not receive much rain, with the exception of mountainous peaks due to orographic lift, particularly after the center passed to the west. Pas de Bellecombe at an elevation of 2,200 m (7,200 ft) reported 1,255 mm (49.4 in) over 48 hours. The rains caused flooding and some landslides, which washed away one house and killed two people. Ando also damaged crops and killed several livestock. The highest wave recorded was 5.4 m (18 ft) in La Possession. High waves injured several people, several of whom required rescue from lifeguards.
### Tropical Cyclone Bindu
On January 2, an area of convection persisted in the eastern portion of the ITCZ in the Australian basin, located northwest of Cocos Island, or about 1,165 km (724 mi) southwest of Sumatra. With a ridge to the south, the system moved generally westward. A nearby ship confirmed that a circulation formed, and on January 3, it crossed 90°E into the south-west Indian Ocean as a tropical disturbance. With easterly wind shear, the system initially remained weak, but convection increased and organized on January 5. On the next day, the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression, although the circulation was still exposed from the thunderstorms at that time. After turning to the southwest, wind shear decreased, and the depression became Moderate Tropical Storm Bindu on January 7. On the same day, the JTWC also initiated advisories as Tropical Cyclone 05S. Moving around the ridge to the south, Bindu slowly intensified, developing outflow and improved rainbands. Early on January 9, the MFR upgraded the storm to tropical cyclone status as an eye 19 km (12 mi) in diameter formed. The next day, Bindu weakened due to increased wind shear, causing the circulation to be exposed from the convection and for the cyclone to be downgraded into a severe tropical storm.
The building ridge caused the storm to slow and turn back to the west. After the formerly hostile shear relaxed, Bindu became a tropical cyclone again on January 11, redeveloping an eye. On the next day, the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 150 km/h (95 mph), while the JTWC estimated maximum 1 minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph). By that time, the cyclone had turned back to the south-southwest. Drier air and wind shear resulted in weakening, and Bindu was downgraded to a severe tropical storm on January 14. At 18:00 UTC the next day, the storm passed about 140 km (87 mi) southeast of Rodrigues island, by which time the circulation was exposed north of the dwindling convection. The MFR downgraded Bindu to tropical depression status on January 16. An approaching trough turned the system to the south on the next day, and Bindu became extratropical late on January 17. The remnants turned sharply eastward due to a ridge, later looping back to the west on January 20. Another trough turned the storm southward on January 21 and absorbed the circulation the next day.
### Intense Tropical Cyclone Charly
A small circulation formed north of the Cocos Islands on January 8 within the near-equatorial trough. For about a week, it drifted west-southwestward without much development, although an area of convection formed within the system on January 11 about 1,240 km (770 mi) southwest of Sumatra. Persistent wind shear prevented much strengthening, and the circulation crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean on January 16. Another increase in convection merited its classification as a tropical disturbance on the next day, which organized into a central dense overcast. Slow development continued, allowing the disturbance to become a tropical depression and later Tropical Storm Charly on January 19. On the same day, the JTWC also began tracking it as Tropical Cyclone 06S. Taking a track similar to earlier Tropical Cyclone Bindu, the storm moved southwestward around a ridge to the south. Charly gradually developed outflow and increasingly organized convection due to decreasing wind shear. A ragged eye formed on January 20 and became better defined, and early on January 21, Charly intensified into a tropical cyclone.
By January 22, Charly developed a 37 km (23 mi) wide eye, surrounded by deep convection. Based on the increased organization, the storm became an intense tropical cyclone, reaching peak 10 minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph), according to the MFR. In contrast, the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 195 km/h (120 mph). Late on January 22, the wind shear and dry air increased while waters became cooler, all of which became detrimental to the storm's structure. The eye rapidly dissipated as the convection dwindled, and within 24 hours of peak intensity, Charly was downgraded to tropical storm status. On January 24, the storm passed about 320 km (200 mi) southeast of Rodrigues. By that time, the circulation was exposed from the thunderstorms, and Charly weakened to tropical depression status on January 25. Caught in the weak low-level flow, the circulation moved erratically, first to the west, then drifting before turning to the southeast. It continued to produce some convection during this time, which spread rainfall over Mauritius and Réunion. A cold front swept Charly to the southeast, absorbing it on January 31.
### Tropical Cyclone Dera
After an extended period of inactivity lasting nearly a month, the ITCZ produced an area of convection on March 1 between Diego Garcia and the Seychelles. There were initially two weak circulations, although the one south-southwest of Diego Garcia ultimately became Cyclone Dera. It moved southwestward without much development at first due to hostile wind shear, with the circulation often exposed from the thunderstorms. On March 4, the system developed into a tropical disturbance off the northeast coast of Madagascar. Two days later, the storm moved ashore Madagascar about 50 km (31 mi) southeast of Antsiranana. It weakened and became indistinct over land, emerging into the Mozambique Channel near Nosy Be as a weak low. Convection gradually increased across the region as the track shifted westward. After moving toward Mozambique, the system rounded the ridge and turned to the south just off the coast, passing only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Angoche. Around that time, the thunderstorms began organizing more, allowing the disturbance to intensify into a tropical depression on March 8. With warm waters and an anticyclone providing outflow, the depression quickly intensified, becoming Tropical Storm Dera on March 9 and soon after developing an eye feature. Also on that day, the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 15S.
Late on March 9, Dera passed about 20 km (12 mi) east of Europa Island, although the large eye passed over the island. On March 10, Dera attained tropical cyclone status, and after a brief bout of wind shear, the eye became better defined. The cyclone attained peak 10 minute winds of 150 km/h (95 mph) on March 11, according to the MFR, and 1 minute winds of 165 km/h (105 mph) according to the JTWC. Despite being located unusually far to the south, Dera maintained its intensity due to warm waters, and it accelerated southeastward due to an approaching cold front. Wind shear increased on March 12, and only on that day did water temperatures drop off, causing a marked decrease in intensity and for the eye to dissipate. Late on March 12, Dera became extratropical, which continued southeastward along the cold front.
The precursor of Dera dropped heavy rainfall in Mayotte, reaching 193 mm (7.6 in) on Pamanzi. The precipitation came in intense squalls, with hourly peaks of 49 mm (1.9 in) recorded, which flooded rivers and some houses. In addition, the system produced gusts of 101 km/h (63 mph), strong enough to damage roofs, cause power outages, and damage fields and trees. Heavy rainfall also spread across Mozambique, producing additional river flooding Zambezi in a region that had been flooded for weeks. The floods wrecked dozens of homes and covered many roads, while killing two people. Later, gusts peaked at 155 km/h (96 mph) on Europa Island, while rainfall reached 72 mm (2.8 in).
### Severe Tropical Storm Evariste
The ITCZ became active in late March, spawning several areas of convection across the Indian Ocean and into the adjacent Australian basin. The westernmost system had a circulation as of March 31 about 600 km (370 mi) west-southwest of Diego Garcia. Despite favorable conditions, the system failed to organize at first, although it became Tropical Disturbance 9 on April 2 after the structure improved. Drifting to the southwest and later to the south, the associated convection waxed and waned, finally organizing more on April 4; on that day, the disturbance quickly intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Evariste. A day prior, the JTWC had initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 18S. A trough to the south weakened the ridge, turning the storm to the southwest. A small eye formed on April 5, but later dissipated after an increase in thunderstorm activity. On that day, the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 110 km/h (70 mph), just shy of tropical cyclone status, while the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). On April 6, increased wind shear from the approaching trough began weakening Evariste and turned it to the south. That day, it passed about 135 km (84 mi) east of St. Brandon, and on April 7, Evariste bypassed Rodrigues about 200 km (120 mi) to the southwest. The convection gradually deteriorated and left the circulation exposed. Late on April 7, the storm suddenly turned southwestward toward a developing low east of Madagascar, although the southwest motion resumed soon after. On April 8, Evariste dissipated, dissipating ahead of the nearby trough.
Evariste produced peak gusts of 91 km/h (57 mph) on St. Brandon, with 23 mm (0.91 in) of rainfall recorded. Stronger winds were recorded on Rodrigues while the storm passed, reaching 109 km/h (68 mph). Rainfall was minimal, reaching only 15 mm (0.59 in), and failing to alleviate drought conditions.
### Moderate Tropical Storm 10
A small area of convection not associated from the ITCZ became Tropical Disturbance 10 on April 1, about 215 km (134 mi) west-northwest of the Cocos Islands in the Australian region. It moved west-southwestward, entering the south-west Indian Ocean on April 2, and on the same date the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 16S. The thunderstorms organized into a small central dense overcast, and there was evidence of an eye feature, suggesting the system could have been much stronger. Although satellite imagery had difficulty in tracking the low-level circulation, a nearby ship on April 3 confirmed the presence of a circulation. Operationally the system was only classified as a tropical depression. However, data from QuikSCAT helped upgrade the system to moderate tropical storm status in a post-season analysis, with peak winds of 65 km/h (40 mph) on April 3; as a result, it was not named. After previously moving to the west-southwest, the small storm turned back to the west due to a strengthening ridge to the south. Wind shear increased on April 4, which rapidly dwindled the convection and thereby leaving behind an exposed circulation. It underwent the Fujiwhara effect with a larger disturbance to the east, causing the system to turn back to the north and dissipate on April 5.
### Subtropical Depression 11
Similar to Subtropical Depression 13 in April 2000, there was an unusual subtropical cyclone that formed in June at the end of the season. A trough exited South Africa on June 18 with an associated frontal wave in the southern Mozambique Channel. On the next day, the system separated from the front and became a cut-off low. It moved north-northwestward along the eastern periphery of a ridge in southern Africa, becoming a subtropical depression on June 20. The associated convection initially diminished, although the thunderstorms redeveloped due to the atmospheric instability in the region. On June 21, the depression passed about 100 km (62 mi) east of Maputo, Mozambique, while moving into an area of much warmer waters. As such, the structure became more tropical, with a small central dense overcast forming over the circulation only 75 km (47 mi) in diameter. The JTWC initiated advisories on June 21 as Tropical Cyclone 12S. The small size of the storm merited the MFR calling it a "midget cyclone", with a small eye forming late on June 21. Based on the feature, the JTWC estimated peak 1 winds of 120 km/h (75 mph); in contrast, the MFR estimated 10 minute winds of 95 km/h (60 mph). Despite the structure, the convection was shallow, which brought uncertainty to the true intensity of the storm. Turning to the northeast and east, the subtropical storm rapidly weakened on June 22 to depression status after the environment became hostile, and the convection largely dissipated. The exposed low turned northwestward on June 23, dissipating the next day.
The storm was the only one on record to form in the Mozambique Channel in June. In addition, it was the strongest storm to form so late in the season.
### Other systems
On August 1, in the middle of the southern hemisphere's winter, an area of convection persisted in the northeastern portion of the basin about 740 km (460 mi) northeast of Diego Garcia. At that time, an associated circulation was exposed to the east of the thunderstorms. At 06:00 UTC that day, the MFR initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance 1. After the system organized further, the JTWC also began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 01S, estimating winds of 65 km/h (40 mph). With a ridge to the south, the system tracked generally westward, briefly becoming a tropical depression on August 1. An approaching trough weakened the ridge, allowing the depression to turn southwestward. Located in an area of moderate wind shear, the system failed to intensify further, and it dissipated on August 3.
An area of convection formed on November 9 to the east of Diego Garcia, possibly the result of the MJO. A circulation was evident by November 11, and the following day it developed into Tropical Disturbance 2 about 830 km (520 mi) southeast of Diego Garcia. Also on November 12, the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02S. It moved to the southwest, but looped back to the east on November 13, during which time the MFR upgraded it to tropical depression status. Later that day, the agency ceased issuing advisories, but the system reorganized on November 14. On November 17, it turned back to the southwest, but the MFR discontinued advisories on the next day.
An area of convection persisted on January 19 off the east coast of Madagascar, which became Tropical Disturbance 6 two days later. It drifted to the east, strengthening to tropical depression status on January 22, and passing 330 km (210 mi) west of Réunion. Increased wind shear caused the system to weaken as it turned back to the west, dissipating over Madagascar on January 24. On Réunion, the system dropped about 100 mm (3.9 in) of rainfall, including a total of 50 mm (2.0 in) falling in a 90-minute period in Cape Bernard.
On January 23, a weak tropical low began affecting Mozambique for two days, causing flooding that killed six people. Although newspaper sources indicated that the system was a tropical storm, it remained unclassified by MFR.
Toward the end of January, a broad low persisted south of the Chagos archipelago, becoming a tropical disturbance on January 30 about 650 km (400 mi) south of Diego Garcia. The convection gradually organized as the system moved to the south-southwest, steered by a break in the ridge to the south caused by the remnants of Cyclone Charly. Initially the circulation was very broad, and due to its involvement with the monsoon, it resembled a monsoon depression. Early on February 1, the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression while turning more to the south. Around that time, it passed about 500 km (310 mi) east of Rodrigues. The system became extratropical on February 3, after increased wind shear weakened the convection. The former depression intensified as an extratropical storm, attaining gale-force winds while accelerating its forward motion due to an approaching trough. The system was no longer tracked after February 6 as it approached the polar latitudes.
On April 17, a weak low exited from the coast of South Africa and moved southeastward over the warm waters of the southern Mozambique Channel. By April 19, it had organized into a subtropical depression and produced gale-force winds. The MFR did not classify the system, however, due to it being located from 33 to 35° S, which was outside of the agency's area of warning responsibility at the time.
## Storm names
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength. If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55°E, then the Sub-regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm. If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55°E and 90°E, then the Sub-regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm. A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired.
This was the first season in the basin to feature a list of names comprising a mix of male and female names, in addition to covering the whole basic Latin alphabet from A to Z (prior lists skipped letters Q, U, X, and Z, although the 1983–84 list included a name beginning with Z).
## Season effects
This table lists all of the tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones that were monitored during the 2010–2011 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season. Information on their intensity, duration, name, areas affected, primarily comes from RSMC La Réunion. Death and damage reports come from either press reports or the relevant national disaster management agency while the damage totals are given in 2010 or 2011 USD.
\|- \| One/01S \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|55 km/h (35 mph) \|\| bgcolor=#\|999 hPa (29.50 inHg) \|\| None \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Seychelles, Agaléga, Tromelin, Mauritius, Réunion \|\| Unknown \|\| 2 \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Rodrigues \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Rodrigues, Mauritius, Réunion \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Comoros, Mayotte, Madagascar, Europa \|\| Unknown \|\| 2 \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Rodrigues \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \| Ten/16S \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| None \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \| Eleven/21S \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|75 km/h (45 mph) \|\| bgcolor=#\|1000 hPa (29.53 inHg) \|\| None \|\| \|\| \|\| \|-
## Contemporaneous seasons
- List of Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone seasons
- Atlantic hurricane seasons: 2000, 2001
- Pacific hurricane seasons: 2000, 2001
- Pacific typhoon seasons: 2000, 2001
- North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 2000, 2001 |
57,809,683 | Yakov and the Seven Thieves | 1,132,647,084 | Picture book by Madonna | [
"2004 children's books",
"American picture books",
"Books by Madonna",
"Children's fiction books"
]
| Yakov and the Seven Thieves is a picture book written by American entertainer Madonna. It was released on June 21, 2004, by Callaway Arts & Entertainment in over 110 countries and 38 different languages, including a Braille edition. The book contains a moral tale and was inspired by a 300-year-old story by rabbi Baal Shem Tov, that Madonna had heard from her Kabbalah teacher. The premise was set in a small, 18th century town in Eastern Europe, and the story talks about how everyone has the ability to open the gates of heaven, however unworthy one is deemed to be.
The cover art and the images inside were painted by Russian illustrator Gennady Spirin who chose Baroque painting as inspiration for crafting the characters and the scenery. Like her previous endeavors, Madonna promoted the release by appearing on talk show and reading to children at a hospital in London. Critics gave mixed review of the book, with reviews being mostly negative about Madonna's writing but praised Spirin's illustrations. Three weeks after its release, Yakov and the Seven Thieves debuted at number seven on The New York Times Best Seller list in the category for Children's Picture books.
## Synopsis
A cobbler called Yakov and his wife Olga are frightened that their gravely ill son Mikhail is dying. They hear about a man of healing who lives in the last house of their village and Yakov goes to him for guidance. The man refuses Yakov's money, instead clarifies that if he can save Yakov's son, the cobbler can repay by making a pair of shoes for his grandson.
The next day, Yakov visited the man only to be told that when he had prayed, the gates of heaven would not open. The distressed cobbler begged him to try yet one more time. The healer asked his grandson to go into the village and find all the thieves, pickpockets and criminals, and bring them back to the house. They included the thieves Vladimir the Villain who could bend metal and punch holes through stones, Boris the Barefoot Midget who snatched the purse of old ladies, Ivan the Arsonist, Petra the Pickpocket, Stinky Pasha, Sadko the Snake, Igor the Tiger, all of them being a large host of ne'er-do-wells.
With the healer's direction, the thieves all got on their knees and started to pray. A miracle occurred and the prayers of the men, who previously robbed by opening gates, helped to open the gates of heaven and Yakov's son was healed. The next day, Yakov came with a new pair of shoes for the grandson and declared that Mikhail was alive and well. It was the prayers of the gang of crooks that made a difference.
## Background and development
In 2003, American singer Madonna signed a contract with Callaway Arts & Entertainment for a series of five children's books. She explained that each book dealt "with issues that all children confront... Hopefully there is a lesson that will help kids turn painful or scary situations into learning experiences". The first two releases were The English Roses (September 2003), and Mr. Peabody's Apples (November 2003). Both debuted at number one on The New York Times Best Seller list. Joe D'Angelo from MTV News confirmed that the third book would be titled Yakov and the Seven Thieves. Madonna was again inspired by a 300-year-old story by rabbi Baal Shem Tov that she had heard from her Kabbalah teacher, and wanted to share the "essence" of it. "We must never forget that hidden behind a large amount of darkness is a large amount of light," the singer wrote in the preface. According to the press release, the premise was set in a small, 18th century town in Eastern Europe and was written for readers aged six and up, with the book manufactured in a 32-page jacketed hardcover.
The initial release date for Yakov and the Seven Thieves was set for April 2004, but publisher Nicholas Callaway confirmed that the book would be released on June 21, 2004, in over 110 countries and 38 different languages, including a Braille edition. Although Callaway published it, the release was distributed through 42 agencies, including Gallimard Jeunesse in France, Penguin Books in the United Kingdom and the United States, and Hanser Verlag in Germany. Madonna promoted the book by appearing on ABC News on June 16, 2004, where she dedicated the release to "naughty children everywhere" and spoke about the power of praying according to her. While on the Re-Invention World Tour of 2004, Madonna visited London's Great Ormond Street Hospital, where her daughter Lourdes read an excerpt from the book to a group of ailing children.
The cover art and the images inside were painted by Russian illustrator Gennady Spirin. This was Spirin's first time working with a contemporary author and story, and was initially uncomfortable with the mayhem surrounding Madonna. He clarified that the ideas given to him were "clear" and "style parameters were set", which resulted in crafting the characters "amazingly quickly". Since the story was set in 18th century Europe, Spirin chose Baroque painting as inspiration since it made the book "dressier, but at the same time preserves the dramatic element and the psychological characteristics of each of the characters".
## Critical and commercial reception
Three weeks after its release, Yakov and the Seven Thieves debuted at number seven on The New York Times Best Seller list in the category for Children's Picture books. The sales fell drastically, as observed by Edward Wyatt from The New York Times, and it sold just 27,000 copies according to Nielsen BookScan. This was much less from the 321,000 copies sold of The English Roses and the 127,000 copies of Mr. Peabody's Apples.
Positive review came from The Des Moines Register with critic Maria Sudekum Fisher complimenting the "redemption arc" of the storyline. The Children's BBC did not find any "weak bits" in the book and listed the introduction of the thieves as well as the illustrations as highlight. Canada.com found Yakov to be the best among Madonna's three released books, feeling that "the story moves along nicely and gets its message about redemption across without being too preachy. it's also appropriately written for its target audience". An article in The Economist felt that had any unknown author released Yakov and the Seven Thieves, it would not have received much promotion. The review noted that the message in the story was distinct, describing it as "a more overtly religious message than is normally encountered in children's picture books" and found the moral as "purely medieval Catholicism". The critic added that "for all the ecumenical confusion, the message is heartfelt and the delivery straightforward. [Madonna] has a vivid and direct writing style—presumably the product of two decades of song-writing experience."
The Publishers Weekly complimented Spirin's illustrations and Madonna's comic writing while describing the seven thieves, but criticized her "soapbox approach" in telling a witty story. The review also noted Spirin adding minute details to the images, including "the smallest features of 18th-century European town life: cobbler's nails, brass drawer-pulls, feather pens, children's toys". Deirdre Donahue from USA Today also complimented Spirin's paintings, but was critical of the story, calling it "dreary and inappropriate" as well as "lackluster and verbose". She criticized the fact that Spirin's name was not present on the book cover art and felt that Yakov and the Seven Thieves was the "worst" of Madonna's three published children's books. "Dying children, prayers, criminals praying to open the gates of heaven. It's positively Grimm. Yakov will either bore or frighten children," Donahue concluded. Tim Adams from The Observer compared the release to the work of Hans Christian Andersen, but added that the "triteness of the story and the easiness of the moralising is more than redeemed by the excellence of the illustrations".
Reviewing the book for Tablet, Ayelet Waldman found the moral of the story as "unsatisfying and somehow ill-constructed", as well as "half-baked". She complimented Spirin's paintings describing them as "complex and multilayered" like Renaissance paintings, but found it odd that the renderings were not Jewish, and instead the illustrator gave a Tudor town. Waldman believed that Yakov and the Seven Thieves would become "a staple of Hanukkah gift-giving. It's a muddled and simplistic story [...] but the illustrations are lovely and the title sounds like those of all the other boring Jewish storybooks." Jane Doonan from Times Educational Supplement listed the artwork as the "best reason" for buying the book, since she felt that the "internal logic of the story doesn't bear inspection, and the mawkishness and moralising is unappealing".
## Release history |
9,121,737 | Mark Hammett | 1,106,719,859 | null | [
"1972 births",
"Canterbury rugby union players",
"Crusaders (rugby union) players",
"Japan national rugby team coaches",
"Living people",
"New Zealand international rugby union players",
"New Zealand rugby union coaches",
"New Zealand rugby union players",
"People educated at St Thomas of Canterbury College",
"Rugby union hookers",
"Rugby union players from Christchurch",
"Sunwolves coaches"
]
| Mark Garry 'Hammer' Hammett (born 13 July 1972) is a New Zealand rugby union coach and former player. Having represented Canterbury provincially 76 times, and the Crusaders 81 times and the All Blacks 30 times – including 29 Test matches, Hammett later went on to coach both Canterbury and Crusaders as a forwards/assistant coach. He is currently on the assistant coach of the in Super Rugby and the Tasman Makos in the Mitre 10 Cup.
## Playing career
### Early career: 1989–97
Hammett first represented New Zealand, while he was a pupil at St Thomas of Canterbury College, when selected for the New Zealand Under 17 team in 1989. He then captained the Under 19 team in 1991, before making his first appearance for Canterbury in 1992. Although his one game for Canterbury in 1992 was as a replacement, he played seven games the following season. As hooker, he played mainly as backup to Matt Sexton in 1993; however, by 1994 they were sharing the role. By 1995, Hammett played more games than Sexton.
Rugby turned professional in late 1995, and in 1996 the Canterbury Crusaders (now called the Crusaders) franchise was established. Hammett became a founding member of the side, which struggled in the inaugural Super 12, finishing in last place. The 1997 season went better for Hammett; the Crusaders finished sixth, and the Canterbury provincial team won the National Provincial Championship (NPC) after beating Counties in the final. Although Hammett was receiving more and more game time, he still only participated in the NPC final as a replacement.
### Super 12 success: 1998–2001
Hammett started regularly for both Canterbury, and the Crusaders in 1998, with the latter he won his first Super 12 title. The 1998 Super 12 final was played against the Blues at Eden Park; Hammett said of the match "If we'd been polled in that week, and had to give an honest answer, most of the boys, deep down, would probably have thought that the Blues would beat us." Despite this, the Crusaders defeated the reigning champions 20–13. Hammett was rewarded with a New Zealand trial, where he captained his team. He was subsequently selected for New Zealand A and played against Tonga.
The Crusaders achieved more success in 1999 as they finished the round-robin in fourth place, then won their semi-final, and final (both away from home) to take another championship. Hammett's achievements with the Crusaders were rewarded by being called into the All Blacks in 1999, at the age of 26. His first game was against New Zealand 'A', on 11 June in Christchurch, quickly followed by his first Test against France on 26 June. Hammett eventually played in the 1999 Tri Nations Series, and was selected for the 1999 Rugby World Cup.
After winning a third title with the Crusaders in 2000, he was again selected for the All Blacks; getting a start against Tonga, and in that years Tri-Nations. After returning from All Blacks duty, he played for Canterbury and contributed to a Ranfurly Shield win over Waitako. Canterbury then reached the NPC final, giving Hammett the opportunity to be part of a Super 12, Ranfurly Shield, and NPC winning team, all in the same year. Wellington won the NPC final however, and the opportunity was lost. Hammett was then selected for the end-of-year All Blacks tour, and played against France and Italy (both as a substitute).
Hammett's 2001 Super 12 season was marred by a shoulder injury, and the Crusaders eventually finished tenth. Due to injury, Hammett only played one game for the All Blacks, as a substitute against Argentina in June. He missed the entire NPC campaign due to injury: an ankle problem which required surgery and causes him to also miss the 2001 end-of-year All Black tour.
### Final seasons: 2002–03
After the 2001 NPC, Crusaders' captain Todd Blackadder left New Zealand to play rugby in Scotland. During the 2002 Super 12 pre-season, half-back Justin Marshall questioned which of the senior players were going to step into Blackadder's leadership role for the tough matches. Hammett took the comment "as a slap in the face", as "one player doesn't make a team." Hammett later said "I took it that way, and I think a lot of the others must have as well, because we all ended up stepping up!" Subsequently, the Crusaders went through the season unbeaten, including a 96–19 victory over the New South Wales Waratahs. He again played for the All Blacks in 2002, starting against Australia and South Africa in the Tri-Nations. The 2002 NPC season was Hammett's last, and although Canterbury were knocked out in their semi-final, they managed to retain the Ranfurly Shield. Hammett's last match was his 76th for Canterbury.
The 2003 Super 12 season was Hammett's last. The team ended the round-robin second on the table, and eventually travelled to Eden Park to face the Blues in the final. Although the Crusaders lost the final, Hammett scored two tries, becoming one of only three players to score two tries in a Super 12 final. Despite the two tries, Hammett calls the match the biggest disappointment of his career. Hammett was again chosen for the All Blacks, and eventually played in the 2003 Rugby World Cup. The All Blacks call-up made Hammett reconsider his retirement plans. He planned to continue playing after 2003, however a neck injury during the 2004 pre-season ended his playing career.
### Honours
New Zealand
- Rugby World Cup / Webb Ellis Cup
- Third: 2003
- Fourth: 1999
- Tri Nations
- Winners: 1999, 2002, 2003
- Runners-up: 2000, 2001
- Bledisloe Cup
- Winners: 2003
- Dave Gallaher Trophy
- Winners: 2000
Crusaders
- Super 12
- Winners: 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002
- Runners-up: 2003
Canterbury
- National Provincial Championship
- Winners: 1997, 2001
- Runners-up: 2000
## Coaching career
### In New Zealand: 2006–2014
Two years after his playing career ended with the Crusaders, Hammett was back with the Crusaders, working as a forwards coaching adviser for the 2006 Super 14 season. He went on to fulfill the same role for Canterbury in the 2006 Air New Zealand Cup. He was later appointed as the new Crusaders assistant coach in November 2006 as a replacement for Vern Cotter who departed to France. Hammett remained as assistant coach from 2007 to 2010, and was not appointed as Crusaders' head coach when Robbie Deans left to coach Australia in 2008; Todd Blackadder was given the head coach role instead. During his time at the Crusaders, he helped guide the team to the semi-finals of every single season he was at the franchise, before securing their sixth and seventh title in 2006 and 2008. In later 2010, he was appointed coach of the Wellington-based Hurricanes ahead of the 2011 Super Rugby season. After the 2011 Super Rugby season – his first season in charge – Hammett decided controversially not to renew the contracts of All Blacks Ma'a Nonu and then Hurricanes' captain Andrew Hore. In the three years at the helm in Wellington, the Hurricanes failed to progress to the knock-out phase of the competition, only getting as high as seventh on the table; in 2014 Super Rugby season. In April 2014 Hammett indicated he would not be seeking to renew his contract when it expired at the end of the 2014 season.
### Outside New Zealand: 2014–2016
On 18 May 2014, Hammett was named Director of Rugby for Wales-based team Cardiff Blues, working alongside Dale McIntosh and Paul John. The Mark Hammett era was a slow start, losing both the pre-season friendlies. However, the first round saw Cardiff defeat Zebre 41–26. Despite only winning one game in his first competitive 6 games, Hammett lead Cardiff to a surprise victory over French side Grenoble and an easy victory over Rovigo Delta in the 2014–15 European Rugby Challenge Cup. These games were backed-up by a narrow loss to Irish giants Munster. On 24 January 2015, Hammett led the Blues to an away victory over Grenoble, to see the side through to the quarter-finals of the 2014–15 European Rugby Challenge Cup. On 20 February 2015, Cardiff were beaten by Benetton Treviso 40–24 in Treviso, which later turned out to be Hammett's last game in charge of the Welsh side. On 25 February 2015, after six months of a three-year contract, Cardiff Blues agreed to release Hammett at his request for personal reasons, to allow him to return home to New Zealand.
On 21 December 2015, the Japan Rugby Football Union announced Hammett as the head coach of the newly formed Japanese Super Rugby franchise, the Sunwolves. In their debut season, the side finished bottom of the newly expanded table, with 1 win. Ironically, their win came against the other newly formed team, the Jaguares, a team made up predominantly of the successful Argentine side from the 2015 Rugby World Cup. On 27 June, it was announced that Hammett would be leaving the Japanese side to return to New Zealand. It had previously been announced that Hammett would be joining the Tasman Makos in 2016 as their new assistant coach for the 2016 Mitre 10 Cup. While in June 2016, it was announced that Mark Hammett will remain in Super Rugby, but as an assistant coach at the Highlanders.
In March 2016, Hammett was named as the caretaker coach for the Japanese national team, while Jamie Joseph closes out his contract with the Highlanders. Hammett led the Brave Blossoms to a 26–22 win over Canada, before losing 2–0 to Scotland during their two-test series.
### 2017 onwards
Hammett was assistant coach for the Highlanders under the Head coach Aaron Mauger.
### Coaching Honours
Crusaders (as assistant coach)
- Super 14 / Super Rugby
- Winners: 2006, 2008
- Runners-up: 2011 |
42,722,929 | Agent Carter (season 1) | 1,173,271,387 | null | [
"2015 American television seasons",
"Agent Carter (TV series) seasons"
]
| The first season of the American television series Agent Carter, which is inspired by the film Captain America: The First Avenger and the Marvel One-Shot short film of the same name, features the character Peggy Carter, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, as she must balance doing administrative work and going on secret missions for Howard Stark while trying to navigate life as a single woman in 1940s America. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise, and was produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and F&B Fazekas & Butters. Tara Butters, Michele Fazekas, and Chris Dingess served as showrunners.
Hayley Atwell reprises her role from the film series and One-Shot as Carter, with James D'Arcy, Chad Michael Murray, Enver Gjokaj, and Shea Whigham also starring. In May 2014, ABC bypassed a pilot, ordering a show based on the One-Shot straight to series for an eight episode season. Filming took place in Los Angeles from September 2014 to January 2015, and Industrial Light & Magic provided visual effects. The season introduces the origins of several characters and storylines from MCU films, while other characters from the films and Marvel One-Shots also appear.
The season, which aired on ABC from January 6 to February 24, 2015, over 8 episodes, aired during the season two mid-season break of Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Despite steadily dropping viewership, critical response to Agent Carter was positive, with much praise going to Atwell's performance, the series' tone and setting, and its relative separation from the rest of the MCU. The series was renewed for a second season on May 7, 2015.
## Episodes
## Cast and characters
### Main
- Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter
- James D'Arcy as Edwin Jarvis
- Chad Michael Murray as Jack Thompson
- Enver Gjokaj as Daniel Sousa
- Shea Whigham as Roger Dooley
### Recurring
- Dominic Cooper as Howard Stark
- Lyndsy Fonseca as Angie Martinelli
- Kyle Bornheimer as Ray Krzeminski
- Meagen Fay as Miriam Fry
- Bridget Regan as Dottie Underwood
- Ralph Brown as Johann Fennhoff
### Notable guests
- Costa Ronin as Anton Vanko
- Neal McDonough as Timothy "Dum Dum" Dugan
- Toby Jones as Arnim Zola
## Production
### Development
By September 2013, Marvel Television was developing a series inspired by the Agent Carter One-Shot short film, featuring the Marvel Comics character Peggy Carter. On May 8, 2014, ABC officially ordered the series, bypassing a pilot order, and later confirmed that Agent Carter would air between the 2014 finale and 2015 premiere of the second season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., beginning January 6, 2015. Later in May, star Hayley Atwell stated that the season would consist of eight episodes. Executive producers for the season include Tara Butters, Michelle Fazekas, Christopher Markus, Stephen McFeely, Chris Dingess, Kevin Feige, Louis D'Esposito, Alan Fine, Joe Quesada, Stan Lee, and Jeph Loeb. Butters, Fazekas, and Dingess serve as showrunners on the season.
### Writing
Markus & McFeely, writers on the Captain America films, had written a script for the first episode by January 2014. They stated in March that the series would be set in 1946, occurring in the middle of the timeline established in the One-Shot. In July, Butters and Fazekas revealed that writing for the rest of the season would begin in August 2014.
In July 2014, Fazekas stated that it was "fabulous from a writing perspective" to have an eight episode order, as "you can plan it and know where you're heading... They're all their own stories and they all have their own drive, but it's sort of building toward a big thing at the end of the eight episodes." Elaborating on this, Atwell said, "it's incredibly tight, the script, which is great. It's fast moving and fast paced but luckily because it's not stretched out of 22 episodes, nothing is diluted. Every line is vital to not only moving the story and the action [along] but also developing the characters." The season's overarching storyline revolves around the chemical weapon Midnight Oil, which is based on the Madbomb of the Captain America comics. The Madbomb was originally considered for use in Captain America: Civil War, before negotiations with actors to adapt the "Civil War" storyline were completed. Also in July, it was revealed that Carter's husband would be explored in the series. However, he was ultimately not explored much in the first season, with McFeely saying, "This was the season where she says goodbye to Steve [Rogers]... In a second season, she could be freer to have those conversations about a life after him."
Speaking about the season's use of 1940s terminology, Fazekas stated that terms like "broad" and "dame" were preferably avoided, while research was done to ensure terms that were used in the series were actually in use during that time, with Fazekas giving the example, "you know what didn't exist in 1946? Smart ass. I looked up the etymology on that, didn't exist in 1946. Turns out it was a term that came around in the 60s. But for instance, I wrote a line that said, "Oh I think someone's yanking your chain." And I had to look it up, did that exist in 1946? And actually it did; it's a mining term that exists from a long time ago. That's our research that we do." Research was also done on radio shows of the time to ensure realism when creating the fictional Captain America Adventure Program, with details discovered and replicated on the series including the use of lobsters and ham to create sound effects for the radio show. The Griffith Hotel, the all-women boarding house where Carter lives, is based on the real-life Barbizon Hotel for Women. Butters felt that while working in the time period, it became an issue to not sound "too period". Additionally, it was difficult to write British people from the time in order to avoid stereotypes such as the "typical British butler". However, D'Arcy, who is British, felt the writing staff wrote the British characters better than anyone else he had worked with, despite there not being any British writers on the staff.
### Casting
The main cast for the season includes Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter, reprising her role from the film series, James D'Arcy as Edwin Jarvis, Chad Michael Murray as Jack Thompson, Enver Gjokaj as Daniel Sousa, and Shea Whigham as Roger Dooley.
In March 2014, Markus and McFeely stated that Howard Stark would be a recurring character, contingent on Dominic Cooper's involvement. In June 2014, Atwell confirmed that Cooper would be involved with the series. Kyle Bornheimer, Ralph Brown, Meagen Fay, Lyndsy Fonseca, and Bridget Regan also recur as Ray Krzeminski, Johann Fennhoff, Miriam Fry, Angie Martinelli, and Dottie Underwood, respectively, throughout the series.
In November 2014, it was announced that Costa Ronin would portray a younger version of Anton Vanko, who was portrayed in Iron Man 2 by Yevgeni Lazarev. Chris Evans appears as Steve Rogers / Captain America via archive footage from The First Avenger. Neal McDonough and Toby Jones also reprise their roles of Timothy "Dum Dum" Dugan and Arnim Zola from previous MCU films, One-Shots, and/or television series during the season.
### Filming
Filming began in Los Angeles around late September / early October 2014, with the working title Nylon, and was completed on January 20, 2015. Filming locations included Los Angeles City Hall, Griffith Park, Royce Canyon, the marina in San Pedro, and the Port of Los Angeles.
Cinematographer Gabriel Beristain, returning from the One-Shot, used a combination of modern digital technology and traditional analog techniques to replicate the feel of classic films that are set in the 1940s, but to also have the convenience and consistency of modern technology. Beristain uses the Arri Alexa digital camera, along with Leica Lenses and silk-stocking diffusion nets, the latter on which he recalled "I had last used in the 1980s in England on videos and commercials. I remembered that they were fantastic. In combination with the Leica lenses, the look is very classic, very much like a 1940s film. When I saw it, I said, 'This is absolutely Marvel,' and [D'Esposito] agreed." For the series' lighting, Beristain again mixed modern and traditional, using LED fixtures to recreate classic Hollywood lighting. He called his lighting of Atwell "an homage to the great cinematographers who lit Lauren Bacall and Grace Kelly."
### Visual effects
Sheena Duggal, who served as visual effects supervisor on the Agent Carter One-Shot, returned to the position for the series, while the companies Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and Base FX created the visual effects. Work by ILM includes the creation of backdrops for the series, including matte paintings, depicting 1940s New York. DNeg TV also created visual effects, with ILM coordinating with them and Base to maintain a "seamless workflow". The season had 1038 visual effects shots, with multiple episodes being worked on in post-production simultaneously to complete the work. In addition to all the set extensions required to depict the period (the series filmed at "every back lot in LA, including Universal, Paramount and Warner Bros., relying on a tremendous amount of green screen and matte paintings to create the show's authentic-looking locations"), Duggal also noted difficulty in simulating the imploding bombs and creating a fully CG truck that drives off a cliff.
### Music
In September 2014, Christopher Lennertz officially signed on to compose for the series, having previously composed the Agent Carter One-Shot. Lennertz combined all the different style elements of the show in the music, such as mixing jazz and period elements, with orchestra and electronic elements. In his research of the music of the time period, Lennertz learned that jazz was shifting from big band to smaller ensembles, and bebop was being introduced. This allowed him to incorporate trumpets in his scores, to harken to the time period and because they are "also very sneaky, and it lends itself to espionage". Lennertz used the alto flute to capture "Carter's aura", saying, "It feels like a strong woman's voice, especially as she's sneaking around....it also has that spy quality." Additionally, Lennertz was able to reorchestrate "Star-Spangled Man" for the season, which is originally by Alan Menken for Captain America: The First Avenger, and introduced a folk choral piece performed by a Russian men's choir during "The Iron Ceiling". A soundtrack album for the season was released on iTunes on December 11, 2015.
All music composed by Christopher Lennertz.
### Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins
Markus, talking about the series place in the greater architecture of the MCU in January 2015 said "you really only need to drop the tiniest bit of hint and its connected. You don't have to go, "Howard Stark's wearing the same pants that Tony wears!" ... Everything is enhanced just by the knowledge that its all connected." The season introduces the Red Room program, which would eventually produce Natasha Romanoff, who appears in multiple MCU films portrayed by Scarlett Johansson. Although the origins of the program are explored, the term "Black Widow" is never used in the series. Agent Carter also explores the origins of the Hydra-led Winter Soldier program, as seen by the end tag in "Valediction" when Zola approaches Faustus about mind control. The law firm Goodman, Kurtzberg, and Holliway is mentioned, with a modern-day version of the law firm, Goodman, Lieber, Kurtzberg, and Holliway, appearing in the Marvel Studios Disney+ series She-Hulk: Attorney at Law (2022).
## Marketing
In the lead up to the airing of the series, Atwell made several appearances as Carter in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s second season. Footage from the first episode was shown at New York Comic Con on October 10, 2014, and again in ABC's one-hour television special, Marvel 75 Years: From Pulp to Pop!, which aired in November 2014. The first teaser for the series debuted during Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on October 28, 2014, with the tagline "Sometimes the best man for the job ... is a woman." Though the trailer itself was received positively, the tagline was criticized as "awful" and "ridiculous", and Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said "I get that one of the themes of the show will be Peggy dealing with the sexism of the time, but these ads exist in 2014, not 1945. Please find a new tagline."
## Release
### Broadcast
Agent Carter debuted in the United States and Canada as a two-hour series premiere on January 6, 2015, on ABC and CTV, respectively. It began airing in New Zealand on TV2 on February 11, 2015. In October 2014, Channel 4, the channel that airs Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the United Kingdom, stated that they did not "have any current plans [to air] Agent Carter". In June 2015, FOX UK purchased the broadcast rights for the United Kingdom, with the series premiering on July 12, 2015.
### Home media
The season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 18, 2015, as an Amazon.com exclusive. On November 29, 2017, Hulu acquired the exclusive streaming rights to the series, and the season was made available on Disney+ at launch, on November 12, 2019.
## Reception
### Ratings
The season averaged 7.14 million total viewers, including from DVR, ranking 74th among network series in the 2014–15 television season. It also had an average total 18-49 rating of 2.3, which was 46th.
### Critical response
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 96% approval rating with an average rating of 7.90/10 based on 50 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Focusing on Peggy Carter as a person first and an action hero second makes Marvel's Agent Carter a winning, stylish drama with bursts of excitement and an undercurrent of cheeky fun". Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 73 out of 100 based on 27 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."
Brian Lowry, reviewing the two-part premiere for Variety, felt that giving Atwell her own television series was "a pretty smart bet" by Marvel, and he called the episodes "considerable fun". He noted the period setting as contributing to this, and positively mentioned the score by composer Christopher Lennertz. Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly felt that "the show isn't as retro-stylish as it thinks it is ... the first hour of Agent Carter feels like an above-average episode of Young Indiana Jones Chronicles", noting that it tonally aims for His Girl Friday, Dick Tracy, and Alias ("A tough tonal mixture on a weekly broadcast budget, but also an ambition worth pursuing"), but praised Atwell's performance, calling her "a delight" and "firing on all cylinders". Franich was negative about what he saw to be common MCU tropes, notably "Somebody named Stark invented something dangerous; everyone wants an All-Important Glowing Thing; there's an implicit promise that nothing will be solved for weeks/years to come." Though he was wary about the series being forced to contribute to the rest of the MCU, he did note that "Agent Carter feels pleasantly segmented off from the greater Marvel Machinery".
Eric Goldman of IGN gave the first season an 8.8 out of 10, saying, "Agent Carter didn't need to succeed by setting up something to pay off in Guardians of the Galaxy 2 – it just needed to be an entertaining, involving show. And boy, was it." He also praised the Peggy/Jarvis dynamic, the MCU tie-ins and connections the series included, such as the Black Widow program, and the strong portrayals of the season's supporting characters. Amy Ratcliffe at Nerdist called the season "a memorable splash" a noted that the lack of filler in the short season lead to "action-packed but not overstuffed" episodes. She praised the "period aspect that's defined so well by music, sets, and costumes" as placing the series "head and shoulders above others", and called the cast "eminently talented". On the other hand, Lowry ultimately found the series "just didn't have legs", saying that after the premiere it "meandered through several episodes that merely seemed to inch the story along, rallying only slightly in the not wholly satisfying conclusion." He felt that outside of Atwell's Carter and D'Arcy's Jarvis that characters were not developed enough, and said that the MCU tie-in with Toby Jones' Arnim Zola made the series seem like "a footnote".
### Accolades
Maureen Ryan of Variety named the show one of the Top 20 Best New Shows of 2015, while Digital Spy ranked it 10th on their Best TV Shows of 2015 list. The A.V. Club named Atwell's performance as one of the "Best Individual Performances" of 2015. |
138,221 | Mill Creek, Washington | 1,166,787,529 | City in Washington, United States | [
"Cities in Snohomish County, Washington",
"Cities in Washington (state)",
"Cities in the Seattle metropolitan area"
]
| Mill Creek is a city in Snohomish County, Washington, United States. It is located between the cities of Everett and Lynnwood, approximately 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Seattle. The city has a population of 20,926 as of the 2020 census. The city lies along State Route 527 and North Creek, a tributary of the Sammamish River, on the east side of Interstate 5.
The city is one of the wealthiest suburbs in the Seattle metropolitan area and was originally a planned community conceived in the 1970s. The planned development was centered around a country club and golf course, with other development occurring nearby in later phases. It was incorporated as a city in 1983, shortly after the completion of the first phase of development, and underwent major population growth due to continued suburban development and annexation of nearby areas. The city's downtown area is centered around the Mill Creek Town Center, a mixed-use lifestyle center and retail complex that opened in 2004.
## History
### Development
The Mill Creek area was originally settled in the early 20th century by various farming families, from whom several local placenames are now derived. After the construction of the Bothell–Everett Highway in 1913 as part of the Pacific Highway, two junctions at Murphy's Corner and Wintermute's Corner gained small stores and filling stations to serve visitors. In 1931, Doctor Manch N. Garhart acquired 800 acres (320 ha) in the area and used it to grow Gravenstein apples and Bartlett pears while also raising cattle. The Garhart property, named Lake Dell Farm for a small reservoir built by local families, was later sold in 1967 to real estate developers after the market for local lumber and fruits had declined.
The Garhart property, along with several neighboring farms, were optioned by various real estate developers in the 1960s and 1970s as a potential master planned community due to its proximity to the recently completed Interstate 5. It would be the first modern planned city in Washington state, following in the footsteps of earlier planned cities like Longview, built in 1918. The community, named "Olympus", was planned to include 3,300 acres (1,300 ha) in its first phase with 1,300 acres (530 ha) for homes, an industrial park, a shopping center, and a golf course. After a local recession in the early 1970s, the development project was sold in 1973 to Tokyu Land Development and designed by a subsidiary of the Obayashi Corporation named United Development. The development was renamed "Mill Creek", beating out the Chinook Jargon word "Klahanie", although there had never been a mill in the vicinity and a waterway of that name was not present in the area until the 2000 renaming of Smokehouse Creek.
Mill Creek's master plan was submitted to the county council in January 1974. A homeowners association was established in December 1974 with funding from United Development to manage the area's security patrol, street maintenance, and other tasks. The initial plan included consist of 4,600 homes, with eventual plans to house 12,000 people, a 260-acre (110 ha) park, and an 18-hole golf course. Construction began in early 1975 on the golf course and adjoining country club, while the first homes were under construction by the following year. The first set of homes were designed to resemble country residences, with large floorplans and prominent use of wood furnishings, and sold for an average of \$65,000 (equivalent to \$ in dollars). Tokyu Land Development later re-used these home designs for the domestic market in Japan, where they were sold under the "Mill Creek" brand in the 1990s. The final phase of the original Mill Creek development, consisting of 33 condominiums, was completed in late 2003.
### Incorporation and annexations
A majority of the first phase's 1,767 homes and condominiums were completed by early 1983, when an incorporation petition was submitted by residents after reaching the population threshold of 3,000 needed for cityhood. At the time, the homeowners association and county government had already provided much of the area's infrastructure and maintenance requirements, but local residents resisted attempts to raise property tax assessments. Mill Creek was officially incorporated as a city on September 30, 1983, ten days after a vote of residents passed, and encompassed 1.92 square miles (5.0 km<sup>2</sup>). Mill Creek was the first new city to be incorporated in Snohomish County since Brier in 1965 and the newest in the state since Ocean Shores in 1970.
In the years following incorporation, Mill Creek reduced its property tax rates and formed its own police department, library, postal address, and land-use board. The city's telephone system was split between three long-distance calling areas by GTE until the state utilities and transportation commission approved a consolidated calling area for toll-free service. Sid Hanson, the chairman of the incorporation committee, was elected as the city's first mayor and served a single term until declining to run for re-election in 1987. The city government's offices moved four times by the end of the decade, between various leased buildings that all served as temporary city halls. A separate post office serving the city was promised at the time of incorporation, but was not opened until 1994.
The city attempted its first annexations in 1986, but an advisory vote of existing residents rejected one proposal and the city council deferred action on another. Mill Creek approved its first annexation, an 88-acre (36 ha) parcel southeast of the main development, in July 1987, while the nearby city of Everett began its own annexations of areas to the north of Mill Creek. In 1989, the city proposed a major annexation of 350 acres (140 ha), a 25 percent increase in size, to add undeveloped commercial parcels on the west side of the Bothell–Everett Highway. The western annexation was initially opposed by the county government, but was approved alongside four other annexations after Mill Creek agreed to share costs for road improvements to handle additional traffic demand.
Everett attempted to annex the entire Murphy's Corner area in the late 1980s, but was forced to split the neighborhood at 132nd Street with Mill Creek after a decision by the state court of appeals and additional arbitration by boundary review boards. The Henry M. Jackson High School was opened in 1994 and is located on the Mill Creek side of Murphy's Corner, which was annexed the following year. A private high school, Archbishop Murphy High School, was opened in 1999 on a 22-acre (8.9 ha) campus in northeastern Mill Creek. The 553-acre (224 ha) Thomas Lake area in the northeastern corner of the city, bordered to the north by 132nd Street and east by Seattle Hill Road, was annexed in 2005 and added 2,200 residents to the city's population. The annexations of other developed subdivisions, lacking the original development's upscale image, created a divide between residents on the issue of further growth. Residents in several potential annexation targets preferred to be left alone by Mill Creek, due to its "snobbish" reputation, which faded as new neighborhoods were absorbed into the city.
### 21st century
In the late 1980s, Mill Creek drafted a comprehensive plan that would transform its newly-annexed commercial area into a mixed-use downtown area to support the growing city. The 23-acre (9.3 ha) downtown development would include a large public park, shopping areas, recreational facilities, multi-use trails, and office buildings. After difficulty in finding a suitable developer, the Mill Creek Town Center began construction in 2001 and the first phase opened three years later. The second phase was completed in 2007, with 26 retail buildings, a medical clinic, condominiums, and a downtown plaza.
The Bothell–Everett Highway (now State Route 527) remained a two-lane rural highway through Mill Creek until the start of an expansion and improvement program in the 1990s. It was widened to four lanes with a center turn lane, and also gained bicycle lanes, sidewalks, and new landscaping features. The section through Mill Creek, from 164th Street to 132nd Street, was completed in 2006 and required the construction of retaining walls and detention ponds due to the limited space for the road. The project also included new bus stops that were later upgraded with the opening of the Swift Green Line bus rapid transit system in March 2019.
The city government began planning for a second urban village, to be located in newly-annexed areas at the northeast edge of the city, in 2007. The retail and residential development, named the East Gateway, would have been located on 52 acres (21 ha) along 132nd Street, and was originally slated to be anchored by a Wal-Mart until the company scrapped plans after protests from local residents. The eastern half of the development began construction in 2012 and will encompass 210 apartments, 104 townhouses, office space, and retail. Development of the remaining western half was approved in 2019 and branded as "The Farm at Mill Creek", consisting of 354 apartments, retail space, workforce housing units, and office space. It will be anchored by the first suburban Amazon Go in the state, and a hotel.
## Geography
The city of Mill Creek has a total area of 4.69 square miles (12.15 km<sup>2</sup>) according to the United States Census Bureau. The city limits of Mill Creek are generally defined to the west by North Creek, to the north by 132nd Street Southeast (part of State Route 96) and Everett, to the east by Seattle Hill Road and 35th Avenue Southeast, and to the south by 163rd Street Southeast and North Creek County Park. The city is surrounded by a larger urban growth area that encompasses unincorporated land, including the communities of Martha Lake, Mill Creek East and Silver Firs, with an population of 68,746 people in 2020. The urban growth area extends west to Interstate 5, including an overlapping claim with Lynnwood and south to 196th Street Southeast at the north end of the Bothell claim.
Several creeks flow through the city, including North Creek (a tributary of the Sammamish River), Penny Creek, and Nickel Creek. A minor stream known as Smokehouse Creek was renamed to Mill Creek in 2001, retroactively giving the city a geographic namesake. The center of Mill Creek lies along State Route 527, between two protected wetlands along North Creek and Penny Creek. The original plat of Mill Creek, located east of State Route 527, consists of 21 neighborhood subdivisions that are named for various types of trees.
## Economy
As of 2015, Mill Creek has an estimated workforce population of 10,227 people and an unemployment rate of 2.2 percent. The largest industry of employment for Mill Creek residents is in educational services and health care, at over 21 percent, followed by manufacturing (16%), professional services (15%), and retail trade (12%). Approximately 3 percent of the city's workers have jobs located within city limits, with the majority commuting to employers in other cities, with an average commute time of 31 minutes. Over 21 percent of workers commute to Seattle, the largest destination, followed by Everett (16%), Bellevue (8%), and Bothell (5%).
The Puget Sound Regional Council estimated that the city had a total of 6,262 jobs as of 2018, with the largest sectors being professional services and construction. Mill Creek's largest employers include Albertsons, Central Market, The Everett Clinic, Lowe's, Safeway, and the Mill Creek County Club. The city was formerly the headquarters of video games developer Handheld Games and food manufacturer Dream Dinners.
## Demographics
Mill Creek is the eighth largest city in Snohomish County, with an estimated population of 20,902 in 2021. It is one of the most affluent suburbs of Seattle and has a median household income of \$86,965 and a per capita income of \$42,858, ranking 22nd of 281 areas within the state, just behind nearby Mukilteo. Approximately 4.1 percent of families and 6.4 percent of the overall population were below the poverty line, including 14.9 percent of those under the age of 18 and 2.5 percent aged 65 or older. Mill Creek was ranked 36th on a 2013 Money magazine list of best places to live, based on its quality of life, housing affordability, and school system.
The city's population has steadily grown from 3,549 at the time of its incorporation in 1983 to over 19,000 in 2016, due to several annexations. From 1983 to 1990, it increased by 298 percent to 7,172 residents.
### 2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 18,244 people, 7,551 households, and 4,921 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,906.6 inhabitants per square mile (1,508.3/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 7,923 housing units at an average density of 1,696.6 per square mile (655.1/km<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 74.2% White, 2.2% African American, 0.5% Native American, 16.7% Asian, 0.4% Pacific Islander, 1.6% from other races, and 4.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.6% of the population.
There were 7,551 households, of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.7% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.8% were non-families. Of all Mill Creek households, 27.4% were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.99.
The median age in the city was 38.9 years, with 23.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.6% were from 45 to 64; and 12.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.
### 2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 11,525 people, 4,631 households, and 3,250 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,231.3 people per square mile (1,246.5/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 4,769 housing units at an average density of 1,337.1 per square mile (515.8/km<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 81.5% White, 1.4% African American, 0.4% Native American, 12.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 1.1% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.3% of the population.
There were 4,631 households, out of which 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.8% were married couples living together, 5.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.8% were non-families. Of all Mill Creek households, 24.0% were made up of individuals, and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 2.98.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 24.3% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 27.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was \$69,702, and the median income for a family was \$87,263. Males had a median income of \$59,070 versus \$39,138 for females. The per capita income for the city was \$36,234. About 3.0% of families and 3.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 3.6% of those age 65 or over.
## Government and politics
Mill Creek is a non-charter code city with a council–manager government. The city council is composed of seven members elected in non-partisan, at-large elections to four-year terms. The councilmembers elect a ceremonial mayor and mayor pro tem from its members and appoint a city manager to execute its legislative policies. The current mayor is councilman Brian Holtzclaw, who was appointed in 2020 after the mid-term resignation of Pam Pruitt. The city manager is Michael Ciaravino, who was appointed in May 2019 after the position was held by an interim manager for a year.
The city government has approximately 65 employees and a biennial appropriations budget of \$59 million. Mill Creek provides civil services through its departments, including emergency services, parks and recreation, city planning, and public works. Several services are also contracted out to regional agencies and private companies, including water distribution, electricity, and fire protection. The city hall is located at the Huntron Building, which was acquired by the city government in 2008 and is located adjacent to the former city office building.
At the federal level, Mill Creek has been part of the 1st congressional district since 2012 and is represented by Democrat Suzan DelBene of Medina. At the state level, the city is part of the 44th legislative district alongside Lake Stevens and Snohomish. Mill Creek is also part of the Snohomish County Council's 4th district, which includes northern Bothell, Brier, and Mountlake Terrace; the district is represented by Jared Mead, a former Mill Creek city councilman and state legislator who was appointed in 2020.
## Culture
### Events
Mill Creek hosts a twice-annual community garage sale in May and October that was permitted by the covenants of the original development. The event, one of the largest of its kind in the county, brings an influx of outside traffic and is also coordinated with charity donations. The city's chamber of commerce has an annual festival in July, while the town center has weekly concerts during the summertime. The city also hosts annual parades on Memorial Day and Veterans Day. Mill Creek's farmers market runs from June to August and is located in the city hall parking lot.
### Parks and recreation
Mill Creek has ten parks and two other recreational facilities maintained by the city government and located within city limits, comprising a total of 43 acres (17 ha). The city's ten neighborhood parks include playgrounds, sports facilities, and picnic tables; they range in size from the 1.2-acre (0.49 ha) Library Park to the 19.75-acre (7.99 ha) Nickel Creek Park. The Mill Creek Sports Park is a 4.8-acre (1.9 ha) park with a multi-purpose field for baseball, softball, and youth soccer, along with stands and a skate park.
The county government has several parks and recreational facilities near Mill Creek, including McCollum Park on State Route 96, Martha Lake Park to the west of the city, and North Creek Park at the south end of the city. McCollum Park and North Creek Park are connected to Mill Creek by a north–south multi-use pathway, the North Creek Trail, which continues south to Bothell. Mill Creek and the county also share joint ownership of Tambark Creek Park, located southeast of the city.
The golf course at the center of the original Mill Creek subdivision is owned by the members of the private country club, who purchased the facility for \$5.2 million in 2007. The golf course is 300 yards (270 m) short of the required length to host a professional men's tournament. Mill Creek also has a private indoor sports arena that opened in 2017, encompassing 98,500 square feet (9,150 m<sup>2</sup>) with three soccer fields, a bowling alley, and a laser tag arena.
### Media
Mill Creek is served by several community publications, including the twice-monthly Mill Creek Beacon, the weekly News of Mill Creek, and the quarterly Mill Creek Living magazine. The Beacon was founded in 2014 and is owned by Beacon Publishing, which also operates weekly newspapers in Edmonds and Mukilteo. The Mill Creek View is a biweekly newspaper founded by Fred Fillbrook that has served the area since January 1991. A regional weekly newspaper, The Enterprise, formerly published a Mill Creek edition until a consolidation in 2009.
The city's public library was constructed in 1987 and expanded several times by Sno-Isle Libraries, its operator. Due to overcrowding at the current building, the city government considered a proposal to build a new library atop a Target store in the East Gateway urban village, but the plan fell through.
### Notable people
- John E. Corbally, academic administrator and philanthropist
- Mark Harmsworth, state legislator
- Jerry Jensen, American football player and coach
- Ivan Koumaev, dancer
- Brent Lillibridge, baseball player
- John Lovick, state and county legislator
- August P. Mardesich, state legislator
- Brett McClure, Olympic gymnast
- Jared Mead, state representative
- Ramsey Nijem, mixed martial artist
- Jordan Schweitzer, soccer player
- Travis Snider, baseball player
- Paul Soloway, world bridge champion
- Wendy Sue Swanson, pediatrician and author
- Daniel Te'o-Nesheim, American football player
## Education
Public education in Mill Creek is provided by Everett Public Schools, which serves the adjacent city of Everett and several unincorporated neighborhoods. The school district covers 52 square miles (130 km<sup>2</sup>) and has a total enrollment of more than 20,200 students. Mill Creek and its surrounding urban growth area is home to seven of the school district's 32 schools: Henry M. Jackson High School, Heatherwood Middle School, Gateway Middle School, and four elementary schools. The area also has several private schools, including Archbishop Murphy High School and Cedar Park Christian School. The nearest post-secondary institution is University of Washington Bothell, which draws students from southern Snohomish County.
## Infrastructure
### Transportation
Mill Creek lies east of Interstate 5, the main north–south freeway through the Seattle metropolitan area with connections to Downtown Seattle and Everett. The city is bisected from north to south by State Route 527 (the Bothell–Everett Highway), which continues to Bothell. The two highways are connected by a pair of east–west streets, 164th Street and 128th Street (State Route 96), which continue further east into the residential neighborhoods of Mill Creek and towards State Route 9.
The city's public transportation is provided by Community Transit, which also serves most of the county, and consists of several local and commuter bus routes. The county's second bus rapid transit route, the Swift Green Line, travels along State Route 527 and has several stops in Mill Creek, connecting the city to Paine Field and northern Bothell; a third bus rapid transit route, the Orange Line, is planned to open in 2024 to connect Mill Creek to Link light rail at Lynnwood Transit Center. Other local routes connect Mill Creek to Everett, Lynnwood, Silver Firs, and Snohomish. During rush hours, two commuter routes connect the State Route 527 and 132nd Street corridors to Downtown Seattle. The Ash Way Park and Ride is located west of the Mill Creek Town Center and has additional connections to Community Transit and Sound Transit Express routes. A Link light rail extension to Everett is planned to open in 2036 with stations at Ash Way and Mariner Park and Ride near Mill Creek.
A private airfield, Martha Lake Airport, operated west of modern-day Mill Creek from 1953 to 1998. It has since been converted into a county park, after the owners rejected a proposal to develop it into a housing subdivision. The nearest commercial airport is Paine Field, located 3 miles (4.8 km) northwest in Everett.
### Utilities
Electric power in Mill Creek is provided by the Snohomish County Public Utility District (PUD), a consumer-owned public utility that serves all of Snohomish County. Puget Sound Energy provides natural gas service to the city's residents and businesses. The city government has a contract with Waste Management for curbside garbage, recycling, and yard waste collection and disposal.
The city's tap water and sewage systems are split between the Alderwood Water and Wastewater District and the Silver Lake Water and Sewer District, two independent municipal corporations. Both water districts use the Spada Lake reservoir, the main source of water for Snohomish County, and send wastewater to the Brightwater plant in Maltby and a facility in Everett.
### Health care
Mill Creek is located near an urgent care center operated by Swedish Medical Center, which opened in 2011 and has an emergency room and other services. The Everett Clinic opened a 6,400-square-foot (590 m<sup>2</sup>) facility in December 2016, offering walk-in and community services. An urgent care center operated by EvergreenHealth opened in 2018 with an on-site laboratory and nine exam rooms. Seattle Children's Hospital also operated a children's health clinic in Mill Creek until 2018, when it was replaced by a countywide facility adjacent to Everett's Providence Regional Medical Center. |
22,895,597 | William Windsor (goat) | 1,173,188,669 | Cashmere goat | [
"2000 animal births",
"British Army animals",
"Individual goats",
"Military animals",
"Royal Welch Fusiliers soldiers"
]
| William "Billy" Windsor I is a cashmere goat who served as a lance corporal in the 1st Battalion, the Royal Welsh, an infantry battalion of the British Army. He served as a lance corporal from 2001 until 2009, except for a three-month period in 2006 when he was demoted to fusilier, after inappropriate behaviour during the Queen's Official Birthday celebrations while deployed on active duty with the battalion on Cyprus. He retired to Whipsnade Zoo in May 2009.
His young replacement is known as William Windsor II.
## History
The tradition of having goats in the military originated in 1775, when a wild goat walked onto the battlefield in Boston during the American Revolutionary War and led the Welsh regimental colours at the end of the Battle of Bunker Hill. Another Welsh military goat, Taffy IV, served in the First World War. Taffy, of 2nd Battalion, Welsh Regiment, is officially recorded as "The Regimental Goat". He embarked for the war on 13 August 1914 and saw action in the Retreat from Mons, the First Battle of Ypres (including the Battle of Gheluvelt) and the Battles of Festubert and Givenchy, before dying on 20 January 1915. He was posthumously awarded the 1914 Star, British War Medal and the Victory Medal.
The royal goat herd was originally obtained from Mohammad Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia from 1834 to 1848, when he presented them to Queen Victoria as a gift in 1837 upon her accession to the throne.
The herd thrived on Llandudno's Great Orme; by 2001 they reached a population of 250, and were in danger of running out of food. Following complaints about goats wandering into people's gardens, the council rejected proposals for a cull, deciding to use a combination of rehoming and birth control. RSPCA marksmen tranquillised nannies and inserted contraceptive progesterone implants to control the numbers of the genetically unique breed. By 2007, 85 goats had been relocated to areas including Kent, Yorkshire, the Brecon Beacons and Somerset, but further efforts were interrupted by an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease.
## William Windsor I
Billy, a Kashmir goat, is descended from the same royal bloodline as the original herd, but was not selected from the wild population; he was born in Whipsnade Zoo. He was presented to the regiment by Queen Elizabeth II in 2001. The tradition is not new: since 1844, the British monarchy has presented an unbroken series of Kashmir goats to the Royal Welch Fusiliers from the Crown's own royal herd.
Billy—Army number 25232301—is "not a mascot, but a ranking member of the regiment", according to the BBC. Since joining in 2001, he has performed duties overseas, and has paraded before royalty. His primary duty was to march at the head of the battalion on all ceremonial duties. He was present for every parade in which the regiment participated. Billy's full-time handler was Lance Corporal Ryan Arthur, who carried the title of "Goat Major".
### Temporary demotion
On 16 June 2006, a parade was held to celebrate Queen Elizabeth II's 80th birthday, at the Episkopi base near Limassol, Cyprus on the Mediterranean island's south coast. Invited dignitaries included the ambassadors of Spain, the Netherlands and Sweden and the Argentine commander of United Nations' forces on Cyprus.
The deployment to Cyprus with the 1st Battalion was Billy's first overseas posting, and despite being ordered to keep in line, he refused to obey. He failed to keep in step, and tried to headbutt a drummer. The goat major, Lance Corporal Dai Davies, 22, from Neath, South Wales, was unable to keep him under control.
Billy was charged with "unacceptable behaviour", "lack of decorum" and "disobeying a direct order", and had to appear before his commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Huw James. Following a disciplinary hearing, he was demoted to fusilier.
A Canadian animal rights group protested to the British Army, stating that he was merely "acting the goat", and should be reinstated. Three months later, on 20 September at the same parade ground, Billy regained his rank during the Alma Day parade which celebrates the Royal Welsh victory in the Crimean War. Captain Simon Clarke said, "Billy performed exceptionally well, he has had all summer to reflect on his behaviour at the Queen's birthday and clearly earned the rank he deserves".
Billy received his promotion from the colonel of the Royal Welsh Regiment, Brigadier Roderick Porter. As a result of regaining his rank, he also regained his membership of the corporals' mess.
Billy is not the first goat in the army to have troubles. At one time a royal goat was "prostituted" by being offered for stud services by the regiment's serving goat major to a Wrexham goat breeder. First charged with lèse-majesté, the goat major was ultimately court-martialled under the lesser charge of "disrespect to an officer" and reduced in rank. The goat major claimed he did it out of compassion for the goat, but this failed to impress the court. Another royal fusilier goat earned the nickname "the rebel", after he butted a colonel while he was stooped over fixing his uniform's trouser-strap. The incident was described as a "disgraceful act of insubordination."
### Retirement
On 20 May 2009, following 8 years of distinguished service, Billy retired due to his age. Billy was taken to Whipsnade Zoo in Bedfordshire, where keepers say he had an easy life at the Children's Farm.
## William Windsor II
In order to replace Billy, thirty members of 1st Battalion set off to Great Orme in Llandudno on 15 June 2009 at 03:00, hoping to catch the feral goats in a docile state. A team led by Lieutenant-Colonel Nick Lock (Commanding Officer) included the goat major and several veterinarians. Army spokesman Gavin O’Connor said, "We are looking for a goat which is calm under pressure and a team player." During the selection of a replacement goat, the battalion helped to start an alternative vaccine method of birth control among the herd, since hormone implants that were previously employed to control numbers are no longer available.
With some difficulty, a five-month-old was chosen, and assigned army number 25142301—which represents regiment number 2514, 23rd Regiment of Foot (the original name of the Royal Welsh Fusiliers), and 01 denoting the 1st Battalion. The new goat will also be called William Windsor, beginning as a fusilier while being trained for military life. He will receive a ration of two cigarettes per day, which he eats, but will not be permitted Guinness until he is older.
## See also
- Military animal
- Military mascot
- Nils Olav, mascot penguin
- Bill the Goat, United States Naval Academy mascot
- Wojtek (bear)
- Sergeant Bill |
69,943,198 | CSS Carondelet | 1,149,453,816 | Sidewheel steamer | [
"1862 ships",
"Gunboats of the Confederate States Navy",
"Maritime incidents in April 1862",
"Scuttled vessels",
"Ships built in New Orleans",
"Shipwrecks of the American Civil War"
]
| CSS Carondelet was a sidewheel steamer that served in the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War. Construction for the vessel started in 1861, and she was launched on January 25, 1862, and commissioned on March 16. Her sister ship was CSS Bienville. On April 4, Carondelet, along with CSS Oregon and CSS Pamlico, took part in a small naval action near Pass Christian against USS New London, USS John P. Jackson, and the troop transport USS Henry Lewis. Carondelet suffered damage to her wheel during the fight, and likely fired the only two shots that struck John P. Jackson. Later that month, with the Confederates abandoning New Orleans, Louisiana, Carondelet was scuttled by her crew in either Lake Pontchartrain, the Tchefuncte River, or the Bogue Falaya River.
## Service history
In late 1861, during the American Civil War, Confederate authorities were establishing a naval force to defend New Orleans, Louisiana. Many vessels had been sent north up the Mississippi River to help defend Columbus, Kentucky, but a smaller fleet remained in the New Orleans area. To strengthen the New Orleans fleet, two sister ships were constructed on Bayou St. John: Carondelet and the steamer CSS Bienville. Carondelet was built by S. D. Porter of the Confederate States Navy and by John Hughes. A sidewheel steamer, she was launched on January 25, 1862 and commissioned on March 16. She weighed 700 tons and was 200 feet (61 m) long, with a small draft. Naval historian Paul Silverstone states that she was armed with five 42-pounder cannon, while historian W. Craig Gaines and the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships state that she was also armed with a 32-pounder rifled cannon.
After her commissioning, Carondelet was placed under the command of First Lieutenant Washington Gwathmey. As sailors were in short supply, the ship's crew was supplemented by 30 Confederate States Army soldiers from the garrison of Fort Pike. The 42-pounder guns had also come from Army stockpiles. On April 3, two Union Navy ships – the steamers USS New London and USS John P. Jackson – and the troop transport USS Henry Lewis left Biloxi, Mississippi, to move against Confederate positions at Pass Christian. Along with the gunboats CSS Oregon and CSS Pamlico, Carondelet moved to combat the Union vessels on April 4. Henry Lewis withdrew after a Confederate shot struck her deck, wounding three men, and two shots probably fired by Carondelet caused minor damage to John P. Jackson. However, after both Oregon and Carondelet were hit in their wheels and the steamer USS Hatteras arrived to reinforce the Union ships, the Confederate vessels withdrew to Lake Pontchartrain, guarding the Chef Menteur Pass and the Rigolets. The 1,200 troops aboard Henry Lewis were then unloaded onto shore, and the Union forces captured the Pass Christian area and destroyed a local Confederate camp.
On April 24, Union Navy ships passed the Confederate positions of Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip and passed the weaker defenses at Chalmette the next day. New Orleans was now essentially indefensible. Oregon was sunk as a blockship, but the location of the wreck later interfered with attempts by Carondelet, Bienville, Pamlico, and the transport CSS Arrow to escape. After ferrying Confederate troops out of the city to Covington across Lake Pontchartrain, Carondelet, Bienville, and Pamlico were scuttled by their crews on April 25. Their cannons were sent to Vicksburg, Mississippi, via the Confederate training facility Camp Moore. Naval historian Neil P. Chatelain, Silverstone, and the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships both state that Carondelet was sunk in Lake Pontchartrain, with Chatelain specifying the northern part of the lake. Gaines states that she was sunk in either the Tchefuncte River or the Bogue Falaya River. The wreck later became covered with sand and was a hazard to navigation. According to Gaines, it was likely removed in 1871 by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. |
8,866,208 | Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong | 1,170,215,047 | Domestic helpers in Hong Kong from other countries | [
"Demographics of Hong Kong",
"Domestic workers of Hong Kong",
"Society of Hong Kong",
"Women's rights in Hong Kong"
]
| Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong (Chinese: 香港外籍家庭傭工) are domestic workers employed by Hongkongers, typically families. Comprising five percent of Hong Kong's population, about 98.5% of them are women. In 2019, there were 400,000 foreign domestic helpers in the territory. Required by law to live in their employer's residence, they perform household tasks such as cooking, serving, cleaning, dishwashing and child care.
Since October 2003 the employment of domestic workers has been subject to the unpopular Employees' Retraining Levy, totalling HK\$9,600 for a two-year contract. It has not been applied since 16 July 2008, and has since been abolished. Whether foreign workers should be able to apply for Hong Kong residency is the subject of debate, and a high-profile court battle for residency by a foreign worker failed.
The conditions of foreign domestic workers are being increasingly scrutinised by human-rights groups and are criticised as tantamount to modern slavery. Documented cases of worker abuse, including the successful prosecution of an employer for subjecting Erwiana Sulistyaningsih to grievous bodily harm, assault, criminal intimidation and unpaid wages, are increasing in number. In March 2016, an NGO, Justice Centre, reported its findings that one domestic worker in six in Hong Kong were deemed to have been forced into labour.
## Terminology
In Hong Kong Cantonese, 女傭 (maid) and 外傭 (foreign servant) are neutral, socially-acceptable words for foreign domestic helpers. Fei yung (菲傭, Filipino servant) referred to foreign domestic helpers, regardless of origin, at a time when most foreign domestic helpers were from the Philippines. The slang term bun mui (賓妹, Pinoy girl) is widely used by local residents.
In Chinese-language government documentation, foreign domestic helpers are referred to as 家庭傭工 (domestic workers) "of foreign nationality" (外籍家庭傭工) or "recruited from abroad" (外地區聘用家庭傭工). Although the government uses words with the same meanings in English-language documentation, it substitutes the term "domestic helper" for "domestic worker". Director of the Bethune House shelter for domestic workers Edwina Antonio has criticised the term "helper", saying that the migrants do dirty jobs; calling them "helpers" strips them of the dignity accorded workers and implies that they can be mistreated, like slaves.
## History
Faced with a poor economy in 1974, Filipino President, Ferdinand Marcos implemented a labour code which began his country's export of labour in the form of overseas workers. The Philippine government encouraged this labour export to reduce the unemployment rate and enrich its treasury with the workers' remittances. The economy of the Philippines became increasingly dependent on labour export; in 1978 labour-export recruiting agencies were privatised, and became a cornerstone of the economy.
Increasing labour export from the Philippines coincided with the economic rise of Hong Kong during the late 1970s and early 1980s. When the People's Republic of China implemented wide-reaching economic reform in the late 1970s and initiated trade with other countries, Hong Kong became mainland China's biggest investor. Labour-intensive Hong Kong industries moved to the mainland, and high-profit service industries in the territory (such as design, marketing and finance) expanded dramatically. To deal with the resulting labour shortage and increase in labour costs, the female labour force was mobilised. Two-income families sought help to manage their households, creating a demand for domestic workers. Female participation in the workforce increased, from 47.5 percent in 1982 to 54.7 percent in 2013. Families began hiring foreign domestic workers from the Philippines, with the number of workers steadily increasing during the 1980s and 1990s.
## Prevalence and demographics
Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan are considered attractive destinations by those seeking employment as domestic workers. According to Quartz, Hong Kong has one of the highest densities of foreign domestic workers in the world and its pay scale is a benchmark for other jurisdictions. Since the mid-1970s, when the foreign-domestic-helper policy was initiated, the number of workers has increased to around 300,000. At the end of 2013, there was an average of one foreign domestic worker for every eight households overall; in households with children, the average is one for every three. Foreign domestic helpers are about 10 percent of the working population. In December 2014 the number of migrant workers employed as helpers was over 330,000, 4.6 percent of the total population; the vast majority were female.
Before the 1980s and increased prosperity on the mainland, Chinese domestic workers were dominant. Until the 1990s, workers then came primarily from the Philippines; the percentage is now shifting from Philippine workers to Indonesian and other nationalities. During the 1990s Indonesia and Thailand followed the Filipino model of labour export to deal with domestic economic crises, and Hong Kong families began hiring workers from those countries as well. The Indonesians provided competition, since those workers were often prepared to accept half the minimum wage.
According to the Immigration Department, in 1998 there were 140,357 Filipino domestic workers in Hong Kong and 31,762 from Indonesia. In 2005, official figures indicated 223,394 "foreign domestic helpers" in the territory; 53.11 percent were from the Philippines, 43.15 percent from Indonesia and 2.05 percent from Thailand. In 2010, the respective numbers were 136,723 from the Philippines (48 percent), 140,720 from Indonesia (49.4 percent), 3,744 from Thailand (1.3 percent), 893 Sri Lankans, 568 Nepalese and 2,253 of other nationalities. Vietnamese are not permitted to work in Hong Kong as domestic workers for what authorities call "security reasons" linked to (according to one lawmaker) historical problems with Vietnamese refugees.
Attempts to import workers from Myanmar and Bangladesh have failed. Indonesian president Joko Widodo has reportedly said that he considers the export of domestic labour a national embarrassment, pledging that his government will end the practice. In a 2001 survey conducted by the Hong Kong's Census and Statistic Department, over half, 54.8%, of foreign domestic helpers have completed secondary studies. For many foreign domestic helpers, they consider themselves unemployed professional since they hold a secondary degree. Furthermore, 60.4% of helpers are fluent in speaking English compared to only 11.2% of helpers who speak Cantonese fluently. In February 2015 there were 331,989 foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong, of which 166,743 were from the Philippines – an increase of 7,000 from the previous year, with the number of Indonesians remaining static.
## Recruitment
Foreign domestic workers are recruited primarily by a large number of specialised agencies, with local firms connected to correspondents in the workers' home countries. Agencies are paid by employers and workers, and are regulated according to the Employment Ordinance and Employment Agency Regulations. Local agencies dealing with workers from the Philippines are accredited by the Philippine consulate. To hire an Indonesian worker, an employer must use an agent, whereas there is no similar requirement for Filipino workers. Although agency fees are regulated by law to 10 percent of one month's salary, some agencies in the workers' countries charge commissions and "training" fees which take several months to pay off. The Philippine government outlawed commissions in 2006, and employment agencies may only charge fees.
## Employment regulations
The government of Hong Kong has drawn up rules and regulations concerning the employment, labour and conditions of stay of foreign domestic helpers. Since 2003, all foreign domestic helpers are required by law to be live-in. An employer and employee are required to enter into a standard, two-year contract specifically for the employment of foreign domestic helpers. Employer regulations include:
- Household income of at least HK\$15,000 (US\$1,920) per month for each foreign domestic helper employed
- A levy of HK\$9,600 for employing a foreign domestic helper, for the duration of a 2-year contract (abolished 31 July 2013)
- Free medical treatment for the foreign domestic helper
- A monthly salary of no less than the minimum allowable wage (HK\$4,630) set by the government
Helpers' rights and obligations include:
- To perform only the domestic duties outlined in the employment contract
- To not accept other employment during the effective period of the contract
- To work and live in the employer's place of residence, and to be provided with suitable living accommodation with reasonable privacy
- One rest day (a continuous period of not less than 24 hours) every week
- Minimum 7 days to maximum 14 days of paid annual leave based on length of service
- 12 days of statutory holidays during an entire year
### Minimum allowable wage
Foreign domestic workers' wages are subject to a statutory minimum, a breach of which is sanctionable under the Employment Ordinance. An employer convicted of paying less than the minimum allowable wage (MAW) is subject to a maximum fine of HK\$350,000 and three years' imprisonment.
Helpers' minimum wages are inflation-adjusted annually for contracts about to be signed, and apply for the duration of the contract. They were reduced by HK\$190 (five percent) in 1999. In April 2003, another deflationary period, the government announced a HK\$400 reduction in pay (to HK\$3,270) "due to the steady drop in a basket of economic indicators since 1999." The minimum allowable wage was raised by HK\$80, to HK\$3,480 per month, for contracts signed on or after 6 June 2007. Another HK\$100 cost-of-living adjustment took effect for all employment contracts signed on or after 10 July 2008, increasing the minimum wage to HK\$3,580 per month. The minimum allowable wage was reset to HK\$3,740 per month on 2 June 2011, and raised to HK\$3,920 per month for contracts signed from 20 September 2012 onwards.
The MAW has been criticised by workers' and welfare groups for making FDWs second-class citizens. The statutory minimum wage does not apply to them; although the MAW is HK\$3,920, a local worker working a 48-hour week would earn HK\$6,240 if paid at the minimum hourly wage of HK\$30 (as of 30 March 2015). The International Domestic Workers Federation has complained that the MAW rose by only 3.9 percent (or HK\$150) from 1998 to 2012, failing to keep pace with Hong Kong's median monthly income (which rose over 15 percent during the same period). Since Hong Kong is a benchmark market for Asian migrant workers, there is pressure to keep wages low. Wages were also held in check by competition from Indonesian workers, who began arriving in large numbers during the 1990s. Since then, workers from other Asian countries (such as Bangladesh and Nepal) may be willing to work for less than the MAW.
### Employees' Retraining Levy
During a recession in 2003, the Hong Kong government imposed a HK\$400 monthly Employees' Retraining Levy for hiring a foreign domestic helper under the Employees Retraining Ordinance, to take effect on October 1. The tax, proposed by the Liberal Party in 2002 to tackle a fiscal deficit, was introduced by Donald Tsang as part of the government's population policy when he was Chief Secretary for Administration. Although Tsang called foreign and local domestic workers two distinct labour markets, he said: "Employers of foreign domestic helpers should play a role in helping Hong Kong in ... upgrading the local workforce."
According to Government Policy Support and Strategic Planning, the levy would be used to retrain the local workforce and improve their employment opportunities. The government said that the extension of the levy to domestic helpers would remove the disparity between imported and local workers. According to The Standard, it was hoped that fewer foreign maids would be employed in Hong Kong. The Senate of the Philippines disagreed with the Hong Kong government, denounced the levy as "discriminatory" and hinted that it would take the issue to the International Labour Organization. Senate president Franklin Drilon said that a tax on domestic workers countered Hong Kong's free-market principles and would damage its reputation for openness to foreign trade, investment and services.
Earlier that year the minimum wage for foreign domestic helpers was lowered by the same amount, although the government said the reduction in the minimum wage and imposition of the levy were "unrelated"; lawyers for the government called the moves an "unfortunate coincidence". The measure was expected to bring HK\$150 million annually into government coffers.
Thousands of workers, fearing that the financial burden would be passed to them, protested the measures. The government, defending the measures as necessary in Hong Kong's changing economy, said that foreign domestic workers were still better paid than their counterparts in other Asian countries; according to James Tien, the monthly wage of Filipina maids in Singapore was about HK\$1,400 and \$1,130 in Malaysia.
In 2004 a legal challenge was mounted, asserting that the levy on employers was unlawful as a discriminatory tax. In January 2005 High Court Justice Michael Hartmann ruled that since the levy was instituted by law it was not a tax, but a fee for the privilege of employing non-local workers (who would not otherwise be permitted to work in Hong Kong). In 2007 the Liberal Party urged the government to abolish the Employees' Retraining Levy as a part of its District-Council election platform, saying that the HK\$3.26 billion fund should be used as originally intended: to retrain employees. In an August 2008 South China Morning Post column, Chris Yeung called the case for retaining the levy increasingly morally and financially weak: "Middle class people feel a sense of injustice about the levy". According to Regina Ip, the levy had lost its raison d'être. In 2013 the government abolished the levy in the Chief Executive's policy address, effective 31 July.
## Levy waiver controversy
As part of "extraordinary measures for extraordinary times" (totalling HK\$11 billion) announced by Donald Tsang on 16 July 2008, the levy would be temporarily waived at an estimated cost of HK\$2 billion. In the Chinese press, the measures were mockingly called 派糖 (handing out candy).
The levy would be waived for a two-year period on all helpers' employment contracts signed on or after 1 September 2008, and would not apply to existing contracts. The Immigration Department said it would not reimburse levies, which are prepaid semiannually. The announcement resulted in confusion and uncertainty for workers. Before Tsang's October policy address, Chris Yeung called the waiver a "gimmick dressed up as an economic relief initiative, designed to boost the administration's popularity".
Maids' representatives said that when the waiver was announced, the guidelines were unclear and had no implementation date. Employers deferred contracts or dismissed workers pending confirmation of the effective date, leaving them in limbo. They protested the uncertainty, demanding an increase in their minimum wage to HK\$4,000. Employers reportedly began terminating their helpers' contracts, stoking fears of mass terminations. On 20 July Secretary for Labour and Welfare Matthew Cheung announced that the waiver commencement date would be moved up by one month, and the Immigration Department temporarily relaxed its 14-day re-employment requirement for helpers whose contracts had expired.
On 30 July the Executive Council approved the suspension of the levy for two years, from 1 August 2008 to 31 July 2010. After widespread criticism, the government said that maids with advanced contract renewals would not be required to leave Hong Kong; employers would benefit from the waiver by renewing contracts within the two-year period. According to the government, some employers could benefit from the waiver for up to four years. The effect of turning a two-year moratorium into four-year suspension was denounced by newspapers across the political spectrum, and the levy itself was called "farcical" in a South China Morning Post editorial. Stephen Vines wrote: "The plan for a two-year suspension of the levy ... provides an almost perfect example of government dysfunction and arrogance", and Albert Cheng said that the controversy exposed the "worst side of our government bureaucracy". Columnist Frank Ching criticised senior officials for living in ivory towers, and said that there would have been no disruption if the government had suspended payment immediately and repaid those who had prepaid. Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor called for the levy's permanent abolition, saying that the temporary two-year waiver was discriminatory and criticising the confusion and inconvenience caused to employers by the Immigration Department because the policy had not been thought through.
### Administrative crush
On the morning of 1 August the Immigration Department issued 2,180 passes to workers and agents to collect visas and submit applications to work in Hong Kong, promising to handle all applications submitted. Offices opened one hour earlier than usual, added staff and extended their hours to guarantee that all 2,180 cases would be processed. The Philippine consulate also expected a large workload as a result of the rehiring provisions. Chinese newspapers published articles calculating how households could maximise their benefits under the waiver rules. Street protests on 3 August decried the waiver's unfairness and its burden on the Immigration Department. According to one protester, the waiver would teach households how to use legal loopholes.
The West Kowloon Immigration office in Yau Ma Tei processed 5,000 advance contract renewals and 7,400 regular renewals in August 2008. Despite the availability of online booking for slots at its five branch offices, the daily quota on the number of applications being processed resulted in overnight queues. Positions in the waiting line were illegally sold for up to HK\$120.
#### Legislative Council debate
The government was required to move an amendment in the Legislative Council (LegCo) to suspend the levy in accordance with the Executive Council decision. Faced with calls to abolish the levy, the government was adamantly opposed; according to the Secretary for Labour and Welfare, the HK\$5 billion fund would only support the Employment Retraining Board for four or five years if the levy was permanently waived.
Regina Ip began a campaign to abolish the levy, and tabled an amendment at LegCo. The government said that it would attempt to rule it out of order on the grounds that it would breach rule 31(1) of the Rules of Procedures, which prohibit amendments impacting government revenue. Ip compared this stance with a 2005 High Court decision that the Employees' Retraining Levy was not a tax. According to the government, a bill to abolish the levy would breach Article 74 of Hong Kong Basic Law and it would take Article 74 to the central government for interpretation. Legislators and commentators called this proposal a "nuclear bomb", and a University of Hong Kong academic said that reinterpretation would be a "totally disproportionate ... route to resolve this dispute."
Under pressure from legislators, the government (through the Executive Council) agreed to extend the levy's suspension from two to five years. The amendment for the five-year suspension, one of several proposed amendments to the Employees Retraining Ordinance Notice 2008, was tabled by the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong and would apply to first-time and renewed contracts and visas issued between 1 August 2008 and 31 July 2013.
## Grievances
Foreign domestic workers and their supporters, including activists and employers, have periodically staged rallies protesting what they perceive as discriminatory treatment on the part of the Hong Kong government. Grievances include discrimination, the minimum wage and the two-week stay limit at the end of a domestic worker's employment contract. According to the Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor (HKHRM), foreign domestic helpers face discrimination from the Hong Kong government and their employers.
A 2013 Amnesty International report on Indonesian migrant domestic workers, "Exploited For Profit, Failed By Governments – Indonesian Migrant Domestic Workers Trafficked To Hong Kong", suggested that they may be the victims of serious human- and labour-rights violations in Hong Kong and some regulations make the problem worse. Abuses noted by AI include confiscation of travel documents, lack of privacy, pay below the Minimum Allowable Wage and being "on call" at all hours. Many are subjected to physical and verbal abuse by their employers, and are forced to work seven days a week.
### Systemic exploitation
Many migrant workers have little education, little knowledge of the law and their rights, and leave home to support their families. They fall victim to agents (official and unofficial), unscrupulous officials and a lack of legal protection at home and in their host countries. The debts they incur to secure employment overseas may lock them in a cycle of abuse and exploitation.
There is criticism in the Philippines that the country is one of the biggest human traffickers in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. In the Manila Standard, Alejandro Del Rosario criticised the government for continuing its 1960s policy of labour export instead of focussing on domestic production and job creation (allowing the program to expand, contributing to the brain drain). Amnesty International suggests that a lack of oversight allows criminal syndicates to profit from foreign workers, who are often unaware of their legal rights in their host country. AI's 2013 report alleges that many Indonesians are victims of forced human trafficking, and criticises the Indonesian and Hong Kong governments for having "failed to take adequate action to enforce domestic legislation in their own territories which could have protected migrant workers from trafficking, exploitation and forced labour ... In particular, they have not properly monitored, regulated or punished recruitment and placement agencies who are not complying with the law."
In 2014 and 2015 several incidents involving worker mistreatment surfaced, indicating that employment agencies often neglect workers' rights or are complicit in the cycle of abuse; there have also been many instances of failure to provide service to employers. According to media reports, between 2009 and 2012 the Consumer Council in Hong Kong received nearly 800 complaints about agencies. Many complaints concerned workers who did not match the descriptions provided, to the extent that it was suspected that the agencies deliberately misrepresented the workers' experience. The 2015 death of Elis Kurniasih, awaiting her work visa before beginning employment, exposed grey areas and legal loopholes in the Employment Agency Regulations; Kurniasih was crushed to death by falling masonry at an agency boarding house in North Point. Worker protections against illegal fees, unsanitary accommodations and lack of insurance were criticised as inadequate.
### Right of abode
Under the Immigration Ordinance a foreigner may be eligible to apply for permanent residency after having "ordinarily resided" in Hong Kong for seven continuous years, and thus enjoy the right of abode in Hong Kong. However, the definition of "ordinary residency" excludes (amongst other groups) those who lived in the territory as foreign domestic helpers; this effectively denied foreign workers the rights of permanent residents (including the right to vote), even if they had lived in Hong Kong for many years. Since 1997, section 2(4) of the Immigration Ordinance has stated that "a person shall not be treated as ordinarily resident in Hong Kong while employed as a domestic helper who is from outside Hong Kong". Therefore, foreign domestic helpers only receive temporary status since they enter Hong Kong with a temporary visa. However, many workers have been able to receive permanent residency through marriages and relationships. These relationships can be out of love or be a mutual arrangement, allowing the foreign domestic worker to apply for a dependent's visa. In some cases, these arrangements can lead to abuse and exploitation by the permanent resident. In 2011, the issue of foreign workers applying for Hong Kong residency was debated; since one million families live under the poverty line in the territory, some political parties argued that Hong Kong has insufficient welfare funding to support 300,000 foreign workers if they can apply for public housing and social-welfare benefits. The Court of First Instance found in Vallejos v Commissioner of Registration that this definition of "ordinarily resident" contravenes Article 24 of the Basic Law. The latter stipulates, "Persons not of Chinese nationality who have entered Hong Kong with valid travel documents, have ordinarily resided in Hong Kong for a continuous period of not less than seven years and have taken Hong Kong as their place of permanent residence before or after the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region", feeding speculation that domestic helpers could obtain the right of abode. An appeal was made to the Court of Appeal of the High Court, which overturned the judgment of the Court of First Instance. The plaintiffs then appealed to the Court of Final Appeal, which ruled against them in a unanimous judgment.
### Two-week rule
The government requires foreign domestic helpers to leave Hong Kong within two weeks of the termination of their employment contract, unless they find another employer (the two-week rule). According to Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor, this is a form of discrimination against foreign domestic helpers (who are almost all Southeast Asian); this limitation is not enforced for other foreign workers. The two-week rule has been condemned by two United Nations committees: the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
According to human-rights groups, the two-week rule may pressure workers to remain with abusive employers. In 2005, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights urged the government to "review the existing 'two-week rule' ... and to improv[e] the legal protection and benefits for foreign domestic workers so that they are in line with those afforded to local workers, particularly with regard to wages and retirement benefits." The following year, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women called on the government to "repeal the 'two-week rule' and to implement a more flexible policy regarding foreign domestic workers. It also calls upon the state party to strengthen its control of employment agencies and to provide migrant workers with easily accessible avenues of redress against abuse by employers and permit them to stay in the country while seeking redress." The two-week and live-in rules were criticised by the United Nations Human Rights Committee in 2013.
### Abuse by employers
Although the Hong Kong government has enacted legislation which nominally protects migrant workers, recourse is time-consuming and the costs considerable. The legal process can take up to 15 months to reach the District Court or Labour Tribunal, during which workers have no income.
Welfare groups have expressed concerns about the treatment of this segment of the Hong Kong workforce, and the 2014 Erwiana Sulistyaningsih abuse case (which attracted international news headlines) focused on the plight of foreign workers in the territory. Thousands took to the streets, demanding justice for Sulistyaningsih. Although the government calls her case an isolated one, welfare groups say that many workers are victims of "modern-day slavery" and abuse by employers. Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor reported that a substantial percentage of workers are mistreated by their employers; of 2,500 workers interviewed, at least 25 percent said they had experienced violations of their contract (including pay less than the MAW and being denied their mandatory weekly day of rest and statutory holidays). More than 25 percent had also experienced physical and verbal abuse, including a "significant incidence" of sexual abuse. According to Caritas Hong Kong, their Asian Migrant Worker Social Service Project helpline received over four thousand calls from workers and 53 workers received assistance to remain in Hong Kong and pursue their claims. According to Belthune House executive director Adwina Antonio, the shelter dealt with 7,000 cases of alleged abuse in the first three-quarters of 2013 (compared with 3,000 for all of 2012).
Contributing factors include "artificially low wages" and the live-in requirement. Many workers accumulate six to twelve months' debt to intermediaries for commissions, although these commissions are limited by law to 10 percent of the first month's pay. The ease with which foreign workers may be deported and the difficulty of finding employment abroad deters them from reporting violations or discrimination.
#### Live-in requirement
Since workers are required to live with their employers, they are vulnerable to working long hours; according to Amnesty International and welfare groups, some workers routinely work 16 to 18 hours a day and have no escape from abuse. In addition, workers are given a curfew. The dynamic between the worker and employer depends on how the employer views themselves and how they perceive workers. In many homes where the employer is Chinese, the foreign helper tends to be seen as socially inferior. As for the living conditions of the live-in requirement, it varies from a private room to a mat in the middle of the living room. The live-in requirement also creates difficulties between the employer and helper when forming public and private boundaries.
### Philippine government policy
Filipino workers have protested Philippine government targeting of overseas Filipino workers, and a 1982 protest opposed Executive Order No. 857 (EO-857) implemented by Ferdinand Marcos. According to the order, overseas contract workers were required to remit 50 to 70 percent of their total earnings through authorised government channels only. Migrant-worker groups say that overseas Filipino workers must pay up to PHP150,000 (\$3,400) in government and recruiting-agency fees before they can leave the country.
In 2007, the Philippine government proposed a law requiring workers to submit to a "competency training and assessment program" which would cost them PHP10,000 to P15,000 (US\$215 to US\$320) – about half their average monthly salary (typically US\$450). According to the Philippine Department of Labor and Employment, the policy would help protect domestic overseas workers from abuse by employers. Government agencies receive a total of about PHP21 billion (\$470 million) a year from foreign workers in police clearances, National Bureau of Investigation and passport fees, membership in the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration, local health insurance and Philippine Overseas Employment Agency and Home Development Mutual Fund fees. Although charges by Indonesian agencies for dormitory housing, lessons in Cantonese, housework and Chinese cuisine were capped at about HK\$14,000 by the government in 2012, interest is excluded from the cap.
In 2012, Bloomberg reporters suggested that many agencies contract with workers to convert sums owed before their arrival in Hong Kong into "advances" from moneylenders (bypassing Hong Kong law). Since Hong Kong remains one of the more democratic states that migrant workers go for employment, it is also a safeguard for political activism. Since the Filipino government's policies of remittance and services have been instituted there have been protests by those that have traveled to Hong Kong in hopes of catching the attention of the governments where these workers originate.
In 2005, the Consulate Hopping Protest and the Hall of Shame Awards were some of the first events organized by domestic service workers. During these events, hundreds of domestic workers marched through the streets of Hong Kong up to several consulates, including the United States, China, the Philippines, and Indonesia, to give "awards" to the heads of office. These awards were fabricated with jokes and slanders of their grievances to the heads of state of the respected consulates.
### Indonesian government policy
The Indonesian consulate requires Indonesian domestic workers to use the services of employment agencies. The consulate can do this because the Hong Kong Immigration Department will only accept applications for employment visas that have been endorsed by consulates.
### Hong Kong government policy
According to Time, the two-week rule and live-in requirement protect Hong Kong employers of foreign workers. The government argues that the two-week rule is needed to maintain immigration control, preventing job-hopping and imported workers working illegally after their contracts end. "However, it does not preclude the workers concerned from working in Hong Kong again after returning to their place of domicile." The government implies that in the absence of these rules, workers can easily leave unsatisfactory employers (creating the disruption of having to find a new employee and incurring an additional fees for a new contract). In early 2014, the government further impeded labour mobility by no longer renewing the visas of workers who change employers more than three times in a year.
Hong Kong regards the Erwiana Sulistyaningsih case as isolated, and its labour minister pledged to increase regulation, enforcement and employment-agency inspections. It has conducted several raids on migrant workers accused of not living at their employer's residence. However, Robert Godden of Amnesty Asia-Pacific said: "The specifics, many of the factors leading to the abuse [of Erwiana], can be applied to thousands of migrant domestic workers: underpayment, restrictions on movement; you can see that she was heavily indebted by the illegal recruitment fees charged by the agency, and you can see that she didn't know how to access justice." In 2014, the Labour Department prosecuted an employer who allegedly abused Rowena Uychiat during her nine-month employment.
In March 2016, an NGO, Justice Centre, reported its findings that deemed one domestic worker in six in Hong Kong to have been forced into labour. It criticised the government for being in denial that Hong Kong is a source, destination and transit area for human trafficking and forced labour, and said Hong Kong lags behind other countries in having a comprehensive set of laws and policies to tackle forced labour or trafficking.
The government declared mandatory vaccination for helpers after cases of Covid-19 variants were discovered in late April, but reversed the decision in May following criiticisms from labour organisations of discrimination against these workers whereas other foreign workers were not forced to vaccinate.
## See also
- Indonesians in Hong Kong
- Filipinos in Hong Kong
- Thais in Hong Kong
- Southeast Asian Hongkongers
- Hong Kong–Philippines relations |
22,255,570 | Jon Hol | 1,171,420,593 | Norwegian engineer and activist | [
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"Coalition Party (Norway) politicians",
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"Norwegian engineers",
"Norwegian male writers",
"Norwegian temperance activists",
"Norwegian trade unionists",
"People from Nord-Odal",
"People from Skien",
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]
| Jon Gundersen Hol (1 September 1851 – 1941) was a Norwegian engineer and activist. He is known for his pamphlet Rifleringen, published in February 1884, that resulted in his arrest for lèse majesté. In the pamphlet, he called for soldiers and civilians to arm themselves and encircle the Parliament of Norway Building, creating a "Ring of Rifles", should the need arise. The political situation in Norway at the time was unstable, with an ongoing impeachment case against the conservative government started by political liberals. King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway supported the conservative politicians, and Hol believed that a political and military counter-offensive was planned, hence the need for guarding the Parliament. The tensions between liberals and conservatives drew Hol into politics in the first place in 1880. Before this, he was an engineer by occupation and a writer, albeit apolitical. He increased his writing after 1880, and also involved himself in non-socialist trade unions, including the unsuccessful attempt of establishing a national trade union center in Kristiania.
When the conservatives lost the Impeachment case, there was a change of government and the charges against Hol were dropped. Two years later, he received an economic compensation from the Parliament. After some quiet years in which he concentrated on engineering work, Hol returned to politics as a member of the city council of Skien, representing the local temperance movement. He stood for parliamentary election twice, without success.
## Early life
Hol was born at the farm Ekornhol in Nord-Odal, the son of Gunder Johnsen and Rønnaug Haakonsdatter. He began a military education in 1869, and later conducted self-studies as well as attending various schools, including the Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry. In 1876, he married Karen Pedersdatter, a farmers' daughter from Sør-Odal and in 1878, he was hired by the city engineering corps of Kristiania.
## Political activism
### Background
While studying, Hol became interested in journalism. He began writing for the apolitical magazine Norsk Nationaltidende in 1877, but found his interest in politics growing as he observed the mounting political turmoil at the time. Liberal politicians in the Norwegian Parliament struggled to introduce the practice of calling government ministers in for questioning. Initially, this was not meant to function as a lever against individual ministers, but rather to increase debate on important issues. The executive branch of government was not elected, and the intention was to enhance a co-governing with the democratically elected legislature. Also, ministers were already criticized in parliamentary debates; if they were questioned in person they would have the chance to defend themselves. This required altering the Constitution, a move which the executive branch, led by King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway, continuously vetoed. The conservatives in Parliament also opposed this, fearing that the increasingly liberal-dominated parliament would use constitutional change to check the executive branch, and thereby infringe upon the separation of powers. The first royal veto came in 1872, after which the proposition was slightly altered, but it was vetoed again in 1874. Two identical propositions followed, and were defeated, in 1877 and 1880. After 1880, the question about ministers faded into the background; instead the disagreement centered around the King's right to a veto in constitutional cases. According to the Constitution, the King had the right to postpone a non-constitutional act three times. On the other hand, the Constitution did not mention any veto in constitutional cases. Three views became distinct: some argued that the King had no veto at all, the middle ground was held by people who would allow a postponing veto, while the government and the King claimed an absolute veto. Allegedly, an absolute veto was in the "spirit" of 1814 and the separation of powers principle. Those who held the first view cited the principle of popular sovereignty.
Although the veto question became central, the ministers were not out of the spotlight. Since the ministers were inferior to the King within the executive branch, the King was responsible for all actions conducted by this branch; however, the ministers were responsible for the advice given to the King when they were assembled in the Council of State. If any ministers were to dissent, according to the Constitution, they had to state this explicitly in the meeting protocol, lest they be considered in agreement and thus co-responsible. The King was above the law, but the Prime Minister and his cabinet could be tried for Impeachment for advising the King to act out an unconstitutional veto. The Impeachment Court consisted of Supreme Court Justices and elected politicians from the Lagting, and as the latter group held a two-thirds majority, an Impeachment trial with a fairly certain outcome could start as soon as the liberals won control over the Lagting seats through general elections.
### Arenas for activism
Jon Hol sided with Johan Sverdrup, a liberal jurist who had become the spearhead of parliamentary opposition to the King. Hol also became involved in the workers' society Kristiania Arbeidersamfund, which was dominated by political liberals (not socialists) at that time, as a member of the board. From 1881, he worked on their publication Samfundet. This periodical eventually ceased publication, but was succeeded by Nordmanden in 1883, which Hol co-owned. Hol used Samfundet and Nordmanden as the main public arenas for his activism. He was also behind the rifle associations' member magazine Norsk Skyttertidende, which had been started in 1882 and edited by David Dietrichson for a short while before Hol took over.
### Rifle associations and the military
Hol eventually came to believe that King Oscar II and his supporters, if opposed by the Norwegian Parliament, would usurp political power with the help of the Norwegian Army. Hol based this view on two speeches given by Oscar in 1882, one of them at the closing of the parliamentary session that year and hence before the 1882 general election. Harald Nicolai Storm Wergeland, the Commander at Akershus Fortress, located nearby the Norwegian Parliament, was known as a staunch conservative. In 1880, he had called for Parliament to increase the military contingent in the city. The Chief of Police supported this request; in a letter to the Ministry of Justice and the Police he stated that there was a need for preparedness regarding the political situation, as a possible pretext for "disturbances and demonstrations". Otto Nyquist, a personal friend of the King, was instated in 1882 as commander of the battalion stationed in Kristiania. In late 1883, Oscar suggested that the storage of bolts of rifles in depots around the country be disconnected, to prevent a situation in which uprising peasantry turned the Army's own weapons against them. Secret talks on a coup d'état supported by the military were held between Oscar and Christian Selmer at the Scanian castle Sofiero in 1883, and the newspaper Morgenbladet publicly supported such a solution.
One of the means to counter this development, was the formation of semi-military forces. All over the country, local rifle associations had sprung up. The first rifle association—Centralforeningen for Udbredelse af Legemsøvelser og Vaabenbrug of 1861—was politically conservative, but a great number of the newer associations, especially in rural districts, supported the political liberals and radicals. They exercised as regular troops, but did not commit acts of political violence. Rather, a latent purpose was to deter a possible conflict. If conservative Commanders of the Army were to use force to subdue the parliamentary process, it was clear that rifle associations, too, could march upon Kristiania, possibly aided by "rogue" commanders such as Albert Jacobsen. Hol supported the liberal rifle associations, and helped found Kristiania Folkevæbningssamlag in his city. He also chaired Nordre Skytterlag, a local rifle association based in Nordre Aker. Apart from organizational work, he wrote several articles on the issue. In Samfundet he wrote that a "coup d'etat or attempt thereof" would lead to a popular uprising, where "real Norwegians", "soldier or non-soldier" alike would encircle the Parliament Building with "thousands of bayonets" to "await" and the political processes and guard the Constitution.
This activism was not compatible with his professional career, as he was a municipal employee. In this situation, Hol chose to formally leave the radical organizations, resigning as a member of the board of Kristiania Arbeidersamfund and Kristiania Folkevæbningssamlag. He thereby retained his job. However, in early 1884 he was fired by the municipality.
#### Rifleringen
In February 1884, the Impeachment trial of Prime Minister Christian Selmer and his entire cabinet was nearing its end. One of the last actions of Selmer's cabinet was to refuse to sanction a parliamentary money grant to the rifle association—the liberals had won the 1882 parliamentary election in a landslide victory—further polarizing the situation. Rumours flew that personnel of the Norwegian Army were preparing for action at Kongsvinger Fortress, some miles northeast of Kristiania.
On 6 February 1884, Hol released a pamphlet which has come to be known as Rifleringen (The Rifle Ring), with the subtitle Giv Akt (At attention). Like previous writings, it called upon semi-military personnel and other weapon-able citizens to arm themselves and encircle the Parliament Building. This time, he did not call for the citizens to "await" the situation, but instead to "fire! at the traitors of the Fatherland".
The pamphlet was confiscated by the police on 8 February. The person who printed the pamphlet, Nikolai Olsen, was arrested on the same day, and the apprehension of Jon Hol followed on 10 February. He remained in custody until 26 February, and was indicted on 11 March, for lèse majesté. Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Lars Holst were indicted on the same charge. Upon the arrests, the newspaper Verdens Gang noted that no conservative writers had been sanctioned, despite openly calling for a coup d'état.
In the meantime, Christian Selmer was impeached on 27 February; his cabinet members followed one by one, the last being impeached on 1 April. On 11 March, Selmer resigned. Two acting Prime Ministers were drawn from his cabinet; Ole Bachke from 11 to 29 March and Niels Mathias Rye from 29 March to 3 April. Then, a new cabinet led by Selmer's former Minister of Finance Christian Homann Schweigaard was formed, but in reality it stood no chance of surviving as it faced the Liberal-dominated Parliament, whose means of pressuring the executive branch had been strengthened following the Impeachment trial. In June, as Schweigaard entered his last month as Prime Minister, the King summoned mathematics professor Ole Jacob Broch to form a compromise cabinet, but this failed owing to Conservative opposition, spearheaded by up-and-coming politician Emil Stang. Broch gave up on 22 June, and Johan Sverdrup became Prime Minister on 26 June. In light of this change in circumstances, the case against Hol had been annulled by Royal Resolution— earlier on 6 June.
### Det norske Arbeiderforbund
The Conservative politicians and the King had accepted the parliamentary process without any military conflict. However, conflicts as such still existed. The country's establishment had been shocked by a number of labor conflicts, with a street battle at Kampen in 1878 and the storming of an employer's home at Etterstad in May 1880, as examples of the more volatile events. In August 1884, workers at Akers Mekaniske Verksted faced a 10% pay cut. A debate had been held in Kristiania Arbeidersamfund on 30 July, and the meeting decided to call a strike effective as of 1 August. In addition, Jon Hol took the initiative to found a national trade union center, Det norske Arbeiderforbund. Representatives from seventeen factories elected Hol as the secretary of Det norske Arbeiderforbund. The printer Nikolai Olsen became treasurer. Among the union's demands were normal working hours for laborers and universal suffrage. It staunchly opposed socialist ideas, especially through the union newspaper Arbeideren. On 7 October, a new board was elected, and the first point of their manifesto was "Law-abidingness — moral conduct — sobriety".
Det norske Arbeiderforbund was supported by people from individual factories, but the mainly philanthropic activists were associated with the Liberal Party. However, the strike at Akers Mekaniske had been a failure, as the laborers had returned to work by on 26 August—with a 10% pay cut. It soon faced competition from more worker-dominated trade unions, coordinated through the Fagforeningenes Centralkomite. On the political side, a Labour Party was formed in 1887, and from it the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions followed in 1899. The historical role of Det norske Arbeiderforbund, as it turned out, was to mark the transition between two kinds of trade unionism; the one dominated by the bourgeois Liberal Party and the one dominated by the socialist Labour Party. The organization became defunct around 1890. The publication Arbeideren was continued, and beginning in 1906, Arbeideren was the party organ of the newly founded Labour Democrats, a non-socialist labour and social reform party associated with the Liberal Party.
## Later life
Hol had been fired from his municipal job on 13 February 1884. After 1884, he laid low for a few years, but on 26 May 1886 he was given by the Liberal-dominated Parliament as compensation for lost income. In 1887 he was again publicly employed, assisting in the construction of the Bandak-Nordsjø Canal. He was hired as the city engineer of Skien in 1891, holding this position for almost twenty-five years, and later worked in Notodden, Kongsberg and Risør. From time to time he wrote technical articles on water pipes, among other subjects, in the magazine Teknisk Ukeblad.
He became active again in politics and the public sphere. He wrote for the liberal newspaper Dagbladet and the temperance magazine Folket, as well as for the local press. He also represented the temperance movement in the city council of Skien for twenty years. In 1906 he ran in the parliamentary elections in the constituency Skien, but was not elected. He has been called an independent candidate. At the time, however, he was denoted by Statistics Norway as loosely adhering to the Coalition Party with a leaning towards the Liberals. In the first round of voting, Hol was a "running mate" (deputy candidate) of former parliamentarian and government minister Hans Nilsen Hauge, who adhered to the Coalition Party with a conservative leaning. They faced Carl Stousland who represented the Liberal Party and P. R. Saltvik of the Labour Party. Stousland received 732 votes, Hauge 460 votes and Saltvik 231 votes. As a "running mate", Hol received 511 votes. He also got 8 votes as a primary candidate. In the second round of voting, the Coalition Party dropped Hauge and propped up Hol, who now had J. A. Larsen as his running mate. Also, the Labour Party pulled out. Hol received 595 votes, but succumbed to Stousland who got 855 votes. Hauge got 2 votes, and Hol got 23 "running mate" votes.
Hol stood for election again in the 1924 parliamentary election, when the voting system had changed completely. The constituency was now Market towns of Telemark and Aust-Agder counties, and it was a plural-member constituency where representatives were selected from the party lists with the most votes. Hol was fielded as the second candidate on the ballot of the Radical People's Party (Labour Democrats), the new name of the Labour Democrats. The first candidate was A. Jørgensen, police chief of Kragerø. The Radical People's Party fared well in Skien and Kragerø. With 1,050 votes in Kragerø the party prevailed over the Social Democrats and Communists. With 2,075 votes in Skien the party prevailed over Labour. However, it fared much worse in the other six cities, carried 4,571 votes in total and lost the election in the Market towns of Telemark and Aust-Agder counties.
Hol died in 1941, and was buried on 16 May 1941 at Vestre gravlund. |
61,039,741 | Carel Victor Gerritsen | 1,171,905,734 | Dutch politician, 1850–1905 | [
"1850 births",
"1905 deaths",
"Aldermen of Amsterdam",
"Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands)",
"Municipal councillors of Amersfoort",
"People from Amersfoort"
]
| Carel Victor Gerritsen (2 February 1850 – 5 July 1905) was a Dutch politician known for his radical views. The husband of Aletta Jacobs, he was a proponent of open government, fair wages and birth control. He served as an alderman in Amsterdam and a representative in the States of North Holland. He helped found many radical organisations in the Netherlands including the Nieuw-Malthusiaansche Bond (Neo-Malthusian League), Radicale Bond (Radical League) and Vrijzinnig-Democratisch Bond (Free-thinking Democratic League).
## Early life
Gerritsen was born on 2 February 1850 in Amersfoort, the second son of Hendrik Aloijsius Gerritsen and Elisabeth Brasser Gerritsen (née Rijss). His father was a successful grain trader and the family pious members of the Dutch Reformed Church. After attending primary school, he went to Amsterdam to study at the Inrichting voor Onderwijs in Koophandel en Nijverheid (Institution for Education in Commerce and Industry), with the intention of returning to help run his father's successful grain trading business. However, before returning to Amersfoort, he decided to travel to Groningen in 1866 to widen his experience.
At that time, Groningen was a hotbed for radicalism. At the same time as gaining business skills, Gerritsen also developed his radicalism. Although he probably never met Eduard Douwes Dekker, who visited the city in 1868, Gerritsen was influenced by his ideas. When he returned to Amersfoort, he formally broke with the church in 1869 and joined the freemasons, becoming master of the Haarlem Masonic lodge Vicit Vim Virtus in 1871. Soon after, he moved to London. While there, he met Annie Besant, Charles Bradlaugh and Charles Vickery Drysdale, and gained acquaintance with other radicals. His thought increasingly combined Dekker's thinking, as an atheist, feminist and freemason, with the philosophy of the English clergyman Thomas Robert Malthus and he came to be identified with Neo-Malthusianism.
## Return to Amersfoort
When his father fell ill, Gerritsen returned to Amersfoort in 1874 to run the family business with his brother. He continued to be involved in freemasonry and between 1875 and 1878 was active as a master of ceremonies, treasurer and court master in the Amersfoort lodge named after Jacob van Campen. In 1875, he also started collecting the library for which he became famous. He joined De Dageraad (The Dawn), rising to be treasurer in 1880, and became a member of the editorial staff of the society journal, also named De Dageraad, in 1882.
On 20 September 1881, Gerritsen was elected to the Amersfoort council. From the beginning, he was noted for his radicalism. Like Bradlaugh, he objected to taking the customary oath when taking office. He took it under protest but was subsequently instrumental in getting the obligation removed in 1895. Once in office, he pushed for council minutes to be published and meetings to take place in the evening so that local people could attend. His criticism of the council led to resignations of a mayor and an alderman. It was while at Amersfoort that Gerritsen first met Paul Kruger, the President of the South African Republic, in 1884.
## Political career in Amsterdam
In August 1885, Gerretsen moved to Amsterdam, then a centre for European radicalism. He joined a group of young radicals called Jong Amsterdam (Young Amsterdam) under the pseudonym Hack van Oudheusden and quickly gained prominence for his writing. The group produced a radical manifesto including calls for universal suffrage, free primary education, separation of church and state, and the development of self-government in the colonies. On 11 July 1888, he was elected to the Amsterdam council. He collaborated with both liberals and church representatives who shared his goals. He was an advocate of municipal ownership of utilities, the vetting of companies for public contract on the basis of the payment of fair wages, and corporate responsibility for pensions.
He helped form the Radicale Bond (Radical League) on 6 November 1892 to represent these views in parliament. On 28 February 1893, he was elected a member of the Second Chamber of the States General for the Leeuwarden electoral district, and was re-elected on 16 May 1894. He served until 21 September 1897.
On 6 September 1899, Gerretsen was appointed an alderman in Amsterdam with responsibility for the care for the poor, trade institutions and the pension agency. As an alderman, he came to be known primarily for his work reforming the local medical service. His reorganisation brought all medical, surgical and obstetric into public control, meaning doctors would now be permanent employees of the municipality. This brought him into conflict with the medical profession.
In 1901, Gerretsen helped found the Vrijzinnig-Democratisch Bond (Free-thinking Democratic League), which duly selected him to run for office. He was elected as member of the States of North Holland from 3 July 1901 to 5 July 1905 for the Amsterdam IX constituency. He was subsequently elected by the Den Helder district but died before he could take up the responsibility.
## Neo-Malthusianism and feminism
Gerritsen believed that unchecked population growth was at the root of many of society's problems. However, unlike Malthus, he believed that technology, particularly contraception, should be the main check to this growth. In 1880, he met Aletta Jacobs, the first female doctor in the Netherlands since the enlightenment, who helped him understand the biology of birth control. With Bernardus Hermanus Heldt and Jan Martinus Smit, he co-founded the Nieuw-Malthusiaansche Bond (Neo-Malthusian League or NMB) on 2 November 1881. The society's aim was to reduce poverty by balancing family size with the available means for subsistence, with information on contraception a means to this end. He travelled extensively with his wife to promote these values, attending the 1904 International Council of Women and subsequently touring the United States shortly before his death.
## Personal life
Gerritsen was a believer in free marriage and for many years declined marrying his life companion Aletta Jacobs. When they did marry in 1892 to legitimise their future children, she took the then radical step of retaining her maiden name. Their only child, born on 9 September 1893, died only one day old. Gerritsen died on 5 July 1905 from cancer. As it was at the time illegal in the Netherlands, he was cremated in Hamburg.
## Legacy
Gerritsen's legacy has largely been overshadowed by his more famous wife. Originally intended for Amsterdam University Library, in 1903 his library of over 18,000 books and 13,000 pamphlets was sold to the John Crerar Library and shipped to Chicago for an undisclosed sum. Along with his wife's collection, it was subsequently expanded and purchased by the University of Kansas in 1954. The Gerritsen Collection has become an important resource for feminist researchers.
## Selected works
### Sole author
### Joint author |
5,484,340 | Parsons Boulevard station | 1,173,316,253 | New York City Subway station in Queens | [
"1937 establishments in New York City",
"IND Queens Boulevard Line stations",
"Jamaica, Queens",
"New York City Subway stations in Queens, New York",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1937"
]
| The Parsons Boulevard station is an express station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of Parsons Boulevard and Hillside Avenue in Queens, it is served by the F train at all .
This station opened on April 24, 1937 as part of an extension of the Independent Subway System's Queens Boulevard Line, and served as a terminal for F trains until the line was extended to 179th Street in 1950. Ridership at this station decreased sharply after the opening of the Archer Avenue lines in 1988.
## History
### Construction
The Queens Boulevard Line was one of the first built by the city-owned Independent Subway System (IND), and was planned to stretch between the IND Eighth Avenue Line in Manhattan and 178th Street and Hillside Avenue in Jamaica, Queens. The line was first proposed in 1925. Construction of the line was approved by the New York City Board of Estimate on October 4, 1928. On December 23, 1930, the contract for the construction of the section between 137th Street (now the Van Wyck Expressway) and 178th Street—Route 108, Section 11—was let. This section included the stations at 169th Street, Parsons Boulevard, Sutphin Boulevard, and Briarwood. As planned, Parsons Boulevard was to be an express stop, while the other three stations would be local stops. The contract for this section was awarded to Triest Contracting Corporation. The line was constructed using the cut-and-cover tunneling method, and to allow pedestrians to cross, temporary bridges were built over the trenches.
The first section of the line opened on August 19, 1933 from the connection to the Eighth Avenue Line at 50th Street to Roosevelt Avenue in Jackson Heights. Later that year, a \$23 million loan was approved to finance the remainder of the line, along with other IND lines. The remainder of the line was built by the Public Works Administration. In summer 1933 work on this station and 169th Street were completed, far ahead of schedule. In 1934 and 1935, construction of the extension to Jamaica was suspended for 15 months and was halted by strikes. Construction was further delayed due to a strike in 1935, instigated by electricians opposing wages paid by the General Railway Signal Company.
In April 1936, William Jerome Daly, the secretary of the New York City Board of Transportation, stated, in response to requests for a stop at 178th Street, that constructing a station at that location would prevent express service from operating past 71st Avenue. He said that with a final station at 169th Street, express trains could run to Parsons Boulevard, and that if the line was extended to Springfield Boulevard as planned, express service could be extended past 178th Street with a yard east of the new terminal.
In August 1936, construction to Forest Hills was expected to be completed by the end of the year. While the tracks were installed all the way to 178th Street, the stops to the east of Union Turnpike still needed to be tiled, have stairways, turnstiles and lighting installed. Two additional contracts remained to be put up for bid, both the results of last minute changes. One of the changes concerned the line's eastern terminal. Initially, express trains were planned to terminate at a station at 178th Street. However, the plans were changed to terminate the express trains at Parsons Boulevard, requiring the installation of switches. Since construction of the tunnel was already completed in this section, a few hundred feet of the wall separating the eastbound and westbound train tracks had to be removed to fit the two switches. In addition, a new tunnel roof and new side supports had to be constructed. Since the line's new terminal would be at 169th Street, the tracks at 178th Street would be used to turn back trains. This change delayed the opening of the line from Union Turnpike to 169th Street, and also led to protests from the Jamaica Estates Association because the 178th Street station had been eliminated.
A 3.5-mile (5.6 km) extension from Roosevelt Avenue to Kew Gardens opened on December 31, 1936. In March 1937, the extension to 169th Street was expected to be opened on May 1, requiring work to be finished by April 3, and fully approved and tested by April 20. As of this point, minor station work remained, including the installation of light bulbs, with the only major work left to be completed being the final 200 feet (61 m) of track in the 169th Street terminal.
### Opening
On April 9, 1937, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia announced that the operation of the \$14.4 million extension to Jamaica and express service would begin on April 24. The extension to Hillside Avenue and 178th Street, with a terminal station at 169th Street, opened as planned on April 24, 1937. Service was initially provided by E trains, which began making express stops from 71st–Continental Avenues to Queens Plaza during rush hours on the same date, and by EE local trains during non-rush hours. The express service operated between approximately 6:30 and 10:30 a.m. and from 3:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m., and ran every three to five minutes. This extension was celebrated with a ribbon-cutting ceremony at the Parsons Boulevard station and with a parade along Hillside Avenue.
On December 15, 1940, trains began running via the newly opened IND Sixth Avenue Line, also running express west of 71st Avenue. 169th Street and Parsons Boulevard were both used as terminal stations during this time, with the E terminating at 169th Street and the F at this station. This setup was instituted to prevent congestion at both stations.
While 169th Street was the end of the line, F trains terminated at Parsons Boulevard because the 169th Street station provided an unsatisfactory terminal setup for a four-track line. There were no storage facilities provided at the 169th Street station, and since 169th Street was a local station, trains on the outer local tracks had to cross over to the inner express tracks to reverse direction. Therefore, the line was planned to be extended to 184th Place with a station at 179th Street containing two island platforms, sufficient entrances and exits, and storage for four ten-car trains. The facilities would allow for the operation of express and local service to the station. Delayed due to the Great Depression and World War II, the extension was completed later than expected and opened on December 11, 1950. E trains were extended there at all times and F trains were extended evenings, nights, and Sunday mornings. On May 13, 1951, all F trains outside of rush hour were extended to 179th Street using the local tracks beyond Parsons Boulevard. On October 8, 1951, trains were extended to 179th Street at all times. During rush hours F trains skipped 169th Street running via the express tracks. At other times, the F stopped at 169th Street.
In 1953, the platforms at several IND stations were lengthened to allow eleven-car trains; originally, service was provided with ten-car trains. The lengthened trains began running during rush hour on September 8, 1953. Eleven-car trains would only operate on weekdays. The extra car increased the total carrying capacity by 4,000 passengers. The operation of eleven-car trains ended in 1958 because of operational difficulties. The signal blocks, especially in Manhattan, were too short to accommodate the longer trains, and the motormen had a very small margin of error to properly platform the train. It was found that operating ten-car trains allowed for two additional trains per hour to be scheduled.
### Changes
In 1976, Hillcrest High School students painted 12 murals in the station. In the 1980s, this station was part of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA)'s Neighborhood Adopt-A-Station Program. According to a sign on the wall, the Parsons Boulevard station was adopted by students of Hillcrest High School. Additionally, in 1983, improvements to the Parsons Boulevard station were scheduled as part of an MTA improvement program.
Ridership at this station decreased following the opening of the parallel Archer Avenue lines on December 11, 1988, which was expected to severely lessen congestion at the Sutphin Boulevard, Parsons Boulevard, and 169th Street stations. Ridership checks conducted before and after the opening of the new line showed that ridership at this station, between 5 and 10 a.m. on weekdays, decreased from 10,457 riders to 5,183 riders, a 50% decrease.
In conjunction with the opening of the Archer Avenue lines, service patterns were changed. E trains were rerouted via the new line, running to Jamaica Center, via the Queens Boulevard Line's express tracks, and began running express east of 71st Avenue. However, some E trains continued to run from 179th Street as expresses during the morning rush hour, stopping at Parsons Boulevard. Service at local stations, such as Sutphin Boulevard, was replaced by the R, which was extended to 179th Street from 71st Avenue. The R extension allowed F trains to continue running express to 179th Street. The changes in subway service angered riders at local stations east of 71st Avenue because they lost direct Queens Boulevard Express service. Local elected officials pressured the MTA to eliminate all-local service at these stations. On September 30, 1990, the R was cut back to 71st Avenue outside of rush hours. Local service to 179th Street was replaced by F trains, which provided Queens Boulevard Express service, during middays, evenings, and weekends, and local G service during late nights. In 1992, the MTA decided to have F trains run local east of 71st Avenue on a six-month trial basis to replace R service, which would be cut back to 71st Avenue at all times. The test started on October 26, 1992 and was implemented on a permanent basis six months later, eliminating express service along Hillside Avenue.
In 2003, MTA proposed closing 177 part-time token booths, later reduced to 62, across the subway system and replace them with MetroCard Vending Machines and High-Entry/Exit Turnstiles to help cut the MTA's \$1 billion deficit. The closure of booths began in August 2003. The station's part-time token booth, which was staffed for 7+1⁄2 hours on weekdays, at 153rd Street was closed on August 17, 2003, and automatic entrance to the 153rd Street exits was provided at all times. Access hours at these entrances were previously 6:15 a.m. to 10:40 p.m.
Under the 2015–2019 MTA Capital Program, the station, along with thirty other New York City Subway stations, were scheduled to undergo a complete overhaul and would have been entirely closed for up to 6 months. Updates would have included cellular service, Wi-Fi, charging stations, improved signage, and improved station lighting. However, these renovations are being deferred until the 2020–2024 Capital Program due to a lack of funding. In December 2019, the MTA announced that this station would become ADA-accessible as part of the agency's 2020–2024 Capital Program.
## Station layout
This underground station has four tracks and two island platforms. F trains stop on the outer local tracks at all times, while For local trains, the station is between Sutphin Boulevard to the west and 169th Street to the east. For express trains, the station is between Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike to the west and Jamaica–179th Street to the east.
The platform and mezzanine columns are I-beams painted maroon-red and the wall tiles along the tracks have a vermilion trim-line with a black border and name tiles underneath them consisting of "PARSONS" in white lettering on a black background. The tile band is part of a color-coded tile system used throughout the IND. The tile colors were designed to facilitate navigation for travelers going away from Lower Manhattan. As such, a different tile color was originally used at Jamaica–179th Street, the next express station to the east. The red tiles used at the Parsons Boulevard station were also used at 169th Street, the only local station between Parsons Boulevard and 179th Street. Some of the black columns separating the express tracks have white signs reading "Parsons" in black lettering. There is a usually unstaffed signal tower on the southern end of the Manhattan-bound platform.
Above the platforms is a full-length mezzanine that connects the two station entrances at either end. It allows free crossovers between directions, and has more staircases to the Jamaica-bound platform than the Manhattan-bound one because a crew office was built on the Manhattan-bound side. A free passageway, which allows people to walk through the mezzanine without having to pay a fare, connects the entrances at 153rd Street and Parsons Boulevard. At the Parsons Boulevard end of the station, there is a fenced off storage area. A pump station for draining water after floods is located at the geographical west end of the station at 153rd Street.
### Exits
The main entrance is at the north end of the station. It has a turnstile bank and a full-time token booth, which had seven regular turnstiles as of 2007. Two street stairs lead to either southern corner of Parsons Boulevard and Hillside Avenue, and a single staircase to the northwest corner. This entrance formerly was the station's full-time entrance.
The entrance at the south end is unstaffed; in 2007, it had three HEET turnstiles. This fare array leads to three street stairs to the intersection of 153rd Street and Hillside Avenue–one each at the northern, southwest, and southeast corners of the intersection. The part-time token booth at 153rd Street was removed in 2003. |
26,063,404 | Love Sex Aur Dhokha | 1,163,272,900 | 2010 film by Dibakar Banerjee | [
"2010 drama films",
"2010 films",
"2010s Hindi-language films",
"2010s avant-garde and experimental films",
"2010s erotic drama films",
"Balaji Motion Pictures films",
"Camcorder films",
"Films directed by Dibakar Banerjee",
"Films scored by Sneha Khanwalkar",
"Found footage films",
"Indian anthology films",
"Indian avant-garde and experimental films",
"Indian erotic drama films"
]
| Love Sex Aur Dhokha (; also known by the initialism LSD) is a 2010 Indian Hindi-language anthology found footage drama film directed by Dibakar Banerjee and written by Banerjee and Kanu Behl. Jointly produced by Ekta Kapoor, Shobha Kapoor and Priya Sreedharan under the banner of ALT Entertainment, the film stars mostly newcomers including Anshuman Jha, Nushrat Bharucha, Rajkummar Rao, Neha Chauhan, Amit Sial, Herry Tangri and Ashish Sharma. It has three separate but interlinked stories about an honour killing, an MMS scandal and sting operations.
Banerjee conceived the film after he came across several video clips containing sexual content including the DPS MMS clip and wanted to explore what led to that situation. He then wrote two short stories, which he later expanded into three. The film was made entirely using digital formats with different cameras, including a handycam, an amateur film camera, a security camera, an underwater camera and spy cameras. Nikos Andritsakis served as the film's cinematographer and Namrata Rao was its editor. The film's music was composed by Sneha Khanwalkar and the lyrics were written by Banerjee.
Love Sex Aur Dhokha was screened at the 2010 London Indian Film Festival and the Munich International Film Festival. It was released in India on 19 March 2010 to positive reviews from critics. The film was made on a budget of ₹20 million (US\$250,000); it grossed ₹97.8 million (US\$1.2 million) and proved to be a commercial success. Rao and Pritam Das won the Best Editing and the Best Sound Design Award, respectively, at the 56th Filmfare Awards. Khanwalkar received the R. D. Burman Music Award.
## Plot
### Love (Titled Superhit Pyaar)
Rahul, a young amateur film director in his early 20s decides to make a small-budget film for the diploma of his film course. He conducts an audition and meets Shruti, a young girl whom he chooses for the leading role. Shruti belongs to an orthodox family and her father is a real estate magnate. The two bond and become closer, but Shruti's overprotective, aggressive brother overhears their telephone conversation and attacks the film set to find out the identity of the caller. Shruti tells Rahul her father will get her married to someone else; they elope and get married. From their honeymoon suite, they telephone Shruti's family and ask for their acceptance; her father and brother are initially angry but then approve and tell them they will be sending a car to pick them up from the hotel. During the journey, Rahul and Shruti are ambushed by Shruti's brother and his goons who murder them, dismember their bodies with an ax and bury their remains.
### Sex (Titled Paap ki Dukkaan)
Shruti's friend Rashmi is a quiet woman who works night shifts in a supermarket to support her family. Adarsh, a supermarket supervisor, has obtained his job by using his family connections with the store's owner and has debts with loan sharks. He makes a pact with a friend to make a sex tape with one of the employees to sell to the media for a large sum of money; Adarsh chooses Rashmi, for whom he develops genuine feelings. He decides to back out of the plan but his feelings for Rashmi are suppressed by his greed. Rashmi receives news about the gruesome deaths of Shruti and Rahul and is deeply saddened. Taking advantage of Rashmi's vulnerability, Adarsh has sex with her and captures it on the shop's security camera. Having sold the footage, Adarsh is able to pay off his debts. It is later revealed that Rashmi was fired from the supermarket and shunned by her family.
### Dhokha (Titled Badnaam Shohorat)
Prabhat, an investigative reporter, is desperate for a sensational story so he will be paid a bonus by the news company that employs him. He saves the life of aspiring dancer Naina, who tries to commit suicide by jumping from a bridge. Naina is initially furious at Prabhat but plans a sting operation with him to take revenge on Loki Local, a music producer and singer who asked her to trade sex for the position of a leading dancer in his upcoming music video. Prabhat and Naina take the sting footage to the media, who encourage them to plan another sting; Naina will supposedly blackmail Loki by threatening to reveal the initial footage in an attempt to catch him trying to bribe her—to render false any accusations by Loki of fabrication of footage. Naina meets Loki in the supermarket where Rashmi works to execute the sting, while Prabhat watches closely. The plan goes awry when Loki tries to steal the camera and shoots Prabhat, who is admitted to the hospital. Naina goes to meet Prabhat to hand over the footage so he can get the bonus, but he decides to protect Naina's dignity, refuses to give his superiors the footage and resigns. It is revealed that Naina has betrayed Prabhat by accepting the role as the lead dancer in Loki's new music video.
## Cast
- Anshuman Jha as Rahul
- Nushrat Bharucha as Shruti
- Sandeep Bose as Shruti's Dad
- Rajkummar Rao as Adarsh
- Neha Chauhan as Rashmi
- Arya Banerjee as Naina
- Herry Tangri as Loki Local
- Amit Sial as Prabhat
- Atul Mongia as Atul
- Ashish Sharma as Shahid
- Taran Bajaj as Goldie
- Aaditi Pohankar
## Production
### Development
Director Dibakar Banerjee said several real-life sex scandals, including the DPS MMS scandal, inspired him to make Love Sex Aur Dhokha because he "wanted to do something on what led to that incident". He co-wrote two short stories with Kanu Behl, which they later expanded into three. According to Banerjee, he found some sex tapes "hilarious" because "those people, while having sex were also struggling with the camera, the ergonomics of how to shoot while having sex". He wrote a two-page story about a man who is in love and "the contrast between what he thinks love should be and what it actually is". The film consisted of three stories dealt with issues of honour killings, sexual exploitation and voyeurism. The second story is based on diploma film footage that Banerjee had retrieved. He said the three stories were connected; "the way we played with time, and cause and effect and the fundamental rule that every story has a beginning, a middle and an end".
Banerjee approached Ekta Kapoor after they finished writing the script; he said Kapoor "readily agreed" to produce it. In 2010, Kapoor launched ALT Entertainment and decided to release Love Sex Aur Dhokha under her banner. The film was jointly produced by Balaji Motion Pictures's ALT Entertainment and Priya Sreedharan. In June 2009, it was announced that Banerjee would make an experimental film about the impact of digital technology for Kapoor's company. Banerjee said, "Earlier, we would have sex because we wanted to have sex. Today, we have sex to get caught on a tape, to further their career or to make friends. That is the issue that the film is examining." Banerjee stated that he wanted to examine "voyeurism", which "the whole society finds itself trapped in", through the film. Banerjee was inspired by the Tehelka sting operations for the third story of his film, which is about a sting operation on a pop star. According to him, several clichéd dialogues of Hindi cinema were used in the film to show a "mirror" because the "trajectory is very similar to a typical Bollywood film and yet very different".
### Casting
Banerjee and his team decided to cast newcomers and unknown professional actors. The cast consisted of actors including Neha Chauhan, Rajkummar Rao, Anshuman Jha, Nushrat Bharucha and Amit Sial. The casting director of the film was Atul Mongia, who also acted in it. Neha Chauhan was cast after Banerjee saw her in her brother's wedding video; Chauhan wanted to assist Banerjee but he chose her for the role of Rashmi. Mongia auditioned 15 people a day for three and a half months to cast the 75 characters in the film. He screened almost 2,000 actors and auditioned 1,000 of them; some actors were chosen from the street. Sandeep Bose, who runs a casting agency, sent actors for auditions and was eventually cast in the role of Shruti's father in the first story. The three actors who were shortlisted for lead characters underwent through a two-month workshop in Prithvi Theatre. They were asked to act out random situations and improvise scenes. Arya Banerjee, daughter of sitar player Nikhil Banerjee, was cast in the role of model Naina. Herry Tangri was cast in the role of pop star Loki local. Rajkummar Rao, an alumnus of Film and Television Institute of India, was cast as Adarsh; to resemble his character's physique he had to lose six kilograms (13 lb) in a month. The film was edited by Namrata Rao, who also acted in a small role.
### Filming
Love Sex aur Dhokha is the first Indian film to be shot in the digital format. It was made using guerrilla film-making techniques in locations in Mumbai by the director of photography Nikos Andritsakis. It was filmed with different cameras, including a handycam, an amateur film camera, night-vision cameras, a security camera, an underwater camera and a spy camera. The stories are told from the camera's point of view; Banerjee said, "It is almost as if the camera is a character and to do that you have to give the camera character". The film was made with different kinds of camera. Banerjee said he chose to work digitally to get the aesthetics that he could not get on 35 mm film. An item song titled "I Can't Hold It" was purposely filmed poorly because in the film, the song is being shot by an amateur film director who makes mistakes.
Banerjee said many takes were required for the five-second shot in which a woman jumps into the sea because "the camera jumped along with her, filming her movements". Andritsakis wanted to give the film a "video look" that has a "harsh" picture quality with everything in the frame in focus. Banerjee wanted the film to look "shaky, low-tech, fuzzy and unframed", and yet make it entertaining. He showed 1 Night in Paris to Andritsakis for reference. The underwater sequences set in a canal were filmed separately in a swimming pool with special gears for the camera. The suicide scene was filmed using a stunt double and the camera free-flowing in air; the actors performed their parts of the scene separately using chroma key.
## Soundtrack
The film's soundtrack album was composed by Sneha Khanwalkar and the lyrics were written by Dibakar Banerjee. The album rights were acquired by Sony Music and the soundtrack album was released on 8 March 2010. Vocals were performed by Khanwalkar, Kailash Kher, Nihira Joshi, Amey Date and Nagarjuna. Khanwalker was hired before the script was ready.
Harmeet Singh of The Indian Express called the album a "pure delight" with a "rustic-club feel to it". The song "I Can't Hold It" has a blend of Rajasthani folk music with dholaks playing in the background. Sampurna Wire wrote: "Overall, though Love Sex Aur Dhokha doesn't cover a distance similar to that of Oye Lucky! Lucky Oye!, it has a much bigger single in the form of the title track "Love Sex Aur Dhokha" which makes all the difference".
## Release
A 90-second trailer was to be released along with 3 Idiots in theatres across India; it was edited three times so it could be shown in 290 multiplex screens. The film was promoted with the tagline, "You're being watched". A promotional video of the film's title song was launched prior to the release. It was screened at the 2010 London Indian Film Festival and the Munich International Film festival. The Central Board of Film Certification shortened and blurred a love scene showing a bare-backed woman on top of a man. Banerjee showed his disappointment and said: "Those who saw the complete sex scene with the naked body were traumatised. There was nothing sexual about it". A reference to caste in the love story between a low-caste man and a high-caste woman was also changed; Banerjee stated his disappointment, saying, "This completely changes the perspective of my story since now the caste-challenged love story is turned into a poor-boy-rich-girl romance". The lyrics of the track "Tu Nangi Achi Lagti Hai" were changed to "Tu Gandi Achi Lagti Hai" in the film. Love Sex Aur Dhokha received an "A (adult only)" certificate after the changes. Kapoor was in a "state of shock" after seeing the final cut of the film because the shaky camerawork and the stories affected her deeply.
Before the film's release, Banerjee screened the first 20 minutes of it in the SIES Nerul college and discussed it with the students. The film was released in 350 screens in India. It was only released in India because the producers felt the recovery of costs for small-budget films is not possible overseas. After the film's release, the producers decided to release it in selected screens in the US, UK, UAE and some other international markets. A photograph showing the bare backs of two actors from the film was released before the film; some media outlets labelled it "the most shocking scene to be ever filmed in a commercial Hindi film". Banerjee reacted to this and said, "I want the scene to be judged as part of the film. To use the picture out of context will be damaging to the film." The film is also available on Netflix.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Love Sex Aur Dhokha opened to mostly positive responses from critics. Rajeev Masand gave it 4 out of 5, stating it as "the most riveting Hindi film in recent memory" and called it "possibly the most important Hindi film since Satya and Dil Chahta Hai." Raja Sen called the film a "masterpiece", writing, "Bollywood has just grown up the only way it could, with Love, Sex and Dhokha." Sarita Tanwar of Mid-Day called it "season's best film" and a "must-watch". A review carried by The Indian Express called the film "path-breaking" which "signifies the changing face of Hindi cinema". Anupama Chopra called the film "a grim, deeply unsettling and yet compelling portrait of urban India" and a "polarizing film".
Sanjukta Sharma of Mint gave a positive review and said, "LSD is raw and courageous; it is not pretty, but it has beauty ...". A review in The Times of India gave three-and-a-half to the film and stated, "Don't expect time-pass entertainment. Think beyond run-of-the-mill and see how Ekta Kapoor re-invents herself as the producer of contemporary Indian cinema's first full-blown experimental film". Mayank Shekhar stated, "Where any Bollywood movie without a gyrating, lip-synching hero perceives itself as 'different', this one ... is truly an experiment". Namrata Joshi called the film "remarkable" for the way it creates an "audacious narrative".
Baradwaj Rangan wrote, "Love Sex Aur Dhokha is nothing if not off-the-charts ambitious—and yet, I couldn't shake off the feeling that Banerjee has pulled off a successful experiment rather than a satisfying experience". Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis said the writing of the film was "inconsistent" and called it "bold but not so beautiful". Subhash K. Jha said. "the director vision is so unified to the way the characters see themselves that a section of the audience may feel it's watching a hugely self-indulgent work that wants to keep the 'cinema' out of cinema". Ajit Duara of OPEN compared the film's title and filming techniques with Steven Soderbergh's Sex, Lies, and Videotape and felt unlike Soderbergh's film, Banerjee's film doesnot show his point of view.
The film was mentioned in critic and author Shubhra Gupta's book, 50 Films That Changed Bollywood, 1995–2015.
### Box office
Love Sex Aur Dhokha was made on a production budget of ₹20 million (US\$250,000). It grossed ₹42.5 million (US\$530,000) in its opening weekend and ₹64.0 million (US\$800,000) at the end of its first week. It opened well at multiplexes in metro cities, in Delhi and North India. The film grossed ₹97.8 million (US\$1.2 million) by the end of its theatrical run, making it a profitable venture.
### Awards
Namrata Rao and Pritam Das won the Best Editing and the Best Sound Design Award awards respectively at the 56th Filmfare Awards. Sneha Khanwalkar received the R. D. Burman Music Award. The film received the Best Film Award, while Banerjee received the Best Director Award at the 2011 Stardust Awards in the searchlight category.
## See also
- Found footage (pseudo-documentary)
- Anthology film |
38,115,299 | Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit | 1,154,126,396 | 2012 video game | [
"2012 video games",
"Arkedo Studio games",
"IOS games",
"Metroidvania games",
"Platform games",
"PlayStation Network games",
"Sega video games",
"Video games about rabbits and hares",
"Video games developed in France",
"Video games set in hell",
"Windows games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games"
]
| Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit (or simply Hell Yeah!) is a platform game for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 through PlayStation Network, Xbox 360 through Xbox Live Arcade, and iOS through App Store (the latter as Hell Yeah! Pocket Inferno). It was developed by French developer Arkedo Studio and published by Sega. The game has an ESRB rating of Teen.
The game puts a player in control of Ash, the prince of Hell, as he sets out across Hell on a self-imposed quest to restore his dignity by killing a number of monsters. He accomplishes this with the use of a large circular-saw blade jetpack that serves as both his primary weapon and his main mode of transportation. The game was praised for its visuals, but widely criticized for its control scheme.
## Gameplay
Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit is a side-scrolling platformer. A player controls Ash, who jumps around platforms on a series of seven levels separated by doors and attempts to kill 100 individually named monsters. As the monsters are killed, more doors to new areas are unlocked. The combat uses twin-stick shooter controls, in which movement is controlled by one thumbstick or set of keys, and firing weapons is controlled by the other thumbstick or another set of keys. The player fights the monsters using a variety of projectile weapons, and can purchase additional weapons. Monsters can also be killed by cutting into them with the saw blade. To finish off any of the 100 monsters, the player must perform a quick mini-game, which unlocks a death animation unique to each monster. Failing the mini-game will result in damage to Ash and the monster will regain some life. Aside from the 100 named monsters, levels are also filled with traps and weaker, unnamed monsters that reappear each time the player re-enters that level.
## Plot
Ash, a skeletal rabbit and the prince of Hell, has inherited the role of ruler of Hell from his father. After a photographer takes a picture of Ash playing with a rubber duck in the bathtub, Ash sets out to kill the 100 monsters that have seen the photo, to restore his image. The world of Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit has several zones with different visual styles, including "haunted caves, science labs, casinos and spaceships full of talking animals". The player navigates these zones by traveling on a large buzz-saw-like circular blade that can cut through the environment, can fire a variety of projectile weapons, and is equipped with a jet pack. Ash is assisted in his quest by his butler, Nestor, a top hat-wearing octopus.
## Reception
Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit and Hell Yeah! Pocket Inferno received "mixed or average reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Critics praised the game's visuals, with Lawrence Sonntag of Inside Gaming Daily writing that "every level is bizarre but expertly colored, vibrant, and filled with high-resolution assets", and that the monsters are "what you might find in a second grader's notebook – doodles of ridiculous monsters, only brought to life with impressive talent and animated in HD". Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer wrote that the PlayStation 3 version was "absolutely gorgeous, a delicious feast of tasty animation drowning in buttery detail."
The game's control scheme, on the other hand, received almost universal criticism. Greg Miller of IGN stated that "The platforming is plagued by floaty controls and the inability to use the D-Pad", while James Stephanie Sterling of Destructoid called the controls "unsavory". Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer commented on the PC controls by saying "You want an Xbox 360 controller for this one. You could play it with a keyboard, but only in the same sense that technically you could fly if you flapped your arms hard enough." Kevin Schaller of GameRevolution, however, called the controls "responsive, though it takes a little getting used to".
Gamezebo gave the PC version all five stars, saying, "No matter your stance on outfitting rabbits with guns, you have to admit that Ash’s murderous adventure through the depths of Hell will only encourage other, impressionable young bunnies to do the same. With such a fun, hilarious, and engaging rendition of his experience available by playing Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit, we are encouraging all members of the rabbit youth to follow his example. Vote no on Prop 415, or God help us all." Edge gave the Xbox 360 version a score of eight out of ten, saying, "Hell Yeah! may wear its warm immaturity on its sleeve, but its jokes are strong, its protagonist and antagonists likeable and its rhythms satisfying." EGMNow gave the same console version a similar score of eight out of ten, saying that it "sits somewhere between a hardcore classic and a shameless parody, and luckily, I happen to be a fan of both. It's not perfect, but like Vincent Vega once said, 'personality goes a long way.'" The Guardian similarly gave it four stars out of five, saying of the game, "If you know someone whose mantra is: 'They don't make games like that anymore,' just force them to play it and they'll have been well and truly silenced." GameZone similarly gave the PlayStation 3 version eight out of ten, saying, "Though it's lacking in replayability without any sort of multiplayer or worthwhile hell-ish content, Hell Yeah! Wrath of the Dead Rabbit is still a superb side-scrolling romp that's worth the \$15 price tag...especially if you're looking for something a little different from Sega's camp." |
46,493 | Maryland Toleration Act | 1,170,681,039 | 1649 religious tolerance act in the Maryland Colony | [
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"North America in the English Civil War",
"Province of Maryland",
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"Religion in the Thirteen Colonies",
"St. Mary's City, Maryland",
"St. Mary's County, Maryland"
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| The Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, the first law in North America requiring religious tolerance for Christians. It was passed on April 21, 1649, by the assembly of the Maryland colony, in St. Mary's City in St. Mary's County, Maryland. It created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty. Specifically, the bill, now usually referred to as the Toleration Act, granted freedom of conscience to all Christians. (The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws, the first in 1636, which prohibited religious persecution including against non-Trinitarians; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state.) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States. The Calvert family, who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics, sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies.
The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland, but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne, a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell; he was an Anglican, a Puritan sympathizer, and strongly hostile to the Catholic Religion. When the Calverts regained control of Maryland, the Act was reinstated, before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution, and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland. As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America, it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which enshrined religious freedom in American law.
## Cecil Calvert
The Province of Maryland was founded by Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore in 1634. Like his father George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, who had originated the efforts that led to the colony's charter, he was Catholic at a time when the Kingdom of England was dominated by the Church of England. The Calverts intended the colony to function both as a haven for English Catholics fleeing religious persecution and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants. Many of Maryland's first settlers were Catholic, including at least two Catholic priests, one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony's history. But whatever Calvert's intentions, Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation. Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church. Eventually, Anglican and Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers. Thus, by 1649 when the law was passed, the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants, and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics, rather than the reverse.
From Maryland's earliest days, Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind. Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony, he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics. He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible, so as not to disturb that peace. The Ordinance of 1639, Maryland's earliest comprehensive law, expressed a general commitment to the rights of man, but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind. Peace prevailed until the English Civil War, which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert's control of Maryland. In 1647, after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert, Protestants seized control of the colony. Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, quickly regained power, but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable. This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence, now Annapolis, by guaranteeing their freedom of worship. Partially to confirm the promises he made to them, Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it. They did so on April 21, 1649.
## Description
The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance, allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished, but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time. It also granted tolerance to only Christians who believed in the Trinity. The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians:
> ... no person or persons ... professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be anyways troubled, Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province ...
Settlers who blasphemed by denying the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands. That meant that Jews, Unitarians, and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity who practiced their religions risked their lives. Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary, the apostles, or the evangelists could be whipped, jailed, or fined. Otherwise, Trinitarian Christians' right to worship was protected. The law outlawed the use of "heretic" and other religious insults against them.
The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non-Christian. In 1658, a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks. Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things but argued that he had only responded to questions asked of him. He was held for trial, but the case was later dismissed, and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert's rule following the English Civil War.
The law had its detractors, even among those groups protected by it. Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist. They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert, who was Catholic, they were being required to submit to the Pope, whom they considered to be the Antichrist. Some Anglicans also opposed the law, believing that the Church of England should be the colony's sole established church.
## Repeal and legacy
In 1654, five years after its passage, the Act was repealed. Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War. In the early stages of that conflict, the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King. Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies, and two of them, the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett, took control of the colonial government in St. Mary's City in 1652. In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen, Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion. Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony's Protestants, and in 1657 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly and remained in effect until 1692.
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne, a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert's rule. They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism, and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule. In fact, the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718. The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715, but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism. His political control remained tense enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics. It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland.
While the law did not secure religious freedom, and while it included severe limitations, it was nonetheless a significant milestone. It predates the Enlightenment, which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root, and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history. Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom, including the British Act of Toleration of 1689, the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania, and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina, may have been influenced by its example. According to historian Robert Brugger, "...the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression." It was not until the passage of the signed First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee, but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase, "free exercise thereof". Thus, despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad-based tolerance, the law is "a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty."
## See also
- History of religion in the United States |
55,565,088 | Eddie Ryan | 1,170,358,137 | British professional wrestler (born 1985) | [
"1986 births",
"English male professional wrestlers",
"Living people",
"Sportspeople from Plymouth, Devon"
]
| Vincent Rubio (born 5 November 1985), better known by the ring name Eddie Ryan, is a British professional wrestler currently active in the United Kingdom. Rubio, originally from Plymouth, England, started his in ring career in 2008 at the 4 Front Wrestling (4FW) training school. His first match was in January of the following year for 4FW under the ring name Eddie Reyes, being given the gimmick of a Spanish wrestler. Before representing England overseas in Japan and the United States, Rubio changed his ring name to Eddie Ryan, with an English gimmick.
In 2018, Rubio first appeared on national television channel FreeSports for 5 Star Wrestling, and later as a part of the NXT UK brand of World Wrestling Entertainment. Ryan is an nineteen time heavyweight champion, and held seven tag team championships with his partner Jason Larusso, as a part of The Lionhearts, Charlie Sterling as a part of "Crazy Teacups", & Joel Redman.
## Early life
Rubio grew up in Plymouth, England. As a teenager, Rubio played football until his final year of university and watched professional wrestling. He graduated from Plymouth University with a Bachelor of Arts in business administration in 2008. Afterward, he moved to Swindon to train to become a professional wrestler.
## Professional wrestling career
### Early career (2008–2011)
Rubio started his professional wrestling career in 2008 by training at the 4 Front Wrestling (4FW) Training School. He had his first professional match in January of the following year at 4FW New Year’s Wrestlution under the name of Eddie Reyes, with the gimmick of a Spanish wrestler. Rubio competed in a five-way ladder match Money in the bank, featuring Mark Sloan, Wade Fitzgerald, Mark Haskins and won by Dave Sharp. Rubio wrestled predominantly for 4FW during his first year, but made his debut for Pro Evolution Wrestling (Pro EVW) in July with a loss to Jack Dynamo. He gained his first championship match by the end of the year in a battle royale at the 4FW Halloween Spectacular 2009, but lost the match for the 4FW Heavyweight Championship again to Jack Dynamo a full year after his debut in January 2010.
Rubio continued with his work in 4FW and Pro EVW, but also branched out into new territories in 2010, with matches in Welsh Wrestling and XWA. He made his first appearance outside of the UK, wrestling for the Nordic Championship Wrestling Cruiser weight Championship in Hamburg, Germany. Rubio had his final match as "The Spanish Sensation" Eddie Reyes in June 2011 at 4FW Steel Cage Warfare, in a loss to Joel Redman. So he could represent England, Rubio changed his gimmick to being English, and his ring-name to Eddie Ryan. Rubio competed in six matches in the United States, including a losing effort for the vacant Power League Wrestling Heavyweight Championship. Rubio also competed in the Korakuen Hall in Tokyo, Japan, where he won a tag team match for Pro Wrestling Zero1.
### The Lionhearts and 4FW Champion (2012–2015)
In February 2012, Rubio returned to England from Japan, and won his first professional championship in a ten-man ladder match. He defended the championship against the likes of Sha Samuels, Benham Ali and Dave Mastiff before losing the championship to Samuels in March 2013; holding the championship for over a year. During this time, he also returned to his home town of Plymouth for the Plymouth Wrestling Alliance (PWA). Before the end of 2013, Ryan won the 4FW Championship back in a 2-on-1 Handicap match.
Ryan start tagging with Jason Larusso, creating the tag team "The Lionhearts". Throughout 2013, the team received four tag team championship matches, for the Pro EVW, Alternate Wrestling World, Pro Wrestling Pride (PWP) and Michinoko Pro Wrestling tag team championships, however they lost all of them. In late 2014, they won the 4FW Tag Team Championship by defeating The Hunter Brothers.
Whilst holding the 4FW Heavyweight Championship, Ryan become the number one contender for the PWA Heavyweight Championship, and on 5 March 2014 Ryan won the PWA Heavyweight Championship from Chris Marvel on the company's 5th anniversary show. He defended the championship multiple times, defeating John Harding, Danny Walsh, and Robbie E. Ryan held the championship for an entire year, before losing at the 6th anniversary show, to Danny Walsh.
Focusing on both tag team and singles wrestling, The Lionhearts won their second tag team championship, this time the Pro Wrestling Pride Tag Team Championship, besting old nemesis Danny Walsh, and brother Mark Walsh. They became double champions after winning a four-team gauntlet match to regain the 4FW Tag Team Championship. The team lost the Pride Tag Team Championship two months after winning them back to Mark Walsh, and his new partner, Tyler Hawke.
### Singles success and TNA Heavyweight Championship match (2016)
Ryan started 2016 by competing in a tournament to crown the first 4FW South East Champion, where he lost to JD Knight in the final. In February, he lost the 4FW Tag Championship with partner Jason Larusso, effectively ending the team. Ryan then focused primarily on singles competition and received wins against Chris Dickinson, Kelly Sixx and Joshua Knott, before winning the 3rd Annual PWP Prizefighters Tournament, defeating Lomaxx in the final and gaining a PWP Heavyweight Championship opportunity. He was unsuccessful at PWP Pride & Glory 2016, but he won the championship at the next show, PWP One of a kind, besting Steve Griffiths in Taunton, England.
As champion, Ryan successfully defended the championship against Hardcore Holly at PWP Heroes and Legends 3, as well as wins over Chris Andrews, Danny Jones and Chuck Cyrus. He lost the championship in an elimination six-pack challenge to Bram, due to interference from the "House of Bones" tag team, Gideon and Lomaxx. Ryan got revenge by winning a tag team match against the House of Bones, partnering James Storm. In August, Ryan won his fourth heavyweight championship, defeating JD Knight for the South East Professional Wrestling Heavyweight Championship in Kent.
Ryan continued working for Plymouth Wrestling Association, and on 17 April he won a number one contenders match for the TNA Heavyweight Championship against Drew Galloway. Ryan lost the championship match at the company's 7th anniversary show. Ryan also challenged for the PWA Heavyweight Championship against Tyler Hawke, but did not successfully win the championship.
### Heavyweight and tournament success (2017)
In January, Ryan had his first Ultimate Pro Wrestling championship opportunity, where he lost to Lestyn Rees. He also challenged for new championships, including the Pro Wrestling PWP Catch Division Championship against Joshua Knott, and the King Of Chaos Championship, in a seven-man match, losing on both occasions. He won the Pride Prizefighters tournament for the second time in a row, however, he lost the corresponding championship match again, losing in a fatal-4-way to Bram.
Ryan had success in Pro Wrestling Chaos during the year, with wins over Rampage Brown, Dick Riley, Mikey Whiplash, and wrestled Tommy Dreamer and Paul London. In July, Ryan unsuccessfully challenged for the Ironfist Wrestling Heavyweight Championship, losing to Mark Haskins. He returned to the company in September, to attempt the Mount Olympus Challenge, a seven-man match, won by Max Alexander. In March, Ryan won his second one-night tournament, where he won the Plymouth Wrestling Association Trail to Prevail tournament. This led to him besting Robin Lekime for the PWA Heavyweight championship on 30 April. He then defended the championship against Lekime twice more, winning the final encounter 3–2 in a 30-minute Iron Man match at Heat Wave II.
Ryan twice battled for the Ultimate Pro Wrestling championship number one contendership; on 9 September 2017 he lost a triple threat match to Josh Bodom (also including Ryan Smile), and also lost a singles match to Bodom on 20 October. On 28 October Ryan had his first singles match for the Pro Wrestling Chaos championship, losing to Eddie Dennis. Ryan finished out the year wrestling for Ultimate Pro Wrestling, and in Big League Wrestling, losing to Chris Andrews.
### 5 Star Wrestling (2018)
In late 2017, Ryan was named a member of the roster for the 5 Star Wrestling tour in 2018, also featuring Rob Van Dam, Rey Mysterio and Jack Hager, that was broadcast on FreeSports. Following this Rubio announced that he was to be wrestling full-time, quitting his job as a Data Analyst. During a press conference before the tour, a kayfabe fight between Hager and Ryan occurred over Hager's disrespectful attitude against British wrestlers, where Hager stated that British wrestlers "don’t matter. Ryan was defeated by Hager in the Echo Arena, on the first night of the tour in the main event on 1 February 2018, on 5 Star Wrestling's debut on FreeSports.
On 22 February Ryan made a public challenge to Hager, who was now the 5 Star Champion, for a championship match. The event saw Ryan's challenge be met by Hager, but only if Ryan could win a "five-star gauntlet match", winning against five wrestlers in a row. Ryan defeated Markus Burke, and then HT Drake, before defeating Tim Wyde by disqualification, after interference from Hager. Ryan was then forced to take on Dave Mastiff and old rival "Big Grizzly" Steve Griffiths in a two-on-one handicap match, which he also won. After the match, Ryan was rewarded a championship match against Hager in that evening's main event, which he lost after outside interference from Bram. In March 2018, 5 Star Wrestling folded, however, on the last broadcast, Ryan won the newly created 5 Star Wrestling: Real Championship from Zack Gibson, in Belfast.
### NXT UK (2018)
Ryan made his debut for World Wrestling Entertainment under the NXT UK brand on 13 October 2018, where he competed and won in the Plymouth Pavilions. The following night, Ryan competed in a losing effort against Fabian Aichner.
## Personal life
Rubio is a supporter of Plymouth Argyle FC.
## Professional wrestling persona
Originally portraying as a Spanish gimmick, Rubio wrestled under the name of Eddie Reyes, using a sitout scoop slam piledriver to win matches, known as the España Slam. Later, after his character changed nationality, Rubio utilised a superkick to win matches; being referred to as "The English Lion". Along with his name, Ryan would often wear a gladiatorial cape to the ring; or if wrestling in Plymouth, a Plymouth Argyle football shirt. In 2018, for 5 Star Wrestling, Rubio used a running crucifix powerbomb known as the George Cross to finish matches, a move name designed to utilise his place as a babyface representing the country.
## Championships and accomplishments
- 5 Star Wrestling
- 5 Star Wrestling: Real Championship (1 time)
- 4 Front Wrestling
- 4FW Tag Team Championship (2 times) – With Jason Larusso
- 4FW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
- Alternative Wrestling World
- AWW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – With Jason Larusso
- Combat Sports Federation
- CSF All-Nations Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Full Force Wrestling
- FFW British Heavyweight Champion (2 time)
- Plymouth Wrestling Alliance/Association
- PWA Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
- PWA Trail to Prevail Tournament (1 time)
- Pro Wrestling Chaos
- PWC Knights of Chaos Championship (2 times) - With Charlie Sterling
- Pro Wrestling Pride
- PWP Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Prizefighters Champion (2 times) – 2016, 2017
- PWP Tag Team Championship (1 time) – With Jason Larusso
- South East Professional Wrestling
- SEPW Heavyweight Champion (1 time)
- Elite Wrestling Entertainment
- EWE Heavyweight Champion (1 time)
- Strike Wrestling
- Strike Heavyweight Champion (2 time, current)
- South West Wrestling
- SWW Heavyweight Champion (2 time)
- SWW Tag Team Championship (1 time, current) - With Joel Redman
- Reach Wrestling
- Reach Heavyweight Champion (2 time)
- Ultimate Pro Wrestling
- UPW Undisputed Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current) |
24,972,187 | Hurricane Ida (2009) | 1,171,663,304 | Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 2009 | [
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"Articles containing video clips",
"Atlantic hurricanes in Mexico",
"Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes",
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"Hurricanes in Costa Rica",
"Hurricanes in Cuba",
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"Hurricanes in Florida",
"Hurricanes in Honduras",
"Hurricanes in Louisiana",
"Hurricanes in Mississippi",
"Hurricanes in Nicaragua",
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"Tropical cyclones in 2009"
]
| Hurricane Ida was the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone during the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season, crossing the coastline of Nicaragua with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). The remnants of the storm became a powerful nor'easter that caused widespread damage along coastal areas of the Mid-Atlantic States. Ida formed on November 4 in the southwestern Caribbean, and within 24 hours struck the Nicaragua coast with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). It weakened significantly over land, although it restrengthened in the Yucatán Channel to peak winds of 105 mph (170 km/h). Hurricane Ida weakened and became an extratropical cyclone in the northern Gulf of Mexico, before spreading across the southeastern United States. The remnants of Ida contributed to the formation of a nor'easter that significantly affected the eastern coast of the United States.
Numerous watches and warnings were issued during the hurricane's existence. Areas from Panama to Maine were affected by either the storm or the nor'easter low. In Nicaragua, nearly 3,000 people evacuated coastal areas ahead of the storm. More extensive evacuations in Mexico relocated over 100,000 residents and tourists. In the United States, several parishes in Louisiana and counties in Alabama and Florida declared a state of emergency because of fear of significant damage from the storm. Officials issued voluntary evacuations and most schools and non-emergency offices in the region closed.
In Central America, Ida brought heavy rainfall to parts of Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Honduras. Several people were reported missing in Nicaragua, however post-storm reports denied these claims. Thousands of buildings collapsed or sustained damage and roughly 40,000 people were left homeless. Damages from Ida in Nicaragua amounted to at least 46 million córdoba (\$2.12 million US\$). Aside from heavy rainfall in Mexico and Cuba, little impact from Ida was reported in either country. In the United States, the remnants caused substantial damage, mainly in the Mid-Atlantic States. One person was killed by Ida after drowning in rough seas, while six others lost their lives in various incidents related to the nor'easter. Widespread heavy rainfall led to numerous reports of flash flooding in areas from Mississippi to Maine. Overall, the two systems caused nearly \$300 million in damage throughout the country.
## Meteorological history
Hurricane Ida originated from a weak tropical wave that reached the western Caribbean on November 1, 2009. By November 2, the system spawned an area of low pressure north of Panama which moved very little over the following days. The low became increasingly organized within a favorable environment that allowed deep convection to develop. By November 4, the low had become sufficiently organized for the National Hurricane Center (NHC) to classify it as Tropical Depression Eleven. At this time, the tropical depression was situated just southwest of San Andrés Island. Convective banding features became increasingly defined throughout the day, and six hours after becoming a tropical depression, the system intensified into Tropical Storm Ida.
Light wind shear allowed Ida to quickly intensify as it slowly tracked towards the Nicaraguan coastline. Late on November 4, microwave satellite imagery depicted an eye-like featured forming within the storm. The storm tracked west-northwestward in response to a weak ridge over the north-central Caribbean Sea and a weak trough over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico; these features were also responsible for Ida's slow forward motion. Early on November 5, the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale as it passed near the Corn Islands. At approximately 1117 UTC, the center of Ida made landfall near Tasbapauni, Nicaragua, with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). After the hurricane moved inland, the high mountains of Nicaragua caused the convection associated with the hurricane to diminish, resulting in rapid weakening. Roughly 18 hours after landfall, Ida weakened to a tropical depression as it turned northward over Honduras.
Late on November 6, Ida re-emerged over water, entering the northwestern Caribbean Sea. Upon moving back over water, the storm quickly began to redevelop, with convection increasing around the center of circulation. Early on November 7, Ida restrengthened into a tropical storm as it tracked just west of due north. Very warm sea surface temperatures ahead of the system would have allowed for substantial intensification; however, wind shear over the area quickly increased, resulting in modest strengthening. Later that day, the storm turned northwestward in response to a strong trough over Mexico and a mid-level ridge extending from the Southeast United States to Hispaniola. As Ida neared the Yucatán Channel, an eye redeveloped and the storm quickly intensified into a hurricane. By the morning of November 8, the storm had attained Category 2 status with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h).
Late on November 8, Ida attained its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph (170 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 975 mbar (hPa; 28.79 inHg). Shortly thereafter, increasing wind shear and forward speed caused the storm to rapidly weaken to a tropical storm. Only a small area of convection remained near the center by the morning of November 9. Despite the strong shear, the storm quickly re-organized, attaining hurricane status for a third time during the afternoon. Based on readings from a nearby oil platform and reconnaissance data, it was determined that Ida attained its secondary peak intensity near the southeast coast of Louisiana with winds of 85 mph (135 km/h). However, this intensification was short-lived as a combination of increasing wind shear and decreasing sea-surface temperatures induced weakening to a tropical storm within three hours.
By the morning of November 10, all of Ida's convection appeared displaced to the northeast and the forward motion of the storm slowed substantially. Additionally, the storm had begun to undergo an extratropical transition near the United States Gulf Coast. Shortly before making landfall near Dauphin Island, Alabama, the storm completed its extratropical transition. Ida crossed Mobile Bay shortly thereafter, and maximum winds decreased below gale-force. After slowly tracking eastward for several hours, the surface circulation of Ida dissipated over the Florida Panhandle, at 12:00 UTC on November 11. However, energy from the storm led to the formation of a new low off the coast of North Carolina. This new low quickly intensified and became a powerful nor'easter that caused substantial damage throughout the Mid-Atlantic States. By November 12, the system attained a minimum pressure of 992 mbar (hPa; 29.29 inHg) along with winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). The extratropical low weakened the following day and moved out to sea after stalling along the North Carolina Coastline. The remnants of the cyclone persisted through November 17, by which time it had moved over Atlantic Canada.
## Preparations
### Central America
Shortly after being designated as Tropical Storm Ida on November 4, the government of Nicaragua issued a tropical storm warning for the entire coastline of Nicaragua, and the government of Columbia also issued a warning for the nearby islands of San Andrés and Providencia. Later that day, a hurricane watch was declared for areas between Bluefields and the Nicaragua–Honduras border. As Ida moved closer to land, the tropical storm warning for San Andrés and Providencia was discontinued. Several hours later, the tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were modified to cover areas south of the Nicaragua–Honduras border to Puerto Cabezas and a hurricane warning was issued for areas south of Puerto Cabezas to Bluefields. After Ida made landfall in Nicaragua, all hurricane advisories were discontinued and replaced by a tropical storm warning. Shortly thereafter, a tropical storm watch was declared for areas along the Honduran coastline between Limón and the Nicaragua–Honduras border. However, all watches and warnings were discontinued once Ida weakened to a tropical depression on November 6.
Throughout Nicaragua, officials evacuated roughly 3,000 people from areas prone to flash floods and landslides, as rainfall in excess of 20 in (510 mm) was expected to fall. About 1,100 of the evacuees were from Corn Island and Little Corn Island where their homes were not expected to hold up to hurricane-force winds. In Bluefields, roughly 1,100 people were evacuated to shelters. Authorities began stockpiling supplies such as food, blankets and water that could supply 20,000 people after the storm. Upon the formation of Ida, officials in Costa Rica placed most northern regions under a yellow alert. Personnel from the Costa Rican Red Cross were also placed on standby. In El Salvador, officials raised the disaster alert level to green, the lowest stage of alert, on November 5. As Ida neared the coastline of Nicaragua, officials in Honduras warned residents of the likelihood of heavy rainfall from the storm. In response to this, the country's disaster alert level was raised to yellow.
### Northern Caribbean
On November 7, Tropical Depression Ida re-entered the Caribbean Sea and restrengthened into a tropical storm, prompting the NHC to issue a tropical storm watch for areas between San Felipe, Yucatán and Punta Allen in Mexico as well as in Pinar del Río Province, Cuba. Several hours later, the watches were upgraded to warnings and a new tropical storm warning was declared for Grand Cayman. A tropical storm watch was also issued for Isla de la Juventud and a hurricane watch for areas between Tulum and Cabo Catoche, Mexico. Early on November 8, the tropical storm warning and hurricane watch for Mexico were modified to include areas from Punta Allen to Playa del Carmen and Tulum to Playa del Carmen respectively. A hurricane warning was also declared for areas between Playa del Carmen and Cabo Catoche. Later that day, the tropical storm warning for Grand Cayman was discontinued as Ida moved away from the island. Early on November 9, all watches and warnings for Cuba and Mexico were discontinued as Ida moved into the Gulf of Mexico and towards the United States.
In Mexico, officials declared a yellow alert, moderate hazard, as Hurricane Ida neared the Yucatán Peninsula on November 9. Roughly 36,000 tourists and 1,500 residents were evacuated from coastal areas of Quintana Roo. The Mexican Navy was placed on standby to assist in relief efforts once the storm had passed. Later that day, the alert was raised to red, the highest level, as hurricane-force winds and heavy rains threatened the region. A total of 95 shelters were opened in the state to house the evacuees.
### United States
As Hurricane Ida moved over the Yucatán Channel on November 8, the NHC issued a hurricane watch for areas between Grand Isle, Louisiana and Mexico Beach, Florida. As the storm moved closer to the states, a tropical storm warning was declared for areas between Grand Isle and Pascagoula, Mississippi, as well as areas between Indian Pass, Florida, and the mouth of the Aucilla River. The hurricane watch was also modified to encompass a smaller area, between Grand Isle and Pascagoula. A hurricane warning was also issued from Pascagoula to Indian Pass. During the afternoon of November 9, all hurricane watches and warnings were discontinued and the tropical storm warning was modified to include areas between Grand Isle and the mouth of the Aucilla River. As Ida became extratropical, the NHC discontinued all watches and warnings on the storm on November 10.
Due to the threat of large swells, several oil rigs along the Texas coastline were evacuated as a precautionary measure. Workers from Chevron Corporation and Anadarko Petroleum were evacuated from offshore platforms while those working for ConocoPhillips and ExxonMobil remained on site. The Louisiana Offshore Oil Port was also shut down on November 9 as a result of Ida's passage. As a result of the decreased oil production, the price of oil rose more than \$1 to \$78 per barrel. Among the rigs that were damaged was the Transocean Marianas which was drilling the Macondo well. That vessel would be replaced on the Macondo Well by the Deepwater Horizon, which caused the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.
On November 8, Lafourche Parish, Louisiana president, Charlotte Randolph, declared a state of emergency for the parish as the storm approached the United States Gulf Coast. Although no evacuations were issued, all schools and government offices were closed through November 10. Voluntary evacuations were issued for residents in Plaquemines Parish along coastal areas. The Belle Chasse Auditorium was converted into a shelter to house evacuees for the duration of the storm. Grand Isle mayor David Carmadelle issued voluntary evacuation orders for residents in recreational vehicles and trailers on the island. Nearly 1,400 families still living in temporary FEMA homes in Louisiana, in the wake of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, were urged to stay at home.
In Baldwin County, Alabama, a local state of emergency was declared on November 9 as Ida neared landfall. Voluntary evacuations were declared for residents living along coastal areas or in mobile homes. All government offices were closed until November 10 due to the storm. The Baldwin County Coliseum was converted into a shelter to house possible evacuees during the storm as well. In Mississippi, officials advised residents to remain vigilant and discussed possible evacuations. Residents living near Pensacola Beach, Florida, and nearby Perdido Key were urged to evacuate. On November 8, emergency officials declared a state of emergency in Escambia County. The following day, Walton County was also placed under a state of emergency ahead of Hurricane Ida's arrival. Voluntary evacuations were issued for residents in low-lying areas and all non-emergency offices were closed until November 10. The Freeport High School gymnasium was converted into a shelter to house evacuees.
## Impact and aftermath
### Nicaragua
Throughout Nicaragua, rainfall produced by the storm was significantly less than anticipated according to satellite derived estimates. Initial fears were that more than 15 in (380 mm) of rain would fall; however, most areas received less than 5 in (130 mm), especially further inland. A maximum of 9.1 in (230 mm) fell in Puerto Cabezas while areas further inland received less than 8 in (200 mm). The most severe damage took place in Karawala and Corn Island, near where the storm made landfall. There, roughly 80 percent of the structures were destroyed and over 2,000 ha (4,900 acres) of crops were lost. On Corn Island, 40 homes, 3 schools and a church were destroyed and the electrical and water grids were severely disrupted. Roughly 6,000 people from the municipalities of Sandy Bay, Karawala, Kukra Hilla, Laguna de Perlas, El Tortuguero and the mouth of the Rio Grande were evacuated to 54 shelters during the storm. Officials stated that 42 people along the Miskito Coast were unaccounted for as they refused to evacuate before the storm. The day after Ida passed through, officials began to assess the full extent of the hurricane's damage. An estimated 40,000 people were left homeless throughout the country and one person was listed as missing. Mayors of severely affected towns reported that there were numerous injuries, missing persons and extensive property damage. In Nicaragua, there were no confirmed fatalities as a result of Ida.
Damage from Ida in Nicaragua was estimated to be at least 46 million Nicaraguan córdoba (US\$2.12 million). A total of 1,334 people were injured by the storm throughout the country. Final damage assessments from the Nicaraguan Government for mainland Nicaragua were completed on November 12. A government report said that 283 homes were destroyed and 1,899 others damaged; 1,184 latrines were destroyed and 444 were damaged, and 476 wells were destroyed and 1,139 were damaged.
Shortly after the storm moved inland, 700 civil defense personnel were deployed to the affected region; however, due to damaged roads and poor travel conditions, they struggled to reach isolated regions. The Nicaraguan army supplied relief crews with four helicopters and two AN-2 aircraft for damage surveillance and search-and-rescue missions in the wake of Ida. The government of Nicaragua allocated roughly \$4.4 million in relief funds for those affected by the storm. Several agencies from the United Nations provided residents affected by the storm with relief supplies and donated disaster funds to the country. The United Nations Population Fund provided \$49,000 in funds; the World Food Programme deployed several rescue vehicles and logistics teams; UNICEF also provided logistics assistance in the country. OCHA provided \$2 million in relief funds; the Government of Sweden provided 400,000 Swedish kronor (US\$55,946) for sanitation and health supplies; the Netherlands Red Cross also donated 20,000 euros (US\$27,226) for non-food items.
### Elsewhere in Central America
In Costa Rica, the outer bands of Ida brought torrential rainfall, triggering isolated landslides. One of these landslides damaged three homes, leading to officials evacuating five families. Homes near Los Diques de Cartago were flooded and the sewage system was damaged, resulting in overflow. In Veraguas Province, Panama, severe flooding displaced more 400 people after 84 homes were inundated up to their roofs. A flooding disaster that killed 124 people in El Salvador was initially attributed to Hurricane Ida, although the National Hurricane Center quickly affirmed that the event resulted from a separate tropical low-pressure system in the Pacific. After weakening to a tropical storm, Ida moved over Honduras, where widespread heavy rains fell. A maximum rainfall of 7.1 in (180 mm) was recorded in Puerto Lempira. These rains caused some rivers in the country to swell, but none overflowed its banks. In northern areas of Honduras, minor flooding and fallen trees were reported.
### Northern Caribbean
In Cuba, the outer bands of Ida produced widespread heavy rainfall across western areas of the country. A maximum rainfall amount of 12.5 in (320 mm) fell in Manuel Lazo, while nearby areas received between 7 and 9 in (180 and 230 mm). Strong winds, gusting up to 87 mph (140 km/h) in localized areas, accompanied the storm during its passage. Several rivers were swollen due to the rains, including the Cuyaguateje River, which overflowed its banks and flooded nearby areas. In the Yucatán Peninsula, significantly less rain fell due to the asymmetrical structure of Ida even though the peninsula was relatively close to the storm. Isla Holbox, recorded substantial flooding, with roughly 70 percent of the island underwater. However, only minor damage was reported. Little to no beach erosion was sustained in coastal cities such as Cancún; however, over 50,000 tourists were evacuated from Chetumal, Quintana Roo, during the storm. The outer bands of Hurricane Ida also affected Grand Cayman. Moderate rainfall and gusty winds were reported across the island, and waves along the beach were estimated at 6 ft (1.8 m).
### United States
Ahead of Ida's arrival in the United States, a tight pressure gradient between the hurricane and a high-pressure system over the southeastern states resulted in strong winds across southern Florida. These winds, reaching 45 mph (70 km/h) in gusts, caused moderate damage in parts of the state. Roughly 3,000 people were left without power in Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties. Several trees were reported to have been downed and some uprooted. One car was struck by a broken tree limb during the event. In the Gulf Stream, the 27' Columbia sailing vessel Serenity, was caught the cyclone 150 miles (240 km) north-east of Jacksonville, Florida, and reported a brief strengthening of the storm, with sustained winds of 95 mph (155 km/h), gusting to 110 mph (175 km/h), on the eastern side of the system. Due to the sailing vessels non-response to VHF communications, a USCG helicopter was despatched a short while before the eye of the system arrived in the area. However, the crew refused evacuation, and later managed to arrive, somewhat damaged, in St. Augustine. Additionally, moderate beach erosion was reported in counties along the Gulf Coast. Rainfall from the system impacted Florida for two days, resulting in accumulations between 3 and 5 in (76 and 127 mm) in parts of the panhandle. A maximum rainfall of 5.41 in (137 mm) fell in Pensacola. Coastal and inland flooding resulted in numerous road closures and schools and non-governmental offices were closed on November 10. Water rise along the coast was estimated between 3 and 5 ft (0.91 and 1.52 m) at the height of the storm. Following the storm, a local state of emergency was declared in Wakulla County. Throughout Florida, damage from the storm amounted to \$265,000.
In Alabama, where Ida made landfall, heavy rains resulted in widespread flash flooding. A maximum of 9.83 in (250 mm) of rain fell in Opelika during the storm. Several roads in coastal counties were closed after being covered by high water. Heavy rains in central areas of the state also resulted in moderate flooding. In Calhoun County, a three-block area of Anniston was inundated by 2.5 ft (0.76 m) of water. In addition to the storm's heavy rains, waves up to 20 ft (6.1 m) caused severe damage along coastal regions. A storm surge of 4.38 ft (1.34 m) was recorded at Bayou La Batre. The Gulf State Park Pier near Gulf Shores, recently re-opened after being destroyed by Hurricane Ivan in 2004, was damaged. Damage from beach erosion and coastal resorts amounted to roughly \$9 million in the state.
Before making landfall in Alabama, Hurricane Ida brushed southeastern Louisiana, bringing light to moderate rains and increased surf to the state. Offshore, one person drowned after attempting to assist a boat that let out a distress signal during the storm. The rough seas resulted in moderate to severe beach erosion that caused roughly 1,000 ft (300 m) of levee to collapse. The levee collapse led to minor flooding and threatened three homes. The storm cut a new pass through Elmer's Island to Grand Isle between 100 and 200 ft (30 and 61 m) wide. A maximum sustained wind of 62 mph (100 km/h) and a gust of 74 mph (119 km/h) was recorded at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The highest rainfall total was recorded in Venice at 1.16 in (29 mm). Although not solely caused by Ida, high tides along the Texas coastline led to a few road closures.
Minor effects from Ida were also experienced in Mississippi, Georgia and Tennessee. In Mississippi, 4.13 in (105 mm) of rain fell in Waynesboro. Some flooding was reported in areas near the Alabama border while winds of up to 45 mph (70 km/h) brought down trees. Along the coast, the hurricane's storm surge was estimated at between 3 and 3.5 ft (0.91 and 1.07 m). Heavy rainfall from the storm affected much of Georgia, with a large swath of 3 to 5 in (76 to 127 mm) falling in northern parts of the state. A peak of 7.32 in (186 mm) was recorded in Lithonia. Additionally, minor rains affected parts of eastern Tennessee, totaling 4.11 in (104 mm) on Mount Le Conte.
### Nor'easter
Along the east coast of the United States, a nor'easter involving the remnants of Ida resulted in widespread damage along coastal areas. In North Carolina strong winds downed several trees loosened in saturated soil. In Rockingham County, one person was killed after being struck by a branch while driving. Four homes were destroyed along the Outer Banks, and over 500 others were damaged, leaving at least \$5.8 million in losses. Widespread coastal damage and flooding took place in Virginia, as rainfall exceeding 7 in (180 mm) fell in many places and large waves battered beaches. In some areas, roads were closed multiple times due to flooding. Minor damage was also reported as a few homes were inundated with up to 1 ft (0.30 m) of water. Some areas reported a storm surge comparable to that of Hurricanes Gloria in 1985 and Isabel in 2003. Damage from the storm in Virginia was estimated to be at least \$38.8 million, of which \$25 million was in Norfolk alone. In New York, one person drowned after being caught in rough seas off Rockaway Beach. Total beach losses in the state reached \$8.2 million.
## See also
- 2009 Atlantic hurricane season
- Timeline of the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season
- Hurricane Nate (2017) |
2,233,518 | Heaven Up Here | 1,171,116,077 | null | [
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"Albums produced by Hugh Jones (producer)",
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| Heaven Up Here is the second album by the English post-punk band Echo & the Bunnymen, released on 30 May 1981. In June 1981, Heaven Up Here became Echo & the Bunnymen's first Top 10 release when it reached number 10 on the UK Albums Chart. It was also the band's first entry into the United States album charts when it reached number 184 of the Billboard 200. The songs "A Promise" and "Over the Wall" were released as singles.
Recorded at Rockfield Studios near Monmouth in Wales, Heaven Up Here was co-produced by Hugh Jones and the band. An album generally well received by fans in the United Kingdom and by critics, Heaven Up Here won the "Best Dressed LP" and "Best Album" awards at the 1981 NME Awards. The album has also been listed at number 463 in Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
## Background and recording
After the public and press interest garnered from Echo & the Bunnymen's debut album, Crocodiles, the band released the Shine So Hard EP which maintained their profile. Work then soon began on their second album, Heaven Up Here. Following musical differences between the band and Crocodiles producers Bill Drummond and David Balfe, Hugh Jones was brought in to produce Heaven Up Here. Jones had previously engineered Crocodiles and co-produced Shine So Hard with Drummond, and would later go on to produce the band's 2005 album Siberia. The band were also given an additional producer credit. The album was recorded at Rockfield Studios near Monmouth in Wales during March 1981.
In the liner notes to the 2003 remastered version of the album, lead singer Ian McCulloch said that he constantly had the American rock band the Velvet Underground's song "What Goes On" in the back of his mind. He also stated that the band wanted to record a soul album. In the same liner notes, bassist Les Pattinson said that the band was often lazy and hence had hired rehearsal space at the Ministry in Liverpool. He said this made them work harder and develop "language" in the rhythm. According to guitarist Will Sergeant, McCulloch considers Heaven Up Here to be Sergeant's album because he was bossy and a control freak during the recording.
## Music
In 1981, music magazine NME described the album as darker and more passionate than 1980's Crocodiles. Record Mirror also said that the band sang the blues and devoted themselves to existential sadness. They went on to note that the album offered "an anatomy of melancholy, resplendent with the glamour of doom". Melody Maker disagreed when in 1981 they said "the Bunnymen are continuing to play majestic, uplifting music that will shine through the dark days ahead of us". In the 2002 book Turquoise Days: The Weird World of Echo & the Bunnymen, author Chris Adams said that in 1995 McCulloch had said, "That spikey edge [of the album] still stands up." In relation to their style of music, in 1980 McCulloch had said, "I always say 'We're a rock band'. Because I'm proud of that." He added, "I like rock music [...] I prefer being good or great within that basic format [...] I just prefer basic songs."
In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again: Post Punk 1978–1984, British music journalist Simon Reynolds described the sound of Heaven Up Here as having been filled out with "guitar overdubs, keyboard glints, vocal multitracking and atmospheric vapours". Comparing Heaven Up Here with Joy Division's 1980 album Closer, Reynolds said they are "harrowed by the same things [...] hypocrisy, distrust, betrayal, lost or frozen potential". However, he said that "Closer shows Ian Curtis fatally mesmerized by his own dread visions, Heaven Up Here ultimately turns its face towards the light" with the tracks "No Dark Things" – which he describes as renouncing "death-wishful thinking" – and "All I Want" – which he describes as "a blasting celebration of desire for desire's sake" and "pure intransitive exhilaration".
## Cover
The photograph used on the front and back cover of the album was taken by photographer Brian Griffin. The picture shows the band on a wet beach in the south Wales seaside town of Porthcawl; there are dark clouds in the sky and the sun is low on the horizon causing the band to be silhouetted. The picture was taken on a day off from recording the album. The original album's cover art was designed by Martyn Atkins. According to Griffin, they used buckets of fish offal to entice the gulls to fly into shot. He also stated that both Drummond and Rob Dickins, head of their record label Korova, hated the pictures from the shoot, and that he and Atkins had to fight for them to be used on the sleeve. The cover received the "Best Dressed LP" award in the 1981 NME Awards. Reynolds said that the band's manager, Drummond, saw them as representing "cold, dampness, darkness".
The front cover picture of the original album was kept for the 2003 reissue. However, the design was altered slightly by graphic designer Rachel Gutek of the design company guppyart. The release contained an expanded booklet written by music journalist Max Bell giving the background to the album. The booklet also contains a number of photographs which are credited to Sergeant and Pattinson.
## Releases
The album was originally released as an LP by Korova in the United Kingdom on 30 May 1981. It was then released in the United States by Sire Records on 24 June 1981. It was released elsewhere on Korova, although with a different catalogue number. Side one of the LP contained five tracks and side two had six. The album was first released on CD on 16 May 1988.
Along with the others of the band's first five albums, the album was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 containing five bonus tracks – these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions. "Broke My Neck (Long Version)", recorded at Tistedal Studios in Norway on 7 June 1981, is the B-side of the 12-inch single "A Promise" – an edited version was used as the B-side of the 7-inch single. The other four bonus tracks were recorded live at the Manly Vale Hotel in Sydney, Australia, on 11 November 1981. The reissued album was produced by music historian Andy Zax and producer Bill Inglot.
The only single from Heaven Up Here released worldwide was "A Promise" on 10 July 1981. The single stayed on the UK Singles Chart for four weeks and reached number 49. Later that year, "Over the Wall" was released as a single in Australia only.
## Reception
Heaven Up Here was generally well received by the music press and critics. In a 1982 interview with the band for the NME, rock journalist Barney Hoskyns described the album as "one of the most superior articulations of 'rock' form in living memory." Later reviews have continued to receive the album well: AllMusic reviewer Aaron Warshaw said that McCulloch "sings with soaring abandon and passion throughout the album" and that Sergeant's guitar playing was at its "angular finest". Not all reviews were positive: Robert Christgau of The Village Voice said that he held "no brief against tuneless caterwaul, but tuneless psychedelic caterwaul has always been another matter." In his 1999 book From the Shores of Lake Placid and Other Stories, the band's manager Bill Drummond said "The album is dull as ditchwater. The songs are unformed, the sound uniformly grey."
Heaven Up Here sold well in the United Kingdom, staying on the UK Albums Chart for a total of 16 weeks and reaching a peak of number 10 in June 1981. The album was the first release by Echo & the Bunnymen to make it onto the American charts when it reached number 184 on the Billboard 200.
In 2012, the album ranked number 463 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The NME ranked the album number 39 on its list of the 50 greatest albums of the 1980s and number 51 on its list of the greatest albums of all time. The album also received the NME's 1981 best album award. Reynolds described the award as "essentially an anti-New Pop protest vote by post-punk's silent majority".
## Track listing
All tracks written by Will Sergeant, Ian McCulloch, Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas.
Side one
1. "Show of Strength" – 4:50
2. "With a Hip" – 3:16
3. "Over the Wall" – 5:59
4. "It Was a Pleasure" – 3:12
5. "A Promise" – 4:08
Side two
1. "Heaven Up Here" – 3:45
2. "The Disease" – 2:28
3. "All My Colours" – 4:06
4. "No Dark Things" – 4:27
5. "Turquoise Days" – 3:51
6. "All I Want" – 4:09
2003 reissue bonus tracks
1. <li value="12">
"Broke My Neck" (long version) – 7:22
2. "Show of Strength" (live) – 4:41
3. "The Disease" (live) – 1:53
4. "All I Want" (live) – 3:09
5. "Zimbo" (live) – 3:52
## Personnel
Echo & the Bunnymen
- Will Sergeant – lead guitar
- Ian McCulloch – vocals, rhythm guitar, piano
- Les Pattinson – bass
- Pete de Freitas – drums
with:
- Les Penning – woodwind
Technical
- Hugh Jones – producer, engineer
- The Bunnymen – producer
- Martyn Atkins – album design
- Brian Griffin – photography
- Andy Zax – producer (reissue)
- Bill Inglot – producer (reissue), remastering
- Dan Hersch – remastering
- Claes Neeb – engineering on "Broke My Neck" (long version)
- Rachel Gutek – album design (reissue) |
39,402,690 | Rita Miljo | 1,170,506,159 | South African conservationist | [
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"2012 deaths",
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"German conservationists",
"Hitler Youth members",
"People from Königsberg",
"Primatologists",
"South African conservationists",
"Women biologists",
"Women conservationists",
"Women primatologists"
]
| Rita Miljo (née Neumann; 18 February 1931 – 27 July 2012) was a South African conservationist and animal rights pioneer noted for founding and managing the "Centre for Animal Rehabilitation and Education" (CARE) near Phalaborwa in South Africa. Born in East Prussia shortly before World War II began, she had dreams from an early age of becoming a veterinarian. When the war broke out, she became involved in the girls' wing of the Hitler Youth, but quit when her father no longer supported the Nazis. After a brief stint studying psychology in university, she worked in a factory and then at the Hagenbeck Zoo.
When her fiance moved to Johannesburg, Neumann followed him there and they married. Initially, Miljo worked in an office, but spent her weekends studying animals in the Kruger National Park. She bought a 50-acre parcel of land in Limpopo Province on the banks of the Olifants River in 1963. In 1980, she rescued an orphaned female baboon and became determined to establish a wildlife sanctuary for animals on her property. In 1989, she founded CARE, and developed a system to rehabilitate injured and orphaned animals so that they could be reintroduced to the wild. Because of her lack of training, her work initially was viewed by scientists with scepticism, but she came to be regarded as an expert in baboon care. Miljo died in a fire on the CARE property in 2012. Her life and work have been commemorated in several movies, television programmes, and a book.
## Early life and education
Rita Neumann was born on 18 February 1931 in Heilsberg, a small village in Eastern Prussia near Königsberg, Germany, which is now known as Kaliningrad and in Russia. She grew up with a brother in a middle-class family and dreamed of becoming a veterinarian. Her mother was strict and overprotective, limiting the activities in which Neumann was allowed to participate. At the age of eight, she joined the League of German Girls (the girls' wing of the Hitler Youth), relishing being able to compete in sports. Within a year, she became a leader in the Hitler Youth programme and was the province's youngest leader. Her father was drafted into the army, but after the invasion of Poland did not support the Nazi regime and his daughter no longer participated in Hitler Youth. Looking back on Nazism, Neumann later said that she was "young and naïve" only later realizing "the total madness we were subjected to".
When the war ended in 1945, the family relocated to Bavaria in search of employment and schools for the children. They eventually settled in Hamburg where her father found a civil service position and Neumann began attending the Kloster Schule, a nearby girls' high school. Completing her studies in 1949, her plans to qualify as a veterinarian were thwarted by the post-war West German policy of favouring war veterans for admission to universities. She enrolled in psychology courses, but she did not enjoy them and quit her studies when her mother was diagnosed with cancer. After her mother's death in 1951, Neumann took a factory job and brought her younger brother Peter to live with her.
## Career
### Early career (1951–1989)
When her father remarried, Peter returned to the family home and Neumann began working at the Hagenbeck Zoo, caring for primates. At the age of nineteen, she met Lothar Simon, who was studying to become a mining engineer at the Technical University of Berlin. When Simon graduated and secured a post in South Africa in 1953, Neumann decided to emigrate, hoping she could work with animals. Simon had arranged for her to have a work permit and an office job, prior to her arrival. The couple married in February 1954. Simon worked in the gold fields and became very successful, allowing Neumann to be independent and adventurous.
On weekends, Neumann would leave Johannesburg and travel to Kruger National Park. She met an ornithologist there, Dr. Kleynhans, who taught her South African history. The two travelled together into Zambia and Zimbabwe, where Kleynhans made recordings of birds. Neumann assisted him in his work by cataloguing his recordings. She learned to fly and because male instructors would not teach her aerobatics, she bought a book and taught herself to do loops and spirals. In 1963, she purchased a 50-acre parcel of land on the banks of the Olifants River in Limpopo Province. She spent a lot of time away from home there. She first camped in a tent and later built a one-room hut on the property, to which she would bring her daughter Karin. In 1972, both Simon and 17-year-old Karin were killed in a 1972 crash in a light aircraft, which he was piloting.
By 1980, Neumann had remarried; her husband, Piet Miljo, was an Afrikaner. That year, while the couple were on an expedition into Angola, she discovered a baby female chacma baboon (papio ursinus), which had been abandoned. At the time, under an ordinance known as the Vermin Law, passed by the Apartheid government, bush pigs, caracals, chacma baboons, jackals, and vervet monkeys were marked for extinction. This meant that they were considered pests, they could not be taken in, and hunters were encouraged to shoot them. In defiance of the law, Miljo took the baboon, called Bobby, and clandestinely returned with it by way of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, crossing from Botswana's Gemsbok National Park into the adjoining Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa. She and Piet divorced shortly after.
### Establishing CARE (1989–1994)
Though she had no formal scientific training in animal rescue, Miljo's humanitarian spirit motivated her to help animals. Her ideals followed those of Dian Fossey's with gorillas in Rwanda, Biruté Galdikas's with orangutans in Indonesian Borneo, and Jane Goodall's with chimpanzees in Tanzania. She began to rescue a variety of injured or orphaned small animals such as warthogs and porcupines, as well as assorted reptiles and birds. By 1989, when the "Centre for Animal Rehabilitation and Education" (CARE) was officially founded, Miljo was focussing on baboon rescue, but continued to take in any animal which had been wounded or abandoned. The refuge she established was thus populated with Cape bushbucks, crocodiles, monitor lizards, waterbucks, and water buffalo, as well as hippopotami and meerkats, all rescued by Miljo.
The aim of CARE was to nurse orphaned and injured baboons back to health, while at the same time pioneering methods of reintroducing troops of convalesced baboons back into their natural habitat. Prior to Miljo establishing the sanctuary, no facilities existed in South Africa for rehabilitating these orphans. When she spoke about baboons being social animals, scientists accused her of attributing human traits to them. Many of the rescued animals which came under her care had been injured in hunting and road accidents or had lost their parents or troop because of fire or poaching, or because of conflict with farmers and suburbanites who had encroached upon their natural habitats. The vermin laws at one time paid farmers per scalp, and allowed them to poison or shoot baboons. Farmers formed clubs to hunt them even on Miljo's reserve. She was charged repeatedly with transporting and harbouring animals without proper permits and was legally required to reimburse members of hunting clubs for the bullets they had used to rid the reserve of vermin.
Miljo developed a protocol for hand-rearing orphaned baboons by first placing them with a human surrogate mother. Babies are bottle fed and constantly in contact with their surrogate, tied with a baby sling and accompanied twenty-four hours per day. As the infant matures, baby baboons are gradually introduced to other infants and their surrogates, eventually being introduced to a troop after they are weaned at around six to twelve months old. After about four years of familiarity with a troop and learning how to forage for food, the groups are assessed for reintroduction into the wild. The first group of ten baboons released back into the wild in 1994, confounded many skeptical professional primatologists. Reporter Julie Hyde Mew said that Miljo was "the first person to hand-rear social wild animals and release them successfully back into the wild." At the one-year anniversary of the first release, observers noted that seventy per cent of the hand-raised baboons had survived.
### Expanding the work (1995–2012)
In 1995, South Africa ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity, promoting hope that the Vermin Law would be overturned. Although negotiations and open elections ended Apartheid rule in 1994, and many of the laws passed during that time were repealed, the Vermin Law remained valid in all but three Provinces of South Africa through 2007. The second release was done in 1996, when eighteen baboons were reintroduced in the Mosdene Nature Preserve, which at the time was devoid of any baboon population. Within ten years their population had soared to forty-five. In 2000, Attie Gerber, a professor and co-creator of the television programme 50/50, first met Miljo in the Vredefort Dome. Both Gerber and Mew repeatedly ran features on Miljo's work, using television and film to put pressure on government officials for their mistreatment of animals and to champion Miljo's work.
In 2002, a troop of baboons were rescued from radiation testing being performed by the French military. Nelson Mandela was present at their release back into the wild at the Vredefort Dome Conservation Area to show his support of her efforts to save baboons. Miljo then released an additional troop of thirty-five baboons to the Vredefort Dome Conservation Area in the autumn of that year. When she made the 2002 releases Gerber filmed both for the show. Six of these baboons were killed, two animals being shot and one of the troops poisoned. The remaining members of both troops were captured and taken back to the centre until a safer release site could be found. In 2006, Miljo released another twenty-five baboons into the Mosdene Nature Preserve.
Before Miljo proved that troops could be formed by non-related baboons, scientists had assumed that troops were only formed through matriarchal lineages. In other words, it was thought that females and their offspring spent their lifetime in the same troop and dominant males came and went when hierarchies within the troop changed. Soon large numbers of orphaned, injured and abused chacma baboons were being brought to the centre. Some of the rescued baboons had been held captive to procure faeces which were used in tribal medicines. Others had been the subjects of medical experiments. Miljo's success brought with it sponsorships from the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and other financial backing, which resulted in a steady stream of volunteer workers, journalists, scientists, and students, and the rehabilitation facility became known around the world.
In all, more than a dozen troops, totalling some 250 baboons, were released in the last 20 years of Miljo's life. To acquire permits to allow release, Miljo had to prove to authorities of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism that a planned release was a conservation effort rather than humanitarian mission, that there would be no genetic contamination, and that there were adequate resources at the proposed release site to feed the animals. For aging baboons, deemed ineligible for release, Miljo provided a safe haven where they could be cared for and be fed. In addition to her work with baboons, Miljo worked with IFAW to found a lion reserve in South Africa and established a successful breeding program for the Cercopithecus mitis labiatus, an endangered monkey species. As she approached her eightieth birthday, Miljo began stepping away from managing CARE, but remained its most visible presence, and was internationally considered to be an expert on baboons.
## Death and legacy
Miljo died on 27 July 2012, in Phalaborwa district, South Africa, in a fire which swept through her home and the centre. The blaze destroyed her apartment at the centre, the night nursery and the centre's clinic. The first baboon she ever saved, Bobby, also died in the blaze, with two other baboons. By the time of her death, CARE had become the world's largest baboon sanctuary, housing around 600 animals. Chacma baboons still enjoy almost no protection under South African law, as they are listed as declining but with a status of "least concern" in the CITES Appendix II. In Limpopo Province, where the centre is located, it is now illegal to kill baboons, though in order to prosecute, a ballistics match must link a gun to the death.
Miljo served as a mentor and source of knowledge to others who had goals of establishing animal sanctuaries. Silke von Eynern, who established a vervet sanctuary, Bambelela Wildlife Care Centre, credited Miljo as her inspiration. Chris Mercer and Beverley Pervan, who wrote Kalahari Dream in 2011 to tell of their efforts to establish the only animal rehabilitation centre in the Northern Cape, consulted her for advice on their own problems with officials and authorities.
In 2004, Gerber published a book, Baboons: Tales, Traits and Troubles, as a tribute to Miljo's work. That same year, she was featured in an Animal Planet documentary, Growing Up Baboon, which aired internationally and told the story of four of her baboons. In 2014, a video, Lady Baboon, which chronicled Miljo's life, was produced by Adrian Cale. In 2016, writer Michael Blumenthal, who had worked at CARE briefly in 2008, published "Because They Needed Me" from his notes made during his friendship with Miljo. |
26,874,382 | Marie-Rosalie Cadron-Jetté | 1,168,675,832 | Canadian Catholic religious siser (1811–1849) | [
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"Canadian midwives",
"Canadian nurses",
"Canadian women nurses",
"Founders of Catholic religious communities",
"People from Lanaudière",
"Venerated Catholics by Pope Francis"
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| Marie-Rosalie Cadron-Jetté, SM, January 27, 1794 – April 5, 1864), religious name Marie of the Nativity, was a Canadian widow and midwife who undertook the charitable care of unwed and struggling mothers between 1840 and 1864. Out of this work, she became the foundress of the Congregation of the Sisters of Misericorde. The cause for her canonization is now being studied in the Vatican. Pope Francis declared her as venerable in 2013.
Cadron-Jetté was born and raised in Lavaltrie, Quebec, and in 1811 married Jean-Marie Jetté. They had 11 children, several of whom died young. In 1827 she moved to Montreal and in 1832 her husband died of cholera. From 1840, in collaboration with Ignace Bourget (then Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Montreal), she engaged in the charitable care of unwed mothers. At this time in Montreal, unwed mothers and those associating with them attracted a significant social stigma. Cadron-Jetté operated initially out of her own home and the homes of her children, and later, with the aid of other women, worked from a series of buildings known as the Hospice de Sainte-Pélagie. In 1848, she took religious vows, along with several other women, and founded a Roman Catholic religious institute known as the Sisters of Misericorde, dedicated to the care of unwed mothers and their children. In 1849 she obtained formal midwifery qualifications. In 1853 the Misericorde Sisters built a convent on the corner of Dorchester Boulevard and Saint-André Street, and she lived there the remainder of her life.
Cadron-Jetté died in 1864. After her death, Ignace Bourget, with whom she had worked closely throughout her life, proposed that Cadron-Jetté be considered for canonization by the Roman Catholic Church. Over a century later, in 1989, the proposal was put into effect and her canonization cause was opened.
## Early life
Rosalie Cadron was born in Lavaltrie, Quebec on January 27, 1794, the older of two daughters. Her father was Antoine Cadron, a farmer, and her mother Rosalie Roy, a midwife. Her sister was Sophie Cadron (born March 21, 1806). Her family was Roman Catholic and shortly after birth she was baptized by the Abbé Louis Lamotte. She lived at a family home on the Rue Notre-Dame in Lavaltrie until 1822.
Cadron undertook brief education while boarding at a convent located in Pointe-aux-Trembles in east Montreal, but returned home due to loneliness after only a few weeks. She did not learn to read until later in life, and appears to have never learned to write. After returning from the convent, she was educated at home in housekeeping, sewing and crafts. In 1806 Cadron took First Communion.
At the age of 16 or 17, Cadron met voyageur Jean-Marie Jetté (1778- 1832), a brother of her uncle by marriage, Paul Jetté, whose father was a blacksmith, possibly while at a family gathering; they married October 7, 1811 at the Church of Lavaltrie. Rosalie Cadron took her husband's name and was known as Rosalie Cadron-Jetté. Jean-Marie moved into Cadron-Jetté's parents' house with her, as was the custom, and undertook a new career as a farmer. In 1811, that house, along with the surrounding land and outbuildings, was given to Cadron-Jetté and Jean-Marie by Cadron-Jetté's parents, on the condition that the parents be allowed to live there until their death, and that Cadron-Jetté and Jean-Marie assume the care of Cadron-Jetté's sister Sophie until her age of majority.
Between 1812 and 1832 Cadron-Jetté and Jean-Marie had 11 children, five of whom died young (four prior to Jean-Marie's death, and one afterwards, in 1836). The children were Jean-Marie Junior (born 1812), Marie-Rose (born 1813), Pierre (born 1815), Francois (born 1817), Léocadie (born 1819), Joseph-Léonard (born 1819), an anonymous stillbirth (1823), Marie Edwige (born 1825 – died 1827), Antoine (born 1827 – died 1827), Hedwige (born 1830 – died 1831), and Marie Hedwige (born 1832 – died 1836).
In 1822, seeking more land in order to provide for their children's inheritance, the Jetté family sold their farm under a staggered payment arrangement whereby they would not have the full payment for three years. While waiting for the payments to come through, the Jettés lived in Vercheres, either in rented property or residing with relatives. Cadron-Jetté, Jean-Marie and their children were accompanied in the move by Rosalie's parents and Rosalie's sister Sophie. In 1823 they moved again to Saint Hyacinthe and in 1824 they bought land there from a Charles Jarret. However, they later discovered the seller did not own the relevant land, leading in late 1826 or early 1827 to the repossession of the majority of the Jetté family's property. Following this setback the family moved to Montreal, took residence in the borough of Saint-Laurent, and joined the congregation of Saint-Jacques Cathedral.
## Widowhood
On June 14, 1832, Cadron-Jetté's husband Jean-Marie died of cholera, one of many victims of that year's cholera epidemic, leaving Cadron-Jetté widowed. Cadron-Jetté responded to her husband's death by vowing to be in mourning, or wear black, for the remainder of her life. At that time, Cadron-Jetté's eldest two sons, Jean-Marie and Pierre (20 and 17 years old, respectively), were employed as shoemakers, and the eldest daughter, Rose (19) was engaged (and was married in July 1833), while Cadron-Jetté's other four surviving children still required Cadron-Jetté's care, as did Cadron-Jetté's elderly mother. It was not until 1838, following the death of Cadron-Jetté's mother and the maturity or death of her remaining children, that she found herself with time free to devote to charitable activities.
## Hospice de Sainte-Pélagie
Several sources describe an incident which purportedly had an influence on Cadron-Jetté's future career. Between 1830 and 1832, while living in Montreal, Cadron-Jetté was visited at her house in the middle of the night by a prostitute who was seeking asylum from two sailors with intentions of violence. Cadron-Jetté hid the woman for the night in her cellar, fed her, and counselled her to change her way of life. Subsequently Cadron-Jetté received a letter from the woman informing her the woman had emigrated to the United States and made positive changes to her life, including marriage.
In any case, during her time in Montreal, Cadron-Jetté made the acquaintance of Ignace Bourget, Bishop of the Diocese of Montreal. She met Bourget through her attendance at Saint Jacques Cathedral, where he became her spiritual director. Cadron-Jetté joined his Archiconfrérie du Très Saint et Immaculé Coeur de Marie, a group formed by Bourget to pray for the conversion of sinners. Beginning in 1840, Bourget began to call upon Cadron-Jetté to find crisis accommodation for unwed mothers who had approached him for confession and help. This accommodation was to be secret, as unwed mothers carried a significant social stigma at the time and were often the targets of hostility, and it was to be "with a kind and prayerful woman". Cadron-Jetté undertook this work, and between 1840 and 1845 helped around 25 women during their pregnancy, childbirth, and recovery. She would often place the women with her (now-independent) children, and sometimes offered the women accommodation in her own home. After the birth of each child, Cadron-Jetté would take the newborn to be baptised at Montreal's Notre Dame church, and stand as godmother for the child.
In 1845, in response to growing demand brought about by Montreal's burgeoning population, Bourget began an organised project to assist unwed mothers in need of crisis accommodation and medical care. Although the Grey Nuns had been doing work in this area since 1754, their efforts were limited to the care of illegitimate newborns, and no services existed to aid the unwed mothers themselves. In addition, the work of the Grey Nuns did not address the rate of abortions and infanticides among unwed mothers, which was of concern to Bourget due to Roman Catholic Church prohibitions on these activities. Therefore, rather than partnering with an existing religious community for this project, Bourget hoped to create a new one "free of traditions or previous hampering ties", and asked Rosalie Cadron-Jetté to take a leading role. Cadron-Jetté agreed, and on May 1, 1845 she founded the Hospice Sainte-Pélagie (also known as the Maternité de Sainte-Pélagie), operating out of the attic of a house on Saint-Simon Street, Montreal, which her son Pierre had leased from a widow named Aurelie Vinét. The hospice derived its name from Saint Pelagia, a 5th-century reformed courtesan who chose to martyr herself rather than be raped by soldiers, to whom the Hospice was blessed and dedicated by Bishop Bourget shortly after its inception.
Early on, conditions in the hospice were rudimentary, consisting only of a table, some chairs, a stove, and a few beds for the mothers (called "penitents"), with Cadron-Jetté herself sleeping on the floor. The attic could only be reached by a ladder on the exterior of the house and was not insulated. For this reason, Cadron-Jetté's new occupation was unpopular with her (now mature) children, who objected to the conditions of dire poverty in the Hospice and attempted to dissuade her from her new calling, on one occasion going so far as to begin moving her belongings out of the Hospice. Despite this, Cadron-Jetté persevered, expanding the Hospice's operations to provide accommodation for up to seven or eight women at a time, and, from July 1845, taking on an additional caregiver. This caregiver was Sophie Raymond née Desmarets, herself a widow, who in addition to helping with the mothers, undertook fundraising activities on behalf of the hospice. Through the combined efforts of Raymond and Bourget, the Hospice attracted the attentions of Antoine-Olivier Berthelet, a wealthy philanthropist, who provided money, food and firewood, and later contributed to the building of facilities for the Misericordia Sisters on Dorchester Boulevard.
On May 4, 1846, the hospice moved to an address on Wolfe Street in Faubourg Quebec owned by Jean-Baptiste Bourgault. The new premises consisted of two storeys plus an attic, with the Hospice occupying one side of the house and the owner occupying the other. The expanded space provided room for a small chapel featuring Stations of the Cross, where Mass was held twice weekly. It also allowed for the addition of three extra staff at the Hospice, including a Mrs Montrait, a midwife. During the Hospice's second year of operation it was host to 33 pregnant women and saw the birth of 25 infants.
On July 26, 1846, Bishop Bourget unilaterally opened the noviciate of the Saint-Pélagie Community, and placed the assembled female staff of the Hospice as novices within that program. This effectively established the Hospice de Saint-Pélagie as a religious community, of which Bourget proclaimed Sophie Raymond to be the superior. It also allowed for women to join the community as postulants, with the aim of eventually taking religious vows. Bourget designated himself spiritual and canonical director of the novitiate, and delegated a priest, the Abbé Antoine Rey, to be Director of the Hospice. Later that year at the direction of Coadjutor Bishop Jean-Charles Prince (later Bishop of Saint-Hyacinth) the Wolfe Street premises were expanded through the acquisition of the first floor adjacent to the hospice.
On September 17, 1846, Josephite Malo-Galipeau joined the community, bringing with her a large endowment of funds left to her by her late husband, which substantially enriched the community. Despite these additional funds the women of the Hospice were still forced to do odd jobs outside the hospice to make ends meet. Cadron-Jetté during this time undertook occasional work as a shoemaker. Elections were held within the community on November 6, 1846, with the result of Cadron-Jetté being appointed as the new superior for a period of one year, with Malo-Galipeau named as her assistant. From December 1, 1846, the women of the community began wearing a religious habit at the direction of Bishop Prince.
In early 1847, Jean-Baptiste Bourgault, owner of the Wolfe Street premises, notified Cadron-Jetté and the Hospice that he was evicting them, citing concern for his reputation. After exhaustive enquiries, a new premises was located on the corner of Sainte-Catherine and Saint-André streets, provided by John Donegani, a Montreal businessman, at a rent of 60 dollars a year. On April 26, 1847, the Hospice moved to the new site.
A typhus epidemic swept Montreal in late 1847 and Montreal's religious communities, including Cadron-Jetté and the staff of the hospice, were called upon by Bishop Bourget to assist in combating it. The hospice's chaplain and director, Antoine Rey, and its midwife, Madame Montrait, were among the nine priests and 13 Religious Sisters of Montreal who were killed by the disease. One of the hospice's penitents also died due to the disease. Bishop Bourget subsequently named Father Venant Pilon as Rey's replacement as Director of the Hospice.
## Sisters of Misericorde
On January 16, 1848, at the age of 53, Cadron-Jetté took Religious vows, along with seven other women who had worked with her at the Hospice. Those in attendance as observers at the profession ceremony included Bishop Ignace Bourget, and Émilie Gamelin, under whose leadership the Sisters of Providence had been founded five years previously. Along with her vows Cadron-Jetté took the religious name Soeur de la Nativité (Sister Nativity), a reference to the role of the Virgin Mary in the birthing of Christ. Together, the eight women of the Hospice formed the Institute of the Misericordia Sisters.
Bourget petitioned the Church of Montreal to recognise the Institute and that recognition was granted. The institute received the ecclesiastical mandate to "live the mercy of Jesus the Saviour with girls and women in a situation of maternity out of wedlock and their children, and with the mothers of families who are having a difficult time with their maternity". The Institute was the first religious community in Canada to receive such a mission. The vows of the Misericordia Sisters were the traditional vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with a fourth vow, being that of "assisting in their labour fallen girls and women", with a consequence to "form a corps of midwives".
On January 17, 1848, elections were held to determine leadership of the new community, and at the first election Josephite Malo-Galipeau (now Sister Sainte-Jeanne-de-Chantal) was appointed mother superior, and Cadron-Jetté made councillor, with responsibility for the infirmary. This position left Cadron-Jetté free to undertake care for the ill and disadvantaged, including home visits and visits to prisons. Sources, including Grégoire's 2007 book Rosalie Cadron-Jetté. A Story of Courage and Compassion, suggest Cadron-Jetté may have been offered the position of mother superior, but declined it.
Beginning January 17, 1848, the eight founders of the Misericorde Sisters, including Cadron-Jetté, commenced practical training in midwifery under Dr Eugène-Hercule Trudele, a young obstetrician. The objective of the training was to better prepare the sisters to meet the obligations of their fourth vow. The training lasted for 18 months and concluded with an examination before two members of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Lower Canada, with the result that on July 12, 1849, the women received formal certificates of midwifery. It is most likely during this period or the years immediately following that Cadron-Jetté learned to read and write.
In 1849 Malo-Galipeau was again elected Mother Superior with Cadron-Jetté being given the position of assistant. Around this time the relationship between the two women became strained. Despite the election result Malo-Galipeau did not bestow formal titles on Cadron-Jetté and is recorded as referring to Cadron-Jetté disrespectfully as "Nativity" (a short form of her religious name) and on at least one occasion "fool". Malo-Galipeau on several occasions during this period reprimanded Cadron-Jetté for decisions Cadron-Jetté had made in discharge of her formal responsibilities, and imposed punishments, including barring Cadron-Jetté from communion. The 1849 election was the last election to be held by the community until late 1858.
The Misericorde Sisters were not well liked by the Montreal community. Throughout the early years of the Hospice de Sainte-Pélagie and the Institute, the locations in which Jetté and the Sisters worked were kept secret, in order to protect the single mothers from public hostility towards prostitutes and unwed mothers. On some occasions when the Sisters brought newborns to church for baptism, garbage was thrown at them. People in prayer were reported to leave when the Sisters would enter the church.
The Sisters faced controversy not only from public opinion, but also within the medical profession. Initially the response of Montreal doctors was positive, and in 1850 the College of Physicians petitioned Bishop Bourget for permission to send students to the Hospice de Sainte-Pélagie for training, which Bourget granted over the objections of the Sisters. However, friction arose between the Sisters and the students; the Sisters did not want the students present (a position shared by many of the unwed mothers), while the students were often contemptuous, rude, or dismissive towards their patients. Combined with the competency of the Misericorde Sisters, and their non-profit mandate, this friction bloomed into hostility between the Sisters and Montreal physicians, who came to see the midwives as a professional threat.
On May 13, 1851, Antoine-Olivier Berthelet purchased land on the corner of Dorchester Boulevard and Saint-André Street (in Montreal) for use by the Misericorde Sisters, and in December 1851, following renovations to the two pre-existing structures on the land, the Sisters moved to the new address. In 1853 work began on a Mother House (or convent) for the Institute. The Motherhouse was planned to be a multistory building, built of grey stone, financed by borrowed money. Plans for the motherhouse had been drawn up in 1852 but the Montreal fires of July 8, 1852, which destroyed around 11,000 homes along with the Saint-Jacques Cathedral, had the result of delaying construction projects throughout the city.
In 1853, Bourget met with the Sisters and questioned whether their fourth vow (that of assisting in labour) should be abandoned, with the consequence of the medical work of midwifery being done by physicians and lay midwives. Bourget's concerns stemmed both from pressure and criticism from the Montreal medical community, and from a desire to expand the membership of the Sisters, as he feared potential candidates would be deterred by the necessity of learning and practicing the craft of midwifery. Cadron-Jetté took the firm position that the vow should be retained, citing the general contempt held by physicians for the Sisters and their patients, the incompetence of the student doctors who were the Sisters' primary competition, and the expressed preference of her patients to deal with the Sisters rather than doctors. Bourget retreated in the face of Cadron-Jetté's opposition and the matter was not raised again for some years.
In 1856 the City of Montreal donated a building located across the street from the convent for the use of the Misericordia Sisters. Called "Corporation House" it was put to use as a residence for the single mothers cared for by the Institute, with the mothers being charged rent by the Sisters while they stayed there. In late 1858 new elections were held by the Sisters, with Malo-Galipeau reappointed as mother superior and Cadron-Jetté given the position of Councillor. Around this time of these elections Bishop Bourget also gave the Sisters permission to baptise children at the Hospice, rather than take them to Notre Dame Cathedral for baptism, which was significant as by 1858 the Sisters were supervising around 137 births per year, each requiring a trip to the Cathedral for baptism.
By 1858, Malo-Galipeau had become widely recognised as foundress of the Misericordia Sisters, partly due to her role as Mother Superior and partly due to the endowment she had brought to the community upon her arrival. This understanding was reflected in published works of the time, including a souvenir album prepared by the City of Montreal in 1853. However, during Bourget's visit to the Institute in late 1858, he made a speech to the assembled community confirming that in the eyes of himself and of the Church, Cadron-Jetté should receive credit as the foundress of the congregation. He also bestowed upon Cadron-Jetté the title of Mother (such that her religious name became Mother Mary of the Nativity, or Mère de la Nativité) and confirmed that she was second in authority only to the current Mother Superior of the community.
For some years, beginning prior to 1853, the Institute had been taking in what were called "madeleines" or "magdalens", and in 1859 this practice was formally recognised with the Magdalens made a secondary order of the Misericordia Sisters. The practice of taking in Magdalens followed a tradition originating in Europe, where religious orders would take in "repentants" or "penitents" and place them under the protection of Mary Magdalene, a famous reformed sinner of Roman Catholic tradition, and from whom they took the name. In the case of the Misericordia Sisters, Magdalens were recruited from those unwed mothers who did not wish to leave the care of the sisters even after recovering from giving birth. They were allowed to take religious vows and live within the Misericordia Sisters community, obeying particular rules of dedication to contemplation. During the time the program lasted, about 1% to 1.5% of mothers helped by the Institute stayed on as Magdalens.
## Later life and death
By 1859, Rosalie Cadron-Jetté's health was worsening significantly. Information about the particular conditions she was afflicted with is contradictory. Testimony from Cadron-Jetté's family suggests that Cadron-Jetté had become ill when she was 36 years old and never fully recovered. Other sources suggest generalised edema, known at the time as dropsy, while still others diagnose her with chronic nephritis, known at the time as Bright's disease, which worsened over the following years. Symptoms observed in Cadron-Jetté by her contemporaries included difficulty breathing, almost constant coughing, fits of breathlessness while standing and at rest, and swollen legs displaying open sores.
In any case, from around 1859, due to declining health, Cadron-Jetté ceased her work as a midwife, and from 1862 stopped making house visits to care for the ill. As the convent did not yet have an infirmary, she spent most of her days during this time in the convent's dormitory, until 1861, when at Bishop Bourget's request a private room was prepared for Cadron-Jetté by Malo-Galipeau. In 1863, Cadron-Jetté, by then bedridden, was moved to a room adjoining the convent's newly constructed chapel.
Advised of her failing health, Bishop Ignace Bourget visited Cadron-Jetté on April 4, 1864, and administered to her the last rites. Rosalie Cadron-Jetté died shortly thereafter, during the early hours of April 5. Her death was witnessed by Sister Marie-des-Saints-Anges, who said this of the occasion: "I witnessed her blessed death. I was sitting vigil with our good sister Sainte-Béatrix. Around 2 a.m. she made the sign of the cross and asked us to recite the Litanies of the Virgin Mary; then she arranged herself as if to prepare for sleep, then in a high pitched voice she said: O my Jesus! Then I noticed she was getting weaker; we brought the light closer to her and realized she had already passed over to a better life."
Several unexplained incidents are associated with Cadron-Jetté's death. According to Hélène Grégoire's 2007 book Rosalie Cadron-Jetté. A Story of Courage and Compassion, at the moment of Cadron-Jetté's death an "unknown, elderly sister" holding a lantern was observed by women in the Magdalens' dormitory. The "elderly sister" is recorded as addressing one of the Magdalens who was ill and telling her that "if she is very brave and prays with confidence, she will be healed". The unknown sister then left the dormitory. Grégoire also claims that the other Sisters were mysteriously awakened during the night of Cadron-Jetté's death, and that following Cadron-Jetté's death the wounds on Cadron-Jetté's legs were observed to be inexplicably healed over.
A funeral was held for Cadron-Jetté on April 8, 1864 at the chapel of the Misericordia Sisters, with Bishop Bourget and several dignitaries of the Church of Montreal in attendance. At the time of her death, the Institute of Misericordia Sisters comprised 33 professed religious, 11 novices and postulants, and 25 magdalens and other women.
## Cause for canonization
In 1879, Ignace Bourget suggested to Sister St-Thérèse de Jésus (then mother superior of the Misericordia Sisters) that she gather testimonials from Cadron-Jetté's contemporaries for use in a possible future canonization cause. In 1881, in a letter to the Misericordia community, he said, "Your Mother of the Nativity must be canonized; you must have enough faith and confidence in her protection to obtain miracles from her, then the Church will make a formal declaration."
In 1989, Cardinal Paul Grégoire (then Archbishop of Montréal), signed a decree opening a canonical inquiry into Rosalie Cadron-Jetté, beginning a process within the Roman Catholic Church which as of 2011 is still ongoing and which may eventually result in the elevation of Cadron-Jetté to sainthood. The process is overseen by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints (the CCS) in Rome. On November 6, 1990, the Diocesan Tribunal tasked with investigation of Cadron-Jetté's cause was officially opened, granting to Cadron-Jetté the title of "Servant of God", the first of four steps which may culminate in canonization. An inquiry was then made into whether Cadron-Jetté was the object of any public cult. Diocesan Acts of the Trial were drawn up for scrutiny by the under-secretary of the CCS, and on January 29, 1993 a decree was signed sanctioning those Acts by Jean-Claude Turcotte, Archbishop of Montréal, and read by Michel Parent, chancellor of the Montréal diocese.
Following the decree, a positio was drafted in Montréal by Sister Gisèle Boucher for presentation in Rome, presenting the evidence collected during the diocesan enquiry and creating a foundation for further enquiry into the elevation of Cadron-Jetté. The 856-page positio was tabled at the CSS on July 1, 1994. In 2011, the positio was presented to a committee of expert theologians. On December 9, 2013, Pope Francis titled her as Venerable.
## Legacy
As of 2010, the Misericordia Sisters are still operating, with a presence in several countries and on multiple continents.
A number of buildings throughout North America are named after Rosalie Cadron-Jetté, including:
- Rosalie Manor in Milwaukee, established by the Misericordia Sisters in 1908.
- Rosalie Hall in Toronto, a young parent resource centre.
- Rosalie Hall in the Bronx, New York, a care and comfort centre for pregnant and parenting teens, originally part of the former Misericordia Hospital founded by the Sisters.
- Villa Rosa in Winnipeg, a care centre for mothers and babies.
Rosalie Cadron-Jetté's childhood home in Lavaltrie is today known as the Maison Rosalie-Cadron and since 2006 has been open to the public between the months of May and October. |
20,989,916 | Fast inverse square root | 1,171,240,128 | Root-finding algorithm | [
"Articles with example C code",
"Quake (series)",
"Root-finding algorithms",
"Source code"
]
| Fast inverse square root, sometimes referred to as Fast InvSqrt() or by the hexadecimal constant 0x5F3759DF, is an algorithm that estimates $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}$, the reciprocal (or multiplicative inverse) of the square root of a 32-bit floating-point number $x$ in IEEE 754 floating-point format. The algorithm is best known for its implementation in 1999 in Quake III Arena, a first-person shooter video game heavily based on 3D graphics. With subsequent hardware advancements, especially the x86 SSE instruction `rsqrtss`, this algorithm is not generally the best choice for modern computers, though it remains an interesting historical example.
The algorithm accepts a 32-bit floating-point number as the input and stores a halved value for later use. Then, treating the bits representing the floating-point number as a 32-bit integer, a logical shift right by one bit is performed and the result subtracted from the number 0x5F3759DF, which is a floating-point representation of an approximation of $\sqrt{2^{127}}$. This results in the first approximation of the inverse square root of the input. Treating the bits again as a floating-point number, it runs one iteration of Newton's method, yielding a more precise approximation.
## History
William Kahan and K.C. Ng at Berkeley wrote an unpublished paper in May 1986 describing how to calculate the square root using bit-fiddling techniques followed by Newton iterations. In the late 1980s, Cleve Moler at Ardent Computer learned about this technique and passed it along to his coworker Greg Walsh. Greg Walsh devised the now-famous constant and fast inverse square root algorithm. Gary Tarolli was consulting for Kubota, the company funding Ardent at the time, and likely brought the algorithm to 3dfx Interactive circa 1994.
Jim Blinn demonstrated a simple approximation of the inverse square root in a 1997 column for IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. Reverse engineering of other contemporary 3D video games uncovered a variation of the algorithm in Activision's 1997 Interstate '76.
Quake III Arena, a first-person shooter video game, was released in 1999 by id Software and used the algorithm. Brian Hook may have brought the algorithm from 3dfx to id Software. A discussion of the code appeared on the Chinese developer forum CSDN in 2000, and Usenet and the gamedev.net forum spread the code widely in 2002 and 2003. Speculation arose as to who wrote the algorithm and how the constant was derived; some guessed John Carmack. Quake III's full source code was released at QuakeCon 2005, but provided no answers. The authorship question was answered in 2006.
In 2007 the algorithm was implemented in some dedicated hardware vertex shaders using field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA).
## Motivation
The inverse square root of a floating point number is used in digital signal processing to normalize a vector, scaling it to length 1 to produce a unit vector. For example, computer graphics programs use inverse square roots to compute angles of incidence and reflection for lighting and shading. 3D graphics programs must perform millions of these calculations every second to simulate lighting. When the code was developed in the early 1990s, most floating point processing power lagged the speed of integer processing. This was troublesome for 3D graphics programs before the advent of specialized hardware to handle transform and lighting. Computation of square roots usually depends upon many division operations, which for floating point numbers are computationally expensive. The fast inverse square generates a good approximation with only one division step.
The length of the vector is determined by calculating its Euclidean norm: the square root of the sum of squares of the vector components. When each component of the vector is divided by that length, the new vector will be a unit vector pointing in the same direction. In a 3D graphics program, all vectors are in three-dimensional space, so $\boldsymbol v$ would be a vector $(v_1, v_2, v_3)$.
$\|\boldsymbol{v}\| = \sqrt{v_1^2+v_2^2+v_3^2}$
is the Euclidean norm of the vector.
$\boldsymbol{\hat{v}} = \frac{\boldsymbol{v}}{\left\|\boldsymbol{v}\right$
is the normalized (unit) vector, using $\|\boldsymbol{v}\|^2$ to represent $v_1^2+v_2^2+v_3^2$.
$\boldsymbol{\hat{v}} = \frac{\boldsymbol{v}}{\sqrt{\left\|\boldsymbol{v}\right\|^2}}$
which relates the unit vector to the inverse square root of the distance components. The inverse square root can be used to compute $\boldsymbol{\hat{v}}$ because this equation is equivalent to
$\boldsymbol{\hat{v}} = \boldsymbol{v}\, \frac{1}{\sqrt{\left\|\boldsymbol{v}\right\|^2}}$
where the fraction term is the inverse square root of $\|\boldsymbol{v}\|^2$.
At the time, floating-point division was generally expensive compared to multiplication; the fast inverse square root algorithm bypassed the division step, giving it its performance advantage.
## Overview of the code
The following code is the fast inverse square root implementation from Quake III Arena, stripped of C preprocessor directives, but including the exact original comment text:
``` c
float Q_rsqrt( float number )
{
long i;
float x2, y;
const float threehalfs = 1.5F;
x2 = number * 0.5F;
y = number;
i = * ( long * ) &y; // evil floating point bit level hacking
i = 0x5f3759df - ( i >> 1 ); // what the fuck?
y = * ( float * ) &i;
y = y * ( threehalfs - ( x2 * y * y ) ); // 1st iteration
// y = y * ( threehalfs - ( x2 * y * y ) ); // 2nd iteration, this can be removed
return y;
}
```
At the time, the general method to compute the inverse square root was to calculate an approximation for $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}$, then revise that approximation via another method until it came within an acceptable error range of the actual result. Common software methods in the early 1990s drew approximations from a lookup table. The key of the fast inverse square root was to directly compute an approximation by utilizing the structure of floating-point numbers, proving faster than table lookups. The algorithm was approximately four times faster than computing the square root with another method and calculating the reciprocal via floating-point division. The algorithm was designed with the IEEE 754-1985 32-bit floating-point specification in mind, but investigation from Chris Lomont showed that it could be implemented in other floating-point specifications.
The advantages in speed offered by the fast inverse square root trick came from treating the 32-bit floating-point word as an integer, then subtracting it from a "magic" constant, 0x5F3759DF. This integer subtraction and bit shift results in a bit pattern which, when re-defined as a floating-point number, is a rough approximation for the inverse square root of the number. One iteration of Newton's method is performed to gain some accuracy, and the code is finished. The algorithm generates reasonably accurate results using a unique first approximation for Newton's method; however, it is much slower and less accurate than using the SSE instruction `rsqrtss` on x86 processors also released in 1999.
### Worked example
As an example, the number $x=0.15625$ can be used to calculate $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}} \approx 2.52982$. The first steps of the algorithm are illustrated below:
`0011_1110_0010_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000 Bit pattern of both x and i`
`0001_1111_0001_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000 Shift right one position: (i >> 1)`
`0101_1111_0011_0111_0101_1001_1101_1111 The magic number 0x5F3759DF`
`0100_0000_0010_0111_0101_1001_1101_1111 The result of 0x5F3759DF - (i >> 1)`
Interpreting as IEEE 32-bit representation:
`0_01111100_01000000000000000000000 1.25 × 2`<sup>`−3`</sup>
`0_00111110_00100000000000000000000 1.125 × 2`<sup>`−65`</sup>
`0_10111110_01101110101100111011111 1.432430... × 2`<sup>`63`</sup>
`0_10000000_01001110101100111011111 1.307430... × 2`<sup>`1`</sup>
Reinterpreting this last bit pattern as a floating point number gives the approximation $y=2.61486$, which has an error of about 3.4%. After one single iteration of Newton's method, the final result is $y=2.52549$, an error of only 0.17%.
### Avoiding undefined behavior
According to the C standard, reinterpreting a floating point value as an integer by casting then dereferencing the pointer to it is not valid (undefined behavior). Another way would be to place the floating point value in an anonymous union containing an additional 32-bit unsigned integer member, and accesses to that integer provides a bit level view of the contents of the floating point value. However, type punning through a union is also undefined behavior in C++.
``` c
# include <stdint.h> // uint32_t
float Q_rsqrt(float number)
{
union {
float f;
uint32_t i;
} conv = { .f = number };
conv.i = 0x5f3759df - (conv.i >> 1);
conv.f *= 1.5F - (number * 0.5F * conv.f * conv.f);
return conv.f;
}
```
In modern C++, the usual method for implementing this function's casts is through C++20's `std::bit_cast`. This also allows the function to work in `constexpr` context:
``` c++
# include <bit>
# include <limits>
# include <cstdint>
constexpr float Q_rsqrt(float number) noexcept
{
static_assert(std::numeric_limits<float>::is_iec559); // (enable only on IEEE 754)
float const y = std::bit_cast<float>(
0x5f3759df - (std::bit_cast<std::uint32_t>(number) >> 1));
return y * (1.5f - (number * 0.5f * y * y));
}
```
## Algorithm
The algorithm computes $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}$ by performing the following steps:
1. Alias the argument $x$ to an integer as a way to compute an approximation of the binary logarithm $\log_{2}(x)$
2. Use this approximation to compute an approximation of $\log_{2}\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\right) = -\frac{1}{2} \log_{2}(x)$
3. Alias back to a float, as a way to compute an approximation of the base-2 exponential
4. Refine the approximation using a single iteration of Newton's method.
### Floating-point representation
Since this algorithm relies heavily on the bit-level representation of single-precision floating-point numbers, a short overview of this representation is provided here. To encode a non-zero real number $x$ as a single precision float, the first step is to write $x$ as a normalized binary number:
<math>\begin{align}
x &= \pm 1.b_1b_2b_3\ldots \times 2^{e_x}\\\\
` &= \pm 2^{e_x} (1 + m_x)`
\end{align}</math>
where the exponent $e_x$ is an integer, $m_x \in [0, 1)$, and $1.b_1b_2b_3\ldots$ is the binary representation of the "significand" $(1 + m_x)$. Since the single bit before the point in the significand is always 1, it need not be stored. From this form, three unsigned integers are computed:
- $S_x$, the "sign bit", is $0$ if $x$ is positive and $1$ negative or zero (1 bit)
- $E_x = e_x + B$ is the "biased exponent", where $B = 127$ is the "exponent bias" (8 bits)
- $M_x = m_x \times L$, where $L = 2^{23}$ (23 bits)
These fields are then packed, left to right, into a 32-bit container.
As an example, consider again the number $x = 0.15625 = 0.00101_2$. Normalizing $x$ yields:
$x = +2^{-3}(1 + 0.25)$
and thus, the three unsigned integer fields are:
- $S = 0$
- $E = -3 + 127 = 124 = 0111\ 1100_2$
- $M = 0.25 \times 2^{23} = 2\ 097\ 152 = 0010\ 0000\ 0000\ 0000\ 0000\ 0000_2$
these fields are packed as shown in the figure below:
### Aliasing to an integer as an approximate logarithm
If $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}$ were to be calculated without a computer or a calculator, a table of logarithms would be useful, together with the identity $\log_b\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\right) = \log_b\left(x^{-\frac{1}{2}}\right) = -\frac{1}{2} \log_b(x)$, which is valid for every base $b$. The fast inverse square root is based on this identity, and on the fact that aliasing a float32 to an integer gives a rough approximation of its logarithm. Here is how:
If $x$ is a positive normal number:
$x = 2^{e_x} (1 + m_x)$
then
$\log_2(x) = e_x + \log_2(1 + m_x)$
and since $m_x \in [0, 1)$, the logarithm on the right-hand side can be approximated by
$\log_2(1 + m_x) \approx m_x + \sigma$
where $\sigma$ is a free parameter used to tune the approximation. For example, $\sigma = 0$ yields exact results at both ends of the interval, while $\sigma = \frac{1}{2} - \frac{1+\ln(\ln(2))}{2\ln(2)} \approx 0.0430357$ yields the optimal approximation (the best in the sense of the uniform norm of the error). However, this value is not used by the algorithm as it does not take subsequent steps into account.
Thus there is the approximation
$\log_2(x) \approx e_x + m_x + \sigma.$
Interpreting the floating-point bit-pattern of $x$ as an integer $I_x$ yields
<math>\begin{align}
I_x &= E_x L + M_x\\\\
` &= L (e_x + B + m_x)\\`
` &= L (e_x + m_x + \sigma + B - \sigma)\\`
` &\approx L \log_2(x) + L (B - \sigma).`
\end{align}</math>
It then appears that $I_x$ is a scaled and shifted piecewise-linear approximation of $\log_2(x)$, as illustrated in the figure on the right. In other words, $\log_2(x)$ is approximated by
$\log_2(x) \approx \frac{I_x}{L} - (B - \sigma).$
### First approximation of the result
The calculation of $y=\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}$ is based on the identity
$\log_2(y) = - \tfrac{1}{2}\log_2(x)$
Using the approximation of the logarithm above, applied to both $x$ and $y$, the above equation gives:
$\frac{I_y}{L} - (B - \sigma) \approx - \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{I_x}{L} - (B - \sigma)\right)$
Thus, an approximation of $I_y$ is:
$I_y \approx \tfrac{3}{2} L (B - \sigma) - \tfrac{1}{2} I_x$
which is written in the code as
:
``` c
i = 0x5f3759df - ( i >> 1 );
```
The first term above is the magic number
$\tfrac{3}{2} L (B - \sigma) = \mathtt{0x5F3759DF}$
from which it can be inferred that $\sigma \approx 0.0450466$. The second term, $\frac{1}{2}I_x$, is calculated by shifting the bits of $I_x$ one position to the right.
### Newton's method
With $y$ as the inverse square root, $f(y)=\frac{1}{y^2}-x=0$. The approximation yielded by the earlier steps can be refined by using a root-finding method, a method that finds the zero of a function. The algorithm uses Newton's method: if there is an approximation, $y_n$ for $y$, then a better approximation $y_{n+1}$ can be calculated by taking $y_n - \frac{f(y_n)}{f'(y_n)}$, where $f'(y_n)$ is the derivative of $f(y)$ at $y_n$. For the above $f(y)$,
$y_{n+1} = \frac{y_{n}\left(3-xy_n^2\right)}{2}$
where $f(y)= \frac{1}{y^2} - x$ and $f'(y) = -\frac{2}{y^3}$.
Treating $y$ as a floating-point number, `y = y*(threehalfs - x/2*y*y);` is equivalent to
$y_{n+1} = y_{n}\left (\frac32-\frac{x}{2}y_n^2\right ) = \frac{y_{n}\left(3-xy_n^2\right)}{2}.$
By repeating this step, using the output of the function ($y_{n+1}$) as the input of the next iteration, the algorithm causes $y$ to converge to the inverse square root. For the purposes of the Quake III engine, only one iteration was used. A second iteration remained in the code but was commented out.
### Accuracy
As noted above, the approximation is very accurate. The single graph on the right plots the error of the function (that is, the error of the approximation after it has been improved by running one iteration of Newton's method), for inputs starting at 0.01, where the standard library gives 10.0 as a result, and InvSqrt() gives 9.982522, making the relative difference 0.0017478, or 0.175% of the true value, 10. The absolute error only drops from then on, and the relative error stays within the same bounds across all orders of magnitude.
## Subsequent improvements
### Magic number
It is not known precisely how the exact value for the magic number was determined. Chris Lomont developed a function to minimize approximation error by choosing the magic number $R$ over a range. He first computed the optimal constant for the linear approximation step as 0x5F37642F, close to 0x5F3759DF, but this new constant gave slightly less accuracy after one iteration of Newton's method. Lomont then searched for a constant optimal even after one and two Newton iterations and found 0x5F375A86, which is more accurate than the original at every iteration stage. He concluded by asking whether the exact value of the original constant was chosen through derivation or trial and error. Lomont said that the magic number for 64-bit IEEE754 size type double is 0x5FE6EC85E7DE30DA, but it was later shown by Matthew Robertson to be exactly 0x5FE6EB50C7B537A9.
Jan Kadlec reduced the relative error by a further factor of 2.7 by adjusting the constants in the single Newton's method iteration as well, arriving after an exhaustive search at
``` c
conv.i = 0x5F1FFFF9 - ( conv.i >> 1 );
conv.f *= 0.703952253f * ( 2.38924456f - x * conv.f * conv.f );
return conv.f;
```
A complete mathematical analysis for determining the magic number is now available for single-precision floating-point numbers.
### Zero finding
Intermediate to the use of one vs. two iterations of Newton's method in terms of speed and accuracy is a single iteration of Halley's method. In this case, Halley's method is equivalent to applying Newton's method with the starting formula $f(y) = \frac{1}{y^{1/2}} - xy^{3/2} = 0$. The update step is then
$y_{n+1} = y_{n} - \frac{f(y_n)}{f'(y_n)} = y_n \left(\frac{3 + xy_n^2}{1 + 3xy_n^2}\right),$
where the implementation should calculate $xy_n^2$ only once, via a temporary variable.
### Obsolescence
Subsequent additions by hardware manufacturers have made this algorithm redundant for the most part. For example, on x86, Intel introduced the SSE instruction `rsqrtss` in 1999. In a 2009 benchmark on the Intel Core 2, this instruction took 0.85ns per float compared to 3.54ns for the fast inverse square root algorithm, and had less error.
Some low-cost embedded systems do not have specialized square root instructions. However, manufacturers of these systems usually provide trigonometric and other math libraries, based on algorithms such as CORDIC. Most applications in this area are not performance-sensitive and a specialized fast inverse square root algorithm is not needed.
## See also
- Magic number |
55,434,694 | Pure Heroine Tour | 1,165,746,240 | 2013–2014 concert tour by Lorde | [
"2013 concert tours",
"2014 concert tours",
"Lorde concert tours"
]
| The Pure Heroine Tour was the inaugural concert tour by New Zealand singer-songwriter Lorde, in support of her debut studio album, Pure Heroine (2013). Her first performance was at the Splendour in the Grass music festival as a last-minute replacement for Frank Ocean. Before the tour, Lorde performed at small nightclubs and bars around New Zealand and Australia. North American shows were announced in August 2013, followed by a series of dates in Oceania. Dates in Europe and South America soon followed.
The show consisted of three segments and three costume changes. With the exception of a couple of covers, the set list included only songs from her debut album. Typically, Lorde appeared on stage hidden from the crowd, visible only in silhouette. She also premiered an unreleased song called "Good Fights". An alternate set list with minor changes was performed after the first North American leg of the tour. The show was met with critical acclaim, with critics complimenting the singer's vocal clarity and stage presence, as well as the minimalist stage setting.
## Background
Lorde's first major show was at Splendour in the Grass on 28 July 2013, where she served as a last-minute replacement for Frank Ocean, who had to cancel his appearance at the Australian music festival. Before this show, Lorde had performed only five public shows in small nightclubs and bars in New Zealand and Australia. On 7 August 2013, Lorde announced North American tour dates to support her debut album Pure Heroine (2013); Australian dates were announced two weeks later. Lorde premiered an unreleased song called "Good Fights" at a limited number of shows.
In an interview with Fuse, Lorde described the tour as "beautiful" and "stylized" with several costume changes. She declined an opening act spot for Katy Perry, saying it is important for an artist to establish themselves. "I'm just basically really stubborn and I want to be really independent. So I want to be headlining my own shows instead of supporting someone else."
Lorde prepared three segments of her show, demonstrating to American audiences the areas where she grew up, saying:
> I had this idea I wanted it to be divided into three parts. The first part would be kind of my home and my life before everything happened to me, and be really suburban-feeling. I have these street lamps that are on stage with me, I very much wanted to anchor it in that world. And we went around and filmed in my town, and the jetty where I sit every day in summer, and the white tunnel you drive through going from Auckland to the Shore ... I got them to film in that tunnel, I wanted it to be of my world. And to be showing these American audiences, this is actually my spot. ... And then the concept ... goes into my head and dreams, and all the kind of abstract emotions you have when you are embarking on something like this. And the third section is the present day ... It's three quite clear acts. And that first one was all about home.
## Development
In an interview with Christopher Holder of AudioTechnology, James Mac, a keyboardist for Lorde, mentioned that he used two MacBook Pros installed with music software Ableton Live as part of the sound stage. Joel Little also arranged samples that were programmed with two Novation 61-key impulses. The pads on the impulse control "vocal samples, sirens, etc." while the keys play "drum racks on Ableton, or soft synths from the Arturia synth pack, or NI Massive." Mac also operated a mini keyboard which was used for loops during "[breaks] between songs."
When asked what front of house sound Lorde wanted on stage, Philip Harvey mentioned that she opted to have a "big, loud and dynamic" audio for her set. Drummer Ben Barter was responsible for activating samples on a Roland SPD, an electronic drum percussion instrument. His set included a variety of microphones such as the Shure SM52A, a Sennheiser e904, two overhead AKG C414 microphones, a Shure SM81 microphone for hi-hat drums as well as a Shure SM57 for snare drums. The public address system (PAS) uses the JBL Vertec VT4889, 18 floor-stacked subwoofers, a Shure UR Wireless Microphone System, a Sennheiser G3 IEM as well as Dolby Lake Processors. Harvey also mentioned that the use of auxiliary send through various instruments at low information helped to modify the aux master for each song.
Harvey said that Lorde was not partial to selecting microphones so they tried several to see which would complement her vocal range. They tried a Telefunken M80, a Sennheiser MD431, and a Heil PR35 microphone with no success. However, Harvey said that during European promotional tours, Lorde used the Shure Beta58. She also opted to have the level of her backing vocals match her vocals live onstage. Brett Taylor, a monitor engineer, called Lorde's in-ear mix "idiosyncratic", saying it is rare when singers chose to display their vocals "almost underneath the backing vocal tracks." Lorde and her band use Sensaphonic in-ear monitors; her band also utilizes d&b M2 floor monitors.
## Concert synopsis
The show was divided into three parts. The main show began with Lorde standing behind a black curtain, with one white spotlight and a faint chandelier onstage as she performed "Glory and Gore". Various light fixtures and Lorde's touring band were unveiled; the band consisted of Jimmy Mac, a DJ and keyboardist, as well as Ben Barter, a drummer. Lorde performed idiosyncratic dance moves as lights flickered and faded throughout the stage. She wore an oversized suit with a white tank top. The black curtain dropped to reveal a scarcely decorated set during "Biting Down"; three picture frames hung overhead. Her performance was accompanied by freeing dance routines.
During "Tennis Court", smoke and green light illuminated the stage; a video of boys playing a rugby match in the rain was shown in the background. The next song "Buzzcut Season" showcased another video documenting Lorde as she walked on a Devonport, New Zealand, pier and looked at the city's street lights. The stage was set in shades of blue. Before introducing "Still Sane", Lorde briefly mentioned her tour visuals, all filmed in Auckland, saying, "I've taken these places with me all around the world, all through America. And it's felt so comforting to have you on stage with me in a way every night." For "Swingin Party", a mirrored projection was shown to the audience. A background video depicting a neighborhood was shown on "400 Lux"; the video features locations such as the Victoria Park Tunnel. She introduced "Ribs" with a short monologue on the inspiration for the song; it was written during the month of February 2013 after she and her sister threw a party. She also cites her fear of aging as inspiration.
Lorde changed into a white pant suit, a crop top, and a coat before covering Kanye West's 2013 song "Hold My Liquor". The performance was followed by another costume change: a red outfit with a gold crown and cape. A chandelier lit the stage in gold colors and crown images were shown in the background during "Royals". A marquee that read, "Tonight: The Tragic and Wonderful Triumphal Procession of Lorde" was displayed. Another costume change, a metallic jumpsuit and a full-length cape, accompanied "Team". Different coloured spotlights shone throughout the set. An extended instrumental played as Lorde went offstage; Lorde returned with a gold robe as confetti cannons erupted.
## Reception
The Pure Heroine Tour was met with critical acclaim, with critics complimenting the singer's vocal clarity and stage presence as well as the minimalist stage setting. Brittany Spanos, writing for The Village Voice, placed the New York show on her list of the 10 Best Concerts in New York for the week of 30 September 2013. Davis Inman of American Songwriter called her Lollapalooza set in Chicago one of the highlights of the festival; her set received positive reviews from other publications, including Billboard and Rolling Stone, the latter deemed it the best segment of the Chicago event.
Kitty Empire of The Guardian gave a four out of five-star review of the concert at Shepherd's Bush Empire in London, writing that "dramatic visuals and a daring reworking of her songs see the teenage star in dazzling form". The Washington Post's Chris Richards described the minimalist setup of Lorde's backing duo as "highly efficient"; their setup was compared to English downtempo musician James Blake. Rachel Bache of The New Zealand Herald commented on Lorde's improved stage presence and enhanced vocal ability as well, stating that she "returned to her home town with a newfound boldness." PopMatters's William Carl Ferleman reviewed The Midland concert in Kansas City positively, stating that "it italicized an emerging artist who can solidly deliver her songs within a live setting" with few mistakes.
Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Ashley Lee gave a positive review of the Roseland Ballroom concert in New York, calling it an "intimate introduction and joyful celebration of the textured alto singer and her troubled lyrics" though Lee had an ambivalent reaction to her obscure presence. Los Angeles Times writer August Brown gave a positive review of the Greek Theatre concert in Los Angeles, commending Lorde for "casting off the limits pop loves to put on young women and ... making full use of her talents and energy and these wide new stages." However, Brown was critical of her extended monologues and the "mock-film-marquee billboard" during her performance of "Royals". Foster Kamer of Complex called her Brooklyn concert an "impressive, charismatic performance that shows Lorde already outgrowing her material" though he had mixed reactions towards "muddy vocal mixes" and backing tracks.
## Opening acts
- Nick Mulvey (Europe)
- Until the Ribbon Breaks (North America)
- Lo-Fang (North America)
- Majical Cloudz (North America)
- Doprah (Oceania)
- Oliver Tank (Oceania)
- Safia (Oceania)
- Yumi Zouma (Oceania)
## Set list
This setlist is from the show on 18 March 2014. It does not represent all the concerts during the tour. Lorde changed the covers as the tour progressed, including Kanye West's "Flashing Lights" and "Hold My Liquor" as well as Bon Iver's "Heavenly Father".
1. "Glory and Gore"
2. "Biting Down"
3. "Tennis Court"
4. "White Teeth Teens"
5. "Buzzcut Season"
6. "Swingin Party" (The Replacements cover)
7. "Still Sane"
8. "400 Lux"
9. "Bravado"
10. "Easy" (Son Lux cover)
11. "Ribs"
12. "Royals"
13. "Team"
14. "A World Alone"
## Tour dates
### Cancelled shows |
8,501,624 | The Calusari | 1,122,048,306 | null | [
"1995 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about exorcism",
"Television episodes about ghosts",
"Television episodes set in Maryland",
"Television episodes set in Virginia",
"The X-Files (season 2) episodes",
"Works about child death"
]
| "The Calusari" is the twenty-first episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It originally aired on the Fox network on April 14, 1995. It was written by Sara B. Charno and directed by Michael Vejar. "The Căluşari" is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, unconnected to the series' wider mythology, or fictional history. It earned a Nielsen household rating of 8.3, being watched by 7.9 million households in its initial broadcast. Due to perceived inconsistencies in the plot, "The Căluşari" received mixed reviews from television critics.
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In this episode, a photograph taken just before the death of a two-year-old boy yields evidence of some supernatural intervention which piques Mulder and Scully's curiosity. When another death in the family occurs, the grandmother of the remaining child requests the aid of some Romanian ritualists, named the Calusari, in order to cleanse the home of evil.
The script for "The Calusari" was inspired by Charno's experience as a doctor of Eastern medicine. The inspiration for the entry came from an idea series creator Chris Carter had involving someone getting hanged with a garage-door opener. Because "The Calusari" was heavy in terms of violence, Fox's standards and practices department took issues with several scenes. In addition, Carter re-cut the episode after it was completed in order to make it scarier.
## Plot
In Murray, Virginia, Maggie and Steve Holvey's' family visits a local amusement park. When the youngest child, Teddy, lets his balloon fly away, his father, Steve, gives him the balloon that belongs to his older brother, Charlie (Joel Palmer). When the boys' mother, Maggie (Helene Clarkson), is in the bathroom, the strap in Teddy's stroller comes undone. Teddy follows the balloon floating under its own power out of the restroom and onto the tracks of the park's tour train, leading to him getting killed by the train. Charlie is the only member of the Holvey family not to grieve Teddy's death at the scene.
Three months later, Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) shows Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) a photo taken moments before Teddy's death. Mulder points out that a balloon does not stay close to the ground, nor does it blow sideways. After taking the photo to a lab, it is shown that a mysterious, electromagnetic force taking the form of a child was dragging the balloon. Mulder and Scully later visit the Holveys, and Mulder explains his seemingly asinine theory that Teddy was lured onto the tracks by some unseen force. As the Holveys push back against this idea, Scully notices an older woman (Lilyan Chauvin), who is Maggie's elderly Romanian mother named Golda, drawing a swastika on the boy's hand. Scully hypothesizes that the Holvey children may be victims of Munchausen by proxy, perpetrated by their grandmother.
Soon thereafter, Mulder and Scully later discuss the case with Steve. Eventually, the topic of the conversation turns to Golda. Steve notes that she was vehemently opposed to his marrying Maggie. However, she moved in with the couple after Teddy was born after a series of odd occurrences began to take place. Given all that has happened, as well as the possibility that Charlie is being abused, Scully recommends a social worker named Karen Kosseff (Christine Willes). Later, Steve and Charlie decide to attend one of Kosseff's sessions, but when Steve tries to open the garage door, it won't cooperate. After grabbing a ladder to examine the door's controls, his tie is caught in the door and he is strangled to death. Investigating Steve's death, the police find dead chickens in Golda's room: evidence of the ritualistic sacrifices. In the garage, Mulder discovers a layer of vibhuti—a sort of ash created by intense spiritual energy.
Later, Golda welcomes three elderly Căluşari mystics into her room and they begin to conduct a ritual. While this is going on, Kosseff shows up at the Holveys' house and asks to meet with Charlie. Suddenly the boy begins to convulse. After noticing smoke billowing out from under Golda's door, Kosseff and Maggie then burst into her room where she and the Căluşari mystics are performing a ritual. Maggie tries to stop it, dismissing the mystics, but Golda refuses to comply; she grabs Charlie, locks her door, and attempts to finish the ritual. Suddenly, Charlie brings a pair of sacrificed chickens back to life and they kill Golda. While this is going on, Kosseff rushes off and finds Mulder, who in turn questions the Căluşari mystics. They explain that they were attempting to stop "an ancient and unrelenting evil" with their ritual. Kosseff later sits Charlie down and inquires about the struggle, but the boy swears that it was not him in his grandmother's room, but rather another boy named "Michael". Maggie later tells Mulder and Scully that Michael was the name of Charlie's twin brother who was a stillborn. Terrified, she insists that she and Steve never told Charlie. After Charlie was born, Golda tried to perform a ritual that would have separated the spirits of the two boys. However, Steve would not allow it.
Charlie seizes again and is taken to a hospital. However, Michael convinces Maggie, by pretending to be Charlie, that he wants to go home. Scully witnesses what is happening, and informs Mulder, who is certain that the spirit of Michael, and not Charlie, is killing people. The two agents split up: Mulder tracks down the Căluşari mystics to complete the ritual, and Scully goes to Maggie's home to protect her. After an intense struggle in which Michael very nearly kills Scully and Maggie, Mulder and the Căluşari complete the ritual, which causes Michael's spirit to disappear. Maggie returns to the hospital and is reunited with Charlie. Before the agents leave, the head elder of the Căluşari says it is over for the time being and cautiously forewarns Mulder that "it knows you."
## Production
The episode was written by Sara Charno and directed by Mike Vejar. Before becoming a writer, Charno had been a doctor of Eastern medicine, and so her "esoteric knowledge that none of the rest of [the writers] had about all kinds of things" was put to use in this script, according to writer Frank Spotnitz. The episode was based largely on an idea that series creator Chris Carter had had about a "garage-door opener hanging". Christine Willes, who plays the part of Agent Kosseff, reprises her role; she originally appeared in the earlier episode "Irresistible".
During production of the episode, the producers "agonized" over both the teaser (given that it revolves around a child being killed by a tram) and the episode's over-all bleakness. Fox's standards and practices department, on the other hand, took issues with the initial cut of Steve's strangulation scene; in the end, the sequence was kept but the actor's face was obscured to "soften the impact". Although the episode's filming went along smoothly, the final cut "didn't pass muster". Spotnitz explained that Carter "spent a lot of time in the editing room trying to figure out how to make this more terrifying." Spotnitz later noted that Carter's dedication proved that something could be so "much better ... if you didn't give up."
## Broadcast and reception
"The Calusari" originally aired on the Fox network on April 14, 1995, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 6, 1996. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8.3 with a 16 share, meaning that roughly 8.3 percent of all television-equipped households, and 16 percent of households watching TV, were tuned in to the episode. A total of 7.9 million households watched this episode during its original airing. "The Calusari" is the only episode of the series to have received an explicit rating of "18" in the United Kingdom by the BBFC for "occasional strong horror" and themes involving "demonic possession". Because of this one episode, any collected box sets of the entire series sold in the UK are rated as such.
"The Calusari" received mixed reviews, with critics citing inconsistencies in the plot as the main detractions. Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a "B−" rating, calling it "an Exorcist/Omen rip-off, but a classy one". Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave it a "C+", writing that it was "an episode with a lot of great and spooky moments", but "a messy, chaotic story that could have been much better developed, and too many things that happen [...] just because the writers thought it would be cool if they happened". However, while she was "not sure everything hangs together" and wished for more backstory, VanDerWerff did praise some "really great moments", particularly the opening teaser. John Keegan from Critical Myth, while calling the episode "a mixed bag", awarded it a 7 out of 10. He praised the entry's "fascinating implications [about] the mythology hidden within the events depicted", and noted that it was "well directed and acted". Despite this, he was more critical of the episode's plot and wrote that there were "clear logical flaws [...] and the subject matter can be disturbing. This is an episode that falls heavily to subjective interpretation." Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, gave the episode a largely negative review and rated it one-and-a-half stars out of five. The two called it a "pale retread of The Exorcist" and noted that many of the episode's elements, like the chicken-sacrificing grandmother and the Calusari members, were "tremendously crass". Shearman and Pearson, however, did enjoy the episode's dialogue, praising one scene in particular where the spirit of Michael torments his mother by asking to be taken to the amusement park and ride the train that killed his younger brother. Regardless, however, the duo concluded that "there's something stale and pointless at [the episode's] heart." The plot for "The Calusari" was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1997 by Garth Nix. |
65,680,302 | 240 Central Park South | 1,166,345,826 | Residential building in Manhattan, New York | [
"1939 establishments in New York City",
"59th Street (Manhattan)",
"Apartment buildings in New York City",
"Art Deco architecture in Manhattan",
"Art Deco skyscrapers",
"Broadway (Manhattan)",
"Columbus Circle",
"Midtown Manhattan",
"Moderne architecture in New York City",
"New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan",
"Residential buildings completed in 1939",
"Residential buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan"
]
| 240 Central Park South is a residential building in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Designed by Albert Mayer and Julian Whittlesey, it was built between 1939 and 1940 by the J.H. Taylor Construction Company, an enterprise of the Mayer family. 240 Central Park South is designed in a combination of the Art Deco and Moderne styles, with over 300 apartments.
240 Central Park South faces Central Park to the north, Columbus Circle and Broadway to the west, and 58th Street to the south. The building occupies half of its 1-acre (0.40 ha) land lot, and is largely "C"-shaped in form. It consists of a 20-story section along Central Park South topped by an 8-story tower, as well as a 15-story section along 58th Street; the two sections are connected by the ground-level lobby. The facade is made of orange brick with jagged storefronts on Broadway, while some of the apartments contain cantilevered balconies. The building contains Marea, a Michelin-starred restaurant, as well as open spaces such as an interior courtyard and rooftop terraces. A mosaic by Amédée Ozenfant hangs over the main entrance on Central Park South.
When completed, 240 Central Park South was one of Manhattan's largest apartment buildings. The apartment complex was marketed as an alternative to the fast-growing suburbs being developed in the New York City area at the time. The design received critical acclaim from reviewers such as Lewis Mumford and the Architectural Forum. The building was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2002 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.
## Site
240 Central Park South is on the southeastern side of Columbus Circle in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It has lot dimensions of 189 feet (58 m) on Central Park South (59th Street) to the north; 215 feet (66 m) on Broadway to the west; and 145 feet (44 m) on 58th Street to the south. The land lot covers 36,475 square feet (3,388.6 m<sup>2</sup>). Gainsborough Studios and 220 Central Park South are to the east; Central Park is across Central Park South; 2 Columbus Circle, Deutsche Bank Center, and Trump International Hotel and Tower are across Columbus Circle; and Central Park Tower and 1790 Broadway are across 58th Street. Entrances to the New York City Subway's 59th Street–Columbus Circle station, served by the , are directly outside the building.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Central Park South was developed as Manhattan's "Gold Coast", with many prestigious hotels and apartment buildings being erected on its route. The site of 240 Central Park South was previously owned by George Ehret, a brewer who had become one of New York City's largest real estate owners by the 1920s, behind only the Astor family. Ehret combined seventeen lots on the site between 1881 and 1908. He had intended to build a "roadhouse or hotel" on his land. By 1927, the Ehret lot was one of only two undeveloped blockfronts on Broadway between Columbus Circle and Times Square. Shortly afterward, Ehret's lot and the neighboring Engine Company 23 firehouse on 233 West 58th Street were developed, with a two-story building being erected on the site to cater to the area's automobile industry.
## Architecture
240 Central Park South was designed by Mayer & Whittlesey, a partnership between Albert Mayer and Julian Whittlesey. Cynthia Wiley and Eleanor Robertson Paepcke were the landscape architects. The building was constructed by the J. H. Taylor Construction Company and managed by the J. H. Taylor Management Corporation; both companies were operated by the Mayer family. Sarah Tobias, renting manager of J. H. Taylor Management Corporation, was involved in the inclusion of interior design elements. Various contractors were hired for the windows, materials, elevators, floor and wall coverings, furnishings, hardware, electrical installation, plumbing, and heating and air conditioning.
### Form
240 Central Park South occupies about half of its land lot. The building is largely "C"-shaped in form and contains two primary sections, a 28-story section on Central Park South and a 15-story section on 58th Street, connected by the lobby running along Broadway. Atop the main roofs of each apartment block are placed chimneys and water towers. 240 Central Park South is variously quoted as having either 325, 326, or 327 apartments across its two apartment blocks.
The northern apartment block on Central Park South is 265 feet (81 m) tall and rises 28 stories. The lowest 20 stories rise without setbacks, except in the corners where there are balconies, while the center section contains a smaller 8-story tower atop the 20th story. The bulk of the northern block is "C"-shaped with two wings to the west and east flanking a small court to the north. The eastern wall is set back from the lot line and the adjoining building.
The southern apartment block at 235 West 58th Street is 166 feet (51 m) tall and contains 15 stories. It rises without setbacks on any side.
### Facade
The facade of the building is made of orange brick with varying hues, set within a six-course American bond. The facade typically contain slate window sills. The apartments have wide steel-framed casement windows facing the street. Some of the corners contain windows that are cantilevered at the corner, with between one and three panes in each window. Smaller windows are used where the views contained obstructions, such as adjacent office structures, at the time of the building's development. Another window type used in the building was a wide opening with a high sill, used at locations that required cross ventilation.
#### Base
The main entrance is at Central Park South and is within a small landscaped courtyard between either of the northern block's wings. The entrance is reached through a concrete sidewalk, flanked by low retaining walls and situated under an awning. The entrance doors are within a slightly projecting curved pavilion with a brick facade and large windows. The western (right) side of the courtyard has a gray-blue terracotta wall of square tiles made by the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company, which encloses a single-story storefront. The eastern (left) side had ceramic plaques that were removed by the 2000s. On the northern facade, above the center three windows on the second and third story, are two abstract mosaic panels, which comprise "The Quiet City", a mural by Amédée Ozenfant.
The secondary entrance is at 58th Street near the corner with Broadway, and contains a double doorway surrounded by Atlantic Terra Cotta blocks, as well as a planter to the west (left) of the entrance. A loading dock was provided on the easternmost portion of the 58th Street side to eliminate congestion. The loading area has a ramp descending directly to the basement. The ramp is made of concrete and can fit two vehicles. Planting beds originally flanked either side of the ramp, while a canopy encloses the northern side of the ramp.
There are ten storefronts on Broadway in total; the center four have rounded corners and are flanked on each side by three square storefronts. The central shops on Broadway are staggered along the diagonal property line, with jagged setbacks and rounded windows. Mayer intentionally included the rounded storefronts to increase the value of the display windows, because he said that the rounded windows gave each shop "many of the advantages of a corner location". Architectural Forum magazine, in 1941, said that the storefronts "permitted the enlargement of the normal sidewalk area into a kind of concourse".
#### Balconies
About 100 apartments have open-air balconies. These balconies have an average floor area of 8 by 8 feet (2.4 by 2.4 m) and are cantilevered from the windows. The balconies are concrete slabs and largely retain their original metal railings as of the early 21st century.
At the northern apartment block, the balconies are above the seventh story on the northern side facing Central Park, and above the twelfth floor on the southern side. The only exception is on the northeastern corner, where the balconies start above the 16th floor. The balconies on the northern facade were meant to give residents a view above the park's tree line, which was not possible below the seventh floor. In addition, the "tower" of the northern block contains balconies at either northern corner on the 22nd through 26th floors, and a terrace on the 27th floor. At the southern apartment block, all of the balconies are above the 10th story.
### Features
240 Central Park South's interior structure is composed of a steel skeleton frame made by Bethlehem Steel. The columns rest on footings made of reinforced concrete, while the floors are made of concrete slabs between the interior beams. The building has a gross floor area of 387,428 square feet (35,993.2 m<sup>2</sup>).
The building was designed with its own power generation plant, containing steam boilers, a diesel engine, and two steam turbines with a combined capacity of 625 kilowatts (838 hp), as well as an attached hot water heating system. There are six elevators in the building, four for passengers and two for freight. Four of the elevators serve the northern apartment block and the other two elevators serve the southern apartment block. The building was designed with several methods of soundproofing and insulation. For example, some elevator parts were made of leather, carpeting was placed on the corridor floors to reduce noise, and bedrooms are generally placed away from elevator shafts.
#### Lobby
The lobby has entrances from both Central Park South and 58th Street, and is divided into two sections, one around each entrance. The northern lobby contains access to the four northern elevators, two on either side of the passageway connecting to the southern lobby. The elevator banks are surrounded by marble. The northern lobby contains green terrazzo flooring, copper-clad walls, recessed lighting, and a marble mail desk. The copper-clad walls and terrazzo floors are continued in the passageway between the northern and southern lobbies. A solarium, with marble wall panels and large windows, is next to this passageway, facing onto an enclosed conservatory to the east. The southern lobby contains access to the two southern elevators.
The lobby contains doors to the storefronts facing Broadway and Columbus Circle, as well as a restaurant space on the northeastern corner of the building at Central Park South. The northernmost storefront was adjacent to the western wall of the entrance courtyard and was initially entered from the lobby, before being combined with the two northernmost storefronts on Broadway. Since 2009, the restaurant space has housed Marea, a Michelin-starred Italian and seafood restaurant. Plans of the lobby also show maids' rooms and offices clustered around the central courtyard and near the 58th Street entrance.
#### Gardens
240 Central Park South's open spaces include the small courtyard at the main entrance, plantings along 58th Street, the enclosed conservatory at ground level, and rooftop gardens and terraces atop various parts of the building. The conservatory at ground level was planted with crabapples, magnolia, and white birch, with Boston ivy on the conservatory's walls. On the roof of the lobby between the two apartment blocks, a garden with willows, forsythia, rhododendrons, and grass plots with flower beds was planted. The roof of the conservatory curves above and east of the lobby roof. The rooftop of the 58th Street apartment block was planted with geometrically shaped flower beds.
#### Apartments
The apartments on the 2nd through 20th floor of the northern block are arranged around a C-shaped corridor. The apartments in the 21st through 28th floors of the northern block are arranged around a "T"-shaped corridor, and the apartments in the southern block are arranged around a straight corridor. All of the corridors have plaster walls, carpeted floors, and terrazzo baseboards. The corridors also contain soffits, which carry utility wires.
The layouts of the units vary, and even between different floors, tenant preferences affected the floor plan of each unit. However, several design elements were standardized, such as doors, windows, and kitchen units. Each apartment had a window in its kitchen, although these were technically unnecessary, as mechanical ventilation systems had been legalized shortly before the building's completion. Above the seventh floor, each corner room was designed as a balcony containing a large window. The units were each designed with between one and four rooms; the three- and four-room units have separate dining rooms, while the one-room units have dining alcoves. The units above the sixth floor also had log-burning fireplaces. Some units retain their original bookcases and shelves, which were built into the walls. Many apartments contain plaster walls, hardwood floors, wooden wall moldings, and exposed-beam ceilings.
At its opening, the building provided maid service, and had restrooms and service halls for personnel on every floor. Additionally, the basement had rooms for work, storage, and laundry, while the 20th floor of the northern apartment block had a solarium and recreation area. The 20th floor of the northern block also contains three roof terraces, one each to the west, east, and south of the tower.
## History
In the early 20th century, the Mayer family was prominent in the development and management of New York City real estate. Albert Mayer and four of his five siblings were active in the industry. He worked at the J. H. Taylor Construction Company from 1919 to 1939, when he worked with Whittlesey. By the 1930s, Mayer and Whittlesey were formulating plans for an apartment building combining an urban setting with suburban features such as green space. The New York Herald Tribune said they came up with the idea as they studied architecture in the European cities of Amsterdam, Stockholm, and Vienna.
### Planning and construction
Several investors from Chicago were planning a 25-story apartment building on the Ehret site at Columbus Circle by March 1939. 240 Central Park South Inc., a subsidiary of J. H. Taylor Management, bought the Ehret site that May, with plans to erect a \$4.5 million development there. The sale included a building loan of \$2.5 million and the transfer of an existing \$875,000 mortgage. Mayer and Whittlesey had selected the site as the location for their apartment block because it was near a park, transportation, businesses, and entertainment. The architects wanted the building to be profitable, modern in design, and socially desirable, while also maximizing the number of apartments with views of Central Park. Mayer and Whittlesey reviewed several designs before deciding to build 240 Central Park South as two towers. The decisions were made by a "design board" composed of the architects, owner, operating manager, rental manager, and builders.
In July 1939, Mayer and Whittlesey filed plans for the apartment building, estimated to cost \$1.6 million (equivalent to \$ million in ). 240 Central Park South was the largest apartment project in Manhattan at the time. By January 1940, steel was being erected, and the building was scheduled to be completed that June. Leasing started in March 1940, and J. H. Taylor Management commenced a marketing campaign with mailers and newspaper advertisements to attract people looking for a suburban ambience. Fifty-two units had been rented within one month, which renting manager Sarah Tobias attributed to the inclusion of trees and balconies. Potential tenants were carefully selected by Tobias's team, and the entire tenth floor was furnished to demonstrate the variety of apartments available. The amenities in 240 Central Park South, such as the restaurant, stores, solarium, and roof terraces, were characteristic of those found in both apartment hotels and traditional residential apartments of the time.
### Use
#### 20th century
Residents started moving into the building in September 1940, by which 194 of the apartments had been rented. A ground floor storefront was leased to Fanny Farmer. The restaurant space was leased to a cafe called Le Cafe Arnold, whose operators hired Mayer and Whittlesey to design the restaurant's plant- and vine-inspired decorations and furnishings. Le Cafe Arnold opened in the building in December 1940.
One of its first residents, opera singer Helen Jepson, signed a lease at 240 Central Park South soon after its completion. Another resident was the author Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, who lived in Manhattan from 1941 to 1943 and resided at 240 Central Park South during that time. Samuel Solomon, a gangster better known as Sam Boston, was arrested at his home inside the building in 1943, and was charged and convicted of running an illegal gambling ring at his residence. A resident was killed in a gas explosion in her apartment in 1952, which caused a bomb scare that prompted a lockdown of the surrounding area.
In the late 20th century, actors Sylvia Miles, Angie Harmon, and Lou Jacobi also took up residence at 240 Central Park South. In addition, the building's own architect Albert Mayer lived in 240 Central Park South from 1975 until his 1981 death. The building was also shown in works of fiction, being the residence of Lois Lane in the 1978 film Superman, as well as a key setting in the 1957 film A Face in the Crowd. 240 Central Park Associates owned the building from its opening until May 1976, when the building was sold to Central Park South Associates, a company operated by real estate developer Sarah Korein. In 1988, Italian restaurant San Domenico opened inside 240 Central Park South.
#### 21st century
In the 1990s, preservationists unsuccessfully attempted to create a Central Park South Historic District, encompassing properties on Central Park South between Fifth Avenue and Columbus Circle, including 240 Central Park South. By the first decade of the 21st century, the building was in disrepair; the facade bricks were in mismatched colors, while the courtyard had "shattered tiles and dry fountains", according to The New York Times. A group of preservationists, led by New York state senator Thomas Duane, started to advocate for official city landmark protection in 2001, with the commencement of major renovations at the building. Despite the fact that the Central Park South Historic District had been proposed a few years earlier, 240 Central Park South's historical significance had never been questioned, which had led to the failure of the historic district proposal. The building became a New York City designated landmark on June 25, 2002.
240 Central Park South's exteriors and public interior areas were restored in 2007. The renovation included a green roof designed by Balmori Associates as well as upgrades designed by Douglas J. Lister. The \$25 million project received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 2007. San Domenico closed its space inside 240 Central Park South in 2008, with Marea moving into that space the next year. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 12, 2009.
## Critical reception
240 Central Park South was one of the few mid-rise apartment buildings with courtyards to be constructed following the Great Depression, and was praised for its overall treatment. In 1940, the Museum of Modern Art's Guide to Modern Architecture said that the building's designers had given "particular attention to light, air, and view". The same year, architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote for The New Yorker that 240 Central Park South was "a real success" and expressed admiration for the building's form, facade, balconies, windows, Broadway storefronts, and main entrance. Architectural Forum, the next year, stated that the design had "a host of improvements which taken together add up to one of the best apartment buildings yet produced", which could be attributed mainly to its improvements. Buildings and Building Management praised the landscaping as "ingenious" and commended the diversity of apartment layouts, which made every unit "a sort of penthouse".
More modern reviewers also praised 240 Central Park South as innovative, even if its design often went unnoticed. Paul Goldberger wrote in 1977 that 240 Central Park South, while "often overlooked", had apartments that were "well organized and a far cry from the cramped layouts" of that era. Goldberger also called the building "a remarkably sophisticated design" for its time, with its varied apartment layouts, Broadway storefronts, and park views. In 1980, architectural historian Robert A. M. Stern wrote that the building was a paradigm of the contextually responsible high-rise apartment in Manhattan". In his subsequent book New York 1930, Stern called the building "a synthetic work that was at once infill and icon", despite what he saw as shortfalls in the building's courtyard and "bland facade". As early as 1996, Stern had suggested that 240 Central Park South was a viable candidate for official landmark status. Martin Filler, writing for The New Republic in 2000, described 240 Central Park South as Columbus Circle's best structure, saying: "This stylish exemplar of high-density urbanism, completed just before civilian construction halted with our entry into World War II, has never been superseded."
## See also
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets |
42,544,974 | Hagley, Tasmania | 1,131,665,345 | null | [
"1866 establishments in Australia",
"Localities of Meander Valley Council",
"Populated places established in 1866",
"Towns in Tasmania"
]
| Hagley is a rural locality and town in the local government area of Meander Valley in the Launceston region of Tasmania. The locality is about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north-east of the town of Westbury. The 2016 census has a population of 335 for the state suburb of Hagley.
The area was used by the Port Dalrymple—an early name for George Town in Northern Tasmania—Aboriginal Tasmanians until they were driven from their lands by European settlement. Land grants from the 1820s, to William Thomas Lyttleton, William Bryan and Sir Richard Dry, led to the first buildings, and later gazetting of the town in April 1866. Lyttleton was associated with Hagley Hall in England; his naming of his estate led to the town's name, and he is believed to have bequeathed the town's land. Hagley is an agricultural centre sited on largely alluvial soil near the Meander River. As of 2011, the town had a population of 330, most of whom were Australian born. Hagley is remembered as the first site of coursing in Tasmania, which started at Quamby Estate in 1878. The town has had cricket and Australian rules football teams, but it no longer fields teams.
There are four church buildings in Hagley. A Presbyterian church opened in 1879; it is now closed and in private hands. The Uniting Church building is a Modernist design built in 1957; it sits next to a wooden Methodist chapel built in 1859. St Mary's Anglican Church is a bluestone Gothic Revival building that opened for services in 1862. The lands and a significant part of the church's funds were donated by Sir Richard Dry. Dry is buried at the church and the church's tower is dedicated to his wife. Hagley Farm Primary School is the oldest agricultural school in Australia. It began as the Hagley State School in 1865 and became an area school for the surrounding districts in 1936. The school has a 64-hectare (160-acre) farm and agriculture features strongly in its curriculum.
The town has some 19th-century buildings listed on both the Register of the National Estate and the Tasmanian Heritage Register. Hagley Mill is noted as possibly the only extant mill in Australia that was horse-driven. Quamby Estate, the former estate of Sir Richard Dry, is run as a tourist attraction and has a 9-hole golf course. Hagley's reticulated water supply is sourced from a filtration and treatment plant at nearby Westbury. This plant opened in 2013; from 1902 until then the town had received untreated water. From 1871 the town was serviced by passenger rail, but this ceased prior to 1978. Hagley was originally on the main road from Launceston to Deloraine, but was bypassed in 2001 when the Hagley section of the Bass Highway was completed.
## History
Prior to the European settlement of what was then Van Diemen's Land, the Hagley area was a camping ground for the Port Dalrymple Aboriginal tribe, the area's native people; Port Dalrymple was an early name for George Town. It is uncertain if this tribe was a separate group from the aborigines near Port Sorell and the Mersey River. The Port Dalrymple tribe ventured as far as Westbury, but mainly lived and hunted nearer the Tamar River, and stone implements have been found in the Hagley area. Encounters with the natives and reports of Europeans shooting them feature in the area's history and mythology. Stephen Dry, cousin to Sir Richard Dry, was reportedly speared by an Aboriginal on a hill near Hagley. On a property formerly known as Strath is a water hole named "No, No's Hole". There is a legend that
> ... a mob of blacks who had committed a murder on the property sought refuge there when an avenging party of whites were on their heels. They cried 'No, No,' and kept diving under the water for safety, but were all shot.
By 1830, aborigines were no longer seen in the area; they had been driven from their traditional areas by the new settlers. In October that year detachments of "The Black Line" reached nearby Westbury. This was an effort to clear Van Diemen's land of the last of the natives.
William Thomas Lyttleton, William Bryan and Sir Richard Dry were all important figures in the early days of the town. These three owned most of the land of what is now the town and district of Hagley during the 1820s.
Sir Richard Dry's father came to Tasmania as an "Irish Exile" with Lt Governor Colonel William Patterson, founder of Launceston. He spent 13 years as Government Storekeeper at Port Dalrymple. As recognition of his work, on retirement in 1819 he was granted 500 acres (200 ha) of land. Governor Lachlan Macquarie granted him the land that marked the foundation of settlement at Hagley. When the elder Dry died, Sir Richard inherited this and other lands in Tasmania totaling over 30,000 acres (120 km<sup>2</sup>). Quamby Estate, a property owned by Sir Richard until his death, is east of the town. Quamby is supposedly an Aboriginal word - although its meaning is not certain. William Thomas Lyttleton was born in 1786 in England; he was a distant connection to those owning Hagley Hall in Worcestershire, England. He spent some years in the army, moving to Van Diemen's Land in 1822 with his family, after he retired. He was initially granted 560 acres (230 ha) near Westbury, adjacent the land owned by Richard Dry, and 800 near Meander. He called the grant near Westbury 'Hagley', in honour of the Town, Parish or Hall in England. Lyttleton built a homestead on the Hagley property in 1829, though most or all of this original building has been since demolished. He lived in the Hagley area for 14 years, before returning to England. William Bryan, builder of the first flour mill at Carrick, was granted 1,077 acres (436 ha) at Hagley in March 1825. Bryan also had holdings in Carrick and Whitemore totaling 11,000 acres (4,500 ha).
Lyttleton died in England in 1839. In disposing his estate, the estate's trustee put all of the lands up for sale. Lyttleton is believed to have bequeathed the village area to the Hagley residents. The block of land containing the Lyttleton homestead was sold in 1843 to a Dr James Richardson, and the remainder of the land was sold to others in 1848.
The first building in the town was a brick church built on the side of the road from Launceston to Westbury. This road was known as the "Westbury Road", now called the Meander Valley Highway. The church was built for Church of England services and opened in 1848. It was built at the behest of Sir Richard Dry and Archdeacon R. R. Davies, the latter trustee of the Lyttleton estate, on part of the former estate. The land was a gift to the Church of England by Davies in his capacity as a trustee. By 1849, the town's buildings were the Hagley Church of England, an inn—built and run by the East Family opposite the church—and three paling-clad cottages occupied by separate families. At this time the Westbury Road was often a muddy quagmire and land, especially near Quamby bend, that is now cleared was dense forest. The Hagley Inn was opened c.1850, it was first called "The Country Inn", by James East, who had run the earlier inn in Hagley. Over time the inn has been extensively altered and it closed as a hotel in the late 1980s. In 1850 Hagley's buildings comprised
> ... the church, the Hagley Inn, a blacksmith's shop, a cottage occupied by Mr. Fryett, and one occupied by F.J.Flight, who died recently at Forth; also one built, I think, by a Mr. Lyons.
Hagley's population increased significantly during the 1850s as people moved both to the village, and to farming properties in the district. A doctor was practicing in the area by 1854, and in 1855 a school opened in the Church of England; paid for with funds raised by local residents. That year a postal service began in Hagley. David Parry was appointed postmaster on 1 July 1855, probably operating an unofficial post office from the Hagley Inn. A post office officially opened on 10 June 1865, in a building that was demolished in 1970. This building also had a store called the "six day store" run by the postmaster and his wife. The town gained a second hotel in 1857 with Carmody's Meander Hotel, though this remained open for only a few years. In 1857 also the town's first community organisation was formed, the Hagley Ploughing Association, and regular ploughing matches began. A second church was built, a Methodist Chapel on the Westbury road, in 1859.
Mrs Bryan and her husband were concerned about the lack of education in the area. In the early 1860s they provided two acres of land at nearby Glenore, and built a brick school and school house. The Glenore school was finished in 1862, and it was accompanied by a 260-acre (110 ha) farm whose rent was to pay for a teacher and building upkeep. A new church, for the Church of England, was built just outside Hagley. St Mary's Church of Hagley and Quamby was completed and opened in 1862. The first church continued in use as a school until 1865. In the prior year construction had begun on a public school, a two-room building with an adjacent 8-room teacher's residence; the school opened in 1865. Hagley was gazetted as a town in April 1866. By that time it had a number of stores, a blacksmith, a boot maker, a saddler, a wheelwright, two churches, two schools, two hotels, a resident seamstress and a midwife. By the late 1870s the town had gained, in addition to houses, a police station, gaol, engineering works, one steam mill run by the Noake Family and another at nearby Quamby. A rail line opened, from Launceston to Westbury, in 1871, though its station was 2 miles (3.2 km) from Hagley. In the 1880s a siding was added at Hoggs Lane, and a passenger platform at the siding in 1910. Using the new rail line, by the 1880s the post office was receiving four deliveries each weekday and two on Saturday.
Electricity reached Hagley in 1928, supplied by the Tasmanian Hydro-Electric Commission. Prior to this—the year is unknown—there was some street lighting in the form of four dim Kerosine lamps set on 10-foot (3 m) posts. These lights were manually lit and extinguished daily. In 1941 the Hagley Flax Mill began operating to process locally grown flax. This mill was on the Meander River's bank, three miles from the centre of Hagley.
Hagley was gazetted as a locality in 1968.
## Geography and demographics
Hagley sits on mostly flat land near the Meander River at an elevation of 150 metres (490 ft) above sea level. The land formation is largely alluvial with Lateritic podzolic soils, classified as dermosol under the Australian Soil Classification system. These soils date from the Tertiary Period, with some from the more recent Quaternary. Hagley was founded, and remains, an agricultural centre. Dairy and pea-farming prior to World War II have given way to poppies as the principal crop. These poppies are opium poppies grown for Tasmanian Alkaloids, in nearby Westbury. The Meander River forms the northern boundary.
In the first Australian census in 1911 there were 611 people resident in the town and surrounding area. By 1931 this had reduced to 246, of which 186 lived in the town. In the 2011 census 330 people were recorded living in 148 dwellings in the Hagley statistical area. The census did not record the town's population but the Meander Valley Council notes it as c.150 in 2014. Hagley's people are predominantly Australian born with 89.1% reporting as such in the 2011 census. This contrasts with 83.6% for Tasmania and 69.8% for the whole of Australia.
The town is in the Meander Valley Council local government area, the state legislative council Electoral division of Western Tiers, and the Division of Lyons for both the state and federal houses of representatives.
## Road infrastructure
The Bass Highway (National Route 1) enters from the east and runs through to the west, where it exits. Route B54 (Meander Valley Road) also passes through from east to west, crossing over the Bass Highway near the western boundary. Route C507 (Hagley Station Lane) starts at an intersection with B54 and runs south, crossing over the Bass Highway, until it exits. Route C732 (Westwood Road) starts at an intersection with B54 and runs north-east until it exits. Route C735 (Selbourne Road) starts at an intersection with B54 and runs north until it exits.
### Climate
## Sports
The sport of coursing began in Tasmania at Hagley, an event was held 6–7 June 1878 at Quamby. For this first event 500 people, including the Governor of Tasmania, came from Launceston. Tasmanian Government Railways ran an excursion train service from Launceston for the event. A coursing competition called the "Waterloo Cup" has a long history in the town.
Hagley's recreation ground opened on the main road in 1902; until then local paddocks were used. An Australian rules football club was formed in Hagley c.1895. Matches were played on a private paddock until 1902 when they moved to the recreation ground. The club's most successful period was, as part of the Esk Association, when they won five successive premierships from 1949 to 1953. The club closed in 1998, as part of a general decline of country football in Tasmania. During the club's 102 years, the most widely known player was former St Kilda player Matthew Young.
Hagley's cricket team was formed in the 1890s and was playing by 1896. Similarly to the football club they played on a paddock, adjacent to the current recreation ground, moving to the new ground in 1902. The ground remains open for cricket though Hagley no longer fields a team.
## Water supply
In 1898 the Westbury and Hagley Water Act was passed, providing for construction of a reticulated water scheme using water from the Meander River and other streams. Hagley was connected to mains water via the Westbury-Hagley water scheme in 1902. By 1923 residents of Hagley were asking for an upgrade of the system, as it was seen as inadequate by then. The Westbury Council took out loans in 1952 to extend the system, and work on this extension continued into 1954, still connected to Westbury although with larger diameter pipes.
For over a century the water was supplied untreated. In the 1980s a dam at Westbury allowed selective pumping from the river and some improvement in water quality. As Hagley's water was not fully treated, from time to time contamination required boil-water notices. Sedimentation damaged hot-water cylinders and restricted supply due to the deposits left in the water delivery system. Work began in 2012 on a \$5.5 million water treatment work at Westbury to supply Westbury, Hagley and Exton. This water treatment plant was opened by Ben Lomond Water in June 2013, supplying filtered and treated water to Hagley.
## Religion and churches
### Presbyterian
There was a Presbyterian visiting preacher in Hagley, from Deloraine, Tasmania, from 1854. Services were held at this time in the Methodist Chapel. Regular Presbyterian services were being held by 1855, most likely in the original Church of England building. In the late 1870s, the old Church of England was purchased, along with the associated land, by the Presbyterian church for 265 pounds. The building was demolished in 1878 and construction of a new church was begun almost on the same site. During demolition and construction, Presbyterian services were again held at the Methodist chapel. The foundation stone was laid 18 March 1879 by which time the walls were already nearly complete. Cement rendering has hidden the stone and its location is uncertain. Hagley Presbyterian Church's first services were held on 14 December 1879. A manse was built nearby in 1884.
The church used bricks from a demolished brewery, possibly in Longford, and it was completed at a cost of approximately 950 pounds. The building was designed by Harry Conway, a Launceston architect. It is a largely brick building with freestone corbels and copings, and is of a Gothic Revival architectural style. The church is 40 by 25 feet (12.2 by 7.6 m) with a 12-by-10-foot (3.7 by 3.0 m) vestry, and was intended to seat 250 people. By 1973 the Presbyterian congregation at Hagley was very small and there was cause for concern about its future. The Presbyterian church building is still in the town, opposite the original Hagley hotel, but is now privately owned and no longer used for worship.
### Methodist and Uniting Church
Hagley has a Uniting Church, built in 1957, adjacent to the original Methodist Chapel which dates from 1859. Early Wesleyan (Methodist) services were held in the 1840s in a farmhouse in Hoggs Lane. Local Methodists began raising funds for a church in the late 1850s. Land was donated by a George Scott and, at a cost of 370 pounds, a 40-by-22-foot (12.2 by 6.7 m) wooden chapel and two-roomed caretaker's cottage were built. This Methodist chapel opened for services on 27 March 1859. What is now Hagley Uniting Church was built next to the old Methodist church in 1957. This newer building is of a Modernist design with coloured glass and geometric architectural shapes. The Uniting Church site was listed on the Tasmanian Heritage Register in June 2009.
The church held its final service 31 January 2016. Low attendance and high maintenance costs were cited as reasons for its closure.
### Church of England (Anglican)
Hagley's first building was a brick church, on "Westbury Road" for Church of England services. The foundation stone was laid 8 January 1847 and the church completed, using materials from Deloraine, and opened 9 June 1848. It was built on part of the former Lyttleton Estate, funded by Sir Richard Dry and the estate's trustee, Archdeacon R.R. Davies. When completed the church was in the Parish of Westbury. By 1859, with population growing, parishioners in Hagley held a meeting to consider forming their own Parish. Dry offered to pay the Minister's stipend and provide 1000 pounds towards church buildings. Consequent to this offer, the separate Parish of Hagley and Quamby was created. This first church was used until completion of the later St Mary's Church. It was later demolished to make way for a Presbyterian Church.
The Church of England's parish of Hagley had its beginnings in 1856 when Dry endowed it with three farms. Between them these farms brought in 400 pounds rental income per year. While in England, on a trip taken for his health, Dry commissioned architect Richard Cromwell Carpenter to draw plans for a new church. The plans were modified by Carpenter's agent in Hobart, Henry Hunter. On returning to Tasmania, Dry donated 13 acres (5.3 ha) of land for the church. Hunter was also responsible for designing churches at Westbury, Deloraine, Colebrook, Tasmania and the Church of the Apostles in Launceston. Dry funded construction of the rectory and funded a significant part of the church's construction. Some other funding came from the sale of the original church and land. As first built it only had a nave and aisle.
The brick rectory was completed in 1861, before construction of the church began. St Mary's foundation stone was laid 10 December 1861, in a ceremony attended by Dry and Bishop Francis Nixon, the first Bishop of Tasmania. The church's structure used local bluestone for the walls, freestone from Bellerive for pillars, arches and mullions, and roof slates from Great Britain. St Mary's is built in a Gothic Revival architectural style. It was completed and opened in a ceremony on 26 November 1862. Dry had asked to be buried at St Mary's. After his death in 1869 a memorial at the church was proposed. The memorial chosen was a chancel, which the original church lacked. Funds were raised by a Government backed appeal, including a donation from Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. The chancel was started in 1871, using bluestone from the same quarry as the church, and was finished in August of the same year. To this point the church was seen as incomplete and had not been consecrated. After completion of the chancel St Mary's was consecrated, by the Bishop of Tasmania Charles Henry Bromby on 24 August 1871. A tower, spire and vestry were added in 1932, after work began the prior year. The building work was funded by a bequest from Lady Dry and a Miss Jane Patterson, a St Mary's churchgoer. The tower is dedicated to Lady Dry and the spire and vestry to Miss Patterson. The spire was designed by H S East, who also restored St Andrew's church at Westbury. The additions were consecrated 6 December 1932.
St Mary's church houses recreations of two significant artworks, both donated in 1857 by Lady Clara Dry. The first is a recreation of Guido Reni's 1610 altarpiece from the Quirinal Palace, Rome. The second a 19th-century copy of Raphael's Transfiguration. Both were purchased in Italy during the Dry's honeymoon, and were restored in 2004. It also contains a copy of Bartolomé Esteban Murillo's Crucifixion in the East window—a gift from Lady Dry— and a copy of Raphael's Annunciation. The Nave houses an organ built in 1861 by J. W. Walker & Sons Ltd of London. The organ is essentially original, with only the addition of electric blowing, and includes one manual and seven speaking stops.
## Education
Early education in Hagley was by private tutors. In 1855 a school opened in the Church of England building, taking in both borders and day scholars. Schooling had to sometimes be interrupted as the building was used during school hours for marriages, and religious services.
William Bryan and his wife donated land and built a school at nearby Glenore in 1862. The Bryans left a bequest that fully funded the school until 1914, when the state's education department assumed responsibility for the building and the teacher's salary. By 1921 56 students were attending. The building had been condemned by 1926 and a new brick school building was built a short distance away. Following a direction by Mrs Bryan in her bequest, the school was used at times for religious services, by Methodists and Anglicans. Due to low attendance the school was closed in 1941 and the few remaining pupils continued schooling at Whitemore.
Hagley has a single school, Hagley Farm Primary School. It teaches reception to year 6 for, as of 2014, 420 students. The school has a 64-hectare (160-acre) commercial farm attached. The farm is varied with cattle, sheep and crops. The school is the oldest that is specifically dedicated to agricultural education in Australia.
The original school building was built in 1865, on 2 acres (0.81 ha) of land just east of the town donated by Sir Richard Dry. This first building is of Gothic Revival form. Its structure and interior are largely intact and original. A decision was made in the 1930s to make Hagley an area school. As of 1935, there were five single-teacher schools in the local area. All of these were closed and Hagley opened as the "Hagley Area School" on 30 January 1936. Its curriculum was much expanded from prior years' and included classes on nutrition, construction, agriculture, housewifery, cooking, carpentry and dressmaking; these classes were segregated into traditional gender roles. Students from the closed schools were brought to Hagley by bus. At this point most rural schools stopped education at grade 7 but from 1937 Hagley was extended to teach grade 8. In the late 1930s the school served Hagley, Carrick, Hadspen, Rosevale and these town's surrounding farms, using two buses to transport students. Hagley and Sheffield were the first two area schools in Tasmania.
A residential side to the school was planned in 1939. Buildings would be added and agricultural work expanded with a full sized farm. The start of World War II caused the building plans to be cancelled though they were soon reinstated, and in 1941 building work began. The reversal was spurred by the desire to accommodate victims of The Blitz, though this particular use never eventuated. The school became residential, for boys, and its farm was extended to 200 acres (81 ha). The first borders were the sons of servicemen. With the extension of the land—the government had purchased 190 acres (77 ha) around the school—the school widened its activities and became known as the Hagley Farm School. Students, as part of their education, built many of the farm's buildings during the war. J Maslin had been principle since 1931. In 1944 while explaining the schools philosophy he stated
> We give an acre for a cow or sheep willingly, while we shut our children and our chickens up in too limited spaces, and they suffer in consequence. Schools of the future must be provided with estates where the children will be surrounded with many natural and beautiful things.
Part of the practical work was growing food for the school. In 1944 the daily two-course dinner, for staff and over 90 students, was mostly the school's farm's produce. After the war, from c.1948–55, the school received child migrants from Belgium, Greece and the United Kingdom. The school was known as Hagley State School until 1936, Hagley Farm School until 1976 and Hagley Farm Primary School since.
## Transport
A rail line near Hagley was first surveyed in 1856, as part of a route from Launceston to Deloraine. A decade later a Railway Act was passed, strongly supported by then Premier of Tasmania Sir Richard Dry. A private company, the Launceston and Western Railway Company, was formed to build the route and the first sod turned in January 1868 by Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. The rail line passed 0.5 miles (0.8 km) south of the town and a station was built 2 miles (3 km) distant. The line opened, and the first train passed near Hagley, on 10 February 1871. The rail line carried passengers, and several daily mail deliveries. Launceston and Western Railway soon ran into financial problems, the line closed 29 June 1872 and the company itself went bankrupt on 25 July. The government took over the railway, as the Tasmanian Government Railways, on 31 October 1873. Local farmers petitioned for an additional line to properties in Hagley's west. Construction began on the new line in 1887 and a siding as built at the intersection of Hoggs Lane. This siding was used first for farm produce, later facilities for loading stock were added. A platform and waiting room were added in 1910, though it was some years before passenger trains stopped at Hoggs Lane. The passenger rail service had stopped before 1978, a time when all Tasmanian passenger rail services ceased.
The road through Hagley, now called the Meander Valley Highway, was originally the main road west from Launceston. Beginning in the 1990s work began on a replacement highway that would bypass all the towns between Prospect and Deloraine, including Hagley. As the road was part of the National Highway this work was funded by the federal government. The federal transport department announced, in 1999, that they were to spend \$36 million bypassing Hagley and Westbury with the new Bass Highway. A this time 7600 vehicles per day were driving through Hagley, the bypass was expected to more than halve this. The new highway passed by the historic Hagley Mill site and so, as part of the construction, the federal government funded pre- and post-construction preservation work on the Mill site. Local residents were concerned about the impact on Hagley of the reduction in through traffic and the Westbury-Hagley Development Committee was investigating. The town's centre was finally bypassed when the Bass Highway's Westbury-Hagley bypass was opened on 13 December 2001.
As of 2014 the only public transport in Hagley is school buses, operated by the private Westbus and Redline Coaches companies.
## Historic buildings
Hagley retains 19th century buildings, some are listed on the now closed Register of the National Estate, some also on the Tasmanian Heritage Register.
Hagley house is a brick and stucco, two-storey Georgian era house 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) from the town's centre. Construction was begun by William Lyttleton prior to 1848, at which time it was noted as incomplete, and completed, after Lyttleton's death, by Dr Richardson.
Hagley mill is a historic site, 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) south of Hagley's centre, on part of the former Hagley Estate. The mill and land are owned by the Department of Transport; they were acquired as part of the construction of Bass Highway. The site's significance is that it is possibly the only extant mill in Australia that was horse-driven, and almost certainly the only example in Tasmania. The mill and associated buildings date from 1830 to 1840. The mill appears to have been converted c.1870 to fit a mobile steam mill. Its wheel house has original ironstone foundations and brick walls forming an octagonal building, a design peculiarity to accommodate the horses and driving mechanism. The site has a barn, one-room cottage and dairy that all date from the mill's construction.
Quamby house was built for Sir Richard Dry in 1838, probably to a design by Richard Cromwell Carpenter. It was built mostly by convict labour, using locally made clay bricks, in an American Colonial style, a single storey with a stone-flagged long veranda. The original estate was broken up in the second half of the 19th century. Quamby was opened for tourism, by Tasmanian Premier David Bartlett on 4 October 2009. It is operated as the Quamby Golf and Country Club, and has a par 38 9-hole golf course that dates from the early 1990s. |
2,050,847 | Kovan MRT station | 1,169,511,201 | Mass Rapid Transit station in Singapore | [
"Buildings and structures in Hougang",
"Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations",
"Railway stations in North-East Region, Singapore",
"Railway stations in Singapore opened in 2003"
]
| Kovan MRT station is an underground Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station on the North East line (NEL) in Hougang, Singapore. Located underneath Upper Serangoon Road, the station serves the retail development of Heartland Mall and surrounding public and private residences.
First announced in March 1996, the station commenced operations on 20 June 2003. Its construction required multiple diversions of Upper Serangoon Road. Like all stations on the NEL, Kovan station is operated by SBS Transit. The station features an artwork The Trade-off by Eng Tow as part of the network's Art-in-Transit programme.
## History
The announcement of Kovan station, along with the other NEL stations, in March 1996 caught the residents around the site by "surprise", as it was assumed there would be only one station in Hougang near the Hougang Central Bus Interchange. Many of the residents were reported to be "happy" as the NEL is expected to address their "transport woes" in the Upper Serangoon area.
Contract C703 for the design and construction of the two-level Civil Defence underground stations (Kovan and Hougang) was awarded to Samsung Corporation Engineering & Construction Group at a contract sum of S\$214.8 million (US\$ million) in May 1997. The contract included the construction of 1.3-kilometre (0.81 mi) twin-bored tunnels and 700 metres (770 yd) of cut-and-cover tunnels.
As the location of the utility pipes at the site was not well documented, the contractor had to manually excavate the site using equipment to determine their location, mitigating any damage to the pipes. After the pipes were unearthed, mechanised excavation could begin. To facilitate the station's construction and further development of the site, some residences, businesses and a temple had been bought over.
During the MRT construction, a section of Upper Serangoon Road has to be realigned several times for the excavation works. Nevertheless, as the work was well-coordinated, little impact was made to the traffic as much as possible. Road capacity was "by and large" unaffected as most of the work was carried out underneath a metal decking. To avoid bringing further inconvenience, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) also ensured the carpark along Hougang Street 21 remained accessible for the residents to carry out their daily activities without needing to park further away.
The station opened on 20 June 2003 along with the other NEL stations. In light of the station's opening, the retail mall (renamed Heartland Mall Kovan) next to the station was renovated greatly and has leased to chains such as Cold Storage and Pizza Hut to operate at the mall.
## Station details
The station is located in the Kovan neighbourhood underneath Upper Serangoon Road. The serves the residential developments of Kovan Melody and Kovan Residences, the retail development of Heartland Mall, and is close to the Kovan Market and Food Centre and the Paya Lebar Community Club.
Kovan station serves the North East line (NEL) between the Serangoon and Hougang stations. The official station code is NE13. The station operates between 5.51 am and 12.21 am daily with headways of 2.5 to 5 minutes depending on peak hours. The station has three entrances and two underground levels. The three entrances of the station have a steel structure with a curved aluminium roof intended to create a "streamlined effect". In addition, to create a spacious interior, there are no pillars in the station.
The NEL station is designated as a Civil Defence (CD) shelter. It is designed to accommodate at least 7,500 people and can withstand airstrikes and chemical attacks. Equipment essential for the operations in the CD shelter is mounted on shock absorbers to prevent damage during a bombing. When electrical supply to the shelter is disrupted, there are backup generators to keep operations going. The shelter has dedicated built-in decontamination chambers and dry toilets with collection bins that will send human waste out of the shelter.
The platforms are wheelchair-accessible. A tactile system, consisting of tiles with rounded or elongated raised studs, guides visually impaired commuters through the station. Dedicated routes connect the station entrances to the platforms or between the lines.
### Public artwork
The artwork The Trade-off by Eng Tow is displayed at this station as part of the MRT network's Art-in-Transit (AiT) programme. The artwork includes two maps reflecting the "time and progress" of the Kovan area. One map, representing the past, depicts natural areas such as mangrove swamps, forests, plantations and water bodies around what are now two arterial roads, Serangoon Road and Tampines Road. The other map, representing the present, does not display vegetation, showing only the new roads, expressways and new developments. Ochre, black, dark green, red and grey colours were used to reflect earth tones. These colours were laid upon granite, a material which is indigenous to Singapore and which many Singaporeans are familiar with. The tiles were cut using computer-controlled water jets, a construction technology new to Singapore, and were connected as in a jigsaw puzzle before displayed on the platforms.
In creating the artwork, Eng contrasted the styles of the two maps to show how Singapore's way of life had improved through development, transportation and globalisation. The map depicting the past is designed in a "curvilinear and organic" style while the modern map contains a "geometrical" style. In her work, Eng also considered LTA's goal in the AiT programme – to allow commuters to interact with the artwork. The positioning of the work within a station had a somewhat ironic tone, since the station was the "embodiment" of a fast-paced lifestyle, with travellers using direct routes to their destinations without stopping.
Before commencing the concept, Eng researched the area's history through the archives. She made some discoveries that she found interesting, such as the fact that the area had been a watershed that began at Paya Lebar and ended at the Singapore River. Eng had initially wished to accompany the artwork with wall panels engraved with cartographic symbols, which in turn would be inspired by icons in older maps indicating agricultural uses, such as plantations and orchards, around the area. However, the idea was not considered feasible because of the station's mechanical and engineering criteria. Instead, the icons were inscribed in stainless steel and randomly distributed across the floor of the concourse level. Each of the three entrances has a unique symbol to "subtly" aid commuters in identifying the entrances.
The Trade-off has been "widely regarded" as one of the more "sophisticated, thoughtful artwork" on the NEL. A member of the Art Review Panel, Joseph McNally, remarked that the work had a degree of sophistication not seen in other public works. The work offers a view of the area and its heritage, while "standing on its artistic merit". Eng said she did not expect commuters to immediately understand the purpose of the work, saying that people might only discover the maps after "years of travelling" through the station. She hoped that, when commuters did notice the work, it would "light up" their commute and urge them to think about the artwork's message. |
909,423 | 1998 Tour de France | 1,168,219,825 | 85th edition of cycling Grand Tour | [
"1998 Tour de France",
"1998 in French sport",
"1998 in Irish sport",
"1998 in Swiss sport",
"1998 in road cycling",
"August 1998 sports events in Europe",
"Cycle racing in Ireland",
"July 1998 sports events in Europe",
"Tour de France by year"
]
| The 1998 Tour de France was the 85th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The 3,875 km (2,408 mi) race was composed of 21 stages and a prologue. It started on 11 July in Ireland before taking an anti-clockwise route through France to finish in Paris on 2 August. Marco Pantani of won the overall general classification, with 's Jan Ullrich, the defending champion, and rider Bobby Julich finishing on the podium in second and third respectively.
The general classification leader's yellow jersey was first awarded to Chris Boardman of the team, who won the prologue in Dublin. Following a crash by Boardman on stage 2 that caused his withdrawal, Ullrich's sprinter teammate Erik Zabel took the race lead. He lost it the next stage to 's Bo Hamburger, who took it after being in a breakaway. The day after, the yellow jersey switched to another rider from the same breakaway, Boardman's teammate Stuart O'Grady, who took vital seconds from time bonuses gained in intermediate sprints. He held it for a further three stages, until pre-race favourite Ullrich won stage 7's individual time trial, moving him into the overall lead. The next day, Laurent Desbiens of finished in a breakaway with a large enough margin to put him in the yellow jersey. Ullrich regained the race lead two stages later as the Tour went into the Pyrenees. Following his poor showing in the opening week, Pantani placed second and first, respectively, on the two Pyreneean stages. He then won stage 15, the first in the Alps, to replace Ullrich in the yellow jersey, and kept it until the race's conclusion.
Zabel won his third consecutive Tour points classification and Julich's teammate Christophe Rinero, fourth overall, was the winner of the mountains classification. Ullrich was the best young rider and the most combative was 's Jacky Durand. The team classification was won by . Tom Steels of won the most stages, with four.
The race was marred throughout by a doping scandal, known as the Festina affair. Before the Tour began, Willy Voet, an assistant of the Festina team, was arrested at the Franco-Belgian border when doping products were found in his car. The affair broadened and the team was expelled after top personnel admitted to widespread doping. Police raids on numerous teams during the course of the race led to two riders' strikes and the withdrawal of several teams and riders. Due to the controversy, the race became known by the nickname "Tour de Farce". In July 2013, retrospective tests for recombinant EPO made in 2004 were made public, revealing that 44 out of 60 samples returned positive tests.
## Teams
The organisers of the Tour, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), cut the number of teams from 22 to 21 for the 1998 Tour, to reduce the number of crashes in the opening week of the race seen in recent editions, caused by the large number of riders. The first round of squads that were invited were the first sixteen teams in the ranking system of the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), cycling's governing body, on 1 January 1998, provided that they were still in the top twenty after transfers were factored into the calculation. All these sixteen teams fulfilled this requirement. On 19 June, the ASO gave wildcard invitations to , , and , with receiving a special invitation. The presentation of the teams – where the members of each team's roster are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries – took place outside the Front Gate of Trinity College Dublin in Ireland on the evening before the prologue stage, which began at the college.
Each squad was allowed a maximum of nine riders, resulting in a start list total of 189 riders. Of these, 51 were riding the Tour de France for the first time. The riders came from 22 countries, with the majority of them coming from France, Italy and Spain. Jörg Jaksche () was the youngest rider at 21 years and 353 days on the day of the prologue, and the oldest was Massimo Podenzana () at 36 years and 347 days. The cyclists had the youngest average age while the riders on had the oldest.
The teams entering the race were:
Qualified teams
Invited teams
## Pre-race favourites
Jan Ullrich () was the defending champion. He had won the 1997 edition's overall general classification by over nine minutes. His Telekom team was considered as "clearly the squad to beat", having won the previous two editions with Bjarne Riis and Ullrich respectively. The 1997 Tour had seen a contest for leadership between Telekom's two captains, but for 1998 this had been resolved in Ullrich's favour. During the winter break, Ullrich's training was impaired by the consequences of the fame and fortune that came with his Tour win, and his weight had increased from 73 kg (161 lb) to 87 kg (192 lb). In March 1998, El País headlined an article with "Ullrich is fat", which highlighted that he was still 8 kg (18 lb) over the weight he had during the previous Tour. His preparation suffered further when he was forced to retire from Tirreno–Adriatico with a cold. However, Ullrich performed well in both the Tour de Suisse and the Route du Sud directly before the start of the Tour, erasing doubts over his form. He was therefore thought to be the clear favourite going into the 1998 Tour, with El País going so far as to write that "we can no longer speak of an open Tour, of a deck of suitors. There is talk of Ullrich, and then of the others." The route of the race was considered to be an advantage to Ullrich as well, with many time-trial kilometres and comparatively few mountain passes. The veteran Riis, who had raced the 1997 Tour with a cold, was seen as a capable backup option for the team.
The strongest challenge was expected to come from , which led the UCI team ranking prior to the start of the Tour. Their leading rider, Richard Virenque, had finished second to Ullrich the year before. The two long individual time trials were expected not to be in Virenque's favour, since he did not excel in the discipline. He was however a very good climber, having won the mountains classification in the four previous Tours. The team was further strengthened by the arrival of Alex Zülle in the 1998 season, winner of the two previous editions of the three-week Grand Tour of Spain, the Vuelta a España, who was considered to be a competitor for overall victory in his own right. He was a leading pre-race favourite at Italy's Grand Tour, the Giro d'Italia, one month earlier, winning two of the three time trial stages and leading the race before he faltered badly in the final mountain stages to end the race in 14th overall. Another possible contender from Festina was Laurent Dufaux, who had finished fourth overall in 1996 and ninth in 1997.
Marco Pantani () was considered the "dominant climber in the sport" at the time. In June, he had taken an "exceptionally impressive" overall victory at the Giro. Of his three appearances in the Tour up to that point, he had finished third in two of them, including in 1997. When the Tour's route was announced in October 1997, Pantani expressed dissatisfaction with the number of time trials and the fact that the race featured only two mountain-top finishes. Since the route was not to his liking, he originally had shown no interest in riding the race. Following his victory at the Giro, Pantani raced only once, a criterium race in Bologna. His decision to ride the Tour was not made until Luciano Pezzi, his closest confidant and an important figure at Mercatone Uno, died suddenly in late June. Pantani decided to go to the Tour in honour of Pezzi, but had done very little training beforehand. A further disadvantage to Pantani was his lack of a strong domestique, unlike Ullrich and Virenque.
A returning pre-race favourite from the 1997 Tour was time trialist Abraham Olano; in that race, he won the final time trial stage and placed fourth overall. He led the experienced team, who took Miguel Induráin to his five straight Tour wins between 1991 and 1995, and had been seen as his successor. His weakness was thought to be his lack of strength on steep climbs. In his final race leading up to the Tour, the Volta a Catalunya, he performed poorly in the high mountains, and as a result was only seen as a podium contender. Banesto also fielded José María Jiménez, who as a strong mountain rider was considered a "major threat".
The final rider noted as a leading contender, named "the outsider", was the team leader Laurent Jalabert, a complete all-rounder who excelled in all road cycling disciplines. Although he was the reigning time trial world champion and the clear first in the UCI individual ranking before the Tour, he had only aimed to match his overall placing of fourth in 1995. The riders also named as outside favourites for overall victory were Michael Boogerd (), riders Francesco Casagrande and Bobby Julich, Evgeni Berzin (), Fernando Escartín (), and Chris Boardman ().
## Route and stages
The route of the 1998 Tour de France was officially announced during a presentation at the Palais des congrès in Paris on 23 October 1997. First negotiations about a potential start of the race in Ireland took place in October 1996, with the Irish government securing funding of IR£2 million to host the event. The opening stages (known as the Grand Départ) in Ireland were confirmed in early April 1997. Irish officials expected the race to bring in IR£30 million to the local economy. It was the first and so far only time that the Tour has visited Ireland. The race paid tribute to two famous former Irish professional cyclists: on the day before the prologue, a commemoration service was held in Kilmacanogue for Shay Elliott, the first Irish rider to ride the Tour and win a stage, and during stage 2 of the race, the route went through Carrick-on-Suir, the hometown of Sean Kelly, four-time winner of the Tour's points classification. Stage 2 also commemorated the 200th anniversary of French troops landing at Killala Bay during the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
The 1998 Tour was pushed back one week from its original start date, so as not to overlap too much with the 1998 FIFA World Cup, also held in France, which ended on 12 July, one day after the prologue. The 3,875 km (2,408 mi)-race lasted 23 days, including the rest day, and ended on 2 August. The longest mass-start stage was the fourth at 252 km (157 mi), and stage 20 was the shortest at 125 km (78 mi). The race contained three individual time trials, one of which was the prologue, totalling 115.6 km (71.8 mi). Of the remaining stages, twelve were officially classified as flat, two as mountain and five as high mountain. There were only two summit finishes, which were both at ski resorts, one at Plateau de Beille on stage 11 and another on stage 15 at Les Deux Alpes. The highest point of elevation in the race was 2,642 m (8,668 ft) at the summit of the Col du Galibier mountain pass on stage 15. It was among five hors catégorie (beyond category) rated climbs in the race. Cycling journalist Samuel Abt considered the route easier than the 1997 edition. Tour director Jean-Marie Leblanc countered criticism by Virenque and Pantani that the race was not mountainous enough, saying: "The course is tough enough with 23 mountains. That is eight more than last year."
The Tour started with a prologue time trial around the streets of Dublin. Stage 1 was a loop that returned to the city, with the following stage travelling down the Irish eastern coast to Cork. The riders then travelled to France by plane, with the team vehicles and equipment following by sea. Just as the year before, the Tour took a counter-clockwise route through France. The course in France started in Roscoff in the north-western region of Brittany, with three stages taking the race to the centre of the country at Châteauroux. Stage 6 moved the Tour into the Massif Central highlands, which hosted the next stage. Two transitional stages to Pau then placed the race in the foothills of the Pyrenees, where two stages took place. Following the rest day, a three-stage journey crossed the south to three further stages in the Alps. The next stage took the Tour through the Jura Mountains to Switzerland, with the following stage crossing back over the border to Burgundy, where the penultimate stage took place. After a long transfer to the outskirts of Paris, the race ended with the Champs-Élysées stage.
## Race overview
### Pre-Tour revelations
On 4 March 1998, a truck belonging to the Dutch team was seized by customs officers in Reims, France, revealing 104 vials of recombinant erythropoietin (EPO), a drug with performance-enhancing effects. The two mechanics in the truck were released and the vials were taken by the police, who said they had more "important matters" to be concerned with. During the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré, a race held two weeks before the start of the Tour, Christophe Moreau of Festina tested positive for the anabolic steroid mesterolone. The UCI accepted Festina's explanation that the positive test was a result of the influence of a team masseur, and Moreau was allowed to start the Tour de France.
Three days before the start of the Tour, on 8 July, Willy Voet, a soigneur (team assistant) with the Festina squad, was stopped by customs officers driving along a back road on the Franco–Belgian border. A routine check revealed that he carried a large quantity of performance-enhancing drugs with him. He was thereafter placed under arrest, initially claiming they were "for personal use". The following day, police carried out a search of Festina's headquarters in Meyzieu, close to Lyon. On the day before the prologue, a judicial inquiry was opened by the public prosecutor's office and Voet was held for investigation, with the story also breaking to the media. The Tour's organisation as well as Festina were quick to dismiss the news as having nothing to do with the race.
### Early stages in Ireland
Chris Boardman covered the 5.6 km (3.5 mi) route of the prologue time trial fastest with a time of 6:12.36 minutes, gaining his third Tour prologue victory. Olano finished second, four seconds slower. Third to sixth place went to Jalabert, Julich, Moreau, and Ullrich, all five seconds behind Boardman. Marco Pantani meanwhile had not bothered to preview the course and finished 181st out of the 189 starters, 48 seconds slower than the winning time. Boardman was awarded the yellow and green jerseys as the leader of both the general and points classification respectively.
Tom Steels outsprinted Erik Zabel in stage 1's bunch sprint finish. Steels came to the Tour with the full support of his squad for the sprints, unlike Zabel's who were focused on Ullrich's pursuit for overall victory. Mario Cipollini (), a favourite for the stage win, was held up 8 km (5.0 mi) from the end when he was involved in a crash with his teammate, Frédéric Moncassin. Steels took the lead of the points classification from Boardman, who retained the overall lead. Steels's teammate Stefano Zanini was the first of a seven-rider breakaway group to reach the summit of the Wicklow Gap mountain pass, claiming the Tour's first available mountains classification points and the first polka-dot jersey.
Unlike other general classification favourites, who always rode at the front of the peloton (main group), Pantani spent the first days of the Tour at the back, surrounded by his teammates. This almost cost him, when during stage 2, which was raced largely on the wide N25 road, crosswinds split the field into several echelons. Pantani was caught out and only came back when yellow jersey-wearer Boardman crashed heavily. In the aftermath, the peloton slowed down, allowing Pantani to catch back up. Boardman meanwhile hit his head badly on a stone wall beside the road. He was taken to hospital and had to abandon the Tour. rider Ján Svorada was involved in a crash with 15 km (9.3 mi) to go, but was able to recover and win the bunch sprint finish. Zabel, who before the stage stood in eighth position overall, had collected enough time bonuses in the intermediate sprints to take the yellow jersey.
### Move to France and evolving doping scandal
's Jens Heppner won stage 3 from a two-rider sprint with Xavier Jan of , after the pair had escaped late from a nine-rider breakaway. Bo Hamburger of , who won two of the three intermediate sprints whilst in the escape group, took the overall lead. Svorada took the lead of the points classification, while Festina's Pascal Hervé led the mountains classification. The second and third-placed riders in the now much-changed general classification also came from the breakaway, with George Hincapie () two seconds down on Hamburger, and Stuart O'Grady () a further second behind. Hincapie and O'Grady went head to head for the time bonuses in stage 4's three intermediate sprints in pursuit of the race lead. O'Grady won two of them to end the day with an eleven-second overall advantage over both Hincapie and Hamburger. The stage was won by Jeroen Blijlevens (TVM) from an uphill bunch sprint at Cholet in the Loire Valley. Cipollini suffered his third crash of the Tour at the end of stage 4, accumulating eight separate injuries, but was able to avoid the multiple crashes in the next stage to win the bunch sprint finish. Svorada was disqualified for causing a crash at the end of the stage, losing the points he had earned from his tenth-place finish. Svorada's green jersey went to Zabel, who finished second in the stage. Cipollini won the following stage, from a bunch sprint into Brive-la-Gaillarde.
As the ferry reached French soil overnight into 14 July, the day of stage 3, all team vehicles were meticulously searched at customs. During the day, Voet admitted to police that he had been following team orders, with Festina's team doctor Eric Rijkaert publicly denying he administered any banned substances. The next day, the team manager Bruno Roussel and Rijkaert were taken into police custody. Before the start of stage 5, Jean-Marie Leblanc announced at a press conference that the professional licences held by Roussel and Rijkaert had been provisionally suspended by the UCI. At the same time, Festina riders Richard Virenque, Laurent Brochard and Laurent Dufaux stated their intention to carry on racing. During stage 6, Roussel and Rijkaert confessed to systematic doping in the Festina squad. This led to the Tour organisation to expel the team ahead of the following stage.
Before the start of stage 7 Virenque, on behalf of Festina, held a private meeting with Leblanc to plead for the team to be allowed to continue, but to no avail.
Stage 7, the hilly and technical first long individual time trial, was won by Ullrich, 1:10 minutes ahead of 's Tyler Hamilton, with Julich in third a further eight seconds behind. O'Grady was fifteenth with a deficit of 3:17 minutes, and lost the yellow jersey to Ullrich, who was now 1:18 minutes in front of Hamburger and Julich on the same time in second and third respectively. Pantani finished thirty-third, 4:21 minutes slower than Ullrich, he said later that he had held himself back in anticipation of the upcoming Pyrenees. Zanini regained the polka dot jersey. Stage 8 was held in very high temperatures. A group of six riders reached the finish 7:45 minutes ahead of the peloton. The sprint was won by Jacky Durand of , who had been in an escape group on every road stage so far. Four riders from the group gained enough time to move to the top of the general classification, with 's Laurent Desbiens taking the yellow jersey. Temperatures increased to a high of 44 °C (111 °F) during the following stage, which was won by rider Léon van Bon in a final sprint, contested between a four-man breakaway. The closing field followed 12 seconds later. Second-place finisher Jens Voigt () collected enough mountains classification points from within the breakaway to take the polka-dot jersey. Two-time stage winner Cipollini dropped out during this stage.
### Pyrenees
Stage 10 saw the race move into the high mountains, starting with the Pyrenees. On the way to Luchon, four mountain passes had to be crossed: the Col d'Aubisque, the Col du Tourmalet, the Col d'Aspin and finally the Col de Peyresourde, followed by 15.5 km (9.6 mi) of downhill to the finish line. A total of 30 riders fell on the wet and foggy descent of the Aubisque, including overall contenders Olano, Jalabert and Francesco Casagrande, with the latter being one of six that retired from the race. A three-rider breakaway of Cédric Vasseur () and teammates Rodolfo Massi and Alberto Elli formed by the foot of the Tourmalet. The pace set by halfway up this climb split the peloton, with yellow jersey wearer Desbiens dropped. Massi moved clear from his fellow riders in the breakaway group on the steep section midway on the 13 km (8.1 mi)-long last climb, and also at the same point after, a move by Ullrich formed a small group of elite riders which included pre-race favourites Pantani, Julich, Riis, Boogerd, Escartín and Jiménez. Close to the top, Pantani launched a successful attack and summitted with an advantage of 42 seconds, but was unable to catch the soloing Massi on the descent, who took the stage victory as well as the lead of the mountains classification. Pantani finished second, 33 seconds behind. Ullrich followed with the other favourites, a further 23 seconds back, to regain the yellow jersey, while Julich moved up to second overall.
The following stage 11 featured the first mountain-top finish of the 1998 Tour. The peloton agreed not to begin racing until after the first 45 km (28 mi), when they stopped to pay their respects at the memorial to Fabio Casartelli on the Col de Portet d'Aspet, who crashed and died there during the 1995 Tour. As the field reached the bottom of the 16 km (9.9 mi) climb to the finish at Plateau de Beille, Ullrich had a tyre puncture. Pantani was unaware of this and was about to attack, before being stopped by his teammate Roberto Conti, as it breaches the unwritten rules of the peloton to attack a rider when they have mechanical issues. Having waited for Ullrich to regain contact, Pantani waited until 4 km (2.5 mi) from the finish to attack, and after passing the sole breakaway rider, Roland Meier (), he took the stage win. Following Meier and a group of five led by Julich, Ullrich crossed the finish line in eighth place, 1:40 minutes down on Pantani. After the two stages in the Pyrenees, Ullrich led the general classification, 1:11 minutes ahead of Julich, with both Jalabert and Pantani 3:01 minutes down in third and fourth. Olano, a notable pre-race favourite, withdrew from the Tour halfway through the stage.
### Transition stages and rider unrest
After the rest day, stage 12 followed a flat course between Tarascon-sur-Ariège and Cap d'Agde. The riders were unhappy with the looming expulsion of the TVM team, against which the police had renewed their investigation which was started in March. Likewise, journalists going through waste containers at team hotels, searching for evidence of performance-enhancing drugs, drew anger from the peloton. Some riders also spoke out against the announcement by the UCI to move forward the introduction of new health tests. As the riders lined up with their bikes at the start of the stage, Jalabert broadcast a statement on their behalf on the race's official station, Radio Tour, saying "We are fed up with being treated like cattle. So we are going to behave like cattle."
Following this, the majority of the riders sat down on the road and refused to continue, while others willing to start stood around, unsure what to do. The instigators of the strike were Jalabert, Blijlevens, Max Sciandri (), and Prudencio Induráin () as well as ONCE's team manager Manolo Saiz. Leblanc negotiated with the team managers and they voted 14–6 in agreement to begin the stage. The peloton and vehicles slowly set off, but a Jalabert-led group of about 40 refused. They eventually relented and caught up to the rest 16 km (9.9 mi) ahead, and the race started, exactly two hours after the scheduled time. It was at this point that the stage was officially started. After about 40 km (25 mi), Jalabert then went on the attack over a short climb with his brother Nicolas () and Bart Voskamp (TVM), with the group building up a lead of about five minutes. Team Telekom gave chase at a high pace, temporarily putting Pantani into difficulty as crosswinds created echelons in the peloton. The trio of escapees were eventually brought back. Steels took his second stage win of the Tour in a bunch sprint finish, but withheld any celebrations following the events of the stage. The stage, shortened by 16 km (9.9 mi) to account for the delay caused by the strike, was run at an average speed of 48.764 km/h (30.301 mph), the third-fastest stage in Tour history.
Stage 13 saw a breakaway by six riders, among them Daniele Nardello and Andrea Tafi, both of Team . They worked together at the finish to ensure Nardello took Mapei's fourth stage win. At the only classified climb of the day, Luc Leblanc () put in an attack, but was brought back by Riis. The following day's stage brought the Tour to Grenoble at the foot of the Alps. The stage was won by O'Grady, again from a breakaway. In the press conference after, Ullrich was asked whether his team would be capable of supporting him in the Alps and, after initially appearing upbeat, he ended his response with: "Even if I don't have the yellow jersey in Paris, I want to give my compliments to the team". Pantani, who still stood at fourth overall, was quoted saying: "My main goal now is to win in Les Deux-Alpes."
### Alps and second strike
Stage 15 was the first of three Alpine stages. After a warm start in Grenoble, the weather soon deteriorated, with cold temperatures, rain and fog impeding the riders. The route contained four classified climbs, including the hors categorie Col de la Croix de Fer and Col du Galibier, and ending with a summit finish at Les Deux Alpes. On the Croix de Fer, Massi bridged over to a breakaway group and scored maximum points for the mountains classification, a feat he repeated on the second climb of the day, the Col du Télégraphe. By this point, the lead group contained only Massi, Christophe Rinero () and Marcos-Antonio Serrano (). Behind them in the group of the main favourites, the high climbing tempo put Jalabert into difficulty, which ultimately saw him drop far down the general classification by the end of the stage. After the short descent of the Télégraphe, the race reached the Galibier, where Riis cracked following his work reeling back attackers, leaving Ullrich without a teammate. With 6 km (3.7 mi) remaining to the summit of the Galibier, Pantani made the decisive move of the race, attacking from the group of favourites. By the summit of the climb, Pantani had passed all the breakaway riders and was out in front alone, leading by ten seconds. Ullrich reached the top 2:41 minutes behind Pantani. Crucially, unlike Pantani, he did not wear a raincoat during the descent. He subsequently suffered from the cold temperatures and hypoglycemia for the rest of the stage. The breakaway caught up to Pantani on the descent of the Galibier, forming a group of strong climbers. Before the final climb to Les Deux Alpes, Ullrich had a tyre puncture and was distanced by the group of chasers. On the climb, Pantani soon moved clear of his group and took the stage victory, almost two minutes ahead of Massi in second place. Ullrich finished with teammates Udo Bölts and Riis 8:57 minutes after Pantani, who took over the yellow jersey. He led Julich by 3:53 minutes, with Escartín in third place in the general classification, ahead of Ullrich.
Before the following stage to Albertville, speculation spread that Ullrich would abandon the race. Pantani's Mercatone Uno team coped well in defending his race lead over the four lesser categorised climbs, until the race reached the hors categorie final climb, the Col de la Madeleine, when Ullrich attacked, with only Pantani able to follow. Ullrich led the duo up the rest of the climb as they passed the breakaway riders and increased their advantage over the chasing Julich, who was accompanied by two teammates. The pair held their lead of around two minutes along the final 17 km (11 mi) of flat, where at the finish, Ullrich outsprinted Pantani to the stage win. Pantani now led Julich by 5:42 minutes, with Ullrich third, 14 seconds behind Julich.
Another police raid on the TVM team and news about alleged mistreatment of the Festina riders while in custody led to another riders' strike on stage 17. After a brief stop of two minutes at the start, the riders rode slowly to the first intermediate sprint of the day, where they climbed off their bikes and sat on the road. Jalabert climbed into his team car and retired from the race. Meanwhile, Jean-Marie Leblanc negotiated with the riders and collected guarantees from a civil servant from the French Ministry of the Interior, who was visiting the Tour as a guest, that police treatment of the riders would improve. Nevertheless, the entire ONCE team followed their leader Jalabert and abandoned the race. As the riders slowly got moving again, they ripped off their race numbers as a further sign of protest. Luc Leblanc retired later in the stage. At the feed zone, the Banesto squad joined their fellow Spanish-based ONCE team in quitting, as did the Italian-based Riso Scotti team. The field reached the finishing town, Aix-les-Bains, two hours behind schedule. The TVM team was allowed to cross the line first as a sign of solidarity; the stage was annulled and no results counted. Overnight, two more Spanish-based teams, Kelme and Vitalicio Seguros, also decided not to carry on in the Tour. This caused the retirement of the fourth rider overall, Escartín of Kelme.
### Conclusion
Before stage 18 into Neuchâtel in Switzerland, police held Massi, who was still the leader in the mountains classification, for questioning after corticoids were allegedly found in his room during a search of the Casino team hotel. He was therefore unable to start the stage, and the lead of the mountains classification was passed to the second placed rider, Rinero. Victory went to Steels, who outsprinted Zabel and O'Grady at the finish. The remaining five riders from TVM exited the race on Swiss soil before the start of the following day. Stage 19 went back into France and saw a breakaway of 13 riders. Four riders broke away from the lead group to contest the stage win between them, with Magnus Bäckstedt () coming out on top.
The penultimate stage saw the last individual time trial of the race to Le Creusot. Ullrich won the stage, 1:01 minutes ahead of Julich, to move into second place overall. Pantani finished the stage third, 2:35 minutes behind Ullrich, effectively sealing his victory in the general classification. The final stage on the Champs-Élysées in Paris was won by Steels from a bunch sprint, while Pantani finished safely in the peloton to secure the Tour win. Ullrich ended the Tour in second place, with a deficit of 3:21 minutes, with Julich a further 47 seconds behind in third. Pantani was greeted on the podium by Felice Gimondi, who had been invited by Jean-Marie Leblanc to present to the crowd the first Italian winner since his own victory in 1965. Zabel won his third consecutive points classification with a total of 327, 97 ahead of O'Grady in second. Although Pantani won two high mountain stages, the mountains classification was won by the more consistent Rinero, whose total of 200 points was 25 more than that of second-placed Pantani. Due to the high number of abandons because of the Festina affair, only 96 riders reached the finish in Paris. Only Team Telekom and U.S. Postal Service ended the Tour with all nine riders still racing.
### Doping
The prevalence of EPO in the cycling peloton had been a topic of debate since the early 1990s. The first news stories about the drug appeared in 1994. The UCI gave the task of developing a test for EPO to Francesco Conconi, a professor at the University of Ferrara, Italy, and a member of the UCI Medical Commission. In June 1996, Conconi, seemingly unable to find a definite test for the substance, proposed to the UCI to introduce a test for an athlete's hematocrit level instead, which tested how many red cells were in a rider's blood. During the UCI's meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, on 24 January 1997, the procedure, labelled as a "health test", limiting the allowed hematocrit level to 50 per cent, was introduced. If a rider returned a value higher than 50 per cent, they were not allowed to compete for a two-week period. However, as cycling journalist Alasdair Fotheringham noted, "the 50 per cent threshold became a target to aim for" instead of a reliable deterrent to using EPO.
The doping scandal that occurred throughout the Tour became known as the Festina affair, starting with the arrest of Voet. Initially, the suspicion only surrounded the Festina and TVM teams, but later investigations and retrospective tests revealed the doping abuse was far more widespread. Even while the race was running, media sources coined nicknames for it, such as the "Tour de Farce" or "Tour du Dopage" (Tour of Doping). Following Festina's expulsion from the race, the police investigation against the TVM team in March was made public by Le Parisien and the case reopened.
Many riders in the Tour reacted to the developing scandal by hiding or destroying evidence of doping. Rolf Aldag () said he flushed his doping products down the toilet before the race began in Dublin. His teammate Bjarne Riis said in his autobiography that he disposed of his vials of EPO in the toilet after stage 3. Likewise, the U.S. Postal team flushed their drugs down the toilet following Voet's arrest, according to Tyler Hamilton. According to Jörg Jaksche, the Polti squad hid their supply of EPO in a vacuum cleaner on the team bus; Jaksche believed that most Italian teams kept their drugs during the race as well. Philippe Gaumont claimed in his autobiography that the Cofidis team were told by team management to destroy their substances on the day the Festina team was expelled, with the riders subsequently going into a forest to dispose of the evidence. Julich said he quit doping altogether during the 1998 Tour.
After their arrests, Voet, Roussel, and Rijckaert gave the police confessions detailed the doping practices at Festina. Roussel said that one per cent of the team's budget (around €40,000) was used to pay for EPO and human growth hormones. The Festina riders were placed under custody and brought into individual prison cells, and allegedly subjected to cavity searches. On 24 July, four Festina riders confessed to taking performance-enhancing drugs, with the first being Alex Zülle. The only riders to deny the allegations were Virenque and Neil Stephens. Examinations carried out on the nine Festina riders on 23 July, with the results being published on 28 November, revealed that eight riders took EPO and four amphetamines. Virenque was the only rider not to test positive in these tests.
On 23 July, the Tour's rest day, TVM's manager Cees Priem and team doctor Andrei Mikhailov were arrested by the police. At the beginning of August, team soigneur Johannes Moors was taken into custody as well. Priem and Moors were released on 10 August. The TVM riders were also questioned by the police on 4 August and held for about 12 hours, before they were released. However, no banned substances were found during the raid at TVM's team hotel during the Tour. At ONCE and BigMat, police did find performance-enhancing drugs during their raids. ONCE maintained that the substances were for medical use of the team staff. Police called in twelve riders from BigMat for questioning along with the directeur sportif and some soigneurs a week after the end of the Tour because of "330 bottles and ampoules of drugs" found in the team's truck.
The legal investigation into doping at the 1998 Tour was given to judge Patrick Keil shortly after the race concluded. He handed in his 5539-page report on the matter at the beginning of July 1999, which laid the groundwork for subsequent legal proceedings against team staff and riders. Virenque confessed during a court hearing concerning the Festina affair, on 24 October 2000. Virenque received a nine-month racing ban and a suspended prison sentence. Voet was sentenced to a suspended ten months in prison and a fine of 3,000 franc. Roussell received a one-year suspended sentence and a 50,000 franc fine. Lesser verdicts were handed out to "two masseurs, the team's logistics manager, the team doctor at the Spanish ONCE team, Nicolas Terrados, and two pharmacists".
During the Tour, 108 tests for performance-enhancing drugs were carried out by France's main anti-doping laboratory in Châtenay-Malabry. All of them were negative. In 2004, 60 remaining anti-doping samples given by riders during the 1998 Tour were tested retrospectively for recombinant EPO by using three recently developed detection methods. The tests produced 44 positive results and 9 negatives, with the remaining 7 samples not returning any result due to sample degradation. At first, the rider names with a positive sample were not made public, as it had only been conducted as scientific research.
In July 2013, the anti-doping committee of the French Senate decided it would benefit the current doping fight to shed full light on the past, and so decided – as part of their "Commission of Inquiry into the effectiveness of the fight against doping" report – to publish all sample IDs along with the result of the retrospective test. This revealed, that the 9 negative samples belonged to 5 riders (of whom two nevertheless had confessed using EPO in that Tour), while the 44 positive samples belonged to 33 riders – including race winner Pantani, Ullrich, Julich, and Zabel. Julich had already admitted in 2012 that he had used EPO from August 1996 to July 1998.
## Classification leadership and minor prizes
There were several classifications in the 1998 Tour de France. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the race leader, identified by the yellow jersey; the winner of this classification is considered the winner of the Tour. Jan Ullrich wore the yellow jersey in the prologue as the winner of the previous edition. Time bonuses were given during the first half of the Tour to the first three finishers on each stage, excluding mountain stages and time trials. The winner received a 20-second bonus, the second finisher 12 seconds and the third rider 8 seconds. During the first half of the race, intermediate sprints also had time bonuses, with bonuses of 6, 4, and 2 seconds given to the first three riders to cross the line.
Additionally, there was a points classification, in which cyclists got points for finishing among the best in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints. In flat stages, the first 25 finishers received points, 35 for the stage winner down to 1 point for 25th place. In medium mountain stages, the top-20 finishers received points, with 25 points for the stage winner down to 1 point. In mountain stages, the first 15 finishers received points, with 20 points given to the stage winner. In time trials, 15 points were given to the winner, down to 1 point for the tenth-placed finisher. Points could also be won during intermediate sprints along the race route, with 6, 4, and 2 points for the first three riders across the line respectively. The cyclist with the most points led the classification, and was identified by a green jersey.
There was also a mountains classification. Most stages of the race included one or more categorised climbs, in which points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit first. The climbs were categorised as fourth-, third-, second- or first-category and hors catégorie, with the more difficult climbs rated lower. The first rider to cross the summit of an hors catégorie climb was given 40 points (down to 1 point for the 15th rider). Twelve riders received points for first category climbs, with 30 for the first rider to reach the summit. Second-, third- and fourth-category climbs gave 20, 10 and 5 points to the first rider respectively. The cyclist with the most points led the classification, wearing a white jersey with red polka dots.
The young rider classification, which was not marked by a jersey, was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders under 26 years were eligible. This meant that in order to compete in the classification, a rider had to be born after 1 January 1973. 34 out of the 189 starters were eligible. Jan Ullrich won the classification for the third time in a row.
For the team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time.
In addition, there was a combativity award given after each mass-start stage to the cyclist considered the most combative. The winner of the award wore a red number bib during the next stage, this feature was introduced for the first time in 1998. The decision was made by a jury composed of journalists who gave points. The cyclist with the most points from votes in all stages led the combativity classification. Jacky Durand won this classification, and was given overall the super-combativity award. The Souvenir Henri Desgrange was given in honour of Tour founder Henri Desgrange to the first rider to pass the summit of the Col du Galibier on stage 15. The winner of the prize was Marco Pantani.
- In stage one, Abraham Olano, who was second in the points classification, wore the green jersey, because first placed Chris Boardman wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification.
## Final standings
### General classification
### Points classification
### Mountains classification
### Young rider classification
### Team classification
### Combativity classification
## UCI Road Rankings
Riders in the Tour competed individually, as well as for their teams and nations, for points that contributed towards the UCI Road Rankings, which included all UCI races. Points were awarded to all riders in the general classification, to the top ten finishers in each stage, and each yellow jersey given at the end of a stage. The points accrued by Marco Pantani moved him from fifth position to fourth in the individual ranking, with Laurent Jalabert, who did not finish the Tour, holding his lead. retained their lead of the team ranking, ahead of second-placed . Italy remained as leaders of the nations ranking, with Switzerland second.
## Aftermath
In the direct aftermath of the Tour, there were many raids and searches of cycling teams and many riders questioned by police. Two meetings to discuss the issue of doping were held shortly after the Tour: the first, between the UCI, race organisers and teams, took place four days after the Tour ended in Paris; the second, on 11 August, was between the UCI and representatives of the riders. Neither meeting yielded results that had "any long-term effect". The riders voiced concern over the length of races and demanded changes to be made, while the question of a general amnesty for riders who took banned substances was also briefly discussed. In a press communiqué released on 13 August, the UCI claimed that "it is difficult to do more than is already being done" in response to doping and that the blood tests enforced in 1997 enabled the UCI "to control the EPO problem", a claim that Alasdair Fotheringham later described as bordering "on the delusional".
Festina returned to racing shortly after the Tour de France, with the crowd showing positive responses to the team at the Vuelta a Burgos. The squad then competed in the last Grand Tour of the year, the Vuelta a España, where Alex Zülle failed to defend his title, but won a stage and finished eighth overall.
Following the fallout from the 1998 edition, the 1999 Tour de France was dubbed by the organisers as the "Tour of Renewal", with the ASO publicly stating that they would welcome a lower average speed by around 3 km/h (1.9 mph). This did not come to pass however, as the average speed rose again and race winner Lance Armstrong was stripped of his title in 2012 following a lengthy investigation into doping practises. ASO barred the TVM team from competing in the 1999 race. Richard Virenque and Manolo Saiz were originally banned from the race, before the UCI required the race organisers to allow both to participate, considering that the ASO had failed to comply with the registration period. This dictates that both organisers and teams need to register the invitation and their willingness to participate thirty days before the start of the event. Festina was allowed to start the next Tour, but the ASO handed out a warning to the team before the race, reminding them of their ability to disqualify them as they had in 1998.
Fotheringham noted nearly twenty years after the 1998 Tour that ever since, extraordinary performances in cycling have been viewed with suspicion, because of the sport's now cemented association with doping. Until the revelations of the Lance Armstrong doping case, the 1998 Tour de France stood as the biggest doping scandal in sport. One of the most significant effects of the Festina affair was the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in December 1999.
## In the media
In 2018, a film centering around the 1998 Tour, titled The Domestique and to be directed by Kieron J. Walsh and written by Ciarán Cassidy, was announced. Production was taken over by Blinder Films, with the movie receiving €800,000 funding through Screen Ireland, the Irish state development agency. The film has since been renamed The Racer and secured funding from Screen Flanders, the Film Fund Luxembourg, Eurimages, the BAI Sound & Vision Fund, and RTÉ. The film premiered at the 2020 South by Southwest film festival.
## See also
- 1998 in sports
- List of doping cases in cycling
- Operación Puerto doping case – a Spanish Police operation against mainly doping in professional cycling that began in 2006 |
193,097 | HMS Bristol (1910) | 1,158,280,665 | 1910 light cruiser of the Royal Navy | [
"1910 ships",
"Ships built on the River Clyde",
"Town-class cruisers (1910) of the Royal Navy",
"World War I cruisers of the United Kingdom"
]
| HMS Bristol was a Town-class light cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century. She was the lead ship of the five in her sub-class and was completed in late 1910. The ship spent part of her early career in reserve before she was transferred to the 4th Cruiser Squadron (4th CS) of the North America and West Indies Station in mid-1914. Bristol was briefly deployed to Mexico during the Mexican Revolution to protect British interests there.
The ship was tasked to protect Allied shipping off the coasts of North and South America from German commerce raiders after World War I began in August 1914. She briefly encountered a German light cruiser in the West Indies a few days after the war began, but the battle was inconclusive. A few months later, Bristol played a minor role in the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December by sinking some of the colliers belonging to the German East Asia Squadron. After a lengthy refit in mid-1915, the ship was transferred to the Adriatic Force, where she participated in the Battle of the Strait of Otranto in 1917. Bristol returned to her former task of patrolling off the east coast of South America, after a brief time escorting convoys off West Africa in early 1918, and continued to do so after the end of the war. She was placed in reserve in mid-1919, listed for sale in 1920 and was sold for scrap in 1921.
## Design and description
The Bristol sub-class was intended for a variety of roles including both trade protection and duties with the fleet. They were 453 feet (138.1 m) long overall, with a beam of 47 feet (14.3 m) and a draught of 15 feet 6 inches (4.7 m). Displacement was 4,800 long tons (4,900 t) normal and 5,300 long tons (5,400 t) at full load. Twelve Yarrow boilers fed Bristol's Brown-Curtis steam turbines, driving two propeller shafts, that were rated at 22,000 shaft horsepower (16,000 kW) for a design speed of 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph). The ship reached 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph) during her sea trials from 28,711 shp (21,410 kW). The ship's experimental two-shaft layout was very successful, giving greater efficiency, especially at lower speeds, than the four-shaft arrangement of her sister ships. The boilers used both fuel oil and coal, with 1,353 long tons (1,375 t) of coal and 256 long tons (260 t) tons of oil carried, which gave a range of 5,830 nautical miles (10,800 km; 6,710 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). In 1912 Bristol became the first warship to run on superheated steam from her twelve boilers, enabling even greater speeds as well as fuel economies.
The main armament of the Bristol class was two BL 6-inch (152 mm) Mk XI guns that were mounted on the centreline fore and aft of the superstructure and ten BL 4-inch Mk VII guns in waist mountings. All these guns were fitted with gun shields. Four Vickers 3-pounder (47 mm) saluting guns were fitted, while two submerged 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes were fitted. This armament was considered rather too light for ships of this size, while the waist guns were subject to immersion in a high sea, making them difficult to work.
The Bristols were considered protected cruisers, with an armoured deck providing protection for the ships' vitals. The armoured deck was 2 inches (51 mm) thick over the magazines and machinery, 1 inch (25 mm) over the steering gear and 3⁄4 inch (19 mm) elsewhere. The conning tower was protected by 6 inches (152 mm) of armour, with the gun shields having 3 inches (76 mm) armour, as did the ammunition hoists. As the protective deck was at waterline, the ships were given a large metacentric height so that they would remain stable in the event of flooding above the armoured deck. This, however, resulted in the ships rolling badly making them poor gun platforms. One problem with the armour of the Bristols which was shared with the other Town-class ships was the sizeable gap between the bottom of the gun shields and the deck, which allowed shell splinters to pass through the gap, giving large numbers of leg injuries in the ships' gun crews.
## Construction and career
Bristol, the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy, was named after the eponymous city. She was laid down on 23 March 1909 at John Brown & Company's Clydebank shipyard, launched on 23 February 1910 and completed on 17 December 1910. As of 18 February 1913, the ship was assigned to the 5th Battle Squadron of the reserve Second Fleet at Devonport. On 1 July, Bristol was transferred to the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Second Fleet. Almost six months later, some of her crewmen helped to put out a fire in Portsmouth Dockyard on 20 December; two men were killed fighting the fire.
On 18 May 1914, the ship was reassigned to the 4th CS of the North America and West Indies Station and sailed that day to join the squadron. She arrived at Jamaica on the 31st and was ordered to depart for Mexico after recoaling to protect British interests during the ongoing Mexican Revolution. Bristol spent most of June in Tampico, but sailed for Veracruz at the end of the month where Rear-Admiral Christopher Craddock, the squadron commander, inspected the ship and her crew on 1 July. The ship departed for Puerto México (present day Coatzacoalcos) on the 15th and served as temporary refuge for members of the family of ex-president Victoriano Huerta for a few days as they were fleeing the country at the time of the United States occupation of Veracruz. Bristol sailed for Jamaica on the 31st as tensions with Germany rose.
### World War I
The 4th Cruiser Squadron (formerly the North America and West Indies Station), with its main base the Royal Naval Dockyard at Bermuda, was tasked to protect Allied merchant shipping from commerce raiders in the Caribbean and along the East Coast of North America and Craddock dispersed his ships shortly before the war began on 4 August 1914 in a futile search for the two German warships known to be in the area. In the early evening of 6 August, Bristol spotted the German light cruiser Karlsruhe, but failed to inflict any significant damage before engine problems allowed the German ship to disengage behind her own smoke. Later in the month, Bristol began patrolling off the northern coast of Brazil in an unsuccessful attempt to find the German ships. The ship was detached to continue to patrol the Brazilian coast and did not join Craddock's ships as they searched for the East Asia Squadron off the Chilean coast in October.
In mid-October, Bristol, together with the armoured cruiser Cornwall and two armed merchant cruisers was assigned to a new squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Archibald Stoddart that was tasked to patrol the South American coast north of Montevideo, Uruguay. After Craddock's squadron was destroyed in the Battle of Coronel on 1 November, the ship rendezvoused at the Abrolhos Archipelago on 26 November with the reinforcements commanded by Vice-Admiral Doveton Sturdee. The ships then proceeded to the Falkland Islands where they arrived on 7 December.
#### Battle of the Falklands
Upon arrival at Port Stanley on 7 December, Sturdee gave permission for Bristol to put out her fires to clean her boilers and repair both engines. He planned to recoal the entire squadron the following day from the two available colliers and to begin the search for the East Asia Squadron the day after. Vice-Admiral Maximilian von Spee, commander of the German squadron, had other plans and intended to destroy the radio station at Port Stanley on the morning of 8 December. The appearance of two German ships at 07:30 caught Sturdee's ships by surprise although they were driven off by 12-inch (305 mm) shells fired by the predreadnought battleship Canopus when they came within range around 09:20. This gave time for Bristol to reassemble her engines and raise steam. As the ship was leaving harbour around 10:45, she received reports of German ships about 30 miles (48 km) south and Sturdee ordered her to intercept and destroy them, together with the armed merchant cruiser SS Macedonia. The British ships were able to capture two of the three German colliers and sank them after taking off their crews.
The light cruiser SMS Dresden was the only German ship able to disengage from the battle and Sturdee ordered Bristol to Puntas Arenas, Chile, after the ship was reported coaling there on 13 December. She arrived there the next day, but Dresden had left the night before. Bristol spent the next several months hunting for the German cruiser along the Argentinian and Chilean coasts and in the innumerable bays and inlets of Tierra del Fuego. During this time, she struck a shoal and seriously damaged her rudder on 22 February 1915. In late April, the ship began patrolling off the Brazilian coast. Bristol began a major refit at Gibraltar on 27 May that lasted until 5 August. Upon its completion, she was transferred to the British Adriatic Force to help contain the Austro-Hungarian Fleet and defend the Otranto Barrage. She then spent most of the next several months patrolling the lower reaches of the Adriatic Sea and the Strait of Otranto. On 3 October, her crew was inspected by Rear-Admiral Cecil Thursby. On 26 November, Bristol sailed for Gibraltar en route to a refit at William Beardmore and Company's shipyard in Dalmuir that began on 17 December.
#### Battle of the Strait of Otranto
On the early morning of 15 May 1917, the Austro-Hungarians made their most serious attack of the war on the naval drifters controlling the barrage. Bristol was the "ready ship" at Brindisi and was at a half-hour's notice for sea; she departed at 04:50, escorted by two Italian destroyers, in an attempt to intercept the three Austrian light cruisers that had conducted the attack. Contrammiraglio (Rear-Admiral) Alfredo Acton, commander of the ships at Brindisi, ordered that her speed be limited to 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph) to prevent her from getting too far ahead of the other ships now raising steam. One of these was Bristol's half-sister Dartmouth, which departed at 05:36, also escorted by a pair of Italian destroyers. The Dartmouth group overtook Bristol and her consorts by 07:12 and were joined by the Italian scout cruiser Aquila around 07:40. Acton deployed his cruisers in line abreast with Aquila leading them and the destroyers guarding the flanks. Bristol's bottom was foul, however, and limited the group to a speed of 24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph).
Five minutes later, the Allied ships spotted clouds of smoke on the horizon and Acton ordered the Italian ships to attack shortly afterwards while the two British cruisers turned to cut off the two Austrian destroyers. Aquila opened fire at 08:15 at long range, but inflicted no damage before she was immobilised by a hit at 08:32 that detonated inside her central boiler room and severed her main steam pipe. The Austrian ships managed to disengage before the cruisers could close the distance.
The main Austro-Hungarian force of three light cruisers trailed the leading destroyers by a considerable distance and Commander Miklós Horthy spotted the Allied force around 09:05. Acton spotted them about five minutes later and manoeuvred his ships to cover the disabled Aquila rather than crossing the Austrians' T. The British ships opened fire about 09:30, although Horthy's ships quickly laid a smoke screen and turned away through it. Both sides settled on parallel courses to the north-northwest and Bristol gradually began to fall behind and could eventually only use her bow gun at very long range before ceasing fire at 10:15. The British fire was moderately effective, but the Austrian ships concentrated their fire on Dartmouth which was hit three times, although not significantly damaged. Acton reduced his speed around 10:45 to allow Bristol to catch up. At 10:58 he ordered speed to be increased and turned two minutes later in an unsuccessful attempt to cut off the trailing Austrian cruiser. At 11:04, the British cruisers ceased fire and turned away on Acton's order, presumably to avoid encountering Austro-Hungarian reinforcements which Acton knew were en route. During the battle the British cruisers were repeatedly attacked by Austro-Hungarian aircraft, but they inflicted no significant damage or casualties.
#### Subsequent operations
On 1 January 1918, Bristol was briefly based at the port of Kalloni, Lesbos, before sailing to Gibraltar for a long refit. She arrived on 17 January and departed on 2 April, bound for Sierra Leone, West Africa, to begin convoy escort duties there despite being assigned to the East Coast of South America Station. On 1 May, Bristol departed Dakar, French West Africa, bound for the Brazilian coast, arriving at Rio de Janeiro on the 15th. At the end of the month, she spent a few days salvaging ammunition from the wreck of the cargo liner SS Highland Scot. The ship patrolled the coasts of Brazil and Uruguay for the rest of the war and visited Port Stanley at the end of the year where she remained until 11 January 1919. Bristol sailed for the Cape Verde Islands in late April and then to Gibraltar where she arrived on 13 May. En route, three sailors died from influenza. A few days later, she departed for the UK and arrived at Portsmouth on the 21st. Bristol was paid off on 30 May and reduced to reserve the same day. The ship was listed for disposal in May 1920 and was sold for scrap on 9 May 1921 to Thos. W. Ward of Hayle. |
17,506,827 | Codex Cyprius | 1,146,068,790 | null | [
"9th-century biblical manuscripts",
"Bibliothèque nationale de France collections",
"Greek New Testament uncials"
]
| Codex Cyprius, designated by K<sup>e</sup> or 017 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering of New Testament Manuscripts), ε71 (in the von Soden numbering of New Testament manuscripts), or Codex Colbertinus 5149, is a Greek uncial manuscript of the four Gospels, written on parchment. It is one of the few uncial manuscripts with the complete text of the four Gospels, and it is one of the more important late uncial manuscripts. It was brought from Cyprus (hence the name of the codex) to Paris.
The text of the manuscript has been examined by many scholars. It is considered to mainly represent the Byzantine text-type (see Textual character below), but it has numerous peculiar readings. It has been variously dated from the 8th to the 11th centuries, but using the study of comparative writing styles (palaeography), it is currently dated to the 9th century.
## Description
The manuscript is a codex (precursor to the modern book), containing the complete text of the four Gospels written on 267 parchment leaves (sized ). The text itself is written in uncial letters of brown ink with one column per page. Each page contains 16 to 31 lines due to the handwriting being irregular and varying in size, with some pages having letters that are quite large. They are also upright, not round, and compressed. There is frequent insertion of an interpunction mark (·), and as it is sometimes in the wrong place for a stop, this has been supposed to occur in an ancient stichometrical style of writing (writing new sentences on new lines as opposed to continuing on the same line), from which this manuscript may have been copied. A dot is always used to denote the end of the phrase/line. It includes rough and smooth breathing marks (utilised to designate vowel emphasis), with accents (used to indicate voiced pitch changes) likely from the original scribe, but these are often omitted or incorrectly placed. The breathings are indicated by ⊢ and ⊣, these signs were often used in the codices from the 9th and 10th century. Errors of itacism (confusion of similar sounding letters) are very frequent. It contains lectionary markings (employed to indicate which passage is to read on a certain day in the year) in the margin, the Synaxarion (a list of Saint's days) on pages 1–18, with a Menologion (a list of readings to be read each calendar month), and the Eusebian Canons tables (an early system of dividing the four Gospels into different sections) on pages 19–28.
The nomina sacra (special names/words considered sacred in Christianity, abbreviated usually with the first and last letter, and notified with an overline) are employed throughout. The last letter is dependent upon case; the nominative case abbreviations are as follows: / ανθρωπος (man), / δαυιδ (David), / θεος (God), / Ιησους (Jesus), / ιερουσαλημ (Jerusalem), / ισραηλ (Israel), / κυριος (Lord), / μητηρ (mother), / ουρανος (heaven), / ουρανιος (heavenly), / πατηρ (father), / πνευμα (spirit), / πνευματικος (spiritual), / σωτηρια (salvation), / υιος (son), / χριστος (Christ/Messiah).
The text is divided according to the Ammonian Sections (Matthew has 359 sections, Mark 241, Luke 342, and John 232), whose numbers are given in the left margin of the text, and despite containing the Eusebian Canon tables at the beginning of the codex, references to the Eusebian Canons are absent. There was no other division according to the chapters (known as κεφαλαια / kephalaia) in the original codex, though it has their titles (known as τιτλοι / titloi) at the top of the pages, and the chapter tables before each Gospel. The chapter numbers were added by a later hand (Matthew has 68, Mark 48, Luke 83, and John 19). It contains subscriptions after each of first three Gospels.
### Colophon
Near the end of the manuscript, on the reverse of page 267, there is a colophon (subscription) inserted by a second hand. According to this colophon the manuscript was written by a scribe named Basil, and it was bound by one Theodoulos, who commended themselves to the Virgin and St. Eutychios. Some parts of the colophon are uncertain.
The full text of the colophon is:
## Text
### Textual character
The Greek text of this codex is considered a representative of the Byzantine text-type. The text-types are groups of different New Testament manuscripts which share specific or generally related readings, which then differ from each other group, and thus the conflicting readings can separate out the groups. These are then used to determine the original text as published; there are three main groups with names: Alexandrian, Western, and Byzantine. Together with Codex Petropolitanus (Π), the Codex Cyprius belongs to family Π, a group of manuscripts in close relationship to the text seen in Codex Alexandrinus (A). According to biblical scholar Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, it has many good and valuable readings, but according to biblical scholar Frederic Kenyon the text of the codex has no remarkable value, due to the manuscript being of a late date. According to biblical scholar Caspar René Gregory it has many old readings that preceded the Byzantine text-type. Textual critic Hermann von Soden classified it to the textual family I<sup>κa</sup>, and associated the provenance of this text with Jerusalem.
Textual critic Silva Lake considered the text of the codex as a somewhat diluted form of family Π, with a large number of peculiar readings, most of which are either misspellings or careless and ignorant mistakes. According to her an educated scribe could hardly have produced the variants in ; ; ; ; ; or . The readings it does not share with other Family Π representatives are supported outside the family, and they seem to be connected with the late Alexandrian group (C, L, M, N, Δ), but the number of Alexandrian readings is not high, and Silva Lake considered them as a result of accident as opposed to influence from a different text-type.
Textual critic Kurt Aland placed its text in Category V of his New Testament classification system. Category V manuscripts are described as having "a purely or predominantly Byzantine text." According to the Claremont Profile Method (a specific analysis method of textual data), its text belongs to the textual family Π<sup>a</sup> in Luke 1, Luke 10, and Luke 20.
### Some notable readings
Below are some readings of the manuscript which agree or disagree with variant readings in other Greek manuscripts, or with varying ancient translations of the New Testament. See the main article Textual variants in the New Testament.
οινον (wine) – K B D L Θ ƒ<sup>1</sup> ƒ<sup>13</sup> 33
οξος (vinegar) – A W 0250 Byz (see Psalm 69:22). According to textual critic Johann Jakob Wettstein, the reading οινον came from the Latin versions.
μη αποστερησης (do not defraud)
: omit – K B\* W Ψ ƒ<sup>1</sup> ƒ<sup>13</sup> 28 700 1010 1079 1242 1546 2148 l 10 l 950 l 1642 l 1761 syr<sup>s</sup> arm geo
: incl. – B<sup>c1</sup> Majority of manuscripts
Ναραιος (Naraios) – K\*
Ναζωραιος (of Nazareth) – K<sup>c</sup> Majority of manuscripts
στραφεις δε επετιμησεν αυτοις και ειπεν, Ουκ οιδατε ποιου πνευματος εστε υμεις; ο γαρ υιος του ανθρωπου ουκ ηλθεν ψυχας ανθρωπων απολεσαι αλλα σωσαι (but He turned and rebuked them and He said: "You do not know what manner of spirit you are of; for the Son of man came not to destroy men's lives but to save them) – K Π 1079 1242 1546 ƒ<sup>1</sup> (omit γαρ) Θ ƒ<sup>13</sup> (omit υμεις and γαρ)
omit – Majority of manuscripts
ὄνος ἢ βοῦς (an ass or an ox) – K L X Π Ψ ƒ<sup>1</sup> ƒ<sup>13</sup> 33 892 1071, l 547
υἱὸς ἢ βοῦς (a son or an ox) – Majority of manuscripts
αυτων πονηρα τα εργα (their works are evil) – K (singular reading)
πονηρα αυτων τα εργα (evil are their works) – Majority of manuscripts
εγω ουκ αναβαινω (I am not going) – K D 1241 f
εγω ουπω αναβαινω (I am not yet going) – K B L T W Θ Ψ 0105 0180 0250 ƒ<sup>1</sup> ƒ<sup>13</sup> Majority of manuscripts
οι δε ακουσαντες και υπο της συνειδησεως ελεγχομενοι εξερχοντο εις καθ εις (They heard this, and being convicted by their conscience, began to leave one by one) – K E G H 1079 1365
και μηδενα θεασαμενος πλην της γυναικος (and seeing no one except the woman) – K K<sup>r</sup>
omit – D Γ 1 892 1010
που εισιν εκεινοι οι κατηγοροι σου (Where are those accusers of yours?) – K (singular reading)
που εισιν οι κατηγοροι σου (Where are your accusers?) – E F G S U ƒ<sup>13</sup> 28 225 700 1009 1079
που εισιν (Where are they?) – D M Γ Tischendorfianus III ƒ<sup>1</sup>
## History
### Discovery and further research
The early history of the codex is unknown. It was brought from Cyprus to the Colbert Library (no. 5149) in Paris in 1673, whence it passed into its present locality in the National Library of France.
The manuscript was examined by biblical critic Richard Simon, who made some extracts for textual critic John Mill, who used readings from the codex in his edition of Novum Testamentum Graecum (an edition of the Greek New Testament) in 1710. Palaeographer Bernard de Montfaucon published the first facsimile of a page from the codex containing the text of in 1708, and used the manuscript for his palaeographical studies. Wettstein (for works published 1751-1752) employed readings from the codex, but with quite a large number of errors. Biblical scholar Johann M. A. Scholz valued it very highly, and he collated its text and noted its textual variants in 1820, but with so little care and numerous errors that his list is now ignored. Textual critic Constantin von Tischendorf produced a new collation in 1842, with Tregelles producing another independent collation in 1849, and in 1850 they compared their collations in Leipzig, and created a new list. Its textual variants are cited in Tischendorf's Editio Octava Critica maior (a critical edition of the Greek New Testament). Scrivener published a facsimile with the text of in 1861. Historian Henri Omont and New Testament scholar William Hatch published some fragments of the codex in separate facsimile samples in 1892 and 1896 respectively.
The manuscript was also examined and described by biblical scholar Bianchini in 1749, and Caspar René Gregory, who saw the codex in 1883.
Wettstein believed the text of the codex was altered by influence from Old Latin manuscripts. Hatch stated the manuscript is "one of the more important of the later uncial manuscripts of the four Gospels".
### Dating
Richard Simon dated the manuscript to the 10th century. According to Montfaucon and Scholz, it was written in the 8th century. According to biblical scholar Leonard Hug it is not older than the ninth century, as several of the letter-forms in the manuscript have not been found in any other manuscript securely dated to before the 9th century.
Tischendorf and Gregory dated the manuscript to the 9th century. Tregelles dated the manuscript to the middle of the ninth century. Kenyon stated the manuscript must be not earlier than the 11th century, due to the formal liturgical hand and on palaeographic grounds. But Kenyon only saw Scrivener's facsimile, and his assessment was made only on the basis of this facsimile text.
Omont advised it is impossible to give a precise date to this manuscript on palaeographical grounds, as there are many manuscripts written in the same style of handwriting, but they are not dated. The 9th century is just as possible as well as the 11th century.
Lake proclaimed it is difficult to prove it was written earlier than the year 1000, and it is perhaps as late as the middle of the eleventh century. This assessment was based rather on the textual dependency from other manuscript members of family Π, than on palaeographical grounds. According to Lake, Minuscule 1219 represents a text of family Π in its earlier stage as opposed to Codex Cyprius. Cyprius could have been copied from Minuscule 1219, or from a copy of Minuscule 1219 (Silva Lake's hypothetical codex b). Minuscule 1219 can hardly have written before the year 980 or long after 990, and so as a result Codex Cyprius can hardly be dated long before the year 1000.
Hatch argued the letters Β, Δ, Κ, Λ, Μ, Ξ, Π, Υ, Φ, Χ, Ψ, and Ω have forms which are characteristic of the late 10th or the early 11th century CE. Hatch also noted the handwriting of the codex bears a striking general resemblance to that of three Gospel lectionaries of the 10th and 11th centuries: l 3, l 296, and l 1599. On the other hand, no such likeness exists between the codex and uncial manuscripts of the New Testament which were written in the 9th century. As such, Hatch argued the manuscript should be dated to about 1000.
Kenyon, Kurt Aland and biblical scholar Bruce Metzger dated it to the 9th century. The manuscript is now dated by the Institute for New Testament Textual Research (INTF) to the 9th century.
The codex is currently located in the National Library of France (Gr. 63) in Paris.
## See also
- Biblical manuscript
- List of New Testament uncials
- Textual criticism |
39,370,142 | Dystopia (Megadeth album) | 1,169,747,819 | null | [
"2016 albums",
"Megadeth albums"
]
| Dystopia is the fifteenth studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth. It was released on frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine's Tradecraft label via Universal on January 22, 2016. It is the first Megadeth album to feature guitarist Kiko Loureiro. The album was produced by Mustaine and Chris Rakestraw and features cover artwork by Brent Elliot White.
Prior to Dystopias recording, longtime drummer Shawn Drover and guitarist Chris Broderick announced their departure from the band. These roles on the album have been filled by Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler and Angra guitarist Kiko Loureiro, respectively. This is the only Megadeth album to feature Adler, who was replaced by drummer Dirk Verbeuren shortly after the album's release and it is also the final album to feature bassist David Ellefson before his dismissal from the band in 2021.
Following the lukewarm response to the band's previous album, 2013's Super Collider, Dystopia received mostly favorable reaction from critics, being considered a return to form for the band. The album holds a Metacritic score of 69/100 as of November 2020. The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart, making Dystopia the band's second highest charting album in the U.S. after Countdown to Extinction, which peaked at number two in 1992. Additionally, the title track earned the band its first Grammy win (for Best Metal Performance) at the 59th Grammy Awards after eleven unsuccessful nominations.
## Background and production
### Background
In June 2013, Megadeth released its fourteenth studio album, Super Collider, to mixed critical reaction. In the months following the album's release, frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine revealed that he and the rest of the band had already begun to discuss a follow-up, an urgency somewhat influenced by the then-recent death of Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman, which had reportedly given Mustaine a sense of mortality.
Over the course of 2014, the band announced its intentions to start pre–production on the album. The band had been working on new material since December 2013, and in January 2014, Mustaine revealed that many riffs had already been written for the record. In May 2014, prior to his departure, Drover revealed that he and Mustaine had entered the studio and began tracking some demo ideas. The band originally planned to record in August 2014 and release the album in 2015. Instead, plans were only made to demo new material that October and start recording in January 2015. Mustaine elaborated that, due to a reduced tour schedule for summer 2014, the band had more time to focus on songwriting.
Additionally, several hardships struck the band in 2014. In May, bassist David Ellefson lost his brother Eliot to cancer, after which the band cancelled a number of scheduled shows. On October 4, Mustaine's Alzheimer's-afflicted mother-in-law went missing from a campground. Her remains were discovered on November 26. Furthermore, drummer Shawn Drover and guitarist Chris Broderick announced their resignations from the band that November. The pair would later emerge in a new band, Act of Defiance.
Despite everything, Ellefson announced that the band was still intent on starting work on the album in early 2015. Ellefson additionally suggested that the album would "help determine" Broderick and Drover's replacements.
### Production and recording
In February 2015, Ellefson revealed that the album was "pretty much written". The band entered Latitude South Studios in Leiper's Fork, Tennessee in April 2015, and recording finished in July. It was initially unclear as to who would produce the album. Mustaine suggested that instead of rehiring Johnny K, who produced both Thirteen (2011) and Super Collider (2013), the band would possibly opt for a new producer. While Mustaine initially indicated an interest in working with producer Max Norman, who had mixed Rust in Peace (1990) and produced Countdown to Extinction (1992) and Youthanasia (1994), it was later revealed that Mustaine would be producing the effort along with Toby Wright. However, Wright was let go early on, and Mustaine instead produced the album with Chris Rakestraw.
While there was initial speculation that Mustaine and Ellefson might try to reunite the Rust in Peace-era lineup, there was initially no statement from the band on the matter. It later came to light that the band had in fact been in discussions with former members Nick Menza (drums) and Marty Friedman (guitar), but were unable to reach an agreement. The opportunity would not arise again, as Menza died of a heart attack in May 2016.
During March 2015, several rock music news websites speculated that Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler would perform drums on the album, which was later confirmed by the band. It was also announced in the same month that Angra guitarist Kiko Loureiro joined the band. Mustaine revealed a track listing for the then-untitled album on July 27 and announced production of the album was completed a month later.
### Album cover
The cover was done by New York artist Brent Elliott White, who was given the idea to go for a post-apocalyptic approach. Vic Rattlehead is depicted as a cyborg, with a virtual reality headset in place of the riveted visor, a headset instead of metal caps on the ears, and a mouthpiece resembling a mask. The pose, holding the head of a cyborg resembling the Statue of Liberty and a katana, is an homage to Seven Samurai. The setting homages 12 Monkeys by having a deserted and destroyed city, Mad Max by putting Vic under the Sydney Harbour Bridge, and The Walking Dead with the "drones meant to be like Michonne’s enslaved zombie buddies". In the 2016 Burrn! magazine Readers' Pop Poll, the cover was awarded Best Album Cover.
## Songs
Mustaine elaborated on possible lyrical themes, revealing that he had been reading about world history and "crazy science stuff". Both Mustaine and Ellefson had indicated that the album would feature a different musical and stylistic approach from the previous album, including a move away from a radio-oriented sound, which was subsequently characterized as a move back towards a thrash-oriented sound. Mustaine also stated his belief that the album sound and songwriting would be influenced by his 2014 guest performance alongside the San Diego Symphony.
In May 2015, the band posted several videos clips on PledgeMusic featuring snippets of new songs, titled "The Emperor" and "Conquer... or Die". One song, "Poisonous Shadows," was stated by Mustaine to feature piano parts performed by Loureiro. Additionally, he indicated that it would include orchestral arrangement by Ronn Huff, father of record producer Dann Huff who worked with the band in the late 1990s. It was also announced that the album would feature a guest appearance from country musician Steve Wariner, who would perform steel guitar parts. However, neither Huff nor Wariner were credited in the album's liner notes.
## Release
In spite of the departures of Broderick and Drover, Ellefson stated that the band initially intended to release the album late in 2015. In January 2015, the album, yet to be titled at the time, was listed by Loudwire as one of the "30 Most Anticipated Rock + Metal Albums of 2015". It was suggested that the departures of Broderick and Drover, as well as the lack of details about possible replacements fueled anticipation on the part of fans and critics. With an official title and release date confirmed, the album also made Loudwire's 2016 list. Upon its release for streaming, Loudwire'''s Joe DiVita praised the album's title track.
A teaser launched in late September hinted that the song "Fatal Illusion" would be released as the album's first single on October 2. Mustaine had previously announced that a single accompanied with a video would premiere during the holidays. "The Threat is Real", the album's second single, was released for streaming on November 25. On January 7, 2016, the title track was released for streaming.
The album was released on January 22, 2016 by Mustaine's Tradecraft label, distributed by Universal Music, and was made available on CD, vinyl and digital download formats. In the United States, a version of the album including two bonus songs was available exclusively at Best Buy. This version was also available on iTunes. In addition, a deluxe version was announced featuring a virtual reality headset and including a code to download video of the band performing five songs from the album.
Dystopia debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, with 48,000 copies sold in its first week, in addition to another 14,400 copies in its second week, when it fell to number 30 on the Billboard 200. Dystopia sold over 110,000 copies in the US fourteen weeks after its release. The album was a bigger seller than Super Collider, which took 43 weeks to reach 80,000. The album sold 148,000 copies in the US by December 2016, becoming the second biggest-selling heavy metal album released in 2016.
To support Dystopia, Megadeth embarked on a North American tour in February–March 2016, with supporting acts Children of Bodom, Suicidal Tendencies and Havok. The band toured the United States with Suicidal Tendencies again in September–October 2016, with Metal Church, Amon Amarth and Butcher Babies replacing Children of Bodom and Havok.
On May 10, 2017 in Japan, a Deluxe Edition SHM-CD was released with four exclusive bonus tracks and a live DVD.
## Critical reception
Dystopia has received generally positive reviews from critics, and holds a Metacritic rating of 69/100. Commending the band's return to a more aggressive style, Calum Slingerland of Exclaim! wrote that Dystopia put the band back on track and started a new chapter in the band's storied career. Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe liked the combination of energetic riffs and cynical lyrics about the state of the world. Loudwires Chad Bowar said Dystopia was a first-rate Megadeth album and praised the interplay between Mustaine and Loureiro. Record Collector's Joel McIver called the album a return to form for Megadeth, and a big improvement over the previous two records.
A favorable review was posted on heavy metal news site Blabbermouth.net. Reviewer Ray Van Horn, Jr. proclaimed "Dystopia isn't monumental, but it's a damned good (often magnificent) album. The entire foursome in this incarnation of Megadeth goes for the win and Dystopia readily scores." Thom Jurek from AllMusic agrees, saying "It's easy to appreciate the music on Dystopia; it showcases Mustaine and a crack new version of Megadeth at a creative peak." Dom Lawson of The Guardian called the album an "absolutely blistering return" to the style "of past glories like Rust in Peace and Endgame."
Writing for Rolling Stone, Kory Grow declared that Megadeth "sound reborn" on the album and said the band has "rarely sounded tighter or more cutting." Grow also stated that despite the "grim" lyrical themes of conspiracies and impending doom, Mustaine managed to insert some humor into the album, citing lyrics from "The Emperor." John Semley of Now called Dystopia "a great record" and praised Loureiro's playing on the record. Semley argued that despite the album's plusses, however, it would likely be overshadowed by Metallica's followup to 2008's Death Magnetic, tentatively due for a 2016 release. Metal Hammers Dom Lawson credited band turmoil following the release of Super Collider for the creation of "one of the finest records Megadeth have ever made."
A more moderate opinion of the album came from Jon Hadusek of Consequence of Sound. Hadusek called the album "worthy of bearing [the band's] name," but criticized several aspects of the release. He opined that Loureiro's playing was largely "cold, calculated and emotionless," and suggested that Mustaine's lyrics form "a loose concept album of post-capitalist suspicions, X-Files conspiracies, and pseudo-Libertarian rhetoric."
The lyrical content of the album was received less favorably. While J.J. Anselmi of The A.V. Club declared that the album features "masterful instrumentation," he heavily criticized lyrics displaying Mustaine's "offensive politics" and "xenophobia," a sentiment shared by Benjamin Aspray of Slant Magazine.
### Accolades
Year-end rankings
Decade-end rankings
### Awards
## Track listing
All tracks are written by Dave Mustaine, except where noted.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from Dystopia liner notes, unless otherwise noted.
Megadeth
- Dave Mustaine – guitars, lead vocals, acoustic guitar
- David Ellefson – bass, backing vocals
- Kiko Loureiro – guitars, acoustic guitar, backing vocals, piano on "Poisonous Shadows"
- Chris Adler – drums
Additional musicians
- Charlie Judge – orchestral arrangements on "Poisonous Shadows"
- Farah Siraj – guest vocals on "The Threat Is Real" and "Poisonous Shadows"
- Miles Doleac – voiceover in "Conquer or Die!"
- Chris Rodriguez – backing vocals
- Eric Darken – percussion
- Blair Masters – keyboards & programming
Production and design'
- Produced by Dave Mustaine and Chris Rakestraw
- Engineering by Chris Rakestraw
- Mixed by Josh Wilbur
- Pre-production by Cameron Webb
- Additional production by Jeff Balding
- Mastering by Ted Jensen
- Brent Elliott White – cover artwork
## Charts
Dystopia achieved success on international music charts. It charted in the top ten in a dozen countries, and entered into the top twenty in four more. The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200, selling 48,000 copies (and streaming equivocal to another 1,000 copies) in its first week. This both topped the position and sales of the preceding album, Super Collider, and marks the band's second highest domestic chart position, after Countdown to Extinction'', which reached number two in 1992. The album also charted at number three in Canada and Finland, and reached number two in Japan. |
4,656,422 | Thin Man (nuclear bomb) | 1,173,403,808 | Nuclear weapon (development abandoned) | [
"Abandoned military projects of the United States",
"Code names",
"Gun-type nuclear bombs",
"History of the Manhattan Project",
"Nuclear bombs of the United States",
"World War II aerial bombs of the United States"
]
| "Thin Man" was the code name for a proposed plutonium gun-type nuclear bomb that the United States was developing during the Manhattan Project. Its development was abandoned when it was discovered that the spontaneous fission rate of nuclear reactor-bred plutonium was too high for use in a gun-type design due to the high concentration of the isotope plutonium-240 in the plutonium produced at the Clinton Engineer Works.
## Early decisions
In 1942, prior to the United States Army taking over control of wartime atomic research in what became known as the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June and Berkeley, California in July, at which physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues. A gun-type design was chosen, in which two sub-critical masses of plutonium would be brought together by firing a "bullet" into a "target". The alternative idea of an implosion-type nuclear weapon was suggested by Richard Tolman, but it attracted scant consideration, being far more complex.
Oppenheimer reviewed his options in early 1943, and he gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but as a hedge against the threat of predetonation, he created the E-5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion. Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb, because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely. But it was decided that the plutonium gun-type bomb would receive the bulk of the research effort, since it was the project with the least amount of uncertainty involved. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be more easily adapted from it.
## Naming
The gun-type and implosion-type designs were code-named "Thin Man" and "Fat Man" respectively. These code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimer's, who worked on the Manhattan Project. He chose them based on their design shapes; the Thin Man would be a very long device, and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel The Thin Man and series of movies by the same name. The Fat Man would be round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet's character in The Maltese Falcon. The Little Boy uranium gun-type design came later and was named only to contrast with the Thin Man. Los Alamos's Thin Man and Fat Man code names were adopted by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). A cover story was devised that Silverplate was about modifying a Pullman car for use by President Franklin Roosevelt (Thin Man) and United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill (Fat Man) on a secret tour of the United States. Air Forces personnel used the code names over the phone to make it sound as though they were modifying a plane for Roosevelt and Churchill.
## Development
To work on the plutonium gun design, Oppenheimer assembled a team at the Los Alamos Laboratory that included senior engineer Edwin McMillan and senior physicists Charles Critchfield and Joseph Hirschfelder. Critchfield had been working with sabots, which Oppenheimer believed would be required by the Thin Man to achieve the high muzzle velocities that critical assembly would require; Hirschfelder had been working on internal ballistics. Oppenheimer led the design effort himself until June 1943, when United States Navy Captain William Sterling Parsons arrived and took over the Ordnance and Engineering Division and direct management of the Thin Man project.
These four created and tested all the elements of the Thin Man design between April 1943 and August 1944. Parsons, who had developed the proximity fuze for the Navy, ran the division and handled liaison with other agencies. As the head of the E-6 Projectile, Target, and Source Group, Critchfield calculated critical masses, and instituted a system of live testing with scale models using 20 mm cannon and 3-inch guns. These were readily and easily obtained, while full-scale Thin Man tubes took months to produce. It was not possible to conduct tests with plutonium, as it was not yet available. Indeed, the actual physical characteristics of the metal were little more than educated guesses at this time.
Hirschfelder headed the E-8 Interior Ballistics Group. His group performed mathematical calculations, but he also had to identify a suitable powder, igniter, and primer. His group conducted full-scale tests with their selections. Fixing the physical size of the bomb proved important when it came to selecting a suitable aircraft to carry it. The E-8 group estimated the muzzle velocity of the gun at around 3,000 feet per second (910 m/s), close to the maximum achievable in 1944, and calculated that the pressure in the barrel would be up to 75,000 pounds per square inch (520,000 kPa).
Although the weapon's designers thought that simply bringing a critical mass together would be sufficient, Serber suggested that the design should also include an initiator. A polonium-210-beryllium initiator was chosen because polonium 210 has a 140-day half life, which allowed it to be stockpiled, and it could be obtained from naturally occurring ores from Port Hope, Ontario. Oppenheimer requested that it also be manufactured in the X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, or when they became available, the reactors at the Hanford Engineer Works in Washington State.
## Specifications
The "Thin Man" design was an early nuclear weapon design proposed before plutonium had been successfully bred in a nuclear reactor from the irradiation of uranium-238. It was assumed that plutonium, like uranium-235, could be assembled into a critical mass by a gun-type method, which involved shooting one sub-critical piece into another. To avoid predetonation or "fizzle", the plutonium "bullet" would need to be accelerated to a speed of at least 3,000 feet per second (910 m/s)—or else the fission reaction would begin before the assembly was complete, blowing the device apart prematurely.
Thin Man was 17 feet (5.2 m) long, with 38-inch (97 cm) wide tail and nose assemblies, and a 23-inch (58 cm) midsection. The length was necessary for the plutonium "bullet" to achieve adequate speed before reaching the "target". Weight was approximately 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg) for the final weapon model. There were no aircraft in the USAAF inventory that could carry a Thin Man without being modified, and in 1943, Norman Ramsey suggested the British Avro Lancaster as the only aircraft that could carry the Thin Man internally owing to its 33-foot-long (10 m) bomb bay. However, the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress could be modified to carry it by removing part of the bulkhead under the main wing spar and some oxygen tanks located between its two bomb bays. This modification was carried out on the 58th production example off the Boeing Wichita production line, AAF Serial No. 42-6259.
Although Ramsey had suggested the Lancaster, the chief of the USAAF, Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold, rejected the suggestion, preferring an American type, specifically the B-29. Prior to dropping trials of the Thin Man and Fat Man dummy bombs, Brigadier General Leslie Groves, the director of the Manhattan Project, suggested the use of the Lancaster for trials since the B-29, although in production, was still scarce. Again, Arnold rejected the suggestion, as he had invested much time and money in the B-29's development.
## Design issues
### Aerodynamics
The great length of the Thin Man bomb led to aerodynamic instabilities. Subscale models of the bomb were dropped from a Grumman TBF Avenger at the US Navy test range at Dahlgren, Virginia starting in August 1943. The bombs would spin sideways after being dropped and broke up when they hit the ground. Twenty-four drops were carried out in March 1944 before they were discontinued so that improvements could be made to Thin Man. The bombs failed to release immediately, frustrating calibration tests. In what turned out to be the last test flight of the series on 16 March 1944, a Thin Man was prematurely released while the B-29 was still en route to the test range and fell onto the bomb bay doors, severely damaging the test aircraft. The modified glider tow-hook mechanisms used to suspend the bomb in the bomb bay had caused all four malfunctions, due to the great weight of the bombs. They were replaced with British Type G single-point attachments and Type F releases as used on the Lancaster to carry the 12,000-pound (5,400 kg) Tallboy bomb.
### Predetonation
The feasibility of a plutonium bomb had been questioned in 1942. James Conant heard on 14 November from Wallace Akers, the director of the British Tube Alloys project, that James Chadwick had "concluded that plutonium might not be a practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities." Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago respectively knew about the problem, but could offer no ready solution. Conant informed the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr., who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence, Compton, Oppenheimer, and McMillan to examine the issue. The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome by requiring higher purity.
In April 1944, experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the reactor-produced plutonium from X-10 Graphite Reactor showed that the plutonium contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium-240. This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium-239. The cyclotron-produced material on which the original measurements had been made had much lower traces of plutonium-240. Its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium appeared unavoidable. This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely that it would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass. The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where predetonation would be less likely would mandate a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber. The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was implosion—a far more difficult engineering task.
The impracticability of a gun-type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting held on 17 July 1944. All gun-type work in the Manhattan Project was directed at the Little Boy enriched uranium gun design, and almost all of the research at the Los Alamos Laboratory was re-oriented around the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb. |
69,197,595 | All Too Well: The Short Film | 1,173,481,911 | 2021 short film by Taylor Swift | [
"2020s English-language films",
"2020s music videos",
"2021 romantic drama films",
"2021 short films",
"American short films",
"Films based on songs",
"Films directed by Taylor Swift",
"Films released on YouTube",
"Films set in New York (state)",
"Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video",
"MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction",
"MTV Video of the Year Award",
"Music videos directed by Taylor Swift"
]
| All Too Well: The Short Film is a 2021 romantic drama short film written and directed by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift in her filmmaking debut. A film adaptation of her critically acclaimed song "All Too Well" (2012), it is set against the backdrop of the uncut, 10-minute version of the song released in 2021. It stars Sadie Sink and Dylan O'Brien as a romantic couple whose up-and-down relationship ultimately falls apart, compounded by their age gap. Swift cited the works of Barbara Stanwyck, John Cassavetes and Noah Baumbach as artistic influences upon her film.
Produced by Saul Projects and Taylor Swift Productions, All Too Well: The Short Film was released on November 12, 2021, in select theaters by Universal Pictures and on YouTube by UMG's PolyGram Entertainment and Republic Records, in conjunction with Swift's second re-recorded album Red (Taylor's Version). After a premiere at the AMC Theatres in Lincoln Square, New York City, it had a limited theatrical release in major cities as well as special screenings at the 2022 Tribeca and Toronto film festivals. It received critical acclaim, with particular praise directed towards Swift's direction as a debut filmmaker as well as the acting, script, drama, and production values.
The film garnered several awards and nominations from music and film organizations, including an American Music Award, a Grammy Award, a Hollywood Critics Association Award and an Art Directors Guild Award; at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards, it won Video of the Year and Best Direction, making Swift the first act in VMA history to win Best Direction for a self-directed work.
## Synopsis
All Too Well: The Short Film is a film adaptation of the 10 minute version of the song "All Too Well" by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. It also functions as a music video for the song. A literary quote from Chilean poet Pablo Neruda—"Love is so short, forgetting is so long", from his poem "Puedo Escribir Los Versos"—opens the film. The story chronicles the relationship of two doomed lovers, Her and Him, compounded by an age gap. "All Too Well (10 Minute Version)" plays throughout the film, except during a dialogued conflict between Her and Him. The song details a blooming romance between two people, and its subsequent dissolution and resulting heartbreak. The nearly 15-minute film is divided into seven chapters—"An Upstate Escape", "The First Crack in the Glass", "Are You Real?", "The Breaking Point", "The Reeling", "The Remembering", and the epilogue "Thirteen Years Gone"— describing the relationship between Her and Him using various phases.
## Plot
The story starts with the couple lying in bed together, Her mesmerized by Him. They venture into upstate New York in a car. Her leaves her red scarf at a house belonging to Him's sister. Their relationship takes a turn at a dinner party, where Him ignores his girlfriend with a hand gesture, as he is busy catching up with his friends, making Her uncomfortable. They fight afterwards; Him is arrogant and dismissive, while a distraught Her is heartbroken but still wants to stay with Him. He apologizes and kisses Her to end the argument, and they dance in the refrigerator light. Him starts to distance himself from Her, eventually breaking up with her. A devastated Her weeps in bed, ignoring his phone calls. Her is seen typing on her typewriter and crumpling paper sheets. A montage shows Her alone at parties and sorrowful on her 21st birthday. Him's life carries on as he walks alone down a Brooklyn street, recalling some of the happier moments in his relationship with Her. The film then jumps 13 years into the future, where Her has become an author and released her book All Too Well, presumably detailing the heartache of her early twenties. She reads from the book to an audience in a packed bookstore. Outside the store, an older Him stands in the snow, watching Her through the window, wearing the same scarf she left behind 13 years ago.
## Conception and production
Swift stated via her social media that All Too Well: The Short Film was shot on 35 mm film by Japanese-Korean-British cinematographer Rina Yang. Yang used an "Arri Arriflex 235 for handheld and steadicam, and Panavision MXL for dolly work"; lenses were Panavision Primo, with 11:1 Primo zoom. She shot exterior scenes on Kodak Ektachrome—the same kind she had used to shoot the HBO television series Euphoria. Swift cited "Barbara Stanwyck films, particularly 1937's Stella Dallas", as artistic influences upon her film in addition to those of John Cassavetes and Noah Baumbach, especially his drama film Marriage Story (2019), among other works. She also mentioned the films The Way We Were (1973), Love Story (1970), and Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) as sources of inspiration.
Swift said she wanted tell a story about "girlhood calcifying into this bruised adulthood" with the film. On Late Night with Seth Meyers, she said she cast Sink and O'Brien because they were the only two people she imagined playing the roles, noting that she was a fan of O'Brien's works and that she would not have proceeded with making the film had Sink turned down the offer. Swift explained that she likes "working with friends or people who I think would be excited about working with me" and added that she was "just blown away by what [Sink and O'Brien] did—they went out and left it all on the field". Sink stated she accepted Swift's offer without hesitation as she was a fan of Swift and was also interested in playing a "more rounded and mature" role while portraying her Stranger Things character Max Mayfield during production of the series' fourth season. Stranger Things director Shawn Levy makes a cameo appearance as the father of Sink's character in the short film. Swift further revealed that Sink and O'Brien "were so electric and [improvising] a lot of what they were doing that we just couldn't take the camera off [them]".
## Release and promotion
In June 2021, Swift announced that her re-recorded album, Red (Taylor's Version), a re-recording of her fourth studio album Red (2012), would be released on November 19, 2021; the release date was later moved up to November 12. It contains both the re-recorded version of the track "All Too Well" and its 10-minute uncut version as a bonus track "from the vault". On November 5, 2021, Good Morning America revealed a teaser for the short film. The teaser featured a vintage car driving down on a quiet road surrounded by autumnal trees, as well as the names of the cast members. All Too Well: The Short Film is a dramatized account of the incidents and dynamics of the relationship described in the song. It is about "an effervescent, curious young woman who ends up completely out of her depth", stated Swift. She described it as an expression of her gratitude to her fans for their reception to the song "All Too Well" over the years.
The film's world premiere took place on November 12 at the AMC Theatres in Lincoln Square, New York City with handpicked fans among those who attended. Each audience member received an autographed movie poster and a custom packet of tissues. Swift performed "All Too Well (10 Minute Version)" in the theatre after the screening. The film was later released on the same day on YouTube, 19 hours after the album's release at midnight. It had a limited theatrical release in major cities.
It was also screened in two film festivals. On June 11, 2022, All Too Well: The Short Film had a special screening at the 2022 Tribeca Film Festival at the Beacon Theatre in New York City. The film was screened in its 35 mm form for the first time at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2022, at the TIFF Bell Lightbox in Toronto, Ontario.
A video of behind the scenes from the short film was released on December 8, 2022.
## Reception
### Commercial performance
Following its release to YouTube, the film was the number-one trending video on the platform with over 14 million views. It amassed 32 million views in its first three days. The short film helped its source material, "All Too Well (10 Minute Version)", debut atop the Billboard Hot 100 chart, garnering Swift her eighth number-one song in the US, and the longest song ever to top the chart—a feat recognized in Guinness World Records. As of July 2023, the film has 89 million views on YouTube.
### Critical response
All Too Well: The Short Film received acclaim from film critics, with particular emphasis on Swift's vision as a filmmaker. Variety's Ramin Setoodeh dubbed the short film "a music video on steroids meets a Noah Baumbach movie". Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone called it a "dramatic and moving" film that "digs deep into heartache and scarf lore". Rhian Daly of NME said the film underscores "the emotional power of [Swift's] storytelling" with "devastating cinematography" and "electric performances" by Sink and O'Brien. Collider's Ryan Louis Mantilla reported that "Sink and O'Brien bring Swift's characters to life with vividly emotional performances telling an incredibly moving tale of love, power, gaslighting, and heartache in the 15-minute film."
Karl Quinn, in his review for The Sydney Morning Herald, complimented the "gorgeously cliched Notebook-style" screenplay, Swift's direction, and the "finely tuned" performances of Sink and O'Brien. Vogue's Sarah Spellings said many of the film's scenes felt like "in-jokes with the audience" and commended the midway dialogue featuring an argument between Sink and O'Brien's characters: "It felt less like a real fight and more like how you describe a fight to your friends later. In other words, it was a depiction of how a fight feels." In USA Today, Patrick Ryan wrote that the film was "operatic in its emotions and scope" and felt the argument scene was "particularly gut-wrenching". Billboard's Paul Grein also praised the argument, saying the writing in the scene is "so vivid that it's easy to see Swift winning an Oscar for screenwriting one day".
Laura Coates, publishing on RogerEbert.com, commended Swift's direction, the "meticulous lighting and eye for production design", Yang's camerawork, and the "electric" chemistry between Sink and O'Brien. Coates highlighted the argument scene as well: "Though the instinct may be to emphasize the volatility of their relationship with quick, jarring cuts, the unflinching persistence of the single take means the viewer is left with nothing to do but squirm and despair as we watch their relationship fall apart before our eyes." In a less favorable review, Renaldo Matadeen of Comic Book Resources described the film as a "powerful character portrait" with "great cinematography and clever pacing", but felt that Swift's appearance near the end as a grown Sink "takes away from the artistic, auteur feel" of the film, preventing it from being a "perfect indie film".
The film briefly had the highest rating on film review site Letterboxd before Parasite (2019) regained the status.
## Accolades
All Too Well: The Short Film has received awards recognition in a diverse set of fields. It was nominated in five categories at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards, including Swift's fifth nomination for Video of the Year,—a record tied with Beyoncé for the most Video of the Year nominations; Swift was also nominated for Best Direction for a third consecutive year, following the music videos of "The Man" in 2020 and "Willow" in 2021. The film won Video of the Year and Best Longform Video, and Swift won Best Direction; she became the first artist to win Video of the Year three times, and the first artist to win Video of the Year for a self-directed video. She won four awards at the 2022 MTV Europe Music Awards, including Best Artist and Best Pop Act for the first time, and tied with Lady Gaga as the most awarded woman in EMA history (12 each). Swift won six awards at the 2022 American Music Awards, including Favorite Music Video and Artist of the Year. In 2023, Swift became the first artist to win the Grammy Award for Best Music Video as sole director; it was her second win in the category after "Bad Blood" (2015).
## Legacy
Publications have described the short film as one of the biggest newsmakers and pop culture moments of 2021. iHeartRadio called it a "cultural sensation", and the short film also invited "Oscar buzz", Google searches of Sink and O'Brien reached an all-time high upon its release. Various media outlets described the short film's absence from the shortlist for the 2023 Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film a snub.
Canadian singer Michael Bublé, in the music video for his 2022 single "I'll Never Not Love You", referenced and recreated iconic "love scenes" from various films with his wife, Luisana Lopilato; it included All Too Well: The Short Film, with Bublé as Him and Lopilato as Her.
The Department of English of the Queen's University at Kingston, a public research university in Ontario, Canada, offers a fall semester course titled "Taylor Swift's Literary Legacy (Taylor's Version)", with a syllabus requiring students to analyze many of Swift's works, such as All Too Well: The Short Film, to understand their literary references and sociopolitical relevance in contemporary culture.
Following the success of the short film, Swift was inspired to venture further into filmmaking. In December 2022, Searchlight Pictures announced that Swift has written an original script and will direct her debut feature film; details about the cast, plot, and title were withheld "until a later date". She took part in Variety's Directors on Directors series opposite British-Irish filmmaker Martin McDonagh to elucidate her filmmaking approach.
According to Kodak, the short film, which was photographed in 35mm Ektachrome by Yang, contributed to generating an "enormous interest" in the format.
## See also
- Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions, a concert documentary directed by Swift in her solo directorial debut.
- Miss Americana, a documentary about Swift's life and career. |
12,599,348 | Longtail butterfly ray | 1,129,920,096 | Species of cartilaginous fish | [
"Fish described in 1804",
"Gymnura",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot"
]
| The longtail butterfly ray (Gymnura poecilura) is a species of butterfly ray, family Gymnuridae, native to the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea to southern Japan and western Indonesia. Growing up to 92 cm (36 in) across, this ray has a lozenge-shaped pectoral fin disc about twice as wide as long, colored brown to gray above with many small, light spots. The spiracles behind its eyes have smooth rims. This species can be identified by its tail, which is about as long as the snout-to-vent distance, lacks fins, and bears nine to twelve each of alternating black and white bands.
Bottom-dwelling in nature, the longtail butterfly ray frequents sandy or muddy habitats in coastal waters shallower than 30 m (98 ft). Its diet consists of bony fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans. This species gives birth to live young; the developing embryos are nourished first by yolk and later by histotroph ("uterine milk") supplied by its mother. There is no defined breeding season, and females bear litters of up to seven pups. Used for its meat, the longtail butterfly ray is often caught by artisanal and commercial fisheries.
## Taxonomy and phylogeny
The longtail butterfly ray was originally described as Raja poecilura by English zoologist George Shaw, in his 1804 General Zoology or Systematic Natural History. He did not designate a type specimen as his account was based on an illustration by Scottish naturalist Patrick Russell, published a year earlier in Descriptions and Figures of Two Hundred Fishes Collected at Vizagapatam on the Coast of Coromandel. The specific epithet poecilura is derived from the Greek poikilos ("of many colors") and oura ("tail"). Later authors moved this species to the genus Gymnura.
Further research is needed to determine whether the isolated longtail butterfly rays in French Polynesia are in fact the same species as those from the rest of its range. Phylogenetic studies based on morphology and mitochondrial DNA indicate that the longtail butterfly ray is closely related to the zonetail butterfly ray (G. zonura), which shares much of its range in the Indo-Pacific. Another name for the longtail butterfly ray is variegated butterfly ray.
## Description
The pectoral fin disc of the longtail butterfly ray has the lozenge shape characteristic of its family, measuring around twice as wide as long. The leading margin of the disc is gently sinuous, the trailing margin is convex, and the outer corners are mildly angular. The snout is short and broad, with a tiny protruding tip. The medium-sized eyes have larger, smooth-rimmed spiracles behind. The nostrils are positioned close to the mouth; between them is a short and broad curtain of skin with a smooth margin. The large mouth forms a transverse curve and contains over 50 tooth rows in each jaw, increasing in number with age; the teeth are small, narrow, and pointed. There are five pairs of short gill slits on the underside of the disc. The pelvic fins are small and rounded.
The thread-like tail lacks dorsal or caudal fins, though there are low ridges along its length above and below. Its length is about equal to the distance between the snout tip and the vent, distinguishing this species from other butterfly rays that have shorter tails. Sometimes there is a small stinging spine (very rarely two) on the upper surface of the tail near the base. The skin is devoid of dermal denticles. This species is brown to greenish brown to gray above, with many small pale spots and sometimes also a smattering of dark dots. The tail has nine to twelve black bands alternating with white bands, which often have a small, dorsally positioned dark spot within. The underside is white, darkening at the edges of the fins. The longtail butterfly ray attains a maximum width of 92 cm (36 in).
## Distribution and habitat
The most widespread member of its family in the Indo-Pacific, the longtail butterfly ray is found from the Red Sea and Somalia, westward across India and Sri Lanka, to China and southern Japan, the Philippines, and the western islands of Indonesia (including Borneo, Sumatra, and Java). It has also been reported from French Polynesia (see taxonomic note above). It is fairly common in some areas. This bottom-dwelling species inhabits coastal waters at depths of 10–30 m (33–98 ft), preferring sandy or muddy bottoms. It does not appear to migrate seasonally.
## Biology and ecology
The longtail butterfly ray feeds on bony fishes, in particular ponyfishes of the genus Leiognathus, as well as molluscs and crustaceans. It is not known to shoal in large numbers. Known parasites of this ray include the nematode Hysterothylacium poecilurai and the tapeworm Acanthobothrium micracantha. Like other butterfly rays, this species is viviparous with the young sustained initially by yolk, and later by histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. Adult females have two functional ovaries and uteruses. Reproductive activity proceeds throughout the year, with a peak from April to October. The gestation period is unknown, though it is possible that females bear more than one litter per year. The litter size is at least seven pups and is not correlated with female size. The newborns measure 20–26 cm (7.9–10.2 in) across and look like stingless miniatures of the adult; siblings may differ from each other in color. Males and females mature sexually at roughly 45 and 41 cm (18 and 16 in) across respectively.
## Human interactions
The longtail butterfly ray is widely caught for meat and as bycatch in artisanal and commercial fisheries, including in India, Thailand, and Indonesia. It is taken using bottom trawls, bottom-set gillnets, and to a lesser degree trammel nets and other fishing gear. Though specific population and catch data are lacking, the longtail butterfly ray is thought to be susceptible to overfishing due to its low reproductive rate and the fact that pregnant females often abort their young when captured. Given the high intensity of fishing pressure across most of its range, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Vulnerable. |
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| Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He wrote the short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820), both of which appear in his collection The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. His historical works include biographies of Oliver Goldsmith, Muhammad, and George Washington, as well as several histories of 15th-century Spain that deal with subjects such as the Alhambra, Christopher Columbus, and the Moors. Irving served as American ambassador to Spain in the 1840s.
Born and raised in Manhattan to a merchant family, Irving made his literary debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle, written under the pseudonym Jonathan Oldstyle. He temporarily moved to England for the family business in 1815 where he achieved fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent., serialized from 1819 to 1820. He continued to publish regularly throughout his life, and he completed a five-volume biography of George Washington just eight months before his death at age 76 in Tarrytown, New York.
Irving was one of the first American writers to earn acclaim in Europe, and he encouraged other American authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Herman Melville and Edgar Allan Poe. He was also admired by some British writers, including Lord Byron, Thomas Campbell, Charles Dickens, Mary Shelley, Francis Jeffrey and Walter Scott. He advocated for writing as a legitimate profession and argued for stronger laws to protect American writers from copyright infringement.
## Biography
### Early years
Washington Irving's parents were William Irving Sr., originally of Quholm, Shapinsay, Orkney, Scotland, and Sarah (née Saunders), originally of Falmouth, Cornwall, England. They married in 1761 while William was serving as a petty officer in the British Navy. They had eleven children, eight of whom survived to adulthood. Their first two sons died in infancy, both named William, as did their fourth child John. Their surviving children were William Jr. (1766), Ann (1770), Peter (1771), Catherine (1774), Ebenezer (1776), John Treat (1778), Sarah (1780), and Washington.
The Irving family settled in Manhattan, and were part of the city's merchant class. Washington was born on April 3, 1783, the same week that New York City residents learned of the British ceasefire which ended the American Revolution. Irving's mother named him after George Washington. Irving met his namesake at age 6 when George Washington came to New York just before his inauguration as President in 1789. The President blessed young Irving, an encounter that Irving had commemorated in a small watercolor painting which continues to hang in his home.
The Irvings lived at 131 William Street at the time of Washington's birth, but they later moved across the street to 128 William Street. Several of Irving's brothers became active New York merchants; they encouraged his literary aspirations, often supporting him financially as he pursued his writing career.
Irving was an uninterested student who preferred adventure stories and drama, and he regularly sneaked out of class in the evenings to attend the theater by the time he was 14. An outbreak of yellow fever in Manhattan in 1798 prompted his family to send him upriver, where he stayed with his friend James Kirke Paulding in Tarrytown, New York. It was in Tarrytown he became familiar with the nearby town of Sleepy Hollow, New York, with its Dutch customs and local ghost stories. He made several other trips up the Hudson as a teenager, including an extended visit to Johnstown, New York where he passed through the Catskill Mountains region, the setting for "Rip Van Winkle". "Of all the scenery of the Hudson", Irving wrote, "the Kaatskill Mountains had the most witching effect on my boyish imagination".
Irving began writing letters to the New York Morning Chronicle in 1802 when he was 19, submitting commentaries on the city's social and theater scene under the pseudonym Jonathan Oldstyle. The name evoked his Federalist leanings and was the first of many pseudonyms he employed throughout his career. The letters brought Irving some early fame and moderate notoriety. Aaron Burr was a co-publisher of the Chronicle, and was impressed enough to send clippings of the Oldstyle pieces to his daughter Theodosia. Charles Brockden Brown made a trip to New York to try to recruit Oldstyle for a literary magazine he was editing in Philadelphia.
Concerned for his health, Irving's brothers financed an extended tour of Europe from 1804 to 1806. He bypassed most of the sites and locations considered essential for the social development of a young man, to the dismay of his brother William who wrote that he was pleased that his brother's health was improving, but he did not like the choice to "gallop through Italy... leaving Florence on your left and Venice on your right". Instead, Irving honed the social and conversational skills that eventually made him one of the world's most in-demand guests. "I endeavor to take things as they come with cheerfulness", Irving wrote, "and when I cannot get a dinner to suit my taste, I endeavor to get a taste to suit my dinner". While visiting Rome in 1805, Irving struck up a friendship with painter Washington Allston and was almost persuaded into a career as a painter. "My lot in life, however, was differently cast".
### First major writings
Irving returned from Europe to study law with his legal mentor Judge Josiah Ogden Hoffman in New York City. By his own admission, he was not a good student and barely passed the bar examination in 1806. He began socializing with a group of literate young men whom he dubbed "The Lads of Kilkenny", and he created the literary magazine Salmagundi in January 1807 with his brother William and his friend James Kirke Paulding, writing under various pseudonyms, such as William Wizard and Launcelot Langstaff. Irving lampooned New York culture and politics in a manner similar to the 20th century Mad magazine. Salmagundi was a moderate success, spreading Irving's name and reputation beyond New York. He gave New York City the nickname "Gotham" in its 17th issue dated November 11, 1807, an Anglo-Saxon word meaning "Goat's Town".
Irving completed A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809) while mourning the death of his 17-year-old fiancée Matilda Hoffman. It was his first major book and a satire on self-important local history and contemporary politics. Before its publication, Irving started a hoax by placing a series of missing person advertisements in New York newspapers seeking information on Diedrich Knickerbocker, a crusty Dutch historian who had allegedly gone missing from his hotel in New York City. As part of the ruse, he placed a notice from the hotel's proprietor informing readers that, if Mr. Knickerbocker failed to return to the hotel to pay his bill, he would publish a manuscript that Knickerbocker had left behind.
Unsuspecting readers followed the story of Knickerbocker and his manuscript with interest, and some New York city officials were concerned enough about the missing historian to offer a reward for his safe return. Irving then published A History of New York on December 6, 1809, under the Knickerbocker pseudonym, with immediate critical and popular success. "It took with the public", Irving remarked, "and gave me celebrity, as an original work was something remarkable and uncommon in America". The name Diedrich Knickerbocker became a nickname for Manhattan residents in general and was adopted by the New York Knickerbockers basketball team.
After the success of A History of New York, Irving searched for a job and eventually became an editor of Analectic Magazine, where he wrote biographies of naval heroes such as James Lawrence and Oliver Hazard Perry. He was also among the first magazine editors to reprint Francis Scott Key's poem "Defense of Fort McHenry", which was immortalized as "The Star-Spangled Banner". Irving initially opposed the War of 1812 like many other merchants, but the British attack on Washington, D.C., in 1814 convinced him to enlist. He served on the staff of Daniel Tompkins, governor of New York and commander of the New York State Militia, but he saw no real action apart from a reconnaissance mission in the Great Lakes region. The war was disastrous for many American merchants, including Irving's family, and he left for England in mid-1815 to salvage the family trading company. He remained in Europe for the next 17 years.
### Life in Europe
#### The Sketch Book
Irving spent the next two years trying to bail out the family firm financially but eventually had to declare bankruptcy. With no job prospects, he continued writing throughout 1817 and 1818. In the summer of 1817, he visited Walter Scott, beginning a lifelong personal and professional friendship.
Irving composed the short story "Rip Van Winkle" overnight while staying with his sister Sarah and her husband, Henry van Wart in Birmingham, England, a place that inspired other works, as well. In October 1818, Irving's brother William secured for Irving a post as chief clerk to the United States Navy and urged him to return home. Irving turned the offer down, opting to stay in England to pursue a writing career.
In the spring of 1819, Irving sent to his brother Ebenezer in New York a set of short prose pieces that he asked be published as The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. The first installment, containing "Rip Van Winkle", was an enormous success, and the rest of the work would be equally successful; it was issued in 1819–1820 in seven installments in New York, and in two volumes in London ("The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" would appear in the sixth issue of the New York edition, and the second volume of the London edition).
Like many successful authors of this era, Irving struggled against literary bootleggers. In England, some of his sketches were reprinted in periodicals without his permission, a legal practice as there was no international copyright law at the time. To prevent further piracy in Britain, Irving paid to have the first four American installments published as a single volume by John Miller in London.
Irving appealed to Walter Scott for help procuring a more reputable publisher for the remainder of the book. Scott referred Irving to his own publisher, London powerhouse John Murray, who agreed to take on The Sketch Book. From then on, Irving would publish concurrently in the United States and Britain to protect his copyright, with Murray as his English publisher of choice.
Irving's reputation soared, and for the next two years, he led an active social life in Paris and Great Britain, where he was often feted as an anomaly of literature: an upstart American who dared to write English well.
#### Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a Traveller
With both Irving and publisher John Murray eager to follow up on the success of The Sketch Book, Irving spent much of 1821 traveling in Europe in search of new material, reading widely in Dutch and German folk tales. Hampered by writer's block—and depressed by the death of his brother William—Irving worked slowly, finally delivering a completed manuscript to Murray in March 1822. The book, Bracebridge Hall, or The Humorists, A Medley (the location was based loosely on Aston Hall, occupied by members of the Bracebridge family, near his sister's home in Birmingham) was published in June 1822.
The format of Bracebridge was similar to that of The Sketch Book, with Irving, as Crayon, narrating a series of more than 50 loosely connected short stories and essays. While some reviewers thought Bracebridge to be a lesser imitation of The Sketch Book, the book was well received by readers and critics. "We have received so much pleasure from this book", wrote critic Francis Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review, "that we think ourselves bound in gratitude... to make a public acknowledgement of it". Irving was relieved at its reception, which did much to cement his reputation with European readers.
Still struggling with writer's block, Irving traveled to Germany, settling in Dresden in the winter of 1822. Here he dazzled the royal family and attached himself to Amelia Foster, an American living in Dresden with her five children. Irving was particularly attracted to Foster's 18-year-old daughter Emily and vied in frustration for her hand. Emily finally refused his offer of marriage in the spring of 1823.
He returned to Paris and began collaborating with playwright John Howard Payne on translations of French plays for the English stage, with little success. He also learned through Payne that the novelist Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was romantically interested in him, though Irving never pursued the relationship.
In August 1824, Irving published the collection of essays Tales of a Traveller—including the short story "The Devil and Tom Walker"—under his Geoffrey Crayon persona. "I think there are in it some of the best things I have ever written", Irving told his sister. But while the book sold respectably, Traveller was dismissed by critics, who panned both Traveller and its author. "The public have been led to expect better things", wrote the United States Literary Gazette, while the New-York Mirror pronounced Irving "overrated". Hurt and depressed by the book's reception, Irving retreated to Paris where he spent the next year worrying about finances and scribbling down ideas for projects that never materialized.
#### Spanish books
While in Paris, Irving received a letter from Alexander Hill Everett on January 30, 1826. Everett, recently the American Minister to Spain, urged Irving to join him in Madrid, noting that a number of manuscripts dealing with the Spanish conquest of the Americas had recently been made public. Irving left for Madrid and enthusiastically began scouring the Spanish archives for colorful material.
With full access to the American consul's massive library of Spanish history, Irving began working on several books at once. The first offspring of this hard work, A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus, was published in January 1828. The book was popular in the United States and in Europe and would have 175 editions published before the end of the century. It was also the first project of Irving's to be published with his own name, instead of a pseudonym, on the title page. Irving was invited to stay at the palace of the Duke of Gor, who gave him unfettered access to his library containing many medieval manuscripts. Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada was published a year later, followed by Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus in 1831.
Irving's writings on Columbus are a mixture of history and fiction, a genre now called romantic history. Irving based them on extensive research in the Spanish archives, but also added imaginative elements aimed at sharpening the story. The first of these works is the source of the durable myth that medieval Europeans believed the Earth was flat. According to the popular book, Columbus proved the Earth was round.
In 1829, Irving was elected to the American Philosophical Society. That same year, he moved into Granada's ancient palace Alhambra, "determined to linger here", he said, "until I get some writings under way connected with the place". Before he could get any significant writing underway, however, he was notified of his appointment as Secretary to the American Legation in London. Worried he would disappoint friends and family if he refused the position, Irving left Spain for England in July 1829.
#### Secretary to the American legation in London
Arriving in London, Irving joined the staff of American Minister Louis McLane. McLane immediately assigned the daily secretary work to another man and tapped Irving to fill the role of aide-de-camp. The two worked over the next year to negotiate a trade agreement between the United States and the British West Indies, finally reaching a deal in August 1830. That same year, Irving was awarded a medal by the Royal Society of Literature, followed by an honorary doctorate of civil law from Oxford in 1831.
Following McLane's recall to the United States in 1831 to serve as Secretary of Treasury, Irving stayed on as the legation's chargé d'affaires until the arrival of Martin Van Buren, President Andrew Jackson's nominee for British Minister. With Van Buren in place, Irving resigned his post to concentrate on writing, eventually completing Tales of the Alhambra, which would be published concurrently in the United States and England in 1832.
Irving was still in London when Van Buren received word that the United States Senate had refused to confirm him as the new Minister. Consoling Van Buren, Irving predicted that the Senate's partisan move would backfire. "I should not be surprised", Irving said, "if this vote of the Senate goes far toward elevating him to the presidential chair".
### Return to the United States
Irving arrived in New York on May 21, 1832, after 17 years abroad. That September, he accompanied Commissioner on Indian Affairs Henry Leavitt Ellsworth on a surveying mission, along with companions Charles La Trobe and Count Albert-Alexandre de Pourtales, and they traveled deep into Indian Territory (now the state of Oklahoma). At the completion of his western tour, Irving traveled through Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, where he became acquainted with politician and novelist John Pendleton Kennedy.
Irving was frustrated by bad investments, so he turned to writing to generate additional income, beginning with A Tour on the Prairies which related his recent travels on the frontier. The book was another popular success and also the first book written and published by Irving in the United States since A History of New York in 1809. In 1834, he was approached by fur magnate John Jacob Astor, who convinced him to write a history of his fur trading colony in Astoria, Oregon. Irving made quick work of Astor's project, shipping the fawning biographical account Astoria in February 1836. In 1835, Irving, Astor, and a few others founded the Saint Nicholas Society in the City of New York.
During an extended stay at Astor's home, Irving met explorer Benjamin Bonneville and was intrigued with his maps and stories of the territories beyond the Rocky Mountains. The two men met in Washington, D.C., several months later, and Bonneville sold his maps and rough notes to Irving for \$1,000. Irving used these materials as the basis for his 1837 book The Adventures of Captain Bonneville. These three works made up Irving's "western" series of books and were written partly as a response to criticism that his time in England and Spain had made him more European than American. Critics such as James Fenimore Cooper and Philip Freneau felt that he had turned his back on his American heritage in favor of English aristocracy. Irving's western books were well received in the United States, particularly A Tour on the Prairies, though British critics accused him of "book-making".
In 1835, Irving purchased a "neglected cottage" and its surrounding riverfront property in Tarrytown, New York, which he named Sunnyside in 1841. It required constant repair and renovation over the next 20 years, with costs continually escalating, so he reluctantly agreed to become a regular contributor to The Knickerbocker magazine in 1839, writing new essays and short stories under the Knickerbocker and Crayon pseudonyms. He was regularly approached by aspiring young authors for advice or endorsement, including Edgar Allan Poe, who sought Irving's comments on "William Wilson" and "The Fall of the House of Usher".
In 1837, a lady of Charleston, South Carolina brought to the attention of William Clancy, newly appointed bishop to Demerara, a passage in The Crayon Miscellany, and questioned whether it accurately reflected Catholic teaching or practice. The passage under "Newstead Abbey" read:
> One of the parchment scrolls thus discovered, throws rather an awkward light upon the kind of life led by the friars of Newstead. It is an indulgence granted to them for a certain number of months, in which a plenary pardon is assured in advance for all kinds of crimes, among which, several of the most gross and sensual are specifically mentioned, and the weaknesses of the flesh to which they were prone.
Clancy wrote Irving, who "promptly aided the investigation into the truth, and promised to correct in future editions the misrepresentation complained of". Clancy traveled to his new posting by way of England, and bearing a letter of introduction from Irving, stopped at Newstead Abbey and was able to view the document to which Irving had alluded. Upon inspection, Clancy discovered that it was, in fact, not an indulgence issued to the friars from any ecclesiastical authority, but a pardon given by the king to some parties suspected of having broken "forest laws". Clancy requested the local pastor to forward his findings to Catholic periodicals in England, and upon publication, send a copy to Irving. Whether this was done is not clear as the disputed text remains in the 1849 edition.
Irving also championed America's maturing literature, advocating stronger copyright laws to protect writers from the kind of piracy that had initially plagued The Sketch Book. Writing in the January 1840 issue of Knickerbocker, he openly endorsed copyright legislation pending in Congress. "We have a young literature", he wrote, "springing up and daily unfolding itself with wonderful energy and luxuriance, which ... deserves all its fostering care". The legislation, however, did not pass at that time.
In 1841, Irving was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician. He also began a friendly correspondence with Charles Dickens and hosted Dickens and his wife at Sunnyside during Dickens's American tour in 1842.
### Minister to Spain
President John Tyler appointed Irving as Minister to Spain in February 1842, after an endorsement from Secretary of State Daniel Webster. Irving wrote, "It will be a severe trial to absent myself for a time from my dear little Sunnyside, but I shall return to it better enabled to carry it on comfortably". He hoped that his position as Minister would allow him plenty of time to write, but Spain was in a state of political upheaval during most of his tenure, with a number of warring factions vying for control of the 12-year-old Queen Isabella II. Irving maintained good relations with the various generals and politicians, as control of Spain rotated through Espartero, Bravo, then Narváez. Espartero was then locked in a power struggle with the Spanish Cortes. Irving's official reports on the ensuing civil war and revolution expressed his romantic fascination with the regent as young Queen Isabella's knight protector, He wrote with an anti-republican, undiplomatic bias. Though Espartero, ousted in July 1843, remained a fallen hero in his eyes, Irving began to view Spanish affairs more realistically. However, the politics and warfare were exhausting, and Irving was both homesick and suffering from a crippling skin condition.
> I am wearied and at times heartsick of the wretched politics of this country.... The last ten or twelve years of my life, passed among sordid speculators in the United States, and political adventurers in Spain, has shewn me so much of the dark side of human nature, that I begin to have painful doubts of my fellow man; and look back with regret to the confiding period of my literary career, when, poor as a rat, but rich in dreams, I beheld the world through the medium of my imagination and was apt to believe men as good as I wished them to be.
With the political situation relatively settled in Spain, Irving continued to closely monitor the development of the new government and the fate of Isabella. His official duties as Spanish Minister also involved negotiating American trade interests with Cuba and following the Spanish parliament's debates over the slave trade. He was also pressed into service by Louis McLane, the American Minister to the Court of St. James's in London, to assist in negotiating the Anglo-American disagreement over the Oregon border that newly elected president James K. Polk had vowed to resolve.
### Final years and death
Irving returned from Spain in September 1846, took up residence at Sunnyside, and began work on an "Author's Revised Edition" of his works for publisher George Palmer Putnam. For its publication, Irving had made a deal which guaranteed him 12 percent of the retail price of all copies sold, an agreement that was unprecedented at that time. As he revised his older works for Putnam, he continued to write regularly, publishing biographies of Oliver Goldsmith in 1849 and Islamic prophet Muhammad in 1850. In 1855, he produced Wolfert's Roost, a collection of stories and essays that he had written for The Knickerbocker and other publications, and he began publishing a biography of his namesake George Washington which he expected to be his masterpiece. Five volumes of the biography were published between 1855 and 1859.
Irving traveled regularly to Mount Vernon and Washington, D.C., for his research, and struck up friendships with Presidents Millard Fillmore and Franklin Pierce. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855. He was hired as an executor of John Jacob Astor's estate in 1848 and appointed by Astor's will as first chairman of the Astor Library, a forerunner to the New York Public Library.
Irving continued to socialize and keep up with his correspondence well into his seventies, and his fame and popularity continued to soar. "I don't believe that any man, in any country, has ever had a more affectionate admiration for him than that given to you in America", wrote Senator William C. Preston in a letter to Irving. "I believe that we have had but one man who is so much in the popular heart". By 1859, author Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. noted that Sunnyside had become "next to Mount Vernon, the best known and most cherished of all the dwellings in our land".
Irving died of a heart attack in his bedroom at Sunnyside on November 28, 1859, age 76—only eight months after completing the final volume of his Washington biography. Legend has it that his last words were: "Well, I must arrange my pillows for another night. When will this end?" He was buried under a simple headstone at Sleepy Hollow cemetery on December 1, 1859. Irving and his grave were commemorated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his 1876 poem "In the Churchyard at Tarrytown", which concludes with:
> > How sweet a life was his; how sweet a death! Living, to wing with mirth the weary hours, Or with romantic tales the heart to cheer; Dying, to leave a memory like the breath Of summers full of sunshine and of showers, A grief and gladness in the atmosphere.
## Legacy
### Literary reputation
Irving is largely credited as the first American Man of Letters and the first to earn his living solely by his pen. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow acknowledged Irving's role in promoting American literature in December 1859: "We feel a just pride in his renown as an author, not forgetting that, to his other claims upon our gratitude, he adds also that of having been the first to win for our country an honourable name and position in the History of Letters".
Irving perfected the American short story and was the first American writer to set his stories firmly in the United States, even as he poached from German or Dutch folklore. He is also generally credited as one of the first to write in the vernacular and without an obligation to presenting morals or being didactic in his short stories, writing stories simply to entertain rather than to enlighten. He also encouraged many would-be writers. As George William Curtis noted, there "is not a young literary aspirant in the country, who, if he ever personally met Irving, did not hear from him the kindest words of sympathy, regard, and encouragement".
Edgar Allan Poe, on the other hand, felt that Irving should be given credit for being an innovator but that the writing itself was often unsophisticated. "Irving is much over-rated", Poe wrote in 1838, "and a nice distinction might be drawn between his just and his surreptitious and adventitious reputation—between what is due to the pioneer solely, and what to the writer". A critic for the New-York Mirror wrote: "No man in the Republic of Letters has been more overrated than Mr. Washington Irving". Some critics claimed that Irving catered to British sensibilities, and one critic charged that he wrote "of and for England, rather than his own country".
Other critics were more supportive of Irving's style. William Makepeace Thackeray was the first to refer to Irving as the "ambassador whom the New World of Letters sent to the Old", a banner picked up by writers and critics throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. "He is the first of the American humorists, as he is almost the first of the American writers", wrote critic H.R. Hawless in 1881, "yet belonging to the New World, there is a quaint Old World flavor about him". Early critics often had difficulty separating Irving the man from Irving the writer. "The life of Washington Irving was one of the brightest ever led by an author", wrote Richard Henry Stoddard, an early Irving biographer. Later critics, however, began to review his writings as all style with no substance. "The man had no message", said critic Barrett Wendell.
As a historian, Irving's reputation had fallen out of favor but then gained a resurgence. "With the advent of 'scientific' history in the generations that followed his, Irving's historical writings lapsed into disregard and disrespect. To late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century historians, including John Franklin Jameson, G. P. Gooch, and others, these works were demiromances, worthy at best of veiled condescension. However, more recently several of Irving's histories and biographies have again won praise for their reliability as well as the literary skill with which they were written. Specifically, A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus; Astoria, or Anecdotes of an Enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains; and Life of George Washington have earned the respect of scholars whose writings on those topics we consider authoritative in our generation: Samuel Eliot Morison, Bernard DeVoto, Douglas Southall Freeman".
### Impact on American culture
Irving popularized the nickname "Gotham" for New York City, and he is credited with inventing the expression "the almighty dollar". The surname of his fictional Dutch historian Diedrich Knickerbocker is generally associated with New York and New Yorkers, as found in New York's professional basketball team The New York Knickerbockers.
One of Irving's most lasting contributions to American culture is in the way that Americans celebrate Christmas. In his 1812 revisions to A History of New York, he inserted a dream sequence featuring St. Nicholas soaring over treetops in a flying wagon, an invention which others dressed up as Santa Claus. In his five Christmas stories in The Sketch Book, Irving portrayed an idealized celebration of old-fashioned Christmas customs at a quaint English manor which depicted English Christmas festivities that he experienced while staying in England, which had largely been abandoned. He used text from The Vindication of Christmas (London 1652) of old English Christmas traditions, and the book contributed to the revival and reinterpretation of the Christmas holiday in the United States.
Irving introduced the erroneous idea that Europeans believed the world to be flat prior to the discovery of the New World in his biography of Christopher Columbus, yet the flat-Earth myth has been taught in schools as fact to many generations of Americans. American painter John Quidor based many of his paintings on scenes from the works of Irving about Dutch New York, including such paintings as Ichabod Crane Flying from the Headless Horseman (1828), The Return of Rip Van Winkle (1849), and The Headless Horseman Pursuing Ichabod Crane (1858).
### Memorials
The village of Dearman, New York, changed its name to "Irvington" in 1854 to honor Washington Irving, who was living in nearby Sunnyside, which is preserved as a museum. Influential residents of the village prevailed upon the Hudson River Railroad, which had reached the village by 1849, to change the name of the train station to "Irvington", and the village incorporated as Irvington on April 16, 1872.
The town of Knickerbocker, Texas, was founded by two of Irving's nephews, who named it in honor of their uncle's literary pseudonym. The city of Irving, Texas, states that it is named for Washington Irving.
Irvington, New Jersey is also named after Irving, it was incorporated on March 27, 1874 from parts of Clinton Township (Clinton Township is now part of Newark, New Jersey since 1902.
Irving Street in San Francisco is named after him.
The Irving Park neighborhood in Chicago is named for him as well, though the original name of the subdivision was Irvington and then later Irving Park before annexation to Chicago.
Gibbons Memorial Park, located in Honesdale, Pennsylvania, is located on Irving Cliff, which was named after him.
The Irvington neighborhood in Indianapolis is also one of the many communities named after him.
Irving College (1838-90) in Irving College, Tennessee, was named for Irving.
## Works |
7,245,493 | Touchet Formation | 1,162,966,596 | Geological formation in Washington, US | [
"Basalt formations",
"Fluvial deposits",
"Geologic formations of Oregon",
"Geologic formations of Washington (state)",
"Glacial deposits",
"Pleistocene United States",
"Rancholabrean"
]
| The Touchet Formation or Touchet beds consist of well-bedded, coarse to fine sand and silt which overlays local bedrock composed of Neogene basalt of the Columbia River Basalt Group in south-central Washington and north-central Oregon. The beds consist of more than 40 to 62 distinct rhythmites – horizontal layers of sediment, each clearly demarcated from the layer below. These Touchet beds are often covered by windblown loess which were deposited later; the number of layers varies with location. The beds vary in thickness from 330 ft (100 m) at lower elevations where a number of layers can be found to a few extremely thin layers at the maximum elevation where they are observed (1,150 ft (350 m)).
The Touchet beds are one element in a chain of evidence which helped identify and define the progression of the Missoula Floods, which occurred around 18,400 to 15,700 calendar years ago. During the floods, flow through the Wallula Gap was slow enough such that water pooled in a temporary lake, Lake Lewis. Lake Lewis back-flooded up the Yakima, Walla Walla, Touchet and Tucannon River Valleys. In these relatively calm arms of the lake, the slack waters deposited the suspended materials eroded from the scabland regions north of Lake Lewis, and redeposited them in pronounced layers before receding.
## Discovery and interpretation
Although visible along the Walla Walla and Touchet rivers, the Touchet Beds were not subjected to study until the early 20th century. They remain at the center of scientific analyses to characterize the Missoula Floods.
### Type locality
The type locality for the Touchet Formation is the confluence of the Touchet River with the Walla Walla River, originally noted by Richard Foster Flint in 1938. Numerous other exposures were subsequently identified throughout the basins of the former Lake Lewis and Lake Condon. Touchet-equivalent slackwater deposits are also present in the Willamette Valley near Portland (former Lake Allison).
### Early interpretation
In 1923, J Harlen Bretz published a paper arguing that the channeled scablands in Eastern Washington were caused by massive flooding in the distant past. This view, which was seen as arguing for a Catastrophic explanation for the geologic development, which ran counter the then prevailing view of uniformitarianism, and Bretz's views were initially decried. Bretz defended his theories, setting off a forty-year debate over the Missoula Floods before Bretz's view of a catastrophic flood finally prevailed. Waitt extended Bretz's argument, arguing for a sequence of multiple Missoula Floods — 40 or more. Waitt's proposal was based mainly on analysis from glacial lake bottom deposits in Ninemile Creek and the Touchet Formation deposits in Burlingame Canyon. This represented a move away from a single catastrophic flood toward a series of catastrophic floods, but with the flood source still ascribed to Glacial Lake Missoula.
The controversy whether the Channeled Scabland landforms were formed mainly by multiple periodic large floods or by a single grand-scale cataclysmic flood from either late Pleistocene Glacial Lake Missoula or an unidentified Canadian source reappeared in 1999. Shaw's team reviewed the sedimentary sequences of the Touchet beds and concluded that the sequences do not automatically imply multiple floods separated by decades or centuries. Rather, they proposed that sedimentation in the Glacial Lake Missoula basin was the result of jökulhlaups draining into Lake Missoula from British Columbia to the north. Shaw's team proposed that the rhythmic Touchet beds are the result of multiple pulses, or surges, within a single larger flood. In response, Atwater's team observed that there is substantial evidence for periods of nondeposition and subaerial exposure lasting decades in duration between flood events, including mud cracks and animal burrows in the lower Touchet beds which were filled by sediment from later floods. The Evidence for periods of nondeposition and subaerial exposure between the deposition of individual beds have been further documented and the occurrence of multiple Missoula Floods confirmed by later research.
## Causes
Recent scientific investigations support Waitt's proposed separation of layers into records of sequential flood events. Although the various sources support temporal separation of floods, they do not definitively identify the source of water for all of the floods, though they all agree that Lake Missoula was source for at least some of them.
### Lithology
The Touchet beds consists of coarse to fine sand and silt rhythmites which were deposited during multiple Missoula Floods, around 18,400 to 15,700 calendar years ago, and during the Bonneville Flood that occurred in approximately 18,000 calendar years ago Another potential source for periodic flooding, still somewhat controversial, is flood release by jökulhlaups from subglacial lakes in British Columbia, but no specific source for these jökulhlaups has yet been identified.
During the floods, flow through the narrow Wallula Gap was restricted such that water pooled in a temporary lake, Lake Lewis, which formed in the lowlands of the Columbia Plateau. Lake Lewis back-flooded up the Yakima, Walla Walla, Touchet and Tucannon River valleys. This flooding lasted for a period of 4–7 days. In the relatively calm arms of the lake, the slack waters were thick with suspended materials eroded from the scablands above. Some of the suspended materials settled out, creating thick Touchet Formation layers, or rhythmites, which are found throughout these valleys. The larger clasts settled out first, followed by the finer ones. This resulted in layers with graded bedding, or bedding in which the larger particles are at the bottom and the smaller ones are at the top.
### Periodicity
In 1980, R. B. Waitt studied the Touchet Formation in the wall of the Burlingame Canyon west of Walla Walla, Washington, where he counted at least 41 distinct flood deposit layers. He postulated that these floods could occur only when glacial Lake Missoula existed, which estimates place at 18,400 to 15,700 calendar years ago More recent studies have used radiocarbon dating to establish the approximate ages of deposition for the various layers.
The side valleys were protected from the violent currents of the main channel; as a result the flood strata laid down by earlier floods were not eroded away by subsequent floods, but were buried and preserved. The average period between flood episodes is estimated to be 20 to 60 years. The periodicity estimates are based on a number of constraints:
\* The time to recharge Lake Missoula depends upon the level at which the dam is breached releasing the flood as well as upon the adjusted precipitation rate in the drainages flowing into Lake Missoula. For the volumes which correspond to calculated maximum flow rates, this is estimated to take from 20 to 80 years.
\* Paleomagnetic orientations from beds of tephra (volcanic ash) that lie between the layers of the Touchet Formation show secular variation, which indicates that the beds must have been formed by many floods. The purity of the tephra suggests subaerial deposition (the tephra could be mixed with the surrounding sediment if it was deposited in moving water), which indicates a dry period during the ash falls (and hence a hiatus between floods).
\* Offshore deposits on the bed of the Pacific at the mouth of the Columbia River include 120 m (390 ft) of material deposited over a several thousand year period that corresponds to the period of multiple scabland floods seen in the Touchet Beds. Since there are at least 40 floods, this would give an average separation between floods of 50 years.
\* The number of layers deposited varies with location in the Lake Lewis basin. This can best be understood as the result of multiple floods; the variable levels correspond to Lake Missoula breaching the ice dam at varying lake levels, releasing different volumes of flood waters. This would suggest the time between floods is variable.
\* Flood beds in other locations upstream of Lake Lewis such as Ninemile Creek in Montana and the Sanpoil arm of glacial Lake Columbia show a corresponding regularity of flood deposits as well as deposit grading and rhythmical repetition to those in Lake Lewis. Since Glacial Lake Columbia remained filled, annual deposits (varves) can be observed between flood deposits. The flood deposits can be distinguished from annually deposited varves by both their thickness and the presence of materials foreign to the immediate drainage. Atwater reports from 35 to 55 annual varves between flood deposits in Lake Columbia, supporting a period of 35 to 55 years between ice dam failures.
\* Additional varve counts from the Lake Missoula Basin, Sanpoil River, and Latah Creek suggest that the time between floods was 30–40 years on average.
## Locations
### Touchet River valley
The Touchet Formation was originally identified at the confluence of the Touchet River with the Walla Walla River. It is also found at some distance up the Touchet River Valley. The number of layers observed decreases as one progresses up-valley, indicating that the floodwater lakes varied in depth and distance upstream from the various flood dams. Clastic dike intrusions are observed in some locations penetrating the layers vertically; the dikes are infilled with uniform-size fine-grained materials and are indications that the period between floods was long enough that the deposits dried, forming vertical cracks and allowing wind-blown eroded materials to infill the cracks.
### Walla Walla River valley
The Walla Walla River Valley is a broad open basin drained by the Walla Walla River. Below the valley, the river flows through a narrow 8-mile (13 km) gap to its confluence with the Columbia River. This area was filled to varying depths by the successive Missoula Floods, and sediments settled out to form the Touchet beds over much of the basin, creating what is today a fertile farmland region. In the lowest part of the broader valley, to the east of the Columbia River and west of the city of Walla Walla, Washington, soils commonly form on Touchet beds. In several locations erosion has exposed these beds. One outcrop, the Gardena Terrace segment of the rhythmites, can be seen along the highway west of Walla Walla. The Touchet Formation is also extensively exposed at Burlingame Canyon, just southwest of the town of Touchet near the confluence of the Touchet and Walla Walla Rivers. The deposits are also found along tributaries to the Walla Walla, extending some distance south into Oregon.
### Yakima River valley
Lake Lewis extended up the Yakima Valley, flooding an area of about 600 sq mi (1,600 km<sup>2</sup>) of the valley and covering the area now occupied by the city of Yakima by about 200 ft (61 m). The valley extends for 80 mi (130 km), widening westwards above the Chandler Narrows and then narrowing again at Union Gap just below Yakima. The Toppenish Basin and Benton Basin of the lower Yakima River both contain large amounts of Touchet Formation deposits. Rhythmites are extensively exposed 1 mi (1.6 km) north of Mabton and at Zillah. Ice rafted erratics are also commonly found in these beds.
### Tucannon River valley
The Tucannon River and its tributary, the Pataha Creek also have valleys partially filled with alluvial deposits from the Missoula and Bonneville floods. Although they lie some distance up the Snake River drainage, the flood waters of Lake Lewis backed up this drainage far enough to deposit sediments. Floodplain deposits consist of up to six distinct Touchet Beds, as well as loess silt and fine sand. These alluvial and loess deposits narrow as they approach the basalt valley walls, and thicken into the central valley, with a maximum sediment thickness of between 20 and 100 ft (6 and 30 m). Due to the elevation of the valley, only six of the flooding events caused water to back into the Tucannon Valley in sufficient volume to deposit distinct layers.
### Columbia River Basin
Rhythmites from the Missoula Floods have also been observed in the Columbia River valley. One notable location is the White Bluffs, which are made up of more thickly bedded deposits from the eddy that formed in the floodwaters behind the Saddle Mountains. Another location is at Trinidad, located approximately 8 miles (13 km) west of Quincy (Crescent Bar Road).
### Willow Creek Valley
The Touchet Formation is also found in Oregon, in areas flooded by Lake Condon. This lake back-flooded into the Umatilla and John Day River Valleys as well as other tributaries. As one example, silt-sand rhythmites associated with the Missoula Floods are present along Willow Creek, a valley tributary to the Columbia River. Willow Creek joins with the Columbia a few miles west of Boardman, Oregon. Excellent exposures of the unit (which contains abundant clastic dikes) can be found in roadcuts along Hwy 74 (Heppner Highway) near the ranching community of Cecil, Oregon. These deposits are associated with former Lake Condon. |
7,499,789 | Victorian Age: Vampire | 1,092,617,467 | Tabletop role-playing game | [
"Africa in fiction",
"British Empire in fiction",
"Europe in fiction",
"Historical role-playing games",
"India in fiction",
"LGBT fiction",
"London in fiction",
"Role-playing games introduced in 2002",
"United States in fiction",
"Vampire: The Masquerade",
"Victorian era in popular culture"
]
| Victorian Age: Vampire is a tabletop role-playing game published by White Wolf Publishing on September 30, 2002. It is part of the World of Darkness series, and is based on the 1991 game Vampire: The Masquerade. Players take the roles of vampires existing in secrecy among humans, in 1880–1897, during the Victorian era. The setting is primarily focused on Europe, but also features locations including Africa, India, and the United States. The core book does not contain the full rules for the game, and so an additional rulebook is required, such as Vampire: The Masquerade Revised Edition or Dark Ages: Vampire.
The game was created by Justin Achilli, Kraig Blackwelder, Brian Campbell, Will Hindmarch, and Ari Marmell. It is themed around Gothic literature, and also features themes of British imperial oppression, sexual repression, social reform, and clashes between ideologies. It was produced as a one-off, and supported with two supplementary books. It has also been adapted into the live action role-playing game Vampire by Gaslight and a novel series by Philippe Boulle; characters from it also appear in the Vampire: The Masquerade supplement Fall of London. The game was critically well received for its historical setting.
## Overview
Victorian Age: Vampire is a tabletop role-playing game based on Vampire: The Masquerade, where players take the roles of vampires. It is set in 1880–1897, during the end of the Victorian era, with a focus on Europe; other featured locations include Africa, India, and the United States.
At this point in the setting, vampires no longer openly lord over humans, and live in hiding in cities and the countryside. Humans still have a remnant of belief in vampires: the notion of their existence is considered absurd in some circles, who still fear for vampires at night. Vampires in the setting are common, with around one vampire per 50,000 humans, particularly in Eastern Europe. Antagonists include witch hunters, the Inquisition, secret societies, sorcerers and witches, werewolves, fey, and ghosts.
The Victorian Age: Vampire rulebook does not contain complete rules, and as such the game requires another rulebook from the series to be played, such as Vampire: The Masquerade Revised Edition or Dark Ages: Vampire. Character creation is done with a character sheet, similarly to Vampire: The Masquerade, with some differences due to the time period; players choose attributes for their characters, and pick which of the thirteen vampire clans they will belong to. Games are led by storytellers, and can be played either without dice or through comparing dice pools.
## Production and release
Victorian Age: Vampire was created by Justin Achilli, Kraig Blackwelder, Brian Campbell, Will Hindmarch, and Ari Marmell, with art by Mike Danza, Guy Davis, Rebecca Guay, Vince Locke, Matthew Mitchell, Christopher Shy, Richard Thomas, and Andy Trabbold. It was produced as a one-off based on Vampire: The Masquerade, and is part of White Wolf Publishing's World of Darkness series. White Wolf had received requests to develop a vampire book set in the Victorian era ever since Vampire: The Masquerade first came out in 1991; Achilli commented that he did not know why it did not happen until 2002. While the series had largely been written from an American perspective until then, an effort was made to portray Victorian Age: Vampire from a British point of view, with London seen as the setting's "home town"; the United States was still featured in the game as many World of Darkness players were Americans. Coverage of Sub-Saharan Africa was intentionally kept vague, as Achilli also wanted to develop a game specifically about African vampires later on; this took the form of Kindred of the Ebony Kingdom in 2003.
The game was a return for the publisher to tabletop role-playing games with a historical setting, following 1996's Vampire: The Dark Ages, although the writers favored using literary conventions of the Victorian era as the basis for the game over actual history; literary works referenced in the production include Bram Stoker's Dracula, Sheridan Le Fanu's Carmilla, Frederick Cowles's The Vampire of Kaldenstein, Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray and Lady Windermere's Fan, Charles Dickens's Great Expectations, Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, and George Eliot's Silas Marner. The "subtle supernatural" of Charles Palliser's The Unburied was specifically referenced for how Victorian vampires would act, and the game's homoerotic fiction prologue, "The Turning of Adam", referenced John William Polidori's "The Vampyre" for its style, to show the appeal of the setting.
The game was designed with a focus on mood over gameplay mechanics, with Gothic literature as the main theme; other themes include widespread British imperial oppression, violent and diplomatic social reform, and sexual repression. The setting was also themed around the clashes of opposing ideologies: science and faith, mysticism and established religion, desire and morality, and poverty and wealth. Seeing the Victorian era as a time of secret societies, Achilli also incorporated this in a focus on a clash between the vampiric sects the Sabbat and the Camarilla, with other groups like the Anarch Movement, while present, being more minor elements. Although vampires were still conceived of as individuals, vampire clans, as an effect of the era, were written as more monolithic than they are in Vampire: The Masquerade, with like-minded vampires grouping together in societies. To avoid repeating problems from Werewolf: The Wild West, where they had tried to cover a lot of information in little space, Achilli decided to set Victorian Age: Vampire in the narrower time frame of 1880–1897, rather than across the entirety of the Victorian era, ending at the real-world publication date of Dracula.
White Wolf Publishing released Victorian Age: Vampire on September 30, 2002, as a 224-page black-and-white book, and supported it with two supplements. In 2003, it was released in Portuguese in Brazil by Devir Livraria, and in French in France by Hexagonal.
### Books
## Reception
Pyramid enjoyed the game, designating it one of their "Pyramid Picks" in their review, and liked the game opportunities the setting gives, where both the vampiric Camarilla rule and British imperialism are at their highest. Dragão Brasil considered it a major release, and enjoyed getting to see another time period portrayed in the Vampire: The Masquerade setting after Vampire: The Dark Ages. Flames Rising thought that the game requires a lot of energy and creativity to keep the time-appropriate atmosphere going, and suggested that it might be therefore best suited for one-shots and short campaigns.
In November 2004, Hindmarch's work on Victorian Age: Vampire and Kindred of the Ebony Kingdom led to him getting the position of line developer of White Wolf Publishing's then-flagship game Vampire: The Requiem, succeeding Achilli.
## Related media
Vampire by Gaslight, an adaptation by Peter Woodworth for White Wolf Publishing's live action role-playing game Mind's Eye Theatre, was published in October 2003. A trilogy of novelizations was written by Philippe Boulle, consisting of A Morbid Initiation in 2002, and The Madness of Priests and The Wounded King in 2003. Sunset Empires, a Kindred of the East supplement for playing as Asian vampires in the Victorian Age: Vampire setting, was released in 2002. Some of the characters from Victorian Age: Vampire were used in the 2020 Vampire: The Masquerade supplement Fall of London, with updates to them for its 2012 setting. |
29,197,387 | Worlebury Camp | 1,168,531,886 | Iron Age hillfort in Somerset, England | [
"Archaeological sites in Somerset",
"Hill forts in Somerset",
"Iron Age sites in England",
"Scheduled monuments in North Somerset"
]
| Worlebury Camp (also known as Worlebury Hillfort) is the site of an Iron Age hillfort on Worlebury Hill, north of Weston-super-Mare in Somerset, England. The fort was well defended with numerous walls, embankments and ditches around the site. Several large triangular platforms have been uncovered around the sides of the fort, lower down on the hillside. Nearly one hundred storage pits of various sizes were cut into the bedrock, and many of these contained human remains, coins, and other artefacts. During the 19th and 20th centuries the fort suffered damage and was threatened with complete destruction on multiple occasions. Now, the site is a designated Scheduled monument. It falls within the Weston Woods Local Nature Reserve which was declared to Natural England by the North Somerset Council in 2005.
## History
In The Ancient Entrenchments and Camps of Gloucestershire, Edward J. Burrow mentions that probably either the Goidel or Brython people had initially built the Worlebury Camp. The Belgae people subsequently overthrew the initial inhabitants and occupied the camp for a while, but they were subsequently eliminated at the hands of the Romans.
Worlebury Camp has been explored at various times over a period of 150 years. From 1851 to 1852, Charles Dymond, Edwin Martin Atkins, and Francis Warre excavated and surveyed the Worlebury Camp. Dymond returned in 1880 to continue the excavation, which lasted until 1881. Another century passed before the Woodspring Museum from Weston-super-Mare excavated more of Worlebury camp in 1987 to 1988. Finally, in 1998, the Avon Extensive Urban Study team performed the latest (as of 2008) assessment of the site.
A condition survey undertaken in 2017-18 resulted in a request for an analytical earthwork survey which was undertaken by Historic England in 2018–19. While the survey disclosed some evidence about the use of the hillfort and its later history, many questions still remain.
## Location
The fort is located on the summit of Worlebury Hill, 109 metres (358 ft) above sea level. It is in the present-day North Somerset, above the seaside resort of Weston-super-Mare and close to the village of Worle.
Its inhabitants would have had a view of the countryside as well as any potential invaders. They would have been able to see out over to Sugar Loaf Mountain, the Black Mountains, the Mendip Hills, Dunkery Beacon, Sand Point, and Wales. This view is no longer as unobstructed as it once was because of the presence of so many trees spread over the hill.
## Archaeological findings
### Platforms
There are a number of triangular platforms on the slopes around the fort. The apexes of these triangles are flush with the hillside, with the base projecting in the downhill direction. However, the upper surface is approximately level. The front faces of these platforms are about 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) above the hillside, and they have ditches in front of them to improve their defence. In a letter to Warre, Atkins theorised that the structures were slingers' platforms or archers' stations. Several sling stones have been found around them, offering some credence to the theory that slingers stood upon these platforms. Dymond mentions the stones in his book:
> Several of them were broken, as though they had been used in the attack [on the fort], as, indeed, many of them probably were.
### Walls and ditches
Worlebury Hill is bordered on its northern and western sides by steep cliffs dropping down into the Bristol Channel between Weston Bay and Sand Bay. These would have rendered the fort nearly immune to attack from those directions. Nevertheless, the fort still has one wall on its northern side and one on its western side, both very near the edge of the cliffs. On the south side, a single rampart and a ditch guarded the fort. The level east side was protected by two stone ramparts and five ditches. Parts of these ramparts were over 11 metres (35 ft) high measuring from the bottom of the ditch as of 1875.
The walls of the fort are around 1 metre (3.3 ft) thick. However, because they are made up of dry-laid stone, the removal of a few stones would be sufficient to bring the entire wall collapsing down. To prevent access to the walls themselves, the inhabitants of the fort raised large breastworks around the base of the walls by piling up rock rubble against the bases. These rubble barriers are over 1.22 metres (4.0 ft) high, and in places they are over 1.22 metres (4.0 ft) thick. Attackers would have had to clear away the rubble before being able to attack the wall, and all the while they would be under direct fire from defenders on the top of the wall.
### Storage pits
The area inside the outer wall has a series of hut circles and 93 storage pits cut directly into the bedrock, which is only around 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) beneath the surface of the soil in most places. Eighteen of the Storage pits are in what Dymond calls the "keep", one is in the 'transverse fosse' (a fosse is a ditch usually dug for protection), and seventy-four of the pits are outside the "keep" but still enclosed within the exterior walls. The average size of the pits is around 2 metres (6.6 ft) long by 2 metres wide and 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) deep. The largest pit is roughly triangular in shape, with sides measuring 3 metres (9.8 ft), 2.7 metres (8.9 ft), and 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) long. The smallest pit is 1 metre (3.3 ft) long by 7 metres (23 ft) wide. The inhabitants used them to store grain, as is evidenced by the kernels of barley and wheat and the sherds of pots that were found in the pits. Several of the pits contained the remnants of peas and burned woven baskets. In addition, researchers also found sling stones and spindle whorls dated to the 1st or 2nd century BC inside them.
Eighteen of these pits were found to contain the remains of human skeletons, which are now stored in the Weston-super-Mare Museum in Weston-super-Mare. Eighteen full skeletons were found, of which ten showed evidence of a violent death (including sword cuts in the skulls). It is possible that the Romans or the Belgic raiders attacked the fort and killed the inhabitants.
### Artefacts
A cast copper alloy penannular collar of special interest to archaeologists has been found at the campsite. It may indicate that this hilltop site was used even before the Iron Age, since related artefacts tend to be found with Bronze Age items, and it was the first of its type found in Britain. In 2006, a related copper penannular brooch dating to the 5th or 6th century AD was found in a spring between Brecon Beacons and the Black Mountains in Wales. A gold penannular bracelet was found in the River Perry.
Roman coins have been found at Worlebury Camp since the Romans had established a presence by the end of the 1st century AD. Many of the Roman coins bear the image of the Western Roman Emperor Honorius. This was inside the fort proper. Another coin was located by Trinity Path which leads towards the fort.
Other findings at the site include animal remains, including the bones of pigs, oxen, horses, deer, goats, and even small birds. Limpet shells have also been found near the bones. Archaeologists found iron objects, adding further credibility to the idea that this fort is from the Iron Age. These objects include a chisel or borer, several spearheads and javelin heads, and an iron cone with charred wood inside and a rivet hole through the cone. Dymond assumes that this cone was once a plowshare. Stone artefacts, mainly slingstones and scrapers, have been discovered at the site. Just less than 36 flint chips have been found, of which some may be arrowheads. One good-quality arrowhead has been found. In addition to these, Dymond recorded finding a lead lump about the size of a walnut that he decided was probably a sling bullet. Glastonbury type bead-rim pottery was also found at this site. A socketed bronze axe from the late Bronze Age, which was found at Worlebury Hill in 1883, is in the Ashmolean Museum.
## Damage to the site
### 19th century
Development of Weston-super-Mare since the 19th century has resulted in three episodes of potentially irreversible damage to the site. A quarry started operation in the southern side of Worlebury Hill in 1815 to mine for galena, calamine, and stone. The Bristol and Exeter Railway arrived in Weston-super-Mare in 1841, making it profitable to expand the village into a town. In 1842, Weston-super-Mare became a town with the granting of the Improvement and Market Act of May 1842. This act also proposed developing houses right over the brow of the hill. This would have gone straight through Worlebury Camp; however, the actual expansion never reached the site. By 1853, some development had occurred according to the proposed expansion, but it had skirted the hillfort and continued to the east.
### 20th century
In the early 20th century, the Worlebury fort itself was damaged by boys rolling stones, including some from the walls of the fort, down the hill on which it stands. The Axbridge District of the Somerset Archaeological Society was taking steps to prevent such damage from happening again.
### 21st Century
Some of the trees planted in the early 19th century had become very large, and their roots were growing into the archaeological structures. In 2005, the Forestry Commission gave permission for North Somerset Council to fell 300 trees to reduce the subsequent risks. A member of the North Somerset Council, Christopher Richards, said: "If we had a storm up here and these trees came down, then the entire hillfort could be destroyed."
The site was added to the Heritage at Risk Register in 2017, its condition noted as 'declining'. A condition survey and an analytical earthwork survey revealed some evidence about the use of the hillfort and its later history but many questions remain.
In 2020 the council initiated a consultation on plans to remove more "thousands" of trees to protect the remains.
## See also
- Archeological site
- List of hillforts in England
- List of hillforts and ancient settlements in Somerset |
52,635,084 | Ciomadul | 1,170,032,386 | Volcano in Romania | [
"Dormant volcanoes",
"Geography of Harghita County",
"Landforms of Romania",
"Natural history of Romania",
"Pleistocene lava domes",
"Volcanoes of Romania"
]
| Ciomadul (Hungarian: Csomád) is a dormant volcano in Romania. It is in the Eastern Carpathians, between the spa towns of Băile Tușnad and Balvanyos. Ciomadul lies at the southeastern end of the Carpathian volcanic chain and it is the youngest volcano of the Carpatho-Pannonian region. Ciomadul consists of several lava domes with two embedded explosion craters known as Mohoș and Sfânta Ana, the latter of which contains a crater lake, Lake Sfânta Ana. The dominant volcanic rock at Ciomadul is potassium-rich dacite.
Volcanic activity at Ciomadul commenced with effusive activity about one million years ago. Most of the volcano was constructed between 650,000 – 500,000 years ago.
Between 56,000 and 32,000 years ago explosive volcanic activity occurred at Ciomadul. Both the exact dates of the various eruptions and of the formation of the Sfânta Ana and Mohoș craters are unclear, partly because dates obtained by potassium-argon dating and other dating techniques deviate from each other. Some eruptions may have reached sub-Plinian strength, ejecting volcanic ash as far as the Black Sea.
The last eruption took place between 32,600 and 27,500 years ago. Its date is likewise unclear. Ongoing seismic and geothermal activity, and exhalations of volcanic gas and evidence of a still existing magma chamber indicate that Ciomadul is a potentially active volcano.
## Geography and geology
### Regional setting
With the exception of Greece and Italy, the most recent volcanic activity in Continental Europe occurred between 40,000 and 6,500 years ago in Garrotxa, the Massif Central and the Vulkaneifel.
Volcanism in the region of Carpathia and Pannonia has been ongoing since 20 million years ago but has decreased during the Quaternary. No eruptions took place in the Holocene. The last volcanism occurred at Ciomadul in the last glacial age. Sparse basaltic volcanism has also taken place in the area, forming monogenetic volcanic fields.
A 700 kilometres (430 mi) long volcanic arc lies in the Carpathians. In its southern segment, also known as the Călimani (Kelemen) – Gurghiu (Görgényi) – Harghita (Hargita) chain, volcanism has migrated between 9 and 0.22 million years ago southward, forming a c. 100 kilometres (62 mi) long volcanic chain. Magma output progressively decreased during time, with early volcanoes being large stratovolcanoes sometimes featuring caldera-forming eruptions, while more recent activity includes monogenetic volcanoes although more precise dating and volume estimation efforts at Ciomad have found an increase of eruption rates over time.
This volcanism occurs in a setting where the collision between the Eurasian Plate and the Tisza-Dacia microplate took place, preceded by a stage of subduction involving a narrow ocean. This is part of the collision between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate; subduction may still be underway in the area of the Carpathians. The Vrancea Zone [bg; ru; uk], which is 50 kilometres (31 mi) away from Ciomadul, features ongoing earthquake activity; deep earthquakes suggest that a remnant of a slab exists beneath the Vrancea Zone. This tectonic setting may also be responsible for ongoing exhumation in the southeastern Carpathians, volcanism at Ciomadul and the Perșani volcanic field, 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Ciomad, which was concurrently active to the older Ciomadul activity. Other theories on Ciomadul's volcanic activity imply delamination of the lithosphere or roll-back of the subduction zone.
Volcanism in this chain is calc-alkaline, yielding both andesite, dacite, and rhyolite. Three million years ago, a change in the chemistry of volcanism occurred, with an increased content of potassium in the rocks. This change in composition geographically coincided with the volcanic activity crossing a lineament known as the Trotuș line.
### Volcano
Ciomadul is located in the southeastern Carpathians, at the end of the Călimani (Kelemen) – Gurghiu (Görgényi) – Harghita (Hargita) volcanic chain, and is also known as Csomád in Hungarian. The gorge of the Olt River separates Ciomadul from the Harghita Mountains. The towns of Băile Tușnad and Bixad are close to the volcano, and a road leads up the volcano from the southeast and goes past the Mohoș swamp to the Lake Sfânta Ana. The basement of the volcano is formed by flysch of Cretaceous age and by older volcanics; in some places volcanic rocks overlie fluvial deposits.
Places around Ciomadul were first mentioned in 1349; the Saxon mineralogist Johann Ehrenwert Fichtel was the first to interpret it as a volcano, in 1780. The idea that Ciomadul could be a still active volcano was first proposed in the same year on the basis of its young appearance and the release of gas. These discoveries drew scholars and visitors to the volcano and the first scientific analysis of the volcano was published just eight years later. While a publication in 1964 postulated that the tuffs of Ciomadul were reworked Pliocene volcanites, the late Pleistocene age was established soon afterwards. The volcano is the youngest volcanic centre in the Carpathians and has a more rugged appearance than the surrounding mountains.
Ciomadul is formed by a complex of lava domes and other volcanic material that form a south-tilting ridge that rises above the 700 metres (2,300 ft) high surrounding Lower Ciuk Basin. Individual lava domes form cone-shaped hills, which reach heights of 300–400 metres (980–1,310 ft) and widths of 1–2 kilometres (0.62–1.24 mi). Individual domes include Haramul Ierbos (Fű-Haram in Hungarian), Haramul Mare (Nagy-Haram), Haramul Mic (Kis-Haram), Vf. Cetății (Vár-tető), Vf. Comloș (Komlós-tető), Vf. Surduc (Szurdok-tető) and Dealul Mare southeast from the main complex. The central cluster of domes is elliptical and tectonic faults influenced their growth. The highest point of the complex is Ciomadul Mare (Nagy-Csomád) with an altitude of 1,301 metres (4,268 ft). Some domes were later affected by erosion, explosive activity or fumarolic alteration. The whole volcanic complex covers a surface area of 80 square kilometres (31 sq mi), and is surrounded by a circular/semicircular plain made of volcanic debris.
The lava dome complex contains two craters, named Mohoș and Sfânta Ana. They were formed in the previously existing lava domes which form the western margin of the craters, while products of explosive eruptions crop out in the east. The Sfânta Ana crater is c. 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) wide and c. 200 metres (660 ft) deep beneath the rim, comparable with the crater of El Chichón volcano in Mexico. This crater lacks a breach and is relatively unaffected by erosion. It contains a 6 metres (20 ft) deep crater lake, which once may have been over 12 metres (39 ft) deep. This c. 189.9 square kilometres (73.3 sq mi) large lake is known as Lake Sfânta Ana () and lies at an altitude of 946 metres (3,104 ft); its ecosystem and environment has drawn the attention of scientists for two centuries.
The Mohoș crater lies at an altitude of 1,050 metres (3,440 ft). It is larger than Sfânta Ana with a diameter of 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi) and not as deep. with its bottom lying above sea level. It is filled with a 800,000 square metres (80 ha) large and 10 metres (33 ft) thick Sphagnum peat bog and its rim is cut by the Sfânta Ana crater.
Unlike Sfânta Ana, the Mohoș crater has been breached by erosion, causing the formation of an outlet valley. Both craters were formed by explosive eruptions and distinguishing between the deposits of both is difficult. The existence of an even larger crater with a diameter 2–2.5 kilometres (1.2–1.6 mi) has been suggested, encompassing both Sfânta Ana and Mohoș.
Pyroclastic flow deposits generated by Ciomadul have been found on its northeastern, southern and western slopes. They reach a distance of as much as 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the volcano. At Tușnad road, one of the flows has a thickness of c. 10 metres (33 ft). Tephra fall bed, lapilli, and surge deposits are also found, and the flow deposits contain pumice blocks. One lapilli layer, 20–23 centimetres (7.9–9.1 in) thick, from Ciomadul has been identified 40 kilometres (25 mi) east of the volcano. The whole pyroclastic formation has been subdivided into three classes known as "Early Phreatomagmatic + Plinian Activity", "Middle Plinian Activity" and "Latest Sfânta Ana Phreatomagmatic Activity". Each comprise a number of individual tephra layers and took place 42,000-40,000, around 31,500 and 29,000-28,000 years ago. Some of these eruptions may have dammed the Olt river; when the river returned on its course it produced lahar deposits.
Other landforms at Ciomadul include coulees and lava flows. The total volume of the complex is about 8–15 cubic kilometres (1.9–3.6 cu mi) dense rock equivalent. Drilling has identified the existence of an intrusion at a depth of 575 metres (1,886 ft). Finally, volcanic erosion products and tephra occur all over the volcanic complex and up to 350 kilometres (220 mi) east of it.
Older volcanic centres extend northwest of Ciomadul. With increasing distance they are 2.5–1.5 million years old Pilisca centre, the 2.8–2.2 million years old Cucu centre and the 4.3–3.6 million years old Luci-Lazu and Șumuleu-Ciuc volcanic centres. South of Ciomadul the Murgul shoshonites were erupted 2.3–1.5 million years ago; they represent cryptodomes. Andesite lava flows from Pilisca underlie the Ciomadul deposits in some places.
### Composition
The principal rock is dacite, which defines a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. The rocks have a porphyric appearance and contain few vesicles. They are also very rich in crystals, with the dominant phenocryst-forming minerals being biotite, hornblende and plagioclase. Less important are allanite, apatite, clinopyroxene, olivine, orthopyroxene, quartz, sphene and zircon. The groundmass contains plagioclase, pyroxene, silicon dioxide and oxides of iron and titanium. The composition of Ciomadul's rocks has been fairly constant throughout its evolution albeit with two shifts 1 million and 650,000 years before present, and this diversity of its components indicate that the genesis of Ciomadul magmas involved mixing between felsic and mafic magma. The phenocryst compositions at Ciomadul are unlike these at other volcanoes in the Carpathians. The magmas derive from the upper mantle lithosphere, which underwent metasomatic alteration.
Compositionally, the tephras of Ciomadul have been subdivided into two groups, one called Tușnad‐type and the other Bixad‐type. A large proportion of crystals in the rocks consists of antecrysts and xenocrysts, making radiometric dating of the rocks difficult. These include amphibole, biotite, feldspar and zircon. The zircons formed almost continuously over hundred thousands of years within Ciomadul's magma chamber, indicating a steady crystallization of the chamber.
The temperature of the magma chamber has been estimated to be about 700–750 °C (1,292–1,382 °F), with heating of over 200 °C (360 °F) occurring before some eruptions according to thermometry calculation. Volcanic activity was most likely triggered by the injection of basaltic magma into the felsic magma chamber before the actual eruption, as has been observed at other silicic volcanoes around the world, but the magma chamber probably kept being recharged even between eruptions. The amphiboles in the rocks formed at depths of 7–14 kilometres (4.3–8.7 mi). The magma output of Ciomadul is about 0.009 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.0022 cu mi/ka) while magma chamber recharge may have reached 0.00013 cubic kilometres per year (3.1×10<sup>−5</sup> cu mi/a).
## Eruptive history
Ciomadul has been active for over half a million years, with the oldest activity between 1,000,000 and 750,000 years ago forming lava domes. Older estimates indicate that activity did not start before 250,000 years ago, while more recent research indicated a start of volcanism over 600,000/ 850,000 years ago. Volcanism at Ciomadul consisted mostly of the extrusion of lava domes, their collapse forming block-and-ash flows and subplinian and Vulcanian eruptions separated by long periods of rest. The volcanic history of Ciomadul has been subdivided into an effusive phase that lasted until about 440,000 years ago and an explosive phase that began 200,000 years ago during which magma output increased 30-fold and which is known as "young Ciomad". An alternative description envisages an "old Ciomadul" between 1,000,000 - 300,000 years ago and a "young Ciomad eruptive period" between 160,000 - 30,000 years ago, with the latter in turn subdivided into five stages that emplaced about 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi) of rock.
A gap of about 500,000 years separates Ciomadul from the activity of other volcanoes in the area. The two oldest dates of 1,020,000 and 850,000 years ago were obtained on peripheral lava domes. Early activity between c. 850,000 – 440,000 years ago built the southeastern domes. This effusive phase is also known as "old Ciomad", and eruptions were separated by long pauses without volcanic activity from each other. The dates obtained by potassium-argon dating are much older; there is substantial disagreement between dates obtained by potassium-argon dating or argon-argon dating on the one hand and uranium-thorium dating on the other hand at Ciomadul. These dates indicate that the formation of the central lava domes took place between 590,000 and 140,000 years ago.
Around 200,000 - 130,000 or 150,000 - 100,000 years ago a number of lava domes developed. Explosive eruptions became common only about 57,000 years ago. Between 56,000 and 32,000 years ago, explosive activity occurred at Ciomadul. That timespan coincides with the deposition of tephra from volcanoes in Italy in Europe; it is possible that tephra also came from Ciomadul. Indeed, the age of Ciomadul's last eruption overlaps with the age of the Campanian Ignimbrite.
### Tephras
Ciomad has produced far-flung tephras, which reached as far as Ukraine and have been recovered from the Ursului Cave of the Perșani Mountains. Some tephra layers found in two drilling cores of the Black Sea may have originated at Ciomad but reliably distinguishing between Ciomadul tephras and these from Nisyros and Anatolian volcanoes is difficult.
The Roxolany Tephra has been found as far as Odesa, Ukraine, 350 kilometres (220 mi) away from Ciomadul. If the Roxolany Tephra was formed by the youngest eruption of Ciomadul, the youngest eruption would have occurred 29,600 calibrated radiocarbon years ago based on independent dates of the tephra. From the other point of view, the clinopyroxene‐bearing Roxolany tephra was unlikely to be derived from Ciomadul, as it differs significantly from Ciomadul typical phenocryst assemblage containing amphibole. Based on new chronostratigraphic model for the Roxolany section, supported by updated magnetostratigraphic results and compiled existing radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence dates, the Roxolany tephra was deposited around 143,800 years ago.
### Recent explosive activity
Explosive activity may have occurred in two separate episodes, one 57,000–44,000 years ago and the other 33,000–29,000 years ago. An earlier explosive eruption about 55,900 ± 2,300 years ago may be the origin of the Mohoș crater, with another proposed potassium-argon date being c. 220,000 years ago. Mohoș crater is probably older than the Sfânta Ana crater. A phreatomagmatic deposit northeast of Mohoș was formed by an eruption of the Mohoș crater; this eruption may be the source of the "Turia type" phreatomagmatic deposits, which are dated to have occurred about 51,000 ± 4,800 years ago. In one view, a volcanically quiet period followed an effusive eruption 42,900 years ago named "Piscul Pietros" and lasted until 31,510 years ago, when a Plinian eruption occurred. This latter eruption deposited 0.6 metres (2 ft 0 in) thick ash as far as 21 kilometres (13 mi) from the vent at one site. Alternatively, 38,900 ± 1,700 years ago a subplinian eruption occurred at Ciomadul; it may have formed the Sfânta Ana crater. This date would correspond to that of the so-called "MK-202" tephra. Piscul Pietros has been also dated to be 48,000 ± 6,000 or 60,000 ± 5,000 years old.
The age of the last eruption is controversial but probably took place about 30,000 years ago. In 1994, radiocarbon dating yielded an age of 10,700 ± 800 years Before Present from a pyroclastic flow. Later, paleosoils and other samples from the same flow were used to deduce similar ages of over 36,770, 42,650, over 35,670 and over 35,520 years before present, respectively. Thus this youngest age estimate was discarded. In 2010, further research identified two younger eruptions, one occurring 39,000 years Before Present and the other 27,500 years Before Present. Other data obtained by uranium-thorium dating indicate an age of 32,600 ± 1,000 years ago for the youngest eruption. Both of these eruptions took place at Sfânta Ana and imply a repose period between eruptions of over 10,000 years. Much older dates obtained by potassium-argon dating are not considered reliable. Alternatively, the latest eruption may have occurred at a satellite vent seeing as sedimentation of the Lake Sfânta Ana has been ongoing since 26,000 years ago. These two recent eruptions were fed by different magmas, with the younger eruption coming from deeper magma chambers (5–12 kilometres (3.1–7.5 mi) versus 4 kilometres (2.5 mi)) and involving more primitive magma.
After the last eruption, the lava domes were subject to glacial weathering, such as frost shattering that produced stone runs. An 1838 document by an unknown author stated that even old legends do not record eruptive activity at Ciomadul, and there is no evidence in Lake Sfânta Ana sediments of tephra layers that might indicate more recent eruptions.
## Current status
Presently, Ciomadul displays seismic activity, release of carbon dioxide from bubbling pools and bogs and mofettas and anomalous heat flow reaching 85–120 watts per square metre (0.0106–0.0150 hp/sq ft). Outgassing of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and mostly abiotic methane have been found at Ciomadul, forming sulfide deposits in some caverns. The total output of carbon dioxide exceeds about 8,700 tonnes (8,600 long tons; 9,600 short tons) per year, while the output of methane amounts to 1.3 tonnes (1.3 long tons; 1.4 short tons) per year. Carbon dioxide concentrations in some places such as caverns can be high enough to become dangerous to people and animals, and is reflected in place names - such as Peștera Ucigașă (Gyilkos-barlang) which mean "killer cave" while Puturosu means "stinky" - and local legends of a "gate to hell". Former alum and sulfur mines east of Ciomadul were abandoned due to the dangers from toxic gases. The carbon dioxide is accompanied by noble gases derived from the mantle.
At depths of 5 to 27 kilometres (3.1 to 16.8 mi) and especially 9 to 21 kilometres (5.6 to 13.0 mi), a magma chamber has been identified beneath Ciomadul, based on magnetotelluric data, and several 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of magma may still be stored underneath Ciomadul. This magmatic reservoir appears to have about 15% of melt by volume fraction, with a vertical stratification by temperature. A deeper basaltic melt zone may also exist at around 30 kilometres (19 mi) depth. Further, a zone of low seismic velocity has been identified with geophysical and seismic modelling in the lower crust and upper mantle beneath Ciomad, down to depths of 110 kilometres (68 mi) or 400 kilometres (250 mi).
Hydrothermal activity has been noted at Ciomadul and Tușnad-Băi, including a high temperature system at depth with temperatures exceeding 225 °C (437 °F). The Tușnad-Băi springs have temperatures of 15–23 °C (59–73 °F) and discharge salty, carbon dioxide-rich water which emerges from pyroclastic deposits. They are used in spas in the area. In one cave, autotropic bacterial biofilms have been found which subsist on the exhaled gases or the sulfur deposits.
## Future activity
Volcanoes are usually considered to be active if they have had eruptions during the Holocene. However, as demonstrated by the unexpected eruption of Chaiten volcano in Chile in May 2008, even long-inactive volcanoes can become active again. Such volcanoes can constitute a threat to regions with seemingly quiet volcanism. Ciomadul has had repose periods of over 10,000 years and possibly even longer. Zircon crystallization data imply that the magma chambers of Ciomadul were active over time spans of over 300,000 years.
Uniquely, Ciomadul is a still alive volcano in Eastern Europe and its craters have a youthful appearance. There is always the possibility of renewed volcanic activity if the magma chamber has not solidified even if there is no positive evidence of ongoing magma generation. Deep earthquake activity at Ciomadul occurs down to a depth of 70 kilometres (43 mi), indicating that the volcanic system between the magma chamber and lithospheric melts is still active. It is considered to be a potentially active volcano although the risk of impending eruptions has been greatly exaggerated by sensationalist media.
## Climate and vegetation
Ciomadul is located in a temperate climate zone. Rainfall reaches 800–1,000 millimetres (31–39 in), resulting in strong erosion. The annual mean temperature is 7.6 °C (45.7 °F) at Sfântu Gheorghe, the nearest meteorological station. Around Sfânta Ana, July mean temperatures are 15 °C (59 °F) and January temperatures −5 to −6 °C (23 to 21 °F).
While some glaciation occurred in the Carpathians during the ice ages, no glacial activity is recorded at Ciomadul. The volcano was unforested at that time, with steppe and tundra vegetation comprising most of the reported flora. Drill cores from the Mohoș peat bog have been used to reconstruct the past climate and hydrology of the area.
Ciomadul is covered by beech and spruce forests. Around Lake Sfânta Ana, the vegetation is mostly formed by Fagus sylvatica (common beech) and Picea abies (Norway spruce) woods. Other trees include Acer platanoides (Norway maple), Betula pendula (silver birch), Carpinus betulus (common hornbeam), Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), Salix caprea (goat willow) and Salix cinerea (grey willow). A fen contains Carex lasiocarpa (slender sedge), Carex rostrata (bottle sedge), Lysimachia thyrsiflora (tufted loosestrife) and Sphagnum angustifolium (fine bogmoss). At Mohoș, vegetation consists of Alnus glutinosa (common alder), Betula pendula and Salix. The peat bog contains trees (Pinus sylvestris and Betula pubescens (downy birch)) and Ericaceae. The region of the volcano is a Site of Community Importance and some endangered plant species have been identified in the Mohoș bog. |
24,439,968 | 2009 AAA 400 | 1,112,076,201 | null | [
"2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series",
"2009 in sports in Delaware",
"NASCAR races at Dover Motor Speedway",
"September 2009 sports events in the United States"
]
| The 2009 AAA 400 was the twenty-eighth stock car race of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the second in the ten-race season-ending Chase for the Sprint Cup. It was held on September 27, 2009, at Dover International Speedway, in Dover, Delaware before a crowd of 110,000 people. The 400-lap race was won by Jimmie Johnson of the Hendrick Motorsports team after he started from pole position. His teammate Mark Martin finished second and Roush Fenway Racing driver Matt Kenseth was third.
Martin was the pre-race Drivers' Championship leader with a 35-point margin over Johnson and Denny Hamlin in second. Johnson won the pole position with the fastest overall lap time in the qualifying session and maintained his lead on the first lap to begin the race. After a competition caution to allow for tire checks on lap 25, Ryan Newman became the leader of the race. Chase for the Sprint Cup participants Kurt Busch and Jeff Gordon were in the top ten for most of the race. Johnson reclaimed the lead, after passing Kurt Busch on the 176th lap. Johnson maintained the first position to lead the most laps of 271, and to win his fourth race of the season. There were nine cautions and six lead changes among four different drivers during the course of the race.
The race victory was Johnson's fourth of the 2009 season, as well as the forty-fourth of his career. The result kept Martin in the lead in the Drivers' Championship, ten points ahead of Johnson, and sixty-five in front of Juan Pablo Montoya. Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, forty-five ahead of Toyota and seventy-five in front of Ford, who bumped Dodge, with one-hundred and twenty-two points, to fourth place. The race attracted 5.08 million television viewers.
## Background
The 2009 AAA 400 was the twenty-eighth of thirty-six scheduled stock car races of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the second in the ten-race season-ending Chase for the Sprint Cup. It took place on September 27, 2009, in Dover, Delaware, at Dover International Speedway, a short track that holds NASCAR races. The NASCAR race makes use of the track's standard configuration, a four-turn short track oval that is 1 mile (1.6 km) long. The track's turns are banked at twenty-four degrees, and both the front stretch (the location of the finish line) and the backstretch are banked at nine degrees.
Before the race, Mark Martin led the Drivers' Championship with 5,230 points; Jimmie Johnson and Denny Hamlin were tied for second with 5,195 points each, 35 points behind Martin. Juan Pablo Montoya was fourth with 5,175 points, ten ahead of Kurt Busch and nineteen ahead of Tony Stewart in fifth and sixth respectively. Ryan Newman with 5,151 was eleven points ahead of Brian Vickers, as Greg Biffle with 5,138 points, was ten ahead of Jeff Gordon. Carl Edwards and Kasey Kahne rounded out the top twelve positions in the Chase for the Sprint Cup with 5,117 and 5,069 points respectively. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet was leading with 199 points, thirty-nine points ahead of their rivals Toyota in second place. Dodge, with 118 points, were one point ahead of Ford in the battle for third place. Johnson was the race's defending champion.
Johnson had finished first in the Autism Speaks 400 at Dover earlier in the season, and he entered the AAA 400, an event that thought he had the opportunity to win, as optimistic. He thought that track evolution and significant to car balances would make for better racing for the event. His teammate Martin, who won the preceding Sylvania 300 at New Hampshire Motor Speedway, said he hoped to drive fast and win the race at Dover but stressed the importance of avoiding getting overexcited, "There's a lot of stuff left to happen and a lot of racing left to happen. Don't get carried away". After finishing third at New Hampshire, Montoya acknowledged he and his team's lack of experience of being in the Chase for the Sprint Cup and said that he had to perform to the best of his ability, "There’s no holding back, nothing, we have to go... We are doing the best we can and hopefully we are going to be good enough to at least fight for it"
## Practice and qualifying
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—one on Friday, and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes, and the second 45 minutes. The final session lasted 60 minutes. In the first practice session, Johnson was fastest by setting a lap of 22.781 seconds, placing ahead of Newman in second and Montoya in third. Biffle took fourth position and Kurt Busch placed fifth. A. J. Allmendinger, David Reutimann, Kevin Harvick, Martin and David Gilliland rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session. During the session, Bowyer broke a rocker arm, and his team changed engines as a consequence.
There were forty-four drivers entered in the qualifier on Friday afternoon; according to NASCAR's qualifying procedure, forty-three were allowed to race. Each driver ran two laps, with the starting order determined by the competitor's fastest times. Johnson clinched the 21st pole position of his career, with a lap of 22.878 seconds that he recorded at his first attempt. He was joined on the grid's front row by Montoya who held pole position until Johnson's lap. Newman qualified third, Biffle took fourth and Reutimann started fifth. Kahne, Gordon, Bowyer, Sam Hornish Jr. and Paul Menard completed the top ten positions. The driver that failed to qualify was Scott Wimmer, who set the slowest overall lap time. During qualifying, Elliott Sadler's changed his car's engine, after one failed during the session. After the qualifier Johnson said, "A pole today will make the start of the weekend much better and give us a lot of direction and momentum moving into tomorrow, It does carry you, and there is an aspect of momentum. But at the same time, you've got to go out and perform."
On Saturday morning, Kurt Busch was fastest in the second practice session with a time of 23.524 seconds, ahead of Montoya in second, and Newman in third. Johnson was fourth quickest, and Bowyer took fifth. Kyle Busch managed sixth. Stewart, Hamlin, Matt Kenseth and Gilliland followed in the top ten. Of the other drivers in the Chase, Biffle finished with the eleventh fastest time, while Kahne set the fourteenth fastest time. Kahne set the fastest time of 23.682 seconds in the final practice session, while Montoya and Joey Logano followed in second and third respectively. Martin was fourth quickest, ahead of Biffle and Johnson. Kurt Busch was seventh fastest, Jamie McMurray eighth, Gilliland ninth and Martin Truex Jr. tenth. Other chase drivers included Newman in eleventh and Hamlin in eighteenth.
### Qualifying results
## Race
The race commenced at 2:17 p.m. and was televised live in the United States on ESPN. Commentary was provided by Jerry Punch, Dale Jarrett, and Andy Petree. Around the start of the race, weather conditions were cloudy with the air temperature 71 °F (22 °C); a moderate chance of rain was forecast. Pastor Dan Schafer began pre-race ceremonies by giving the invocation. Country music group and Show Dog-Universal Music recording artists Trailer Choir performed the national anthem, and Sergeant Major John Jones of the Pennsylvania National Guard gave the command for drivers to start their engines. During the pace laps, Bowyer, Sadler and Tony Raines all had to move to the rear of the grid because of them changing their engines. NASCAR announced that a competition caution would take place on lap 25 to allow teams to check tire wear as a result of rain falling on the circuit overnight that removed most of the rubber laid down, meaning drivers would make mandatory pit stops. This also meant that teams would not be permitted to refuel their vehicles.
Johnson maintained his pole position lead into the first corner. One lap later, Newman passed Montoya for the second position. After starting the race in twelfth, Martin had lost four positions to run eighteenth by lap four. By the tenth lap, Johnson had built up a 1.2 second lead over Newman. Bowyer, who began the race at the rear of the grid, had moved up thirteen positions to twenty-ninth by lap 15. Two laps later, Raines drove to his garage. On lap 18, Kurt Busch passed Vickers for ninth, as Kahne claimed fourth position from Biffle, two laps later. On lap 27, the competition caution came out. Many competitors chose to have two tires installed to their cars during their pit stops. During the caution, all of the leaders made pit stops; Gilliland became the new leader on lap 28. After pit stops, Newman claimed the first position and held it at the restart.
On lap 31, a multi-car collision occurred in turn three as Logano slowed to avoid colliding with Bobby Labonte and Stewart hit Logano's rear-end, causing Logano to go down into the infield grass before going back up the circuit. Logano was then struck by Reed Sorenson and went into the turn three barrier, causing Logano to barrel roll sideways multiple times before resting sideways on the apron and then falling back onto its wheels. Logano was unharmed, and he exited his vehicle and boarded an ambulance. He was treated and then released from the infield care center. Stewart's car sustained damage to the right-front and right-rear quarters to his car. The accident, which collected also Truex and Robby Gordon, prompted the second caution. On the following lap, the red flag was shown to allow race officials to clear the track of debris. The race was restarted 23 minutes and 38 seconds later under caution. Newman maintained his lead at the restart, followed by Kurt Busch and Menard. Three laps later, Montoya and Gordon passed Menard for fifth and sixth respectively. On lap 43, Jeff Burton fell to ninth after being passed by Hamlin and Martin. Four laps later, Martin passed Hamlin for the thirteenth position.
By lap 50, Johnson passed Reutimann to move back into the top ten. On lap 58, Kurt Busch passed Newman to claim the lead. Three laps later, Jeff Gordon claimed fifth position off Kahne, while Menard was passed by Johnson for eighth. On lap 63, Montoya moved into the third position after passing Biffle, while Gilliland went to his garage to retire from the race. Two laps later, Kyle Busch claimed seventh position off Kahne, as Montoya passed Newman for second on lap 66. On lap 67, Gordon and Biffle passed Newman for third and fourth positions. Four laps later, Johnson claimed seventh from Kahne. On lap 80, Reutimann ran out of fuel, forcing him to make a pit stop.
On lap 83, Biffle was passed by Johnson for the fourth position. One lap later, the right-front tire on Michael Waltrip's car failed and he collided with the two barrier, causing the third caution. All of the leaders elected to make pit stops. Kurt Busch remained the leader at the restart on the 90th lap, ahead of Biffle and Kyle Busch. Kyle Busch passed Biffle for third position four laps later, while McMurray was passed by Kahne for ninth on lap 96. Three laps later, Biffle dropped to sixth after being passed by Jeff Gordon, as Montoya passed Kyle Busch for the third position on lap 113. Sixteen laps later, Kahne passed Jeff Gordon for sixth, while Stewart moved into the eighteenth position on lap 137. On the 147th lap, Kurt Busch was blocked by Labonte, allowing Johnson to claim the lead. By the 150th lap, Kyle Busch dropped three positions to sixth after being passed by Martin, Kahne and Jeff Gordon.
Green flag pit stops began on lap 152, when Hornish made a pit stop. Twelve laps later, the fourth caution came out. During the caution, which was caused by liquid on the track, all of the leaders made pit stops. Kurt Busch reclaimed the lead for the lap 169 restart. Stewart moved into the eleventh position on lap 170. Six laps later, Johnson reclaimed the lead off Kurt Busch. By the 183rd lap, Johnson opened out a 1.6 second lead over Kurt Busch. Twenty-four laps later, Kyle Busch collided with the wall in turns three and turn four, prompting the fifth caution. All of the leaders chose to make pit stops during the caution. The race resumed on lap 212, with Johnson leading from Jeff Gordon and Kurt Busch.
By the 223rd lap, Johnson had a lead of 1.6 seconds. Twenty-seven laps later, Sorenson rejoined the race track. On lap 252, Stewart passed Allmendinger for the ninth position. Seven laps later, Stewart moved into eighth after passing Newman, and passed Bowyer for seventh on the 262nd lap. On lap 273, Johnson's lead of 3.5 seconds was reduced to nothing when the pace car moved on track. During the caution, which was caused by David Stremme making contact with the wall at turn four, all of the leaders made pit stops. Johnson remained the leader at the restart on lap 278. On lap 286, Kahne was passed by Newman for ninth. By lap 290, Johnson built up a lead of two seconds. Seventeen laps later, Martin passed Kenseth for the fourth position. Johnson's lead had increased to 2.2 seconds by lap 319. Five laps later, debris was spotted on the track and the seventh caution was prompted. All of the leaders elected to make pit stops during the caution.
Johnson maintained his lead at the restart, followed by Martin and Kenseth. One lap later, Montoya moved into the second position, as Martin fell to fifth. On lap 336, Martin moved into fourth after passing Kurt Busch, and passed Kenseth for third two laps later. On lap 342, the eighth caution came out when Regan Smith spun off the fourth turn, collecting Stremme, Truex and Sadler. As light began to fade, Johnson kept the lead at the lap 348 restart. One lap later, Kenseth moved into the second position, as Stewart and Gordon moved into fourth and tenth respectively. Gordon passed Newman for ninth on the 349th lap, before falling to eleventh position after contact with Newman one lap later. Stewart was passed by Martin for the fourth position on lap 354, as Johnson had built a 2.2 second lead by lap 357. One lap later, Jeff Gordon moved into the ninth position after passing Newman.
On the 368th lap, Hornish, spun on the backstraightaway, prompting the ninth and final caution of the race. During the caution, some of the leaders made pit stops. Johnson maintained the lead on lap 373. Four laps later, Newman passed Mears for eighth, as Edwards was passed by Stewart for twelfth. On the 383rd lap, Kahne, Allemndinger and Stewart passed Newman for seventh, eighth and ninth respectively. On the following lap, Kenseth was overtaken by Martin for the second position. On the 391st lap, Kahne was passed by Allmendinger for the second position. Two laps later, Johnson's lead had increased to 2.2 seconds and held it to win the race. Martin finished second, ahead of Kenseth in third, Montoya fourth, and Kurt Busch fifth. Gordon, Allmendinger, Kahne, Stewart and Newman rounded out the top ten finishers. There were six lead changes among four different drivers over the course of the race. Johnson led three times for a total of 271 laps, more than any other driver.
### Post-race
Johnson appeared in victory lane to celebrate his fourth victory of the season in front of 110,000 people who attended the race, earning \$276,076 in race winnings. Afterward, he said, "I woke up (on Sunday) morning very optimistic. By about lap two or three I knew we had a very balanced car and we'd be competitive all day long, get a solid finish.", he continued, "I see guys get so worried about what other people think, what other people say and spend a lot of time in those areas. That's not what works for me. (I) don't watch television; don't watch or read any of the trade papers or magazines. Just ignore, ignore, ignore and focus on my world and what's going on with my race car. That's what I'll do through the rest of the Chase."
Martin, who finished second, was candid about the result, "We did really well to finish second. I just don't think we were in [Johnson's] league today." In the post-race press conference, Kenseth said of his result, "We didn't qualify very good, but we were really happy with our car. When the race started, I didn't think we were quite as good as we were yesterday (in practice), but we were able to have really good pit stops." Hamlin had struggled with a poor-handling vehicle and expressed his team's disappointment with his result due to the lack of speed in his car, saying; "We definitely came out here thinking we could win the race just like any other weekend, but as soon as the green flag fell, I knew we were in trouble." Logano, who was involved in the biggest accident of the race, "The biggest thing was, I was fine the whole time, [but] I'm not really sure what happened. The spotter was clearing me low. When I got down there, they checked up going into the corner and I got tagged from behind." Stewart commented on his collision with Logano, "I've never felt sicker in my life than when we hit Joey like that. We hit him a ton. I didn't see it coming. That was the worst part."
The race result kept Martin in the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 5,400 points. Johnson, who won the race, stood in second, ten points behind Martin, and sixty-five ahead of Montoya. Kurt Busch moved into fourth position with 5,325 points. Stewart with fifth, Hamlin sixth, and Newman, Jeff Gordon, Biffle and Vickers followed in the top-ten positions. The final two positions available in the Chase for the Sprint Cup were occupied by Edwards in eleventh and Kahne in twelfth. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet maintained their lead with 208. Toyota remained second with 163. Ford followed with 123 points, one point ahead of Dodge in fourth. 5.08 million people watched the race on television. The race took three hours, twenty-two minutes and eleven seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 1.970 seconds.
### Race results
## Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Manufacturers' Championship standings
- Note: Only the top twelve positions are included for the driver standings. These drivers qualified for the Chase for the Sprint Cup. |
902,894 | Within the Woods | 1,160,301,071 | 1978 short film directed by Sam Raimi | [
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| Within the Woods is a 1978 horror short film written, directed and produced by Sam Raimi. Raimi drew inspiration from his earlier short film Clockwork, deciding to produce a proof of concept horror film to help build the interest of potential investors. Raimi cast his friends Bruce Campbell and Ellen Sandweiss as the two protagonists and produced the film for \$1,600. Shot on location in a remote cabin in the woods, production was a difficult process because of the low budget. Several of the special effects presented in the film were done in a severely low budget manner, some of which were improvised on set. The film centers around demonic possession and mysterious forces originating from the woods.
Raimi convinced a local theater manager to screen the film alongside The Rocky Horror Picture Show, which sparked minor interest. Initially a meagre success, the film screened well to test audiences and inspired a larger budget remake directed by Raimi, called The Evil Dead (1981). The film was the first in the Evil Dead franchise, and launched the careers of both Bruce Campbell and Sam Raimi. Several of the aesthetic qualities found in Within the Woods later defined Raimi's films.
## Plot
Two romantic couples, consisting of four teenagers, decide to spend a weekend together located in a remote cabin found in the woods. An unseen force stalks and watches the group without their knowledge. Ellen and her boyfriend Bruce enter the woods to have a picnic lunch. The other couple, Scotty and Shelly, remain at the cabin playing Monopoly to pass time. During their lunch, Bruce announces to Ellen that they're camping on an Indian burial ground. Ellen is concerned, but Bruce assures her that they will be fine as long as they don't disturb the graves of the dead. Bruce then explores the area and discovers an ancient dagger belonging to the Native Americans. Ignoring his own advice, he takes the dagger with him.
After lunch, Ellen takes a nap. When she awakes, she finds Bruce missing and wanders into the woods looking for him. To her horror, she finds Bruce's dead body, horribly mutilated with apparent knife wounds. She is then startled by the presence of a demonic entity hiding within the woods, and quickly runs back to the cabin. While fleeing, she is attacked by unseen forces. She runs back to the cabin and screams to be let in immediately, being let in just as the entity is approaching her. Ellen tells her friends that Bruce has been murdered, but Scotty dismisses the whole thing as a joke and goes to find Bruce. Shelly and Ellen are concerned when Scotty doesn't return right away. Shelly walks outside to begin a search for the missing men, but a possessed Bruce assaults and strangles her, eventually stabbing her in the neck and killing her with the dagger that he found, moaning "join us."
Ellen encounters her possessed friend and flees into another room, grabbing knives to protect her. Something attempts to enter the room where Ellen is hiding, and she blindly lashes out with a knife - mistakenly stabbing Scotty who had just returned to the cabin. While horrified, Ellen is then attacked by the possessed Bruce. Ellen manages to trap Bruce outside, stabbing Bruce's hand several times in the process. The bleeding Scotty tells Ellen to look into the cellar for the gun they brought along. While walking down the stairs to the cellar, she trips on a broken step and injures herself. After finding the gun, she goes back up stairs and discovers that Scotty had been stabbed to death while she was downstairs. The demonic Bruce then attacks her, but she manages to cut off his hand.
Ellen attempts to flee but is severely beaten by the possessed Bruce, who throws her around the cabin. While being strangled, Ellen picks up Bruce's mutilated hand which is still holding the dagger found from before, and she uses it to stab Bruce. A large amount of blood is expended by Bruce, who lies motionless for a moment, only to then continue his assault on Ellen. Ellen mutilates Bruce's body even further with an axe, chopping off nearly every limb from the writhing body. Severely disturbed by the things she has witnessed, Ellen rocks back and forth muttering to herself. The corpse of Scotty suddenly springs up, before turning towards the oblivious Ellen, ready to attack. The screen then cuts to black, leaving the fate of Ellen ambiguous.
## Cast
- Bruce Campbell as Bruce
- Ellen Sandweiss as Ellen
- Scott Spiegel as Scotty
- Mary Valenti as Shelly
## Production
### Background
Before the development stages of Within the Woods, Sam Raimi and Bruce Campbell were long-time friends who had grown up together. The duo had produced several low-budget films with super 8 mm film during their youth. During the early parts of Raimi's career, he directed films that were mostly classified as comedies, such as Booby Bartenders, Shemp Eats the Moon and The Great Bogus Monkey Pignut Swindle. While those films were described as "goofy" and primitive by members of the cast and crew, Raimi eventually produced the short film It's Murder!, which featured mostly comedic moments. One of the sequences of the film involved a suspenseful moment where a criminal jumped on an unsuspecting individual. Raimi later dismissed the short film, but complimented that scene, stating that it was "the only part of It's Murder! that really worked well.
While working on the film, it inspired Raimi to approach the horror genre with more enthusiasm, leading to the conception of his next short film Clockwork. The film featured a woman being stalked by a demented man, and launched an interest in Raimi to pursue working on more horror films. While both Raimi and Campbell expressed a positive opinion on the genre, they admitted they had little experience with the genre and went to drive-in theaters to research various science fiction and horror films. Raimi developed the motto "the gore the merrier" during these sessions at the drive-in, and quickly developed an interest in films featuring high levels of blood. Raimi gained an appeal in B movie cinema, which led him to want to pursue the production of a more ambitious film for his next project. In order to gain the interest of producers, Raimi and Campbell set out to produce a "prototype" film that would serve as a showcase of their talents. The film would work as a trailer to help promote further cinematic productions.
The prototype film was called Within the Woods. In addition to Raimi's interest in various horror films, one of the main inspirations came in the writing of H. P. Lovecraft, who introduced the concept of the "book of the dead" to Raimi. Raimi studied the concept of magical books, in particular the Necronomicon, which formed the basis of the film. Campbell described the film as a combination of "creative writing and ancient history". In order to flesh out of the idea, Raimi came up with a concept where a group of teenagers went into the woods and were attacked by demonic spirits, summoned by the disturbance of an Indian burial ground. The book of the dead concept was not present in the finished film, but appeared extensively in later films by Raimi.
### Filming
Raimi was able to secure \$1,600 to produce the film. Raimi and Campbell collected a group of their friends and family who were interested in participating in the production of the film. The film was primarily shot at a farm house belonging to one of Raimi's friends located in Marshall, Michigan. One of the regular actors involved with Raimi's early short films, Ellen Sandweiss, was cast as the film's protagonist. This decision stemmed from the notion that most horror films at the time involved female leads, who were more enjoyable to watch terrorized. The current boyfriend of Sandweiss was cast as the film's antagonist, a demon who threatens the cast. Campbell was cast as one of the protagonists, though he initially was not familiar with horror cinema and instead identified as a fan of comedies. One of the films that inspired Campbell's interest in the genre was John Carpenter's film Halloween. Another Raimi regular, Scott Spiegel, was also cast as a protagonist based on his prior collaborations with the group.
The effects of the film were entirely low-budget. Nearly every effect in the film was done via things picked up at a make-up and Halloween store located close to where the film was shot. The effects in the film were notably more intricate than the simple ones featured in Raimi's prior projects, and contained mutilated bodies, stabbed body parts and demonic possession skin-attachments. Tom Sullivan was one of the primary make-up supervisors on set, and he found it difficult working presentable effects out of such low budgets. One notable example involved a chest stabbing rig that had to be attached to Spiegel's chest by straps and duct tape.
Campbell had to sleep wearing his make-up. Because of several scenes that required to be shot in both the day and the night, it was considered easiest to have Campbell sleep all night wearing his make-up, since removing it was too complicated. When Campbell eventually had the effect removed, he was alarmed to notice that his face had actually "changed shape" because of how long the make-up had been applied, though it returned to normal after an extended amount of time. This serves as one of several moments where the film-makers had to be creative to make the film considering the low budget. Other examples include blacking out the windows to make scenes darker and shooting all night long to make the filming schedule. Raimi had to get increasingly inventive during production, often coming up with "bizarre" ideas while shooting scenes. This led to him experimenting with camera moves and camera speeds, "taking it a little further than we had gone before, recording synch-sound at a third slower for a more monstrous effect.
### Post-production
Though production was difficult for many of the actors involved, especially Campbell, the film was eventually completed within acceptable budget limits. Raimi had completed the filming of his "prototype" and sought out to develop and edit the film as cheaply as possible. Though at the time it was unknown how the film was going to be distributed. Raimi had shot the film in the same style as many of his earlier films, with 8mm film. He intended to blow the footage up after filming to the industry standard of 35mm in order to save money, though Campbell noted that the idea was without precedent. Though the request was "obscure" in nature, a company in San Francisco managed to accommodate the task with little difficulty. At a test screening at a local movie theater, the footage appeared to be mostly acceptable, though further tests showed it to be grainy and difficult to make out.
## Distribution and reception
After production, Raimi virtually had no idea how the film was going to be distributed and what would come of it. The main idea behind shooting the film was to make a trailer to show to future investors, but even that was proving to be difficult. Eventually, Raimi got in contact with a manager at a movie theater in Detroit who was "open and flexible". The same theater played The Rocky Horror Picture Show every single week and was open to more unusual cinema. To Raimi's shock, the manager agreed to screen Within the Woods right before a midnight showing of The Rocky Horror Picture Show. The premiere of the film received a positive reception by the audience, and the cast and crew was paid just over \$10, all of which was donated to the American Cancer Society. The film, however, was never commercially released.
While critics mostly ignored the locally distributed, low-budget horror film, local The Detroit News critic Michael McWilliams, who attended the film's premiere, wrote that "it will probably never be advertised alongside the glossy, big-budget horror movies of our time, but you won't easily forget a locally produced little film called Within the Woods". He compared the low-budget film to the blockbuster The Amityville Horror, writing that it provided more scares. Tom Sulivan, the make-up supervisor of the film, stated that the film "really packs a punch", and expressed a positive opinion of working on the project.
## Aftermath
In order to produce a follow-up picture, Raimi needed nearly \$150,000. Raimi approached Phil Gillis, a lawyer to one of his friends, asking if he wanted to invest money into the production of a remake. Gillis was unimpressed with Within the Woods, but offered Raimi legal advice on how to approach further productions. Raimi approached several investors, "begging" for money, and eventually acquired nearly \$90,000 of the funds needed and set out to make the movie anyway.
Within the Woods was later retooled by Raimi with a vastly higher production value and a full-length running time as the 1981 film The Evil Dead. The Evil Dead would go on to be the first installment of a film franchise spawning two sequels, Evil Dead II (1987), and Army of Darkness (1992), both of which were directed by Raimi and featured Campbell as Ash Williams. A remake/sequel, known as Evil Dead, was released in 2013 with Raimi and Campbell as producers and creative consultants. In 2015, the Starz television network began airing the comedy horror series Ash vs Evil Dead, which featured Bruce Campbell returning as an older Ash Williams. Another movie in the series, Evil Dead Rise, was released in 2023, with Raimi and Campbell serving as executive producers.
Several aspects of Within the Woods were later presented in future Raimi films, including the use of the "Raimi-cam", a camera rig that creates a fluent flow of camera movement. Other elements, such as graphic imagery, bleak endings, and mutilations, defined many of Raimi's other films. Campbell made cameo appearances in all three of Raimi's Spider-Man films, as well as several other films for Raimi.
Academy Award winning film-making duo the Coen brothers were inspired by Raimi's decision to produce a short film as a trailer, utilizing the concept to produce funding for their debut Blood Simple (1984). The Coen brothers served as editors for The Evil Dead, and developed a friendship with Raimi. The duo has cast Campbell in some of their films such as The Hudsucker Proxy (1994) and Fargo (1996), the former of which was co-written by Raimi. |
843,545 | Minnesota State Capitol | 1,171,962,587 | State capitol building of the U.S. state of Minnesota | [
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| The Minnesota State Capitol is the seat of government for the U.S. state of Minnesota, in its capital city of Saint Paul. It houses the Minnesota Senate, Minnesota House of Representatives, the office of the Attorney General and the office of the Governor. The building also includes a chamber for the Minnesota Supreme Court, although court activities usually take place in the neighboring Minnesota Judicial Center.
There have been three State Capitol buildings. The present building was designed by architect Cass Gilbert and completed in 1905. Its Beaux-Arts/American Renaissance design was influenced by the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and by McKim, Mead & White's Rhode Island State House. From 2013 to 2017 the building underwent an extensive restoration. This included replacing existing infrastructure; adding new mechanical systems; replacing or repairing tens of thousands of pieces of marble on the exterior; cleaning historic paintings, murals, and sculptures; and adding safety and accessibility features.
The building is set in a landscaped campus with the Capitol Mall on its south front, Leif Erikson Park on its west, and Judicial Plaza to its east. Various monuments and memorials are located in these green spaces.
## History
### First Minnesota State Capitol
The current State Capitol building is actually the third building to serve this purpose. The territorial legislature first met in a temporary headquarters in the Central House Hotel. In 1851, work began to oversee finances and the hiring of contractors to build the Capitol. Its architect, N. C. Prentiss drew up specifications for the new Capitol. Exterior details included brick work, cut stone floors and steps for the porches, a wood pediment, wood Ionic-style columns, and a well-framed roof covered with fireproof material. Interior work called for Norway pine flooring and staircases of oak and ash with oak handrails and turned balusters. The legislature moved into the new Capitol in time for the 5th territorial legislative session on January 4, 1854.
The population boomed after Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858 and the Capitol building was expanded with a new wing on the Exchange Street side of the building in 1873 and a second wing facing Wabasha Street in 1878.
Despite efforts to make the Capitol fire-resistant, it was destroyed by fire on March 1, 1881. While legislators met in the evening, fire broke out in the dome of the Capitol and quickly spread. There were no deaths, but efforts to save the building failed. It was replaced on the same site in 1883 by the second Capitol building.
### Second Minnesota State Capitol
After fire destroyed Minnesota's first Capitol building, the second Capitol, a three-story, Romanesque, masonry building designed by Leroy Buffington, was completed in 1883 on the site of the first Capitol. Buffington designed the new building in the shape of a Greek cross. It featured a foundation of cut stone and walls of red brick with Dresbach sandstone trim. Each wing measured 150 feet in length. The main entrance on the southwest from Wabasha Street opened onto the first floor, where the governor, attorney general, auditor, treasurer, and secretary of state had offices. The Assembly (House of Representatives) chamber in the southeast wing featured a twenty-five-foot ceiling with a large stained glass skylight. The Senate chamber in the southwest wing was finished in yellow birch and birdseye maple. The Supreme Court chamber in the southeast wing featured woodwork of cherry and Hungarian ash.
Shortly after it opened, deficiencies of the new building were becoming clear. Overcrowding due to a lack of space, a lack of adequate fireproofing, and the discovery of dry rot made the building increasing unacceptable. Additionally, poor ventilation led in the push for a new Capitol building in 1893. It had served as the seat of Minnesota state government for just 10 years before state officials began planning a grander, more efficient Capitol. After the completion of the third State Capitol in 1905, the state used the old Capitol for meeting space, storage, and parking until its demolition in 1937. The site for the first and second Capitol buildings eventually became home to the former Arts and Science Building and McNally Smith Music Academy.
### Third Minnesota State Capitol
The present state Capitol was designed by Cass Gilbert, whose design was selected by the Board of State Capitol Commissioners over 41 other submissions. Butler-Ryan Construction was selected as the contractor. Work began on the capitol in 1896, its corner-stone laid July 27, 1898, and construction was completed in 1905. The construction cost US\$4.5 million. It opened its doors to the public for the first time on January 2, 1905. In 1893 Governor Knute Nelson appointed the seven-member Board of State Capitol Commissioners to oversee the construction of a new Capitol following the recommendation of the state legislature. The board oversaw every aspect of the work. This included supervising the expenditures, acquiring property, setting building specifications, selecting the architect and general contractor, and giving final approval for the type of stone to use on the exterior, as well as the art and artists.
The site selected by the commission was "Wabasha Hill", bounded by Park Avenue, University Avenue, Cedar and Wabasha Streets, and Central Avenue. While this was the costliest of the four sites considered for the Capitol, it was the largest, and the Commission concluded that it was the best location for the building. Dozens of companies and hundreds of workers worked to complete the statehouse. Six workers were killed in accidents between 1898 and 1903 as a result of unsafe working conditions.
Upon completion, the building drew praise from the architecture community, leading to requests for Gilbert to design Capitol buildings for other states, such as West Virginia and Arkansas, and other notable structures.
Originally, the Capitol housed all the executive offices and the three branches of state government, state agencies and commissions, and the Minnesota Historical Society. Expansion of offices and meeting rooms, reconstruction of chambers, and subdivision of corridors occurred as early as the 1930s. As needs expanded, the state agencies and commissions, and over half of the executive offices, moved out of the Capitol to other buildings. One of the first to leave was the Minnesota Historical Society, which relocated to its own building (now the Minnesota Judicial Center) next to the Capitol in 1915. Most recently, the offices of the Senate moved to the newly constructed Minnesota Senate Building in January 2016.
The structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.
## Architecture
The Minnesota Capitol is usually described as "Beaux-Arts", a modern term not in use when the Capitol was built, but a style made popular in part by the architecture at the Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. In addition to being influenced by his time at the World's Columbian Exposition, the State Capitol's architect Cass Gilbert was inspired by McKim, Mead & White's Rhode Island State House. Gilbert wrote a note in the margins on a 1912 article on his work stating that his plan of the Minnesota capitol had been greatly influenced by the one in Rhode Island.
The building's structure consists of a steel and cast iron frame on rough limestone foundation walls resting on concrete footings. Guastavino tile vaulting forms the ceilings on both the ground and first floor. The structural elements of a building primarily consist of load-bearing brick and stone masonry walls and piers supporting steel-framed floor and roof systems. Care given in the construction of the original structure was so great that even far removed mechanical spaces not intended to be seen by the public were designed and built with a high standard of finish and design.
Building Dimensions
East to west, the Capitol is more than 430 ft (130 m) long. From ground level to the top of the dome's lantern measures 220 ft (67 m). Inside, the building has more than 300,000 square feet (28,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of floor space, or about 5,000,000 cubic feet (140,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of space.
Dome
The Minnesota State Capitol dome is the second largest self-supported marble dome in the world, behind Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, on which Gilbert based his design. The dome itself is actually made up of three domes or layers. The outer layer is a self-supporting dome made of Georgia marble blocks resting upon their own weight. Hidden inside is a brick and steel cone that supports the lantern and golden sphere at the top of the dome and provides an internal water drainage system, which helps avoid the heaving problem created by the freezing and thawing of Minnesota winters. Below that is the decorative masonry dome that can be seen from the inside, looking up from the rotunda. At the dome's base are 12 marble eagles paired with the columns surrounding the drum of the dome. At the dome's top is a columned stone lantern which is then topped by a finial globe covered in gold leaf.
Stone
Because it was just over 30 years after the American Civil War when the building was designed, Gilbert drew ire for choosing marble from Georgia rather than native Minnesota granite for the exterior. Gilbert insisted on using Georgia white marble, saying that the use of a darker color would make it look "glooming and forbidding." A compromise was made with native granite for the steps and the base and interior walls of Kasota limestone, while using the Georgia white marble for the vast majority of the buildings’ exterior.
The steps of the two grand staircases in the east and west wings of the Capitol are made of Hauteville limestone, which resembles the Kasota limestone used through the walls of the Capitol but can take more wear. The 36 variegated columns surrounding the grand staircases are made from Breche Violette marble from Italy.
In the rotunda, the giant columns in the four open spaces are made from Minnesota granite. The deep bronze columns on the north and south were quarried near Ortonville, Minnesota and the purplish gray columns on the east and west were quarried near Rockville, Minnesota.
Dividing the statuary niches and the Kasota stone walls in the rotunda from the "Civilization of the Northwest" murals above them is a line of Sioux Quartzite from a quarry in Jasper, Minnesota. Previously it was thought to be Catlinite/Pipestone, which is prized by Native Americans, primarily those of the Plains nations for use in making ceremonial pipes. During the 2013-2017 renovation, the stone was tested and found not to be Catlinite.
## Artwork
The State Capitol opened in 1905 with roughly 60 artworks that totaled \$300,000, or 7% of the \$4.5-million project budget. Over the years, more art has been added to the Capitol, totaling nearly 150 pieces in 2017.
Gilbert sought out many of the finest artists of the period, such as Kenyon Cox, Elmer Garnsey, Edwin Howland Blashfield, Henry Oliver Walker, Edward Emerson Simmons, John La Farge, Douglas Volk, Francis D. Millet, Howard Pyle, and Rufus Fairchild Zogbaum.
Much of the original art is allegorical. Gilbert's trips to Europe encouraged his ideas, but he was more directly influenced by the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. In particular, the inspiration for the Minnesota quadriga, a group of figures entitled Progress of the State, was the Columbus Quadriga, a statue depicting Christopher Columbus standing in a four horse chariot guided by two maidens carrying staffs of victory, that Daniel Chester French and Edward Clark Potter had modeled for the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. Gilbert saw this quadriga group at the Exposition and made plans to have artists adapt it for Minnesota.
As work continued on the interior, multiple groups, notably American Civil War veterans, the Minnesota Historical Society, and some politicians, demanded that the artwork in the Capitol illustrate historic events of Minnesota’s past. The current ornate look of the Governors Reception Room was partly a response to Minnesotans' suggestions for pictures from their own history which gave Gilbert the opportunity to upscale his plans for the room and to include six large paintings that span 200 years of the area's history.
In 1944, the custom of displaying governors' portraits in the public corridors was initiated. In 1971, the Capitol Area Architectural Planning Board and the Minnesota Historical Society were entrusted to approve design, structural composition and location of all works of art.
## Interior
Governors Reception Room
The Governors Reception Room, arguably the most elaborately decorated in the building, is a ceremonial room, designed for state receptions, proclamations, and press conferences.
Gilbert designed the elaborately decorated room, which was inspired by his earlier vacation in Europe, on the lines of a Venetian Council Chamber, with stained white oak woodwork and heavy molding gilded with gold leaf framing historical paintings.
The room's ornate look was partly a response to Minnesotans' suggestions for pictures from their own history. Originally Gilbert had planned for the room to be much more modest. "The executive rooms should be finished in perfectly plain color without elaborate decoration of any kind," Gilbert wrote in a 1903 letter to the Board. Responding to popular demand, the Board of State Capitol Commissioners authorized six paintings by four nationally known artists. Gilbert prepared plans for a more ornate room to accommodate paintings of historical subject matter, which were originally considered for the lunettes over the grand stair halls.
In 1968 the red drapes and leather furnishings were replaced with gold velvet curtains and modern armchairs covered in mustard yellow upholstery. With a space shortage in the Capitol, Governor LeVander decided the room should be converted to office use and closed off to the public. There was strong public objection to this temporary solution. Legislators and civic leaders worked to dissuade LeVander, and kept the Reception Room open to visitors. This controversy helped facilitate the recognition for the historic preservation and restoration of many Capitol spaces in the 1970s.
In 1978, when farmers converged on the Capitol to protest powerline construction on their farms, the message "we want a moratorium on powerlines" was carved into one of the antique tables after several hundred protesters crowded into the Reception Room.
Decorations and symbols
One of several signature features of the Capitol is the brass and translucent glass eight-pointed star symbolizing Minnesota's motto, "L'Étoile du Nord" (The Star of the North), which is set in a circle on the floor of the rotunda below the central dome. The star motif is then repeated in the marble floor of the rotunda with the points of the star using red Numidian marble from the Nile River. The star's glass floor provides natural light to a State Capitol hearing room below. The motto can be seen in other areas of the Capitol stenciled on the walls.
Additional state symbols appear as details in unexpected settings. In a homage to Minnesota's nickname, the "Gopher State", life-sized cast iron gophers rear up on balustrades in the rotunda. The Lady Slipper was adopted as the state flower in 1902, during the Capitol's construction. Gilbert had many of the Corinthian capitals adjusted to feature larger-than-life renditions of the wild orchid found in Minnesota's northern forests.
The dome electrolier (chandelier) is lit every Statehood Day on May 11, commemorating when Minnesota became the 32nd state in the union on May 11, 1858.
American Civil War themes
Gilbert had originally planned that art decorating the capitol interior would be mainly allegorical in nature. However, the Board of State Capitol Commissioners was approached by American Civil War veterans and Minnesota legislators who felt the artwork in the Capitol should depict real events in the states past rather than allegorical imagery. In particular they wanted recognition of Minnesota's military units. Additional funds were lacking to build a desired immense obelisk outside the Capitol that was to be the memorial to veterans. These issues convinced Gilbert to amend his vision and include Civil War homages inside the Capitol building.
Four of the six paintings originally installed in the Governor's Reception Room included Civil war themes, as did the two paintings in the Governor's Anteroom. Gilbert originally seemed to want any statues in the second floor rotunda niches to be Minnesota Senators or U.S. Presidents; however, the statues finally installed between 1909 and 1914 were of Civil War veterans. Years after the construction was done, more plaques and benches memorializing Minnesotans who served in the Civil War were added between the 1920s and 1930s as the result of lobbying done by veterans groups and legislators. While there is no official designation, quality and volume of American Civil War art and historic artifacts in the capitol building gives the semblance the Capitol being a memorial to Civil War veterans.
## Capitol Mall
On the Capitol's south front is the State Capitol Mall, which includes eighteen acres of green space. Over the years, monuments and memorials have been added to the mall. The mall and the Capitol building itself are overseen by the Capitol Area Architectural and Planning Board (CAAPB), a small state agency consisting of twelve members.
Cass Gilbert envisioned his State Capitol building in a setting of plazas and axial and radial avenues, but his commission was initially limited to the building only due to lack of funds.
As time went on, the aging neighborhood surrounding the Capitol increasingly deteriorated. Work to transform the area and to develop at least partially Gilbert's vision of landscaped grand boulevards providing key approaches to the capitol began after World War II. The work was largely complete by 1955, leaving the State Capitol Mall with the overall form that still provides the setting for the Minnesota State Capitol.
## 2013 to 2017 Renovation
The Minnesota State Capitol underwent a comprehensive restoration project from 2013 to 2017, the first major renovation since the building first opened.
Work began in 2013, with the project estimated at that time to cost \$241 million, funded via a series of appropriations made by the Minnesota legislature. The project repaired and modernized deteriorating building systems, restored the building to Cass Gilbert's original architectural vision, increased public meeting space (including a new classroom for the Minnesota Historical Society to host school groups and provide information about the building), updated life safety systems, and improved accessibility for people with disabilities.
3-D modeling was used to incorporate details about materials and other characteristics of particular parts of the structure. It was used to help with aspects of planning which included the positioning of new HVAC units that required the doubling of ductwork in order to meet modern code requirements but not be noticed or mar the historic character of the building. The laser scanning done to confirm the accuracy of the digital model also showed that Gilbert’s original architectural drawings proved to be very accurate to what was built.
The original Georgia marble stone on the exterior had badly deteriorated from weathering, and underwent comprehensive restoration that included 20,000 repairs with 6,000 pieces replaced. The stone was obtained from the same quarry as the original marble. Some historic details removed during previous renovations, were restored or recreated such as the Capitol's public elevators on the south side of the building which were outfitted with leaded-glass fronts reminiscent of the originals which had been discarded and replaced by stainless steel doors in the late 1960s.
The amount of public space in the building was doubled to nearly 40,000 square feet, with a number of new public spaces opened to the public for reservation and use year round. Mechanical systems in the Capitol's basement were buried under the floor to help create new public spaces including the ’Etoile du Nord Vault event space directly under the rotunda.
The project also included a restoration of the capitol's many works of fine art, which prompted discussions over some paintings in the building that feature controversial depictions of American Indians. A series of public input meetings were held around the state to gather feedback and consider options for new policies regarding art in the renovated building. When the building reopened, two of these paintings, Father Hennepin Discovering the Falls of St. Anthony, and the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux were relocated while others remained in place.
The renovation forced the House and Senate to hold a special session in the nearby State Office Building in 2015. During the regular 2016 session, the Senate met in the newly completed Senate Office Building, with the capitol open for only limited access to the House chamber during the session.
By the time of its completion in 2017, the total cost of the renovation project reached about \$310 million. The bulk of construction was completed by the start of the 2017 legislative session in January. The project was officially completed in August 2017, at which point all of the building's newly renovated spaces opened to the public.
## Public access
After its current restoration, the removal of office spaces on the third floor and mechanical and storage spaces in the basement opened up new public gathering spaces, meeting rooms, and exhibit areas, many of which can be reserved for use by members of the public. The Minnesota Historical Society operates the Capitol Information and Tour Center. The building is open to the public most days of the week, and guided tours are available. Tours on special topics surrounding the Capitol occur throughout the year. The Minnesota State Capitol Third Floor Gallery features rotating non-permanent exhibits featuring Minnesota art, culture, and history.
## Gallery
## See also
- List of inscriptions in the Minnesota State Capitol
- Minnesota Governor's Residence
- List of state and territorial capitols in the United States
- Minnesota Legislature
- Governor of Minnesota |
47,643,812 | York Community Stadium | 1,171,899,535 | Multi-purpose stadium in Huntington, England | [
"Multi-purpose stadiums in the United Kingdom",
"Proposed football venues in England",
"Sports venues in York",
"York City F.C.",
"York City Knights"
]
| York Community Stadium (known for sponsorship purposes as the LNER Community Stadium) is a multi-purpose stadium in Huntington, York, England. It is owned by City of York Council, and is shared by York City Football Club and York Rugby League Football Club. The capacity of the all-seater stadium is 8,500.
The move to a new stadium was necessitated by the terms of the loan York City secured from the Football Stadia Improvement Fund to purchase their Bootham Crescent ground. Planning permission for the current design, put forward by Greenwich Leisure, was granted in March 2015. After several delays, construction began in December 2017 and was completed in December 2020. In addition to the stadium, the site houses a leisure complex and a community hub.
The opening match at the York Community Stadium saw York City take on AFC Fylde on 16 February 2021, which ended in a 3–1 victory for Fylde, with Alex Whitmore scoring the opening goal at the stadium. The stadium hosted both women's semi-finals of the 2021 Rugby League World Cup.
## Background
York City F.C. ceased ownership of their Bootham Crescent ground in the summer of 1999, after the club's real property assets were transferred to a holding company called Bootham Crescent Holdings. The club secured a £2 million loan from the Football Stadia Improvement Fund (FSIF) to buy the ground in February 2004. The terms of this loan required the club to identify a site for a new stadium by 2007, and have detailed planning permission by 2009, to avoid financial penalties. Once plans for a new stadium were in place, the loan would turn into a grant to assist in funding the relocation.
As part of the loan agreement, Persimmon had first refusal on purchasing Bootham Crescent once York City left, for 10% lower than its market value. Persimmon intended to build 93 homes on the site, and the proceeds of the sale would go towards building the new stadium. In March 2008, York City's managing director Jason McGill cited "the annual cost of £60,000 for the maintenance and upkeep of a 1932 stadium with few commercial and income-generating opportunities" as the reason for the continued need to move to a new stadium.
## Planning history
York City had identified a preferred site for a new stadium by April 2007, but were unable to disclose the location due to confidentiality clauses. Despite the club failing to formally identify a site by the end of 2007, financial penalties were not incurred, as the FSIF were satisfied with the progress made. However, McGill said plans with the preferred site had stalled by March 2008. City of York Council announced its commitment to building a community stadium in May 2008, which would be used by York City and the city's rugby league club, York City Knights.
A project board was established in January 2009, with the objective of ensuring the stadium be built by 2012. City councillors approved the outline business case for the stadium in June 2009, meaning officials could start searching for sites. Four sites were put forward to the council in June 2010, and York City favoured the option of building a 6,000 all-seater stadium at Monks Cross in Huntington, to the north of York, on the site of Huntington Stadium, which would be ready by 2014 at the earliest. Mark Stead of The Press noted the advantages of this site, including the potential for land value to include, the opportunity to build health and fitness facilities and commercial interest, and the disadvantages, including a scheduled ancient monument being located on adjacent land and traffic concerns. In July 2010, this location was chosen by the council executive as their preferred option.
Developers Oakgate (Monks Cross) Ltd submitted a planning application for a community stadium, for use by York City and York City Knights, and a retail park in September 2011. The council granted planning permission for the development in May 2012, with the stadium expected to be ready during the 2014–15 season. Gavin Aitchison of The Press commented that "one of York's biggest planning controversies in years finally came to a head" after the planning committee meeting that lasted over eight hours. Critics argued the development would damage the city centre economy, with a report by Deloitte saying the development would cost the city centre £50 million a year. In November 2012, construction was delayed until June 2014, for a completion date of July 2015. A delay to the construction of the shopping park in June 2013, caused by the discovery of protected great crested newts at the site, meant the stadium completion date was moved to January 2016.
In August 2014, Greenwich Leisure (GLL) were named as the council's preferred bidder to deliver an 8,000 all-seater stadium, to be shared by York City and York City Knights, and a leisure complex and a community hub. Construction was due to start during spring 2015, for a completion date of July 2016. York City were given responsibility for operating and managing the stadium on an initial 13-year contract. A planning application for the GLL plan was submitted to the council in December 2014, which was passed in March 2015. The cost of the stadium and leisure complex, including a replacement athletics track at another site, stood at £37 million.
In July 2015, construction was delayed as contracts were still being finalised, and the completion date was moved to during the 2016–17 season. Construction was delayed again a month later, with work to begin in February or March 2016, for completion in April or May 2017. With construction costs increasing due to more detailed design work, construction inflation and delays, the council pledged an additional £7.2 million in March 2016, raising the total cost of the project to £44.2 million. Construction was delayed to the summer of 2016, for completion in early 2018.
A judicial review of the development was launched in October 2016 by Vue Cinemas, who objected to an extra screen being approved at the site. Later that year, principal contractor ISG withdrew, citing rising costs and the judicial review, which was settled in the City of York's favour in January 2017. By May that year, construction had not yet begun nor had a new contractor been found. In November, the council stated that work would begin on the stadium before the end of the year, to be opened for the 2019–20 season. Construction began on 4 December 2017. After a number of delays, the stadium was completed and handed to the operators GLL in December 2020.
## Structure and facilities
The stadium has an all-seated capacity of 8,500. It comprises four stands; the East Stand (Main Stand), the West Stand, the North Stand and the South Stand. The three-floored East Stand accommodates hospitality guests, players, officials and the media, and is connected to the adjacent retail and community facilities. The stands stretch the length of the playing field, and each corner hosts stadium facilities, including matchday emergency services, stewarding, groundsman accommodation, plant space and a fan zone. The seats are coloured red, white, yellow and blue, a combination of the colours of both teams.
The pitch uses reinforced natural grass, with provision to counter frost. The dimensions for football matches are 105 by 68 metres (115 by 74 yd), with 3 metre wide run-offs on the sides and 6.5 metre wide run-offs behind the goals, which meet FIFA recommendations. The dimensions for rugby league matches are 100 by 68 metres (109 by 74 yd), with 6 metre in-goal areas, and 3 metre wide run-offs on the sides and after the dead ball lines.
Adjoining the stadium is the leisure complex, which includes a 25-metre, six-lane swimming pool, a sports hall for netball, badminton and basketball, a gym with dance and spinning studios, an adventure sports zone and three 3G five-a-side pitches. A community hub houses health and well-being services for York residents and visitors, including clinical services, an independent living assessment centre and a library.
## Mural
In 2021, a large mural was painted on the West Stand depicting Clifford's Tower, the York city walls, York Minster, York City F.C. players, York City Knights players, and an "Azuma" train. It was designed by the University of York.
## Transport
Regular bus services serve the stadium from the city centre, and additional services to other areas will be considered if there is sufficient demand. A review of the park and ride operating times will take place, with an extension to the service to be sought. On matchdays, 400 car parking places and 355 cycle parking places are available at the stadium. A cycle route exists between the site and the city centre.
## Attendances
## International matches
### 2021 Women's Rugby League World Cup
York Community Stadium was selected as the venue for the Group B matches and the semi-finals of the 2021 Women's Rugby League World Cup.
### 2025 Rugby World Cup
In August 2023, York Community Stadium was confirmed as one of eight host venues for the 2025 Rugby World Cup. |
4,879,860 | Patagosaurus | 1,170,315,024 | Extinct genus of dinosaurs | [
"Cañadón Asfalto Formation",
"Cetiosauridae",
"Dinosaur genera",
"Fossil taxa described in 1979",
"Fossils of Argentina",
"Jurassic Argentina",
"Middle Jurassic dinosaurs of South America",
"Taxa named by José Bonaparte"
]
| Patagosaurus (meaning "Patagonia lizard") is an extinct genus of eusauropod dinosaur from the Middle-Late Toarcian of Patagonia, Argentina. It was first found in deposits of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation, which date to around 179 to 177 million years ago. Although originally twelve specimens were assigned to the taxon, at least one of them may belong to a different genus. Patagosaurus probably lived alongside genera as Piatnitzkysaurus, Condorraptor and Volkheimeria.
Since Patagosaurus is known from many specimens, including at least one juvenile, its anatomy and growth are fairly well understood. Both ages exhibit the typical features of a sauropod, a long neck, small head, a long tail and being quadrupedal. The juvenile exhibits features different from the adult in regions like the mandible, pectoral girdle, pelvis and hindlimb, although overall their anatomy is quite similar. The many known specimens help fill in gaps in the anatomy of the genus, such as the forelimb and skull. Parts of the skeleton, like the pectoral girdle, tibia and pubis are more robust, while others, like the forelimb and ischium, are more gracile. The material of Patagosaurus is similar to closely related taxa like Cetiosaurus and Volkheimeria, more primitive genera such as Barapasaurus and Amygdalodon, and more derived sauropods like Diplodocus and Camarasaurus.
## Discovery and naming
In the 1970s many specimens of a previously unidentified dinosaur were found associated together in the same bed and locality: a pebbly stratum near a route to Cerro Condor. The specimens were first described by José Bonaparte in 1979. For the fossil he erected the genus Patagosaurus, as well as its type species P. fariasi. The generic name of Patagosaurus comes from the location of its find in Patagonia, and the fact that it is a reptile. The specific name honours Ricardo Farias, on whose land the initial discovery was made. The genus was originally known from an almost complete postcranial skeleton lacking a skull as the holotype, and many referred specimens; however, in 2003 it was found that a dentary was referable to the species, so more specimens are probably this taxon. Its skeleton was found near those of Piatnitzkysaurus and Volkheimeria in the layers originally suggested as Callovian- to Oxfordian-aged Patagonian deposits of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation. These layers have been recently re-dated, finding out thanks to advanced zircon datation that the bones of the three genera and all the vertebrates of Las Charcitas member where deposited in between 179 and 178 million years, that is Middle-Late Toarcian. Patagosaurus is almost completely known with many articulated specimens found covering almost all of the skeleton, including parts of the skull. Over twelve specimens have been referred to the species, although some of the material is probably from a unique taxon. Bonaparte (1986) assigned three specimens other than the holotype PVL 4170, PVL 4076, MACN CH 934 and MACN CH 933 to the genus. While the holotype includes a postcranial skeleton, the others are known from cranial material and a nearly complete juvenile skeleton and skull. MACN CH 933 is directly comparable with the type material of Patagosaurus, which confirms its association with the genus. A specimen first referred to Patagosaurus in 2003, MPEF-PV 1670 (which includes just a lower jaw), is also very similar to MACN CH 933, and differences can be associated with age, so therefore, MPEF-PV 1670 presumably represents adult cranial material. However, the teeth of MACN CH 934 are very different from those of both lower jaws (MACN CH 933 and MPEF-PV 1670), so it can be identified as another sauropod from the same deposit as Patagosaurus. Thus, the taxon only certainly includes PVL 4170, MACN CH 933 and MPEF-PV 1670.
## Description
Patagosaurus is a sauropod that possessed a general and unspecialized bauplan of being quadrupedal, having an elongate neck, a small head and a very long tail. Therefore, it is similar to Cetiosaurus and other related genera, who possessed the same morphology. It has been estimated that it was about 16.5 m (54 ft) long and weighed about 7.88 tonnes (7.8 long tons; 8.7 short tons). An earlier estimate by John S. McIntosh and his colleagues in 1997, found that Patagosaurus was approximately 15 m (49 ft) long, and also 9.44 metric tons (9.3 long tons; 10.4 short tons) in weight, similar to the later estimates by Holtz. A 2006 study by Donald M. Henderson calculated the weight of Patagosaurus to be 7.89 t (7.8 long tons; 8.7 short tons), a smaller estimate than McIntosh's.
The skull of Patagosaurus is not very well known, with a 2003 revision by Oliver Rauhut determining only a few jaws are certainly referrable to it, as opposed to nearly the entire skull. MPEF-PV 1670 shows what the morphology of the adult or subadult skull was like, while MACN CH 933 represents a juvenile individual. Based upon how broad, high and short the adult articulated mandibles of Patagosaurus are, its snout would have been short, high and broad as well, a typical feature of most sauropods.
The teeth of Patagosaurus are reminiscent of more derived sauropods. They are similar in morphology to Euhelopus, being concave on one side as well as having crowns with fairly great expansions. They are also similar to Camarasaurus, although the latter genus has less of a concavity and expansion. The teeth also possess marginal denticles on the crown. Based on histological studies, an individual of Patagosaurus would have replaced a tooth every 58 days, similar to 62 days for Camarasaurus, and 34 days for Diplodocus.
### Postcranial skeleton
Most of the postcranial skeleton is known in Patagosaurus. The cervical, caudal and dorsal vertebrae are generally similar to Camarasaurus, although the sacrum possesses many distinct features. The sacrum is well preserved, showing that Patagosaurus possessed five sacral vertebrae. All the vertebrae but the fifth are fused together. All the neural spines are tall, and the centra are occasionally transversely narrow. The neural canal of the vertebrae is unique among sauropods, however. Starting from the very end of the first vertebra, and extending to almost the end of the third there is an enlargement of the canal, forming a well-defined cavity. Even though the sacrum itself is distinguishing, its sacral ribs resemble Camarasaurus. The sacral vertebrae have a total length of 540 mm (21 in), with the total sacral length being 920 mm (36 in).
The pelvic girdle is well preserved and well studied. In the holotype, the pelvic girdle is almost complete, only lacking the proximal ends of each ischium. The ilia of the holotype are well known, and show many distinct features. The pubic peduncle, where the ilium articulates with the pubis, is long and straight and has an expansion on the end, as in many sauropods. The upper edge of the iliac blade is curved and thick, with rugosities (rough spots) for cartilage attachment. The pubic elements are large and robust in adults, more so than in juveniles. They are flat when viewed from in front, and convex when seen from behind. Lapparentosaurus resembles Patagosaurus when comparing their pubes. The ischia are much more gracile than the pubes, and only have a small distal expansion. While the ilia resemble Barapasaurus, and the pubes resemble Lapparentosaurus, the ischia are most similar to Diplodocus and Apatosaurus.
The hindlimbs of Patagosaurus are based on scant material, some femora, a tibia and a few nondescript pedal bones. Two femora come from an adult, with a single additional bone known from the juvenile. The adult femora are proportionately different from the juvenile, being mostly straighter and more ovoid in cross-section. The femoral head is well preserved, although lacking the greater trochanter. The distal end is rather symmetrical when viewed from behind, with two similarly sized condylar surfaces. In the juvenile, the fourth trochanter is completely in the proximal end. The tibia has a well-developed cnemial crest, and is also short and robust. The surface that would have articulated with the astragalus in life has the anterior half raised, and the posterior half lowered.
The pectoral girdle is well known. Both the left and right scapulae and coracoids are known, though incomplete. The scapulae are large and robust, and thicken as they near the glenoids. The scapular blades are flat, although they are both convex along the anterior edge. Where the scapulae and coracoids articulate, the coracoids are thickest, and they become gradually thinner as they gain distance from the scapulae. The younger specimen of Patagosaurus possesses a slightly different morphology of the pectoral girdle, with slightly differing proportions, such as a slightly smaller scapular blade. The coracoids resemble Barapasaurus in shape, and differ from Camarasaurus, although they cannot be directly compared with those of Cetiosaurus.
The forelimbs of Patagosaurus are only based on three bones from the juvenile specimen, and no manual elements are preserved. The humeri are slender and elongate, lacking great proximal and distal expansions. The incomplete deltoid crest, only shows that it was wide, and likely had a projection below and behind. Like the humeri, the radius is slender, and lacks large expansions on either end. On the edge closest to the ulna, the radius possesses a ridge along its edge, which corresponds to where radioulnar ligaments would have attached. The ulna is complete, although sediment-filled breaks might have altered its original shape. The forelimb of Patagosaurus is much more gracile and different from the robust later sauropods like Camarasaurus and Apatosaurus, and instead resembles more Diplodocus.
## Classification
When originally described, Patagosaurus was identified as a relative of Cetiosaurus in the family Cetiosauridae. It can be distinguished from Cetiosaurus, a similar genus, by features of the ischium and vertebrae. Another genus also identified as a cetiosaurid by Bonaparte, Volkheimeria, was named in the same paper as Patagosaurus. Features uniting the genera were identified in the pelvic structure and vertebrae, specifically the caudal neural spines and the ilium and ischium. These characteristics show that the genera are more derived than Amygdalodon, yet more primitive than Haplocanthosaurus.
Later in 1995, Paul Upchurch published a paper on early sauropods, finding Patagosaurus as a cetiosaurid again. He found that although earlier works had distinguished two groups, the shunosaurines and cetiosaurines, in the family, but that Shunosaurus and relatives were actually closer to Euhelopus, and cetiosaurines (Cetiosaurus, Patagosaurus and Amygdalodon) were the only true cetiosaurids. Upchurch noted, however, that further work on the group might reveal different conclusions.
In a 2009 revision of Euhelopus, Jeffrey A. Wilson and Upchurch published a joint analysis on primitive eusauropodan relationships. They found that Patagosaurus was in fact not a sister taxon of Cetiosaurus, but instead more basal than the genus, effectively invalidating Cetiosauridae. Their results are shown below:
A 2021 study found Patagosaurus to be a member of the Cetiosauridae.
## Paleoecology
Patagosaurus was uncovered in the Middle Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation, which preserves a large variety of flora and fauna. In fact, Escapa et al. noted that "the fossil record of this formation represents the most completely known biota from the continental Middle to Late Jurassic of the Southern Hemisphere and one of the most complete of the entire world". The Cañadón Asfalto Formation, which was deposited about 165 to 161 million years ago, was a lush ecosystem, in which many organisms lived. In the Middle Jurassic, the region would have been part of the great southern landmass of Gondwana. Most of the plants are conifers, although ferns and equisetales are also abundant. Directly below the formation is a layer of ash, indicating a nearby volcano.
The fauna is dominated by tetrapods, ranging from aquatic amphibians to terrestrial turtles, mammals and dinosaurs. The sole amphibian known is Notobatrachus; turtles are represented by a distinct form that was named Condorchelys; mammals are known from a few genera, including Argentoconodon, Asfaltomylos and Henosferus; multiple dinosaurs have been identified, including the sauropods Volkheimeria, Patagosaurus and a potential third genus that is yet unnamed, and theropods include the related Piatnitzkysaurus and Condorraptor. |
22,738,876 | Australian Army during World War II | 1,080,460,358 | null | [
"Australian Army",
"Military history of Australia during World War II"
]
| The Australian Army was the largest service in the Australian military during World War II. Prior to the outbreak of war the Australian Army was split into the small full-time Permanent Military Forces (PMF) and the larger part-time Militia. Following the outbreak of war on the 3rd of September 1939, 11 days later, on 14 September 1939 Prime Minister Robert Menzies announced that 40,000 members of the Militia would be called up for training and a 20,000-strong expeditionary force, designated the Second Australian Imperial Force (Second AIF), would be formed for overseas service. Meanwhile, conscription was introduced in October 1939 to keep the Militia at strength as its members volunteered for the AIF. The Australian Army subsequently made an important contribution to the Allied campaigns in the Mediterranean, the Middle East and North Africa fighting the Germans, Italians and Vichy French during 1940 and 1941, and later in the jungles of the South West Pacific Area fighting the Japanese between late 1941 and 1945. Following the Japanese surrender Australian Army units were deployed as occupation forces across the South West Pacific. Meanwhile, the Army contributed troops to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) in Japan from 1946.
The Army was considerably expanded in early 1942 in response to the Japanese threat to Australia. During this year the Army's strength peaked at eleven infantry divisions and three armoured divisions, and in August 1942 the Army had a strength of 476,000 men. This force was larger than Australia's population and economy could sustain, and its strength was reduced in the second half of the year. Militia units were able to serve outside of Australian territory in the South West Pacific Area from January 1943 after the Defence (Citizen Military Forces) Act 1943 was passed, but few did so. The Army was further reduced by 100,000 members from October 1943 to free up manpower for industry. At the end of 1943 the Army's strength was set at six infantry divisions and two armoured brigades, although further reductions were ordered in August 1944 and June 1945. The Australian Army generally had a long-standing policy of using British-designed equipment, but equipment from Australia, the United States and some other countries was introduced into service in the war's later years. Pre-war doctrine was focused on conventional warfare in a European environment and the Army did not have any doctrine for jungle warfare prior to 1943. In early 1943 the Army developed a jungle warfare doctrine by adapting the pre-war field service regulations to meet the conditions in the South West Pacific.
The demands of combat during World War II led to changes in the composition of Army units. The success of German mechanised units during the invasions of Poland and France convinced Australian defence planners that the Army required armoured units, and these began to be raised in 1941. These units were not suitable for jungle warfare, however, and most were disbanded during 1943 and 1944. Conditions in the South West Pacific also led the Army to convert its six combat divisions to jungle divisions in early 1943 and 1944 with fewer heavy weapons and vehicles. This organisation proved only moderately successful, and the divisions were strengthened for their 1944–45 campaigns. The process of demobilisation began immediately after the end of hostilities in August 1945 and was finally completed on 15 February 1947. A total of 730,000 personnel enlisted in the Australian Army during the war, a figure which represented around 10 percent of the population. Nearly 400,000 men ultimately served overseas, with 40 percent of the total force serving in front line areas. As a proportion of its population, the Australian Army was ultimately one of the largest Allied armies during World War II. Casualties included 11,323 killed in action, 1,794 who died of wounds, and 21,853 wounded. Another 5,558 were killed or died as prisoners of war (POWs), while non-battle casualties in operational areas were also significant and included 1,088 killed and 33,196 wounded or injured. In addition, the Army suffered a substantial number of casualties in non-operational areas: 1,795 soldiers killed and 121,800 wounded or injured.
## Background
Prior to the outbreak of war the Australian Army consisted of the small full-time Permanent Military Forces (PMF) and the larger part-time Militia. Throughout the inter-war years, a combination of complacency and economic austerity had resulted in limited defence spending. In 1929, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, conscription was abolished and in its place a new system was introduced whereby the Militia would be maintained on a part-time, voluntary basis only. The size of the Army remained small up until 1938 and 1939 when the Militia was rapidly expanded as the threat of war grew. In 1938, there had been only 35,000 soldiers in the Militia, but by September 1939 this had been increased to 80,000, supported by a PMF of 2,800 full-time soldiers whose main responsibility was largely to administer and train the Militia. This expansion had little impact on improving the readiness of Australian forces upon the outbreak of the war, though, as the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 restricted the pre-war Army to service in Australia and its territories including Papua and New Guinea. As a result, when Australia entered the war in 1939, a new all-volunteer force was required that could fight in Europe or elsewhere outside of Australia's immediate region. (Similarly, in World War I the all-volunteer First Australian Imperial Force (First AIF) was raised and served with distinction at Gallipoli, in the Middle East and on the Western Front.)
From the 1920s Australia's defence thinking was dominated by the "Singapore strategy", which centred on the establishment of a major naval base at Singapore and the use of naval forces to respond to any future Japanese aggression in the region. As a maritime strategy, it resulted in a defence budget that was focused on building up the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), in order to support the British Royal Navy. Between 1923 and 1929, £20,000,000 was spent on the RAN, while the Australian Army and the munitions industry received only £10,000,000 and the fledgling Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) just £2,400,000. The strategy met significant political opposition from sections of the regular Army, including several prominent officers such as Henry Wynter and John Lavarack. Wynter in particular argued that war was most likely to break out in the Pacific at a time when Britain was involved in a crisis in Europe and would be unable to send sufficient resources to Singapore. He contended that Singapore was vulnerable, especially to attack from the land and the air, and argued for a more balanced policy of building up the Army and RAAF rather than relying on the RAN.
During the 1930s the Australian Army's organisation, equipment and doctrine were similar to those of World War I. The Militia was organised into infantry and horse-mounted cavalry divisions with fixed coastal fortifications positioned at strategic ports. While the Army recognised that there was a threat of war with Japan, little had been done to prepare for jungle warfare as pre-war planning had conceptualised any such conflict as taking place in the main population centres of Australia's eastern seaboard, along with isolated attacks against strategic points in Western Australia. The Army followed the trends in the British Army as it modernised in the late 1930s, but was unable to obtain the up-to-date equipment needed to properly implement the new British doctrines and organisations due to a lack of resources as a result of limited defence expenditures. Nevertheless, the Militia provided a pool of experienced officers and soldiers who could be used to expand the Army in the event of war, and indeed during the course of the war about 200,000 Militia soldiers volunteered for overseas service.
In 1942 the Army adopted the title Australian Military Forces (AMF) to encompass the various categories of service: AIF, Militia and Permanent Forces. Wartime exigencies required a rapid expansion of the Army and during the war 730,000 personnel enlisted in either the Militia or the AIF, a figure which represented around 10 percent of Australia's population of just seven million, one of the highest percentages of any of the Allied armies during World War II. It subsequently made an important contribution to the Allied campaigns in the Mediterranean, the Middle East and North Africa fighting the Germans, Italians and Vichy French during 1940 and 1941 as part of British Commonwealth forces, and later in the jungles of the South West Pacific Area (SWPA) fighting the Japanese between late 1941 and 1945 primarily in conjunction with forces from the United States. Nearly 400,000 men served overseas, with 40 percent of the total force serving in front line areas.
## Organisation
### Origin of the Second Australian Imperial Force
Australia entered World War II on 3 September 1939. On 14 September Prime Minister Robert Menzies announced that 40,000 members of the Militia would be called up for training and a 20,000-strong expeditionary force, designated the Second Australian Imperial Force, would be formed for overseas service. Like its predecessor, the Second AIF was a volunteer force formed by establishing entirely new units. In many cases these units drew their recruits from the same geographical areas as First AIF units, and they were given the same numerical designations albeit with the prefix "2/".
In October 1939, conscription was introduced to keep the Militia at strength as its members volunteered for the AIF. From January 1940, all unmarried men turning 21 were required to report to be examined for potential service. While a substantial proportion of these men were granted exemptions on medical grounds or because they would suffer financial hardship if forced to enter the military, the remainder were liable for three months training followed by ongoing reserve service. A side effect of this arrangement was the creation of two different armies with different conditions of service, one the part-volunteer part-conscript Militia and the other the all-volunteer AIF. This situation resulted in administrative and structural problems that existed throughout the war, as well as a sometimes bitter professional rivalry between the men of the two forces. Later, provision was made to allow Militia units to transfer to the AIF if sufficient numbers of personnel volunteered to serve under AIF terms of service. This required 65 percent of a unit's war establishment—or 75 percent of its actual strength—to volunteer and allowed whole battalions to become part of the AIF.
An early problem was whether to adopt the British or Australian organisation. In 1939 the British Army was in the process of re-equipping with new weapons, and a new organisation was required. This new equipment was not available in Australia, so it was decided to organise the first unit to be raised—the 6th Division—with some elements of the old organisation and some of the new. Consequently, the 6th Division was raised as an infantry division of around 18,000 personnel, and initially comprised twelve 900-man infantry battalions each consisting of four rifle companies, a battalion headquarters, regimental aid post and a headquarters company with various support platoons and sections including signals, mortars, carriers, pioneers, anti-aircraft and administration. Artillery support was provided by three field regiments, each attached at brigade-level, as well an anti-tank regiment attached at divisional level and a divisional cavalry regiment which was equipped with armoured vehicles. Corps troops included a machine-gun battalion, and various engineer, logistics and communication units.
Three further AIF infantry divisions were formed during 1940: the 7th Division in February 1940, the 8th Division in May and the 9th Division in June. However, the establishment of these divisions was reduced to the new nine-battalion organisation as the size of an Australian division was reduced to approximately 17,000 men, and the three surplus battalions of the 6th Division became part of the 7th Division. Further changes included the addition of a light anti-aircraft regiment at divisional level, and a reorganisation of the divisional artillery from three four-battery regiments consisting of 16 guns to three two-battery regiments of 24 guns. An AIF corps headquarters, designated I Corps, was formed in March 1940 along with various support units. The 1st Armoured Division, the final AIF division to be formed, was established in July 1941, built around a core of two armoured brigades each consisting of three tank-equipped armoured regiments, supported by motorised cavalry, armoured cars, engineers and artillery. Several units, such as Z and M Special Units, were also raised for irregular warfare as were 12 commando companies. Many corps, support and service units were also raised during the war to provide combat and logistical support.
### Forces in Australia and the Pacific
The Army's command and administrative arrangements at the start of the war were based on a system of military districts that had existed since Federation, albeit with a number of modifications. Australia was divided into six military districts each of which largely equated to a State or Territory, and reported to the Department of the Chief of the General Staff. Meanwhile, the Military Board was responsible for the administration of the Army, with regular members consisting of the Deputy Adjutant-General, the Chief of Intelligence, the Chief of the General Staff, the Chief of Ordnance and a civilian Finance Member, in addition to a number of consultative members, under the overall control of the Minister of the Defence. The 1st Military District (1 MD) encompassed Queensland, the 2nd included most of New South Wales, the 3rd was primarily based on Victoria, the 4th included South Australia, the 5th included Western Australia and the 6th encompassed forces in Tasmania. In 1939 the Northern Territory was designated the 7th Military District, while and the 8th Military District was later activated in Port Moresby to command forces in New Guinea.
Following the outbreak of World War II a regional command structure was subsequently adopted, with 2 MD becoming Eastern Command, 5 MD redesignated Western Command, while 1 MD in Queensland became Northern Command and the three southern states of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania were amalgamated into Southern Command. In the early years of the war this structure proved effective for operations overseas; however, as the threat of war with Japan grew the various commands and military districts came under greater pressure. The activation of the Militia for full-time duty after Japan's entry into the war in late 1941 compounded the situation. In response, the Army command structure was reorganised in early 1942. While Western Australia remained unchanged, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia were redesignated as Lines of Communications Areas, 7 MD became Northern Territory Force and 8 MD was redesignated as New Guinea Force. In July 1942 the Military Board's functions were assumed by the commander of the military forces, General Sir Thomas Blamey.
The AIF's requirements for manpower and equipment constrained the Militia during the early years of the war. At the outbreak of the Pacific War the main Army units in Australia were five Militia infantry divisions—the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th Divisions—two Militia cavalry divisions—the 1st and 2nd Cavalry Divisions—and the AIF 1st Armoured Division. The Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC), which was a part-time volunteer force of 100,000 men based on the British Home Guard, was also available for local defence. In addition, by early 1942 there were 12,000 garrison force personnel—mostly reservist veterans of World War I—organised into 13 garrison battalions for coastal defence and five battalions and two companies for internal security tasks, including guarding prisoner of war camps. Yet at this time only 30 percent of Militia units were on full-time duty, with the remainder periodically undertaking three month-long mobilisations. The Militia was also poorly armed, and there was insufficient equipment to be issued to all units if they were mobilised. In response to the Japanese threat following the outbreak of the Pacific War and the capture of the 8th Division in Malaya, the condition of the Militia became a pressing concern, after largely having been ignored since 1940. Several middle-ranking and senior officers of the AIF were subsequently posted to Militia units and formations to give them experience. Meanwhile, the Army was forced to move units between Militia divisions so that the most combat-ready could be sent to areas believed to be under the greatest threat of attack. Some battalions were amalgamated, and although some were later separated and reformed, others were disbanded altogether. After the Defence (Citizen Military Forces) Act 1943 was passed Militia units were able to serve outside Australian territory in the South West Pacific Area from January 1943, though the 11th Brigade was the only major formation to do so.
The Army was considerably expanded in early 1942 in response to the Japanese threat to Australia. During this year the Army's strength peaked at eleven infantry divisions—the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Divisions—and three armoured divisions—the 1st, 2nd and 3rd—organised into the First and Second Armies, and I, II and III Corps, as well as many support and service units. In August 1942, the Army had a strength of 476,000 men. This force proved larger than what Australia's population and industry could sustain; by late 1942 the number of personnel who needed to be inducted each month to make good losses caused by sickness and combat was much larger than the numbers who were becoming eligible for service, and the allocation of a high proportion of Australia's limited supply of manpower to the military was inhibiting the expansion of the munitions industry and other key sectors of the economy. The Army was also unbalanced as a large majority its personnel were employed in arms corps undertaking combat and combat support roles. Heavily reliant upon its allies for logistical support, it required more personnel in support arms such as ordnance and transport to be functional as a self-sufficient organisation. This situation was most acute in 1942; at that time there were 137,236 men serving arms corps such as infantry, cavalry and armour, while there were just 29,079 in ordnance.
This imbalance was slowly addressed after 1942 as the Army's size was reduced. Most of the units that were disbanded were Militia arms corps units, and by September 1943 the AIF outnumbered the Militia, having 265,000 members compared to just over 117,000. Further reductions came in October 1943 when the Army's strength was further reduced by 100,000 men to free up manpower to work in industry. At the end of 1943 the Army's strength was set at six infantry divisions and two armoured brigades, although further reductions were ordered in August 1944 and June 1945. By 1945 the support arms had grown considerably as a proportion of the total force and by August 1945 ordnance and the electrical and mechanical engineers totalled 42,835 men, while the artillery had been reduced to half its previous strength. Infantry, cavalry and armoured corps personnel numbered just 62,097 men, while engineers, signals and the medical services remained the same, albeit as part of a much smaller Army. Regardless, at the end of the war it remained one of the largest Allied armies as a proportion of population, being second only to the Soviet Union. The VDC was also reduced in size in May 1944, and was finally disbanded on 24 August 1945. If the conflict had continued past August 1945, the size of the Army would have been further reduced to three divisions once Bougainville, New Guinea and New Britain had been secured. Two of these divisions would have been used on garrison duties, while a brigade group may have been made available for British-led operations in South East Asia and the remaining division was to take part in the invasion of Japan.
The demands of combat during World War II led to changes in the composition of Army units. The success of German mechanised units during the invasions of Poland and France convinced Australian defence planners that the Army required armoured units, and these began to be raised in 1941 when the 1st Armoured Division was formed. The two Militia cavalry divisions were first motorised and then converted into armoured divisions in 1942 and the 3rd Army Tank Brigade was formed to provide support to the infantry. These large armoured units were not suitable for jungle warfare, however, and most were disbanded during 1943 and 1944. Conditions in the South West Pacific also led the Army to convert its six combat divisions to jungle divisions in early 1943 and 1944, reducing the authorised strength of the division by about 4,000 men. Each infantry battalion shed around 100 personnel as various support elements such as the anti-aircraft and carrier platoons were removed and consolidated at divisional level. The amount of heavy weapons and vehicles was also reduced, but the conditions that the organisation was designed for did not recur and it proved only moderately successful. As a result, the divisions were strengthened for their 1944–45 campaigns by returning the artillery and anti-tank units that had been removed. The creation of the jungle divisions represented the first time in the Australian Army's history that it had adopted an organisation specifically for the conditions in which its forces would fight. Previously force structure had been heavily influenced by the British Army, and the decision to adopt an organisation to suit local conditions reflected a growing maturity and independence. Yet it also resulted in the adoption of a two-tier force structure, as formations that were not designated for jungle warfare remained on the previous scales of equipment and manning. Ultimately, while their structure was better suited to operations in Australia, they were no longer able to be used against the Japanese. As a result, the burden of the fighting increasingly fell on those formations that had been re-organised, while the remainder of the Army was relegated to garrison duties.
The Army also raised many anti-aircraft and coastal defence units during the war. The pre-war coastal defences were greatly expanded from 1939, and many new batteries were built near major ports in Australia and New Guinea in response to the threat of Japanese attack. Australia had a limited capacity to produce anti-aircraft guns, and the bulk of equipment had to come from Britain. As such the development of such defences was initially hampered by a lack of available equipment. The coastal defence system reached its peak size during 1944. The Army had few anti-aircraft guns at the outbreak of war, and a high priority was given to expanding the air defences around major cities and important industrial and military facilities. By 1942 anti-aircraft batteries were in place around all the major cities as well as the key towns in northern Australia. The expansion of the artillery in general, and coastal defence and anti-aircraft units in particular, meant that by June 1942 some 80,000 of the 406,000 members of the Army were artillerymen. VDC units gradually took over responsibility for manning the fixed coastal and anti-aircraft defences as the threat of attack against the Australian mainland receded.
Traditionally the Australian Army had relied on its major allies to provide logistic support, primarily raising combat units rather than support arms during times of conflict. Consequently, these services were relatively underdeveloped, and they remained so during the first years of the war. While British units provided many logistic and line of communication services for the AIF in North Africa during the early campaigns in 1940 and 1941, the Army needed to raise extensive support units to support its combat formations in the Pacific following the Japanese entry into the war. As a result, the growth of the support arms and ancillary services proved dramatic, including many capabilities which the Australian Army had only minimal or no previous experience in maintaining. These units included terminal formations and beach groups responsible for loading and unloading ships, food and petroleum storage and distribution units and several farm units which grew food for troops in remote areas. In addition, with Australia's national support base located well to the rear, in the major cities in the south-east of the country, significant expansion of the Army's transport capabilities was required to move supplies and men to the field force based in northern Australia and New Guinea. Many road transport units were raised to move supplies around Australia, while the Royal Australian Engineers eventually operated a fleet of 1,900 watercraft and three air maintenance companies were formed to load supply aircraft.
### Women's services
Prior to World War II the Australian Army Nursing Service (AANS) was the only female branch of the Army. A reserve formation that had served overseas during World War I, the AANS was mobilised following the outbreak of war in 1939 and its Matron in Chief, Grace Wilson, served on the staff of the Director-General of Medical Services, Major General Rupert Downes. For most of the war, AANS nurses were the only Australian servicewomen permitted to serve overseas, and many volunteered for the AIF. These women served in all the major theatres in which the Army fought and a total of 71 were killed on active service. The majority of these died in early 1942 during the fighting in Malaya and Singapore where 41 nurses were killed. In March 1942, the Volunteer Aid Detachments (VADs) also became a branch of the Army Medical Service. Consisting of volunteers originally coordinated by the Australian Red Cross and Order of Saint John, the VADs were redesignated the Australian Army Medical Women's Service (AAMWS) in December 1942, and were employed in military hospitals in Australia and overseas until after the end of the war, before returning to civilian control in 1948.
Shortages of manpower also led to the establishment of the Australian Women's Army Service (AWAS) in August 1941. AWAS members filled a wide range of roles to allow the Army to redeploy male soldiers to fighting units. While they mainly worked in clerical and administrative positions, and auxiliary roles such as drivers and signallers, many served in anti-aircraft batteries, operating radars and searchlights but not the guns themselves. While Blamey sought to have members of the AWAS posted overseas from early 1941 onwards, the Australian Government did not agree to this until 1945. As a result, only about 400 of the 24,000 women who joined the AWAS served outside Australia. The AWAS was reduced in size following the war, and was finally disbanded on 30 June 1947. Colonel Sybil Irving commanded the AWAS from September 1941 until 1947. In total some 35,000 women served in the Army, making up about 5 percent of the force.
## Campaigns
### North Africa
During the first years of World War II, Australia's military strategy was closely aligned with that of the United Kingdom's imperial defence policy. The Singapore strategy, which seemingly negated the need for large-scale land forces in the Pacific, was a key component of this policy and consequently most Australian military units that were deployed overseas in 1940 and 1941 were sent to the Mediterranean and Middle East where they formed an integral part of the Commonwealth forces in the area. The three AIF infantry divisions dispatched to the Middle East were subsequently heavily involved in the fighting that followed. In addition to the force which was sent to North Africa, two AIF brigades (the 18th and 25th) were stationed in Britain from June 1940 to January 1941 and formed part of the British mobile reserve which would have responded to any German landings. The Australian Forestry Group UK also served in Britain between 1940 and 1943.
The Australian Army first saw action in Operation Compass, the successful Commonwealth offensive in North Africa which was conducted between December 1940 and February 1941. Although the 6th Division was not fully equipped, it had completed its training and on 14 December, it relieved the 4th Indian Division. Given the task of capturing Italian fortresses bypassed by the British 7th Armoured Division during its advance, on 3 January, the division went into action at Bardia. Although the fortress was manned by a larger force, the Australian infantry quickly penetrated the Italian defensive lines with the support of British tanks and artillery. The majority of the defenders surrendered on 5 January and the Australians took 40,000 prisoners. The 6th Division followed up this success by assaulting the fortress of Tobruk on 21 January, securing it the next day and taking 25,000 Italians prisoner. After this, the Australians pushed west along the coast road to Cyrenaica and captured Benghazi on 4 February. Later that month, the 6th Division was withdrawn for deployment to Greece and was replaced by the untested 9th Division, which took up garrison duties in Cyrenaica.
In the last week of March 1941, a German-led force launched an offensive in Cyrenaica. The Allied forces in the area were rapidly forced to withdraw towards Egypt. The 9th Division formed the rear guard of this withdrawal, and on 6 April was ordered to defend the important port town of Tobruk for at least two months. Sustained by the Australian destroyers of the Mediterranean Fleet, during the ensuing siege the 9th Division, reinforced by the 7th Division's 18th Brigade as well as British artillery and armoured regiments, used fortifications, aggressive patrolling and artillery to contain and defeat repeated German armoured and infantry attacks. In September and October 1941, upon the request of the Australian Government, the 9th Division was relieved and the bulk withdrawn from Tobruk. The 2/13th Battalion, however, was forced to remain until the siege was lifted in December as the convoy evacuating it was attacked. The defence of Tobruk cost the Australian units involved 3,009 casualties, including 832 killed and 941 taken prisoner.
### Greece, Crete, Syria and Lebanon
In early 1941 the 6th Division and I Corps headquarters took part in the ill-fated Allied expedition to defend Greece from a German invasion. The corps' commander, Lieutenant General Thomas Blamey, and Prime Minister Menzies both regarded the operation as risky, but agreed to Australian involvement after the British Government provided them with briefings which deliberately understated the chance of defeat. The Allied force deployed to Greece was much smaller than the German force in the region and the defence of the country was compromised by inconsistencies between Greek and Allied plans.
Australian troops arrived in Greece during March and manned defensive positions in the north of the country alongside British, New Zealand and Greek units. The outnumbered Allied force was not able to halt the Germans when they invaded on 6 April and was forced to retreat. The Australians and other Allied units conducted a fighting withdrawal from their initial positions and were evacuated from southern Greece between 24 April and 1 May. Australian warships also formed part of the force which protected the evacuation and embarked hundreds of soldiers from Greek ports. The 6th Division suffered heavy casualties in this campaign, with 320 men killed and 2,030 captured.
While most of the 6th Division returned to Egypt, the 19th Brigade Group and two provisional infantry battalions landed at Crete where they formed a key part of the island's defences. The 19th Brigade was initially successful in holding its positions when German paratroopers landed on 20 May, but was gradually forced to retreat. After several key airfields were lost the Allies evacuated the island's garrison. Approximately 3,000 Australians, including the entire 2/7th Battalion, could not be evacuated, and were taken prisoner. As a result of its heavy casualties the 6th Division required substantial reinforcements and equipment before it was again ready for combat.
The 7th Division, reinforced by the 6th Division's 17th Brigade, formed a key part of the Allied ground forces during the Syria–Lebanon campaign which was fought against Vichy French forces in June and July 1941. With close air support from the RAAF and the Royal Air Force, the Australian force entered Lebanon on 8 June and advanced along the coast road and Litani River valley. Although little resistance had been expected, the Vichy forces mounted a strong defence which made good use of the mountainous terrain. After the Allied attack became bogged down reinforcements were brought in and the Australian I Corps headquarters took command of the operation on 18 June. These changes enabled the Allies to overwhelm the French forces and the 7th Division entered Beirut on 12 July. The loss of Beirut and a British breakthrough in Syria led the Vichy commander to seek an armistice and the campaign ended on 13 July.
### El Alamein
In the second half of 1941 the Australian I Corps was concentrated in Syria and Lebanon where it undertook garrison duties while its strength was rebuilt ahead of further operations in the Middle East. Following the outbreak of war in the Pacific most elements of the corps, including the 6th and 7th Divisions, returned to Australia in early 1942 to counter the perceived Japanese threat to Australia. The Australian Government agreed to requests from Britain and the United States to temporarily retain the 9th Division in the Middle East in exchange for the deployment of additional US troops to Australia and Britain's support for a proposal to expand the RAAF to 73 squadrons. The Government did not intend that the 9th Division would play a major role in active fighting, and it was not sent any further reinforcements.
In mid-1942, the Axis forces defeated the Commonwealth force in Libya and advanced into north-west Egypt. In June the British Eighth Army made a stand just over 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Alexandria, at the railway siding of El Alamein and the 9th Division was brought forward to reinforce this position. The lead elements of the division arrived at El Alamein on 6 July and it was assigned the most northerly section of the Commonwealth defensive line. From that position, the 9th Division subsequently played a significant role in the First Battle of El Alamein, helping to halt the Axis advance. Casualties were heavy, and the 2/28th Battalion was forced to surrender on 27 July when it was surrounded by German armour after capturing Ruin Ridge. Following this battle the division remained at the northern end of the El Alamein line and launched diversionary attacks during the Battle of Alam el Halfa in early September.
In October 1942, the 9th Division and the RAAF squadrons in the area took part in the Second Battle of El Alamein. After a lengthy period of preparation, the Eighth Army launched its major offensive on 23 October. The 9th Division was involved in some of the heaviest fighting of the battle, and its advance in the coast area succeeded in drawing away enough German forces for the heavily reinforced 2nd New Zealand Division to decisively break through the Axis lines on the night of 1/2 November. The 9th Division suffered a high number of casualties during this battle and did not take part in the pursuit of the retreating Axis forces. During the battle the Australian Government requested that the division be returned to Australia as it was not possible to provide enough reinforcements to sustain it, and this was agreed to by the British and US governments in late November. The 9th Division left Egypt for Australia in January 1943, ending the AIF's involvement in the war in North Africa.
### Malaya and Singapore
Due to the emphasis placed on cooperation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units were stationed in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region after 1940. Measures were taken to improve Australia's defences as war with Japan loomed in 1941, but these proved inadequate. The 8th Division was subsequently dispatched to Singapore in February 1941, while plans were made for a Militia battalion to be stationed between Port Moresby and Thursday Island. An AIF battalion was also allocated to garrison Rabaul, and another brigade would be dispersed piecemeal to Timor and Ambon. Meanwhile, in July 1941 the 1st Independent Company was deployed to Kavieng on New Britain in order to protect the airfield, while sections were sent to Namatanai in central New Ireland, Vila in the New Hebrides, Tulagi on Guadalcanal, Buka Passage in Bougainville, and Lorengau on Manus Island to act as observers.
In December 1941 the Australian Army in the Pacific consisted of the 8th Division, most of which was stationed in Malaya, and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia, including the 1st Armoured Division. In keeping with the Singapore strategy, a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941 as the threat from Japan increased. At the outbreak of war the Australian forces in Malaya consisted of two brigade groups from the 8th Division—the 22nd and 27th Brigades—under the command of Major General Gordon Bennett, along with four RAAF squadrons and eight warships.
Following the Japanese invasion on 8 December 1941, the 8th Division and its attached Indian Army units was assigned responsibility for the defence of Johore in the south of Malaya. As a result, it did not see action until mid-January 1942 when Japanese spearheads first reached the state, having pushed back the British and Indian units defending the northern parts of the peninsula. By this time, the division's two brigades had been split up, with the 22nd having been deployed around Mersing and Endau on the east coast and the 27th in the west. The division's first engagement came on the west coast around Muar on 14 January, where the Japanese Twenty-Fifth Army was able to outflank the Commonwealth positions due to Bennett misdeploying the forces under his command so that the weak Indian 45th Brigade was assigned the crucial coastal sector and the stronger Australian brigades were deployed in less threatened areas. While the Commonwealth forces in Johore achieved a number of local tactical victories, most notably around Gemas, Bakri, and Jemaluang, they were unable to do more than slow the Japanese advance and suffered heavy casualties in doing so. After being outmanoeuvred by the Japanese, the remaining Commonwealth units withdrew to Singapore on the night of 30–31 January.
Following this the 8th Division was deployed to defend Singapore's north-west coast. Due to the casualties suffered in Johore most of the division's units were at half-strength, and the replacements that had been received—a draft of about 1,900 replacements was sent in late January—were barely trained, some having as little as two weeks' training in Australia before being dispatched. Assigned larger-than-normal frontages to defend along beaches that were ill-suited for defence, the 22nd and 27th Brigades were spread thin on the ground with large gaps in their lines. The commander of the Singapore fortress, Lieutenant General Arthur Ernest Percival, believed that the Japanese would land on the north-east coast of the island and deployed the near full-strength British 18th Division to defend this sector. Nevertheless, on 8 February the Japanese landed in the Australian sector, and the 8th Division was forced from its positions after just two days of heavy fighting. A subsequent landing took place at Kranji, but the division was unable to turn this back and subsequently withdrew to the centre of the island.
After further fighting in which the Commonwealth forces were pushed into a narrow perimeter around the urban area of Singapore, Percival surrendered his forces on 15 February. Although some Australians were able to escape, following the capitulation 14,972 Australians were taken prisoner. Bennett was among those that managed to get out, having left the island the night before the surrender via sampan after handing over command of his division to Brigadier Cecil Callaghan. He later justified his actions saying that he had gained an understanding of how to defeat the Japanese and needed to return to Australia to pass his knowledge on, but two post-war inquiries found that he was unjustified in leaving his command. The loss of almost a quarter of Australia's overseas soldiers and the failure of the Singapore strategy that had permitted it to accept the sending of the AIF to aid Britain, stunned the country.
The fall of Singapore raised fears of a Japanese invasion of the Australian mainland and the Government became concerned about the Army's ability to respond. Although large, the forces in Australia contained many inexperienced units and lacked mobility. In response, most of the AIF was brought back from the Middle East and the Australian Prime Minister, John Curtin, appealed to the United States for assistance. As Japanese forces advanced through Burma towards India in early 1942, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, attempted to divert the 6th and 7th Divisions while they were en route to Australia, but Curtin refused to authorise this movement. As a compromise the 16th and 17th Brigades of the 6th Division disembarked at Ceylon and formed part of the island's garrison until they returned to Australia in August 1942.
### Netherlands East Indies and Rabaul
While Australia's contribution to the pre-war plans to defend South East Asia from Japanese aggression was focused on the defence of Malaya and Singapore, small Australian forces were also deployed to defend several islands to the north of Australia. The role of these forces was to defend strategic airfields which could be used to launch attacks on the Australian mainland. Detachments of coastwatchers were also stationed in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands to report on any Japanese operations there.
At the start of the Pacific War the strategic port town of Rabaul in New Britain was defended by "Lark Force", which comprised the 2/22nd Battalion reinforced with coastal artillery and a poorly equipped RAAF bomber squadron. While Lark Force was regarded as inadequate by the Australian military, it was not possible to reinforce it before the Japanese South Seas Force landed at Rabaul on 23 January 1942. The outnumbered Australian force was swiftly defeated and most of the survivors surrendered in the weeks after the battle. Few members of Lark Force survived the war, as at least 130 were murdered by the Japanese on 4 February and 1,057 Australian soldiers and civilian prisoners from Rabaul were killed when the ship carrying them to Japan, the transport Montevideo Maru, was sunk by a US submarine on 1 July 1942.
AIF troops were also dispatched from Darwin to the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) in the first weeks of the Pacific War. Reinforced battalions from the 8th Division's third brigade, the 23rd, were sent to Koepang in West Timor as part of "Sparrow Force" and to the island of Ambon as "Gull Force" to defend these strategic locations from Japanese attack. The 2/2nd Independent Company was also sent to Dili in Portuguese Timor in violation of Portugal's neutrality. The force at Ambon was defeated by the Japanese landing on 30 January and surrendered on 3 February 1942. Over 300 Australian prisoners were subsequently killed by Japanese troops in a series of mass executions during February. While the force at Koepang was defeated after the Japanese landed there on 20 February and also surrendered, Australian commandos waged a guerrilla campaign against the Japanese in Portuguese Timor until February 1943.
In the lead-up to the Japanese invasion of Java a force of 242 carrier- and land-based aircraft attacked Darwin on 19 February 1942. At the time Darwin was an important base for Allied warships and a staging point for shipping supplies and reinforcements into the NEI. The Japanese attack was successful, and resulted in the deaths of 251 civilians and military personnel, most of whom were non-Australian Allied seamen, and heavy damage to RAAF Base Darwin and the town's port facilities.
A 3,000-strong Army unit, as well as several Australian warships and aircraft from a number of RAAF squadrons participated in the unsuccessful defence of Java when the Japanese invaded the island in March 1942. An Army force made up of elements from the 7th Division also formed part of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM) land forces on Java but saw little action before it surrendered at Bandung on 12 March after the Dutch forces on the island began to capitulate. Following the conquest of the NEI, the Japanese Navy's main aircraft carrier force raided the Indian Ocean, attacking Ceylon in early April. The two Australian Army brigades stationed at Ceylon at the time of the raid were placed on alert to repel a potential invasion but did not see action as this did not eventuate.
### Defence of Australia
Japan's rapid advance south had been unexpected, and the perceived threat of invasion led to a major expansion of the Australian military. By mid-1942 the Army had a strength of ten infantry divisions, three armoured divisions and hundreds of other units. Thousands of Australians who were ineligible for service in the military responded to the threat of attack by joining auxiliary organisations such as the Volunteer Defence Corps and Volunteer Air Observers Corps, which were modelled on the British Home Guard and Royal Observer Corps respectively. However, Australia's population and industrial base were not sufficient to maintain these forces once the threat of invasion had passed, and the Army was progressively reduced in size from 1943.
Despite Australian fears, the Japanese never intended to invade the Australian mainland. While an invasion was considered by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters in February 1942, it was judged to be beyond the Japanese military's capabilities and no planning or other preparations were undertaken. Instead, in March 1942 the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing Port Moresby in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia. Yet this plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the Battle of the Coral Sea and was postponed indefinitely after the Battle of Midway. While these battles ended the threat to Australia, the Australian government continued to warn that an invasion was possible until mid-1943. A series of Japanese air raids against northern Australia occurred during 1942 and 1943, and while the main defence was provided by RAAF and Allied fighters, a number of Australian Army anti-aircraft batteries were also involved in dealing with this threat.
Meanwhile, in 1942 the Australian military was reinforced by units recalled from the Middle East and an expansion of the Militia and RAAF. United States military units also arrived in Australia in great numbers before being deployed to New Guinea, and in April 1942 command of Australian and US forces in the South West Pacific was consolidated under an American commander, General Douglas MacArthur. After halting the Japanese the Allies moved onto the offensive in late 1942, with the pace of advance accelerating in 1943. From 1944 the Australian military was mainly relegated to subsidiary roles in holding or mopping-up operations, but continued to conduct large-scale operations until the end of the war with a larger proportion of its forces deployed in the final months of the conflict than at any other time.
### Papuan campaign
Japanese forces first landed on the mainland of New Guinea on 8 March 1942 when they invaded Lae and Salamaua to secure bases for the defence of the important base they were developing at Rabaul. In response, Australian guerrillas from the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles established observation posts around the Japanese beachheads and the 2/5th Independent Company successfully raided Salamaua on 29 June. After the Battle of the Coral Sea frustrated the Japanese plan to capture Port Moresby via an amphibious landing, they attempted to capture the town by landing Major General Tomitarō Horii's South Seas Force at Buna on the north coast of Papua and advancing overland using the Kokoda Track to cross the rugged Owen Stanley Range. The Kokoda Track campaign began on 22 July when the Japanese began their advance, opposed by an ill-prepared Militia brigade designated "Maroubra Force". This force was successful in delaying the South Seas Force but was unable to halt it.
In late August and early September 1942 Australian forces at Milne Bay inflicted the first notable land defeat of the war upon the Japanese. After the Japanese landed a unit of Special Naval Landing Forces to capture the airbases that the Allies had established in the area, two brigades of Australian troops—the Militia 7th and AIF 18th—designated "Milne Force", supported by two RAAF fighter squadrons and US Army engineers, launched a counter-attack. Outnumbered, lacking supplies and suffering heavy casualties, the Japanese were forced to withdraw. The victory helped raise Allied morale across the Pacific Theatre, especially on the Kokoda Track where the Japanese had continued to make progress throughout August.
On 26 August two AIF battalions from the 7th Division reinforced the remnants of Maroubra Force but the Japanese continued to advance along the Kokoda Track and by 16 September they reached the village of Ioribaiwa near Port Moresby. After several weeks of exhausting fighting and heavy losses, the Japanese troops were within 32 kilometres (20 mi) of Port Moresby. Yet supply problems made any further advance impossible, and the Japanese began to fear an Allied counter-landing at Buna. Following reverses at the hands of US forces on Guadalcanal the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters decided they could not support fronts on both New Guinea and Guadalcanal. Horii was subsequently ordered to withdraw his troops on the Kokoda Track until the issue at Guadalcanal was decided.
After this, the Australian forces were heavily reinforced by the 7th Division's 21st and 25th Brigades. Supported logistically by native Papuans who were recruited by the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit, often forcibly, to carry supplies and evacuate wounded personnel, the Australians pursued the Japanese back along the Kokoda Track. In early November, they had been forced into a small bridgehead on the north coast of Papua. Australian and US forces attacked the Japanese bridgehead in Papua in late November 1942. The Allied force consisted of the exhausted 7th Division and the inexperienced and ill-trained US 32nd Infantry Division, and was short of artillery and supplies. Due to a lack of supporting weapons and MacArthur and Blamey's insistence on a rapid advance the Allied tactics during the battle were centred on infantry assaults on the Japanese fortifications. These resulted in heavy casualties and the area was not secured until 22 January 1943.
Throughout the fighting in Papua, most of the Australian personnel captured by Japanese troops were murdered. In response, for the remainder of the war Australian soldiers generally did not attempt to capture Japanese personnel and aggressively sought to kill their Japanese opponents including some that had surrendered. Following the defeats in Papua and Guadalcanal the Japanese withdrew to a defensive perimeter in the Territory of New Guinea. Meanwhile, during the fighting in 1942–43 the Australian Army increasingly developed a tactical superiority over the Japanese in jungle warfare.
The Papuan campaign led to a significant reform in the composition of the Australian Army. During the campaign, the restriction banning Militia personnel from serving outside of Australian territory hampered military planning and caused tensions between the AIF and Militia. In late 1942 and early 1943 Curtin overcame opposition within the Labor Party to extending the geographic boundaries in which conscripts could serve to include most of the South West Pacific and the necessary legislation was passed in January 1943. This made deploying the Militia easier, but ultimately only one brigade, the 11th, was dispatched outside of Australian territory, being deployed to Merauke on the south coast of Dutch West Papua in the NEI during 1943 and 1944 as part of "Merauke Force".
### New Guinea offensives
After halting the Japanese advance, Allied forces went on the offensive across the SWPA from mid-1943. Australian forces played a key role throughout this offensive, which was designated Operation Cartwheel. In particular, Blamey oversaw a series of highly successful operations around the north-east tip of New Guinea which "was the high point of Australia's experience of operational level command" during the war. After the successful defence of Wau the 3rd Division began advancing towards Salamaua in April 1943. This advance was mounted to divert attention from Lae, which was one of the main objectives of Operation Cartwheel, and proceeded slowly. In late June the 3rd Division was reinforced by the US 162nd Regimental Combat Team, which staged an amphibious landing to the south of Salamaua. The town was eventually captured on 11 September 1943.
In early September 1943 Australian-led forces mounted a pincer movement to capture Lae. On 4 September the 9th Division made an amphibious landing to the east of the town and began advancing to the west. The following day, the US 503rd Parachute Regiment made an unopposed parachute drop at Nadzab, just west of Lae. Once the airborne forces secured Nadzab Airfield, the 7th Division was flown in and began advancing to the east in a race with the 9th Division to capture Lae. This race was won by the 7th Division, which captured the town on 15 September. The Japanese forces at Salamaua and Lae suffered heavy losses during this campaign, but were able to escape to the north.
After the fall of Lae the 9th Division was given the task of capturing the Huon Peninsula. The 20th Brigade landed near the strategic harbour of Finschhafen on 22 September 1943 and secured the area. The Japanese responded by dispatching the 20th Division overland to the area and the remainder of the 9th Division was gradually brought in to reinforce the 20th Brigade against the expected counter-attack. The Japanese mounted a strong attack in mid-October which was defeated by the 9th Division after heavy fighting. During the second half of November the 9th Division captured the hills inland of Finschhafen from well dug in Japanese forces. Following its defeat, the 20th Division retreated along the coast with the 9th Division and 4th Brigade in pursuit.
While the 9th Division secured the coastal region of the Huon Peninsula the 7th Division drove the Japanese from the inland Finisterre Range. The Finisterre Range campaign began on 17 September when the 2/6th Independent Company was air-landed in the Markham Valley. The company defeated a larger Japanese force at Kaiapit and secured an airstrip which was used to fly in the division's 21st and 25th Brigades. Through aggressive patrolling the Australians forced the Japanese out of positions in extremely rugged terrain and in January 1944 the division began its attack on the key Shaggy Ridge position. The ridge was taken by the end of the month, with the RAAF playing a key supporting role. Following this success the Japanese withdrew from the Finisterre Range and Australian troops linked up with American patrols from Saidor on 21 April and secured Madang on 24 April.
### Advance to the Philippines
The Australian military's role in the South-West Pacific decreased during 1944 as US forces took over responsibility for the main Allied effort in the region. In the latter half of 1943 the Australian Government decided, with MacArthur's agreement, that the size of the military would be decreased to release manpower for war-related industries which were important to supplying Britain and US forces in the Pacific. Australia's main role in the Allied war effort from this point forward was supplying the other Allied countries with food, materials and manufactured goods needed for the defeat of Japan. As a result of this policy, the size of the Army was reduced from late 1943 onwards, though an offensive force of six infantry divisions (three AIF and three Militia divisions) was maintained until the end of the war. In early 1944 all but two of the Army's divisions were withdrawn to the Atherton Tableland for training and rehabilitation. However, several new battalions of Australian-led Papuan and New Guinea troops were formed during 1944 and organised into the Pacific Islands Regiment. These troops had earlier seen action alongside Australian units throughout the New Guinea campaign, and they largely replaced the Australian Army battalions disbanded during the year.
While the Australian Government offered I Corps for use in Leyte and Luzon, nothing came of several proposals to utilise it in the liberation of these islands. The Army's prolonged period of relative inactivity during 1944 led to public concern, and many Australians believed that the AIF should be demobilised if it could not be used for offensive operations. This was politically embarrassing for the government, and helped motivate it to look for new areas where the military could be used. It also impacted upon the Army's morale; as the Allies advanced further towards Japan, the Army was increasingly relegated to "second string" roles, despite having fought "above its weight" for most of the war.
### Mopping up in New Guinea and the Solomons
In late 1944, the Australian Government committed twelve Australian Army brigades to replace six US Army divisions which were conducting defensive roles in Bougainville, New Britain and the Aitape–Wewak area in New Guinea in order to free up the American units for operations in the Philippines. While the US units had largely conducted a static defence of their positions, their Australian replacements mounted offensive operations designed to destroy the remaining Japanese forces in these areas. The value of these campaigns was controversial at the time and remains so to this day as the Australian Government authorised these operations for primarily political, rather than military, reasons. It was believed that keeping the Army involved in the war would give Australia greater influence in any post-war peace conferences and that liberating Australian territories would enhance Australia's influence in its region. Critics of these campaigns, such as author Peter Charlton, argue that they were unnecessary and wasteful of the lives of the Australian soldiers involved as the Japanese forces were already isolated and ineffective.
The 5th Division replaced the US 40th Infantry Division on New Britain during October and November 1944 and continued the New Britain campaign with the goals of protecting Allied bases and confining the large Japanese force on the island to the area around Rabaul. In late November the 5th Division established bases closer to the Japanese perimeter and began aggressive patrols supported by the Allied Intelligence Bureau. The division conducted amphibious landings at Open Bay and Wide Bay at the base of the Gazelle Peninsula in early 1945 and defeated the small Japanese garrisons in these areas. By April the Japanese had been confined to their fortified positions in the Gazelle Peninsula by the Australian force's aggressive patrolling. The 5th Division suffered 53 fatalities and 140 wounded during this campaign. After the war it was found that the Japanese force was 93,000 strong, which was much higher than the 38,000 which Allied intelligence had estimated remained on New Britain.
The II Corps continued the Bougainville campaign after it replaced the US Army's XIV Corps between October and December 1944. The corps consisted of the 3rd Division, 11th Brigade and Fiji Infantry Regiment on Bougainville and the 23rd Brigade which garrisoned neighbouring islands and was supported by RAAF, Royal New Zealand Air Force and United States Marine Corps air units. While the XIV Corps had maintained a defensive posture, the Australians conducted offensive operations aimed at destroying the Japanese force on Bougainville. As the Japanese were split into several enclaves the II Corps fought separate offensives in the northern, central and southern portions of the island. The main focus was against the Japanese base at Buin in the south, and the offensives in the north and centre of the island were largely suspended from May 1945. While Australian operations on Bougainville continued until the end of the war, large Japanese forces remained at Buin and in the north of the island.
The 6th Division was assigned responsibility for completing the destruction of the Japanese Eighteenth Army, which was the last large Japanese force remaining in the Australian portion of New Guinea. Supported by several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships, the division was reinforced by Militia and armoured units and began arriving at Aitape in October 1944. In late 1944 the Australians launched a two-pronged offensive to the east towards Wewak. The 17th Brigade advanced inland through the Torricelli Mountains while the remainder of the division moved along the coast. Although the Eighteenth Army had suffered heavy casualties from previous fighting and disease, it mounted a strong resistance and inflicted significant casualties. The 6th Division's advance was also hampered by supply difficulties and bad weather. The Australians secured the coastal area by early May, and Wewak was captured on 10 May after a small force was landed east of the town. By the end of the war the Eighteenth Army had been forced into what it had designated its "last stand" area. The Aitape–Wewak campaign cost 442 Australian lives while about 9,000 Japanese died and another 269 were taken prisoner.
### Borneo campaign
The Borneo campaign of 1945 was the last major Allied campaign in the South West Pacific. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, attacked Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the US 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, the Australian First Tactical Air Force and the US Thirteenth Air Force, also played important roles in the campaign. The goals of this campaign were to capture Borneo's oilfields and Brunei Bay to support the US-led invasion of Japan and British-led liberation of Malaya which were planned to take place later in 1945. The Australian Government did not agree to MacArthur's proposal to extend the offensive to include the liberation of Java in July 1945, however, and its decision not to release the 6th Division for this operation contributed to it not going ahead.
The campaign opened on 1 May 1945 when the 26th Brigade Group landed on the small island of Tarakan off the east coast of Borneo to secure the island's airstrip as a base to support the planned landings at Brunei and Balikpapan. While it had been expected that it would take only a few weeks to secure Tarakan and re-open the airstrip, intensive fighting on the island lasted until 19 June and the airstrip was not opened until 28 June. As a result, the operation is generally considered to have not been worthwhile.
The next phase began on 10 June when the 9th Division conducted simultaneous assaults in north-west Labuan and on the coast of Brunei. While Brunei was quickly secured, the Japanese garrison on Labuan held out for over a week. After the Brunei Bay region was secured the 24th Brigade was landed in North Borneo and the 20th Brigade advanced along the western coast of Borneo south from Brunei. Both brigades rapidly advanced against weak Japanese resistance and most of north-west Borneo was liberated by the end of the war. During the campaign the 9th Division was assisted by indigenous fighters who were waging a guerrilla war against Japanese forces with the support of Australian special forces such as Z Special Unit.
The third and final stage of the campaign was the capture of Balikpapan on the central east coast of Borneo. This operation had been opposed by Blamey, who believed that it was unnecessary, but went ahead on the orders of MacArthur. After a 20-day preliminary air and naval bombardment the 7th Division landed near the town on 1 July. Balikpapan and its surrounds were secured after some heavy fighting on 21 July but mopping up continued until the end of the war as isolated pockets of Japanese resistance remained. The capture of Balikpapan was the last large-scale land operation conducted by the Western Allies during World War II. Although the Borneo campaign was criticised in Australia at the time, and in subsequent years, as pointless or a waste of soldiers' lives, it did achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the NEI, capturing major oil supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in deteriorating conditions.
### Post-war years
Prior to the end of the war on 15 August 1945, the Australian military was preparing to contribute forces to the invasion of Japan. Australia's participation in this operation would have involved elements of all three services fighting as part of Commonwealth forces. It was planned to form a new 10th Division from existing AIF personnel which would form part of the Commonwealth Corps with British, Canadian and New Zealand units. The corps' organisation was to be identical to that of a US Army corps, and it would have participated in the invasion of the Japanese home island of Honshū which was scheduled for March 1946 under Operation Coronet. Planning for operations against Japan ceased in August 1945 when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japanese field commanders subsequently surrendered to Allied forces across the Pacific Theatre and Australian forces accepted the surrender of their Japanese opponents at ceremonies conducted at Morotai, several locations in Borneo, Timor, Wewak, Rabaul, Bougainville and Nauru. Following the surrender the Australian Army faced a number of immediate operational and administrative issues, including the need to maintain security in the areas it occupied, the disarming and administration of surrendered Japanese forces in these areas, organising the return of approximately 177,000 soldiers (including prisoners of war) to Australia, the demobilisation and discharge of the bulk of the soldiers serving in the Army, and the raising of an occupation force for service in Japan.
Australian Army units were deployed as occupation forces following the Japanese surrender. Under the terms of an agreement reached between Blamey and Admiral Louis Mountbatten, the head of South East Asia Command, Australia was responsible for providing occupation forces for all of Borneo, the NEI east of Lombok (including western New Guinea) and the pre-war Australian and British territories in eastern New Guinea and the Solomon Islands as well as Nauru and Ocean Islands in the Pacific. The Australian forces in Borneo and the NEI were to remain in place only until they were relieved by British and Dutch units in late 1945. I Corps was responsible for garrisoning Borneo and the eastern NEI, and the First Army disarmed Japanese forces in the pre-war British and Australian territories in and around New Guinea. After the surrender documents were signed the 7th and 9th Divisions took control of Borneo and five forces were dispatched from Morotai and Darwin to the key islands in the eastern NEI. While the British forces in the western NEI took part in fighting against Indonesian nationalists, the Australians were careful to not become involved in the Indonesian National Revolution and sought to hand control of their occupation zones to the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration as quickly as possible. Relations between the Australian troops and Indonesians were generally good, due in part to the decision by the Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia to not load Dutch ships which were carrying military supplies bound for the NEI. The last Australian occupation troops left the NEI in February 1946.
The Australian Army also contributed troops to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) in Japan. Volunteers for this force were recruited in late 1945, with most being assigned to three new infantry battalions: the 65th Battalion was formed from volunteers from the 7th Division, the 66th Battalion by men from the 6th Division and the 67th from 9th Division personnel. These and other units were grouped at Morotai as the 34th Brigade in October 1945. The brigade's departure for Japan was delayed until February 1946 by inter-Allied negotiations, but it eventually took over responsibility for enforcing the terms of the Japanese surrender in Hiroshima Prefecture. The three infantry battalions raised for occupation duties were designated the 1st, 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment in 1949, and the 34th Brigade became the 1st Brigade when it returned to Australia in December 1948, forming the basis of the post-war Regular Army. From that time the Australian Army contribution to the occupation of Japan was reduced to a single under-strength battalion. Australian forces remained until September 1951 when the BCOF ceased operations, although by the time the majority of units had been committed to the fighting on the Korean peninsula following the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950.
## Leadership
When the war began the Army was on the cusp of a generational change. At the time, the senior officers on the active list were Major Generals Gordon Bennett and Thomas Blamey, although Bennett had not held an appointment for seven years and Blamey for the last two. Then came the Chief of the General Staff, Major General John Lavarack; the Adjutant General, Major General Sir Carl Jess; Major General Owen Phillips, the Quartermaster General; Major General Edmund Drake-Brockman, the commander of the 3rd Division; and Major General Iven Mackay, the commander 2nd Division. All were over 50 years of age and all except Bennett, Drake-Brockman and Mackay were serving or former regular soldiers. Only the first three were considered to command the 6th Division and Second AIF, for which posts Blamey was selected by Prime Minister Menzies. Both Blamey and Lavarack were promoted to lieutenant general on 13 October 1939. Blamey was subsequently appointed General Officer Commanding (GOC) I Corps following its raising in March 1940, while Mackay was appointed to succeed him in command of the 6th Division and Lavarack assumed command of the newly formed 7th Division.
The next most senior regular officers, all colonels, included men like Vernon Sturdee, Henry Wynter and John Northcott, all of whom had joined the Army before World War I. These officers held senior commands throughout the war, but seldom active ones. Below them were a distinct group of regular officers, graduates of the Royal Military College, Duntroon, which had opened in 1911. Their number included Frank Berryman, William Bridgeford, Cyril Clowes, Horace Robertson, Sydney Rowell and George Alan Vasey. These officers had fought in World War I and reached the rank of major, but their promotion prospects were restricted and they remained majors for twenty years. Many left the Army to join the British or Indian armies, or the RAAF, or to return to civilian life. As a group, they had become embittered and resentful, and determined to prove that they could lead troops in battle. Many regular officers had attended training courses or been on exchange with the British Army, which was important in the early years of the war when there was close cooperation between the two armies.
Between the wars, the reservists enjoyed much better promotion prospects. While Alan Vasey, a major in the First AIF, was not promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel until 1937, Kenneth Eather, a reservist who was too young to serve in World War I, was commissioned in 1923 and promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1935. Menzies ordered that all commands in the 6th Division be given to reservists rather than regular officers, who had become political adversaries through their outspoken opposition to the Singapore strategy. Appointments therefore went to reservists like Stanley Savige, Arthur Allen, Leslie Morshead and Edmund Herring. Later other Militia officers rose to prominence as brigade and division commanders. The distinguished records of officers like Heathcote Hammer, Ivan Dougherty, David Whitehead, Victor Windeyer and Selwyn Porter would challenge the regular officers' contention that they had a special claim to senior command ability.
At the start of the war, the majority of battalion commands went to older reservists, many of whom had commanded battalions or served in the First AIF. As the war went on, the average age of battalion commanders declined from 42.9 years old in 1940 to 35.6 in 1945. The prevalence of regular officers in senior positions also rose, and in 1945 they held half of all senior appointments. They remained under-represented in unit commands, and, as in 1940, there was still only one infantry battalion commanded by a regular officer. Following the outbreak of war with Japan, many senior officers with distinguished records in the Middle East were recalled to Australia to lead Militia formations and fill important staff posts as the Army expanded. The following year, though, the Army reached its greatest extent after which it shrank in size. With a limited number of senior appointments and more senior officers than required, Blamey faced public and political criticism after he "shelved" several senior officers. The career prospects of junior officer were also affected, particularly in the infantry. Of the 52 officers promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant colonel in the last six months of 1944 only five were infantrymen, while two were engineers, and 45 were from the supporting arms.
Meanwhile, the return of the AIF divisions to Australia from the Middle East in 1942 coincided with the arrival of large numbers of American troops, including the US 32nd and 41st Infantry Divisions. From April 1942 MacArthur took over command of all US and Australian forces in the newly formed South West Pacific Area as Supreme Commander. Blamey had been appointed Commander-in-Chief AMF in March following his promotion to general, setting up Land Headquarters to subsume the role of the Military Board, which was suspended on 30 July. As Commander-in-Chief AMF he reported directly to MacArthur and was subsequently also given command of Allied Land Forces in the theatre. Yet although Australian forces made up the bulk of the Allied forces in SWPA until 1944 in practice for political reasons MacArthur ensured that Blamey only commanded Australian forces, while he also limited the number of Australian staff officers posted to General Headquarters, and they remained underrepresented for the remainder of the war.
## Equipment
The Australian Army generally had a long-standing policy of using British-designed equipment, but equipment from Australia, the United States and some other countries was introduced into service in the war's later years. Pre-war defence policies favoured the RAN, which received the majority of defence spending in the interwar period. The result was that when war came in 1939, the Army's equipment was of World War I vintage, and Australian factories were only capable of producing small arms. Most equipment was obsolescent and had to be replaced, and new factories were required to produce the latest weapons, equipment and motor vehicles. Some 2,860 motor vehicles and motorcycles suitable for military use were purchased in 1939 for the Militia and another 784 for the 6th Division, but since a division's war establishment was around 3,000, this was only enough for training. In February 1940, the Treasury urged the War Cabinet to slow orders of motor vehicles to save the shipping space used for sending them to the Middle East for wheat cargoes.
Throughout the war, Australian infantry units were largely equipped with British-designed but Australian-made small arms and support weapons. The standard rifle was the SMLE No 1 Mk III\*, manufactured since 1912 at the Lithgow Small Arms Factory. Small quantities of the Lee–Enfield No.4 Mk I/Mk I\* rifle, made by the Long Branch Arsenal in Canada and Savage-Stevens Firearms in the US, were used in New Guinea although most of these rifles were provided to other branches of the Australian military and to the Volunteer Defence Corps in order to free up No.1 MkIII\* rifles for frontline infantry units. American-made M1 Garand semi-automatic rifles and M1 carbines were also issued to some Australian infantry units attached to US Army formations in New Guinea. Direct fire support was provided by a mixture of machine guns, including the Vickers machine gun which was produced at Lithgow from 1929, which were utilised by specialised machine-gun battalions and, later, also medium machine-gun platoons within infantry battalions. The Bren Gun replaced Lewis Gun as the standard automatic rifle in the early years of the war, and within infantry battalions was utilised at the section level. Their manufacture in Australia started in 1941. To improve rates of fire, the American Thompson submachine gun was introduced but it was eventually replaced by the Australian-designed Owen Gun and the British-designed but Australian-modified and -made Austen submachine gun. Infantry platoons were also equipped with M36 grenades. The Boys anti-tank rifle was the standard infantry anti-tank weapon at the start of the war, but was replaced with the PIAT in 1943. The heavier support weapons used by infantry battalions the war included the 2-inch mortar and Stokes 3-inch mortar. Infantry battalions were also equipped with Universal Carriers until being converted to the tropical warfare establishment in 1943, when the organic carrier platoons were consolidated into companies assigned at divisional level. A man-pack flamethrower was also introduced in 1945.
Not until 17 January 1940 did Richard Casey obtain Cabinet's approval to spend £400,000 to construct a plant to manufacture 25 pounder field guns and 2 pounder anti-tank guns. Until the 25 pounder could become available in quantity, units in Australia and the Far East were equipped with the old 18 pounder. Some units in the Middle East operated the 18/25 pounder, an 18 pounder that had been re-bored to take 25 pounder ammunition, until they received British 25 pounders. The old 4.5 inch howitzer also saw service, with the 2/10th Field Regiment employing them in support of the 9th Division during the siege of Tobruk. A collection of captured Italian guns, known as the "Bush Artillery", were also employed. These were rendered obsolete when the 25 pounder became available in quantity. Eventually, 1,527 were manufactured in Australia. A special light weight version known as the Short 25 pounder was developed for jungle warfare. The requirement for a portable field piece in mountainous jungle led to the use of the 3.7-inch mountain howitzer in the New Guinea campaign. The American 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 was also employed. Experience in the Western Desert campaign soon showed that the 2 pounder could not deal with German tanks, and it was superseded by the 6 pounder, which began coming off the assembly lines in Australia in July 1942. In turn it was replaced in 1944 by the 17 pounder, which was manufactured at the Maribyrnong Ordnance Factory. The anti-aircraft artillery were equipped with the Swedish-designed Bofors 40 mm gun, which was manufactured in Australia, and the British 3.7 inch Anti-Aircraft gun. Medium artillery included the American 155 mm Long Tom and the British 5.5 inch gun.
The need for tanks to equip armoured units led the War Cabinet to approve the manufacture of the Sentinel tank in 1940. Some 66 of them were delivered by the time manufacture ceased in July 1943, but none were used in action. Otherwise tanks were sourced from overseas. A quantity of M3 Stuart light tanks were received in September 1941, while the first shipment of British Matilda II tanks arrived in July 1942, and these proved to be the most suitable type for jungle warfare. A flame-thrower variant was produced and eventually saw action in the Borneo campaign. The most numerous tank used by the Australian Army was the M3 Lee. Several hundred of these equipped the armoured divisions, but unlike the Stuarts and Matildas, they did not see action. An Australian scout car known as the Dingo was produced as an interim measure until adequate supplies of the Canadian Staghound armoured car became available in 1944. The Australian Army also operated some amphibious tractors.
The Australian Army developed its own landing craft. Development of an Australian version of the Landing Craft Assault, the ALCV (Australian Landing Craft, Vehicle), was carried out by Army personnel working alongside the Ford Motor Company. Prototypes were constructed by sappers and launched on the Brisbane River. The initial version, known as the ALCV I was found to be too small, so the larger 12-metre ALCV II was developed. An Australian version of the Landing Craft Mechanized, the ALCM, was also developed and manufactured by Ford in Brisbane and later at Geelong. Operational experience demonstrated the need for larger landing craft, so the ALCV III, an enlarged version of the ALCM II with four Ford V8 engines and twice the cargo capacity, was produced. The Army also ordered 15 ALCM IIIs, a type of similar capacity to an American Landing Craft Tank, with five Ford V8 engines. Only four were delivered before the end of the war, but they arrived in time to see service in New Guinea.
By 1945, due to a shrinking number of operational units and stepped up production, equipment shortages were a thing of the past. Indeed, the Army had more equipment that it actually needed. For example, a total of 368 25 pounders were required for combat and 38 for training but there were a total of 1,516 on hand. Additionally, a total of 530 2 pounder and 6 pounder anti-tank guns were required, but the Army had 1,941, while 68 3.7 inch anti-aircraft guns were needed for combat and five for training, but there were 640 pieces available. Similar surpluses existed with small arms such as the Bren, of which 9,438 were required, but there were 21,139 in the system. The situation in relation to Bren gun carriers was even more marked with only 123 of the 3,767 vehicles actually being required, due to the decreased requirements for mobility vehicles in jungle warfare.
## Training and doctrine
The Australian Army's pre-war doctrine was focused on conventional warfare in a European environment. This doctrine and the supporting training manuals were common to those of all Commonwealth countries. Following the outbreak of war the Army continued to focus on preparing its units to fight in Europe and North Africa. By far the single greatest difficulty in training in the early war years was the shortage of equipment. However, there were also critical shortages of instructors. The decision to form the 1st Armoured Division created a requirement for large numbers of highly skilled personnel, but there were few officers and men with the required skills in the small pre-war Army and many of them were already serving in the AIF's divisional mechanised cavalry regiments. An Armoured Fighting Vehicles School was created at Puckapunyal, Victoria, in 1941, and in March 1943, the Armoured Corps Training Centre was moved there.
Another problem for the Militia was a lack of continuity in the training. When the war began, men were called up for only one month's additional training. This was then increased to three months' additional training. In 1940–41, officers and non-commissioned officers were intensively trained for 18 to 24 days, after which there was a camp for 70 days. Meanwhile, soldiers who had been through the 90-day training regimen in 1939–40 were given 12 days' additional training, while those who had not completed this training undertook 70 days. This allowed for individual training, but prevented proper unit training. In July 1941, fully trained soldiers who had completed 90 days' training became liable for three months' additional training per year while new recruits were liable for six months. At the same time, the War Cabinet provided for more intensive training for the full-time cadre of Militia units, which were not to exceed 25 percent of the unit's strength. Training for the Militia and the VDC was also hampered in the early war years by a lack of small arms, particularly after the Dunkirk evacuation when Australia dispatched its reserve stock of rifles to Britain, in an effort to help replace equipment lost by the British Army, amidst concerns of an invasion of the United Kingdom after the Fall of France.
Although the Army's focus was on conventional warfare, in late 1940 Lieutenant Colonel J.C. Mawhood, a British officer, arrived in Australia with a small specialist staff to conduct training in unconventional warfare. A school, known as No. 7 Infantry Training Centre, was opened at Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, which was described as "an isolated area of high, rugged and heavily timbered mountains, precipitous valleys, swiftly running streams, and swamps." The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Independent Companies and a nucleus of the 4th were raised by October 1941 when training was discontinued. After the outbreak of the war with Japan, the school was reopened as the Guerrilla Warfare School, the training of the fourth company was completed. These independent companies were later redesignated as commando squadrons, of which twelve were eventually raised, including the 1st, which had been destroyed early in the war; as the war progressed they were used more in the flank protection and reconnaissance roles than for unconventional warfare.
The Australian Army did not have any doctrine for jungle warfare prior to 1942. Some lessons were passed on by officers who escaped from Malaya and Singapore, however, and these were incorporated into a training memorandum in May that year. AIF units that returned from North Africa undertook some training in jungle tactics before going into action, but the Militia units which initially faced the Japanese in New Guinea suffered from inadequate training, and this led to them suffering heavy casualties.
In order to be able to move troops to the front in New Guinea more rapidly, to acclimatise them during the process, and to allow more realistic training of large formations in jungle and mountainous but malaria-free terrain, Blamey decided to establish a training and staging area on the Atherton Tableland in November 1942. Eventually, accommodation was provided there for 70,000 troops. As divisions returned from tours of duty in New Guinea in 1943 and 1944, they were sent to Atherton for anti-malaria treatment. The men then went on leave, after which they returned to Atherton where training was conducted before staging and departing again.
In early 1943 the Army developed a jungle warfare doctrine by adapting the pre-war field service regulations to meet the conditions in the South-West Pacific. The Army's front-line combat formations were reorganised and trained in accordance with this doctrine during the year. A jungle warfare school was opened at Canungra, Queensland, in November 1942, and all reinforcements for combat units subsequently passed through the school before joining their unit. Canungra consisted of a reinforcement training centre, an Independent Company training centre, and a tactical school. With the establishment of Canungra the Independent Company training centre on Wilsons Promontory was closed.
Over time, training programs included greater cooperation between the Army's combat arms and with the other services. A Combined Training Centre, also known as HMAS Assault, opened on 1 September 1942 at Nelson Bay, adjacent to Port Stephens, New South Wales, as a central establishment for the training staffs, beach parties and small boat crews. In July 1942, a Combined Training School was established at Bribie Island, Queensland, and nearby Toorbul Point for Army units. During 1943 and 1944, combined training with the RAAF and RAN was also carried out at Trinity Beach, near Cairns in preparation for amphibious operations in the South West Pacific as the Allies advanced.
The Australian Army began training paratroops in December 1942 as an offshoot of the training of Independent Companies. The 1st Parachute Battalion was subsequently formed in March 1943. It reached full strength by January 1944, but, although it was warned for action a number of times, including the possible rescue of prisoners of war held at Sandakan in 1945, it did not see any fighting. After the war it participated in the reoccupation of Singapore.
By 1945 the Army possessed a comprehensive schools system, with 40 schools of various kinds. Between 1942 and 1945 96,000 training courses were conducted. Soldiers who were selected to become officers were trained at various Officer Cadet Training Units around the country, and by the end of the war these units had produced 7,887 officers. Meanwhile, regular officers of the PMF continued to be trained at the Royal Military College, Duntroon with a number of shortened courses of between six months and a years' duration being run. Unlike the First AIF, newly commissioned lieutenants were not sent back to their original unit, but were posted to the first vacancy. Other schools included the School of Artillery, the Guerrilla Warfare School, the Cooking and Catering School, the School of Military Law and the School of Movement and Transport. Recruit training was now thorough and exacting, and for infantrymen culminated in a jungle training course at Canungra, where the Jungle Warfare School turned out 4,000 reinforcements a month. In 1945, the 29th Brigade received 1,000 young reinforcements shortly before embarking for Torokina, but their commander later remarked that their training at Canungra had been so thorough that they "reacted with almost miraculous quickness to conditions of battle."
## Prisoners of war
Nearly 29,000 Australians were taken prisoner by the Axis during the war, the bulk of them members of the Australian Army. During the fighting in the Middle East and Greece, 7,116 Australian soldiers were taken prisoner by German and Italian forces. Of these men, 3,109 were captured at Crete and 2,065 on the mainland of Greece. Most of the other POWs were members of the 9th Division captured during the retreat from Cyrenaica in early 1941, the siege of Tobruk or the fighting near El Alamein in mid-1942. Like other western Allied POWs, the Australians were held in permanent camps in Italy and Germany and were generally treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions. As the war neared its end the Germans moved many prisoners towards the interior of the country to prevent them from being liberated by the advancing Allied armies. These movements were often made through forced marches in harsh weather and resulted in many deaths. As the war drew to a close, a unit designated the AIF Reception Group (United Kingdom) was established near Eastbourne in England to provide accommodation and support for the POWs once they were released. By August 1945 all the former Australian POWs in Europe had embarked on ships bound for Australia. While Australian prisoners suffered a higher death rate in German and Italian captivity than their counterparts in World War I, it was much lower than the rate suffered under Japanese internment.
More than 21,000 members of the AIF were captured by the Japanese during the first months of 1942. Most of these men were members of the 8th Division captured at Singapore, the NEI and Rabaul, but about 2,000 members of the I Corps party sent to Java in early 1942 were taken prisoner there. Throughout captivity these POWs were treated harshly, resulting in a high death rate. Australians were held in camps across the Asia-Pacific region and many endured long voyages in grossly overcrowded ships. While most of the Australian POWs who died in Japanese captivity were the victim of deliberate malnutrition and disease, hundreds were murdered by their guards. The Burma-Thai Railway was the most notorious of the prisoner of war experiences, as 13,000 Australians worked on it at various times during 1942 and 1943 alongside thousands of other Allied POWs and Asians conscripted by the Japanese; nearly 2,650 Australians died there. Thousands of Australian POWs were also sent to the Japanese home islands where they worked in factories and mines in generally harsh conditions. The POWs held in camps at Ambon and Borneo suffered the highest death rates; 77 percent of those at Ambon died and few of the 2,500 Australian and British prisoners in Borneo survived; almost all were killed by overwork and a series of death marches in 1945. Overall, only 14,000 of the Australian prisoners taken by the Japanese survived captivity. The majority of these deaths were caused by malnutrition and disease. The treatment of the POWs prompted many Australians to remain hostile towards Japan after the war. Australian authorities investigated the abuses against Allied POWs in their country's zone of responsibility after the war, and guards who were believed to have mistreated prisoners were among those tried by Australian-administered war crimes trials.
## Demobilisation
The process of demobilisation began immediately after the end of hostilities, although it had partially commenced as early as 1943. At the end of the war the strength of the Australian Army was 398,594 men, approximately half of which were serving overseas in the South West Pacific Area. The demobilisation plan was put into action on 16 August 1945, the day after Japan surrendered. Undertaken in four phases, it was finally completed on 15 February 1947 by which time a total of 349,964 soldiers had been discharged. Although the process largely proceeded smoothly, many soldiers felt it was too slow and there was widespread dissatisfaction among men continuing to serve in the South West Pacific after the war ended. The speed of demobilisation was hampered by the requirement to continue to maintain security in the areas still occupied, the lack of sufficient shipping, the administrative workload entailed, and limited facilities for use for the demobilisation process. Although the Second AIF was not disbanded until 30 June 1947 a temporary organisation known as the Interim Army was established at the end of the war and included all members of the Army on full-time duty. Meanwhile, in a departure from previous defence policy the Australian government decided that a small peacetime regular force was to be raised to provide a trained, full-time force capable of being deployed either in Australia or overseas in a national emergency and the Australian Regular Army was subsequently established on 30 September 1947. The Militia, under the guise of the Citizen Military Forces, was re-established on 1 July 1948 to provide a part-time volunteer force which would be able to provide the basis for expansion in wartime.
## Casualties
In the course of the fighting the Australian Army sustained approximately 61,000 battle casualties, the bulk of them from the Second AIF. This included 11,323 killed in action, 1,794 died of wounds, and 21,853 wounded. 5,558 were killed or died in captivity, while another 20,920 survived as prisoners of war. Non-battle casualties included 1,088 killed and 33,196 wounded/injured in operational areas, and another 1,795 killed and 121,800 wounded/injured in non-operational areas. The large number of non-battle casualties was significant, illustrating the toll that sickness and disease took upon the Army. |
71,886,336 | Nucleon magnetic moment | 1,173,438,160 | In physics, proton and neutron magnetism | [
"Electric and magnetic fields in matter",
"Magnetic moment",
"Magnetism",
"Magnetostatics",
"Neutron",
"Physical quantities",
"Proton"
]
| The nucleon magnetic moments are the intrinsic magnetic dipole moments of the proton and neutron, symbols μ<sub>p</sub> and μ<sub>n</sub>. The nucleus of an atom comprises protons and neutrons, both nucleons that behave as small magnets. Their magnetic strengths are measured by their magnetic moments. The nucleons interact with normal matter through either the nuclear force or their magnetic moments, with the charged proton also interacting by the Coulomb force.
The proton's magnetic moment, surprisingly large, was directly measured in 1933 by Otto Stern team in University of Hamburg. While the neutron was determined to have a magnetic moment by indirect methods in the mid 1930s. Luis Alvarez and Felix Bloch made the first accurate, direct measurement of the neutron's magnetic moment in 1940. The proton's magnetic moment is exploited to make measurements of molecules by proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The neutron's magnetic moment is exploited to probe the atomic structure of materials using scattering methods and to manipulate the properties of neutron beams in particle accelerators.
The existence of the neutron's magnetic moment and the large value for the proton magnetic moment indicate that nucleons are not elementary particles. For an elementary particle to have an intrinsic magnetic moment, it must have both spin and electric charge. The nucleons have spin ħ/2, but the neutron has no net charge. Their magnetic moments were puzzling and defied a valid explanation until the quark model for hadron particles was developed in the 1960s. The nucleons are composed of three quarks, and the magnetic moments of these elementary particles combine to give the nucleons their magnetic moments.
## Description
The CODATA recommended value for the magnetic moment of the proton is or The best available measurement for the value of the magnetic moment of the neutron is Here, μ<sub>N</sub> is the nuclear magneton, a standard unit for the magnetic moments of nuclear components, and μ<sub>B</sub> is the Bohr magneton, both being physical constants. In SI units, these values are and A magnetic moment is a vector quantity, and the direction of the nucleon's magnetic moment is determined by its spin. The torque on the neutron that results from an external magnetic field is towards aligning the neutron's spin vector opposite to the magnetic field vector.
The nuclear magneton is the spin magnetic moment of a Dirac particle, a charged, spin-1/2 elementary particle, with a proton's mass m<sub>p</sub>, in which anomalous corrections are ignored. The nuclear magneton is $\mu_\text{N} = \frac{e \hbar}{2 m_\text{p}},$ where e is the elementary charge, and ħ is the reduced Planck constant. The magnetic moment of such a particle is parallel to its spin. Since the neutron has no charge, it should have no magnetic moment by the analogous expression. The non-zero magnetic moment of the neutron thus indicates that it is not an elementary particle. The sign of the neutron's magnetic moment is that of a negatively charged particle. Similarly, that the magnetic moment of the proton, is not almost equal to 1 μ<sub>N</sub> indicates that it too is not an elementary particle. Protons and neutrons are composed of quarks, and the magnetic moments of the quarks can be used to compute the magnetic moments of the nucleons.
Although the nucleons interact with normal matter through magnetic forces, the magnetic interactions are many orders of magnitude weaker than the nuclear interactions. The influence of the neutron's magnetic moment is therefore only apparent for low energy, or slow, neutrons. Because the value for the magnetic moment is inversely proportional to particle mass, the nuclear magneton is about 1/2000 as large as the Bohr magneton. The magnetic moment of the electron is therefore about 1000 times larger than that of the nucleons.
The magnetic moments of the antiproton and antineutron have the same magnitudes as their antiparticles, the proton and neutron, but they have opposite sign.
## Measurement
### Proton
The magnetic moment of the proton was discovered in 1933 by Otto Stern, Otto Robert Frisch and Immanuel Estermann at the University of Hamburg. The proton's magnetic moment was determined by measuring the deflection of a beam of molecular hydrogen by a magnetic field. Stern won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1943 for this discovery.
### Neutron
The neutron was discovered in 1932, and since it had no charge, it was assumed to have no magnetic moment. Indirect evidence suggested that the neutron had a non-zero value for its magnetic moment, however, until direct measurements of the neutron's magnetic moment in 1940 resolved the issue.
Values for the magnetic moment of the neutron were independently determined by R. Bacher at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor (1933) and I. Y. Tamm and S. A. Altshuler in the Soviet Union (1934) from studies of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra. Although Tamm and Altshuler's estimate had the correct sign and order of magnitude (μ<sub>n</sub> = −0.5 μ<sub>N</sub>), the result was met with skepticism.
By 1934 groups led by Stern, now at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, and I. I. Rabi at Columbia University in New York had independently measured the magnetic moments of the proton and deuteron. The measured values for these particles were only in rough agreement between the groups, but the Rabi group confirmed the earlier Stern measurements that the magnetic moment for the proton was unexpectedly large. Since a deuteron is composed of a proton and a neutron with aligned spins, the neutron's magnetic moment could be inferred by subtracting the deuteron and proton magnetic moments. The resulting value was not zero and had a sign opposite to that of the proton. By the late 1930s, accurate values for the magnetic moment of the neutron had been deduced by the Rabi group using measurements employing newly developed nuclear magnetic resonance techniques.
The value for the neutron's magnetic moment was first directly measured by L. Alvarez and F. Bloch at the University of California at Berkeley in 1940. Using an extension of the magnetic resonance methods developed by Rabi, Alvarez and Bloch determined the magnetic moment of the neutron to be μ<sub>n</sub> = −1.93(2) μ<sub>N</sub>. By directly measuring the magnetic moment of free neutrons, or individual neutrons free of the nucleus, Alvarez and Bloch resolved all doubts and ambiguities about this anomalous property of neutrons.
### Unexpected consequences
The large value for the proton's magnetic moment and the inferred negative value for the neutron's magnetic moment were unexpected and could not be explained. The unexpected values for the magnetic moments of the nucleons would remain a puzzle until the quark model was developed in the 1960s.
The refinement and evolution of the Rabi measurements led to the discovery in 1939 that the deuteron also possessed an electric quadrupole moment. This electrical property of the deuteron had been interfering with the measurements by the Rabi group. The discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric, which provided valuable insight into the nature of the nuclear force binding nucleons. Rabi was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1944 for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.
## Nucleon gyromagnetic ratios
The magnetic moment of a nucleon is sometimes expressed in terms of its g-factor, a dimensionless scalar. The convention defining the g-factor for composite particles, such as the neutron or proton, is $\boldsymbol{\mu} = \frac{g \mu_\text{N}}{\hbar} \boldsymbol{I},$ where μ is the intrinsic magnetic moment, I is the spin angular momentum, and g is the effective g-factor. While the g-factor is dimensionless, for composite particles it is defined relative to the nuclear magneton. For the neutron, I is 1/2 ħ, so the neutron's g-factor is while the proton's g-factor is
The gyromagnetic ratio, symbol γ, of a particle or system is the ratio of its magnetic moment to its spin angular momentum, or $\boldsymbol{\mu} = \gamma \boldsymbol{I}.$
For nucleons, the ratio is conventionally written in terms of the proton mass and charge, by the formula
$\gamma = \frac{g \mu_\text{N}}{\hbar} = g \frac{e}{2m_\text{p}}.$
The neutron's gyromagnetic ratio is The proton's gyromagnetic ratio is The gyromagnetic ratio is also the ratio between the observed angular frequency of Larmor precession and the strength of the magnetic field in nuclear magnetic resonance applications, such as in MRI imaging. For this reason, the quantity γ/2π with the unit MHz/T is often given. The quantities γ<sub>n</sub>/(2π) = −29.1646931(69) MHz/T and γ<sub>p</sub>/(2π) = 42.5774806(10) MHz⋅T<sup>−1</sup>, called "gamma bar", are therefore convenient.
## Physical significance
### Larmor precession
When a nucleon is put into a magnetic field produced by an external source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient its magnetic moment parallel to the field (in the case of the neutron, its spin is antiparallel to the field). As with any magnet, this torque is proportional the product of the magnetic moment and the external magnetic field strength. Since the nucleons have spin angular momentum, this torque will cause them to precess with a well-defined frequency, called the Larmor frequency. It is this phenomenon that enables the measurement of nuclear properties through nuclear magnetic resonance. The Larmor frequency can be determined from the product of the gyromagnetic ratio with the magnetic field strength. Since for the neutron the sign of γ<sub>n</sub> is negative, the neutron's spin angular momentum precesses counterclockwise about the direction of the external magnetic field.
### Proton nuclear magnetic resonance
Nuclear magnetic resonance employing the magnetic moments of protons is used for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Since hydrogen-1 nuclei are within the molecules of many substances, NMR can determine the structure of those molecules.
### Determination of neutron spin
The interaction of the neutron's magnetic moment with an external magnetic field was exploited to determine the spin of the neutron. In 1949, D. Hughes and M. Burgy measured neutrons reflected from a ferromagnetic mirror and found that the angular distribution of the reflections was consistent with spin 1/2. In 1954, J. Sherwood, T. Stephenson, and S. Bernstein employed neutrons in a Stern–Gerlach experiment that used a magnetic field to separate the neutron spin states. They recorded the two such spin states, consistent with a spin 1/2 particle. Until these measurements, the possibility that the neutron was a spin 3/2 particle could not have been ruled out.
### Neutrons used to probe material properties
Since neutrons are neutral particles, they do not have to overcome Coulomb repulsion as they approach charged targets, unlike protons and alpha particles. Neutrons can deeply penetrate matter. The magnetic moment of the neutron has therefore been exploited to probe the properties of matter using scattering or diffraction techniques. These methods provide information that is complementary to X-ray spectroscopy. In particular, the magnetic moment of the neutron is used to determine magnetic properties of materials at length scales of 1–100 Å using cold or thermal neutrons. B. Brockhouse and C. Shull won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1994 for developing these scattering techniques.
### Control of neutron beams by magnetism
Without an electric charge, neutron beams cannot be controlled by the conventional electromagnetic methods employed for particle accelerators. The magnetic moment of the neutron allows some control of neutrons using magnetic fields, however, including the formation of polarized neutron beams. One technique employs the fact that cold neutrons will reflect from some magnetic materials at great efficiency when scattered at small grazing angles. The reflection preferentially selects particular spin states, thus polarizing the neutrons. Neutron magnetic mirrors and guides use this total internal reflection phenomenon to control beams of slow neutrons.
### Nuclear magnetic moments
Since an atomic nucleus consists of a bound state of protons and neutrons, the magnetic moments of the nucleons contribute to the nuclear magnetic moment, or the magnetic moment for the nucleus as a whole. The nuclear magnetic moment also includes contributions from the orbital motion of the charged protons. The deuteron, consisting of a proton and a neutron, has the simplest example of a nuclear magnetic moment. The sum of the proton and neutron magnetic moments gives 0.879 μ<sub>N</sub>, which is within 3% of the measured value 0.857 μ<sub>N</sub>. In this calculation, the spins of the nucleons are aligned, but their magnetic moments offset because of the neutron's negative magnetic moment.
## Nature of the nucleon magnetic moments
A magnetic dipole moment can be generated by two possible mechanisms. One way is by a small loop of electric current, called an "Ampèrian" magnetic dipole. Another way is by a pair of magnetic monopoles of opposite magnetic charge, bound together in some way, called a "Gilbertian" magnetic dipole. Elementary magnetic monopoles remain hypothetical and unobserved, however. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s it was not readily apparent which of these two mechanisms caused the nucleon intrinsic magnetic moments. In 1930, Enrico Fermi showed that the magnetic moments of nuclei (including the proton) are Ampèrian. The two kinds of magnetic moments experience different forces in a magnetic field. Based on Fermi's arguments, the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles, including the nucleons, have been shown to be Ampèrian. The arguments are based on basic electromagnetism, elementary quantum mechanics, and the hyperfine structure of atomic s-state energy levels. In the case of the neutron, the theoretical possibilities were resolved by laboratory measurements of the scattering of slow neutrons from ferromagnetic materials in 1951.
## Anomalous magnetic moments and meson physics
The anomalous values for the magnetic moments of the nucleons presented a theoretical quandary for the 30 years from the time of their discovery in the early 1930s to the development of the quark model in the 1960s. Considerable theoretical efforts were expended in trying to understand the origins of these magnetic moments, but the failures of these theories were glaring. Much of the theoretical focus was on developing a nuclear-force equivalence to the remarkably successful theory explaining the small anomalous magnetic moment of the electron.
The problem of the origins of the magnetic moments of nucleons was recognized as early as 1935. G. C. Wick suggested that the magnetic moments could be caused by the quantum-mechanical fluctuations of these particles in accordance with Fermi's 1934 theory of beta decay. By this theory, a neutron is partly, regularly and briefly, disassociated into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino as a natural consequence of beta decay. By this idea, the magnetic moment of the neutron was caused by the fleeting existence of the large magnetic moment of the electron in the course of these quantum-mechanical fluctuations, the value of the magnetic moment determined by the length of time the virtual electron was in existence. The theory proved to be untenable, however, when H. Bethe and R. Bacher showed that it predicted values for the magnetic moment that were either much too small or much too large, depending on speculative assumptions.
Similar considerations for the electron proved to be much more successful. In quantum electrodynamics (QED), the anomalous magnetic moment of a particle stems from the small contributions of quantum mechanical fluctuations to the magnetic moment of that particle. The g-factor for a "Dirac" magnetic moment is predicted to be g = −2 for a negatively charged, spin-1/2 particle. For particles such as the electron, this "classical" result differs from the observed value by around 0.1%; the difference compared to the classical value is the anomalous magnetic moment. The g-factor for the electron is measured to be QED is the theory of the mediation of the electromagnetic force by photons. The physical picture is that the effective magnetic moment of the electron results from the contributions of the "bare" electron, which is the Dirac particle, and the cloud of "virtual", short-lived electron–positron pairs and photons that surround this particle as a consequence of QED. The effects of these quantum mechanical fluctuations can be computed theoretically using Feynman diagrams with loops.
The one-loop contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, corresponding to the first-order and largest correction in QED, is found by calculating the vertex function shown in the diagram on the right. The calculation was discovered by J. Schwinger in 1948. Computed to fourth order, the QED prediction for the electron's anomalous magnetic moment agrees with the experimentally measured value to more than 10 significant figures, making the magnetic moment of the electron one of the most accurately verified predictions in the history of physics.
Compared to the electron, the anomalous magnetic moments of the nucleons are enormous. The g-factor for the proton is 5.6, and the chargeless neutron, which should have no magnetic moment at all, has a g-factor of −3.8. Note, however, that the anomalous magnetic moments of the nucleons, that is, their magnetic moments with the expected Dirac particle magnetic moments subtracted, are roughly equal but of opposite sign: μ<sub>p</sub> − 1.00 μ<sub>N</sub> = +1.79 μ<sub>N</sub>, but μ<sub>n</sub> − 0.00 μ<sub>N</sub> = −1.91 μ<sub>N</sub>.
The Yukawa interaction for nucleons was discovered in the mid-1930s, and this nuclear force is mediated by pion mesons. In parallel with the theory for the electron, the hypothesis was that higher-order loops involving nucleons and pions may generate the anomalous magnetic moments of the nucleons. The physical picture was that the effective magnetic moment of the neutron arose from the combined contributions of the "bare" neutron, which is zero, and the cloud of "virtual" pions and photons that surround this particle as a consequence of the nuclear and electromagnetic forces. The Feynman diagram at right is roughly the first-order diagram, with the role of the virtual particles played by pions. As noted by A. Pais, "between late 1948 and the middle of 1949 at least six papers appeared reporting on second-order calculations of nucleon moments". These theories were also, as noted by Pais, "a flop" – they gave results that grossly disagreed with observation. Nevertheless, serious efforts continued along these lines for the next couple of decades, to little success. These theoretical approaches were incorrect because the nucleons are composite particles with their magnetic moments arising from their elementary components, quarks.
## Quark model of nucleon magnetic moments
In the quark model for hadrons, the neutron is composed of one up quark (charge ++ 2 /3 e) and two down quarks (charge −+ 1 /3 e) while the proton is composed of one down quark (charge −+ 1 /3 e) and two up quarks (charge ++ 2 /3 e). The magnetic moment of the nucleons can be modeled as a sum of the magnetic moments of the constituent quarks, although this simple model belies the complexities of the Standard Model of Particle Physics. The calculation assumes that the quarks behave like pointlike Dirac particles, each having their own magnetic moment, as computed using an expression similar to the one above for the nuclear magneton: $\ \mu_\text{q} = \frac{\ e_\text{q} \hbar\ }{2 m_\text{q}}\ ,$ where the q-subscripted variables refer to quark magnetic moment, charge, or mass. Simplistically, the magnetic moment of a nucleon can be viewed as resulting from the vector sum of the three quark magnetic moments, plus the orbital magnetic moments caused by the movement of the three charged quarks within it.
In one of the early successes of the Standard Model (SU(6) theory), in 1964 M. Beg, B. Lee, and A. Pais theoretically calculated the ratio of proton-to-neutron magnetic moments to be −+3/ 2 , which agrees with the experimental value to within 3%. The measured value for this ratio is −1.45989806(34). A contradiction of the quantum mechanical basis of this calculation with the Pauli exclusion principle led to the discovery of the color charge for quarks by O. Greenberg in 1964.
From the nonrelativistic quantum-mechanical wave function for baryons composed of three quarks, a straightforward calculation gives fairly accurate estimates for the magnetic moments of neutrons, protons, and other baryons. For a neutron, the magnetic moment is given by μ<sub>n</sub> = 4 /3 μ<sub>d</sub> − 1 /3 μ<sub>u</sub> , where μ<sub>d</sub> and μ<sub>u</sub> are the magnetic moments for the down and up quarks respectively. This result combines the intrinsic magnetic moments of the quarks with their orbital magnetic moments and assumes that the three quarks are in a particular, dominant quantum state.
The results of this calculation are encouraging, but the masses of the up or down quarks were assumed to be 1 /3 the mass of a nucleon. The masses of the quarks are actually only about 1% that of a nucleon. The discrepancy stems from the complexity of the Standard Model for nucleons, where most of their mass originates in the gluon fields, virtual particles, and their associated energy that are essential aspects of the strong force. Furthermore, the complex system of quarks and gluons that constitute a nucleon requires a relativistic treatment. Nucleon magnetic moments have been successfully computed from first principles, requiring significant computing resources.
## See also
- Neutron triple-axis spectrometry
- LARMOR neutron microscope
- Neutron electric dipole moment
- Aharonov–Casher effect |
12,320,705 | Lekin... | 1,151,819,709 | 1991 film directed by Gulzar | [
"1990s Hindi-language films",
"1991 films",
"Films based on short fiction",
"Films based on works by Rabindranath Tagore",
"Films directed by Gulzar",
"Films set in Rajasthan",
"Films shot in Rajasthan",
"Films that won the Best Costume Design National Film Award",
"Films whose production designer won the Best Production Design National Film Award",
"Memorials to Rabindranath Tagore"
]
| Lekin... () is a 1991 Hindi drama mystery film, loosely based on the 1895 short story Kshudhit Pashaan (Hungry Stones) by Rabindranath Tagore and directed by Gulzar. It stars Vinod Khanna, Dimple Kapadia, Amjad Khan, Alok Nath, and Beena Banerjee, and features a special appearance by Hema Malini. The film tells the story of Reva, a restless ghost who seeks liberation and haunts the ancient palace of Raja Param Singh in Rajasthan when she is discovered by Sameer, a museum curator sent by the government to salvage valuables in the region.
Produced by Indian singer Lata Mangeshkar (and co-produced by Hridaynath Mangeshkar and Bal Phule), the film took four years to release in theaters. It opened to positive reviews, with particular praise directed at Dimple Kapadia's performance. The soundtrack, composed by Hridaynath, was well-received, with Lata's rendition of "Yaara Seeli Seeli" becoming particularly popular. At the 38th National Film Awards, the film won five awards, a record for that year, including Best Music Direction for Hridaynath, Best Female Playback Singer for Lata, and Best Lyricist for Gulzar. At the 37th Filmfare Awards, the film won the Best Lyricist award, and Kapadia was nominated for Best Actress for her performance.
## Plot
Government officer Sameer Niyogi is sent to Rajasthan to take inventory of items in the abandoned haveli (mansion) of the long-deceased Maharaja Param Singh. When he arrives in Rajasthan, he meets his old friend Shafi who is a tax collector in the area and lives with his wife Sharda.
En-route his journey to Jasor, Sameer begins seeing what he thinks could very well be visions of another time and place, visions that he is shown by a beautiful woman he encounters by the name of Reva. She keeps appearing and disappearing during his stay in Jasor. The mysterious appearance and disappearance initially shakes Sameer but reassurance that spirits exist from an expert on the field gives him an unknown inner motivation to find out the truth behind Reva and his own self, as well as find out the reason he is connected with this story. According to the story revealed by Reva herself, she is a spirit stranded in a period of time, attempting to cross the desert to meet her long lost sister Tara. The older sister, Tara, comes to Maharaja Param Veer's palace for a singing and dancing performance one night. The Maharaja eyes her malevolently and orders his men to not let her go out of the palace that night so he can rape her.
Ustad Miraj Ali, the musical maestro in the king's court, who also happens to be Tara and Reva's music teacher, learns of the king's plan. He warns the father of Tara and Reva and advises them to run away from the town by crossing the desert. The King learns of this and imprisons Miraj Ali and Reva in the castle dungeons while Tara's camel runs ahead in the desert but is never heard of. The cruel Maharaja also orders Tara and Reva's father to be lashed till he bleeds to a near-death condition and then orders his men to put him on a camel's back and send him into the desert.
The lecherous King then turns his attention to Reva. He would wait until she would grow into a young woman. Rewa spends 8 years in captivity and one day the King wishes to sexually gratify himself with her. Ustad Miraj Ali along with the help of one of the king's servants hatch a plan to help Reva run away from prison to save herself from the King. We learn that Rewa narrowly escaped the clutches of indulgent King Param Singh. Her mentor Ustad Miraj Ali gives an oath of the Quran to one of his acquaintances, Mehru, who is supposed to help Reva cross the desert. But in the attempt to cross the desert, Mehru is caught by the King's men and punished by lashes and dropped to his village in a near-dead condition. Reva is killed in a severe desert sandstorm. She gets frozen in a moment of time. As events unfold towards the end, we come to know that Sameer is the rebirth of Mehru and that Rewa's elder sister, Tara successfully managed to cross the desert when her camel ran ahead. Tara is now older and has a daughter named after her dead, lost sister, Reva. Ustad Miraj Ali also is alive and at Tara's house although he is very old. As soon as Sameer reaches Tara's house with the news about Rewa, Ustad Miraj Ali recognises him as Mehru and dies in his arms. Sameer also discovers a skeleton of Raja Param Singh in the castle dungeons. The 2 gold teeth in the skull help establish the identity of that skeleton as belonging to King Param Singh. It remains a mystery how King Param Singh died in the castle dungeon and how Ustad Miraj Ali managed to escape.
Sameer eventually ends up fulfilling his commitment to help Reva's spirit not only cross the desert but also liberate her from the period of time in which she was stranded.
## Cast
The film's cast is as follows:
- Vinod Khanna – Sameer Niyogi
- Dimple Kapadia – Reva
- Amjad Khan – Shafi Ahmed Siddiqui
- Beena Banerjee – Sharda, Shafi's wife
- Alok Nath – Ustad Meraj Ali
- Hema Malini – Tara (guest appearance)
- Moon Moon Sen – Pammi
- Vijayendra Ghatge – Raja Param Singh
## Production
Lata Mangeshkar's initiative to produce a film revolved solely around the idea of making a film with good music, as she was devastated by the quality of the songs that prevailed in the film industry and that she had to sing throughout the past decade. She approached Gulzar to direct the planned film. Having accepted her offer, he decided to adapt Rabindranath Tagore's 1895 spiritual short story Kshudhit Pashaan, also known as Hungry Stones. Gulzar later explained his choice of Tagore: "I wanted to capture Tagore’s original voice, the voice that found expression only in Bangla and that was not replicated in the English translations." In their conversations, Lata and Gulzar would often discuss supernatural phenomena. Those were the days when cases of supposed reincarnation were being reported on in the press. Educated intellectuals would often accept them albeit with certain degrees of doubt and skepticism, and their arguments would often end with "Lekin..." (But...), hence the title of the film.
As soon as Kapadia learned about the project, she repeatedly called Gulzar and Mangeshkar insisting to be cast as Reva until she finally got the part. Vinod Khanna, who had been on a hiatus from acting and planned a comeback, approached Gulzar and asked if there was a role for him. Incidentally, the casting had almost completed by that time except for that of the male lead, and Khanna signed on to play Sameer. The film took four years to get made and released. The clap was given by cricketer Sunil Gavaskar in 1987. The film was shot during 1989. Gulzar had travelled extensively in Rajasthan (around 5,000 kilometers) looking for shooting locations. To make Kapadia's character more truthful to its ghost-like nature, Gulzar forbade Kapadia to blink during filming in order to capture an "endless, fixed gaze" that would give her "a feeling of being surreal".
## Soundtrack
All the songs from Lekin... were composed by Hridaynath Mangeshkar and the lyrics were written by Gulzar. Cine Blitz magazine described the soundtrack as Hridaynath's "most realised work yet" which allows to emerge as "a fully rounded personality". Gulzar was noted for his work as a lyricist. "Suniyo Ji Araj Mhario" is based on the composition in Raga Vihanginee by Pt. Mani Prasad. India Today described the soundtrack as "a blend of Hindustani classical and Rajasthani folk" which is "soothing and soulful".
## Release, reception and legacy
Prior to its theatrical release a year later, the film was first among the 19 films selected for the Indian panorama section to be screened at the 22nd International Film Festival of India. Released in cinemas on 11 October 1991, Lekin... was a critical success in contrast to its modest commercial income. The film drew praise from critics for its story, music, costumes, and particularly Kapadia's lead performance as Reva. Writing for The Indian Express, Subhash K. Jha concluded his review of the film at the time of its release saying, "Lekin is a deeply satisfying work of incandescent beauty." He further wrote of the character of Reva and Kapadia's portrayal of the part: "Trapped in the no-man's land is the spiritual named, Reva. Filmed in the golden expanses of the Rajasthani desert and played with intense tragedy by Dimple, the insubstantial character is the essence of evanescence." India Today described it as a watchable film about "the bewitching Dimple who traverses time". Indian Cinema, a catalogue by the National Film Development Corporation of India wrote that Lekin is "a superbly well-made film, but then, when it thematically strays into the field of fantasy we are forced to recognise this strand which is promoting 'elite masses'." The same publication wrote in the same year of Kapadia's performance: "the role requires more than a simplistic understanding of the character and the actress ... approaches it with an instinctive maturity. Dimple Kapadia's eyes speak volumes."
Throughout the years, Kapadia has maintained that the part of Reva is her personal favourite, calling it "the most fantastic role" of her career, and wished it had been given more screen time in the film. Actress Raveena Tandon called the part a dream role rarely found in Hindi films. Filmfare'''s Devesh Sharma listed it as one of Kapadia's best films and described it as "a supernatural love story where the desert of Rajasthan too becomes a character". The Times of India hailed her as "exceptional" and further wrote that she "looked real, convincing and incredible - all at the same time, in her very authentic Rajasthani attire". According to Jha in the book The Essential Guide to Bollywood, "The film is made memorable by Dimple Kapadia's unblinking portrayal of the ghost, rendered immeasurably ethereal by the underrated composer Hridayanath Mangeshkar's haunting melodies sung with ravishing resonance by the composer's sister Lata Mangeshkar." In a 2021 article for the National Herald, Jha included Lekin in the list of Kapadia's best performances. Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com wrote, "Dimple achieves a soulful embodiment of Gulzar's enigmatic apparition and melancholy in Lekin."
In a piece about the film's costume designer Bhanu Athaiya, Lekha J. Tandon of The Indian Express wrote, "Lekin is striking, not just for its haunting story and music, and Dimple Kapadia's performance, but also for its mood and tone. Athaiya can claim credit for this, because her costumes, especially the heroine's, fully capture the mysterious mood and ambiguous tone of the film." In 2000, M.L. Dhawan listed the film as one of the best films of 1991, labelling it a "celluloid classic". Verma of Rediff.com wrote that "Gulzar's exquisite poetry combined with the stark surroundings give a haunting quality to the film." Author and journalist Rasheed Kidwai, in his book Neta–Abhineta: Bollywood Star Power in Indian Politics, called the film an "underrated metaphysical melodrama". According to Kidwai, the film is known as one of Vinod Khanna's "greatest works". In his book Hero, author Ashok Raj praised Khanna for delivering "an impressive performance" in the lead part. Lata Mangeshkar said that she considers Lekin "a very proud achievement" for her.
The film's music maintains considerable popularity. Rajiv Vijayakar of The Indian Express lauded the film's soundtrack as Hridaynath Mangeshkar's "career-best Hindi film score" in what he considered a "stupendous album". Rineeta Naik of Scroll.in praised the "combination of Gulzar’s lyrics and Hridaynath Mangeshkar’s music", which is "adequately ghostly". She elaborated, "The music follows, with Rajasthani folk tunes enhanced and embellished by Gulzar’s poetry and the komalswars (half notes) of Maand, Todi and the rarely performed Vihangini (a form of Raga created by Pt. Mani Prasad), all lending pathos and mystery, the essential elements of the film." "Yaara Seeli Seeli", pictured on Kapadia, became the most popular song of the soundtrack. In 2015, author Ganesh Anantharaman wrote of Gulzar's lyrics, "At a time when film lyrics and music had coarsened to a point of no return, Gulzar retained his integrity as lyricist and wrote "Yaara Seeli Seeli" and other haunting songs for Lekin." A 2015 film directed by Subhash Sehgal was titled Yaara Silly Silly in humorous tribute to the song's lyrics.
## Analysis
Gulzar said about the film, "Lekin, for me, is special because of its element of mystery. Usually, when you make a mystery film, you provide a solution at the end. Lekin however doesn't - it just leaves you wondering." Subhash K. Jha said Lekin is "a film of hints, allusions and illusions". Writing for Scroll.in, Damini Kulkarni wrote, "Lekin draws a powerful analogy between a ghost frozen in time and a woman repeatedly victimised by men." Meheli Sen, in her book Haunting Bollywood: Gender, Genre, and the Supernatural in Hindi Commercial Cinema labelled the film as an "iteration of the Gothic film". According to Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, the film "adds to the horror iconography" through the use of "ruins, dungeons, suggestive music and fluttering pigeons", as well as its portrayal of the tribal Banjaras.
Ruth Vanita, author of the book Dancing with the Nation, claims that Lekin is "a good example of the merry mix that is Hindu–Muslim hybridity in Bombay cinema". She explained that kind Muslims dominate the background of the story, often saving the Hindu characters, and the order is reversed in present times with good Hindus. Discussing the film's themes, Vanita writes that the film's main element are ghosts, which are common in both popular Hinduism and Islam, but believes that "rebirth provides the enclosing framework". Vanita further notes the fact that unlike previous ghost stories in Hindi films, in this film the ghost is real. In the same book, the author mentions the way the erotic undertone of the story is built, where the male lead is attracted more to the ghost than his wife, with "death and liberation portrayed as almost orgasmic experiences".
## Awards
Lekin...'' was the major winner at the 38th National Film Awards, winning five awards, the maximum of awards won at that ceremony. Mangeshkar won the Best Female Playback Singer for "singing with outstanding expressions with the rarest and purest of styles"; Nitish Roy won the Best Art Direction for "maintaining the era, etching the characters against the canvas, with perfect colour, design and execution"; Bhanu Athaiya was named Best Costume Designer for her "texture and tone of the costumes, which heighten the visual quality of the film"; Hridaynath Mangeshkar's won the Best Music Direction for "using traditional tunes and instruments creatively, with litting melody and haunting perfection", and Gulzar was awarded the Best Lyrics for "evoking beautiful imagery, created through lyrical poetry". Dimple Kapadia's performance was said to have lost the Best Actress award at the same function by one vote. It was nominated for three Filmfare Awards, winning one for Gulzar's lyrics. At the 55th Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards, the film won three awards in the Hindi section, where Kapadia herself won the Best Actress award for another film.
## See also
- Moti Shahi Mahal
- Kshudhita Pashan |
15,894,661 | 1977 European Super Cup | 1,166,694,997 | null | [
"1970s in Hamburg",
"1970s in Liverpool",
"1977–78 in English football",
"1977–78 in European football",
"1977–78 in German football",
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"Hamburger SV matches",
"International club association football competitions hosted by England",
"International club association football competitions hosted by Germany",
"International sports competitions in Liverpool",
"Liverpool F.C. matches",
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"Sports competitions in Hamburg",
"UEFA Super Cup"
]
| The 1977 European Super Cup was an association football match played over two-legs between German team Hamburger SV and English team Liverpool. The first leg was played at the Volksparkstadion, Hamburg on 22 November 1977 and the second leg was played on 6 December 1977 at Anfield, Liverpool. The match was for the European Super Cup, an annual contest between the winners of the European Cup and European Cup Winners' Cup. Both teams were appearing in the competition for the first time.
The teams qualified for the competition by winning the European Cup and European Cup Winners' Cup. Hamburg won the 1976–77 European Cup Winners' Cup beating Belgian team Anderlecht 2–0 in the final. Liverpool qualified by winning the 1976–77 European Cup. They beat German team Borussia Mönchengladbach 3–1 in the final.
Watched by a crowd of 16,000 at the Volksparkstadion, Hamburg took the lead in the first half of the first leg when Ferdinand Keller scored. A David Fairclough goal in the second half levelled the match at 1–1, which remained the score when the match finished. A crowd of 34,391 saw Liverpool take the lead in the second leg when Phil Thompson scored in the 21st minute. A hat-trick from Terry McDermott and a goal each from Kenny Dalglish and Fairclough secured a 6–0 win for Liverpool. Thus, Liverpool won 7–1 on aggregate to win their first European Super Cup.
## Background
The European Super Cup was founded in the early 1970s, as a means to determine the best team in Europe and serve as a challenge to Ajax, the strongest club side of its day. The proposal by Dutch journalist Anton Witkamp, a football match between the holders of the European Cup and Cup Winners' Cup, failed to receive UEFA's backing, given the recent Cup Winners' Cup winners Rangers had been banned from European competition. Witkamp nonetheless proceeded with his vision, a two-legged match played between Ajax and Rangers in January 1973. The competition was endorsed and recognised by UEFA a year later.
Liverpool qualified for the Super Cup as winners of the 1976–77 European Cup. They had beaten German team Borussia Mönchengladbach 3–1 in the final to win the European Cup for the first time. It was Liverpool's first appearance in the Super Cup. Hamburger SV had qualified for the competition as winners of the 1976–77 European Cup Winners' Cup. A 2–0 victory against Anderlecht ensured they won the European Cup Winners' Cup for the first time. Hamburg were also appearing in their first Super Cup match.
Both teams were midway through their respective domestic campaigns at the time of the matches. Liverpool's last game before the first leg was against Bristol City, which they drew 1–1. This result left Liverpool sixth in the 1977–78 Football League. Hamburg played Borussia Dortmund in the 1977–78 Bundesliga in their last match before the first leg, which they lost 2–1. A subplot to the matches was that Hamburg striker Kevin Keegan, would be playing against the club that he left the previous season. Keegan joined Hamburg for £500,000 following Liverpool's European Cup success. Keegan was confident in Hamburg's chances going into the match: “We’re beginning to run into form, Liverpool, on the other hand, are tired physically and mentally. People don’t realise they are only human. I would probably have lost the edge if I had stayed.”
## First leg
### Summary
Neither side created many chances in what Patrick Barclay, writing in The Guardian described as "a banal, unadventurous first half." Liverpool had chances to score through Jimmy Case, Ray Kennedy and David Fairclough but they were unable to convert them. Ferdinand Keller was unable to convert a headed chance into goal, but he did score in the 29th minute. Klaus Zaczyk passed to Keller whose shot went beyond Liverpool goalkeeper, Ray Clemence, to give Hamburg a 1–0 lead. Three minutes later, Joey Jones was replaced by Tommy Smith after he picked up a thigh injury from attempting a long-range shot.
The first chance of the second half fell to Fairclough when he was put through on the left hand side of the pitch but he was unable to score. Following this, midfielder Jimmy Case was replaced by striker David Johnson in the 58th minute. Hamburg made two substitutions in the 63rd and 64th minutes with Andreas Karow and Horst Bertl replacing Manfred Kaltz and Felix Magath respectively. A minute later, Liverpool had equalised. Bertl's first touch of the ball was a header from a cross by Kenny Dalglish, which caught out Hamburg goalkeeper, Jürgen Stars, and allowed Fairclough to head the ball into Hamburg goal and level the match at 1–1. Barclay stated the goal "roused Hamburg to their most animated spell" with Clemence saving a shot by Arno Steffenhagen. Stars stopped a chance from Dalglish, and Johnson was unable to convert Dalglish's cross from 5 yards (4.6 m) as his shot went over the crossbar. After the game, Liverpool manager, Bob Paisley, was satisfied with the result: "In the end, I was quite pleased. It was an encouraging performance. But I do not rate Hamburg and I did not rate them when we played them in August in a pre-season friendly." Keegan was not so positive about Hamburg's performance: "We were pathetic. The last two weeks we have played well but we were terrible tonight. Liverpool played quite well and got better as the game went on. I have mixed feelings about my return to Anfield now. If we had a 5–0 lead I would have loved it. I am still looking forward to it, but not so much."
### Details
## Second leg
### Summary
Liverpool opened the scoring to the match in the 21st minute when, following a corner by Steve Heighway, the ball fell to Phil Thompson whose shot went in off the post to give Liverpool the lead. Liverpool extended their lead in the 40th minute when Terry McDermott chested down a pass by Kennedy and scored from the right-hand side of the penalty area. Heighway was replaced by Johnson at the start of the second half, and ten minutes later Liverpool had scored a third. McDermott scored again as he intercepted the ball and ran down the right-hand side of the pitch before his shot went into the top-right corner of the Hamburg goal. A minute later, McDermott scored his third and Liverpool's fourth off the match after he received a pass from Kennedy down the left-hand side of the pitch. McDermott became the first player to score a hat-trick in the Super Cup. Liverpool added a further two goals in the final minutes as Fairclough scored with a header and Dalglish scored a sixth goal two minutes later. Liverpool won the match 6–0 and a 7–1 aggregate victory meant they won their first European Super Cup.
### Details
## Post-match
Keegan praised his former team after the second leg: "I'd heard Liverpool hadn't been doing too well but from where I was stood watching there didn't seem to be much wrong with them, there were no cracks and they look as strong, if not stronger, than they ever were." McDermott was adamant that his performance in the second leg was a turning point in his Liverpool career: "Someone was injured, I think it may have been Ian Callaghan. I was moved in rather than be out wide on the right. I scored a hat-trick and I always remember John Toshack saying: 'That's your position'. I got the confidence from John Toshack saying a thing like that. He probably won't remember, but I do."
Following the Super Cup, Liverpool were still competing in the 1977–78 European Cup. They reached the final where they faced Club Brugge, a match they won 1–0 to retain the title they had won the previous season. They were unable to win the 1977–78 First Division finishing second, seven points behind eventual winners Nottingham Forest.
Hamburg were eliminated in the second round of the 1977–78 European Cup Winners' Cup by eventual winners, Anderlecht of Belgium. They finished the 1977–78 Bundesliga in tenth, fourteen points behind winners, 1. FC Köln. |
36,326,052 | St Ceinwen's Church, Cerrigceinwen | 1,146,182,954 | null | [
"19th-century Church in Wales church buildings",
"Church in Wales church buildings",
"Churches completed in 1860",
"Former churches in Anglesey",
"Grade II listed churches in Anglesey",
"Llangristiolus"
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| St Ceinwen's Church, Cerrigceinwen, is a former parish church in the countryside of central Anglesey, north Wales. The present building dates from 1860, although the site has been used for worship since at least the 7th century. The doorway reuses some old carved gravestones, one from the 9th to 11th centuries, and another from the 12th century. The church grounds contain a well, once thought to have healing properties. The church and the well are both named after St Ceinwen, an early Celtic female saint.
The church is closed and no longer used for worship by the Church in Wales and, as of July 2012, was for sale. It is a Grade II listed building, a national designation given to "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them", in particular because it is a "simple rural church" from the 19th century that reuses older carved stonework.
## History and location
St Ceinwen's Church is in a rural location in the middle of Anglesey, north Wales. It is set in a hollow at the side of the road near the village of Cerrigceinwen, about 2 miles (3.2 km) to the south-west of Llangefni, the county town of Anglesey. The date of establishment of the first church on this site is uncertain. According to a 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey, worship began here in the 7th century. The 19th-century writer Samuel Lewis, however, stated that it was supposed that a church was founded at the site in 450. Some repair work was carried out to a medieval church on this site in 1839 (although the date of its original construction is unknown) and the current structure was erected in 1860. The architects were Henry Kennedy (architect of the Diocese of Bangor) and Frederick Rogers.
The dedication is to St Ceinwen, known elsewhere in Wales and in Cornwall as Cain or Keyne (in Welsh, Cain means "fair" or "beautiful", and Ceinwen means "Blessed Cain"). She was the daughter of King Brychan Brycheiniog; her siblings St Dwynwen and St Dyfnan are commemorated elsewhere on Anglesey, at St Dwynwen's Church, Llanddwyn and St Dyfnan's Church, Llanddyfnan respectively. A spring in the south of the churchyard is known as "St Ceinwen's Well"; according to the 19th-century clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones, it was "once much resorted to as a spring that could cure many diseases."
The church is no longer used for worship by the Church in Wales and, as of July 2012, it was being offered for sale at £65,000. Some of the surrounding land is included in the sale, but the graveyards to the front and rear of the church are not.
## Architecture and fittings
The church, which is built in the Decorated style, has a nave at the west end and a chancel at the east end. It is built from rubble masonry dressed with freestone; the roof is made of slate and edged with stone. There is a porch at the west end of the south wall of the nave and a vestry at the west end of the north wall of the chancel, abutting the nave. The nave measures approximately 39 feet 8 inches by 20 feet 8 inches (12.10m by 6.30 m) and the chancel is shorter and narrower at approximately 18 feet by 14 feet 1 inch (5.50 by 4.30 m). The total floor space of the church is approximately 1,076 square feet (100 m<sup>2</sup>). There is a large bellcote at the west end of the nave, containing one bell.
The arched doorway in the porch reuses two old carved gravestones. One from the 12th century is cut at its head with a circle containing a rough cross of petals and has a decorated key design on the shaft. It is used as the lintel of the doorway. Part of another gravestone, dating from the 9th to the 11th centuries and with a cross in a circle, is set to the right of the door. Inside, three steps lead up from the nave to the chancel through a decorated chancel arch. A further two steps lead up from the chancel to the sanctuary. The internal woodwork of the roof is exposed. The window in the east wall of the chancel is a pointed arch and has three lights (sections of window separated by mullions) topped with trefoils (a pattern of three overlapping circles). The nave windows are also pointed arches and variously have one, two or three lights topped with trefoils. The windows contain coloured leaded glass rather than stained glass pictures.
The circular stone font dates from the 12th century but is set on a modern base. It has five panels, four of which are decorated with interlacing carvings of crosses and knots while the fifth is blank. The other fittings of the church date from the 19th century and include an octagonal pulpit with decorated panels. The west wall of the nave has a stone memorial to a Reverend William Griffith who died in 1752, the south wall has a war memorial to the dead of the First World War, and the north wall has an inscribed stone commemorating a Morris Lloyd (or Llwyd), a Royalist who was killed by Cromwell's troops in 1647.
A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded a chalice and a paten dating from 1823. It recorded that a pewter flagon, known from church records to have been owned by the church from 1739 to 1834, was lost.
The churchyard contains a Commonwealth War Grave of a Royal Army Medical Corps sergeant of World War II.
## Assessment
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from unauthorised alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building, which is the lowest of the three grades of listing, designating "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them". It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and has been listed as "a simple rural church of the 19th century". Cadw, the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists, also comments that the church is "particularly notable for retention of early carved stonework in the later fabric."
Two writers in the 19th century described the old church. The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described it (before the 1839 building work) as "a neat small edifice, and appropriately fitted-up". Writing in 1846, after some rebuilding, Longueville Jones said that the east window was "one of the purest models, as to proportion and workmanship", in Anglesey, and noted the "richly sculptured compartments" of the font. |
125,311 | Stuart Sutcliffe | 1,172,639,633 | Scottish-English painter and musician (1940–1962) | [
"1940 births",
"1962 deaths",
"20th-century English male musicians",
"20th-century English painters",
"20th-century Scottish male musicians",
"20th-century Scottish painters",
"20th-century bass guitarists",
"Alumni of Liverpool College of Art",
"Anglo-Scots",
"Deaths from intracranial aneurysm",
"English contemporary artists",
"English male painters",
"English people of Scottish descent",
"English rock bass guitarists",
"Male bass guitarists",
"Musicians from Edinburgh",
"Painters from Edinburgh",
"People educated at Prescot Grammar School",
"People from Huyton",
"Scottish bass guitarists",
"Scottish contemporary artists",
"Scottish expatriates in Germany",
"Scottish male painters",
"The Beatles members"
]
| Stuart Fergusson Victor Sutcliffe (23 June 1940 – 10 April 1962) was a Scottish painter and musician best known as the original bass guitarist of the English rock band the Beatles. Sutcliffe left the band to pursue his career as a painter, having previously attended the Liverpool College of Art. Sutcliffe and John Lennon are credited with inventing the name "Beetles" (sic), as they both liked Buddy Holly's band, the Crickets. They also had a fascination of group names with double meanings (as Crickets, for example, the word referring to both an insect as well as a sport), so Lennon then came up with "The Beatles", from the word beat (though Lennon's original spelling was "Beatals"). As a member of the group when it was a five-piece band, Sutcliffe is one of several people sometimes referred to as the "Fifth Beatle".
When he performed with the Beatles in Hamburg, he met photographer Astrid Kirchherr, to whom he was later engaged. After leaving the Beatles, he enrolled in the Hamburg College of Art, studying under future pop artist Eduardo Paolozzi, who later wrote a report stating that Sutcliffe was one of his best students. Sutcliffe earned other praise for his paintings, which mostly explored a style related to abstract expressionism.
While studying in West Germany, Sutcliffe began suffering from intense headaches and experiencing acute light sensitivity. In February 1962, he collapsed in the middle of an art class after complaining of head pains. German doctors performed tests, but were unable to determine what was causing the headaches. After collapsing again on 10 April 1962, he was taken to a hospital, but died in the ambulance on the way there. The cause of death was later found to have been a brain haemorrhage—severe bleeding in the right ventricle of his brain.
## Early years
Sutcliffe was the eldest child of Martha (known as Millie; 1907–1983), a schoolteacher at an infants' school and Charles Sutcliffe (25 May 1905 – 18 March 1966) a senior civil servant. Sutcliffe's father had moved to Liverpool to help with wartime work in 1943 and subsequently signed on as a ship's engineer, and so was often at sea during his son's early years. Sutcliffe had two younger sisters, Pauline and Joyce, as well as three older half-brothers, Joe, Ian, and Charles, and an older half-sister, Mattie, from his father's first marriage, to a woman whose name was also Martha.
Sutcliffe was born at the Edinburgh Royal Maternity Hospital and Simpson Memorial Maternity Pavilion in Edinburgh, Scotland, and after his family moved to England, he was brought up at 37 Aigburth Drive in Liverpool. He attended Park View Primary School, Huyton (1946–1951), and Prescot Grammar School from 4 September 1951 to 1956. When Sutcliffe's father returned home on leave, he invited his son and art college classmate Rod Murray (also Sutcliffe's housemate and best friend), for a "real good booze-up", slipping £10 into Sutcliffe's pocket before disappearing for another six months. Beatles' biographer Philip Norman wrote that Charles Sutcliffe was a heavy drinker and physically cruel to his wife, which the young Sutcliffe had witnessed.
During his first year at the Liverpool College of Art, Sutcliffe worked as a bin man on the Liverpool Corporation's waste collection trucks. Lennon was introduced to Sutcliffe by Bill Harry, a mutual friend, when all three were studying at the Liverpool College of Art. According to Lennon, Sutcliffe had a "marvellous art portfolio" and was a very talented painter who was one of the "stars" of the school. He helped Lennon to improve his artistic skills, and with others, worked with him when Lennon had to submit work for exams.
Sutcliffe shared a flat with Murray at 9 Percy Street, Liverpool, before being evicted and moving to Hillary Mansions at 3 Gambier Terrace, the home of another art student, Margaret Chapman, who vied with Sutcliffe to be the best painter in class. The flat was opposite the new Anglican cathedral in the rundown area of Liverpool 8, with bare lightbulbs and a mattress on the floor in the corner. Lennon moved in with Sutcliffe in early 1960. (Paul McCartney later admitted that he was jealous of Sutcliffe's relationship with Lennon, as he had to take a "back seat" to Sutcliffe.)
Sutcliffe and his flatmates painted the rooms yellow and black, which their landlady did not appreciate. On another occasion the tenants, needing to keep warm, burned the flat's furniture.
After talking to Sutcliffe one night at the Casbah Coffee Club (owned by Pete Best's mother, Mona Best), Lennon and McCartney persuaded Sutcliffe to buy a Höfner President 500/5 model bass guitar on hire-purchase from Frank Hessey's Music Shop. Sutcliffe's prior musical experience consisted of singing in the local church choir in Huyton (his mother had insisted on piano lessons for him since the age of nine), playing bugle in the Air Training Corps, and his father having taught him some chords on the guitar.
In May 1960, Sutcliffe joined Lennon, McCartney, and George Harrison (then known as "the Silver Beatles"). Sutcliffe's fingers would often blister during long rehearsals, as he had never practised long enough for his fingers to become calloused, even though he had previously played acoustic guitar. He started acting as a booking agent for the group, and they often used his Gambier Terrace flat as a rehearsal room.
In July 1960, the Sunday newspaper The People ran an article titled "The Beatnik Horror" that featured a photograph taken in the flat below Sutcliffe's of a teenaged Lennon lying on the floor, with Sutcliffe standing by a window. As they had often visited the Jacaranda club, its owner, Allan Williams, arranged for the photograph to be taken, subsequently taking over from Sutcliffe to book concerts for the group: Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Sutcliffe. The Beatles' subsequent name change came during an afternoon in the Renshaw Hall bar when Sutcliffe, Lennon, and Lennon's girlfriend, Cynthia Powell, thought up names similar to Holly's band, the Crickets, and came up with Beetles.
## The Beatles and Hamburg
Sutcliffe's playing style was elementary, mostly sticking to root notes of chords. Harry—an art school friend and founder and editor of the Mersey Beat newspaper—complained to Sutcliffe that he should be concentrating on art and not music, as he thought that Sutcliffe was a competent musician whose talents would be better used in the visual arts. While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage and often playing with his back to the audience, their drummer at the time, Best, denies this. He recalls Sutcliffe as being usually good-natured and "animated" before an audience. When the Beatles auditioned for Larry Parnes at the Wyvern Club, Seel Street, Liverpool, Williams later claimed that Parnes would have taken the group as the backing band for Billy Fury for £10 per week (), but as Sutcliffe turned his back to Parnes throughout the audition—because, as Williams believed, Sutcliffe could not play very well—Parnes said that he would employ the group only if they got rid of Sutcliffe. Parnes later denied this, stating his only concern was that the group had no permanent drummer. Klaus Voormann regarded Sutcliffe as a good bass player, although Beatles' historian Richie Unterberger described Sutcliffe's bass playing as an "artless thump".
Sutcliffe's profile grew after he began wearing Ray-Ban sunglasses and tight trousers. Sutcliffe's high spot was singing "Love Me Tender", which drew more applause than the other Beatles, and increased the friction between him and McCartney. Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe, making jokes about Sutcliffe's size and playing. On 5 December 1960, Harrison was sent back to Britain for being under-age. McCartney and Best were deported for attempted arson at the Bambi Kino, which left Lennon and Sutcliffe in Hamburg. Lennon presently also returned home, but as Sutcliffe had a cold he stayed in Hamburg. Sutcliffe later borrowed money from his girlfriend, Astrid Kirchherr, in order to fly back to Liverpool on Friday, 20 January 1961, although he returned to Hamburg in March 1961, with the other Beatles.
In July 1961, Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue painting. After being awarded a postgraduate scholarship, he enrolled at Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg, where he studied under the tutelage of Eduardo Paolozzi. He briefly lent McCartney his bass until the latter could earn enough to buy a specially made smaller left-handed Höfner 500/1 bass guitar of his own in June 1961, but specifically asked McCartney (who is left-handed) not to change the strings around or restring the instrument, so McCartney had to play the bass as it was. In 1967, a photo of Sutcliffe was among those on the cover of the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album (extreme left, in front of fellow artist Aubrey Beardsley).
## Astrid Kirchherr
Sutcliffe met Astrid Kirchherr in the Kaiserkeller club, where she had gone to watch the Beatles perform. She had been brought up by her widowed mother, Nielsa Kirchherr, on Eimsbütteler Strasse, in a wealthy part of the Hamburg suburb of Altona. After a photo session with the Beatles, Kirchherr invited them to her mother's house for tea and showed them her bedroom, which she had decorated in black, including the furniture, with silver foil on the walls and a large tree branch hanging from the ceiling. Sutcliffe was smitten and began dating Kirchherr shortly afterwards.
He wrote to friends that he was infatuated with her, and asked her German friends which colours, films, books and painters she liked. Best commented that the beginning of their relationship was "like one of those fairy stories". Kirchherr and Sutcliffe got engaged in November 1960, and exchanged rings, as is the German custom. Sutcliffe later wrote to his parents that he was engaged to Kirchherr, which they were shocked to learn, as they thought he would give up his career as an artist, although he told Kirchherr that he would like to be an art teacher in London or Germany in the future. After moving into the Kirchherr family's house, Sutcliffe used to borrow her clothes. He wore her leather trousers and jackets, collarless jackets, oversized shirts and long scarves, and also borrowed a corduroy suit with no lapels that he wore on stage, which prompted Lennon to sarcastically ask if his mother had lent him the suit.
## Art
Sutcliffe displayed artistic talent at an early age. Helen Anderson, a fellow student, remembered his early works as being very aggressive, with dark, moody colours, which was not the type of painting she expected from such a "quiet student". One of Sutcliffe's paintings was shown at the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool as part of the John Moores exhibition, from November 1959 until January 1960. After the exhibition, Moores bought Sutcliffe's canvas for £65 (), which was then equal to 6–7 weeks' wages for an average working man. The picture Moores bought was called Summer Painting, and Sutcliffe attended a formal dinner to celebrate the exhibition with another art student, Susan Williams. Murray remembered that the painting was painted on a board, not a canvas, and had to be cut into two pieces (because of its size) and hinged. Murray added that only one of the pieces actually got to the exhibition (because they stopped off in a pub to celebrate), but sold nonetheless because Moores bought it for his son.
Sutcliffe had been turned down when he applied to study for an Art Teachers Diploma (ATD) course at the Liverpool Art College, but after meeting Kirchherr, he decided to leave the Beatles and attend the Hamburg College of Art in June 1961, under the tutelage of Paolozzi, who later wrote a report stating that Sutcliffe was one of his best students. He wrote: "Sutcliffe is very gifted and very intelligent. In the meantime he has become one of my best students."
Sutcliffe's few surviving works reveal influence from the British and European abstract artists contemporary with the Abstract Expressionist movement in the United States. His earlier figurative work is reminiscent of the kitchen sink school, particularly of John Bratby, though Sutcliffe was producing abstract work by the end of the 1950s, including The Summer Painting, purchased by Moores. Sutcliffe's works bear some comparison with those of John Hoyland and Nicolas de Staël, though they are more lyrical (Sutcliffe used the stage name "Stu de Staël" when he was playing with the Beatles on a Scottish tour in spring 1960). His later works are typically untitled, constructed from heavily impastoed slabs of pigment in the manner of de Staël, whom he learned about from Surrey born, art college instructor, Nicky Horsfield, and overlaid with scratched or squeezed linear elements creating enclosed spaces. Hamburg Painting no. 2 was purchased by Liverpool's Walker Art Gallery and is one of a series entitled Hamburg in which the surface and colour changes produced atmospheric energy. European artists (including Paolozzi) were also influencing Sutcliffe at the time. The Walker Art Gallery has other works by Sutcliffe, which are Self-portrait (in charcoal) and The Crucifixion. Lennon later hung a pair of Sutcliffe's paintings in his house (Kenwood) in Weybridge, and McCartney had a Paolozzi sculpture in his Cavendish Avenue home.
## Death
While studying in Germany, Sutcliffe began experiencing severe headaches and acute sensitivity to light. According to Kirchherr, some of the headaches left him temporarily blind. In February 1962, Sutcliffe collapsed during an art class in Hamburg. Kirchherr's mother had German doctors examine him, but they were unable to determine the exact cause of his headaches. They suggested he return to the United Kingdom and have himself admitted to a hospital with better facilities; however, after arriving there, Sutcliffe was told nothing was wrong, so he returned to Hamburg. He continued living with the Kirchherrs, but his condition soon worsened. After he collapsed again on 10 April 1962, Kirchherr took him to hospital, riding with him in the ambulance, but he died before they arrived. The cause of death was a cerebral hemorrhage, specifically a ruptured aneurysm resulting in cerebral paralysis due to severe bleeding into the right ventricle of the brain. He was 21 years old.
On 13 April 1962, Kirchherr met the group at Hamburg Airport, telling them that Sutcliffe had died a few days earlier. Sutcliffe's mother flew to Hamburg with Beatles manager Brian Epstein and returned to Liverpool with her son's body. Sutcliffe's father did not hear of Stuart's death for three weeks, as he was sailing to South America on a cruise ship, although the family arranged for a padre, a military chaplain, to give him the news as soon as the ship docked in Buenos Aires. After Sutcliffe's death, Kirchherr wrote a letter to his mother, apologising for being too ill to attend his funeral in Liverpool and saying how much she and Lennon missed him:
> Oh, Mum, he (Lennon) is in a terrible mood now, he just can't believe that darling Stuart never comes back. [He's] just crying his eyes out ... John is marvellous to me, he says that he knows Stuart so much and he loves him so much that he can understand me.
The cause of Sutcliffe's aneurysm is unknown, although authors of books on the Beatles have speculated that it was caused by an earlier head injury. He may have been either kicked in the head, or thrown, head first, against a brick wall during an attack outside Lathom Hall, after a performance in January 1961. According to booking agent Allan Williams, Lennon and Best went to Sutcliffe's aid, fighting off his attackers before dragging him to safety. Sutcliffe sustained a fractured skull in the fight and Lennon's little finger was broken. Sutcliffe refused medical attention at the time and failed to keep an X-ray appointment at Sefton General Hospital.
Although Lennon did not attend nor send flowers to Sutcliffe's funeral, his second wife, Yoko Ono, remembered that Lennon mentioned Sutcliffe's name very often, saying that he was "[My] alter ego ... a spirit in his world ... a guiding force".
He is buried in Huyton Parish Church Cemetery, also known as St. Michael's, situated in the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley in Merseyside in North West England.
## Posthumous music releases
The Beatles' compilation album Anthology 1, released in 1995, featured previously unreleased recordings from the group's early years. Sutcliffe plays bass with the Beatles on three songs they recorded in 1960: "Hallelujah, I Love Her So", "You'll Be Mine", and "Cayenne". In addition, he is pictured on the front covers of all three Anthology albums.
In 2011, Sutcliffe's estate released a recording claimed to be Sutcliffe singing a cover of Elvis Presley's "Love Me Tender", recorded in 1961 and donated to the estate in 2009. The cover art shows a Sutcliffe painting entitled Homage to Elvis. The recording was quickly proven to be fake by amateurs and industry professionals alike; it was clearly an amateur 'pitch shift' edit of the 1967 recording of "Love Me Tender" by The Boston Show Band (later known as the Glittermen).
## Film, television, and books
Part One of The Beatles Anthology video documentary covers Sutcliffe's time with the group. There is no mention of his death in the documentary, but it is discussed in the accompanying book.
Sutcliffe was portrayed by David Nicholas Wilkinson in the film Birth of the Beatles (1979) and by Lee Williams in In His Life: The John Lennon Story (2000). Sutcliffe's role in the Beatles' early career, as well as the factors that led him to leave the group, is dramatised in the 1994 film Backbeat, in which he was portrayed by American actor Stephen Dorff. Sutcliffe does not appear in the 2009 film Nowhere Boy, but is briefly mentioned toward the end of the film. Four television documentaries have been broadcast that deal with Sutcliffe's life:
- Midnight Angel (1990) Granada TV (networked) U.K.
- Exhibition (1991) Cologne, German TV
- Stuart, His life and Art (2005) BBC
- Stuart Sutcliffe, The Lost Beatle
Books about Sutcliffe:
- Backbeat: Stuart Sutcliffe: The Lost Beatle (1994) Alan Clayson and Pauline Sutcliffe
- Stuart, The Life and Art of Stuart Sutcliffe (1995) Pauline Sutcliffe and Kay Williams
- The Beatles Shadow, Stuart Sutcliffe, & His Lonely Hearts Club (2001) Pauline Sutcliffe and Douglas Thompson
- Stuart Sutcliffe: a retrospective (2008) Matthew H. Clough and Colin Fallows
- Baby's in Black (2010) Arne Bellstorf - graphic novel
The Stuart Sutcliffe Estate sells memorabilia and artifacts of Sutcliffe's, which include poems written by him and the chords and lyrics to songs Lennon and Sutcliffe were learning. |
40,964,086 | Tropical Storm Morakot (2003) | 1,165,020,089 | Pacific tropical storm in 2003 | [
"2003 Pacific typhoon season",
"Tropical cyclones in 2003",
"Typhoons in China",
"Typhoons in Taiwan",
"Western Pacific tropical storms"
]
| Tropical Storm Morakot, known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Juaning, brought significant rainfall to Taiwan before alleviating drought conditions in mainland China in August 2003. The tenth named storm in the western Pacific that year, Morakot spawned from an area of disturbed weather in the Philippine Sea on July 31. Tracking northwest, favorable conditions allowed for the intensification of the system to tropical storm strength on August 2. Morakot reached peak intensity later that day with winds of 85 km/h (50 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg). This intensity was held for several hours until less conducive atmospheric conditions slightly weakened the system; this was followed by Morakot making landfall on southern Taiwan on August 3. Subsequently, the storm weakened and moved into the Taiwan Strait before making its final landfall near Quanzhou, China the next day. The storm quickly weakened over the Chinese mainland, and dissipated entirely several hours after landfall.
In Taiwan, where Morakot first made landfall, heavy rainfall resulted in flooding. Commercial flights, schools, and rail service in some areas was cancelled in advance of the storm. Precipitation there peaked at 653 mm (25.71 in) over a period of nearly two days in Taitung County. Crop damage also resulted from the rainfall, and was estimated at over NT\$70 million (US\$2 million). In China, record rainfall was reported. The worst impacted city was Quanzhou, where losses due to Morakot reached CN¥240 million (US\$29 million) and one death was reported. Power outages were also widespread across southeastern China. Due to preexisting drought conditions, 703 cloud seeding operations took place in order to artificially generate added rainfall; such operations resulted in moderate precipitation over the targeted area. Overall, Morakot caused roughly \$31 million in damage and three deaths.
## Meteorological history
In late July 2003, an area of disturbed weather began to persist northwest of Chuuk in the Philippine Sea, and was first noted by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) early on July 30. As atmospheric conditions remained favorable throughout the day's duration, the system organized, and was upgraded to tropical depression status by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) at 0600 UTC on July 31, followed by the JTWC at 0600 UTC and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) six hours later. The PAGASA consequently named the system Juaning for local purposes. Tracking north-northwestward under the influence of a passing trough, the system intensified further into a tropical storm by 0600 UTC on August 2, thus receiving the name Morakot. At the time, the storm was well organized with a steady outflow pattern.
Intensification continued, and at 1800 UTC on August 2 the JMA determined Morakot to have peaked in intensity with winds of 85 km/h (50 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg); however, the JTWC still considered Morakot to have been a strengthening tropical cyclone at the time. The appearance of a ragged eye prompted the agency to upgrade the storm to typhoon status at 0600 UTC on August 3, though other agencies still maintained Morakot's tropical storm classification. Over the rest of the day the cyclone moved rather erratically before making its first landfall on Taitung, Taiwan late on August 3. Morakot had slightly weakened prior to landfall and as such estimates from the JMA of the storm's intensity at the time of landfall were slightly lowered to 75 km/h (45 mph). Despite the slowing of the storm's forward motion as it moved across the island, passage over Taiwan was brief and Morakot entered the Taiwan Strait by early on August 4. The cyclone's northwesterly track brought the storm to a second landfall, this time near Quanzhou, China, at approximately 1000 UTC that day. Weakening was quick over China, and by two hours after landfall the JMA declared Morakot to have weakened below tropical depression intensity. The JTWC continued to monitor the system until it was determined to have dissipated by 0000 UTC on August 5.
## Preparations and impact
Due to the storm's projected path into Taiwan, the Central Weather Bureau issued a sea and land warning on August 2. Commercial flights between Taiwan and Green and Orchid Islands were cancelled, as well as rail service along Taiwan's eastern coast. Morakot's passage over southern Taiwan resulted in significant rainfall across the island. Precipitation from the tropical cyclone peaked at 653 mm (25.71 in) over nearly two days in Taitung County. The rains uprooted trees in southeastern Taitung City and triggered some landslides. Flash flooding was reported in Pingtung County. Additional landslides blocked highways there, and elementary and junior high schools in the county were forced to close. Power outages also occurred and impacted hundreds of residences. Crop damage ensued from the precipitation, and amounted to over NT\$70 million (US\$2 million).
Heavy rainfall and flooding also occurred in China. A station in Jinjiang, Fujian recorded 544 mm (21.42 in) of rain in an 18-hour period; this was the most torrential rainfall event for the city since records began. Heavy rains also fell in Zimao Town, where 334 mm (13.15 in) of rain was documented in eight hours. Quanzhou City was heavily impacted by the rainfall, and total losses there reached CN¥240 million (US\$29 million). One death resulted in the city. Further south in Heyuan, widespread power outages were caused by torrential rainfall. Winds blew two people off of a high falsework, killing both. The rainfall from Morakot in China somewhat relieved persistent drought conditions in the region. Following the passage of the tropical storm, however, 703 cloud seeding missions were carried out in Fujian Province in order to produce enhanced artificial rainfall. This included the deployment of 1,027 rockets and 14,700 cannonballs containing silver iodide. As a result of these, rainfall totals ranging from 40–60 mm (1.6–2.4 in) over a 138,500 km<sup>2</sup> (53,500 sq mi) area were attributed to anthropologically enhanced precipitation. Though not directly related to Morakot, the storm's cyclonic circulation helped in part to produce thick smog and low visibility conditions in parts of Hong Kong.
## Naming
In 2002, the name Hanuman was replaced prior to being used, due to objection by the India Meteorological Department for reason of religion.
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones named Morakot
- Other tropical cyclones named Juaning
- Typhoon Pabuk (2007)
- Typhoon Lekima (2001)
- Tropical Storm Cimaron (2013) |
2,988,445 | Einstein–Szilard letter | 1,169,161,091 | 1939 letter to U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt | [
"1939 documents",
"Albert Einstein",
"History of the Manhattan Project",
"Letters (message)",
"World War II documents"
]
| The Einstein–Szilard letter was a letter written by Leo Szilard and signed by Albert Einstein on August 2, 1939, that was sent to President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt. Written by Szilard in consultation with fellow Hungarian physicists Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, the letter warned that Germany might develop atomic bombs and suggested that the United States should start its own nuclear program. It prompted action by Roosevelt, which eventually resulted in the Manhattan Project, the development of the first atomic bombs, and the use of these bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
## Origin
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann reported the discovery of nuclear fission in uranium in the January 6, 1939, issue of Die Naturwissenschaften, and Lise Meitner identified it as nuclear fission in the February 11, 1939 issue of Nature. This generated intense interest among physicists. Danish physicist Niels Bohr brought the news to the United States, and the U.S. opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Enrico Fermi on January 26, 1939. The results were quickly corroborated by experimental physicists, most notably Fermi and John R. Dunning at Columbia University.
Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard realized that the neutron-driven fission of heavy atoms could be used to create a nuclear chain reaction which could yield vast amounts of energy for electric power generation or atomic bombs. He had first formulated and patented such an idea while he lived in London in 1933 after reading Ernest Rutherford's disparaging remarks about generating power from his team's 1932 experiment using protons to split lithium. However, Szilard had not been able to achieve a neutron-driven chain reaction with neutron-rich light atoms. In theory, if the number of secondary neutrons produced in a neutron-driven chain reaction was greater than one, then each such reaction could trigger multiple additional reactions, producing an exponentially increasing number of reactions.
Szilard teamed up with Fermi to build a nuclear reactor from natural uranium at Columbia University, where George B. Pegram headed the physics department. There was disagreement about whether fission was produced by uranium-235, which made up less than one percent of natural uranium, or the more abundant uranium-238 isotope, as Fermi maintained. Fermi and Szilard conducted a series of experiments and concluded that a chain reaction in natural uranium could be possible if they could find a suitable neutron moderator. They found that the hydrogen atoms in water slowed neutrons but tended to capture them. Szilard then suggested using carbon as a moderator. They then needed large quantities of carbon and uranium to create a reactor. Szilard was convinced that they would succeed if they could get the materials.
Szilard was concerned that German scientists might also attempt this experiment. German nuclear physicist Siegfried Flügge published two influential articles on the exploitation of nuclear energy in 1939. After discussing this prospect with fellow Hungarian physicist Eugene Wigner, they decided that they should warn the Belgians, as the Belgian Congo was the best source of uranium ore. Wigner suggested that Albert Einstein might be a suitable person to do this, as he knew the Belgian royal family. Szilard knew Einstein well; between 1926 and 1930, he had worked with Einstein to develop the Einstein refrigerator.
## The letter
On July 12, 1939, Szilard and Wigner drove in Wigner's car to Cutchogue on New York's Long Island, where Einstein was staying. When they explained about the possibility of atomic bombs, Einstein replied: "Daran habe ich gar nicht gedacht" ("I did not even think about that"). Szilard dictated a letter in German to the Belgian Ambassador to the United States. Wigner wrote it down, and Einstein agreed and signed it. At Wigner's suggestion, they also prepared a letter for the State Department explaining what they were doing and why, giving it two weeks to respond if it had any objections.
This still left the problem of getting government support for uranium research. Another friend of Szilard's, the Austrian economist Gustav Stolper, suggested approaching Alexander Sachs, who had access to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Sachs told Szilard that he had already spoken to the President about uranium, but that Fermi and Pegram had reported that the prospects for building an atomic bomb were remote. He told Szilard that he would deliver the letter, but suggested that it come from someone more prestigious. For Szilard, Einstein was again the obvious choice. Sachs and Szilard drafted a letter riddled with spelling errors and mailed it to Einstein.
Szilard also set out himself for Long Island again on August 2. Wigner was unavailable, so this time Szilard co-opted another Hungarian physicist, Edward Teller, to do the driving. After receiving the draft, Einstein dictated the letter first in German. On returning to Columbia University, Szilard dictated the letter in English to a young departmental stenographer, Janet Coatesworth. She later recalled that when Szilard mentioned extremely powerful bombs, she "was sure she was working for a nut". Ending the letter with "Yours truly, Albert Einstein" did nothing to alter this impression. Both the English letter and a longer explanatory letter were then posted to Einstein for him to sign.
The letter dated August 2 and addressed to President Roosevelt warned that:
> "In the course of the last four months it has been made probable – through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard in America – that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated. Now it appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future.
>
> This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs, and it is conceivable – though much less certain – that extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this type, carried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well destroy the whole port together with some of the surrounding territory. However, such bombs might very well prove to be too heavy for transportation by air."
It also specifically warned about Germany:
> "I understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over. That she should have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the ground that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizsäcker, is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Berlin where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated."
At the time of the letter, the estimated material necessary for a fission chain reaction was several tons. Seven months later a breakthrough in Britain would estimate the necessary critical mass to be less than 10 kilograms, making delivery of a bomb by air a possibility.
## Delivery
The Einstein–Szilard letter was signed by Einstein and posted back to Szilard, who received it on August 9. Szilard gave both the short and long letters, along with a letter of his own, to Sachs on August 15. Sachs asked the White House staff for an appointment to see President Roosevelt, but before one could be set up, the administration became embroiled in a crisis due to Germany's invasion of Poland, which started World War II. Sachs delayed his appointment until October so that the President would give the letter due attention, securing an appointment on October 11. On that date he met with the President, the President's secretary, Brigadier General Edwin "Pa" Watson, and two ordnance experts, Army Lieutenant Colonel Keith F. Adamson and Navy Commander Gilbert C. Hoover. Roosevelt summed up the conversation as: "Alex, what you are after is to see that the Nazis don't blow us up."
Roosevelt sent a reply thanking Einstein, and informing him that:
> "I found this data of such import that I have convened a Board consisting of the head of the Bureau of Standards and a chosen representative of the Army and Navy to thoroughly investigate the possibilities of your suggestion regarding the element of uranium."
Einstein sent two more letters to Roosevelt, on March 7, 1940, and April 25, 1940, calling for action on nuclear research. Szilard drafted a fourth letter for Einstein's signature that urged the President to meet with Szilard to discuss policy on nuclear energy. Dated March 25, 1945, it did not reach Roosevelt before his death on April 12, 1945.
## Results
Roosevelt decided that the letter required action, and authorized the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium. The committee was chaired by Lyman James Briggs, the Director of the Bureau of Standards (currently the National Institute of Standards and Technology), with Adamson and Hoover as its other members. It convened for the first time on October 21. The meeting was also attended by Fred L. Mohler from the Bureau of Standards, Richard B. Roberts of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and Szilard, Teller and Wigner. Adamson was skeptical about the prospect of building an atomic bomb, but was willing to authorize \$6,000 (\$100,000 in current USD) for the purchase of uranium and graphite for Szilard and Fermi's experiment.
The Advisory Committee on Uranium was the beginning of the US government's effort to develop an atomic bomb, but it did not vigorously pursue the development of a weapon. It was superseded by the National Defense Research Committee in 1940, and then the Office of Scientific Research and Development in 1941. The Frisch–Peierls memorandum and the British Maud Reports eventually prompted Roosevelt to authorize a full-scale development effort in January 1942. The work of fission research was taken over by the United States Army Corps of Engineers's Manhattan District in June 1942, which directed an all-out bomb development program known as the Manhattan Project.
Einstein did not work on the Manhattan Project. The Army and Vannevar Bush denied him the work clearance needed in July 1940, saying his pacifist leanings and celebrity status made him a security risk. At least one source states that Einstein did clandestinely contribute some equations to the Manhattan Project. Einstein was allowed to work as a consultant to the United States Navy's Bureau of Ordnance. He had no knowledge of the atomic bomb's development, and no influence on the decision of any being used. According to Linus Pauling, Einstein later regretted signing the letter because it led to the development and use of the atomic bomb in combat, adding that Einstein had justified his decision because of the greater danger that Nazi Germany would develop the bomb first. In 1947 Einstein told Newsweek magazine that "had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing."
## See also
- Alexander Sachs' role in bringing President Roosevelt's attention to the possibility of an atomic bomb
- Frisch–Peierls memorandum
- List of most expensive books and manuscripts
- Nuclear weapons and the United States
- Szilard petition |
16,542,899 | Midvinterblot | 1,160,878,302 | 1915 painting by Carl Larsson | [
"1915 paintings",
"Musical instruments in art",
"Paintings by Carl Larsson",
"Paintings depicting Norse myths",
"Paintings in the Nationalmuseum Stockholm",
"Winter in culture"
]
| Midvinterblot (Swedish for "Midwinter sacrifice") is a painting by the Swedish painter Carl Larsson, created in 1915 for the hall of the central staircase in Nationalmuseum in Stockholm. It has been called Sweden's most controversial painting.
The painting depicts a legend from Norse mythology in which the Swedish king Domalde is sacrificed to avert famine. After long debate, the painting was rejected by the museum; but the controversy resurfaced in the late 20th century, and the painting finally was placed where Carl Larsson had intended.
## Background
Larsson was commissioned to decorate all the walls of the central staircase in the museum except for one, and he wanted to decorate the last wall as well. He intended the last wall to present a contrast to the other illustrations of the staircase. Whereas the painting Gustav Vasa enters Stockholm 1523 presented a midsummer theme with a triumphant king, Larsson wanted the last illustration to be a midwinter theme with a king who sacrificed himself for his people.
## Sources and inspiration
Larsson went to Copenhagen to visit the National Museum of Denmark where he copied the ornamentation of an Iron Age fibula. The literary sources that inspired Larsson were Adam of Bremen and Snorri Sturluson. On the subject of the Temple at Uppsala, Adam of Bremen had written:
> In this temple, built entirely of gold, the people worship the statues of three gods. These images are arranged so that Thor, the most powerful, has his throne in the middle of the group of three. On either side of him sit Othin and Freyr. [...] Near that temple is a very large tree with widespread branches which are always green both in winter and summer. What kind of tree it is nobody knows. There is also a spring there where the pagan are accustomed to perform sacrifices and to immerse a human being alive. As long as his body is not found, the request of the people will be fulfilled.
Snorri Sturluson wrote on the subject of the sacrifice of the king:
> Domald took the heritage left by his father Visbur, and ruled over the land. As in his time there was great famine and distress, the Swedes made great offerings of sacrifice at Upsal. The first autumn they sacrificed oxen, but the succeeding season was not improved thereby. The following autumn they sacrificed men, but the succeeding year was rather worse. The third autumn, when the offer of sacrifices should begin, a great multitude of Swedes came to Upsal; and now the chiefs held consultations with each other, and all agreed that the times of scarcity were on account of their king Domald, and they resolved to offer him for good seasons, and to assault and kill him, and sprinkle the stalle of the gods with his blood. And they did so.
## Evolution of the work
### First version
The earliest known sketch (No. 236) is made in graphite and is located in the Carl Larsson museum in Sundborn. It was dated by Karl Axel Arvidsson to a time shortly after the visit to Copenhagen in 1910. In July, Larsson started to paint a large version, which was finished in January 1911, but it is only preserved in a photograph. It is based on the early sketch but it presents a richer set of figures in the foreground. The early version was put on display in Nationalmuseum without receiving any official comments. There was no formal order and no official contest had been declared, and the initiative was only Larsson's.
An anonymous writer calling himself "Archaeologist" voiced harsh criticism in Dagens Nyheter on February 20, 1911. The writer stated that there were several anachronisms in the painting which had been combined freely. The anonymous writer called the temple a "summer restaurant" decorated with motives from the Biological museum in Stockholm and he considered the dresses in the painting to be as preposterous as a Swedish farm with camels walking around the dunghill.
### Second version
The criticism of the artistic freedom of giving a personal interpretation of a distant historic event could have been directed at many other historic paintings of the 19th century. The criticism of Midvinterblot would be in the same vein during the following years. Larsson retorted that he would happily delegate the task to a younger talent—but he made a second version in oil (No. 237) in which he made the temple wider and where he added an executioner in the centre. The sets of characters were more closely assembled and the frieze-like quality was enhanced.
### Third version
Some major changes were introduced in a third watercolour painting (No. 238) which he made during the autumn of 1913. This version was given the text "En drömsyn. En konung offras för folket" ("A dream vision, a king sacrificed for his people"), a text which was possibly added in the hope that it would not be considered to be an attempt at a historically faithful reconstruction.
The most essential change consisted of a more monumental composition. The temple had been enlarged considerably and given a more stern shape, and the figures had been more closely assembled and they formed an unbroken relief-like row. The sketch was put on exhibition in the museum in November 1913 and in a letter to Ludvig Looström, the director of the museum, Larsson offered the painting for 35,000 Swedish kronor.
This version was criticised even before the museum board had had time to present their own view. August Brunius, who had expressed his enthusiasm for the Gustav Vasa painting, reacted against the choice of subject, like most critics. The choice of subject was only aggravated by the way it was presented. Brunius felt the painting to be unreal, unbelievable and not very relevant for the modern Swedes of the early 20th century.
On January 17, 1914, the museum's board presented their ambivalent view on the painting. The majority of the board seconded the motion that Larsson was to finish Midvinterblot for the museum wall, but they added the reservation that the main scene with the sacrifice of a king should be excluded or downplayed. The director of the museum, Looström, objected to the board's ruling, and he declared the painting illustrated a "ritual killing" and he would rather the wall remain empty. Carl Larsson received the ruling of the board as a confirmation that the museum accepted his painting, but he declared that he would not make the suggested changes, nor would he accept the suggestion that the painting should be installed in the Stockholm City Hall instead.
Even Larsson's good friend and biographer Georg Nordensvan joined the critics, but he could not sway Larsson's determination either, although Larsson probably took his criticism hardest. The archaeologist Bror Schnittger, who was probably the anonymous writer who had initiated the criticism, launched additional criticism in Svenska Dagbladet against the lack of historical authenticity in the painting. The distance in dating among the objects in the painting was given as at least 2000 years and Schnittger thought that the painting was unacceptable in the museum building. Larsson stated that he intentionally included objects that would be from the distant past in relation to the setting of the painting, and that he did not see these as anachronisms, because he imagined the subjects would be antiquarians who kept ancient items as ritual objects.
On March 1, 1914, Larsson, who was by then ostracized, wrote a letter to the minister of religious affairs and declared that he resigned from the task of illustrating the museum wall.
### The final versions and rejection
In May 1914, Carl Larsson resumed the work on the painting on his own initiative. During 1915, he presented a painted sketch (No. 239), which was largely consistent with the previous painting. The king had been remade based on an oil painting (No. 240) that Larsson had made with a male model named Rydberg in 1914. The king's position was more pathetically composed and expressive and it agreed more with the change of emphasis that had taken place during the evolution of the work after Larsson's decision that the sacrifice was voluntary.
A new figure, a wizard, had been added to the left of the sleighs and the lion guardians at the entry of the temple, which received a noticeably Chinese character. The colours are forceful and there are considerable amounts of gold, something that Larsson intended as a disclaimer of the common notion that pre-history was gray.
Before the final decision, both the board and Carl Larsson knew that the Minister of Education (at the time called Minister of Religious Affairs) was favourable towards the new painting. However, a majority of the board, including the former director Looström and his successor Richard Bergh, was against it, and only two were in favour. Instead, the board asked Larsson to make a different painting. Larsson did not answer initially, but he declared in the press that he still considered Midvinterblot to be among the greatest and most beautiful works he had ever made.
The minister asked for expert advice and the debate continued in the newspapers. There were suspicions that there was a political side to the animosity between Bergh and Larsson, but these suspicions were convincingly dispelled much later by Prince Eugén, Duke of Närke in a personal letter.
A book on Carl Larsson, published by Nationalmuseum in 1992, claims that the most immediate and natural explanation for the ultimate rejection of the painting was the fact that time had rendered the painting unfashionable. Because of the long debate, the painting became a survivor from a time past and it could not meet the modernist ideals of the new century.
The final version was exhibited where it was intended to be in June 1915. In the following year, it was shown at the art gallery Liljevalchs konsthall as its first exhibit was dedicated to Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors and Anders Zorn. It was tentatively shown again in Nationalmuseum during the period 1925–1933. In 1942, the painting was stored at the Archive for Public Decorative Art (now renamed the Museum of Sketches) in Lund, where it was prominently on show for forty years.
According to the book by Nationalmuseum, the controversy concerned Carl Larsson's personal prestige and the ideals that he stood for, but his contemporaries would turn more and more indifferent to these ideals. The events embittered his last years and he declared in his autobiography that the controversy broke him down and that he admitted it with anger. It is clear that he began to identify himself with the work and it is possible that he also identified himself with the sacrificed king, as he primarily saw conspiracies and bad intentions behind the opposition. This identification was made apparent in his self-portrait, in 1916, where he presented himself as king Domalde, and which he donated to Sundborn parish where he lived.
## The later controversy and eventual acceptance
During 1983–1984, the painting was exhibited at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm, and after this exhibit an art dealer offered to donate or sell the painting to Nationalmuseum. The board rejected the offer with the statement that the Old Norse motif was more appropriate for the Museum of National Antiquities, which at the time still shared the same building as Nationalmuseum. When the Museum of National Antiquities had been moved to a building of its own, the painting should be moved there too.
After this rejection, the painting was sold to a Swedish art collector, who offered to sell it to the Museum of National Antiquities for 12 million Swedish kronor. This offer caused a controversy in which people debated if the painting belonged to Nationalmuseum or the Museum of National Antiquities. In this debate where there were exaggerations in both directions, people claimed that the painting was both an unsurpassed masterpiece of Swedish art and a work of suspect morality. In 1987, it was sold by Sotheby's in London to a Japanese art collector.
In 1992, Nationalmuseum celebrated its bicentennial anniversary and dedicated the exhibit to Carl Larsson. The Japanese owner lent the painting to the museum, and when the 300,000 visitors of the late 20th century were able to see the work for the first time in the hall where it was intended to be, the general opinion changed.
In 1997, Nationalmuseum bought the painting from the collector, ordered a frame for stretching the canvas from Per Målare, a carpenter in Gagnef, Dalarna, and installed it permanently where Carl Larsson had intended it to be. |
52,890,974 | Manasser Biset | 1,173,720,310 | 12th-century Anglo-Norman baron and royal official | [
"1177 deaths",
"12th-century English landowners",
"Anglo-Normans",
"Bisset family",
"English feudal barons",
"Nobility from Wiltshire",
"People from Worcestershire"
]
| Manasser Biset (sometimes Bisset or Manasseh Biset; died 1177) was an Anglo-Norman nobleman and royal official during the reign of King Henry II of England. Biset was one of the most frequent witnesses on Henry's documents, and served the king as a justice and in financial matters. He was rewarded with lands in England which have led him to be considered the first feudal baron of Biset.
## Life
Biset was the son of William Biset and Hawisa. The elder Biset held lands in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire as the tenant of Stephen, Count of Aumale. Besides Manasser, William and Hawisa had another son named Henry.
Biset was a follower of Henry fitzEmpress and was a witness to charters of Henry's issued in France in the period 1151 to 1153. Biset obtained the office of dapifer, or steward, to Henry II shortly before Henry became king of England. Biset was with Henry in England in 1153, as he was a witness on documents drawn up for Henry in England during the early part of 1153. In April through December 1154, Bisset only witnessed Henry's documents that were drawn up in France. The king gave lands in Nottinghamshire, Worcestershire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire to Biset. These lands came to be considered the feudal barony of Biset, and Biset as the first baron. Besides the steward's office, Biset was also a baron of the exchequer and a royal justice. He was one of the most frequent witnesses on Henry's documents.
Before 1164, Biset founded a hospital for leper women at Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, and gave it lands including the manor of Bradley, which had come to him through his wife.
## Family and death
Biset married Alice, who was the sister and heiress of Gilbert de Falaise, lord of Cany in France. Manasser's heir was his son, named Henry Bisset, who was still underage at his father's death in 1177. The administration of the lands and the custody of the heirs was given to Biset's nephew. Besides his son, Biset also had a daughter, Margaret. |
72,576,942 | Mike Wingfield | 1,172,734,087 | South African professor of forestry | [
"1954 births",
"Academic staff of the University of Pretoria",
"Fellows of the African Academy of Sciences",
"Fellows of the Royal Society of South Africa",
"Living people",
"South African mycologists",
"South African scientists",
"Stellenbosch University alumni",
"University of Minnesota alumni"
]
| Professor Michael John Wingfield (born 21 April 1954) is a South African academic and scientist who studies plant pathology and biological control. He was the founding director of the Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria. Wingfield has authored or co-authored over 1,000 scientific publications and is considered a leading expert in the field of forest health and invasive species. He has received numerous awards and honours throughout his career, including Harry Oppenheimer Fellowship Award and John Herschel Medal, the highest accolade from the Royal Society of South Africa. He is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of South Africa and the African Academy of Sciences. Wingfield has had several fungi named after him.
## Life and career
### Early life and education
Michael John Wingfield was born on 21 April 1954 in Durban, South Africa. He earned a Bachelor of Science in Botany from the University of Natal in 1976, before completing a Master of Science in plant pathology while working for the Plant Protection Research Institute of Stellenbosch University, in 1979, graduating with distinction. He earned his doctorate in entomology and plant pathology from the University of Minnesota in 1983. Wingfield also graduated from the Advanced Management Program at Harvard Business School in Boston, Massachusetts, in 2008.
### Career
While working at the Plant Protection Research Institute of Stellenbosch University, Wingfield started the country's first forest pathology research programme in 1978. After earning his PhD, he continued the program's expansion. In 1990, Wingfield was promoted to professor in the Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry at the University of the Free State after relocating there in 1988. Wingfield was named the Mondi Paper Co. Ltd. Chair in forest pathology in 1994.
Wingfield was the founding director of the Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, in until 2017. FABI was founded in 1998 due to Wingfield's work in 1990 to create the Tree Protection Co-operative Programme. He continued as a professor at FABI and an advisor to the Executive Board of the University of Pretoria.
Wingfield was the director of the Centre of Excellence in Tree Health Biotechnology, National Research Foundation, and the President of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) between 2014 and 2019. His collaboration with Chinese academics led to the formation of the CERC/FABI Tree Protection Programme (CFTPP), a joint venture between the FABI and the China Eucalyptus Research Centre (CERC), in 2015. CFTPP was renamed to RIFT-FABI Tree Protection Programme (RFTPP).
### Personal life
Wingfield is married to Brenda D. Fairbairn, one of his main collaborators, a professor of genetics and previous Deputy Dean at the University of Pretoria, and an Associate Fellow of the African Academy of Sciences since 2016.
## Research
Wingfield's research focuses on forest protection and health, mycology, entomology, and biotechnology. He has worked on several projects and partnerships studying diseases that affect pine, eucalyptus, and other significant plants. He, along with his students and collaborators worked on various pathogens, including Ceratocystis, Ophiostoma, Mycosphaerella, Fusarium, Cryphonectria, and Armillaria species. His team has used traditional and molecular approaches to classify and distinguish infections, define a novel, sometimes cryptic species, and determine evolutionary connections.
Wingfield is an expert on plants' health with an h-index of 120 and more than 69,000 citations as of August 2023, over 700 research papers and seven books. He has been featured in the Web of Science list of the world's most-cited researchers since 2018.
## Awards and honours
Wingfield is a member of the Academy of Science of South Africa. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of South Africa in 1998, and a Fellow of the African Academy of Sciences in 2016.
For his contributions and collaboration in the field of forestry, Wingfield was awarded the Christiaan Hendrik Persoon Medal by the Southern African Society for Plant Pathology Society (SASPPS) in 1999, the Johanna Westerdijk Award from the CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands in 2012, the Kwame Nkrumah Award from the African Union in 2013, the University of Minnesota's Distinguished Leadership Award in 2016, John Herschel Medal, the highest accolade from the Royal Society of South Africa, in 2017, the Chinese Government's Friendship Award in 2017, National Science and Technology Forum-South32's Special Annual Theme Award: Plant Health on 30 July 2020, and Harry Oppenheimer Fellowship Award in 2022.
Wingfield received an honorary doctorate of science (DSc) from the University of British Columbia in 2012, and the North Carolina State University in 2013.
Wingfield has several fungi named in his honour: Sterigmatomyces wingfieldii ; Leptographium wingfieldii ; Asterina wingfieldii ; Catenulostroma wingfieldii ; and Gondwanamyces wingfieldii . Racheliella wingfieldiana was named after his first grandchild, Rachel. |
2,443,356 | Ivy Valentine | 1,172,332,521 | Fictional character | [
"Fantasy video game characters",
"Female characters in video games",
"Fictional British people in video games",
"Fictional English people in video games",
"Fictional Spanish people in video games",
"Fictional alchemists",
"Fictional flexible weapons practitioners",
"Fictional offspring of rape",
"Fictional people from London",
"Fictional swordfighters in video games",
"Namco protagonists",
"Nobility characters in video games",
"Soulcalibur series characters",
"Video game characters introduced in 1998",
"Video game mascots"
]
| Isabella Valentine (イザベラ・バレンタイン, Izabera Barentain), commonly called Ivy (アイヴィー, Aivī), is a character in the Soulcalibur series of video games. Created by Namco's Project Soul division, she first appeared in the original Soulcalibur and its subsequent sequels, later appearing in various merchandise related to the series. She was voiced in Japanese by Yumi Tōma between Soulcalibur and Soulcalibur III, Kanako Tōjō between Soulcalibur Legends and Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny, and Miyuki Sawashiro in Soulcalibur V, and Soulcalibur VI; in English, she was voiced by Renee Hewitt in Soulcalibur II and Lani Minella for the remainder of the series.
In the game, she is the illegitimate daughter of undead pirate Cervantes de Leon who was raised by a noble family until her father became obsessed with the cursed sword, Soul Edge, leading to his death and later her mother's. Desiring to destroy the sword, she creates a segmented, animated blade-whip, only to become Soul Edge's pawn and learn that it intends to use her as its next host. After an attack by Cervantes results in the loss of her soul, Ivy uses a temporary artificial one to keep herself alive, and continues after the blade.
Ivy is considered one of the most prominent characters in the series as well as one of its mainstays, having appeared in every installment since Soulcalibur. She is often referred to as the series' poster girl. Since her introduction, Ivy has been regarded as an attractive and strong character by critics, and has been noted for her sex appeal. Critical reception varies, with some saying the character's oversexualization is unnecessary, while others have argued that her sexuality is an essential aspect of her character design and has allowed for her to be more recognizable.
## Conception and creation
As a character introduced in Soulcalibur, Ivy's signature weapon, a "snake sword" designed to be unique amongst the other weapons in the game, was selected before other elements of the character. Her design and concept were then built to revolve around it by designers Aya Takemura and Takuji Kawano, starting with gender, then physical measurements, and lastly background details. As with all the characters, after her appearance and movement were fleshed out by a concept artist, her character was rendered as a 3D model by a design team that worked solely on her, and then animated mostly by Naotake Hirata using motion capture to create her in-game movements, with Yasushi Shibue designing the animations for her throws, and several animations created without the use of motion capture for positions difficult for the actors. During this phase the team additionally worked with the Soulcalibur story creators, refining the character's own role in the plot as needed throughout development.
During development many alternatives for Ivy's design were considered, including a male ninja, a mummy, and a little girl, while the weapon remained constant, varying only in size. In the very early planning stages of Soulcalibur, Ivy was originally conceived as "ninja girl/woman", something that was attributed to certain developers who were fans of the "young girl moe aesthetic. After a few concepts of a male ninja, they instead switched towards a female "queen" design. As things progressed they wanted to emphasize her as sexy but also highly mobile with a mysterious air, feeling the bondage-themed attire helped convey this image. Several ideas also considered giving her an eyepatch or a mask covering the right side of her face, with her missing eye locked in a look of "revenge", however they decided to instead streamline her appearance and outfit for the sake of rendering her character in game.
With Soulcalibur II, the development team chose her as their favorite character from the previous title. Producer Hiroaki Yotoriyama felt that her fighting style was not perfectly expressed in Soulcalibur, and focused on Ivy from the start of the project to make her more "uniquely lethal". Namco has called Ivy one of the three most popular characters in the series in North American markets, alongside Taki and Nightmare. Soulcalibur V producer Hisaharu Tago emphasized this as a reason for the character's inclusion for the game, additionally citing her fighting style and role in the game's storyline. Senior visual designer Hideo Yoshi, who also contributed to her design and modelling, considered her his favorite in the series due to liking "cool female characters who could easily wear the main character mantle."
### Design
A woman with short white hair cut into a bob cut, Ivy stands tall, making her the series' tallest female character. Her bust size is 100 cm (39 in), though this was an aspect that the developers felt they had overdone by her appearance in Soulcalibur IV. A bluish-purple leotard covers her torso and arms, with patches of the fabric removed to expose her cleavage, buttocks and various parts of her abdomen. Similar leggings cover her legs midway below her thighs, connected to the leotard by garters at golden metal bands at their peak. A sleeve of the same material covers her right arm and hand, while armor covers her left arm, hand, and shoulder. A smaller pauldron covers her right shoulder, while high heels cover her feet, and a white glove covers her right hand. The left shoulder pauldron incorporates the Tudor Rose, a traditional heraldic symbol of England, while the plates of the armor were designed to resemble the links of her sword. The outfit was designed with a motif of both thorns and two intertwining snakes in mind, and to have a high affinity with her weapon. While it has been altered slightly as the series has progressed, the concept has remained consistent throughout the series, with the exception of the removal of the glove in later designs. For Soulcalibur V, they considered several ideas for a redesigned look, including a thorn-based design with heavy amounts of exposed skin and a heavily laced full bodysuit made of "armor that looks like clothing". They finally decided to combine concepts of a homunculus, nobility and a nurse/female doctor for her outfit. Despite the time gap between IV and V Ivy did not age due to her "cursed blood", though a collar and sleeves were added to her design to give her a more mature look, and at one point they considered glasses also but decided against them due to too many characters having facial accessories.
Ivy's alternate character designs in the games are a contrast to her primary designs, often reflecting her role in aristocracy but meant to still keep an air of "adult sex appeal". The secondary outfits from Soulcalibur to Soulcalibur III consist of countess attire of either blue or red pants, vest, and jacket, with white boots covering her feet and her hair combed back. In Soulcalibur II, a tertiary alternate design was added consisting of a red leotard and gloves with gold trimming, with red stockings on her legs; in addition, a fourth design resembling her appearance at the conclusion of Soulcalibur was considered, incorporating a cloak and the symbol of caduceus on the front of her leotard cupping her breasts, but was unused. In Soulcalibur III, a long, rose-themed dress with hat and veil was used as a tertiary alternate, one of several considered designs. For Soulcalibur IV, a similarly themed black dress was used as her sole alternate design for the game. In Soulcalibur V a second outfit was created by guest contributor Mari Shimazaki, who had designed the character Bayonetta for Platinum Games. The outfit consists of a golden catsuit with a plunging neckline and white fur trimmings, as well as a serpent necklace with the head pointed towards her breasts with similar accessories on her ankles and wrists. Shimazaki added that while exposed skin was a trademark of Ivy's design, she wanted to take things in a fresh direction and focus on one bold point of exposure for the character's body, and felt only someone with Ivy's physique could pull the look off. Shimizaki later created an additional bunny-themed outfit for her appearance in Soulcalibur: Lost Swords, consisting of purple and lavender stripped frilled underwear, and a visored helmet with bunny ears sticking out of the top.
In an interview with Metro for Soulcalibur VI, producer Michinori Ozawa was asked about changes to Ivy's design as the series progressed, with the interviewer describing her current designs as "a lot more problematic today than they were when the series began". In he response he stated "I understand that there are different opinions about such characters. So I think what’s most important is how you want to express and design such characters, and not just the female characters. But I still want to keep the body shape and the atmosphere of each character to be the backbone of each character."
## Appearances
As introduced in Soulcalibur, Ivy was raised by the Valentines, a noble family in London, England. Ivy's father became obsessed with the cursed sword Soul Edge, and worked himself to death. Her mother died shortly afterward, and revealed to Ivy that she was not their biological daughter. Becoming an alchemist, Ivy learned of her father's obsession and decided to destroy Soul Edge. She created an animated, segmented sword, bringing it to life by unknowingly summoning Soul Edge's current host, Nightmare, and was convinced to become one of his allies without realizing he wielded the blade she sought. After learning the truth, and that her real father was the sword's previous host Cervantes and her to be its next, she departed. Continuing her quest to destroy the sword in later games, Ivy was attacked by Cervantes and her soul consumed in Soulcalibur IV. Using an artificial soul to keep herself alive, Ivy managed to defeat her father at Ostrheinsburg Castle at the end of the game. She also acts as a teacher to younger warriors when Soul Edge re-appears years later. In the rebooted timeline of Soulcalibur VI, she breaks into the vault of long-dead weapon merchant Vercii to steal his notes, angering its guarding Voldo, though appeases him by returning the notes once she has the information she needs.
Outside of the main series, Ivy appears in the prequel Soulcalibur Legends, allying herself with the protagonist Siegfried, and shares an understanding with another of his allies, Lloyd Irving. In Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny's "Gauntlet" storyline, a side story set after the events of Soulcalibur IV, Ivy assists the character Hilde and her party develop a cure for her father's ailment. When told that Cervantes' soul would be required as payment, they attempt to renegotiate, only for Ivy to use the protagonist's back as a chair while repeating her terms. She was also featured in as a guest character in Queen's Gate: Spiral Chaos, utilizing her character design from Soulcalibur IV. Ivy appears in The King of Fighters All Star in both her Soulcalibur VI design, and her "Aristocrat Catsuit" costume from Soulcalibur V. In the story mode, Ivy is initially hostile, but later helps defeat Saiki from The King of Fighters XIII.
Ivy was also featured alongside Siegfried in a manga adaptation of Soulcalibur Legends printed in the Japanese shōnen Kerokero Ace; the manga, written in a humorous tone, used a running gag of Siegfried's annoyance that Ivy was significantly taller than him.
### Gameplay and censorship
Designed as a weapon with the longest reach in Soulcalibur, Ivy's sword Valentine consists of several smaller blades linked together by a chain, able to take either broadsword or chain whip forms. These forms are represented by different stances Ivy can use in the series, altering many of her attacks for each and applying different uses to either form of the weapon, with some, such as Spiral Lust, a component of an existing attack. In addition to these, the sword can also have the segments be split apart, in which case they will attack the opponent in different ways before recombining on the sword's chain. Due to her variety, Ivy has been noted as being able to attack from any range, but also difficult to properly use unless utilizing a range the opponent is weakest at. Some of her attacks, such as Summoning Suffering and Calamity Symphony, involve grappling with the opponent to damage them, though these utilize complex controller inputs that require them to be utilized in tandem with other moves.
Some versions of the original Soulcalibur arcade game censored Ivy's default costume by covering her bare skin with a lavender catsuit. With Soulcalibur IV, Ivy's look on the promotional artwork was modified on the English website to hide her undercleavage, leading to suspicion of censorship in the American release of the game. When asked about the censoring, director Katsutoshi Sasaki stated he had heard of nothing of the sort having taken place. When released in North America it was shown that no actual censorship had occurred within the game.
## Reception
### Promotion and merchandising
Ivy was featured in a 1999 advertisement for the Dreamcast port of Soulcalibur, depicting a man at a drive-in theater kissing his girlfriend but stopping to focus on Ivy. The character has been used to demonstrate the graphical features of both Soulcalibur IV and its follow-up title, Broken Destiny in a tech demo and promotional flyer respectively, with an emphasis on demonstrating that while the model's polygon count was reduced, her figure was not. Her likeness was also used as the basis for a costume for Sackboy in LittleBigPlanet 3, as part of a Soulcalibur themed costume pack for the title. Two print advertisements for Soulcalibur V prominently featured close-up images of Ivy's cleavage and buttocks, respectively, and were featured in various mainstream Japanese newspapers including Nikkan Sports. The advertisements revolved around puns for either, such as "新春、期待に胸ふくらむ" (lit. "New year, my heart swells with anticipation") and English variants being allegedly banned in the United Kingdom. The ads in particular received heavy criticism for their sexist content, and books such as Gender and the Superhero Narrative have cited them as an extremely negative portrayal of women and the character. When asked about the ads, Soulcalibur V producer Hisaharu Tago claimed the text was intended to be a double meaning in reference to the game's new "character creator" features, and further argued "having some sort of erotic aspect on the surface is part of Soul Calibur".
Several action figures and figurines have been made bearing Ivy's likeness. Following the release of Soulcalibur, a resin kit by Kurushima was released, alongside a figurine by Kyosho. Epoch C-Works released a 1/12 scale Ivy action figure of in a set of three for the title as well, featuring equipable weapons. In August 2003, Todd McFarlane Productions released an Ivy sculpture amongst a set of five based on Soulcalibur II. The immobile figure was modeled after her primary outfit and stood six inches tall with a base and retracted sword. A twelve inch tall immobile PVC figurine modeled after her Soulcalibur III appearance was released by Enterbrain in September 2008, using a white version of her outfit and extended sword; a dark blue outfit for an "international color" version of the sculpture was also produced. Hobby Japan created a mail order exclusive 1/8 scale PVC figure of Ivy in 2011 in honor of her appearance in Queen's Gate: Spiral Chaos. In 2012, an Ivy bobblehead created by company Bobble Budds depicting her in her standard outfit was given to those who pre-ordered both the regular and Collector's Edition versions of Soulcalibur V.
### Critical reception
Although commonly cited as one of the most difficult characters to play as in the Soul series, Ivy has received a great deal of positive reception and has been described as one of the series' best characters. In 2009, she was featured on the cover of French magazine Ig alongside other female video game characters as one of the top heroines of gaming. Eliot Lefebre of Dualshockers called her one of the most iconic characters in the franchise, in part due to her appearance, but also as "a driven, goal-oriented character who marries well with the series storyline", noting that while she is one of the harder characters to use in Soulcalibur, those that master her gameplay "feel invested in both the character and the lore around her." Tom's Games named her one of the fifty greatest female characters in video game history, stating that as "an anti-hero who frequently clashes with other Souls, Ivy is a fascinating character for a fighting game". UGO.com's staff noted her role as an antagonist in the first Soulcalibur while adding that it could be "difficult to truly appreciate [her] villainy" due to her attractiveness, and adding that her appearance and attitude made her "a feared competitor". While former Fanbyte editor-in-chief John Warren described her as a poster girl for the series for "let’s say predictable reasons", he praised the character's fighting style and weapon, adding he would argue "Ivy is the first character in the series with a developed personality. It’s not a sunny personality—she’s a squarely Machiavellian jerk all the time—but it’s more than the [...] non-personalities that populated the franchise before her."
Ivy's appearance, body, outfit, and demeanor have all been at the center of discussions about the character, and have been attributed as reasons owing to her status as a fan favorite. She is commonly compared to or described as a dominatrix, and has been noted both as the series' sexiest female. She has been displayed in various third-party media, her likeness appearing in material including magazine swimsuit issue pin-ups and periodicals such as Play's annual Girls of Gaming series. Other sources have used her as a standard for a character archetype, comparing later created female characters to her design and appearance. In a 2016 study done by researchers at Indiana University, Ivy was found to be the most sexualized character out of 571 playable female video game characters created between 1989 and 2014. The study used a character's "nudity, over-enlarged breasts or hips and unrealistically narrow waists" as "signs of hypersexualization".
Reception of the character's sex appeal has been varied. Her bodily proportions, specifically her bust and buttock size, have been criticized as over-the-top, unrealistic, and unnecessary by publications such as Joystiq, Giant Bomb, VentureBeat, and Vice. Gavin Sheehan of Bleeding Cool remarked that her design lost clothing, and became bustier, with each new installment. At the 2011 PAX East convention, an all-female journal panel led by The Escapist's Susan Arendt agreed that while she was strong, and difficult but rewarding to master in the original Soulcalibur, as the series progressed Ivy was reduced to "a nice ass bouncing around the room" in later games. Cecilia D'Anastasio of Kotaku noted that while she was the most recognizable character of the series, she looked like "a caricature of a pubescent boy’s preposterously-proportioned ideal video game lady" and that her character and weapon "helped land her in innumerable knock-off porn videos and pin-up images". She further felt that Ivy brought down Soulcalibur VI as a whole and made it feel out of place at E3 2018. The book Race, Gender, Media described her as designed for the viewing enjoyment of players "often assumed to be heterosexual boys and men" due her "pneumatic" body and revealing clothing, and further argued it was part of a standard to display the strength, skill and autonomy of characters like her with a heavy focus on sexualized bodies.
However other sources offered counterpoints to these criticisms. The Escapist's Adam LaMosca initially stated that while his first impression of the character was that she was the posterchild for "embarrassingly juvenile fighter design", he later came to see that her "oversexed dominatrix demeanor perfectly compliments her confident, punishing move set." Jakub Kralka of benchmark.pl emphasized her large breasts as a key element to her appeal while stating she "made a name for herself as a real sex bomb of video games," further voicing disdain for attempts to censor her character which he considered "prudish". Discussing reactions to female character designs in gaming for Kotaku, Leigh Alexander noted that while Ivy's breast size seemed to increase in size as the series progressed, she felt it was part of the fantasy aspect of gaming. She further argued that Ivy's figure represents an ideal, calling characters like her "stand-ins for ourselves to some extent, we still haven't figured out a good reason why we want to look quite this way," and drew comparisons to depictions of the Roman goddess Venus. In a later article for GameSetWatch she further elaborated on this idea, stating that characters like Ivy still had a place in gaming with "It looks like Ivy’s back is set to snap – but she’s a game character; she’ll be fine. Why not just enjoy it?"
### Analysis
University of Delaware professor Rachael Hutchinson discussed Ivy's design through several books and papers, describing her height, power and sexualization as serving to emphasize her as a "deviation" from the female norm, as well as reinforce gender roles in the fighting game genre. She however argued the character's physical divergence was somewhat warranted due to the emphasis on sexual deviance on her character, "that places her outside accepted norms of heterosexual characteristics." She attributed the "need" for such justifications heavily on societal expectations of gender. She referred to this again in a later study involving students examining fighting game characters and reactions to them, noting male players were quick to claim the character harmed their immersion in the game despite similarly under-dressed male characters, and were quick to label her "slutty" and a "sexual deviant" for it. Hutchinson further argued one may enjoy such characters for reasons beyond titillation, offering examples such as a player wanting to engage in sadomasochistic fantasy towards themselves or others in Ivy's instance.
Hutchinson also noted that while the developers focused on Ivy's exposed skin as one of her defining characteristics, she more questioned the "impossibility of her physique". More specifically her issue was with her design in Soulcalibur IV, noting that prior to that game Ivy's physique was "well built and realistic, a powerful full breasted woman with defined musculature and slim torso". However in IV Hutchinson stated Ivy appeared "deformed", with the developers drastically increasing her breast size and the emphasis of her corset upon her hips, while reducing her attire to bands barely covering her. She stated that the over-sexulization of her character undercut her physical strength, due to compensating for "muscular power with giant breasts", and balancing her masculine characteristics by exaggerating her feminine features. She explored this further in the book Japanese Culture Through Videogames, stating her belief that the introduction of Ivy's design led to a "sexualization race" amongst fighting game developers to see who could produce and get away with the most skin exposure in games, culminating in Dead or Alive: Xtreme Beach Volleyball where the characters were ultimately barely clothed for the benefit of a supposedly heterosexual male audience.
In an article titled The Inexplicable Sexiness Of Ivy Valentine for Kotaku, Maddy Myers stated that while Ivy's secondary outfits were more fitting for her character due to her background, she'd grown defensive of her primary outfit, feeling it made no more or less sense than any other character's attire in the game. She added while "Ivy is the most obvious scapegoat when it comes to pointing out Soulcalibur’s inexplicably sexy designs", similar reactions were not levied against other provocatively dressed female characters in the game, noting the presence of similarly dressed characters and adding that it was also "not about her storyline, since Ivy’s backstory doesn’t involve her getting disempowered or disrespected. It’s her breasts. The implication is that the only way she could be respectable would be if they were covered up, or reduced in size—something closer to the cup size of [the] bikini-wearing tots". She further stated that despite feeling the series had never "humanized" Ivy and describing her as a "sex symbol designed predominantly by men", she felt characters like her could be "reclaimed" by female players as symbols of power.
The paper Subversive Ludic Performance: An Analysis of Gender and Sexuality Performance in Digital Games examined both viewpoints from Hutchinson and Myers, noting that the while the character was highly sexualized, the fact she was a dominatrix with an extremely sexual body in itself did not make her problematic as such people exist, but her presence in the environment of gaming did contribute to her acting as a stereotype. However it also argued that Myers' statement that non-heterosexual women enjoying the spectacle of a "sex-positive (female) dominant character, who is able to hold her own against powerful men" helped subvert the notion of such characters strictly serving as pander to the "male gaze", and that the focus on such pandering often disregarded non-heterosexual points of view, or simply the fact some players may enjoy a character they are particularly good with. |
3,595,072 | Merv Harvey | 1,162,540,179 | Australian cricketer | [
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| Mervyn Roye Harvey (29 April 1918 – 18 March 1995) was a cricketer who played in one Test match for Australia in 1947. His younger brother, Neil, was one of Australia's finest batsmen, and the pair played together for Victoria during the latter part of Merv's career.
Merv Harvey broke into the Victorian state team during the 1940–41 season and played in three first-class matches. The highlight of the first phase of his career for Victoria was a rapid 70 in one hour against a New South Wales attack containing Bill O'Reilly, regarded as the best bowler in the world at the time. However, the outbreak of World War II in the Pacific caused the suspension of top-level cricket and halted Harvey's progress. Harvey then served in the Royal Australian Air Force as an airframe fitter, losing his best cricketing years to the war.
An opening batsman, Harvey was described by Neil as "the greatest cricketer of us all" and known for his attacking style and penchant for hooking fast bowlers. He was initially overlooked for Victorian selection after cricket resumed in 1945–46, before being recalled for the final match of the season, and he responded by scoring a career-best 163. He was a regular member of the Victorian team during the 1946–47 season, and although he faced much competition for national selection as Australia had an abundance of quality openers at the time, he was selected for his only Test during the fourth Test of the season against England at the Adelaide Oval when both Bill Brown and Sid Barnes were injured. Harvey made 12 and 31 before being dropped immediately due to Barnes' recovery.
In 1947–48, Harvey played with younger brothers Neil and Ray in two matches for Victoria, captaining the team in the second of these fixtures. However, his own form began to wane and he was dropped from the team midway through the season. In 1948–49, Harvey remained outside the first-choice team, and played in only two first-class matches against Tasmania when Victoria fielded a second-string team. He retired at the end of the season, having played only 22 first-class matches in an interrupted career. Harvey captained his state five times during the post-war phase of his career, standing in when regular captain Lindsay Hassett was away on national duty.
## Early years
Merv Harvey was born in Broken Hill, New South Wales to Horace "Horrie" and Elsie Harvey. Horace worked for BHP driving horse-drawn trailers. Merv was the second child in the family and the oldest son. Five younger brothers were to follow, in chronological order Mick, Harold, Ray, Neil and Brian. The family relocated to Newcastle, a mining town and harbour in New South Wales, before shifting to the inner-Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy, a staunchly working-class, industrial area. Horace secured a job at the confectionery company Life Savers, located next door to their house at 198 Argyle Street. The 19th century two-storey house was owned by the firm and was used as lodgings for the workers' families. It no longer exists, having been demolished to make way for a textile factory.
The Cornish-descended Horace raised his family as strict Methodists, disallowing gambling, alcohol, tobacco and profanity in his household. An ardent cricketer during his years in New South Wales, he was good enough to hit 196 runs during a match in Newcastle, and he encouraged his children to play sport. He himself played for the Rita Social Club after moving to Fitzroy.
As recreational facilities and grass ovals were sparse in densely populated Fitzroy, Merv and his younger brothers played cricket in a cobblestone laneway between their terraced house. Here they played cricket with a tennis ball, home made cricket bat and a kerosene tin for a wicket. They were usually joined by other local children, two of whom became elite sportsmen: Allan Ruthven and Harold Shillinglaw. The group also played Australian rules football, kicking around rolled up cardboard and newspaper. Much of the batting skill displayed by the Harvey brothers has been attributed to these games played on the unpredictable bounce of the bumpy laneway. The surface also had a V-shaped slope inwards towards the centre of the lane, causing balls to deviate sideways after bouncing. As the laneway meant that the playing area was long and narrow, the young boys also had to learn to play the ball straight in accordance with orthodox cricket technique. The Harveys played another form of cricket in their concreted backyard using a marble instead of a ball, and a miniature bat. This sharpened their reflexes.
Merv was the first of the brothers to attend the nearby George Street State School and join the Fitzroy Cricket Club as they reached their early teens. The club had a program whereby they gave a medal for every local school to award to the best cricketer in their ranks in that year. The successful student would then be given access to all of the club's facilities. All of the Harvey brothers were recipients were of this medal. At Fitzroy, they came under the influence of former Victorian all-rounder Arthur Liddicut and the club's veteran captain Joe Plant. Merv and his younger siblings had no formal coaching, and their father, a regular presence at the club, chose to stay in the background as their respective careers developed. Horace did not advise his sons on how to bat, allowing them to formulate their own style and technique. According to the brothers, it was their mother who was vocal and extroverted, in contrast to their reserved father. The boys who failed to score runs were given kitchen duty, and according to them, their parents never showed favouritism.
During the winter, they played baseball for Fitzroy Baseball Club, often competing in matches played as curtain raisers to the elite Australian rules football competition, the Victorian Football League. Saturday night entertainment for the family typically consisted of dinner after the day's cricket matches for Fitzroy, and Plant, Liddicut and other cricket club personnel were often invited. Under the influence of Plant and Liddicut, the boys were taught to adopt an aggressive approach, using fast feet movement to attack spin bowling in particular. In 1932, Harvey captained the Victorian Under-15 schoolboys team on a tour of Queensland and one of his players was future Victorian and Australian teammate Keith Miller. Harvey graduated to Fitzroy's first XI in 1933–34.
## First-class beginnings
During the 1938–39 season, Harvey was selected for the Victorian Second XI to play in a match against their counterparts from New South Wales. Harvey was run out for four in the first innings and then made eight as his team succumbed to a 227-run defeat. As a result, he was not called up into the First XI for the next two years.
Harvey made his first-class debut for Victoria against Queensland at the Gabba in 1940–41. In the first innings, he made 25 before being caught by wicket-keeper Don Tallon from the bowling of Jack Ellis as the visitors took first innings points in a drawn match. In the next match, he made an impression. After making 35 in the first innings, he scored 70 in an hour's batting in the second innings at the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) against New South Wales. In both innings, he was dismissed by leg spinner Bill O'Reilly, the leading bowler in the world, but Victoria managed to prevail by 24 runs. The teams met again three weeks later, and this time, New South Wales turned the table, winning by 235 runs. Harvey made 14 in the first innings, bowled by O'Reilly for the second innings in a row. In the second innings he made 38 before being removed by another leg spinner, Cec Pepper. Harvey ended the season with 182 runs at 36.40.
Harvey enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force at Fitzroy on 12 May 1942 and was a member of the 30 Squadron. He served as an airframe fitter during World War II, which severely interrupted his sporting career, and first-class cricket was cancelled after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor prompted the outbreak of hostilities in the Pacific. He was discharged on 25 January 1946 with the rank of aircraftman. According to cricket administrator Bill Jacobs, the war cost Harvey his prime cricketing years. Jacobs believed that Harvey would have been selected for Australia in the period otherwise interrupted by war.
## Post-war resumption and only Test
After the war ended in 1945, first-class cricket resumed in 1945–46. Harvey played in a trial match for state selection. Playing for the Rest of Victoria against the first-choice state team, he made 82 and 25. This was not enough to convince the state selectors and Harvey did not get a recall to the Victorian team until the end of the season when he played against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval. He responded by striking a career-best 163 to help his team to an innings win.
Immediately after the war, Harvey faced a lot of competition for a place as an opening batsman in the Australian team, but a vacancy arose in 1946–47, when Bill Brown, who had captained Australia the previous season and opened for the country in Tests in the 1930s, was sidelined with injury for the whole summer.
In the first match of the season, Harvey's Victorians faced the touring England cricket team led by Wally Hammond. In the first innings, Harvey made 21 of the team's 189 before being caught and bowled by leg spinner Doug Wright. He then made 57 before being dismissed by Alec Bedser as the hosts fell for only 204 in pursuit of 449 for victory, losing by 244 runs.
This was enough for him to be selected in the Australian XI for a match against the Englishmen, in what was effectively a Test dress rehearsal. Rain curtailed the match, and the game did not reach the second innings; Harvey made 22 in his only opportunity.
There was another match for Victoria against South Australia before the Tests, allowing him another chance to push his claim for national selection. It was also his first Sheffield Shield match; his previous appearances for Victoria in interstate games were in seasons where the competition was called off due to war and replaced by one-off matches. Harvey could manage only 9 as Victoria amassed 548 in their first innings. They needed 79 runs for victory in 35 minutes on the last afternoon, and with quick scoring required, the more aggressive Keith Miller opened in place of Harvey. When the first wicket fell with the target almost completed, Harvey came in and made three not out by the time the match was over. These performances were not enough for the Australian selectors and Harvey was overlooked for the team for the first two Tests.
After this, Harvey had two opportunities to press for selection for the next Test. He made 13 in an innings victory over Queensland and continued to be overlooked. The second match was the Shield clash with arch-rivals New South Wales, which started on Boxing Day at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. After the visitors had made 205, Harvey opened with Ken Meuleman, who was out at 1/31, bringing Miller to the crease. Miller hammered the bowling and Victoria were 1/154 at the end of the day. The next day, the 271-run partnership ended after just over three hours when Miller fell at 2/302. Harvey went on to make 136 in what was generally regarded as his best innings. He famously hooked leading Australian paceman Ray Lindwall, the fastest in the world at the time, over the fence into the public bar for six. It was one of the few occasions that Lindwall was hit for six in his long career. Victoria declared at 8/560, Test bowlers Lindwall and Ernie Toshack taking the most punishment with figures of 1/100 and 0/133 from 18 and 21 overs respectively, as Victoria went on to win by an innings and 114 runs.
In the return match against Queensland, Harvey made 17 as Victoria took a convincing innings win. In the next match against New South Wales, Harvey played with Neil for the first time at first-class level, and pair played together for their state's two remaining matches of the season, although they never batted together as Merv was always out before Neil came in, usually at No. 6. Merv made 30 and 44, failing to capitalise on his starts to make a big score with a Test vacancy beckoning; incumbent opener Sid Barnes was injured and unavailable for the Fourth Test.
Nevertheless, Harvey was selected to play his only Test, the Fourth Test at Adelaide, filling in for the injured Barnes. England batted first and made 460 before being dismissed late on the second day. Harvey opened with Arthur Morris, and made 12 in the first innings before being bowled by Bedser while playing an aggressive shot. With only a few minutes of play left, the Australian captain Don Bradman came in and he too was bowled by Bedser, without scoring a run. Harvey later privately said the Bradman had told him to play cautiously and survive until the end of the day, rather than attack, and that the captain was angry with the resulting two wickets. According to Harvey, Bradman told him that he would never be selected for Australia again. The tourists then declared during the last afternoon and left Australia a target of 314. The target was not a realistic offer and Morris and Harvey put on an opening stand of 116 before the latter was bowled for 31 by the medium pace of occasional bowler Norman Yardley. The match ended in a draw with Australia on 1/215.
Barnes recovered and resumed his position for the Fifth Test. Harvey ended his season by scoring 10 in his only innings of Victoria's second tour match against England, which was drawn, and was 3 not out in the first innings of the Shield match against South Australia when it was washed out. Harvey made his captaincy debut in the latter match as Lindsay Hassett was representing Australia in the Fifth Test, and his bowlers dismissed South Australia for 222 in Victoria's only innings in the field. This washed-out drawn match was the only time in six Shield matches during the season that Victoria did not emerge victorious, and they won the competition. Harvey ended the season with 405 runs at 33.75.
## Final seasons
By 1947–48, Brown had recovered, so Harvey had to compete with him as well as Morris and Barnes for selection. In the first match of the season against the touring Indians, Harvey made 4 and 35. The following week, he made 89 in the first innings against South Australia but managed only three in the second innings as the Victorians collapsed to be all out for 182 and lost by nine wickets. Harvey was overlooked for the Australian XI for the Test trial against India the following week. Instead, he played in the match against Queensland, scoring only 13 and 3. He was subsequently overlooked for the Test selection. During this time, he played alongside Neil in all but the Queensland match, when his younger brother was playing in the Australian XI. However, neither batted together.
Neil returned to the Victorian team for the match against New South Wales at the SCG the following week, and Ray was selected to make his first-class debut, so three Harveys were in the state team for the first time. Merv opened, while Neil and Ray batted at Nos. 4 and 7 respectively. Victoria batted first and the brothers again did not form any partnerships. Merv opened and made 45 as Victoria ended with 331; the Harvey brothers had scored almost half the runs. New South Wales were forced to follow on, and Victoria were set 51 for victory. After the fall of Fred Freer at 1/24, captain Lindsay Hassett elevated Ray to No. 3, allowing two Harveys to bat together for the first time at first-class level. Ray and Merv put on an unbeaten partnership of 27 to take Victoria to a nine-wicket win. Merv and Ray ended unbeaten on 12 and 22 respectively.
The trio then proceeded to play together in the next match against Western Australia two weeks later and Merv captained the team as Hassett was away on Test duty. Victoria batted first and Neil came in to join Merv with the score at 2/102, and the pair added 173 together before the younger brother fell for 94. One run later, Merv was out for 141 in what turned out to be his final first-class century; later, Ray made only 1. Victoria ended on 370 and Western Australia took a 59-run lead. In the second innings, Merv made 6 and did not bat with his brothers. He declared the innings at 9/304, setting Western Australia a target of 246 for victory. They reached 5/205 and Victoria avoided defeat. A fortnight later, Harvey again captained the team and made a duck in his only innings in a rain-curtailed match. After the Victorians had made 412, Queensland reached 5/144 at the end of the match. Despite being the captain, Harvey was dropped for the next match and was overlooked for the rest of the season, ending with 351 runs at 35.10.
After being dropped for the second half of the previous season, Harvey had even less opportunities in 1948–49. His only matches for Victoria came during the Christmas period, when he played consecutive fixtures, both against Tasmania. Although the two games had first-class status, they were effectively Second XI fixtures, as the first-choice team was playing Sheffield Shield matches at the same time. Victoria only batted once in each innings and Harvey made 7 and 36 respectively. Harvey captained the team, and they dominated both matches. The Victorians took a first-innings lead of 171 in the first match, but rain interruptions ended the match with Tasmania at 1/100 in their second innings, still 71 runs in arrears. In the second match, Victoria dismissed their opponents for 65 in the first innings to take a lead of 309 runs and they went on to win by an innings and 73 runs. Having seen his previous four matches as captain end in a draw, Harvey ended his first-class career with his only victory as a leader in his final match.
Harvey continued playing in the First XI for Fitzroy until 1954–55, and he finished with 6,654 runs at 29.31 in 207 First XI matches for the club. Harvey was an attacking opening batsman, strong on the drive and fond of hooking fast bowling. His brother Neil called him "the greatest cricketer of us all".
## Outside cricket
Harvey worked for more than five decades for the same engineering firm, and lived with his wife Myrtle in the western industrial suburb of Footscray. He had two sons, Jeff and Graeme, both of whom played in first grade for Fitzroy. His grandson Robert Harvey—son of Jeff—was one of the leading Australian rules footballers of the 1990s and the early 21st century. Robert made his Australian Football League debut for St Kilda Football Club in 1988 and played 21 seasons. He was a member of the All-Australian team eight times and won the Brownlow Medal twice, in 1997 and 1998, for the best and fairest player. Robert played for Victoria at Under-19 level as a bowler, but he was already playing top-flight football at the time and gave up his cricket career after the national Under-19 tournament. Another grandson Anthony, the younger brother of Robert, also played for St Kilda and captained Norwood to the 1997 South Australian National Football League (SANFL) premiership. |
26,225 | Rædwald of East Anglia | 1,169,437,364 | null | [
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| Rædwald (Old English: Rædwald, ; 'power in counsel'), also written as Raedwald or Redwald (Latin: Raedwaldus, Reduald), was a king of East Anglia, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom which included the present-day English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. He was the son of Tytila of East Anglia and a member of the Wuffingas dynasty (named after his grandfather, Wuffa), who were the first kings of the East Angles. Details about Rædwald's reign are scarce, primarily because the Viking invasions of the 9th century destroyed the monasteries in East Anglia where many documents would have been kept. Rædwald reigned from about 599 until his death around 624, initially under the overlordship of Æthelberht of Kent. In 616, as a result of fighting the Battle of the River Idle and defeating Æthelfrith of Northumbria, he was able to install Edwin, who was acquiescent to his authority, as the new king of Northumbria. During the battle, both Æthelfrith and Rædwald's son, Rægenhere, were killed.
From around 616, Rædwald was the most powerful of the English kings south of the Humber estuary. According to Bede, he was the fourth ruler to hold imperium over other southern Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: he was referred to in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, written centuries after his death, as a bretwalda (an Old English term meaning 'Britain-ruler' or 'wide-ruler'). He was the first king of the East Angles to become a Christian, converting at Æthelberht's court some time before 605, while also maintaining a pagan temple. He helped Christianity to survive in East Anglia during the apostasy of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Essex and Kent. Historians consider him the most likely occupant of the Sutton Hoo ship-burial, although other theories have been advanced. A smaller ship-burial was also discovered in 1998 close to the original Sutton Hoo site, which is thought to have contained the body of his son Rægenhere, who died in battle in 616.
## The context of Rædwald's kingdom
The Anglo-Saxons, who are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, began to arrive in Britain in the 5th century. By 600, a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the conquered territories. By the beginning of the 7th century, the southern part of what became England was almost entirely under their control.
During Rædwald's youth, the establishment of other ruling houses was accomplished. Sometime before 588, Æthelberht of Kent married Bercta, the Christian daughter of the Frankish ruler Charibert I. As early as 568, Ceawlin of Wessex, the most powerful ruler south of the Humber estuary, repulsed Æthelberht. According to later sources, Mercia was founded by Creoda in 585, although a paucity of sources makes it difficult to know how the Mercian royal line became established.
North of the Humber, the kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia possessed rival royal dynasties. Ælla ruled Deira until his death in 588, leaving his daughter Acha, his son Edwin, and another unknown sibling. The Bernician dynasty, allied by kinship to the kingdom of Wessex, gained ascendancy over Deira, forcing Edwin to live in exile in the court of Cadfan ap Iago of Gwynedd. In various wars, Æthelfrith of Bernicia consolidated the Northumbrian state, and in around 604 he was able to bring Deira under his dominion.
## Family
Rædwald, which in Old English means 'power in counsel', was born around 560–580. The son of Tytila, whom he succeeded, he was the elder brother of Eni. According to Bede, he was descended from Wuffa, the founder of the Wuffingas dynasty: filius Tytili, cuius pater fuit UUffa ('the son of Tytil, whose father was Wuffa').
At some time during the 590s, Rædwald married a woman whose name is unknown, though it is known from Bede that she was pagan. By her he fathered at least two sons, Rægenhere and Eorpwald. He also had an older son, Sigeberht, whose name is unlike other Wuffingas names but which is typical of the East Saxon dynasty. It has been suggested that Rædwald's queen had previously been married to a member of the Essex royal family and that Sigeberht was Rædwald's stepson, as was stated by William of Malmesbury in the 12th century. Sigeberht earned the enmity of his step-father, who drove him into exile in Gaul, possibly to protect the Wuffingas bloodline.
For a family tree that includes the descendants of Eni, see Wuffingas.
## Early reign and baptism
Events that occurred during the early years of Rædwald's reign include the arrival of Augustine of Canterbury and his mission from Rome in 597, the conversions of Æthelberht of Kent and Saeberht of Essex, and the establishment of new bishoprics in their kingdoms. Bede, when relating the conversion of Rædwald's son Eorpwald in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, mentioned that Rædwald received the Christian sacraments in Kent. This happened in perhaps 604 or later, presumably at the invitation of Æthelberht, who may have been his baptismal sponsor. The date of his conversion is unknown, but it would have occurred after the arrival of the Gregorian mission in 597. Since it is claimed that Augustine, who died in about 605, dedicated a church near Ely, it may have followed Saebert's conversion fairly swiftly. Rædwald's marriage to a member of the royal dynasty of Essex helped form a diplomatic alliance between the neighbouring kingdoms of East Anglia and Essex. His conversion in Kent would have affiliated him with Æthelberht, bringing him directly into the sphere of Kent.
In East Anglia, Rædwald's conversion was not universally accepted by his household or his own queen. According to the historian Steven Plunkett, she and her pagan teachers persuaded him to default in part from his commitment to the Christian faith. As a result, he kept in the temple two altars, one dedicated to pagan gods and the other to Christ. Bede, writing decades later, described how Ealdwulf of East Anglia, a grandson of Rædwald's brother Eni, recalled seeing the temple when he was a boy. It may have been located at Rendlesham, emerging focus of the regio of the Wuffing dynasty, according to Plunkett. Barbara Yorke argues that Rædwald was not willing to fully embrace Christianity because conversion via Æthelberht would have been acknowledgment of an inferior status to the Kentish king. Rædwald's lack of commitment towards Christianity earned him the enmity of Bede, who regarded him as a renouncer of the faith.
## Rædwald and Edwin of Northumbria
### Edwin's exile
Æthelfrith of Northumbria may have married Acha, who was the mother of his son Oswald (born in about 604), according to Bede. Æthelfrith pursued Acha's exiled brother Edwin in an attempt to destroy him and ensure that the Bernician rulership of Northumbria would be unchallenged. Edwin found hospitality in the household of Cearl of Mercia and later married Cearl's daughter. Edwin's nephew Hereric, an exile in the British kingdom of Elmet, was slain there under treacherous circumstances. Edwin eventually sought the protection of Rædwald, where he was received willingly. Rædwald promised to protect him, and Edwin lived with the king amongst his royal companions. When news of Edwin reached Æthelfrith in Northumbria, he sent messengers to Rædwald offering money in return for Edwin's death, but Rædwald refused to comply. Æthelfrith sent messengers a second and a third time, offering even greater gifts of silver and promising war if these were not accepted. Rædwald then weakened and promised either to kill Edwin or to hand him over to ambassadors.
When a chance arose for him to escape to a safe country, Edwin chose to remain at Rædwald's court. He was then visited by a stranger who was aware of Rædwald's deliberations. The source for this story, written at Whitby, stated that the stranger was Paulinus of York, a member of the Canterbury mission, who offered Edwin the hope of Rædwald's support and held out the prospect that Edwin might someday attain greater royal power than any previous English king. Paulinus was assured by Edwin that he would accept his religious teaching. His vision of Paulinus was afterwards made the means of his decision to embrace Christianity, on the condition that he survived and achieved power. If, as is supposed by some, Paulinus appeared to him in the flesh, the bishop's presence at Rædwald's court would throw some light on the king's position regarding religion.
Rædwald's pagan queen admonished him for acting in a manner dishonourable for a king by betraying his trust for the sake of money and wanting to sell his imperiled friend in exchange for riches. As a result of her admonishment, once Æthelfrith's ambassadors had gone, Rædwald resolved on war.
### The Battle of the River Idle
In 616 or 617, Rædwald assembled an army and marched north, accompanied by his son Rægenhere, to confront Æthelfrith. They met on the western boundary of the kingdom of Lindsey, on the east bank of the River Idle. The battle was fierce and was long commemorated in the saying, 'The river Idle was foul with the blood of Englishmen'. During the fighting, Æthelfrith and Rædwald's son Rægenhere were both slain. Edwin then succeeded Æthelfrith as the king of Northumbria, and Æthelfrith's sons were subsequently forced into exile.
A separate account of the battle, given by Henry of Huntingdon, stated that Rædwald's army was split into three formations, led by Rædwald, Rægenhere, and Edwin. With more experienced fighters, Æthelfrith attacked in loose formation. At the sight of Rægenhere, perhaps thinking he was Edwin, Æthelfrith's men cut their way through to him and slew him. After the death of his son, Rædwald furiously breached his lines, killing Æthelfrith amid a great slaughter of the Northumbrians.
D.P. Kirby has argued that the battle was more than a clash between two kings over the treatment of an exiled nobleman but was "part of a protracted struggle to determine the military and political leadership of the Anglian peoples" at that time.
## Rædwald's imperium
On 24 February 616, the year of the Battle of the River Idle, Æthelberht of Kent died and was succeeded by his pagan son Eadbald. After the death of the Christian Saebert of Essex, his three sons shared the kingdom, returning it to pagan rule, and drove out the Gregorian missionaries led by Mellitus. The Canterbury mission had removed to Gaul before Eadbald was brought back into the fold. During this period the only royal Christian altar in England belonged to Rædwald. By the time of his death, the mission in Kent had been fully re-established.
Rædwald's power became great enough for Bede to recognise him as the successor to the imperium of Æthelberht. Bede also called him Rex Anglorum, the 'King of the Angles', a term that Rædwald's contemporaries would have used for their overlord. It is unclear where his power was centred or even how he established his authority over the Angles of eastern England.
By Edwin's debt of allegiance to him, Rædwald became the first foreign king to hold direct influence in Northumbria. He would have been instrumental in Edwin's secure establishment as king of both Deira and Bernicia.
## The development of Gipeswic
During the first quarter of the 7th century, the quayside settlement at Gipeswic (Ipswich) became an important estuarine trading centre, receiving imported goods such as pottery from other trading markets situated around the coasts of the North Sea. Steven Plunkett suggests that the founding of Gipeswic took place under Wuffingas supervision. It took another hundred years for the settlement to develop into a town, but its beginnings can be seen as a reflection of the personal importance of Rædwald during the period of his supremacy.
The excavated grave-goods of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Gipeswic, including those found in burials under small barrows, were not particularly wealthy or elaborate. They lacked the strong characterization of a neighbouring late 6th century cemetery at a higher crossing of the river. One exception was a furnished grave that has been suggested to be that of a visitor from the Rhineland.
## Death
Rædwald is believed to have died around 624: his death can be located only within a few years. He must have reigned for some time after Æthelberht died, in order for him to have been noted as a bretwalda. Barbara Yorke suggests that he died before Edwin converted to Christianity in 627 and also before Paulinus became bishop of Northumbria in 625. His death is recorded twice by Roger of Wendover, in 599 and in 624, in a history that dates from the 13th century but appears to include earlier annals of unknown origin and reliability. Plunkett notes that the earlier date of 599 is now taken as a mistaken reference to the death of Rædwald's father, Tytila, and the later date is commonly given for the death of Rædwald.
He was succeeded by his pagan son Eorpwald, who was later persuaded to adopt Christianity by Edwin of Northumbria.
### Sutton Hoo
Rædwald lived at a time when eminent individuals were buried in barrows at the cemetery at Sutton Hoo, near Woodbridge, Suffolk. There, large mounds – which were originally much higher and more visible – can still be seen, overlooking the upper estuary of the River Deben.
In 1939, a mound at Sutton Hoo, now known as Mound 1, was discovered to contain an Anglo-Saxon ship-burial of unparalleled richness. The mound enclosed a ship, 27 metres (89 ft) long, which had seen use on the seas and had been repaired. In the centre of the ship was a chamber containing a collection of jewellery and other rich grave goods, including silver bowls, drinking vessels, clothing and weaponry. One unusual item was a large 'sceptre' in the form of a whetstone that showed no sign of previous use as a tool: it has been suggested that this was a symbol of the office of bretwalda. The gold and garnet body-equipment found with the other goods was produced for a patron who employed a goldsmith the equal or better than any in Europe and was designed to project an image of imperial power. The Mediterranean silverware in the grave is a unique assemblage for its period in Europe.
The magnificence of the objects, both the personal possessions and those items designed to denote the authority of the dead individual, point to the death of a person connected with the royal court, according to Rupert Bruce-Mitford, who regards the burial as "very likely the monument of the High King or bretwalda Rædwald". Yorke suggests that the treasures buried with the ship reflect the size of the tribute paid to Rædwald by subject kings during his period as bretwalda. Bruce-Mitford has suggested that the inclusion of bowls and spoons amongst the treasures fits with Bede's account of Rædwald's conversion: the spoons may have been a present for a convert from paganism and the bowls had Christian significance. Coins found in the burial have been dated to the approximate date of Rædwald's death. The controversy surrounding the identity of the person for whom the mound was built are reflected in the comments in the article on Rædwald in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ("It has been argued, more strongly than convincingly, that Rædwald must be the man buried in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo") and by McClure and Collins, who note that the evidence for Rædwald is "almost non-existent".
Alternative suggestions as candidates include other East Anglian kings or a prestigious foreign visitor. There are alternative explanations: the person may have been a wealthy status-seeker, rather than a king, though Rendlesham, a known residence of the East Anglian kings, is only 4 miles (6.4 km) away.
Swedish cultural influence has been detected at Sutton Hoo: there are strong similarities in both the armour and the burial with Vendel Period finds from Sweden. Bruce-Mitford suggested that the connection is close enough to imply that the Wuffingas dynasty came from that part of Scandinavia. There are also significant differences, and exact parallels with the workmanship and style of the Sutton Hoo artefacts cannot be found elsewhere; as a result the connection is generally regarded as unproven.
It is also possible that the mound is actually a cenotaph rather than a grave, the only sign of body being a chemical stain which could have had other origins; indeed, the site includes burials of both meat and companion animals. Further, there is a lack of shroud ties, and no clear evidence of items which might have adorned a body being left in the expected places in relation to the stain. However, more recent analysis detected phosphate in the soil – an indicator that a human body once lay at rest there. The cenotaph theory may be consistent with the transition from pagan burial to Christian burial; certainly as far as Rædwald is concerned, he could have received a Christian burial, and the mound, whether completed before or after his conversion, being used as a memorial and as symbol of the status of the Kingship of East Anglia.
## See also
- Sutton Hoo
- Sutton Hoo Helmet
- Wuffingas
- East Anglia |
1,010,410 | Cedar Fire | 1,170,029,995 | California wildfire in 2003 | [
"2003 California wildfires",
"Cleveland National Forest",
"Cuyamaca Mountains",
"December 2003 events in the United States",
"East County (San Diego County)",
"History of San Diego County, California",
"Mountain Empire (San Diego County)",
"November 2003 events in the United States",
"October 2003 events in the United States",
"Urban fires in the United States"
]
| The Cedar Fire was a massive, highly-destructive wildfire, which burned 273,246 acres (1,106 km<sup>2</sup>) of land in San Diego County, California, during October and November 2003. The fire's rapid growth was driven by the Santa Ana wind, causing the fire to spread at a rate of 3,600 acres (15 km<sup>2</sup>) per hour. By the time the fire was fully contained on November 4, it had destroyed 2,820 buildings (including 2,232 homes) and killed 15 people, including one firefighter. Hotspots continued to burn within the Cedar Fire's perimeter until December 5, 2003, when the fire was fully brought under control.
The fire remains one of the largest wildfires in California history and, as of January 2022, the ninth-largest wildfire in the state's modern history. According to CALFIRE, it is also the sixth-deadliest and fourth-most destructive wildfire in state history, causing just over \$1.3 billion in damages. In November 2018, the Camp Fire (2018) surpassed the Tubbs Fire (which had previously surpassed the 1991 Oakland Firestorm and the Cedar Fire) to become the single most destructive wildfire in California history, in terms of the number of buildings destroyed. In December 2017, the Thomas Fire surpassed the Cedar Fire to become California's largest modern wildfire on record, before the Mendocino Complex Fire's Ranch Fire surpassed both fires to become the state's largest wildfire in August 2018.
## Fire progression
The Cedar Fire began in the Cuyamaca Mountains within the Cleveland National Forest. It was first reported at 5:37 p.m. PDT on October 25, 2003, to the south of Ramona in central San Diego County. At the time it began, at least eleven other wildfires were actively burning in Southern California. Within ten minutes of the initial report, the U.S. Forest Service had deployed 10 fire engines, two water tenders, two hand crews and two chief officers. Within 30 minutes, 320 firefighters and six fire chiefs were en route. A San Diego County Sheriff's Department ASTREA helicopter that was rescuing a hunter spotted the fire at about the same time as the first phone report was received and called for an air response. Another sheriff's helicopter equipped with a Bambi Bucket was dispatched to drop water on the fire. When the helicopter was only minutes away from the fire, a Forest Service fire chief cancelled the water drop because policy required the cutoff of aerial firefighting 30 minutes before sunset, a decision which was later severely criticized by the public, media, and other elected officials.
Between the time the fire started and midnight the predicted strong easterly Santa Ana winds surfaced and the fire burned approximately 5,319 acres. By 3:00 a.m., 62,000 acres (250 km<sup>2</sup>) had burned. Overnight, the fast-moving fire killed 12 people living in Wildcat Canyon and Muth Valley in the northern part of Lakeside, who had little or no warning that the fire was approaching. The fire destroyed 39 homes on the Barona Indian Reservation. In only a few hours, the Cedar Fire pushed southwest over 30 miles (48.3 km) and burned over 100,000 acres (400 km<sup>2</sup>) at rates of up to 6,000 acres (24 km<sup>2</sup>) per hour. The fire also crossed several large highways, including Interstate 15, and by noon on October 26, the fire was burning hundreds of homes in the Scripps Ranch community of San Diego, and was threatening many others.
On October 26, the fire forged into Alpine, Harbison Canyon, Lake Jennings and Crest, burning hundreds more homes in areas that had been devastated by the Laguna Fire 33 years earlier. By October 28, the strong easterly Santa Ana winds died down and the fire turned east, consuming another 114,000 acres (460 km<sup>2</sup>). The entire community of Cuyamaca, most of nearby Cuyamaca Rancho State Park, and more than 500 homes surrounding the town of Julian were destroyed.
On October 29, a group of firefighters attempting to defend a house in Riverwood Estates, near Santa Ysabel, became entrapped and overrun by the fire. One firefighter died. Another firefighter sustained severe injuries, and two others were hurt. Firefighters finally achieved full containment of the Cedar Fire on November 3, and the Cedar Fire was completely brought under control on December 5.
## Impacts
In the wake of the 2003 firestorm, including the Cedar Fire, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (Gray Davis was still governor) declared a state of emergency and activated the National Guard to assist in the disaster relief process. President George W. Bush declared Los Angeles, San Bernardino, San Diego and Ventura counties major disaster areas. Air travel in and around the region was also disrupted due to the effect on air traffic control radar.
San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium was used as an evacuation site, forcing the NFL to move the Monday Night Football game on October 27 between the San Diego Chargers and Miami Dolphins to Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona. The decision to move the game to Arizona was made less than 24 hours before the game started, and admission was free.
## Investigation
Investigators determined that the fire was started by Sergio Martinez of West Covina, California, a novice hunter who had been hunting in the area and had become lost. Martinez initially told investigators that he had fired a shot from his rifle to draw attention and that the shot had caused the fire, but he later recanted and admitted he started the fire intentionally to signal rescuers. After gathering sticks and brush together, Martinez lit the brush and quickly lost control of the fire because of the heat, low humidity and low moisture content of the surrounding vegetation.
Martinez was charged in federal court on October 7, 2004 with setting the fire and lying about it. In November 2005, a federal judge sentenced Martinez to six months in a work-furlough program and ordered him to complete 960 hours (40 days) of community service. He also was sentenced to five years' probation and to pay \$9,000 in restitution. As part of the plea bargain, prosecutors dropped the charge of lying to investigators.
## Criticism of the response
### Outdated policies
There were a number of controversies associated with the Cedar Fire, resulting in investigations lasting several years. A report, the 2003 San Diego County Fire Siege Fire Safety Review, prepared in the wake of the fire and presented to the Governor's Blue Ribbon Fire Commission, criticized the overall response. The report stated that though the fire conditions and severity should have been expected, the responsible agencies were not properly prepared when the fire broke out, and radio communications problems exacerbated the problem. The report stated that "Disorganization, inconsistent or outdated policies among agencies that grounded aircraft or caused other problems, and planning or logistics in disarray also marked the preliminary stages of the difficult, dangerous firefighting." With multiple fires already burning in the state, many local crews were already headed north to fight other fires and could not be recalled to assist with the Cedar Fire.
### Forest Service issues
The turning away of the Sheriff's helicopters by the U.S. Forest Service in the fire's early stages came under severe criticism by the public, media and elected officials, believing that an opportunity to prevent the fire from becoming out of control had been lost. The federal government has an aviation assets "cutoff" policy which stated that "aircraft (planes or helicopters) may not be dispatched so as to arrive at an incident no later than 30 minutes before sunset". The helicopter pilot later claimed he could have made multiple water drops in the time he had before darkness. However, a study conducted by the Forest Service concluded that even if the helicopter had been able to drop multiple loads of water with direct hits on the flames, the impact on the fire would have been minimal.
Cutoff also prevented two air tankers and a helicopter stationed at Ramona Airport from being dispatched to the fire, although the tankers likely could not have been used anyway as the pilots had just spent seven hours fighting another fire, and FAA regulations stipulated that they could not continue to fly.
### California Department of Forestry issues
A contributing factor to the initial lack of aviation resources to fight the fire was the California Department of Forestry's "no divert" policy, which allows incident commanders to dedicate certain resources to a particular fire; the policy applied to both airborne aircraft as well as those on the ground awaiting dispatch. At the time that the Cedar Fire started, there were already 11 other fires burning in the region. Aviation resources in the area were currently being held on the ground under a "no divert" declaration, in order to be available for structures' protection on another fire. However, weather and visibility at the other fire was precluding their use, so the aircraft sat idle, despite the fact that conditions were acceptable for their use on the Cedar Fire.
Both the media and local elected officials were also critical of the lack of use of military aviation assets located nearby at Camp Pendleton and Miramar. The U.S. Marine Corps operates CH-46 Sea Knight and CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters that can carry water-dropping buckets, but existing policies prohibited their use until all other civilian resources were used. Additionally, the military aircraft radios were not compatible with those used by most state and local fire agencies, and the military pilots had not received any training in fire-specific operations, making them a potential safety hazard both to firefighters on the ground and other aircraft over the fire.
## Fatalities
Fifteen people, including one firefighter, were killed by the fire. A survivor, Rudy Reyes, was burned over approximately 70 percent of his body. Many of those killed were trapped by the flames which were driven by 60-mile-per-hour (97 km/h) winds that propelled the flames faster than residents could flee. Of those killed, 13 died in the first 24 hours of the fire. At least 10 people were trapped in their vehicles trying to outrun the flames. Some of those killed were so badly burned their remains were identified based on the dog tags of pets lying dead near them. On October 29, fire overran an engine crew from the Novato Fire District near the town of Julian. Engineer Steven Rucker sustained fatal injuries, while the three other members of the crew were able to take shelter in a house.
## See also
- Santiago Canyon Fire
- 1991 Oakland firestorm
- 2003 California wildfires
- Old Fire
- October 2007 California wildfires
- Witch Fire
- 2008 California wildfires
- May 2014 San Diego County wildfires
- October 2017 Northern California wildfires
- Tubbs Fire
- December 2017 Southern California wildfires
- Thomas Fire
- Lilac Fire |
66,258,597 | Who Am I? (Pale Waves album) | 1,168,219,194 | Album by Pale Waves | [
"2021 albums",
"Interscope Records albums",
"LGBT-related albums",
"Pale Waves albums"
]
| Who Am I? is the second studio album by English indie pop band Pale Waves. It was released on 12 February 2021 by the independent record label Dirty Hit. The record was produced by Rich Costey and recorded in Los Angeles. While the band's previous album, My Mind Makes Noises (2018), took inspiration from 1980s synth pop, Who Am I? was inspired by female pop and rock musicians from the 1990s and early 2000s, including acts like Avril Lavigne, Liz Phair, Michelle Branch, Alanis Morissette, and Courtney Love.
All of the songs on Who Am I? were co-written by the band's lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Heather Baron-Gracie; others were co-written by Sam de Jong, Suzanne Lyn Shinn, Jake Sinclair, and band drummer Ciara Doran. Many of the songs on the album revolve around themes of romance, love, acceptance, and queer sexuality, all of which were partially inspired by Baron-Gracie's romantic relationship with singer-songwriter Kelsi Luck. Baron-Gracie was further motivated to focus on LGBTQ+ themes after Doran came out as non-binary.
Who Am I? received mostly positive reviews, according to review aggregators Metacritic and AnyDecentMusic?, with critics commenting on the Pale Waves's change in style. Others discussed the impact of the artists whom Heather Baron-Gracie has cited as the album's influences. Many reviews appreciated the evolution in the band's style, comparing their newer sound to that of pop music from the early 2000s, although some felt that the record was too derivative of its influences. Upon its release, Who Am I? debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart and at number one on the UK Independent Albums Chart. Who Am I? was supported by five singles ("Change", "She's My Religion", "Easy", "You Don't Own Me", and "Fall to Pieces" – all of which were promoted with their own music videos); due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Pale Waves was forced to postpone a tour supporting the album to 2022.
## Production
### Background
In February 2020, three of the members from the band Pale Waves – Ciara Doran, Hugo Silvani, and Charlie Wood – were involved in a near-fatal road accident when travelling between shows in Sweden and Germany. The bus they were in slid on an icy road and rolled into a ditch, and while no one was seriously injured, the band members have said it was nevertheless traumatic. On top of the road accident, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the planned release of the album, which had originally been slated for early 2020. Despite this setback, the band's frontperson Heather Baron-Gracie explained to NME magazine that quarantine allowed time for band members to have some "space and time to process what happened [with the road accident] and heal from it".
### Inspiration and writing
When writing for the album began, the members of Pale Waves struggled to craft songs that sounded different from those on their debut album. Baron-Gracie discussed this issue with Nylon magazine, explaining:
> I think the first batch of demos we were trying to be too much like first album. ... I was done with the sort of '80s influenced pop style ... [and Ciara and I] both needed space artistically to create separately. We sort of overworked one another and we were exhausted and we just kept writing the same songs. So it got to the point where we both knew that we needed to take time apart from one another. I went off and I think I only wrote with maybe four people, and 50 percent of the album or more was done with the same guy, [New Zealand songwriter Sam de Jong], because we just hit it off so well. ... That was really freeing for me because I didn't have to sort of consider someone else's artistic vision.
Baron-Gracie later told Coup de Main magazine that when she first met de Jong, "it just instantly clicked" and that the two of them "basically [wrote] the whole album in a month." Baron-Gracie's decision to co-write with de Jong was a break with precedent, given that all of the band's previous songs had been co-written by Baron-Gracie and Doran (on this album, only "Run To" and "Who Am I?" were the product of Baron-Gracie and Doran). Baron-Gracie decided to work on music with other people to prevent creative burnout and engender new ideas: "It was uncomfortable at first because I've never been in a room and made or written music with anyone apart from Ciara before," Baron-Gracie told NME. "But I did it because we're a band and we need to carry on our career." While Baron-Gracie and de Jong worked on songs for this album, Doran worked with other artists to hone their production abilities. Jake Sinclair and Suzy Shinn also co-wrote songs for the album, contributing the tracks "Wish U Were Here" and "Run To", respectively.
The themes inherent to Who Am I? were heavily inspired by Baron-Gracie's romantic relationship with Kelsi Luck. So important was Luck to the record that in an interview with Vanity Fair, Baron-Gracie stressed that she "wouldn't have this record if it wasn't for Kelsi." Baron-Gracie then revealed that during the writing of the album, at a time when she found herself "a bit out of love with music", Luck had encouraged her to read through poems "that had really meant something to her". This helped rekindle Baron-Gracie's interest in lyrical expression, leading to the songs "You Don't Own Me" and "Wish U Were Here", both of which were inspired by poems that Luck had written. (Although Luck initially objected to Baron-Gracie's interpolation of her poetry, she eventually relented.) Baron-Gracie and Luck's relationship also resulted in the album focusing on LGBTQ+ themes. Although aware of her sexuality during the first album, Baron-Gracie felt that she "wasn't confident about [her]self or with [her] sexuality" to be open about it at the time. With Who Am I?, however, Baron-Gracie decided to use its lyrics to came out as gay. This was inspired both by her growing frustrations with many of her fans thinking she was straight, as well as by Ciara Doran's confidence and openness about being non-binary and using they/them pronouns. The decision to be honest with her lyrics caused Baron-Gracie to feel as if "a weight has been lifted off [her] shoulders".
Whereas Pale Waves's debut album My Mind Makes Noises (2018) had been inspired by 1980s music, Who Am I? takes greater inspiration from the alternative rock and pop rock of the 1990s and 2000s, with Baron-Gracie specifically citing Avril Lavigne, as well as artists like Alanis Morissette, Courtney Love, Liz Phair, Michelle Branch, and assorted country musicians as inspiration. Baron-Gracie also revealed in an interview with The Honey Pop that The Chicks and Kacey Musgraves inspired "the melodic side of [the] record." Regarding the album's influences, Baron-Gracie told NME, "I know there are a lot of my fans that love Avril so I know they're gonna dissect my album and know what I've pulled from Avril. I went back to my roots with this album with someone like Alanis as well. She's just unapologetic, and I wanted to be like that in this album." In an interview with Northern Chorus, Baron-Gracie commented on the change in style between the band's first and second albums, explaining that the transition "came naturally." "We were so young when we did the first album ... I didn't really know myself at the time and we were all quite new to it all," she explained, "but we had a bit more time to think about where we wanted to go [stylistically-speaking] on the second record". In the same interview, Baron-Gracie also called the shift from 80s-influenced music to a more pop punk sound "a necessary change," and she admitted that she "couldn't have done another record that was a twinkly 80's sound".
### Recording
Who Am I? was primarily recorded in Los Angeles alongside producer Rich Costey who had previously worked with acts such as Foo Fighters, Muse and Biffy Clyro. The band chose to record in Los Angeles, California, as Baron-Gracie felt that "it's just a really encouraging and inspiring place because there are so many creative people". Despite Pale Waves often being described as the protégés of the 1975, the members of the latter band – who had previously helped produce the Pale Waves singles "Television Romance" and "There's a Honey" – had "zero involvement" with Who Am I? While speaking to The Big Issue North, Baron-Gracie revealed that the band had intended to feature a collaboration with the 1975 on the album, but these plans were abandoned because the band had "grown tired of being in [the 1975's] shadow."
Portions of the album were recorded with the entire band in Los Angeles, but when the COVID-19 pandemic hit in March 2020, the band members dispersed: Baron-Gracie and Doran remained in L.A. while guitarist Hugo Silvani and bassist Charlie Wood returned to the UK. Silvani and Wood would record their own parts remotely and send them to Baron-Gracie and Doran in L.A. Owing to COVID-19 containment and prevention protocols, the last segment of the album was recorded alone by Baron-Gracie with one other producer in the room. Social distancing guidelines meant that Baron-Gracie spent most of this time confined to the studio's vocal booth.
When the band was working on the album in the studio, the rock band Muse was recording in an adjacent room. According to Baron-Gracie: "They were really incredibly nice because they let us use loads of their equipment. And I actually recorded on Matt Bellamy’s vocal mic. He just lent it to me. He was like, 'Yeah, you can use this on your record, you can take any guitars that you want, and you can come in here when I’m not in here and play my piano.' And it was so cool of him to just let me use whatever I wanted." Bellamy was also going to perform some of the bass parts on the album, but as Baron-Gracie told DIY magazine: "We managed to do it over the internet with [Wood] in the end."
## Content
The album opens with "Change", a song that lyrically discusses the pain of heartbreak. According to Baron-Gracie, the song was one of the last tracks to be written for the album, and in an interview with NME she explained that it was one that she "knew [she] needed on the album, but [she] didn't have it yet." Lyrically, the song posed a challenge to Baron-Gracie because, at the time, she had never experienced severe heartbreak. She consequently spoke to people in her life who had, "gather[ing] their experiences" to make the lyrics as authentic as possible. Baron-Gracie wanted "Change" to serve as the album's opener because musically it was different from the band's previous work. The song's "unapologetic" references to oral sex were also a deliberate attempt by the band to "shock people" and "let them know [the band was] back." "Fall to Pieces" was inspired by the early, turbulent days of Baron-Gracie and Luck's relationship, when Baron-Gracie herself was "all over the place" mentally. Lyrically, "Fall to Pieces" details two individuals in a romantic relationship who keep falling into a loop of argumentation. Baron-Gracie stressed that while it is "kind of a negative song ... it has hope". "She's My Religion" is an open love song to Luck that celebrates "lov[ing] someone and their entirety" – and not simply their positive attributes. The song marked the first time that Baron-Gracie had been "so open about [her] sexuality." Because of its impactful and openly queer lyrics, Baron-Gracie wanted the track to represent the LGBTQ+ community in the "most honest and sincere way." Baron-Gracie contrasted "She's My Religion" with songs like Katy Perry's "I Kissed a Girl", telling Pride Magazine: "There's not a lot of songs that [handle female queerness] in an appealing way. It's either experimental or playful. I just think it affects [gay women] and it knocks us back, especially when straight women do it."
Baron-Gracie described "Easy" as the "feel good love song" on the album. Originally this track was envisioned as a piano ballad, but "it didn't fit together". Despite optimistic lyrics, "on the piano, it ... sound[ed] sad and a bit depressing." Baron-Gracie and Sam de Jong consequently reworked the song to be more upbeat. The heavier guitar riff that plays during the chorus was inspired by "grungy, super-catchy guitar riffs" in songs by "strong female artists" like Courtney Love, Alanis Morissette, and Liz Phair. Initially, Baron-Gracie and de Jong debated whether the riff belonged in the final cut, but in the end, Baron-Gracie felt that it added "another element" to the song. "Wish U Were Here", co-written by Baron-Gracie and Suzanne Lyn Shinn, was originally not slated for the album and was recorded when the band learned they had extra time in the studio. "Tomorrow" was the first track that Baron-Gracie wrote for the album, and thematically, it "made a pathway for this record". The song, which references and cheers on people in Baron-Gracie's life, was written "for the fans" to provide encouragement, and in an interview with Sophie Williams of NME Baron-Gracie explained that the song was her way of saying "I'm there for you. I've been through it too. Please continue to carry on." "You Don't Own Me" – a track that Baron-Gracie has called "the most important on the record" – is "about being a woman ... in society," Baron-Grace explained; "We've come a long way, but ... we don't have equality just yet." The song was inspired by many instances of "sexist" and "inappropriate" behaviour directed at Baron-Gracie by men. The feminist ethos of the song is "unapologetic" and "angry" because, as Baron-Gracie put it, "we [i.e., women] are angry; we're sick of it!"
Described as a "soft, tender, genuine moment on the album", the "dream-grunge" track "I Just Needed You" was written after Baron-Gracie "realign[ed] [her] priorities in life". The singer explained to Williams: "Society and the world can really sort of influence or trick you into believing that happiness is within materialistic things. ... You have to find happiness within." Baron-Gracie later told The Honey Pop that "the song is basically me rewiring and adjusting my perspective on what is going to bring me happiness." "Odd Ones Out" is a ballad through which Baron-Gracie expresses confusion as to how so many relationships fail. "I've seen so many experiences of this in my life," she explained to Williams. "I don't want to be an example of that. I didn't want my relationship to end up like those relationships. I wanted to be the odd one out." "Run To" was written as if it were a letter to Baron-Gracie's mother. Through this song, Baron-Gracie emphasises that she is doing alright and that her mother does not need to worry about her well-being. The album closer, "Who Am I?", was one of the final tracks written for the album and was initially composed while the band was on tour. The night she composed the song, Baron-Gracie locked herself in her bathroom for three hours to work out the details of the track. Lyrically, the song is Heather "screaming to [her]self essentially that [she] need[s] to figure out who [she is] as a human being and what [her] priorities are in life." While talking to NME, the singer explained: "This song just makes perfect sense. It has to be the finishing part of the album. ... This is a perfect album title."
## Promotion and singles
"Change", the first single to be released from Who Am I?, debuted on BBC Radio 1 on 10 November 2020; the single's music video, directed by Johnny Goddard, was also released at this time, alongside an announcement about the album itself. The album's second single, "She's My Religion", was released on 15 December 2020. A video for the single, directed by Jess Kohl and starring Baron-Gracie and Kelsi Luck, was released on 22 December; because of this, Baron-Gracie told Pride magazine that the video was the band's first in which "you really see [her] intimate with someone". The third single from the album, "Easy", was released on 13 January 2021. After premiering on BBC Radio 1, the track eventually peaked at number 43 on Radiomonitor's UK Radio Airplay Top 50 chart. According to Baron-Gracie, the music video for "Easy", which was directed by James Slater, was "inspired by the gothic medieval aesthetic and ... Tim Burton films".
"You Don't Own Me" was released on 29 January 2021 as the fourth single. The music video for the song – which was co-directed by Baron-Gracie and Luck – was released on 1 March, and was described by Nü Sounds music site as a "portal to early 2000s grunge; red hair, graffiti, all the works." The site also likened Baron-Gracie's dress to those worn by Melanie Martinez and called the overall production "a throwback of a lifetime". Following the "You Don't Own Me" video's premiere, the band also uploaded to YouTube a "behind the scenes" featurette that explored the directing of the video. The fifth and final single to be released was "Fall to Pieces" which likewise premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 9 February 2021. A video for the single, directed by Callum L. James, was released on 12 February. A "behind the scenes" look at the making of the "Fall to Pieces" music video was also released on 17 February via YouTube.
Because Who Am I? was released in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, Pale Waves was unable to promote the album by immediately touring. Baron-Gracie discussed this setback in an interview with Northern Chorus, saying, "We can't complain and be selfish with everything going on around us. We were lucky enough to create an album campaign and release videos, but not being able to tour was disappointing as it's a huge part of a new album release". The band eventually resumed touring in early 2022, performing their first concert since 2020 in Bristol on February 11. In mid-2022, the band performed several shows in the United States, both as a headliner and as the opening act for 5 Seconds of Summer on their Take My Hand World Tour.
## Critical reception
Who Am I? was met with generally favourable reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, this release received an average score of 62 based on 7 reviews. Fellow music aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave the album an average score of 7.1/10.
Jason Lipshutz of Billboard applauded the record's "crunchier guitar sound" and "buoyant pop hooks", and he named Who Am I? "one of the best indie-rock albums of the young year". Carli Scolforo of Paste magazine reviewed the album positively, writing that "the band translates their many inspirations into their own brand of indie pop that feels perfectly fit for 2021, with their lyrics bouncing between relationships, identity and mental health." Thomas Smith of NME awarded the album four out of five stars, and wrote that with the record, "the band capture their optimism of a new life worth living, but never shy away laying bare the challenges of doing so in times like these." Stephen Ackroyd of Dork magazine awarded the album four out of five stars, noting that "a hard left swing into late-90s alt-pop wouldn't have felt like the most obvious route [for the band] to take, and yet it works brilliantly" on Who Am I? Jay Singh, writing for The Line of Best Fit, criticised the band for "wearing their influences on their sleeve a little too blatantly" in an attempt to distance themselves from The 1975, with Singh arguing that "emulating Avril Lavigne isn't exactly a foolproof plan". However, he did applaud the band for their new sound which he described as "well executed and joyously expressive".
Writing for Pitchfork, Ashley Bardham awarded the album a 6.2/10. While arguing that the album still saw the band "stuck as an imitation act", she emphasised that "their love for [early 2000s pop-rock] certainly comes through." Bardham wrote that the album includes "some of the most pleasantly sugared Britpop since the 2010s-era Mumford & Sons invasion". While Who Am I? might have issues, Bardham concluded, the record sees the band's "star potential ... comes through". Eamonn Sweeney of The Irish Times gave the album three out of five stars, writing that "Pale Waves should secure another top-10 hit and cement their position as one of the few current guitar bands that resonate with a young, 21st-century audience". Rachel Brodsky of The Independent gave the album two out of five stars, saying that "despite the album's slick production and radio-ready melodies, one wishes Pale Waves could find a more sophisticated language to express youthful enlightenment". Rolling Stone magazine gave the album a negative review, writing, "These lovelorn English cliché jockeys offer a clunky mix of late-Nineties easy listening and 2000s emo pop." The magazine also negatively compared the band to Paramore and Natalie Imbruglia.
### Accolades
## Commercial performance
Who Am I? was released 12 February 2021, and debuted at number 3 on the UK Albums Chart (Official Charts Company), selling 6,115 copies. On both the Official Vinyl Albums and the Official Physical Albums Charts (OOC), the album debuted at number 2, bested in both cases by Slowthai's album Tyron. Who Am I? did, however, top the UK Independent Album Chart (OOC), and by the end of 2021, Who Am I? was the twenty-ninth best-selling cassette release in the United Kingdom. On the Scottish Albums Chart, the album debuted at number 2, and in Ireland, the record debuted at 86. In Japan, Who Am I? peaked at 142 on Oricon's Japanese Albums chart, and at 88 on the Billboard Japan chart.
## Track listing
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Who Am I?
Pale Waves
- Heather Baron-Gracie – vocals, guitar
- Ciara Doran – drums, synths, programming
- Hugo Silvani – guitar
- Charlie Wood – bass guitar
Technical
- Rich Costey – production
- Sam de Jong – production (track 1)
- Koby Berman – additional production
- Ciara Doran – additional production (tracks 1, 4, and 11)
## Charts
## Release history |
72,496,444 | Yoga and cultural appropriation | 1,172,313,139 | Analysis of the modern adoption of yoga | [
"Cultural appropriation",
"Yoga as exercise"
]
| Yoga is by origin an ancient spiritual practice from India. In the form of yoga as exercise, using postures (asanas) derived from medieval Haṭha yoga, it has become a widespread fitness practice across the western world. Yoga as exercise, along with the use that some make of symbols such as Om ॐ, has been described as cultural appropriation.
Scholars, noting that yoga has continually developed in form and changed its contexts and goals since it originated, both in India and in the western world, and that practitioners in India have adopted western yoga practices, have debated whether the charge can be substantiated. Scholars and authors from India have suggested that the desired result is not that white people should stop practicing yoga, but that they should learn something of its history and seek to practice it responsibly in a genuine and healing cultural exchange.
## Context
Yoga is an ancient spiritual practice from India, whose goal was to unite the human spirit with the divine. The branch of yoga that makes use of physical postures is Haṭha yoga, developed from the 11th century onwards. It seeks to use physical techniques to preserve and channel a vital force or energy. It had goals including the attainment of magical powers, immortality, and spiritual liberation. Modern yoga as exercise makes use of physical postures as Haṭha yoga did, but its goals are good health, reduced stress, and physical flexibility.
Cultural appropriation is defined as the "inappropriate or unacknowledged" adoption of elements of a culture by people from a different culture. The concept is open to debate.
## Appropriating yoga
The scholar of religion Andrea Jain writes in her book Selling Yoga that "advocates of the Hindu origins position" assert that practitioners of postural yoga have not observed what they consider to be the Hindu roots of yoga, and therefore "denounce what they consider yoga marketers' illegitimate cooptation and commodification of yoga." She states that such claims "cannot stand serious historical scrutiny", quoting the Indologist David Gordon White's comment that "Every group in every age has created its own version and vision of yoga." White states that this has been possible because the concept of yoga is extremely malleable. Jain writes that Hindu objectors have two primary concerns. Firstly, they feel that "popularized systems of postural yoga are corruptions of what they consider authentic yoga." Secondly, they feel that "Hinduism does not get due credit" when yoga is appropriated in this way. Jain states that modern yoga had two major narratives. Vivekananda promoted what he called raja yoga, a spiritual movement, and he criticised "body-centered yoga practices". Later, other leaders (such as Yogendra and Kuvalayananda) looked to Hinduism in a different way, so that postural yoga was "reconstructed and medicalized" to turn its practices into "modern fitness techniques deemed original to Hinduism". Jain states that some objectors claim that yoga is Hinduism's intellectual property, so that commercial yoga is effectively theft. She writes that the Hindu origins position, however, "ignore[s] the dynamic history of yoga", and that protest "emerges from a distorted view of history that serves a fierce will to power".
The British yoga teacher Nadia Gilani, author of the 2022 book The Yoga Manifesto, writes that modern yoga as exercise has lost its way. She proposes a programme "on how we can work together to restore yoga and preserve its roots in ways to benefit everyone." The Guardian reports that yoga teachers in India feel that western yoga has appropriated their culture, quoting Vikram Jeet Singh of Goa as saying that "his own culture [had been] wiped out and suppressed by colonisation." Yoga teachers of South Asian heritage like Nikita Desai have stated that yoga has been "colonised" by wealthy white society, putting it out of reach of many people. The same article, however, quotes Gilani as saying that "I don’t think claiming yoga back as an Indian practice for only Indians is the way", since the situation is not in her view a matter of the west having "colonised" yoga. Gilani comments that while she is a "person of colour", she was born and teaches yoga in the west, and that her yoga practice must fit her modern life.
The yoga teacher and studio owner Arundhati Baitmangalkar, writing in Yoga International, describes some aspects of yoga marketing as cultural appropriation. She identifies yoga studios, yoga teachers and yoga-related businesses as among those misusing yoga, stating that sacred symbols like idols of Buddha, Ganesha, Patanjali, and Shiva need to be treated with reverence, just as the Om ॐ symbol, yoga sutras, and mandalas are not "décor" and that they should not be added casually to beautify a yoga space.
The Swedish yoga teacher Rachel Brathen, author of the bestselling 2015 book Yoga Girl, responding to comments on her website, notes that whereas the British Raj banned yoga in India, it is now ubiquitous in the western world, and asks whether it is cultural appropriation to practice and to teach yoga "as a white or non-Hindu". Brathen answers that she does not know whether she should stop using incense, or Tibetan bells, or having a Buddha statue on her altar, and so on. She notes that her website does not have an "About yoga..." page on the origins of modern yoga, but agrees that it would be a worthy addition. She states that when she was young she wore a bindi on her forehead, stopping when someone objected. She comments that she has an Om symbol tattooed on her foot, and would have undone it were that possible, not least because the foot is considered an impure part of the body by Hindus.
## Analysis
The scholar of religion Neil Dalal writes that a mainstream view of cultural appropriation assumes that modern yoga has its roots in South Asia, and that there exists some ancient, pure, and authentic South Asian yoga which is at risk of being corrupted in the modern world. An alternative spiritual but not religious view, held by some practitioners of modern yoga, is that it embodies a pure and universal spirituality, which cannot be corrupted. Dalal states that both views consider yoga to have a "timeless ahistorical essence". Yoga scholarship, investigating the history of yoga, holds instead that yoga does not have an essence as it changed continually over the centuries, and that talk of purity or authenticity does not make sense; indeed, talk of cultural appropriation may not make sense in the case of yoga either. Further, yoga in India has declined in its traditional form, and has taken on aspects of its modern western form, complicating the discussion and implying that many people in India have accepted a more western view of yoga.
The scholar of globalisation, Shameem Black, writes that while the goal of decolonising yoga may be justified, yoga also offers scope for invigorating decolonisation projects in India. The colonial history of yoga, she writes, shows that it was "both shaped by imperial norms and capable of generating anti-colonial critical force."
The first-generation Indian American yoga researcher and teacher, Rina Deshpande, writes in Yoga Journal that people from India can feel excluded if Indian words and symbols are forbidden in an attempt to make yoga classes more inclusive. Deshpande notes that it is ironic that yoga is now "often marketed by affluent Westerners to affluent Westerners—and Indians, ironically, are marginally represented, if at all."
The scholar of postcolonial studies Rumya S. Putcha states that the term "cultural appropriation" in itself "is a way of diluting the fact that we're talking about racism and European colonialism." In her view, the effect is conveniently to divert attention to how one can "show cultural appreciation appropriately", when the real issue is "the role of power and the legacies of imperialism."
## Desired result
The scholar of religious studies Shreena Gandhi and the antiracist campaigner Lillie Wolff write that the desired result is not that white people should stop doing yoga, but for them to see how the history of yoga in the west is linked to oppression and colonialism, and that a freely-shared practice of devotion is being advertised and sold for profit. Gandhi and Wolff comment that one reason for yoga's popularity was that "it reinforced European and Euro-American ideas of India. Early Indian yoga missionaries played on the orientalist construction of the 'west' as progressive and superior and the 'east' as spiritual but inferior. Yoga became — and remains — a practice which allows western practitioners to experience the idea of another culture while focusing on the self." They acknowledge the "far too few practitioners" who take the trouble to study the history and philosophy of yoga, and invite everyone to join in an "authentic, respectful, and accountable cultural exchange", where "the practices [can] have a profound healing effect on the practitioner."
The Indian-born journalist Neha Tandon, writing in Women's Health, recalls that after many years of learning yoga in South Asia and with her family, she visited a "fancy studio" and was shocked when the mantra "Om Namah Shivaya" was chanted over the pop song "God Is a Woman." She comments that nobody "buys a 'Namaste in bed' shirt with ill intentions", but that alienating South Asian people remains problematic. Tandon suggests that practitioners might visit a Hindu temple or read some of the classic texts on yoga to become "more socially conscious" in their practice.
## See also
- International Day of Yoga |
44,104,971 | Hechicero | 1,158,321,980 | Mexican professional wrestler | [
"21st-century professional wrestlers",
"CMLL World Heavyweight Champions",
"Living people",
"Masked wrestlers",
"Mexican male professional wrestlers",
"NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champions",
"Sportspeople from Monterrey",
"Unidentified wrestlers",
"Year of birth missing (living people)"
]
| Hechicero / Rey Hechicero (born in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico) is a Mexican luchador enmascarado (or masked professional wrestler), who works for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), where he a former CMLL World Heavyweight Champion. He portrays a rudo ("Bad guy") wrestling character. Hechicero has also made appearances on the Mexican independent circuit, as well as in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and in the United States for Ring of Honor (ROH).
Hechicero's real name is not a matter of public record, as is often the case with masked wrestlers in Mexico where their private lives are kept a secret from the wrestling fans. He is billed as "Rey Hechicero" when making appearances outside CMLL, but there is no pretense that it is two different characters that he is playing. Hechicero is Spanish for "Wizard" and "Rey Hechicero" means "Wizard King".
## Professional wrestling career
In lucha libre there is a long-standing tradition of keeping the personal information of masked wrestlers private from the public, including wrestling promotions not revealing their real names and news outlets not asking for personal details in interviews. Because of this tradition the real name of the wrestler known under the ring names Rey Hechicero and Hechicero is not public knowledge, nor has the year of his birth been established, Hechicero himself has stated that he made his debut, on February 15, 2001, referring to it as "Hechicero's" birthday. Hechicero resides in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico but it has not been confirmed if this is also his birthplace. During interviews he revealed that he had been trained by a number of Monterrey local wrestlers both before making his debut and after such as Arcángel, Cachorrro Zapata, Chucho Villa, Garringo, Mario Segura, Pequeño Diamante and Katsuyori Shibata.
### Mexican independent circuit (2001–present)
Rey Hechicero made his debut on February 15, 2001, in his home town of Monterrey, Nuevo León working for a local wrestling promotion. In 2004, he was listed as having worked a number of matches for the Naucalpan, State of Mexico based International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG) but did not tour extensively outside Nuevo León. In 2007, Rey Hechicero became involved in a storyline feud against another local Monterrey wrestler called Gitano del Norte ("The Gypsy of the North"), a storyline that led to both men putting their masks on the line on the outcome of a Lucha de Apuestas ("Bet match"). Rey Hechicero won and forced his opponent to unmask, which in Lucha Libre is considered more prestigious than winning championships. He capped 2007 by defeating Tigre Universitario to win the WWA World Middleweight Championship Defeating Tigre Universitario for the championship was part of a long running storyline between the two, a storyline that would see both of them involved in a four-man Lucha de Apuesta on March 23, 2008. Both Rey Hechicero and Tigre Universitario escaped from the match with their masks while Valiente pinned Sergio Romo, Jr. to force Romo to be shaved bald after the match since he was not masked.
In late 2008 Rey Hechicero was scheduled to team up with Último Guerrero for a Ruleta de la muerte ("Roulette of death") tournament where the losers of the match advance and the losing team have to fight each other for their masks. Rey Hechicero suffered an injury shortly before the tournament and had to be replaced by Difunto II. There was no verification if Rey Hechicero had indeed been injured or if the replacement took place because whoever had originally agreed to lose his mask changed his mind and Difunto II agreed to lose his match. Also in 2008 Rey Hechicero began working for a local promotion called Poder Y Honor ("Power and Honor"; PYH) and in 2009 he outlasted Chucho Mar Jr., Estrella Dorada Jr. and Tigre Universitario to become the inaugural PYH Heavyweight Champion. In the following years he worked for a number of wrestling promotions as they toured through Monterrey, including winning the mask of Caifán Rockero I on a Perros del Mal show in March 2010. While he began working for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ("World Wrestling Council"; CMLL) in 2014, he was also allowed to work for various local promotions by CMLL. On December 25, 2014 Rey Hechicero unsuccessfully challenged Black Terry for the FLLM Master Championship on a Cara Lucha show in Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl.
### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2014–present)
In early 2014 Rey Hechicero was introduced as part of CMLL's Generacion 2014 class, alongside seven other wrestlers making their CMLL debut around the same time. His name was shortened to simply "Hechicero", possibly because CMLL already had someone working as Rey Bucanero, Rey Escorpión, and Rey Cometa and wanted to reduce the possible confusion. Hechicero was the only member of Generacion 2014 who was not a related to someone working for CMLL or a second-generation wrestler, and he and Espiritu Negro were notably older than the rest of the group. He made his in-ring debut on January 7, teaming with El Rebelde and El Rebelde's father Hooligan, losing to the team of Dragon Lee, Star Jr., and Starman on a show in Guadalajara, Jalisco, the site of one of CMLL's wrestling schools. A month later Hechicero participated in his first major CMLL event, teaming with one of CMLL's most experienced rudos Último Guerrero to take part in the 2014 Torneo Gran Alternativa ("The Great Alternative Tournament"). In the Gran Alternativa tournament a rookie (in storyline terms) and a veteran team up for a tag team elimination match. The annual Gran Alternativa tournament is used to showcase the younger wrestlers of the team. Hechicero and Star Jr. won an eight-man Battle Royal used to determine the match ups for the first round of the tournament. Hechicero and Guerrero defeated Star Jr. and Atlantis in the first round of the tournament, but were defeated by eventual tournament winners Bárbaro Cavernario and Mr. Niebla in the second round.
Hechicero was one of sixteen wrestlers given a chance to compete in the 2014 En Busca de un Ídolo ("In search of an idol") tournament. The En Busca de un Ídolo tournament featured younger wrestlers, mostly low-to-mid-card wrestlers where they were given an opportunity to showcase their wrestling skills on a national scale. As part of the tournament each wrestler would earn points from the outcome of their matches, feedback from a panel of judges and a weekly online poll. Hechicero was one eight wrestlers to qualify as he survived a Torneo cibernetico elimination match along with Cavernario, Chachorro, Dragon Lee Guerrero Negro, Jr., Soberano Jr., Star Jr., and Super Halcón Jr. Hechicero ended up on the team being coached by Virus each week, with coaching focusing not just on the actual wrestling but also how to play their characters in the ring, interact with the fans and so on. During the weekly judging Hechicero received praise for his in-ring skills but also got several comments on the fact that he did not wrestle a very rudo style and needed to be more aggressive in the ring, something he tried to incorporate from week to week. After the first round Hechicero won almost every single weekly online poll, propelling him to the top of the ranking at the end with a total of 565 points, 114 more than the second place Cavernario. In the week between the first and the second round Hechicero teamed up with Virus and Cachorro to defeat Negro Casas, Cavernario and Dragon Lee on the May 23 Super Viernes show. In the second round Hechicero lost to Cavernario but defeated both Dragon Lee and Cachorro to earn a total of 250 points, including the majority of the online poll votes. The point score qualified Hechicero for the finals against Cavernario. In the final Cavernario defeated Hechicero two falls to one to win the tournament. The following week all eight "Busca" competitors two trainers faced off in a torneo cibernetico elimination match that saw Negro Casas eliminate Virus as the last man to win the match, Hechicero was eliminated as the sixth man by as he and Cavernario pinned each other at the same time. In the weeks following the En Busca de un Ídolo finals Hechicero began teaming with Mephisto and Ephesto for a couple of shows, possibly signaling that CMLL had plans to make them a trio after Mephisto and Ephesto's regular partner Averno had left CMLL. Later when Mephisto and Ephesto were announced as teaming with El Hombre Sin Nombre ("The Man with No Name") there was initial confusion if that meant Hechicero was being given a new ring identify, but once El Hombre Sin Nombre made his debut, it was obvious that the physical appearance and wrestling style did not match Hechicero. On the October 10, 2014 Super Viernes show Hechicero debuted a new look, including a new mask design and trunks in black with gold or red embellishment. As part of his image makeover Hechicero began carrying a bowl that burned with red flames as part of his entrance rituals. At ringside Hechicero often touches and sometimes scoops out the flames from the bowl without hurting his hands.
On December 16, 2014 Hechicero and Bárbaro Cavernario unsuccessfully challenged the team of Delta and Guerrero Maya Jr. for the CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship. For the 2015 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ("National Incredible Pairs Tournament") Hechicero was forced to team up with Ángel de Oro, his rival at the time. The duo lost to the team of Atlantis and Último Guerrero in the first round of the tournament. At the 2015 Homenaje a Dos Leyendas ("Homage to Two Legends") show Hechicero teamed up with Vangelis and Virus to defeat the trio of Blue Panther Jr., The Panther and Stuka Jr. Three months later Hechicero replaced Blue Panther Jr. for one match in the 2015 En Busca de un Ídolo tournament, losing to Delta at Sin Salida ("No Escape") on July 17, 2015.
On October 25, 2016, Hechicero outlasted 11 other wrestlers in a torneo cibernetico elimination match to earn a match for the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship. The following week Hechicero defeated champion Rey Bucanero to win the championship, the first CMLL championship of his career. A couple of weeks after winning the championship Hechicero was one of sixteen participants in the 2016 Leyenda de Azul ("The Blue Legend") torneo cibernetico elimination match, but was eliminated during the match. On November 27, 2016, he defended the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship against Caifan. The match took place at the Lucha Memes show Chairo 6, a non-CMLL show.
At 88 Aniversario - Noche de campeones, Hechicero defeated Último Guerrero to win the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship. He held the title for 410 days and defended it two times until he lost it against Gran Guerrero on November 7, 2022.
### Outside Mexico (2016–present)
In January 2016, Hechicero made his Japanese debut by taking part in the CMLL and New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) co-produced Fantastica Mania 2016 tour. Over the six show tour Hechicero competed in various multi-man matches, teaming with both CMLL and NJPW representatives. On the last day of the tour Hechicero, Boby Z, Okumura and Yoshi-Hashi lost to the team of Fuego, Stuka Jr., Kushida and Tiger Mask.
On October 29, 2016, Hechicero made his Ring of Honor (ROH) debut in Baltimore, Maryland where he teamed up with Okumura and Último Guerrero to compete in a tournament to determine the first ever ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship. In the first round the CMLL trio defeated The Addiction (Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian) and Kamaitachi, but lost to The Kingdom (Matt Taven, T. K. O'Ryan and Vinny Marseglia) in the semi-finals of the tournament. On December 2, 2016 Hechicero teamed up with Fly Warrior for Promociones Cara Lucha as part of their Torneo Juventud y Gloria ("Tournament of Youth and Glory") tournament where an established, "Veteran" wrestler, teames up with a rookie, The duo lost to Último Guerrero and Templario in the first round.
In January 2017, Hechicero took part in the Fantastica Mania 2017 tour, unsuccessfully challenging Máximo Sexy for the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship in the main event of the January 21 Fantastica Mania show.
## Championships and accomplishments
- Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
\*CMLL World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
\*NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
\*CMLL World Trios Championship (1 time) - with Euforia and Mephisto
- Kaoz Lucha Libre
- Kaoz Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Poder Y Honor
\*PYH Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current)
- Pro Wrestling Illustrated
\*Ranked No. 35 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the "PWI 500" in 2022
- Mexican Independent Promotions
\*WWA World Middleweight Championship (1 time)
## Luchas de Apuestas record |
6,336,550 | Born Again (The X-Files) | 1,148,575,875 | null | [
"1994 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about reincarnation",
"Television episodes set in Buffalo, New York",
"Television episodes written by Howard Gordon",
"The X-Files (season 1) episodes"
]
| "Born Again" is the twenty-second episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files, premiering on the Fox network on April 22, 1994. It was written by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa, and directed by Jerrold Freedman. The episode featured guest appearances by Brian Markinson and Maggie Wheeler. The episode is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, a stand-alone plot which is unconnected to the series' wider mythology. "Born Again" earned a Nielsen household rating of 8.2, being watched by 7.7 million households in its initial broadcast, and received mixed reviews from critics.
The show centers on FBI agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. When Mulder and Scully are called to New York State to investigate the death of a police officer, they come to believe that a young girl present during the incident may be the reincarnation of another officer murdered years earlier.
Several crew members disliked the episode, most notably Gordon and Duchovny. Gordon felt that the episode was too similar to the other episodes that had been aired, whereas Duchovny bluntly stated that he "detested" the episode.
## Plot
In Buffalo, New York, police detective Sharon Lazard finds a little girl, Michelle Bishop, alone in an alley. Lazard takes the seemingly lost girl into her precinct and leaves her alone to be interviewed by another detective, Rudolph Barbala. However, moments later, Barbala is launched through a window, falling to his death.
Lazard turns to FBI agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully for help. She tells them of Michelle's claims that a man had attacked Barbala, even though she was the only person in the room when the detective was killed. The agents have Michelle describe the alleged attacker for a computerized facial composite; the computer seemingly glitches, displaying a face that Michelle identifies as the killer. The composite matches that of a Detective Charlie Morris — who died nine years previously in an apparent gangland hit. Mulder speaks to Michelle's psychiatrist, Dr. Braun, who tells him that she habitually mutilated dolls in a uniform manner during their sessions together, removing the same eye and arm each time; Mulder realizes that these mutilations match the circumstances of Morris' death.
The agents interview Tony Fiore, Morris' ex-partner, who attributes his death to a triad gang they had been investigating together. Later that day, Fiore meets with a Leon Felder to discuss claiming a large sum of money from a safety deposit box. The two men agree that they haven't waited the ten years they had intended to, ominously discussing that they are the last two claimants left. That night, Felder gets off a bus, but his scarf catches in the door, seemingly moved by an invisible force, as the bus drives off. The driver tries to brake, but the bus inexplicably continues to accelerate, strangling Felder. Michelle watches from inside the bus.
Investigating further, Mulder and Scully learn that Fiore, Barbala, Felder and Morris had all worked closely together in the past. They also find that Fiore's wife Anita keeps a collection of origami animals made by her first husband—Charlie Morris. Anita tells the agents that Fiore hasn't returned home from the previous night; meanwhile, the agents find that pages are missing from the file on Morris' murder, and Fiore was the last one to have checked the file out.
Michelle undergoes a session of regression hypnosis, where she claims to be twenty-four years old. She suddenly starts screaming in panic about someone trying to kill her, and the session is ended. Mulder reviews the video of the session and is convinced that the girl is the reincarnation of Morris, having been conceived right around the time the detective was murdered. The tape contains a brief section of static noise just before Michelle begins screaming, which Mulder has an expert clean up. The noise is found to contain a grainy image of what appears to be a fish tank ornament of a man in a diving suit. Meanwhile, Scully has tracked down Morris' autopsy findings, which show the presence of salt water in his respiratory tract, indicating he died of drowning. The agents realize from these findings that Morris was drowned in the exotic fish tank in Fiore's house.
Rushing to Fiore's house, Mulder and Scully find Michelle using telekinetic powers to try to kill Fiore. They prevent her from doing so, and Fiore confesses that he, Felder and Barbala had stolen a large sum of money, intending to keep it safe for ten years before claiming it. Morris learned of their plan and threatened to report on them, and was consequently killed to silence him. However, Fiore maintains that he never wanted to see Morris dead and only wanted to take care of Anita after his death. Michelle uses her powers to destroy the fish tank, but spares Fiore after hearing pleas from Anita not to hurt him. Later, Fiore pleads guilty to charges of murder and grand larceny, whilst Michelle seemingly recovers and goes on to become a normal little girl.
## Production
Writer Howard Gordon has expressed his disappointment with the episode, feeling that it was too similar to his earlier work on the episode "Shadows" and finding that it was "not done particularly interestingly". Series creator Chris Carter also felt that "Born Again" was "just not one of [his] favorites", adding that he "thought the direction was a little sloppy, but it's one of those episodes that plays a little closer to reality and I like that about it". David Duchovny reportedly "detested" the episode, despite a guest appearance by his then-girlfriend Maggie Wheeler.
Executive producer R. W. Goodwin recalls being on location for the episode's opening scene, in which Detective Barbala is thrown from a window. The room used for the scene had two windows side by side, and one had been replaced with sugar glass for the stunt. When the false window was blown out to simulate someone being thrown through it, the crew found that the glass window beside the false one had also accidentally been blown out. The episode's key grip, Al Campbell, suggested that the next shot show Barbala's dog lying beside his body to explain the second window breaking.
## Broadcast and reception
"Born Again" premiered on the Fox network on April 22, 1994, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 23, 1995. This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8.2, with a 14 share, meaning that in the US, roughly 8.2 percent of all television-equipped households, and 14 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 7.7 million households.
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly, "Born Again" was rated a B−, with the episode being described as "engaging but ultimately just serviceable", although Andrea Libman's casting as Michelle was called "inspired". Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club, felt negatively towards the episode, feeling that its plot was too reminiscent of earlier episodes, such as "Eve" or "Shadows". However, he found the scene in which an image is found in the static of a video recording to have been a highlight, calling it "a cool combination of hard science and the inexplicable". Matt Haigh, writing for Den of Geek, was favorable towards the episode, again praising the performance of Libman as Michelle. He also drew comparisons to "Shadows", but felt that "Born Again" was the better episode of the two. |
45,351,614 | Summa de arithmetica | 1,139,273,362 | Renaissance mathematics textbook | [
"1494 books",
"Accounting books",
"History of accounting",
"History of business",
"History of mathematics",
"Mathematics textbooks",
"Medieval literature"
]
| Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita (Summary of arithmetic, geometry, proportions and proportionality) is a book on mathematics written by Luca Pacioli and first published in 1494. It contains a comprehensive summary of Renaissance mathematics, including practical arithmetic, basic algebra, basic geometry and accounting, written for use as a textbook and reference work.
Written in vernacular Italian, the Summa is the first printed work on algebra, and it contains the first published description of the double-entry bookkeeping system. It set a new standard for writing and argumentation about algebra, and its impact upon the subsequent development and standardization of professional accounting methods was so great that Pacioli is sometimes referred to as the "father of accounting".
## Contents
The Summa de arithmetica as originally printed consists of ten chapters on a series of mathematical topics, collectively covering essentially all of Renaissance mathematics. The first seven chapters form a summary of arithmetic in 222 pages. The eighth chapter explains contemporary algebra in 78 pages. The ninth chapter discusses various topics relevant to business and trade, including barter, bills of exchange, weights and measures and bookkeeping, in 150 pages. The tenth and final chapter describes practical geometry (including basic trigonometry) in 151 pages.
The book's mathematical content draws heavily on the traditions of the abacus schools of contemporary northern Italy, where the children of merchants and the middle class studied arithmetic on the model established by Fibonacci's Liber Abaci. The emphasis of this tradition was on facility with computation, using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, developed through exposure to numerous example problems and case studies drawn principally from business and trade. Pacioli's work likewise teaches through examples, but it also develops arguments for the validity of its solutions through reference to general principles, axioms and logical proof. In this way the Summa begins to reintegrate the logical methods of classical Greek geometry into the medieval discipline of algebra.
### Bookkeeping and finance
Within the chapter on business, a section entitled Particularis de computis et scripturis (Details of calculation and recording) describes the accounting methods then in use among northern-Italian merchants, including double-entry bookkeeping, trial balances, balance sheets and various other tools still employed by professional accountants. The business chapter also introduces the rule of 72 for predicting an investment's future value, anticipating the development of the logarithm by more than century. These techniques did not originate with Pacioli, who merely recorded and explained the established best practices of contemporary businesspeople in his region.
### Plagiarism controversy
Pacioli explicitly states in the Summa that he contributed no original mathematical content to the work, but he also does not specifically attribute any of the material to other sources. Subsequent scholarship has found that much of the work's coverage of geometry is taken almost exactly from Piero della Francesca’s Trattato d’abaco, one of the algebra sections is based on the Trattato di Fioretti of Antonio de Mazzinghi, and a portion of the business chapter is copied from a manuscript by Giorgio Chiarini. This sort of appropriation has led some historians (notably including sixteenth-century biographer Giorgio Vasari) to accuse Pacioli of plagiarism in the Summa (and other works). Many of the problems and techniques included in the book are quite directly taken from these earlier works, but the Summa generally adds original logical arguments to justify the validity of the methods.
## History
Summa de arithmetica was composed over a period of decades through Pacioli's work as a professor of mathematics, and was probably intended as a textbook and reference work for students of mathematics and business, especially among the mercantile middle class of northern Italy. It was written in vernacular Italian (rather than Latin), reflecting its target audience and its purpose as a teaching text. The work was dedicated to Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, a patron of the arts whom Pacioli had met in Rome some years earlier.
It was originally published in Venice in 1494 by Paganino Paganini, with an identical second edition printed in 1523 in Toscolano. About a thousand copies were originally printed, of which roughly 120 are still extant. In June 2019 an intact first edition sold at auction for .
## Impact and legacy
While the Summa contained little or no original mathematical work by Pacioli, it was the most comprehensive mathematical text ever published at the time. Its thoroughness and clarity (and the lack of any other similar work available in print) generated strong and steady sales to the European merchants who were the text's intended audience. The reputation the Summa earned Pacioli as a mathematician and intellectual inspired Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, to invite him to serve as a mathematical lecturer in the ducal court, where Pacioli befriended and collaborated with Leonardo da Vinci.
The Summa represents the first published description of many accounting techniques, including double-entry bookkeeping. Some of the same methods were described in other manuscripts predating the Summa (such as the 1458 Della mercatura e del mercante perfetto by Benedetto Cotrugli), but none was published before Pacioli's work, and none achieved the same wide influence. The work's role in standardizing and disseminating professional bookkeeping methods has earned Pacioli a reputation as the "father of accounting".
The book also marks the beginning of a movement in sixteenth-century algebra toward the use of logical argumentation and theorems in the study of algebra, following the model of classical Greek geometry established by Euclid. It is thought to be the first printed work on algebra, and it includes the first printed example of a set of plus and minus signs that were to become standard in Italian Renaissance mathematics: 'p' with a tilde above (p̄) for "plus" and 'm' with a tilde (m̄) for minus. Pacioli's (incorrect) assertion in the Summa that there was no general solution to cubic equations helped to popularize the problem among contemporary mathematicians, contributing to its subsequent solution by Niccolò Tartaglia.
### Commemoration
In 1994 Italy issued a 750-lira postage stamp honoring the 500th anniversary of the Summa's publication, depicting Pacioli surrounded by mathematical and geometric implements. The image on the stamp was inspired by the Portrait of Luca Pacioli and contains many of the same elements.
## See also
- De divina proportione, another influential mathematical work by Pacioli
- List of most expensive books and manuscripts |
64,269,292 | Calvin E. Lightner | 1,170,238,282 | American architect, building contractor, and mortician | [
"1878 births",
"1960 deaths",
"20th-century African-American businesspeople",
"20th-century American architects",
"African-American architects",
"African-American history in Raleigh, North Carolina",
"African-American people in North Carolina politics",
"American Presbyterians",
"American funeral directors",
"NAACP activists",
"People from Winnsboro, South Carolina",
"Shaw University alumni"
]
| Calvin Esau Lightner (March 31, 1878 – May 21, 1960) was an American architect, building contractor, and mortician. He was born in South Carolina and moved to Raleigh, North Carolina, to study architectural design at Shaw University. After graduation he took industrial courses at Hampton Institute and studied embalming in Tennessee. He and his brother established the C. E. Lightner and Brothers construction company and built numerous homes for members of Raleigh's black middle class.
Lightner established the first funeral home for black customers in Raleigh along East Hargett Street. He proceeded to construct numerous commercial buildings along the road, thus sparking a shift in the concentration of Raleigh's black-owned businesses to East Hargett, which became known as the city's "Black Main Street." In 1919 he and two other black men launched a political campaign for municipal offices with the goal of arousing political interest in the black community. Lightner sought the post of Commissioner of Public Works. Jim Crow restrictions prevented most black men from voting and all three lost their elections, though Lightner earned 142 votes. In 1921 he built the Mechanics and Farmers Bank Building in Durham and the Lightner Arcade and Hotel in Raleigh. The latter quickly became a center of social activity for Raleigh's black community and hosted musicians Cab Calloway, Count Basie, and Duke Ellington. Lightner sold his hotel in 1925 and in 1959 turned over his funeral business to his son, Clarence. Lightner died the following year. Clarence was elected as the first black Mayor of Raleigh in 1973. Most of Lightner's building projects no longer exist.
## Early life and education
Calvin Lightner was born on March 31, 1878, in Winnsboro, South Carolina, United States, to Frank and Daphney Lightner. His father had been born into slavery and following emancipation farmed and worked as a carpenter, building homes in Chester. His mother had been born as a free person of color. His maternal grandfather, Joseph Thompson, served in the South Carolina General Assembly during Reconstruction. According to census records, Frank was illiterate whereas Daphney could read. Daphney and her children were classified as mulatto in the 1880 United States census.
Lightner attended grade school in Winnsboro before moving to Chester. He briefly worked as a carpenter's apprentice under his father. He moved to Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1898 and enrolled at Shaw University, studying architectural design. He graduated in 1908 with a Bachelor of Science. He furthered his education with industrial courses at Hampton Institute. He married Mamie A. Blackmon, a fellow student at Hampton and a Raleigh home economics teacher on July 7, 1909, in Wake County. They had four children: Calvin, Lawrence, Clarence, and Margaret. In that year he completed embalming school in Nashville, Tennessee.
## Career
By 1906, Lightner had established the construction company of C. E. Lightner and Brothers in Raleigh with his brother Rayford. In 1907 he designed and built his own home in Raleigh. Upon graduation from Shaw, he served as an assistant teacher in the university's industrial shop for a year. His construction company proceeded to erect numerous homes for members of the black middle class in the east and southeast portions of the city. He also built at least one home for a white client in Boylan Heights. Various sources state that Lightner did all his own drawings and blueprints for his projects. His company used wooden trusses instead of steel in its buildings.
Following his graduation from college, Lightner worked as a mortician's apprentice before establishing his own funeral home—the first such business for black people in Raleigh—despite not having an official charter to do so. Lightner originally intended to establish a funeral business and office along Fayetteville Street, but when this proved unworkable he sought property on East Hargett Street. In 1909 he erected the Lightner Building there. In 1911 he received a state charter to set up a funeral business and founded the Lightner Funeral Home on October 1, operating it out of the first floor of the Lightner Building. He subsequently oversaw the construction of many businesses along East Hargett Street, and thus sparked a shift in the concentration of Raleigh's black-owned businesses from Wilmington Street to East Hargett, which became known as the city's "Black Main Street." In the 1910s Lightner and his brother Ralph, a mechanic, operated an automobile repair garage on the street. In 1912 he called for the creation of a North Carolina black undertakers association. During the Colored North Carolina State Fair, a group of undertakers met and formed such an association, electing Lightner its president. In the 1920s he established the private Hillcrest Cemetery for Raleigh's black residents on family property along Garner Road.
Lightner was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 1919 he and two other black men, Laurence Cheek and Manassa Thomas Pope ran for municipal offices in Raleigh with the endorsement of the Twentieth Century Voters Club, a political organization for people of color. Lightner sought the post of Commissioner of Public Works. Jim Crow restrictions prevented most black men from voting and all three lost their elections. Lightner earned 142 votes, the most of any of the black candidates. Reflecting on the campaign, he said "Even if we had won we knew the whites wouldn't let us administer. But we just wanted to wake our people up politically." The campaign garnered the support of many blacks and provoked the ire of some white leaders, who as a result discouraged other white people from supporting black enterprises in Raleigh. In 1922 he was made a member of a new poverty relief committee, the Negro New Bern Relief Commission.
In 1921 Lightner built the Lightner Arcade and Hotel across the street from the Lightner Building, later joking that he decided to erect it after his wife had complained that he hosted too many friends from out of town at their home. The arcade quickly became a center of social activity for Raleigh's black community, and was considered one of the best hotels for black clientele along the East Coast of the United States. During its existence it was one of two hotels in Raleigh that would accept black customers and hosted musicians Cab Calloway, Count Basie, and Duke Ellington. The building also housed a restaurant, drug store, barbershop, and the offices of The Carolinian. Lightner also heavily remodeled Davie Street Presbyterian Church in 1922, where he became a parishioner, and in 1921 constructed the Mechanics and Farmers Bank Building in Durham. The following year he built a Mechanics and Farmers branch building on East Hargett Street in Raleigh. Lightner and his brother sold the hotel in May 1925 to the Household of Ruth for \$108,000. In the 1930s he created the Wake County Burial League to sell burial insurance. In 1941 Lightner purchased the Capehart House and moved his funeral home there. He retired the following year. In 1959 he gave control of his funeral home to his son, Clarence.
## Later life and legacy
Lightner died on May 21, 1960, at St. Agnes Hospital in Raleigh. A funeral was held for him on May 25 at Davie Street Presbyterian Church, and he was buried in Mt. Hope Cemetery. The Lightner Arcade burned down in 1970. Lightner's son, Clarence, was elected as the first black Mayor of Raleigh in 1973. His family home was demolished in 1990. By 2020, most of Lightner's buildings were no longer extant, with the notable exceptions of Davie Street Presbyterian Church and the Mechanics and Farmers Bank Building in Durham. The Lightner Funeral Home was sold in 2022 and heavily damaged by fire the following year. |
23,671,883 | One Time (Justin Bieber song) | 1,163,475,447 | null | [
"2000s Island Records singles",
"2009 debut singles",
"2009 songs",
"Justin Bieber songs",
"Music videos directed by Vashtie Kola",
"Song recordings produced by Tricky Stewart",
"Songs written by The-Dream",
"Songs written by Tricky Stewart"
]
| "One Time" is the debut single by Canadian singer Justin Bieber. It is the first single released from his debut EP, My World. It was first solicited to mainstream and rhythmic radio on May 18, 2009. It was released via digital download in the United States and Canada on July 7, 2009, and was released in several other countries during autumn 2009. An acoustic version of the song called "My Heart Edition" was released to iTunes on December 22, 2009. The song is a teen pop song, moderately paced with pop-soul influences, about puppy love.
The song received positive reviews from critics, commending its production, vocals, and quality of lyrics. The song was a commercial success, reaching the top twenty in Canada, the US, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and New Zealand and also charted in several other countries. The single has been certified Platinum in Canada and the US. The accompanying music video portrays Bieber at a house party and features his mentor, Usher, and hometown friend, Ryan Butler. As of July 2022, the video had been viewed over 714 million times on the video-sharing website YouTube. Bieber performed the song in a number of live appearances including The Dome, The Next Star, and Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve with Ryan Seacrest.
## Background
The song was written for Bieber by veteran US hip-hop/R&B producer and songwriter Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, and songwriter and vocal producer Kuk Harrell for their RedZone Entertainment, as his debut single. Before they produced and wrote Bieber's debut they had penned several hits, including Beyoncé's "Single Ladies", Mariah Carey's "Obsessed", Fabolous's "Throw It In the Bag" and others. "One Time" was produced by Stewart and production duo the Movement, while Harrell provided vocal recording and production. The Movement also received writing credits for the song as did Thabiso Nkhereanye. Bieber recorded the song at RedZone's Triangle Sound Studios in Savannah, Georgia a few hours away from Bieber's then current home of Atlanta, Georgia. Bieber also recorded some of the track at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank, California. Mixing was done in Atlanta at Silent Sound Studios by Jaycen-Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado.[^1]
## Composition
"One Time" is described to be in a "moderately slow groove". Washington Post called the track, along with 'Love Me' "modest club tracks." About.com described it as a "solid midtempo beat." The song is composed in the key of C♯ minor. The song is moderately paced, and the introduction and outro are sung in a sing-and-tell format with Bieber repetitively voicing the line "Me plus you/Imma tell you one time." The verses are sung with backing R&B infused bass beats with a light string background in the same moderate pace before the bridge prepares for the refrain through the lines "Your world is my world/My fight is your fight/My breath is your breath/And your heart." Bieber goes into the middle eight the backing is not as much indistinguishable from the rest of the song, but is delivered a little slower leading up to the chorus and outro.
## Critical reception
Bill Lamb of About.com called the song a "perfect kickoff to the career of Justin Bieber", noting the song had an effect of a younger Chris Brown, commended the production of The-Dream and Tricky Stewart for making the single contemporary and commercial. However Lamb criticized the song for being too "generic", and that Bieber had little room to show his voice. Billboard's Michael Menachem called the song "a hallmark pop song that also taps into a prevalent teen hip-hop aesthetic". He also compared Bieber to Brown on the track, and said that "[Bieber's] tenor brings to mind [Brown's] vocal debut on "Run It!" in 2005, when he, too, was 15 and on the cusp of stardom". Unlike Lamb, Menachem said the song gave Bieber's vocals plenty of room to shine as he confidently breaks into the chorus. Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly named the song one of the hottest songs of fall of 2009, saying that Bieber's "pop-soul bonafides with this refreshingly age-appropriate chronicle of young love."
## Chart performance
The song entered at number ninety-five on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of July 25, 2009. The song stayed on the chart for nearly six months before eventually peaking at number seventeen on the chart. Although the song didn't gain momentum until the near end of 2009, it managed to chart at number eighty-nine on the 2009 Billboard Year-End Hot 100, and eighty-one on the Year-End Canadian Hot 100. It was also number seventy-five on the Year End Hot Digital Singles. After lying dormant outside the top twenty for a few weeks, on the week labeled January 9, 2010, due to the release of "One Time: My Heart Edition" on iTunes, and increased sales of My World, the song made a thirty spot jump from forty-seven to number seventeen, reaching a new peak on the chart. The song debuted on the Billboard Pop chart at number eighty-four as the highest debut of the week. It has since peaked at number fourteen. It reached number twelve in Canada, where it remained on the chart for twenty consecutive weeks. The single was certified Platinum in Canada by CRIA in September 2009. It was certified Platinum by the RIAA in the United States in January 2010, selling over a million copies. As of February 2011, the single had been sold over 2,132,000 times.
The song has also achieved international success. It debuted in Belgium (Flanders) at twenty-six and peaked at twelve on the bubbling under chart, equivalent to peaking at sixty-two on the main chart. It debuted on the Belgium (Wallonia) tip chart at twenty-six in its first week, the week ending January 16, 2010, and has since peaked at six, equivalent to peaking at forty-four on the main chart. The song debuted in Austria at seventy-one on the week of September 4, 2009, and peaked at thirty, remaining on the chart for eleven weeks. "One Time" debuted at fourteen in Germany, which became its peak position on the chart. The song debuted in Australia at number eighty-two and later reached a peak of twenty-three. In Ireland the song debuted at forty-five on the Irish Singles Chart. It has since peaked at thirty-one on the chart. The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at 135, and jumped to fourteen on January 10, 2010. A week later on January 17, 2010, the song jumped again to number eleven, just missing out on the top ten. The song peaked at number six in New Zealand, and at thirteen in France.
## Music video
The music video, directed by Vashtie Kola, was posted by Bieber on his YouTube channel on June 13, 2009, almost a month before the single was released to iTunes. Bieber's mentor, Usher and one of his closest friends, Ryan Butler make appearances in the video. It features Bieber clad in a grey hooded sweatshirt grinning mischievously into the camera. As of January 2019, the video had been viewed over 590 million times on YouTube. Bieber made a comment stating "It was really cool going from my webcam to professional videos". In a review of the video Entertainment Weekly's Leah Greenblat said: "Bieber does seem to share many of the qualities that made his idols the pop/R&B superstars they've become, including a clear, supple voice, pinup-boy looks, and bona fide instrument skills".
In the music video, Usher, Bieber and Butler all portray themselves as the latter two are at Usher's house playing video games. Bieber receives a phone call from Usher, in which he asks him if could he watch the house until he gets back. After agreeing, Bieber holds a house party and tries to get close to one girl in particular, played by Kristen Rodeheaver, but is disappointed because he thought they were bonding but at the end of the video when they are sitting together at the pool, she kisses him on the cheek, then leaves. Originally, Rodeheaver and Bieber were supposed to hold hands and jump into the pool, but it was too cold. He then stands up and gets caught by Usher.
## Live performances
Bieber performed the song on his promotional "My World" tour throughout the US. Internationally, he appeared on the European program The Dome and performed "One Time". As far as televised performances go, he performed "One Time" on MTV's VMA Tour to precede the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, September 26, 2009, on YTV's The Next Star, and on the Today. He also performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on November 3, 2009; Good Morning America on November 15, 2009; Lopez Tonight on November 17, 2009, and The Wendy Williams Show on November 27, 2009. The song was Bieber's ending number while on his two-show stint as an opening act for Taylor Swift's Fearless Tour. On November 23, 2009, while performing in London on the tour, Bieber fractured his foot at the beginning of performing this song during Swift's Wembley Arena concert, but continued to perform the rest of the song. He was able to perform on stage the next night in Manchester, with a cast and limited dancing. After the televised appearances, the Urban Behavior Tour, and Fearless Tour, Bieber traveled in Europe to promote the album before returning to the US to resume his promotional tour. Bieber performed the song in Las Vegas for Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve with Ryan Seacrest on December 31, 2009. While promoting the album in the United Kingdom, Bieber performed an acoustic rendition of "One Time" on BBC's Blue Peter on January 12, 2010. He performed it on CBS' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl XLIV programming. Bieber performed the song at a concert at the Hollywood Palladium, and August Brown of the Los Angeles Times commented, "'One Time', helmed by white-hot producer Christopher 'Tricky' Stewart, is an endearing, swaggering little thing in which Bieber convincingly jumps from Usher’s rapid-fire runs to pristine pop harmonies."
## My Heart Edition
Originally, an acoustic version of "One Time" was set to be released as a single on iTunes on October 27, 2009. However, plans were changed, and a week before the release, Bieber announced that another song, "Love Me", would be released as a single instead. Bieber later on announced on December 19, 2009, that an "exclusive unplugged Christmas [sic] version" of "One Time" would be released to iTunes the following Tuesday. The song was released a day early on December 21, 2009, and was titled "One Time (My Heart Edition)". The cover art for the single features a still from Bieber's music video for "One Less Lonely Girl". Kyle Anderson of MTV explained that the song "strips away the original track's synths and technology and leaves only Bieber's able voice". Bieber performed the acoustic version of the song when he guest starred on the Nickelodeon sitcom True Jackson, VP, during a live session with MTV, and on the British children's show Blue Peter. The track is featured on the various artists' compilation album Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 12'' (2010).
## Charts and certifications
### Weekly charts
### Monthly charts
### Year-end charts
### Certifications
## Release history
[^1]: My World digital album booklet via iTunes. Island Records. Retrieved 2009-12-30. |
24,002,325 | Battle of the Samichon River | 1,169,770,257 | Korean War battle | [
"Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1953",
"Battles of the Korean War",
"Battles of the Korean War involving Australia",
"Battles of the Korean War involving China",
"Battles of the Korean War involving New Zealand",
"Battles of the Korean War involving the United Kingdom",
"Battles of the Korean War involving the United States",
"History of Gyeonggi Province",
"July 1953 events in Asia",
"United States Marine Corps in the Korean War"
]
| The Battle of the Samichon River (24–26 July 1953) was fought during the final days of the Korean War between United Nations (UN) forces—primarily Australian and American—and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA). The fighting took place on a key position on the Jamestown Line known as "the Hook", and resulted in the defending UN troops, including the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR) from the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade and the US 7th Marine Regiment, repulsing numerous assaults by the PVA 137th Division during two concerted night attacks, inflicting numerous casualties on the PVA with heavy artillery and small-arms fire. The action was part of a larger, division-sized PVA attack against the US 1st Marine Division, with diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians. With the peace talks in Panmunjom reaching a conclusion, the Chinese had been eager to gain a last-minute victory over the UN forces, and the battle was the last of the war before the official signing of the Korean armistice.
During the action, the PVA had attempted to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary between the US 1st Marine Division and the 1st Commonwealth Division to turn the Marine division's flank. Yet with well-coordinated indirect fire from the divisional artillery, including the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery, and support from British Centurion tanks of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, 2 RAR successfully thwarted both assaults, holding the Hook. U.N sources estimated PVA casualties at 2,000 to 3,000 killed, with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners. Meanwhile, on the left flank, US Marines had endured the brunt of the attack, repelling the PVA onslaught with infantry and artillery. Only a few hours later, the armistice agreement was signed, ultimately ending the war. Both sides subsequently withdrew 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) within 72 hours to create the 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) Korean Demilitarised Zone.
## Background
### Military situation
Following the Battle of Maryang San in early October 1951 the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade maintained a defensive posture for the rest of the month. Amid heavy fighting on the afternoon of 4 November the PVA recaptured Hill 317, which was by then held by the 1st Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers, in an action for which Private Bill Speakman was later awarded the Victoria Cross. The hill remained in PVA hands until the end of the war. The Battle of Maryang San subsequently proved to be one of the last UN actions in the war of manoeuvre, and with peace talks going on, the fighting was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences, trench lines, bunkers, patrols, wiring parties, and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915–17. Construction of defensive localities sited in all-round defence with interlocking arcs of fire began almost immediately, although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire, which made such operations hazardous. Patrolling and ambushing by both sides also began to prevent the other from gaining control of no man's land. The 1st Commonwealth Division, which included British, Australian, Canadian, New Zealand, and Indian troops, subsequently occupied part of the Jamestown Line—a UN defensive position that extended 250 kilometres (160 mi) across central Korea—in the US I Corps sector on the US Eighth Army's left flank. The war was no less bloody, though, and the division remained in the line for all but two of the remaining 19 months of the war.
From 19 January 1952, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) was in defence on the Jamestown Line as part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade before going into reserve on 18 April, where they remained until the end of June. Meanwhile, in early 1952 the Australian government had agreed to an American request to increase its forces in Korea, dispatching a second infantry battalion to join 3 RAR which had been fighting since September 1950. The 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) arrived in Korea on 6 April 1952, with both battalions forming part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade under the command of an Australian brigadier. The brigade re-entered the line on 30 June and 1 RAR spent the following fourteen weeks patrolling, ambushing and raiding, before the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade again went into reserve on 5 October. The brigade returned to the Jamestown Line in early November, with 1 RAR taking over the defences on Hill 355 from the Canadians. The Australians were subsequently forced to clean up large quantities of rubbish left by the Canadians as well as repairing and camouflaging the defences which had recently been attacked by the PVA. 1 RAR implemented an aggressive patrol program in an effort to regain control of no-man's land from the PVA, which had been allowed to establish hides close to the perimeter. Several PVA outposts were subsequently destroyed during raids of up to company-size.
On 28 December 1952, 3 RAR took over the defences on Hill 355 and remained there until the 1st Commonwealth Division went into reserve at the end January 1953. On 21 March, 1 RAR was replaced in Korea by 2 RAR, after nearly 12 months operational service. Heavy fighting occurred in March, with the PVA moving back over to a limited offensive in the US I Corps sector, in an attempt to regain the initiative following the winter. Heavy fighting occurred around the Hook, which was by then held by the US 2nd Infantry Division following the relief of the 1st Commonwealth Division, the Old Baldy and Pork Chop Hill features held by the US 7th Division, and in the western sector held by the US 1st Marine Division around the Vegas and Nevada Complex. Peace talks finally resumed at Panmunjom on 6 April and an agreement was soon made to exchange sick and wounded prisoners. Consequently, 648 UN and 6,670 PVA and North Korean prisoners were subsequently repatriated as part of Operation Little Switch on 20 April, including five Australians. For a while, the tempo of operations slackened, returning to the small-scale raids and probes of the winter months. Yet during the final three months of the war, the PVA launched a series of offensives prior to the signing of a ceasefire agreement.
In early April 1953, the 1st Commonwealth Division returned to the Jamestown Line. By this time, the division was commanded by Major General Michael West, a British officer who had taken over command in September the previous year. The 28th British Commonwealth Brigade subsequently occupied the north-eastern sector. Hill 159 was occupied by 2 RAR during 5 May to 16 June, while 3 RAR held Hill 355 during the period 7–27 May; 3 RAR then relieved 2 RAR on 16 June and remained on Hill 159 until 10 July. Meanwhile, the Hook was a key position on the left flank of the line held by the 1st Commonwealth Division and was the division's most threatened sector on the Jamestown Line. Held by the 29th British Infantry Brigade, the position consisted of a group of hills west of the Samichon River which dominated the Imjin River, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to the south, and provided observation and fields of fire over a bend in the river as it turned towards Seoul. Loss of The Hook would force the UN troops to withdraw nearly 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) to the next tenable defensive line on the high ground south of the Imjin River. As a result, the PVA had made repeated attacks against it, with the 1st Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry repulsing the first PVA attempt in late-March 1952. the 1st Marine Division defended the area in the First Battle of the Hook in October 1952. The 1st Battalion, the Black Watch, did so again in November 1952, while the 1st Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment, had fought the heaviest battle there in May 1953 during the Third Battle of the Hook.
In the western sector, American outposts such as Detroit, Berlin, East Berlin, Reno, Carson, Elko, and Vegas had been bitterly contested over the previous months by the US 1st Marine Division and the Turkish Brigade, but by June, the Reno, Elko, and Vegas positions were held by the PVA. The front subsequently returned to its usual defensive routine, but following a temporary break-down in negotiations after the unilateral release of 25,000 anti-communist Chinese and North Korean prisoners of war by President of South Korea Syngman Rhee, the PVA had renewed large-scale attacks on 24 June. Concentrating on the Republic of Korea Army (ROK) divisions in the eastern and central sectors, the PVA launched another offensive in June in an attempt to convince the South Korean leader to come to terms. The fighting continued until the end of the month, as the PVA successively drove back elements of ROK 9th Division in the US IX Corps sector and the ROK 1st Division in the US I Corps sector.
By early July, the PVA launched a major offensive in the ROK II Corps and US X Corps sectors. The Americans and ROK subsequently responded with a series of counter-attacks to regain the ground lost, yet these met with only limited success. On 6 July, the PVA attacked elements of the US 7th Division on Pork Chop Hill on the US I Corps' right flank, and succeeded in gaining the crest. The Americans were reinforced and counter-attacked over the following days, although again without success. Following another PVA assault on 9 July, the Americans again counter-attacked, yet neither side gained a clear advantage. The following day, the PVA launched a series of company- and battalion-sized assaults, but were repulsed. With the Americans unprepared to accept further casualties for limited tactical gain, though, they evacuated Pork Chop Hill on 11 July.
## Prelude
The peace talks resumed in early July as Rhee's position apparently softened, yet this proved to be the impetus for a final PVA offensive, as they sought to further influence the talks and improve their defensive positions at the same time. On 14 July, elements of five PVA armies struck six South Korean divisions around the Kumsong salient. By 20 July, the ROK Capital Division and much of the ROK 3rd Division had been practically destroyed, exposing serious weaknesses despite two years of American training. The ROK fell back and the UN line was penetrated to a depth of 9.7 kilometres (6.0 mi). Only American intervention restored the situation, and ultimately, nine ROK and US divisions were required to stem the PVA offensive and regain some of the lost ground. Following a counter-attack by ROK II Corps, a new defensive line was established south of the Kumsong River. Meanwhile, in conjunction with the main offensive at Kumsong, the PVA 19th Army Group had conducted a series of limited offensives against US I Corps, with the 46th Army conducting assaulting 1st Marine Division outposts from 7 to 27 July. PVA losses were heavy nonetheless, and they sustained more than 28,000 casualties for only temporary gain.
During the second week of July, West had reshuffled his brigades to allow the 29th British Infantry Brigade to recuperate in the 1st Commonwealth Division's central sector. The 28th British Commonwealth Brigade, under the command of an Australian officer, Brigadier John Wilton, subsequently took over the battered defences on the Hook on 9–10 July 1953, on the division's left. The brigade was the strongest in the division, consisting of the two Australian battalions—2 RAR and 3 RAR—and two British battalions—the 1st Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1 DLI) and 1st Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (1 RF)—as well as supporting artillery and armour in direct support. Among the latter was the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery (16 RNZA) and C Squadron of the British 1st Royal Tank Regiment equipped with Centurion tanks. The 25th Canadian Brigade was subsequently handed the responsibility for the equally exposed positions on Hills 355 and 159 on the right. The ROK 1st Division held the line on the 1st Commonwealth Division's right flank, while the 1st Marine Division, under the overall command of Major General Randolph Pate, held the Nevada Complex on the left flank, having taken over the line on 7–8 July. On the American right, the 7th Marine Regiment under Colonel Glenn C. Funk occupied a linear defensive position, with two battalions forward and one back. The 5th Marine Regiment occupied the central sector, while the 1st Marine Regiment held the rear in divisional reserve. Indirect fire support was provided by the 11th Marine Regiment. Meanwhile, by May 1953 the PVA 1st, 46th, 63rd, 64th and 65th Armies of the 19th Army Group were operating against the US I Corps under the overall command of Huang Yongsheng.
Wilton deployed the stronger Australian battalions forward, with 2 RAR occupying the left forward position on the Hook, while 3 RAR was deployed on the right, overlooking the Samichon River. The opposite side of the Samichon was occupied by 1 DLI, while 1 RF was held in reserve as a brigade counter-penetration force. 2 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Larkin, while 3 RAR was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur MacDonald. Larkin deployed 2 RAR with three companies forward, and one back in reserve as a counter-attack force. In the centre, the Hook was held by B Company, while C Company held the left and A Company the right, with D Company in reserve. MacDonald deployed 3 RAR with two companies forward and two in depth. A Company occupied Hill 146, on the boundary with 2 RAR, B Company held the south-eastern tip of the ridge, and C and D Companies were held in reserve. British Centurion tanks were also deployed forward to support the Australians. Directly confronting the Australians on The Hook was the PVA 137th Division, 46th Army which had been in the line since February 1953, under the command of Cheng Dengzhi.
The positions occupied by the Australians had been badly damaged by the PVA assaults and bombardments in May and June, and recent rain had also collapsed some trenches and weakened many of the wire obstacles, yet the extensive tunnel system, dug by the Canadians the previous winter, remained intact and afforded some protection. Efforts to repair the defences and assert control in no-man's land began immediately, with an aggressive patrolling program by the Australians leading to numerous clashes with PVA patrols, while they also endured heavy shelling during this time. By day it was hot and humid making conditions in the bunkers uncomfortable, while by night the defenders worked hard digging, wiring, and laying minefields. The PVA focused most of their attention on the 7th Marine Regiment, which was occupying positions south-west of 2 RAR after having relieved the Turkish Brigade there, and thereby allowed the Australians some time to prepare. Light mortaring hit 2 RAR on 11 July, while one 3 RAR soldier was killed instantly by a 76-millimetre (3.0 in) shell when he was observed walking along the crest-line by a PVA position less than 200 metres (220 yd) from the Australian perimeter. The gun crew was subsequently silenced by Australian sniper fire.
Patrolling by the Australians continued to prevent the PVA from harassing their forward positions. Small clashes occurred on the nights of 15/16, 21/22, 22/23, and 23/24 July, suggesting that the PVA were preparing for a major attack. Aerial reconnaissance subsequently detected a build-up of PVA forces and supplies west of the Samichon River. In response, the Australians and Marines stepped up their defensive preparations, while at the same time, rumours from the peace talks started to spread of a ceasefire. Regardless, PVA harassing artillery and mortar fire intensified, causing a constant stream of casualties among the Australians. Intense PVA shelling struck Hill 121 and the Hook on the night of 19/20 July, with more than 300 rounds wounding four members of C Company, 2 RAR, and further damaging the defences. That night, the Marines were driven off the Berlin and East Berlin features on the left flank, further exposing the Hook, which became a salient. Yet on 21 July an expected PVA assault in the 5th Marine Regiment sector failed to occur, while sightings of PVA troops across the 1st Marine Division front declined as the fighting entered a lull.
On 22 July B Company, 2 RAR was relieved on the Hook by D Company, and subsequently moved into reserve. The following day, with the ceasefire believed to be imminent, Wilton limited patrols to only those considered essential for the security of his forward positions. Rumours spread quickly among the troops that the truce was expected to be signed on 26 July. By 24 July, however, the PVA shelling had once again grown in intensity, while large bodies of PVA infantry were increasingly seen on the forward slopes by the Australians. Meanwhile, similar concentrations of PVA were also reported by the Marines. With the PVA eager to gain a last-minute victory over the UN forces and the tactical advantage offered to the side that held the Hook after the truce, simultaneous attacks were soon launched against 2 RAR and the 7th Marine Regiment on the left flank, in two major actions on the nights of 24/25 and 25/26 July.
## Battle
### First night, 24/25 July 1953
On the evening of 24 July, a 50-strong PVA force probed 2 RAR's forward outposts after dark, attacking C Company on Hill 121 and surrounding a bunker on the left flank, while the Marines had a similar contact on the left flank. A forward Australian standing patrol from D Company subsequently clashed heavily with the PVA probe, losing five wounded before directing tank and artillery fire, which dispersed their attackers. These attacks had been preceded by heavy artillery and mortar fire, with the PVA subjecting C and D Companies, 2 RAR and the 2 RAR Mortar Platoon to a heavy bombardment. Waves of PVA attacked the Australians at 20:50, penetrating between C Company on Hill 121 and the nearest Marines on Hill 111, before being turned back amidst the driving rain. A further attack followed another barrage at 23:25, but was again repelled and faltered before reaching the wire during fierce fighting with grenades and small arms, with the assault failing largely due to the weight of defensive artillery fire. More than 2,000 PVA mortar and artillery rounds fell on the Australian positions during the night. Two Australians were killed and 14 were wounded during the night attack, which was later estimated to have been made by a PVA regiment of up to 4,000 men. The defenders were soaking wet and exhausted, but had held their positions. Despite the weight of the PVA attack against the Australians, their main objective had been Hill 119, another strong point in the American sector 500 metres (550 yd) to the south-west of Hill 111, known as Boulder City, held by the 7th Marine Regiment.
The PVA engaged the Marines on Boulder City with preparatory fire from mortars and artillery at 19:30. Ten minutes later, PVA troops were observed massing for an assault north-west of the Berlin feature, and were subsequently shelled by the Americans. At 20:30, the PVA probed the right flank held by the 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines, first striking Hill 111 and then at Boulder City. After infiltrating forward, the PVA had hid in the paddy fields immediately in front of the American positions during the barrage, and had then rapidly assaulted as soon as the artillery had lifted. The attack coincided with the ongoing relief in place of the defenders by the 1st Marine Regiment under the command of Colonel Wallace M. Nelson, and it subsequently succeeded in temporarily penetrating the American positions on Hill 111. The PVA main effort fell on Boulder City, though, and two battalions subsequently succeeded in occupying a portion of the American trench line. From these positions, the PVA threatened to cut off Company G, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, on Hill 119, repeatedly assaulting the Berlin Gate feature on the company's left flank and the East Berlin Gate on its right in an effort to exploit their gains. Throughout the fighting, the Marines were strongly supported by heavy mortar, artillery, and tank fire; however, due to the prevailing weather conditions, no spotter aircraft were able to fly during the night, which limited the effectiveness of the indirect fire available to them.
In support of the Marines on Hill 111, at 21:10, Wilton had ordered one company of 1 DLI to occupy a reserve position on the left of 2 RAR, in the rear of the 1st Marine Division, where they ultimately remained for the rest of the evening. A reserve company from 3 RAR was also readied to respond to any emergency. The Americans eventually drove off the PVA probes after their artillery broke up the attack, but not before they were forced to abandon some of their forward positions. With the attack likely only a diversionary effort, by 21:20 the bulk of the PVA had begun to withdraw from Hill 111. Meanwhile, the fighting on Hill 119 continued. A heavy bombardment fell on the American positions at 21:00, followed by a second assault on Hill 119 by two PVA companies which succeeded in penetrating the Marine perimeter. Hand-to-hand combat developed across the forward trenches, and in the ensuing fighting, Company G was reduced to half-strength, while their ammunition began to run low. Under pressure, by midnight the Americans were forced back another 1,500 metres (1,600 yd) to the reverse slope. 3 RAR was subsequently left exposed, with the forward PVA elements moving to within 1,200 metres (1,300 yd) of the battalion's A Echelon area. Almost surrounded, the position was at risk of becoming untenable. At 00:15, Company I, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, was ordered to reinforce Boulder City; they lost heavily after the PVA intercepted a coded message and adjusted mortar and artillery fire onto the Marines as they approached the rear of Hill 119. In response, the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment launched an intense counter-battery barrage.
The PVA also launched several assaults in the central sector against the 5th Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Harvey C. Tschirgi. Successively striking outposts on the regimental right flank from 21:15, a reinforced PVA company from the 408th Regiment then concentrated against outpost Esther, held by Marines from Company H. Amid heavy fighting, both sides were reinforced. By early morning, the PVA had seized parts of the forward trench line and moved to isolate the position with indirect fire and patrols, which penetrated between the outpost and the main defensive position to the rear; the Marines still controlled the rear trenches, and upon reorganising their defence, succeeded in checking the PVA assault. Defending strongly, the Marines used flamethrowers, machine guns, and mortars, supported by M46 Patton tanks and artillery fire, and following several hours of fighting, the PVA attack was finally broken up by indirect fire. An entire PVA battalion had been committed piecemeal to the attack, yet by 06:40 the following day, the Marines reported Esther secure. More than 4,000 artillery and mortar rounds had fallen on the outpost during the night; Marine casualties included 12 killed and 35 wounded, while PVA loses included 85 dead, which were counted around the position, 110 more believed killed, and an estimated 250 wounded.
In the 7th Marine Regiment's sector, heavy shelling, small-arms fire, and hand-to-hand fighting continued around Boulder City into the early morning on 25 July. PVA infantry had succeeded in breaking through and occupying a large part of the trench line on the forward slopes, and for a while, even temporarily occupied the crest. At 01:30, Companies G and I, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, launched a rapid counter-attack, and by 03:30, the American perimeter had been re-established, and was subsequently reinforced. By 05:30, Hill 119 was secured by the Marines, although scattered groups of PVA remained on the forward slopes, while others attempted to reinforce the left flank. Sporadic fighting and heavy shelling also continued on Hill 111 in the early morning hours, and at 04:00, another fight developed; by 05:30, the position was also controlled by the Americans. Four M46 Patton tanks on Boulder City dispersed the PVA concentrations with high-explosive and machine-gun fire, while Marine infantry assault teams with flamethrowers and 3.5-inch rocket launchers subsequently cleared the remaining PVA from their former bunkers. In total, more than 3,000 PVA troops had assaulted the front held by the 1st Marine Division during the night of 24/25 July.
Throughout the night, the 11th Marine Regiment had been heavily engaged, with the regiment and the 10 battalions under its operational control in the 1st Marine Division sector firing a total of 23,725 rounds, including those from batteries of the US 25th Infantry Division Artillery, the US I Corps Artillery and the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery. The weight of indirect fire available to the defenders had been significant, and the whole of the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery (80 guns) had also been engaged during the fighting, firing in support of both the Australians on Hill 121 and the Marines on their left flank, defending Hill 111 and Boulder City. Unhindered by the restrictions on ammunition usage which had applied to the Marines during this period, the supporting fires of the British-Commonwealth 3.45-inch (88 mm) 25-pounder field guns proved of considerable assistance. A liaison officer from 16 RNZA was sent subsequently over to the Marine artillery regiment during the night to establish communication. More than 13,000 rounds were fired by the British and New Zealand gunners that night, with the close defensive fire having a devastating effect on the assaulting PVA infantry. The artillery had also effectively halted the PVA assault against Hill 121, resulting in a fair degree of frustration among the Australian infantry, some of whom later expressed disappointment at being prevented from getting to grips with the PVA by the accurate New Zealand artillery fire.
Before the battle, a section from the 2 RAR Medium Machine Gun Platoon had been stationed within the American perimeter near Hill 111 to provide covering fire across the area between the positions occupied by the Marines and the Australians. Commanded by Sergeant Brian Cooper, they soon found themselves in the thick of the fighting, firing their Vickers machine guns in support of the Australian positions and to defend themselves from the weight of the PVA main attack, which fell on the Marines. Three men were wounded during the night, but the machine gunners continued to fire in support, while the remainder of the section repelled PVA assaults from the left. Ultimately, the PVA were unable to dislodge them, with the Australians calling in artillery on to their own positions during repeated PVA attempts to overrun them as the Marines withdrew past their position, leaving them isolated. When dawn came, dozens of Chinese bodies were found strewn in front of the Australian machine gunners. As the Marines worked to clear the PVA stragglers from their position, the Australians had endeavoured to coax a PVA soldier from a bunker, yet when he resisted, they were forced to kill him with a grenade. Cooper was later awarded the Military Medal for his leadership, with the stubborn defence of the Australians contributing to the break-up of the PVA attack, which at one stage had threatened to overrun the Marine position. Large groups of PVA remained, though, occupying a number bunkers and trenches, and they were not finally dislodged by the Marines until the following afternoon.
### Second night, 25/26 July 1953
At 08:20 on the morning of 25 July, the PVA again assaulted the Marines on Hill 119 in company strength, but were soon halted by American artillery and mortar fire, which inflicted heavy losses; skirmishing continued for the remainder of the day. While no major assaults against Hill 111 occurred, a heavy PVA barrage targeted the position at 11:00. F9F Panthers provided air support to the Marines throughout the day, while American tanks continued to engage PVA targets in support of the defenders on Hill 111 and Boulder City. Finally, at 13:35, the last of the PVA infantry were forced off the forward slopes of Boulder City by the Marines. PVA casualties were estimated by the Americans to have included another 75 killed and 425 wounded. The PVA continued to heavily shell the American positions, and by late afternoon, 13,500 mortar and artillery rounds had fallen on the sector held by 7th Marine Regiment. The Americans fired many counter-battery missions in response, firing 36,794 rounds. The ongoing relief of the 7th Marine Regiment continued throughout the day. Meanwhile, the Australian positions on the Hook were also heavily shelled throughout the day, forcing many of the defenders underground into the network of tunnels then being extended by a team of New Zealand sappers.
Realising that they had only faced a series of probes the previous night, rather than a major attack, and as these actions may have been in preparation for a heavier attack, a vigorous defence was subsequently prepared by the Australians with the reserve companies moved into blocking positions to strengthen the forward defences. The defenders endured steady shelling and harassing fire, while after dark, the Hook was probed again, this time by a group of about 20 PVA. The force was subsequently engaged by an Australian standing patrol from D Company at 21:00, and forced to withdraw, leaving behind one dead at a cost of one Australian killed and one wounded. At 21:20, the PVA fire became more intense, and a heavy blow was launched by the PVA against the Marines on Hill 119 shortly after. Beginning at 21:30, elements of the 1st and 7th Marines were attacked by two PVA companies. A heavy concentration by the entire US I Corps artillery was fired in response, and the PVA were forced to withdraw. At 23:00, the PVA shelling intensified to 30 rounds per minute, and was followed 15 minutes later by another determined charge by PVA infantry against the Marines on the left flank on Hill 111 and Boulder City during a furious attack. The Australian positions were not directly attacked during the night, although C Company engaged the PVA in no-man's land sporadically at long range in support of the Americans. As on the previous night, 3 RAR was not attacked. In total, more than 4,200 mortar and artillery rounds were fired by the PVA at 2 RAR during the night, and three Australians were killed and nine wounded.
In contrast, the Marines were more heavily engaged, with the fighting occurring at close quarters for more than an hour before they repelled their attackers and counter-attacked. An Australian bunker between the Marines on Hill 111 and C Company, 2 RAR on Hill 121 was also the scene of heavy fighting, after the PVA penetrated the undefended space between the two positions. Manned by just six Australians under the command of Lance Corporal Kenneth Crockford, the position was attacked by the PVA simultaneously from several sides following a determined charge at 23:40. During bitter hand-to-hand fighting in the trenches around the bunker, the under-strength Australian section ejected the PVA and prevented them from advancing any further. They then directed artillery fire onto their position to break up subsequent attacks. Further PVA probes were launched against Hills 111 and 119 in the early hours of 26 July, and they succeeded in temporarily seizing parts of the American trench line. Between 01:30 and 03:00, heavy fighting continued before the PVA were driven from the position by the Marines. Meanwhile, Wilton ordered D Company, 3 RAR to move across to occupy the position behind B Company, 2 RAR to support the Marines if required, while at 02:18, he placed A Company, 1 DLI on five-minutes notice to move to another blocking position. American casualties were 19 killed and 125 wounded, while PVA losses included 30 men counted dead, and another 84 estimated to have been killed and 310 wounded.
The 2 RAR Machine Gun Platoon on Hill 111 again found itself heavily engaged, suffering five badly wounded. The PVA had managed to establish an artillery forward observer on Hill 111 and Marine casualties were particularly heavy as a result. Eight critically injured Americans were subsequently evacuated through 2 RAR for urgent medical treatment. Small-arms fire continued to be exchanged between the Marines and the PVA for the next two hours, only subsiding by 03:00, with the Marines finally driving out the PVA. D Company, 3 RAR was subsequently released, and it returned to battalion's main defensive position. The Australian outpost section also succeeded in holding through the night, and the following morning, they found 35 PVA dead around their positions. During the fighting, Crockford had repeatedly exposed himself to PVA fire, and had even run across no-man's land to provide situation reports to the Marine command post on Hill 111. He was later awarded the Military Medal for his actions. By dawn, the only activity in front of the Hook was PVA stretcher bearers collecting their wounded, who were subsequently allowed to do so unmolested by the Australians. In the 1st Marine Division's sector, the fighting had also ceased, while small groups of PVA moved to reinforce their positions and were engaged with rifle and machine-gun fire.
As with the first night, indirect fire had again played a crucial role in the defence, with the New Zealand gunners firing another 5,700 rounds (out of a divisional total of 9,500 rounds) in support of the Australians and the Marines. Dug-in to the east, 16 RNZA had been forced to fire with minimum crest clearance over the Australian lines to bring effective fire to bear on the assaulting PVA from their 25-pounders. Using both variable-time proximity and time-set fuses, the New Zealand gunners used air bursts to break up the PVA assaults, causing heavy casualties. Despite the risk of causing casualties among their own soldiers, no serious casualties were incurred by the Australians, although one suffered a broken shoulder after a brass nose cone from a faulty time-of-flight fused shell exploded over his position. High explosive was also provided by C Company's 60 mm mortar, which operated against the PVA in no-man's land despite being exposed and unprotected from fire, while the mortars also provided battlefield illumination, which had allowed the Australian riflemen and machine gunners to bring accurate fire to bear on the PVA crossing 2 RAR's front to attack Hills 111 and 121. The PVA had suffered heavily during the fighting, with over 300 dead counted in front of Hill 111 alone. Throughout the following day, the Australians observed a steady stream of PVA casualties evacuating Hill 111 and crossing the paddy fields on the left flank. Later, a group of 20 PVA had also attempted to withdraw, but were engaged by the 2 RAR Anti-Tank Platoon, resulting in at least six casualties. In the area held by the 1st Marine Division, PVA shelling continued sporadically, while at 13:30, the 1st Marine Regiment assumed operational control of the right sector.
## Aftermath
### Casualties
The battle illustrated the power of concentrated artillery fire and the wastefulness of massed attacks by infantry against modern firepower. Hundreds of PVA dead lay in front of the UN positions, with the valley floor "almost covered with dead Chinese". Wilton later recounted that on "the approaches to 2 RAR, the bodies literally carpeted the ground sometimes two deep". Later, PVA casualties numbered an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 killed according to UN sources, with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners. However, according to a Chinese source, the total casualties of PVA 46th Army were only at 886 men for all battles occurred from 24 June to 27 July. At least nine PVA battalions were believed to have been involved in the attacks. The fighting between 24 and 26 July had cost the Australians five killed and 24 wounded, while during the previous two weeks on the Hook, 2 RAR had lost 17 men killed and 31 wounded. It had been a bitter struggle to the very end, and as a testimony to the ferocity of the fighting, the Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honour "The Samichon". Many Australians were later awarded bravery decorations for their actions. The New Zealand gunners had played a crucial role in stemming the PVA assault, and during these final actions, the commander of 163 Battery, 16 RNZA—Major James Spence—had positioned himself well-forward to effectively co-ordinate the indirect fires of his guns. Spence was subsequently awarded the Military Cross, while a member of his tactical party, Gunner Arthur Bolton, was later Mentioned in Despatches. In total, over the three nights, more than 23,000 rounds were fired by the Commonwealth Divisional Artillery.
During the final month of the war, heavy fighting had occurred across the central and eastern fronts, yet in the Commonwealth sector itself, the only PVA attacks had been made against 2 RAR holding the Hook on the nights of 24–25 and 25–26 July. The action was part of a larger attack against the 1st Marine Division, with only diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians. 1st Commonwealth Division intelligence staff believed that the PVA had been attempting to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary to turn the 1st Marine Division's flank, yet with well-coordinated indirect fire from the divisional artillery and support from the British tanks, 2 RAR had been able to successfully thwart both assaults. Meanwhile, the Marines had endured the brunt of a division-sized attack, repelling the PVA onslaught for the loss of 43 killed and 316 wounded over the two nights; total Marine casualties for July included 181 killed and 1,430 wounded. Indeed, with the Chinese determined to gain local territorial advantage prior to signing the ceasefire, the UN Command had suffered 65,000 casualties during the final three months of the war, while the PVA lost at least 135,000.
### Subsequent operations
On 26 July, Wilton had ordered Lieutenant Colonel Peter Jeffreys to prepare a counter-attack by 1 DLI to recover some of the ground lost to the PVA the night before, but after preparatory fire failed to clear the PVA from the objective, the assault was cancelled. The PVA subsequently made another attempt against the Marines on Hill 119 on the night of 26/27 July, but it lacked the weight of those of the previous nights, and was easily repelled. In a final attempt to capture Boulder City, at 21:30, a PVA platoon had advanced on the wire at Hill 119, defended by Company E, 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines. Just after midnight, another platoon-sized PVA assault was also halted by the Marines. At 00:45 a PVA platoon probed the Marines on Hill 111, yet after an hour and twenty minutes it was also checked. Meanwhile, despite the clashes nearby on Hill 111 the Australians suffered no more casualties. The Armistice Agreement was subsequently signed at 10:00 on 27 July with a ceasefire coming into effect at 22:00. Sporadic fighting continued, and the New Zealand gunners fired several counter-battery tasks, engaging several PVA guns. The Commonwealth Divisional Artillery fired 1,300 rounds during the day; by evening, the front was largely silent. In the last four hours of the war, the PVA fired 44,000 artillery rounds into the US Eighth Army positions, although none against the 1st Commonwealth Division. No further attacks occurred, and the ceasefire came into effect at 22:00. The following day, some soldiers from both sides moved forward into no-man's land to exchange greetings, although relatively few Australians did so, and the Marines were under orders not to fraternise or communicate with the Chinese.
With the war over, both sides were required to withdraw 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) within 72 hours to create the 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) Korean Demilitarised Zone, and preparations began to hastily evacuate the forward positions. During August and September, sappers from the 1st Commonwealth Division were subsequently engaged clearing minefields and demolishing many of their former defended localities and field defences, while new battle positions were established to the rear. A similar process occurred across the entire front. Meanwhile, under the terms of the agreement, all prisoners who wished to be repatriated were to be returned, and 12,773 UN and 75,000 Chinese and North Korean prisoners were subsequently exchanged during this period, including 21 Australians and one New Zealander. The period that followed proved uneventful, yet the UN forces were required to maintain combat readiness and the ability to react quickly in case the North Koreans violated the ceasefire. In April 1954, 2 RAR returned to Australia and were replaced by 1 RAR, which remained in South Korea until March 1956. In September 1954, 3 RAR finally returned to Australia after four years of continuous service in Korea and five years before that in Japan. British Commonwealth forces remained in Korea until they were finally withdrawn in August 1957. Meanwhile, the last PVA elements did not leave Korea until 1958. |
15,171,318 | Joe Rice | 1,058,712,680 | American politician (born 1967) | [
"1967 births",
"Colorado city council members",
"Living people",
"Members of the Colorado House of Representatives",
"People from New Castle, Indiana",
"University of Colorado Denver alumni"
]
| Joe Rice (born May 7, 1967) is a former legislator in the U.S. state of Colorado, an Iraq War veteran, and a former mayor of Glendale, Colorado.
Rice presently works for Lockheed Martin Space Systems and also is a member of the United States Army Reserve. He was elected to the city council of Glendale, Colorado in 1994 and to the post of mayor in 1996 on a platform of developing a "resident-friendly" community in the Denver enclave. Rice was re-elected in 2000 and later resigned from the post of mayor in 2003 when called up to serve the first of five tours on active duty in Iraq. In Iraq, he has served as an advisor to the Baghdad city council and to Iraqi security forces.
Rice won election to the Colorado House of Representatives as a Democrat in 2006 and represented House District 38, which encompassed Greenwood Village, Bow Mar, and Littleton, Colorado as well as parts of Englewood, Centennial, Aurora, and Columbine Valley. While in the legislature, Rice focused heavily on transportation issues and was a key sponsor of a 2009 transportation funding bill increasing vehicle registration fees in order to address a backlog of bridge and transportation requirements. Other key measures he promoted included the creation of a statewide cold case homicide unit and a reduction in the business personal property tax.
Rice served 2-two year terms in the legislature, from 2007 to 2010. He narrowly lost re-election in 2010, losing 51% to 49%.
## Biography
### Personal life
Born in New Castle, Indiana, Rice earned an associates degree from New Mexico Military Institute in 1987 and a bachelor's degree in history from Metropolitan State College of Denver in 1989 while serving in the Colorado National Guard. He later earned a Master of Public Administration degree from the University of Colorado at Denver. Rice also earned a Masters of Strategic Studies degree from the United States Army War College in 2009 via their distance education program.
After being discharged from active military duty at Fort Carson, Rice settled in Glendale, Colorado in 1990. Rice and his wife, Dr. Kendall Kershner-Rice, were married in 1990, and have three children — twins Harrison and Alexandria, born in 2000, and a younger son, Dalton, born in 2005. They currently live in Littleton, Colorado. Among his hobbies, Rice enjoys jogging.
### Military career
Rice enlisted in the United States Army at the age of 17. After two years of enlisted service, and completing ROTC, Rice spent three years on active duty as an Airborne Ranger Infantry Officer. His military service included duty in Bosnia-Herzegovina as a staff officer during UN peacekeeping operations, and as project officer for a Colorado National Guard program to provide medical care to poor civilians.
Presently a colonel in the United States Army Reserve, Rice has been called up to serve five tours of duty in Iraq — from March 2003 to May 2004, where he was a senior U.S. military advisor to the Baghdad City Council; from October 2005 to February 2006, where he advised coalition forces on interactions with Iraqi civilians; from October 2007 to January 2008, where, as an operations analyst, he evaluated Iraqi military and police forces; and from May to October 2009, where he was involved in training Iraqi security forces. In 2009, having experienced the situation in Iraq firsthand for multiple years, Rice described progress in security and government and supported President Barack Obama's military plans for Iraq and Afghanistan.
Rice was called to serve a fifth tour of duty in Iraq with the Army Reserve from January thru August 2011. His duties included helping to implement the drawdown of US forces from Iraq and establishing partnership programs between Iraq and the United States that continue beyond the final withdrawal of all US forces from Iraq in December 2011.
Rice has completed Airborne and Ranger training, and has been awarded the Combat Action Badge, the Expert Infantryman's Badge, two Bronze Stars and the Joint Services Commendation Medal. Building upon his work in Baghdad, Rice has also helped coordinate the Baghdad-Denver Region Partnership for Sister Cities International since 2004. The partnership brought several delegations of Iraqis, including business leaders, government officials, and scholars. The most recent delegation was composed of Iraqi teenagers who lived with Colorado families. In 2008, Rice was appointed to the Board of Directors for Sister Cities International, and in 2009, he helped sponsor an Iraqi family's relocation to the United States.
### Private sector career
From 1993 to 1995, Rice was the manager of Dismas House, a halfway house for ex-convicts. In his first legislative campaign, Rice was criticized for his association with Dismas House founder Bob Sylvester, who was found guilty in 2000 of sexually abusing inmates. The incidents for which Sylvester was tried occurred after Rice left his employment at Dismas, and Rice testified on behalf of the prosecution during Sylvester's trial.
Between 1994 and 2003, while in the National Guard and Army Reserve, Rice worked in the private sector as a customer service supervisor and trainer with MCI, JD Edwards, and Wells Fargo Bank. From 2004 to 2005, Rice worked in government relations for the Colorado Department of Transportation. At the time of his first legislative campaign in 2006, Rice also worked as a self-employed management and training consultant, and was vice president of RIGOR Engineering Corporate Services, a consulting firm specializing in engineering project management.
### Mayor of Glendale
In 1994, Rice was elected to the Glendale, Colorado city council, running on a platform of shifting the small Denver enclave's business base away from adult-oriented businesses and towards a more "resident-family community." He was elected mayor in 1996. During his first term, Rice proposed new regulations on erotic dancers at Glendale nightclubs, garnering strong opposition from local business owners, who formed the "Glendale Tea Party" and elected three members to the city council in 1998 in response to the new regulations. Running for re-election, Rice faced opposition from Tea Party member Mike Dunafon, who promoted accusations that Rice used racial slurs and denigrated African-American and Mexican citizens. Rice was also criticized for being absent from Glendale during six months of his term as mayor, while he attended the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth. However, after an election that saw record campaign spending and record turnout for Glendale, Rice defeated Dunafon and was re-elected to a second term in 2000.
As mayor, Rice touted his efforts to lower city property taxes, expand city parks and open space, and open the city's first pre-school and recreation center. He served on the executive committee of the Denver Regional Council of Governments from 1995 to 2003, as vice-chair of the Denver Metro Mayors Caucus from 2001 to 2003, and received the John V. Christensen Award from the Denver Regional Council of Governments in 2004. In 2003, Rice resigned from his post as mayor during the last year of his second term after being called up to active military duty in Iraq.
## Legislative career
### 2006 election
Republican Rep. Joe Stengel was term-limited in 2006 and could not stand for re-election to the Colorado House of Representatives from House District 38; both Rice and Republican Matt Dunn sought election to Stengel's house seat. The race was a top target for the Colorado GOP, who unsuccessfully tried to keep the seat in Republican hands during a year where Republicans lost ground both nationally and in Colorado.
During the campaign, Rice was criticized in attack ads for his support, as mayor of Glendale, of the use of Mexican-issued matricula consular cards as legal forms of identification for use by immigrants. In his campaign, Rice outlined his top legislative priorities as public safety, economic security, and quality of life. Rice was regarded by both conservative and liberal observers as a moderate Democrat, and is a member of the centrist Democratic Leadership Council.
Rice was endorsed by the Denver Post and by both union groups (including the local chapter of the teachers' union Colorado Education Association, and the Colorado Association of Public Employees, a branch of the Service Employees International Union) and business interests (including the Colorado Subcontractors Association and the state Chamber of Commerce, the Colorado Association of Commerce and Industry). He was also endorsed by Colorado Conservation Voters and the Colorado Medical Society.
Rice ultimately defeated Dunn, earning 53 percent of the vote, and was sworn into office on January 10, 2007.
### 2007 legislative session
In the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Rice was vice-chairman of the House Business Affairs and Labor Committee and a member of the House Transportation and Energy Committee.
During the 2007 legislative session, Rice sponsored 16 pieces of legislation, including 11 as the primary sponsor in the House of Representatives. Among the most prominent of his bills was a measure to set up a cold case unit within the Colorado Bureau of Investigation to investigate Colorado's 1200 unsolved homicides. After passage, Gov. Ritter signed the bill into law. Rice also pursued legislation to cut taxes for businesses by raising the personal property tax exemption. After having passed the state house unanimously, the measure died in a Senate committee.
Rice worked with fellow military officer and state senator Steve Ward on several pieces of legislation during his first term in the legislature. Rice sponsored legislation to allow military personnel serving overseas to apply for absentee ballots electronically; Ward was the Senate sponsor. Following the 2007 session, Rice and Ward called for Colorado to divest state pension funds from companies doing business in Iran.
Rice was a key player during House debate on a resolution critical of the ongoing War in Iraq; he supported amendments to the resolution to remove specific criticism of the 2007 troop surge, but supported the final compromise version, which called for eventual withdrawal from Iraq and passed on a party-line vote.
Rice was also the house sponsor of legislation introduced in the Colorado State Senate to make driving without a seat belt a primary offense; the measure narrowly failed in the House despite Rice's objections during a heated debate that defeating the bill would "kill kids."
For his voting record during the 2007 legislative session, Rice earned a 4% rating from the fiscally conservative Colorado Union of Taxpayers and a 100% rating from the environmentally-oriented Colorado Conservation Voters; both ratings placed him at opposite end of the Democratic caucus from average Republican ratings.
Following the regular session, Rice served on the legislature's Police Officers' and Firefighters' Pension Reform Commission and the interim Transportation Legislation Review Committee.
### 2008 legislative session
At the start of the 2008 legislature year, Rice was still in Iraq on his third tour of duty. His absence was acknowledged by lawmakers during their opening speeches, his seat was decorated with yellow ribbons, and his children were invited to lead the Pledge of Allegiance on the first day of the session. During his time in Iraq, Rice met with Colorado Governor Bill Ritter, Congressman Ed Perlmutter, and Congressional candidate Jared Polis during their trips to the country, and also met with U.S. Marine and Colorado state senator Steve Ward, who was stationed in Iraq at the same time. Rice returned to the legislature on January 28, 2008, and was received with a standing ovation during the morning roll call.
In the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly, Rice sits on the House Transportation and Energy Committee, and is vice-chairman of the House Business Affairs and Labor Committee. During the session, Rice has explored introducing legislation to increase vehicle registration fees in order boost transportation funding, and plans on introducing legislation to make aggravated rape of a child under 12 a capital crime, eligible for the death penalty. Rice also introduced legislation to exempt some school fundraisers from sales tax, a measure which he placed on hold pending consideration of a broader measure by Rep. Jerry Sonnenberg. Rice and Sonnenberg ultimately combined their efforts and integrated the two bills, both of which became law.
Rice re-introduced a bill that had passed the House but failed in the Senate the previous year to raise the business personal property tax exemption, after the measure was endorsed by Gov. Ritter as part of his economic development platform. The legislation, which raised the exemption from \$2,500 to \$7,000, was ultimately passed by the legislature and signed into law.
Rice also hoped to sponsor legislation supported by Ritter to raise vehicle registration fees in order to fund road and bridge repairs, but failed to find a suitable cosponsor for the bill. Late in the session, though, Rice signed on as House sponsor on a measure to raise registration and rental fees to create trust funds for transportation; the measure was later dropped in favor of a bipartisan study committee between legislative sessions.
In March 2008, Rice received the Bridge Builders Award from the Colorado Contractors Association for his work on transportation issues.
### 2008 election
Rice sought a second term in the legislature in the 2008 statewide elections, facing Republican Dave Kerber. Holding office in a seat with voter registration numbers favoring Republicans, the race was expected to be strongly contested. As of early October, Rice had spent nearly \$120,000 on his re-election campaign, the second-highest level of spending among all Colorado House of Representatives candidates. Rice's re-election bid was endorsed by the Denver Post, and he ultimately won with 54 percent of the popular vote.
### 2009 legislative session
Besides chairing the House Business Affairs Committee during the regular legislative session, in November 2008, Rice was named vice-chair of a special legislative Committee on Job Creation and Economic Growth, tasked with developing recommendations on bolstering Colorado's economy before the 2009 legislative session. The committee presented a slate of jobs-related legislation at the start of the 2009 session; one measure, sponsored by Rice, would offer tax credits to companies that create 20 jobs in urban areas or 10 jobs in rural areas. With Republican Rep. Amy Stephens, Rice also sponsored legislation allowing health insurance providers to offer discounts for participation in wellness programs. At the request of the Colorado Association of Transit Agencies, Rice also sponsored legislation requiring drivers to yield to transit buses re-entering traffic.
Towards the end of the session, Rice prominently broke with Democrats to oppose the removal of capital gains tax breaks and to oppose granting unemployment benefits to locked-out workers. Rice also sponsored legislation backed by the South Metro Denver Chamber of Commerce to create a hybrid public-private health insurance system to cover all Colorado residents; however, these plans were put on hold after proponents of a single payer health care system advanced their competing proposal in the state legislature.
Rice was the sponsor of a major transportation funding proposal backed by Gov. Bill Ritter and other Democratic leaders, including Senate sponsor Dan Gibbs. The proposal, labeled "FASTER," an acronym for Funding Advancement for Surface Transportation and Economic Recovery, would yield \$250 million in funding, aimed primarily at road and bridge repair, by increasing a range of vehicle registration fees. FASTER passed the legislature without the support of Republicans, who objected to the level of fee increases and called for resources besides fees to be used to support transportation; additional complaints surfaced from both Republican leaders and the public after the fee increases took effect.
Following the 2009 session, Rice was named a legislator of the year by the Southeast Business Partnership, and received the Chairs' Award for Outstanding Efforts in Economic Development from the Metro Denver Economic Development Corporation.
### 2010 legislative session
In the 2010 Legislative Session, Rice sponsored legislation focused on job creation and public safety. He sponsored a bill to prevent those who have been arrested or charged with a serious crime from buying a gun while the charges are being adjudicated. This law, originally signed into law in 2000 by Republican Governor Bill Owens, was set to expire in July 2010.
Rice also sponsored a bill to make the invasion of privacy for sexual gratification a felony if committed by someone who has previously been convicted of a sexual offense or if the victim is a minor. Rice brought this bill in response to a "peeping tom" incident at an Arapahoe County hotel in 2009.
Rice partnered with Republican Amy Stephens in sponsoring a bill to allow small-group and individual health-care markets to offer wellness incentive programs in exchange for a discount on insurance premiums.
Rice also sponsored two bills related to the creative industry sector of the Colorado economy. One bill dedicated 1% of state capital construction spending towards funding public art for state capitol construction projects. Another consolidated several state agencies and offices into the Office of Creative Industries.
### 2010 election
Rice's district, which contained more registered Republicans than Democrats, was one of those targeted by Colorado Republicans hoping to make gains during the midterm 2010 legislative elections. Rice narrowly lost re-election in 2010 to Kathleen Conti, losing 51% to 49% (892 votes out of 30,510 votes cast) in a district where Republicans outnumber Democrats by almost 10 points in voter registration.
## Life and public service after politics
Following the election, Rice was called to serve a fifth tour of duty in Iraq with the United States Army Reserve from January through August 2011. Upon release from active duty, Rice returned to work in the private sector. Though no longer in elected office, he remains active with a number of community organizations and civic groups. |
9,808,484 | 2006 Riga summit | 1,166,489,772 | 2006 NATO summit meeting in Riga, Latvia | [
"2006 conferences",
"2006 in Latvia",
"2006 in international relations",
"2006 in politics",
"21st century in Riga",
"21st-century diplomatic conferences (NATO)",
"Diplomatic conferences in Latvia",
"Latvia and NATO",
"NATO summits",
"November 2006 events in Europe"
]
| The 2006 Riga summit or the 19th NATO Summit was a NATO summit held in the Olympic Sports Centre, Riga, Latvia from 28 to 29 November 2006. The most important topics discussed were the War in Afghanistan and the future role and borders of the alliance. Further, the summit focused on the alliance's continued transformation, taking stock of what has been accomplished since the 2002 Prague Summit. NATO also committed itself to extending further membership invitations in the upcoming 2008 Bucharest Summit. This summit was the first NATO summit held on the territory of the Baltic states.
## Security measures
The summit was held in the Olympic Sports Centre, Riga. Roads in the center of Riga were closed down and parking was not allowed at the airport or at several roads, out of fear of car bombs. About 9000 Latvian police officers and soldiers took care of the Summit's security, while more than 450 other airmen from seven European NATO countries were called upon to ensure a no-fly zone above the summit in an operation called Operation Peaceful Summit. This enhanced ongoing Baltic Air Policing activities with additional aircraft, communications and maintenance support.
## Summit
All agreements were not actually made in the North Atlantic Council meeting, but in fact, it was made in the Istanbul Summit, 2003, except for the signing of the missile defense contract which happened on 28 November. The Council meeting was held on 29 November.
### Main topics
While the tensions between NATO members from the build-up to the invasion of Iraq had dissipated, the NATO summit, and the months preceding the summit, were marked by divisions between the United States and the United Kingdom on the one side and France, Germany, Italy and Spain on the other. Two rifts existed, one about the military contributions to the war in Afghanistan, and the other concerning whether or not NATO should assume a more global role.
#### War in Afghanistan
Before and during the summit US president George W. Bush, British prime minister Tony Blair, Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper and Dutch Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende made a plea to European NATO members to make more troops available for deployment in Afghanistan, remove the national caveats (i.e. national restrictions on how, when and where forces can be used) and start sending its troops into the conflict-ridden south of the country. According to Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) General James L. Jones it was not the lack of combat troops and the caveats were the problem, but the lack of adequate helicopters and military intelligence to support airlift and on-the-ground operations.
While the NATO countries in question refused to participate in the fighting in the south, they agreed to remove some of these national caveats, and in an emergency situation, all national caveats should cease to exist, meaning that every ally should come to the aid of the forces that require assistance. A number of NATO member states also pledged to provide additional assets, including fighters, helicopters, infantry companies as well as training teams that will mentor the Afghan National Army. NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that the removal of some of the caveats meant that some 20,000 of the 32,000 NATO troops in ISAF are made "more usable" for combat duties and that 90% of the formal mission requirements were now filled. Military sources, however, told reporters at the summit that these caveats never existed in emergency situations, adding that it would be a strange alliance where one country's soldiers refused to support their allies in an emergency. NATO leaders also backed a French proposal to set up a "contact group" to coordinate action concerning Afghanistan, but the United States had reservations about France's proposal to include Iran, which has considerable influence over the west of Afghanistan, in the proposed contact group due to the dispute over Iran's nuclear programme. The group was modelled on the one set up for the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s.
Political scientist Joseph Nye commented that "while the Riga summit relaxed some of these caveats to allow assistance to allies in dire circumstances, Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, and the US are doing most of the fighting in southern Afghanistan, while French, German, and Italian troops are deployed in the quieter north. It is difficult to see how NATO can succeed in stabilizing Afghanistan unless it is willing to commit more troops and give commanders more flexibility." The controversy surrounding the differences in contributions to Afghanistan indeed remained after the summit. For instance, in March 2007, British commanders accused the NATO members that refused to fight in the conflict-ridden south (in non-emergency situations) of causing "huge resentment" and a sense of betrayal and undermined the credibility of the alliance. They added that despite the earlier pleas for reinforcements or to have "operational caveats" removed, some countries, notably France and Germany, were still not heeding their requests.
Besides the above discussion about contributions and caveats, the summit was noticed to paint an optimistic picture of the war in Afghanistan and Afghanistan's future. For instance, NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that "real progress" had been made in Afghanistan and that this was the main highlight of the summit. He strongly disagreed with visions of "doom and gloom," and added that five years after the defeat of the Taliban regime, Afghanistan had become a democratic society that is "no longer a threat to the world." He also believed that the defeat of the insurgency was only a matter of time, stating that the war in Afghanistan "is winnable, it is being won, but it is not yet won because, of course, we have many challenges in Afghanistan." In his opinion, these challenges included besides military engagement mainly reconstruction and development work.
#### Role of NATO
The second, more fundamental rift, concerned a discussion about whether NATO should form close relationships with countries far beyond NATO's borders, in particular Australia, Japan and South Korea. The United States and some other NATO members pressed for a closer relationship with these countries. R. Nicholas Burns, Under Secretary for Political Affairs explained the US proposal: "We seek a partnership with them so that we can train more intensively (...) and grow closer to them because we are deployed with them. Australia, South Korea and Japan are in Afghanistan. They have all been in Iraq (...) [and] in the Balkans." It was however not clear how far this plan would have gone in practice, but the US insisted they were not seeking to turn NATO into a global alliance: membership would not be offered to the prospective new partners. The idea of a "global" NATO however was strongly opposed by France, which considers NATO a regional defense alliance that should not spread its wings too far over the globe. The French Defence Minister Michele Alliot-Marie summarized the position of France as follows: "The development of a global partnership could... dilute the natural solidarity between Europeans and North Americans in a fuzzy entity [and it would] send a bad political message, that of a campaign launched by the West against those who don't share their ideas. What a pretext we would offer to those who promote the idea of a clash of civilisations." The summit did not reach a satisfying consensus on the future role of NATO and it was considered an exercise in "papering over cracks", much more than it was ever a serious effort to decide on the future borders and core purposes. As a consequence, the debate continued after the summit.
### Other topics
#### Kosovo
At the Riga summit, NATO members confirmed the role of NATO-led KFOR in ensuring a stable security environment there. This is perceived to be a reference to the possible United Nations decision in favour of independence. Because Serbia strongly opposes the break-away of Kosovo, the resulting tensions between Serbia and Kosovo could create instability in the region.
#### Enhanced cooperation with non-members
Enhanced cooperation with non-member states closer at home was less controversial and two offers were made: an extension of Partnership for Peace membership, and a training initiative.
- Partnership for Peace (PfP) membership was offered to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia. NATO hoped that this would bring these countries more into the Euro-Atlantic community as the PfP is a programme of practical bilateral cooperation between individual Partner countries and NATO, thereby allowing Partner countries to choose their own priorities for cooperation. It is expected that PfP membership is for these three countries the first step towards NATO membership. As a result, the PfP offer sparked the anger of the UN tribunal trying suspected war criminals from the Balkans.
- NATO launched a Training Cooperation Initiative offering to share NATO training expertise with its Mediterranean Dialogue (MD) countries (Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Israel and Jordan) and Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI) countries. The initial phase included expanding those countries' participation in relevant existing NATO training and education programmes, and the establishment of a Middle East faculty at the NATO Defense College in Rome. As a second phase, NATO would consider supporting the establishment of a Security Cooperation Centre in the region, to be owned by the MD and ICI countries, with regional funding and NATO assistance. Senior NATO staff have tended to highlight this project as evidence of NATO's forward-thinking and its desire to avoid becoming a party to a "clash of civilizations".
#### Comprehensive Political Guidance
Comprehensive Political Guidance (CPG), a policy document that had been agreed upon by Defence Ministers in June 2006 and an addition to the 1999 Strategic Concept document, was formally endorsed during the summit. The CPG intends to provide a framework and political direction for NATO's continuing transformation in the coming 10 to 15 years. More specifically, the document expresses the belief that the principal threats to the Alliance in the coming decades are terrorism, proliferation, failing states, regional crises, misuse of new technologies, and disruption of the flow of vital resources. According to this document, the Alliance should adapt to these new threats and set out the Alliance vis-a-vis capability issues, planning disciplines and intelligence for the next 10 to 15 years, including among others the need for joint expeditionary forces and the capability to deploy and sustain them over long periods of time. The document further underlined that NATO's forces should be able to conduct a variety of missions, from high to low intensity, and emphasized the likelihood that NATO will need to carry out a greater number and range of smaller operations. The CPG also confirmed the principle that 40% of the member states' military forces must be re-deployable, and 8% must constantly be on operations abroad. This principle makes it, among other things, possible to effectively compare the contributions made by various states, irrespective of the size of their populations.
The CPG policy document is regarded as self-contradictory for at least two reasons. Firstly, it identified the two greatest threats to NATO as terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), whilst simultaneously reaffirming the 1999 Strategic Concept as "remaining valid" despite the fact that it barely mentioned these threats. Secondly, the document states that collective defence remains the core purpose of NATO, but at the same time emphasizes potential NATO contributions to conflict prevention and crisis management, and the potential planning and management of missions like that in Afghanistan. The Riga Declaration even described the capability for such missions as NATO's "top priority". Additionally, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer wanted and expected a new Strategic Concept to be debated and agreed upon by 2008, reinforcing already existing views that the CPG will most likely last much less than the 10 to 15 years as the guiding policy document.
#### Energy security
The Riga summit was the first NATO summit that underscored the need for energy security, following the Russia-Ukraine gas dispute. The "Riga Summit Declaration" (par. 45) stated that "Alliance security interests can also be affected by the disruption of the flow of vital resources" and that it supported "a coordinated, international effort to assess risks to energy infrastructures and to promote energy infrastructure security." It further states that NATO leaders "direct the Council in Permanent Session to consult on the most immediate risks in the field of energy security, to define those areas where NATO may add value to safeguard the security interests of the Allies and, upon request, assist national and international efforts." Radio Free Europe reports that an unnamed diplomatic source told that several NATO leaders, including Latvian president Vaira Vike-Freiberga, had tried to make arrangements for bilateral talks concerning this topic with Russian president Vladimir Putin during the summit, but Putin instead attended the CIS energy summit in Minsk, Belarus on 28 November 2006. In contrast, The Independent reported that the summit was marred by a diplomat fracas over an invitation to President Vladimir Putin and that he was eventually not invited, and that Putin as a result threatened that he would visit Latvia for the first time since independence during the summit to upstage the summit. It was even proposed that Putin could honour French president Jacques Chirac, who was at the summit and whose 74th birthday coincided with the summit, by visiting Latvia. He later made clear that this would not go ahead.
#### 2008 membership invitations
The NATO Heads of State and Government congratulated the efforts of the three Balkan states currently in NATO's Membership Action Plan: Albania, Croatia and Macedonia, and declared that the Alliance intends to extend further invitations to these countries during the 2008 Bucharest Summit, on condition that these countries meet NATO standards. The Alliance also affirmed that NATO remained open to new European members under Article X of the North Atlantic Treaty, but remained largely silent on the prospects of Georgia and Ukraine, two countries that had declared membership as a goal, as the summit limited itself to noting the efforts of both countries to conduct an "intensified dialogue" with NATO. Nevertheless, Estonian Prime Minister Andrus Ansip said after the summit that he had discussed Georgia's membership with US president Bush on 28 November. He further added that in his view Georgia had "very good chances" to join NATO if the planned reforms would continue and that a Membership Action Plan, the next necessary step on Georgia's way towards membership, was only "a small step away". Preceding the summit, it was expected that Ukraine was on a fast track to membership: it was believed that Ukraine would have received an invitation to a Membership Action Plan during the summit, followed by an invitation to join in 2008 and membership in 2010. According to political scientist Taras Kuzio the summit showed that Georgia rapidly moved ahead of Ukraine in its drive to join NATO, even though it joined the Intensified Dialogue program a year later than Ukraine, because president of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko failed to support a pro-Western Orange revolution coalition following the Ukraine's parliamentary elections of March 2006. In other words, Ukraine showed more ambivalence in its desire to join NATO, whereas in Georgia the pro-Western Rose Revolution coalition remained united.
#### NATO Response Force
NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer announced that the NATO Response Force was finally fully operational since all capabilities necessary were in place. The force is believed to be capable of performing missions worldwide across the whole spectrum of operations (such as evacuations, disaster management, counterterrorism, and acting as "an initial entry force") and can number up to 25,000 troops and should be able to start to deploy after five days' notice and sustain itself for operations lasting 30 days or longer if resupplied. The heads of state and government also agreed to share the costs of airlift for the short notice deployments of the Response Force.
#### 2010 Theatre Missile Defence
In September 2006, NATO selected an international consortium led by Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) to build an Integration Test Bed for the Alliance's future Active Layered Theatre Missile Defence (ALTBMD) capability. After two months of negotiations, ALTBMD Programme Manager, General (Ret) Billard, and SAIC contracting Officer, Mr. Robert Larrick, signed the contract on the first day of NATO's Riga Summit. This decision was based on an unpublished report agreed upon earlier by NATO ministers following a study into the feasibility of theatre missile defences.
This programme is one of three programmes that NATO is pursuing in the area of missile defence. The contract puts the Alliance on track for having, by 2010, a system to protect troops on missions against ballistic missiles. The contract is worth approximately 75 million EUR for work that would be conducted over a period of six years. The theatre missile defence would be a multi-layered system of systems, comprising early warning system sensors, radar and various interceptors. While NATO member countries would provide the sensors and weapon systems, NATO itself would develop a commonly funded NATO architecture to integrate all of these elements. The development of the ALTBMD system was agreed by NATO members in large part because it is limited. NATO members are deeply divided about the multi-tiered BMD architecture promoted by the US Missile Defense Agency (MDA).
## Views on the summit
For the three formerly Soviet-occupied states of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania such a high-level event was held for the first time in the region. As a consequence, it held symbolic meaning. It is perceived to have increased the visibility of these three Baltic states as NATO members. |
28,899,005 | Duets (Glee) | 1,171,422,864 | null | [
"2010 American television episodes",
"American LGBT-related television episodes",
"Glee (season 2) episodes"
]
| "Duets" is the fourth episode of the second season of the American television series Glee, and the twenty-sixth episode overall. It was written by series creator Ian Brennan, directed by Eric Stoltz, and premiered on Fox on October 12, 2010. The episode featured seven cover versions, including a mash-up of "Happy Days Are Here Again" and "Get Happy" by Barbra Streisand and Judy Garland, respectively.
In the episode, transfer student Sam Evans (Chord Overstreet) joins the glee club. Director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) assigns the members to perform a duet with another classmate, and offers a prize for the best performance. The students form their duos and begin practicing, testing several relationships and initiating others; after first being recruited by Kurt Hummel (Chris Colfer), Sam ultimately finds himself partnered with Quinn Fabray (Dianna Agron).
"Duets" received generally positive reviews from critics, and many praised the show for its character development and varied song choices. The episode also featured a neck-nuzzle between Santana (Naya Rivera) and Brittany (Heather Morris), which was a subject of interest to many critics and led Christie Keith of AfterEllen.com to refer to the episode as "queerest episode of any series that's ever been on television". In its original broadcast, "Duets" was watched by 11.36 million American viewers. It was the top-rated program of the night in the 18–49 demographic, attaining a 4.7/13 Nielsen rating/share. Both viewership and ratings rose from the previous episode, "Grilled Cheesus".
## Plot
Glee club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) announces a duets assignment and competition; the prize for the winning duo is dinner at Breadstix. He tells them that club member Puck (Mark Salling) has been sent to juvenile detention for stealing an ATM, and introduces a new member, Sam Evans (Chord Overstreet). Kurt (Chris Colfer) suspects that Sam is gay and asks him to be his duet partner; Sam agrees. Club co-captain Finn Hudson (Cory Monteith) separately attempts to convince them not to be partners, as he fears that Sam will be bullied to the point of quitting if he sings a duet with another guy, but Sam insists on honoring his given word to Kurt, and Kurt is still angry at Finn for some homophobic comments he made when they were roommates. After his father Burt (Mike O'Malley) points out that just as Kurt had a crush on Finn the year before, he may now be taking advantage of Sam, Kurt releases Sam from their partnership, and as his competition entry sings "Le Jazz Hot!" from Victor Victoria in a "duet" with himself. Kurt comes away from this feeling lonelier than ever and wonders if he will ever truly be accepted for who he is by his peers and family and withdraws from everyone else in the group.
Cheerleaders Santana (Naya Rivera) and Brittany (Heather Morris) make out, but when Brittany suggests they sing Melissa Etheridge's "Come to My Window" together, Santana refuses and trivializes their relationship. Santana believes her best chance of winning is by partnering with Mercedes (Amber Riley), and together they sing "River Deep – Mountain High". Brittany pairs up with Artie (Kevin McHale), and they start dating. Artie loses his virginity to Brittany who carried him to bed, but before they compete Santana tells him that Brittany only wanted him for his voice so she could win the competition. He is deeply upset that his first sexual experience was the consequence of such petty motivations, so he breaks up with Brittany and dissolves their partnership. Tina (Jenna Ushkowitz) and her boyfriend Mike (Harry Shum, Jr.) argue about whether they should duet at all, but he ultimately agrees to join her on "Sing!" from A Chorus Line, his first solo performance for glee club; their duet draws praise from Will.
Finn and his girlfriend Rachel Berry (Lea Michele) initially practice singing "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", but Rachel suggests they should throw the competition so Sam can win, to make him more likely to stay in the glee club. When Sam has a slushee thrown in his face by bullies, Quinn (Dianna Agron) helps him to clean up. They subsequently become duet partners, and during a rehearsal he attempts to kiss her. Quinn is upset and tells him they cannot sing together, but she is later convinced to reconsider by Rachel. Rachel and Finn, dressed as a schoolgirl and a priest in an intentionally offensive move to damage their chances of victory, perform "With You I'm Born Again" by Billy Preston and Syreeta Wright. Sam and Quinn sing "Lucky" by Jason Mraz and Colbie Caillat. The club members all vote for themselves except Finn and Rachel, who vote for the winners, Sam and Quinn. Over the victory dinner at Breadstix they form a bond, and Quinn tells Sam that she considers the meal their first date.
Noticing that Kurt is lonely and acting more withdrawn, Rachel tells him how much the club members value and accept him and asks him to duet with her for fun now that the competition is over in an act of solidarity. The episode ends with them singing the Judy Garland/Barbra Streisand mash-up of "Happy Days Are Here Again" and "Get Happy" for the glee club.
## Production
In "Duets", Brittany and Santana are shown together in bed. A physical relationship between the two was first alluded to in the season one episode "Sectionals". Rivera sought clarification on the nature of their relationship from "Sectionals" director Brad Falchuk, who informed her that the two characters had been intimate in the past. Series creator Ryan Murphy told Morris that as Glee is a primetime series, he did not want to show them making out. Interviewed by Brett Berk of Vanity Fair in May 2010, Morris stated that Brittany and Santana were simply best friends, and the show would not be taking them in a "friends with benefits" direction. However, at the Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour in August 2010, Murphy stated that the characters would in fact kiss on screen in an upcoming episode. Falchuk later explained that the Brittany/Santana storyline had begun "almost as a goof at first", however "then we realised this show is so inclusive, and then there were people we weren't representative of. This whole lesbian-bisexual female community. We're fortunate the network wasn't resistant of it and let us try it out, then it became something much deeper." In "Duets", Brittany also had a brief relationship with Artie. Morris told Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post that she is a fan of McHale's, and had been pressing Murphy to give their characters a storyline together since the beginning of the season.
Series regular Mark Salling did not appear in "Duets", which prompted media speculation that he would not return to the show due to a breach of contract. However, his absence was for creative reasons, as it allowed Sam to establish himself within the glee club and begin a relationship with Puck's ex-girlfriend Quinn. Overstreet stated that Sam was initially created as a romantic interest for Kurt, but his storyline was adjusted to pair him with Quinn as a result of the chemistry the producers detected between himself and Agron.
The episode featured cover versions of seven songs: Ike & Tina Turner's "River Deep – Mountain High", Jason Mraz and Colbie Caillat's "Lucky", Elton John and Kiki Dee's "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", "Le Jazz Hot!" from Victor Victoria, "Sing!" from A Chorus Line—which was Shum's first lead vocal performance on the series, Billy Preston and Syreeta Wright's "With You I'm Born Again", and a mash-up of "Happy Days Are Here Again" and "Get Happy" as performed by Judy Garland and Barbra Streisand. Colfer and Michele's costumes and positions in the latter number matched those in the Garland and Streisand original. Although it was not performed, Melissa Etheridge's "Come to My Window" was suggested as a performance piece by Brittany; five months prior to the episode's broadcast, Etheridge had jested that her songs were not "gay enough" for use on Glee. All of the songs except "With You I'm Born Again" were released as singles, available for download. "River Deep – Mountain High" and "Lucky" were also featured on the fifth soundtrack album of the series, Glee: The Music, Volume 4, while "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" was included on the fourth extended play, Glee: The Music, Love Songs.
## Reception
### Ratings
In its original broadcast, "Duets" was watched by 11.36 million American viewers. It was the top-rated program of the night in the 18–49 demographic, as it attained a 4.7/13 Nielsen rating/share. Both viewership and ratings rose from the previous episode, "Grilled Cheesus", which was watched by 11.20 million viewers and attained a 4.6/13 rating/share among adults 18–49. In the weekly program rankings, Glee was the fourth most-viewed show among adults 18–49, and the second scripted show behind only Modern Family. In overall viewers, it placed nineteenth for the week. In Canada, the episode was watched by 2.25 million viewers, which placed it at seventh for the week. Viewership again rose from the previous episode, which was watched by 1.99 million viewers and ranked eleventh. In Australia, "Duets" drew 1.04 million viewers, making Glee the ninth most-viewed show of the night and twenty-eighth of the week. It was also up from "Grilled Cheesus", which attracted 1.02 million viewers and ranked eleventh on the night, and thirty-second for the week. In the UK, the episode was watched by 2.51 million viewers (2.11 million on E4, and 397,000 on E4+1), which made it the most-watched show on E4 and E4+1 for the week, and the second most-watched show on cable for the week.
### Critical response
"Duets" was generally well received by critics, many of whom contrasted it favorably with the preceding season two episodes. The New York Times's Rebecca Milzoff called it the best of the season to that point "in terms of old-school Glee", and indeed, both Lisa Respers France of CNN and Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post found it a reminder of why they originally loved the show. Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal summarized: "This was a return to that honeymoon feeling, when Glee first surprised, scandalized and satisfied you." TV Guide's Damian Holbrook and the Houston Chronicle's Bobby Hankinson appreciated the lack of gimmicks; the former explained "No Britney numbers. No forced guest stars. No reasons to check out. It's amazing how satisfying a show can be when the characters we invested in a year ago get to do something more than set-dress a stunt." James Poniewozik of Time labelled it "easily the strongest character episode so far this season". While The Atlantic's Kevin Fallon opined that the series finally achieved the correct "tonal balance of comedy and drama", his colleague Meghan Brown provided one of few dissenting reviews; she called it a lazy, nonsensical episode which contributed to a building "sophomore slump". MTV's Aly Semigran found it lackluster after "Grilled Cheesus", and although Anthony Benigno of the Daily News deemed it an improvement on the previous episode, he concluded that it was not one of the season's best.
Several themes ran through the reviews, one of which was the lack of focus on adult characters. IGN's Robert Canning—who rated "Duets" 8.5/10, signifying a great episode—felt that this contributed to its success, as it "allowed for small but interesting character development to take place, even with some of the minor characters." Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was surprised that she did not miss the presence of cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester, but Hankinson, Semigran and Rolling Stone's Erica Futterman all lamented her absence. The gay-centered storylines also attracted much commentary. Christie Keith of lesbian and bisexual media website AfterEllen.com suggested that "Duets" was "the queerest episode of any series that's ever been on television". Entertainment Weekly's Tim Stack wrote that Kurt "stole the show in terms of pure emotional power" and called him "the most important character on television right now". USA Today's Ann Oldenburg questioned whether Glee had gone "too far" by depicting a physical relationship between Santana and Brittany. Several reviewers appreciated the resultant development of Brittany's character: Poniewozik enjoyed the exploration of her "basic loneliness", E! Online's Jenna Mullins was pleased to see more than her usual "deadpanning and one-liners", and Wieselman called it a "wonderful moment" when she and Artie broke up, which led to the depiction of "real feelings" in Brittany for the first time. Canning found Brittany and Artie's coupling "uneven" and preferred her with Santana, as their development made them "uniquely interesting and a blast to watch." VanDerWerff conversely deemed Brittany's pairing with Artie "one of the most resonant things the show's ever done".
The storylines that involved Rachel received mixed commentary. Both Poniewozik and Stack appreciated the pairing of Rachel and Kurt: the former called them "probably the strongest pairing" of the episode due to similarities in their characterization, and the latter lauded Rachel's line "I know you're lonely...but you're not alone" as "an incredibly powerful statement coming in the midst of all these gay youth suicides[, which] further illuminates the relevance and importance of a show like Glee." Fallon said that the episode "added some flavor" to the relationship between Rachel and Finn, which was "in danger of going stale", and Berk noted that "Duets" was the first time he had ever been "marginally compelled" by a storyline which involved the pair. Benigno was far less favorable: he called Rachel a lunatic, and a "self-absorbed crazy woman who will do anything short of black-ops assassination to secure the [Nationals] trophy."
Sam and Quinn's burgeoning relationship met with a fairly positive response. Canning would have preferred for them to become friends first, and Benigno deemed their sexual tension unrealistic, based on Sam's success at charming Quinn in Na'vi, the fictional language of Avatar. However, while Berk declared himself "fully exhausted with the flimsy cheerleader/quarterback paradigm", Sam's Na'vi and Matthew McConaughey impression led him to concede that they are "cute together". Stack and Mullins shared this sentiment, and VanDerWerff called their flirtation "exceptionally well-handled".
### Music and performances
The episode's musical performances—deemed "among the most varied and terrific in the show's history" by VanDerWerff—were also generally well received. Futterman found it refreshing for the main characters to receive equal performance time. Although Poniewozik opined that some numbers were included based on iTunes sales potential rather than how well they served the plot, Holbrook was pleased that the songs "drove the story instead of drowning out the characters", and both Hankinson and Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times welcomed the contextually appropriate song selection. Opinions were divided over the best performance. Both Futterman and VanDerWerff felt that Mercedes and Santana should have won the duet competition with their performance of "River Deep – Mountain High". The former called it "one of the series' best" duets, and the latter further praised it as potentially "the best musical number the show's ever done from a pure performance standpoint." Wieselman wrote that it was the best song of the episode, and that he "didn't want it to ever end". However, Hankinson highlighted its lack of "emotional punch", and Semigran deemed it her least favorite performance. She and Benigno named "Sing!" as their favorite routine, though Benigno gave it only a "B" grade, as its appeal hinged on Mike's dancing, rather than his vocal performance. Berk gave it four stars out of five, his highest rating of the episode, tied with "River Deep – Mountain High". Though Flandez and Hankinson also commented positively on the song, the former thought that Tina's sung interjections became annoying and the latter called it "far from the best of the evening".
Burns chose "Lucky" as "the most impressive number of the evening", and Respers France called it the most adorable. Semigran and the Los Angeles Times's Amy Reiter agreed that it was cute, and Flandez praised its "charm and simplicity". Stack and Benigno gave it an "A"; Stack eagerly anticipated more duets between Quinn and Sam, and Benigno called it "absolutely fantastic", with particular praise for Agron, who he opined is often overlooked. Though Futterman also noted its charm, she did not think it was a worthy winner of the duets competition. Berk gave it just two stars out of five, as he found it "kind of boring". The mash-up of "Happy Days Are Here Again" and "Get Happy" was widely acclaimed. Respers France, Reiter and Hankinson named it the musical highlight of the episode; Fallon and Stack went further and hailed it as a highlight of the entire series. Poniewozik commented that the number was "so appropriate that, had it not existed, Glee probably would have had to invent it". Wieselman suggested that Colfer and Michele "redefined show-stopper" with their performance, and Itzkoff lauded it as "a powerful reminder of why it's worth sticking with Glee through what has quickly proved a polarizing season."
Of the remaining songs, Rachel and Finn's performance of "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" attracted praise for Monteith's vocals, which Stack and Yahr commented "sounded better than ever". "Le Jazz Hot!" received a split response. Burns wrote that Kurt "pulled it off flawlessly", and Fallon called the performance "far more moving and rousing" than any of the songs in "Grilled Cheesus". Stack and Benigno both graded it "B+"; the latter deemed it "very good" but "not transcendent". Reiter felt that the costumes and choreography overpowered the emotion of the piece, and Futterman found the number "too self-indulgent and reminiscent of previous performances like 'Rose's Turn'." Berk rated it two stars out of five, and commented, "I get the idea, and the execution is commendable, but it still kind of sucked." Rachel and Finn's deliberately offensive version of "With You I'm Born Again" received a "C" and "C+" from Benigno and Stack respectively. Both conceded that it was acceptable vocally, but as Stack acknowledged, "the point of this song was to hate it, and I gotta say, Glee: you played me like a fiddle." In December 2012, TV Guide named their rendition one of Glee's worst performances. Regardless of being a send-up, Respers France found the number "oddly endearing".
### Chart history
All six of the cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100, and appeared on other musical charts. On the Hot 100, the show's rendition of "Lucky" debuted at number twenty-seven; it was at number seventeen on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100. The other five songs on the Hot 100 were "River Deep – Mountain High" at number forty-one, which also made number thirty-six on the Canadian Hot 100; "Happy Days Are Here Again / Get Happy" at number forty-eight, which also made number fifty-five on the Canadian Hot 100; "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" at number fifty, which also made number thirty-one on the Canadian Hot 100; "Sing!" at number eighty-seven, which also made number sixty-seven on the Canadian Hot 100; and "Le Jazz Hot!" at number ninety-four, which also made number eighty-eight on the Canadian Hot 100.
## Cultural references
"Viewing Party", a November 2010 episode of The Office, centers around the entire Dunder-Mifflin staff gathering at a co-worker's apartment to watch this episode. |
47,346,504 | Vicky Kaushal | 1,173,405,683 | Indian actor (b. 1988) | [
"1988 births",
"21st-century Indian male actors",
"Best Actor National Film Award winners",
"Filmfare Awards winners",
"Indian electronics engineers",
"Indian male film actors",
"International Indian Film Academy Awards winners",
"Living people",
"Male actors in Hindi cinema",
"Punjabi people",
"Screen Awards winners",
"University of Mumbai alumni",
"Zee Cine Awards winners"
]
| Vicky Kaushal (; born 16 May 1988) is an Indian actor who works in Hindi films. He is the recipient of numerous accolades, including a National Film Award and two Filmfare Awards, and has appeared in Forbes India's Celebrity 100 list of 2019.
After graduating with an engineering degree from Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Kaushal began his career by assisting Anurag Kashyap in the 2012 crime drama Gangs of Wasseypur and played minor roles in films. His first leading role was in the 2015 independent drama Masaan, following which he starred in Kashyap's psychological thriller Raman Raghav 2.0 (2016). Kaushal gained wider recognition in 2018 with supporting roles in the top-grossing dramas Raazi and Sanju, winning the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for the latter. A starring role as a military officer in the 2019 war film Uri: The Surgical Strike established Kaushal as a leading actor and won him the National Film Award for Best Actor. He earned further acclaim for his portrayal of Udham Singh in the biopic Sardar Udham (2021), winning the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor, and had a commercial success in the romantic comedy Zara Hatke Zara Bachke (2023).
In addition to his acting career, Kaushal endorses several brands and products, and has co-hosted and performed at award ceremonies. He is married to actress Katrina Kaif.
## Early life and background
Kaushal was born on 16 May 1988 in a suburban chawl in Mumbai to Sham Kaushal, an action director in Indian films, and Veena Kaushal, a homemaker. His younger brother, Sunny, is also an actor. His family is Punjabi Hindu who hail originally from Hoshiarpur. Kaushal has described himself as a "regular kid who was interested in studying, playing cricket and watching movies". His father was keen on his son having a stable career away from show-business and thus, he graduated with an engineering degree in Electronics and Telecommunications from Mumbai's Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology in 2009.
During an industrial visit to an IT company in his graduation year, he realised that he had no real interest in an office job and began aspiring to have a career in film. He studied acting at Kishore Namit Kapoor's academy while simultaneously participating in theatre with Manav Kaul's Aranya group and Naseeruddin Shah's Motley Productions; doing everything from backstage and announcements to stand-ins. Kaushal would spend the next two years going for various kinds of auditions, but did not get any good opportunities. His first attempt at acting was in a theatrical production titled Laal Pencil in 2011.
Kaushal started his career in films by working as an assistant director to Anurag Kashyap in the two-part crime drama Gangs of Wasseypur (2012). Kaushal has described fond memories of working with Kashyap, whom he considers as his mentor. He then played minor roles in Kashyap's productions Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana (2012) and Bombay Velvet (2015), and the short film Geek Out (2013).
## Career
### Early work in independent films (2015–2016)
Kaushal's first leading role was in the independent drama Masaan (2015), directed by Neeraj Ghaywan. Kaushal and Ghaywan were both assistants on Gangs of Wasseypur, and he was cast through an audition after Rajkummar Rao backed out. To play a young man from a low socio-economic class yearning for a better life, Kaushal spent time in Benaras, where the film is set, and observed the mannerisms of local men. The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard segment at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival, where it won two awards, including the FIPRESCI Prize. Masaan earned critical acclaim and The New York Times considered it to be a leading example of increased realism in Indian cinema. Nikhil Taneja of HuffPost termed Kaushal's performance "poignant and memorable" and Anuj Kumar of The Hindu wrote that "he effortlessly conveys both the inferiority complex and the attitude of breaking through the caste cauldron". His performance won him the IIFA and Screen Awards for Best Male Debut, and a nomination for the Asian Film Award for Best Newcomer, among other accolades.
Zubaan, which Kaushal had filmed before Masaan, was screened at the 2015 Busan International Film Festival. His role was that of a grieving man who starts stammering after the suicide of his father. He worked with a speech therapist to learn stammering patterns and spent time with some of the doctor's patients. After completing work on the film, Kaushal found it difficult to distance from the character and began to stammer in real life. His performance led Justin Chang of Variety to label him a "charismatic, naturally engaging talent". In Kashyap's psychological thriller Raman Raghav 2.0 (2016), Kaushal played a chain-smoking, drug-addicted police officer in pursuit of a serial killer portrayed by Nawazuddin Siddiqui. The troubled and unbalanced character had little in common with Kaushal's own personality, and to convince Kashyap to cast him, he lived in isolation for five days and kept repeating lines from the script. He also severely dehydrated himself and smoked heavily, impacting his health. Kaushal chose the role because he was eager to avoid typecasting from his first two films. The film premiered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, in the Directors' Fortnight section to a positive response. Writing for Rediff.com, Aseem Chhabra found Kaushal's performance "brave" and "surprising".
### Breakthrough and success (2018–2020)
Kaushal achieved his breakthrough in 2018. He played the male lead of the romantic comedy Love per Square Foot, India's first original film from Netflix. Shweta Ramakrishnan of Firstpost considered the chemistry between Kaushal and his co-star Angira Dhar to be the film's highlight. It was screened at the Beijing International Film Festival later in 2019. Kaushal next featured in Meghna Gulzar's spy thriller Raazi (2018), based on Harinder Sikka's novel Calling Sehmat. Set during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the film tells the real-life story of a young Indian spy (played by Alia Bhatt) who marries a Pakistani army officer (Kaushal). He was drawn to the humanity he found in the story and worked towards conveying both vulnerability and authoritative strength in his character. Meena Iyer of Daily News and Analysis commended Kaushal for being "the correct foil" to Bhatt's character.
Kaushal's biggest commercial success of 2018 came with Rajkumar Hirani's Sanju, a biopic of the troubled actor Sanjay Dutt, who was portrayed by Ranbir Kapoor in the film. Kaushal played his best friend Kamli, a fictionalised amalgamation of various real-life friends of Dutt. In preparation, he spent time with Paresh Ghelani, who served as the primary inspiration for the role. Samrudhi Ghosh of India Today wrote that he "holds his own against Ranbir's superlative performance, and shines in the funny as well as emotional scenes". Both Raazi and Sanju proved to be among the highest-grossing Hindi films of 2018, and with earnings of over ₹5.79 billion (US\$73 million), the latter ranks among Indian cinema's biggest grossers. For Sanju, Kaushal won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor (tied with Gajraj Rao for Badhaai Ho).
Kaushal's second Netflix production of the year was the anthology film Lust Stories. It consists of four short films dealing with female sexuality; Kaushal was seen in Karan Johar's segment as a newly married man who fails to recognise his wife's (played by Kiara Advani) sexual dissatisfaction. In his final release of the year, Kaushal reunited with Kashyap for Manmarziyaan, a love triangle set in Punjab, co-starring Taapsee Pannu and Abhishek Bachchan. Kaushal played the role of Vicky Sandhu, a local DJ whose commitment issues lead to conflict in his romantic relationship with Pannu's character. The film premiered at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival and met with positive critical reception. Anupama Chopra took note of how well he used silences to convey his character's pain and desire. Shilpa Jamkhandikar of Reuters found him to be "at once petulant, childlike and suddenly cheerful, bringing a vulnerability to Vicky that saves him from being the villain of the piece."
In 2019, Kaushal starred as a military officer in Uri: The Surgical Strike, an action film based on the 2016 Uri attack, directed by Aditya Dhar and filmed in Serbia. To prepare, he gained muscle weight, practised a ketogenic diet, and underwent five months of military training and mixed martial arts sessions. He injured his arm while filming an action sequence in it. Uday Bhatia of Mint found Kaushal to be a "fetching stoic lead" but bemoaned the lack of depth in his character. Rajeev Masand took note of the film's jingoism but opined that Kaushal "brings both the bulked-up physicality and the sort of steely determination that the part requires". Uri earned ₹2.4 billion (US\$30 million) in India, and over ₹3.5 billion (US\$44 million) worldwide, making it the tenth highest-grossing Indian film domestically. Kaushal was awarded with the National Film Award for Best Actor (shared with Ayushmann Khurrana for Andhadhun) and received his first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor.
A year later, Kaushal starred in the horror film Bhoot – Part One: The Haunted Ship (2020), as a grief-stricken shipping officer. He suffered an accident during the filming of an action sequence and fractured his cheekbone. Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV found Kaushal to be "earnest" in a film he dismissed as a "horrific misfire".
### Sardar Udham and beyond (2021–present)
Kaushal's sole release in 2021 was Shoojit Sircar's Sardar Udham which premiered digitally on Amazon Prime Video after multiple delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film is based on the life of Udham Singh, a freedom fighter who assassinated Michael O'Dwyer as revenge for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919. In order to play the younger version of his character, who was 19 years old at the time of the massacre, Kaushal lost over 15 kilograms of weight within two months. The film received critical acclaim, particularly for Kaushal's performance, with Chatterjee calling it his best performance to date. Subhash K. Jha of Firstpost shared the same opinion, adding "Kaushal's Udham Singh is a performance laced with grace, tinged with bitterness, and defined by a dormant rage". For his performance, Kaushal won the IIFA Award for Best Actor and the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor, in addition to his second nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor.
Keen to work in a light-hearted film after the "emotionally exhausting" experience of Sardar Udham, Kaushal starred as a struggling dancer accused of murder in the comic thriller Govinda Naam Mera (2022). It received a streaming release on Disney+ Hotstar. Despite disliking the film, India Today's Tushar Joshi was appreciative of Kaushal's against-type comic performance in a masala film. The following year, Kaushal starred opposite Sara Ali Khan in the romantic comedy Zara Hatke Zara Bachke, about a small-town couple struggling for privacy.. Scroll.in's Nandini Ramnath opined that Kaushal "turns on the lovey-dovey charm and has a moving scene-stealing moment all to himself, which gives Zara Hatke Zara Bachke a semblance of a purpose". It marked his first film to release theatrically since Bhoot – Part One in 2020. Against expectations, it emerged as a commercial success.
Kaushal will next star in Vijay Krishna Acharya's family film The Great Indian Family opposite Manushi Chhillar. In his second collaboration with Meghna Gulzar, he will portray Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw in the biopic Sam Bahadur. He will perform a brief role in the Shah Rukh Khan-starrer Dunki, directed by Rajkumar Hirani, and will also star in Anand Tiwari's romantic comedy Mere Mehboob Mere Sanam, co-starring Tripti Dimri.
## Personal life and off-screen work
Kaushal's personal life has been the subject of extensive tabloid reporting. Although he is known for his media-friendly attitude, he has been guarded about discussing his relationships. He was first linked to actress Harleen Sethi in 2018. Their break up was reported by the media in early 2019. Kaushal married actress Katrina Kaif on 9 December 2021 in a traditional Hindu ceremony at Six Senses Resort, Fort Barwara in Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan. The wedding attracted substantial media coverage in India.
In addition to his acting career, Kaushal has hosted and performed at numerous televised awards shows, including the Filmfare, Zee Cine, and Screen Awards. He also performed at Femina Miss India's 2019 grand finale. He is a celebrity spokesperson of several brands and products, including Havells, Reliance Trends, and Oppo, charging ₹20 million (US\$250,000)—₹30 million (US\$380,000) annually per brand. Kaushal is also the brand ambassador for Pearson in India.
Kaushal is also active in charity work and supports a number of causes associated with environmental protection and women's rights. He appeared alongside other celebrities in a music video, produced by the United Nations and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change to spread awareness regarding air pollution. He also lent his support to a 2018 Radio City initiative to help with environmental and infrastructure issues in Mumbai and spent a day filling potholes. Kaushal was one of the speakers at the 2018 edition of We The Women festival by journalist Barkha Dutt and UN Women for women’s empowerment where he spoke in support of the MeToo movement in India. In 2019, he participated in the fourth edition of the Nashik Marathon for gender equality and women's safety.
Kaushal extended his support to a football training program for children belonging to low-income families named "Just For Kicks" in 2017. In 2019, he visited sepoys in Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh as part of NDTV's reality program Jai Jawan. For Diwali that year, he visited Tata Memorial Centre to celebrate the festival with cancer patients and distribute gifts. During the COVID-19 pandemic in India in 2020, he contributed ₹1 crore to the PM CARES Fund and Maharashtra Chief Minister's Relief Fund and collaborated with the NGO GiveIndia on a fundraiser to provide ration kits to daily wage workers. Kaushal also donated ₹2.5 lakhs to the Cine and TV Artistes Association (CINTAA) to help artists who were financially effected by the second wave of the pandemic in 2021.
## Artistry and public image
Following his debut, Kaushal was regarded by the media as one of the most promising newcomers in Hindi cinema. According to Firstpost, while Kaushal did not have the conventional looks by Hindi cinema standards, his "merit as a performer shone through right from his first film" and put him in a group of young actors who brought change in the concept of a typical hero. His roles and performances have since been studied by critics. Writing for Elle in 2019, Rajeev Masand pointed to "the unmistakable vulnerability in his eyes that comes from 'feeling' and 'living' his parts". While discussing his career in a 2021 article, Asjad Nazir of Eastern Eye wrote that Kaushal's "chameleon-like ability to morph himself into any character has already resulted in an impressive body of work and turned him into the go-to guy for demanding roles that add weight to a major movie." Also that year, Alaka Sahani of The Indian Express described him as "the most-dependable actor among the current crop", while Filmfare magazine hailed him as "one of the finest actors of this generation."
Kaushal is a method actor; he severely dehydrated himself and smoked heavily for Raman Raghav 2.0 and has gone through major physical transformations for several of his roles in films including Sanju, Uri : The Surgical Strike and Sardar Udham, believing it helps him achieve the "right look" and thus benefits his performance. Kaushal's efforts to avoid typecasting by means of diverse parts in various film genres have been lauded by critics. In a 2018 interview with The Telegraph, he explained that "the idea is to never be repetitive... if I have done a role that's taken me to a certain space emotionally, I won't repeat that". Bollywood Hungama describes him as "a perfect mix of versatility, natural talent and dedication". Kaushal has featured frequently on Rediff.com's annual list of Bollywood's Best Actors.
Kaushal has been cited as one of the most attractive Indian celebrities by the media. He topped The Times of India's listing of the country's most desirable men of 2018, and was ranked at No. 4 in 2019 as well as 2020. In 2018, Forbes India included him in their 30 Under 30 list as well as their list of 'Tycoons of Tomorrow'. The following year, he appeared on the magazine's Celebrity 100 list, which ranked him 72nd with an estimated annual income of ₹104.2 million (US\$1.3 million). Kaushal was also India's most-searched film actor in 2019, according to Google. In 2016 and 2021, he was listed as one of the best-dressed male celebrities by the Indian edition of GQ magazine.
## Filmography
### Films
### Television
### Music videos
## Awards and nominations
Kaushal has been the recipient of the National Film Award for Best Actor for Uri: The Surgical Strike (2019) and two Filmfare Awards: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for Sanju (2018) and Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for Sardar Udham (2021) |
70,098,240 | Georgia Baptist College | 1,172,405,507 | Defunct American grade school and college | [
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"Universities and colleges in Macon, Georgia"
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| Georgia Baptist College was a private grade school and college in Macon, Georgia, United States. It was founded in 1899 as Central City College and was renamed in 1938. It closed due to financial difficulties in 1956.
The idea for the school arose in the 1890s due to disagreements between some African American Baptists in the state and the American Baptist Home Mission Society (ABHMS), a Baptist organization that was affiliated with the Atlanta Baptist Seminary (now Morehouse College, a historically black college in Atlanta). They argued that Atlanta Baptist should have more African American representation in its leadership, and in 1899, Central City College was formed as an African American-led alternative to Atlanta Baptist, with the project spearheaded by noted Baptist preacher Emanuel K. Love of Savannah, Georgia. William E. Holmes, an instructor from Atlanta Baptist, served as its first president. The school functioned primarily as a primary and secondary school for its first few decades of operation, adding a college department in 1920. In 1921, a fire destroyed much of the school, though it was later rebuilt. The school struggled financially for much of its existence and in 1937, it went into foreclosure. The school continued on for several years after this, but finally closed in 1956.
## Background
The idea for the school originated in the 1890s due to internal conflicts among African American Baptists in the U.S. state of Georgia. At the time, the American Baptist Home Mission Society (ABHMS), a New York City-based Baptist organization, was an influential group that supported several African American Baptist institutions throughout the state, including several institutions of higher learning such as the Atlanta Baptist Seminary. However, many African American Baptists were critical of the organization's leadership of these institutions, which were often led by white Americans. The Reverend Emanuel K. Love, a noted Baptist leader from Savannah, Georgia, was an outspoken advocate for more African American leadership in Baptist institutions and he had unsuccessfully sought positions on the board of trustees at both Atlanta Baptist and Spelman Seminary, another Baptist seminary located in Atlanta. Tensions were further inflamed in 1894 when Malcolm MacVicar, the white superintendent of education for the ABHMS, gave a speech where he said it would take a century before African Americans could be capable of managing their own churches and schools. In 1897, seeking to defuse the tension, the ABHMS agreed to work with African Americans to ensure increased representation on the colleges' boards of trustees. That same year, Atlanta Baptist was re-incorporated as a college, though African Americans were still largely excluded from leadership positions, a trend that would continue through 1899. That year, Love announced the formation of an African American Baptist college to rival the ABHMS-affiliated Atlanta Baptist.
Love, acting under the auspices of the Missionary Baptist Convention of Georgia (a statewide Baptist group that Love was the president of), acquired about 235 acres (95 ha) of land near Macon, Georgia to serve as the site of a new college. In September 1899, a representative of the school reached out to William E. Holmes, an African American faculty member from Atlanta Baptist, to offer him the position of president for this new college. Holmes had been the first African American faculty member at Atlanta Baptist and had worked there for over two decades at the time, and while he initially agreed to remain at Atlanta Baptist, he changed his mind and joined Love after then-Atlanta Baptist President George Sale asked him to publicly denounce the formation of the new school. Some time prior to this, Holmes had been involved in an effort to ouster Sale from his position as president, and Holmes's decision to accept the presidency at the new school may have been due in part to him being passed over for the presidency of Atlanta Baptist in favor of Sale in 1890. John Hope, a friend of Holmes's and fellow faculty member at Atlanta Baptist, opted to remain in Atlanta, where he was now the only African American faculty member. He would later become Atlanta Baptist's first African American president in 1906. Additionally, while there had been concerns that Holmes would recruit students from Atlanta Baptist to the new school, many opted to remain at Atlanta Baptist.
## Establishment
The new school, named Central City College, was officially established in October 1899. It was part of a regional trend of independent Baptist colleges that formed around the late 1800s and early 1900s to serve African Americans in the American South, with similar institutions including Guadalupe College and Morris College. In its initial form, the institution functioned primarily as a grade school, with the school offering a primary school, high school, and a three-year theology program. The school was coeducational, although the theology program was only offered to men, and only a small number of students participated in it. From its beginning, the school attempted to follow the educational model found in the liberal arts colleges of New England, in opposition to the industrial education favored by noted African American leader Booker T. Washington. The primary school offered sources in geometry, grammar, history, mathematics, penmanship, and reading, while the high school courses included additional history courses, advanced mathematics, bookkeeping, physiology, physics, and language courses on English, Greek, and Latin. Only two faculty members held college degrees—Holmes and the Reverend James M. Nabrit, who also held a bachelor's degree from Atlanta Baptist.
## Early years
By the school's third year of operation, it had an enrollment of 365 students, and by 1908 it employed 11 teachers and enrolled 325 students. The school struggled financially for most of its existence, with one biography of the school by historian Willard Range stating that it "remained perpetually on the verge of bankruptcy and closure". By 1908, the school had an annual operating expense of about \$4,000, while records from 1916 show that the school collected only \$307 in school fees, equal to about \$5 per student at the time. The school received some financial support from the Missionary Baptist Association to help it continue its operations, and additionally, the school farmed some of its large campus. By 1908, of the school's 325-acre (132 ha) campus, approximately 100 acres (40 ha) were used as farmland.
### Office of Education report
In 1914, the school was visited by members of the United States Office of Education, who were collecting information on African American education in the United States. As part of their report, they recorded an enrollment of 40 primary school students and 25 high school students, though they stated that the number was usually larger in the winter months, taught by four full-time teachers and two volunteer teachers. They valued the school's assets, including the property, buildings, and materials, at about \$16,000 and noted that the school was in \$5,000 of debt due mostly to back pay and other general expenses. Assessing the state of education in Bibb County, Georgia as a whole, the report stated that, "The Central City College, a private school located in the suburbs, is of slight educational value to the community", and additionally recommended "[t]hat the plant be sold and the work transferred to some of the stronger Baptist schools of the State".
## Later years
In 1919, the school had 14 instructors. By the following year, the school officially began its college department, and the number of teachers had risen to eight. However, in May of the following year, Central City College's school buildings were destroyed in a fire. According to Holmes, the fire, which had been started by someone accused of insanity, destroyed most of the school's infrastructure, as well as "our Records and nearly everything else we had". In the aftermath of the destruction, community farmers sold some of their produce to raise money for the school's reconstruction, collecting about \$164.34 for the school, while the Reverend T. J. Goodall (preacher at First African Baptist Church in Savannah and a board member of Central City College) personally donated \$50 to the cause. For the fall semester that year, the school enrolled 204 students, with classes being held in tents set up on the campus. 161 students commuted, while the 43 who lived on campus stayed either in the president's house or in tents. Fundraising efforts continued through at least 1923.
Shortly before Christmas 1921, Holmes was visited at Central City College by Hope (who by this time was president of Atlanta Baptist, which had since been renamed to Morehouse College), E. C. Sage of the General Education Board (GEB, a private organization that supported schools for African Americans) and the Reverend M. W. Reddick (president of the Missionary Baptist Convention), who came to discuss the possible future of the school. While they stated that the school was "poorly managed, and educationally amounts to very little", they were interested in redeveloping the school as "a good secondary school, linked up with the Morehouse-Americus-Spelman system". In 1924, Holmes retired as president of the school and was replaced by the Reverend J. H. Gadson, who had been an educator at a school in Rome, Georgia for about 18 years. Gadson requested support from the GEB to help fund Central City and even proposed a new direction for the school to focus more on industrial education at the high school level, though ultimately the GEB did not offer the school its financial support.
In late 1933, Gadson launched a large fundraising campaign for improvements to the school that would elevate it to the same level of prestige as Atlanta University, another African American educational institute in Atlanta. During a trip to New York City, he was able to secure donations from the National Baptist Convention, and he committed his entire year's salary of \$1,800 to the fundraising efforts. Additional contributions came from members of the Macon community and statewide Baptist groups, and James H. Porter, a local industrialist and philanthropist who was the head of Central City's white advisory board, donated \$5,000. However, just a few years later in 1937, the school went into foreclosure and came under the ownership of Porter, who placed the school under the control of the Georgia Baptist Missionary and Educational Convention. The next year, the school was renamed to Georgia Baptist College. The school continued to operate and promote fundraising efforts, including staging musical events before racially segregated audiences. During this time, noted theologian J. Deotis Roberts served on the school's faculty, and for one year he was the school's Dean of Religion. However, the school never fully recovered financially, and it finally closed in 1956.
## Legacy
In a 1975 book, historian James M. McPherson said the following regarding Central City College: "Hailed as a grand venture in self-help and independence, Central City College soon faded into a marginal secondary school and eventually collapsed". Range, in a 1951 book about historically black colleges and universities in Georgia, reflected on the school by saying it was created "in the spirit of antagonism" which left it "without universal sanction or support", which caused it "to fight for its existence" while "its work at higher learning remained a petty and pitiful affair". In 2003, the Georgia Historical Society erected a Georgia historical marker in Macon in honor of the school.
## See also
- List of historically black colleges and universities |
54,557,150 | Typhoon Hattie | 1,173,747,966 | Pacific typhoon in 1990 | [
"1990 Pacific typhoon season",
"1990 in Japan",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in Japan"
]
| Typhoon Hattie, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Pasing, was the fifth tropical cyclone of a record-six to hit Japan during the 1990 Pacific typhoon season. Hattie originated from an area of disturbed weather that developed within the Western Pacific monsoon trough towards the end of September. Tracking westward, the disturbance initially was slow to develop, although on September 30, the system was classified as a tropical depression. Following an improvement of its convective structure and an increase in associated convection, the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Hattie on October 1. Following the development of an eye, Hattie attained typhoon intensity on October 2. The typhoon continued to slowly deepen as its forward speed slowed. Despite a decrease in cloud top temperatures around the eye, Hattie was estimated to have attained peak intensity on October 5. After recurving to the north and then northeast, Hattie began to slowly weaken due to increased wind shear. On October 7, Hattie lost typhoon intensity, and after tracking directly over Tokyo, transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on the next day.
Although the inner core of Typhoon Hattie stayed offshore Japan, torrential rains were accountable for 68 landslides through the country. A total of 1,100 homes were flooded. Three people were killed, one was reported missing and nineteen others were injured, including six in Kyoto. Elsewhere, power lines were downed in 1,035 spots in Okinawa, mostly from sugar cane, vegetables, and flowers. Nationwide, damage was estimated at \$9.9 million (1990 USD).
## Meteorological history
While Typhoon Gene was recurving just offshore Japan, an area of disturbed weather first developed in the Western Pacific monsoon trough 185 km (115 mi) east of Guam. At 06:00 UTC on September 28, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) started tracking the system. Additional organization was limited by strong westerly winds aloft, but early on September 30, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) upgraded the disturbance into a tropical depression. Thunderstorm activity subsequently flared up, and an hour later, the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the disturbance. The development of a central dense overcast prompted the JTWC to designate the system a tropical depression. By noon on October 1, its convective structure improved and shower activity had increased. Based on this, both the JTWC and JMA upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Hattie.
Tropical Storm Hattie tracked west-northwest at a steady pace. Meanwhile, Hattie began to intensify at the climatological rate of one Dvorak T-number per day due to decreased wind shear and improved upper-level outflow. Thunderstorm activity quickly consolidated around a reformed low-level circulation and the JMA upgraded Hattie into a severe tropical storm on October 2. Shortly thereafter, Hattie developed a small but distinct eye and based on satellite intensity estimates, Hattie was upgraded into a typhoon by both agencies. Later that day, the typhoon began to decelerate as it approached a break in the subtropical ridge to its north. Despite a decrease in cloud top temperatures surrounding the eye, normally a sign of weakening, increased Dvorak intensity estimates justified the JTWC raising the intensity of Hattie to 170 km/h (105 mph) at 00:00 UTC on October 4, equal to a mid-grade Category 2 hurricane on the United States-based Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale. According to the JTWC, this would also be Hattie's highest maximum sustained wind. Twenty-four hours later, the JMA estimated that Hattie peaked in intensity, with winds of 145 km/h (90 mph) and a barometric pressure of 950 mbar (28 inHg).
On the evening of October 5, Typhoon Hattie began to recurve to the north, rounding the aforementioned ridge after passing through the Ryukyu Islands. The system maintained its intensity until that evening, when increasing wind shear aloft began to take toll on the cyclone. Shower and thunderstorm activity quickly decreased near the center, and both the JTWC and JMA agreed that Hattie lost typhoon intensity on the morning of October 7. Hattie then accelerated to the northeast, passing directly over Tokyo on October 8. After becoming devoid of all convection, the JTWC reported that Hattie had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 06:00 UTC that day. The JMA followed suit at roughly the same time, though the agency continued to track Hattie for an additional 18 hours.
## Impact
The typhoon dropped heavy rainfall across a majority of the Japanese archipelago. A peak rainfall total occurred of 503 mm (19.8 in) in the city of Ebino, Miyazaki, 454 mm (17.9 in) of which fell in a 24-hour time span and 81 mm (3.2 in) of which fell in an hour. A maximum wind gust of 115 km/h (71 mph) was recorded at Itokazu Castle.
In Okinawa, flights and ferry services were suspended. All schools and government offices were closed during the passage of Hattie. The storm, in conjunction with Typhoon Flo and Typhoon Gene, dropped 380 to 510 mm (15 to 20 in) of precipitation over Okinawa; this rainfall provided significant drought relief that forced officials to lift water rationing. Damage to military bases on Okinawa totaled to \$1.6 million. Across Okinawa, power lines were downed in 1,035 spots and agricultural damage totaled to ¥926 million yen, mostly from sugar cane, vegetables, and flowers.
On the eastern end of Japan's Shikoku Island, in Tokushima Prefecture, 687 homes were damaged and an additional 121 houses were destroyed. There, three people were killed and 14 were wounded as the bus they were riding in was struck by a landslide. A block wall of a house collapsed in Nakamura, injuring one person. Throughout Kōchi Prefecture, 81 homes were damaged. Damage in the prefecture amounted to ¥279 million yen. Heavy rains in Miyazaki Prefecture triggered 11 landslides. There, 507 homes were damaged and 56 were destroyed, which resulted in 92 homeless. A total of 43 dwellings were partially damaged in Kagoshima Prefecture, including 13 near Nakafukura Station. Fifty-seven individuals lost their homes and two people were also injured. Ninety-three homes were damaged and three more homes were destroyed in Usuki. In Oita Prefecture, there were 10 landslides and roads were damaged in 15 locations. One person was also rendered missing. On the entire island of Kyushu, 136 flights and many ferry services were cancelled. On the Kii Peninsula, around 3,400 customers lost power in Shirahama, Susami, and Hikawagawa. Nine homes suffered damage in Osaka prefecture. Three people were hurt in the city of Shizuoka after a tree fell on a train. In Kyoto, six train passengers were injured by flying glass when the typhoon's powerful winds toppled trees onto their coach. Across Mie Prefecture, sixteen dwellings were damaged and three more were flattened. Heavy rain associated with Hattie led to 68 landslides through the country. Extensive flooding affected 1,100 houses. Three people were killed, one was reported missing, and 19 others were injured. Damage was estimated at \$9.9 million.
## See also
- Typhoon Hal (1985) |
16,074 | James Whale | 1,170,557,394 | English film director (1889-1957) | [
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]
| James Whale (22 July 1889 – 29 May 1957) was an English film director, theatre director and actor, who spent the greater part of his career in Hollywood. He is best remembered for several horror films: Frankenstein (1931), The Old Dark House (1932), The Invisible Man (1933) and Bride of Frankenstein (1935), all considered classics. Whale also directed films in other genres, including the 1936 film version of the musical Show Boat.
Whale was born into a large family in Dudley, Worcestershire now Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. He discovered his artistic talent early on and studied art. With the outbreak of World War I he enlisted in the British Army and became an officer. He was captured by the Germans and during his time as a prisoner of war he realised he was interested in drama. Following his release at the end of the war he became an actor, set designer and director. His success directing the 1928 play Journey's End led to his move to the US, first to direct the play on Broadway and then to Hollywood, California, to direct films. He lived in Hollywood for the rest of his life, most of that time with his longtime romantic partner, producer David Lewis. Apart from Journey's End (1930), which was released by Tiffany Films, and Hell's Angels (1930), released by United Artists, he directed a dozen films for Universal Pictures between 1931 and 1937, developing a style characterised by the influence of German Expressionism and a highly mobile camera.
At the height of his career as a director, Whale directed The Road Back (1937), a sequel to All Quiet on the Western Front. Studio interference, possibly spurred by political pressure from Nazi Germany, led to the film's being altered from Whale's vision, and it was a critical failure. A run of box-office disappointments followed and, while he would make one final short film in 1950, by 1941 his film directing career was effectively over. He continued to direct for the stage and also rediscovered his love for painting and travel. His investments made him wealthy and he lived a comfortable retirement until suffering strokes in 1956 that robbed him of his vigor and left him in pain. He committed suicide on 29 May 1957 by drowning himself in his swimming pool.
Whale was openly gay throughout his career, something that was very rare in the 1920s and 1930s. As knowledge of his sexual orientation has become more widespread, some of his films, Bride of Frankenstein in particular, have been interpreted as having a gay subtext and it has been claimed that his refusal to remain in the closet led to the end of his career. Other commentators have contended that his retirement was provoked by a succession of poorly-received projects with which Whale was growing personally dissatisfied (particularly deleterious to his career was The Road Back, which went through development hell at multiple stages, whereafter the buck was perceived to stop with Whale as principal director).
## Early years
Whale was born in Dudley, Worcestershire, at the heart of the Black Country, the sixth of seven children of William, a blast furnaceman, and Sarah, a nurse. He attended Kates Hill Board School, followed by Bayliss Charity School and finally Dudley Blue Coat School. His attendance stopped in his teenage years, because the cost would have been prohibitive and his labor was needed to help support the family. Thought not physically strong enough to follow his brothers into the local heavy industries, Whale started work as a cobbler, reclaiming the nails he recovered from replaced soles and selling them for scrap for extra money. He discovered he had some artistic ability and earned additional money lettering signs and price tags for his neighbors. He used his additional income to pay for evening classes at the Dudley School of Arts and Crafts.
World War I broke out in early August 1914. Although Whale had little interest in the politics behind the war, he realized that conscription was inevitable, so he voluntarily enlisted just before it was introduced, into the British Army's Inns of Court Officer Training Corps in October 1915, and was stationed initially at Bristol. He was subsequently commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Worcestershire Regiment in July 1916. He was taken prisoner of war in battle on the Western Front in Flanders in August 1917, and was held at Holzminden Officers' Camp, where he remained until the war's end, being repatriated to England in December 1918. While imprisoned he became actively involved, as an actor, writer, producer and set-designer, in the amateur theatrical productions that took place in the camp, finding them "a source of great pleasure and amusement". He also developed a talent for poker, and after the war he cashed in the chits and IOUs from his fellow prisoners that he had amassed in gambling to provide himself with finances for re-entry into civilian life.
## Career
### Theatre
After the armistice, he returned to Birmingham and tried to find work as a cartoonist. He sold two cartoons to the Bystander in 1919 but was unable to secure a permanent position. Later that year he embarked on a professional stage career. Under the tutelage of actor-manager Nigel Playfair, he worked as an actor, set designer and builder, "stage director" (akin to a stage manager) and director. In 1922, while with Playfair, he met Doris Zinkeisen. They were considered a couple for some two years, despite Whale's living as an openly gay man. They were reportedly engaged in 1924, but by 1925 the engagement was off.
In 1928 Whale was offered the opportunity to direct two private performances of R. C. Sherriff's then-unknown play Journey's End for the Incorporated Stage Society, a theatre society that mounted private Sunday performances of plays. Set over a four-day period in March 1918 in the trenches at Saint-Quentin, France, Journey's End gives a glimpse into the experiences of the officers of a British infantry company in World War I. The key conflict is between Capt. Stanhope, the company commander, and Lt. Raleigh, the brother of Stanhope's fiancée. Whale offered the part of Stanhope to the then barely known Laurence Olivier. Olivier initially declined the role, but after meeting the playwright agreed to take it on. Maurice Evans was cast as Raleigh. The play was well received and transferred to the Savoy Theatre in London's West End, opening on 21 January 1929. A young Colin Clive was now in the lead role, Olivier having accepted an offer to take the lead in a production of Beau Geste. The play was a tremendous success, with critics uniform and effusive in their praise and with audiences sometimes sitting in stunned silence following its conclusion only to burst into thunderous ovations. As Whale biographer James Curtis wrote, the play "managed to coalesce, at the right time and in the right manner, the impressions of a whole generation of men who were in the war and who had found it impossible, through words or deeds, to adequately express to their friends and families what the trenches had been like". After three weeks at the Savoy, Journey's End transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre, where it ran for the next two years.
With the success of Journey's End at home, Broadway producer Gilbert Miller acquired the rights to mount a New York production with an all-British cast headed by Colin Keith-Johnston as Stanhope and Derek Williams as Raleigh. Whale also directed this version, which premiered at Henry Miller's Theatre on 22 March 1929. The play ran for over a year and cemented its reputation as the greatest play about World War I.
### Early work in Hollywood
The success of the various productions of Journey's End brought Whale to the attention of movie producers. Coming at a time when motion pictures were making the transition from silent to talking, producers were interested in hiring actors and directors with experience with dialogue. Whale traveled to Hollywood in 1929 and signed a contract with Paramount Pictures. He was assigned as "dialogue director" for a film called The Love Doctor (1929). He completed work on the film in 15 days and his contract was allowed to expire. It was at around this time that he met David Lewis.
Whale was hired by independent film producer and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes, who planned to turn the previously silent Hughes production Hell's Angels (1930) into a talkie. Whale directed the dialogue sequences. When his work for Hughes was completed, he headed to Chicago to direct another production of Journey's End.
Having purchased the film rights to Journey's End, British producers Michael Balcon and Thomas Welsh agreed that Whale's experience directing the London and Broadway productions of the play made him the best choice to direct the film. The two partnered with a small American studio, Tiffany-Stahl, to shoot it in New York. Colin Clive reprised his role as Stanhope, and David Manners was cast as Raleigh. Filming got underway on 6 December 1929 and wrapped on 22 January 1930. Journey's End was released in Great Britain on 14 April and in the United States on 15 April. On both sides of the Atlantic the film was a tremendous critical and commercial success.
### With the Laemmles at Universal
Universal Studios signed Whale to a five-year contract in 1931 and his first project was Waterloo Bridge. Based on the Broadway play by Robert E. Sherwood, the film stars Mae Clarke as Myra, a chorus girl in World War I London who becomes a prostitute. It too was a critical and popular success. At around this time, Whale and Lewis began living together.
In 1931, Universal chief Carl Laemmle, Jr. offered Whale his choice of any property the studio owned. He chose Frankenstein, mostly because none of Universal's other properties particularly interested him, and he wanted to make something other than a war picture. While Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus itself was in the public domain, Universal owned the filming rights to a stage adaptation by Peggy Webling. Whale cast Colin Clive as Henry Frankenstein and Mae Clarke as his fiancée Elizabeth. For the Monster, he turned to the little known Boris Karloff, who had wide-ranging experience in supporting roles. Shooting began on 24 August 1931 and wrapped on 3 October. Previews were held 29 October, with wide release on 21 November. Frankenstein was an instant hit with critics and the public. The film received glowing reviews and shattered box office records across the United States, earning Universal \$12 million on first release.
Next from Whale were The Impatient Maiden and The Old Dark House (both 1932). The Impatient Maiden made little impression but The Old Dark House, starring Karloff and Charles Laughton, is credited with reinventing the "dark house" subgenre of horror films. Thought lost for some years, a print was found by filmmaker Curtis Harrington in the Universal vaults in 1968. It was restored by George Eastman House, and released on Blu-ray disk in 2017.
Whale's next film was The Kiss Before the Mirror (1933), a critical success but a box-office failure. He returned to horror with The Invisible Man (1933). Shot from a script approved by H. G. Wells, the film blended horror with humor and confounding visual effects. Much admired, The New York Times placed it in their list of the ten best films of the year, and the film broke box-office records in cities across America. So highly regarded was the film that France, which restricted the number of theatres in which undubbed American films could play, granted it a special waiver because of its "extraordinary artistic merit".
Also in 1933 Whale directed the romantic comedy By Candlelight which gained good reviews and was a modest box office hit. In 1934 he directed One More River, an adaptation of the novel of the same name by John Galsworthy. The film tells the story of a woman desperate to escape her abusive marriage to a member of the British aristocracy. This was the first of Whale's films for which Production Code Administration approval was required and Universal had a difficult time securing that approval because of the elements of sexual sadism implicit in the husband's abusive behavior.
Bride of Frankenstein (1935) was Whale's next project. He had resisted making a sequel to Frankenstein as he feared being pigeonholed as a horror director. Bride hearkened back to an episode from Mary Shelley's original novel in which the Monster promises to leave Frankenstein and humanity alone if Frankenstein makes him a mate. He does, but the mate is repelled by the monster who then, setting Frankenstein and his wife free to live, chooses to destroy himself and his "bride". The film was a critical and box office success, having earned some \$2 million for Universal by 1943. Lauded as "the finest of all gothic horror movies", Bride is frequently hailed as Whale's masterpiece. With the success of Bride, Laemmle was eager to put Whale to work on Dracula's Daughter (1936), the sequel to Universal's first big horror hit of the sound era. Whale, wary of doing two horror films in a row and concerned that directing Dracula's Daughter could interfere with his plans for the first all-sound version of Show Boat (previously filmed as a part-talkie by Harry A. Pollard), instead convinced Laemmle to buy the rights to a novel called The Hangover Murders. The novel is a comedy-mystery in the style of The Thin Man, about a group of friends who were so drunk the night one of them was murdered that none can remember anything. Retitled Remember Last Night?, the film was one of Whale's personal favorites, but met with sharply divided reviews and commercial uninterest.
With the completion of Remember Last Night? Whale immediately went to work on Show Boat (1936). Whale gathered as many of those as he could who had been involved in one production or another of the musical, including Helen Morgan, Paul Robeson, Charles Winninger, Sammy White, conductor Victor Baravalle, orchestrator Robert Russell Bennett, and, as Magnolia, Irene Dunne, who believed that Whale was the wrong director for the piece. The 1936 version of Show Boat, faithfully adapted from the original stage production, is believed to be the definitive film version of the musical by many critics, but became unavailable following the 1951 remake. In 2014, a restoration of the film became available on DVD in the U.S. as part of Warner Home Video's Archive Collection line; and in 2020, a 4K restoration Blu-Ray was released by The Criterion Collection.
Show Boat was the last of Whale's films to be produced under the Laemmle family. The studio was now bankrupt, and the Laemmles lost control to J. Cheever Cowdin, head of the Standard Capital Corporation, and Charles R. Rogers, who was installed in Junior Laemmle's old job.
### Career decline
Whale's career went into sharp decline following the release of his next film, The Road Back (1937). The sequel to Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, which Universal had filmed in 1930, the novel and film follow the lives of several young German men who have returned from the trenches of World War I and their struggles to re-integrate into society. The Los Angeles consul for Nazi Germany, Georg Gyssling, learned that the film was in production. He protested to PCA enforcer Joseph Breen, arguing that the film gave an "untrue and distorted picture of the German people". Gyssling eventually met Whale, but nothing came of it. Gyssling then sent letters to members of the cast, threatening that their participation in the film might lead to difficulties in obtaining German filming permits for them and for anyone associated in a film with them. While the low volume of business conducted by Universal in Germany made such threats largely hollow, the State Department, under pressure from the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League and the Screen Actors Guild, stepped in and the German government backed down. Whale's original cut of the film was given generally positive reviews, but some time between preview screenings and the film's general release, Rogers capitulated to the Germans, ordering that cuts be made and additional scenes be shot and inserted. Whale was furious, and the altered film was banned in Germany anyway. The Germans were successful in persuading China, Greece, Italy and Switzerland to ban the film as well.
Following the debacle of The Road Back, Charles Rogers tried to get out of his contract with Whale; Whale refused. Rogers then assigned him to a string of B movies to run out his contractual obligation. Whale only made one additional successful feature film, The Man in the Iron Mask (1939), before retiring from the film industry in 1941.
## Post-film life
With his film career behind him, Whale found himself at a loose end. He was offered the occasional job, including the opportunity to direct Since You Went Away for David O. Selznick, but turned them down. Lewis, meanwhile, was busier than ever with his production duties and often worked late hours, leaving Whale lonely and bored. Lewis bought him a supply of paint and canvasses and Whale re-discovered his love of painting. Eventually he built a large studio for himself.
With the outbreak of World War II, Whale volunteered his services to make a training film for the United States Army. He shot the film, called Personnel Placement in the Army, in February 1942. Later that year, in association with actress Claire DuBrey, he created the Brentwood Service Players. The Players took over a 100–seat theatre. Sixty seats were provided free of charge to service personnel; the remaining were sold to the public, with the box office proceeds donated to wartime charities. The group expanded to the Playtime Theatre during the summer, where a series of shows ran through October.
Whale returned to Broadway in 1944 to direct the psychological thriller Hand in Glove. It was his first return to Broadway since his failed One, Two, Three! in 1930. Hand in Glove would fare no better than his earlier play, running the same number of performances, 40.
Whale directed his final film in 1950, a short subject based on the William Saroyan one-act play Hello Out There. The film, financed by supermarket heir Huntington Hartford, was the story of a man in a Texas jail falsely accused of rape and the woman who cleans the jail. Hartford intended for the short to be part of an anthology film along the lines of Quartet. However, attempts to find appropriate short fiction companion pieces to adapt were unsuccessful and Hello Out There was never commercially released.
Whale's last professional engagement was directing Pagan in the Parlour, a farce about two New England spinster sisters who are visited by a Polynesian whom their father, when shipwrecked years earlier, had married. The production was mounted in Pasadena for two weeks in 1951. Plans were made to take it to New York, but Whale suggested taking the play to London first. Before opening the play in England, Whale decided to tour the art museums of Europe. In France he renewed his acquaintanceship with Curtis Harrington, whom he had met in 1947. While visiting Harrington in Paris, he went to some gay bars. At one he met a 25-year-old bartender named Pierre Foegel, whom Harrington believed was nothing but "a hustler out for what he could get". The 62-year-old Whale was smitten with the younger man and hired him as his chauffeur.
A provincial tour of Pagan in the Parlour began in September 1952 and it appeared that the play would be a hit. However, Hermione Baddeley, starring in the play as the cannibal "Noo-ga", was drinking heavily and began engaging in bizarre antics and disrupting performances. Because she had a run of the play contract she could not be replaced and so producers were forced to close the show.
Whale returned to California in November 1952 and advised David Lewis that he planned to bring Foegel over early the following year. Appalled, Lewis moved out of their home. While this ended their 23-year romantic relationship, the two men remained friends. Lewis bought a small house and dug a swimming pool, prompting Whale to have his own pool dug, although he did not himself swim in it. He began throwing all-male swim parties and would watch the young men cavort in and around the pool. Foegel moved in with Whale in early 1953 and remained there for several months before returning to France. He returned in 1954 permanently, and Whale installed him as manager of a gas station that he owned.
Whale and Foegel settled into a quiet routine until the spring of 1956, when Whale suffered a small stroke. A few months later he suffered a larger stroke and was hospitalized. While in the hospital he was treated for depression with shock treatments.
Upon his release, Whale hired one of the male nurses from the hospital to be his personal live-in nurse. A jealous Foegel maneuvered the nurse out of the house and hired a female nurse as a non-live-in replacement. Whale suffered from mood swings and grew increasingly and frustratingly more dependent on others as his mental faculties were diminishing.
## Death
Whale died by suicide by drowning himself in his Pacific Palisades swimming pool on 29 May 1957 at the age of 67. He left a suicide note, which Lewis withheld until shortly before his own death decades later. Because the note was suppressed, the death was initially ruled accidental. The note read in part:
> To ALL I LOVE, Do not grieve for me. My nerves are all shot and for the last year I have been in agony day and night—except when I sleep with sleeping pills—and any peace I have by day is when I am drugged by pills. I have had a wonderful life but it is over and my nerves get worse and I am afraid they will have to take me away. So please forgive me, all those I love and may God forgive me too, but I cannot bear the agony and it [is] best for everyone this way. The future is just old age and illness and pain. Goodbye and thank you for all your love. I must have peace and this is the only way.
Whale's body was cremated per his request, and his ashes were interred in the Columbarium of Memory at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale. Because of his habit of periodically revising his date of birth, his niche lists the incorrect date of 1893. When his longtime partner David Lewis died in 1987, his executor and Whale biographer James Curtis had his ashes interred in a niche across from Whale's.
## Sexual orientation
James Whale lived as an openly gay man throughout his career in the British theatre and in Hollywood, something that was virtually unheard of in that era. He and David Lewis lived together as a couple from around 1930 to 1952. While he did not go out of his way to publicize his homosexuality, he did not do anything to conceal it either. As filmmaker Curtis Harrington, a friend and confidant of Whale's, put it, "Not in the sense of screaming it from the rooftops or coming out. But yes, he was openly homosexual. Any sophisticated person who knew him knew he was gay." While there have been suggestions that Whale's career was terminated because of homophobia, and Whale was supposedly dubbed "The Queen of Hollywood", Harrington states that "nobody made a thing out of it as far as I could perceive".
With knowledge of his sexuality becoming more common beginning in the 1970s, some film historians and gay studies scholars have detected homosexual themes in Whale's work, particularly in Bride of Frankenstein in which a number of the creative people associated with the cast, including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive, were alleged to be gay or bisexual. Scholars have identified a gay sensibility suffused through the film, especially a camp sensibility, particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius (Thesiger) and his relationship with Henry Frankenstein (Clive). Minnie introduces Pretorius to Frankenstein with the line, "He's a very queer-looking old gentleman, sir...." at 16:56 in the film.
Gay film historian Vito Russo, in considering Pretorius, stops short of identifying the character as gay, instead referring to him as "sissified" ("sissy" itself being a Hollywood's gay stock character). Pretorius serves as a "gay Mephistopheles", a figure of seduction and temptation, going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of non-procreative life. A novelisation of the film published in England made the implication clear, having Pretorius say to Frankenstein "'Be fruitful and multiply.' Let us obey the Biblical injunction: you of course, have the choice of natural means; but as for me, I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way." Russo goes so far as to suggest that Whale's homosexuality is expressed in both Frankenstein and Bride as "a vision both films had of the monster as an antisocial figure in the same way that gay people were 'things' that should not have happened".
Whale's partner David Lewis stated flatly that Whale's sexual orientation was "not germane" to his filmmaking. "Jimmy was first and foremost an artist, and his films represent the work of an artist—not a gay artist, but an artist." Whale's biographer Curtis rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective, stating that if the highly class-conscious Whale felt himself to be an antisocial figure, it would have been based not in his sexuality but in his origin in the lower classes.
## Film style
Whale was heavily influenced by German Expressionism. He was a particular admirer of the films of Paul Leni, combining as they did elements of gothic horror and comedy. This influence was most evident in Bride of Frankenstein. Expressionist influence is also in evidence in Frankenstein, drawn in part from the work of Paul Wegener and his films The Golem (1915) and The Golem: How He Came into the World (1920) along with The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) from Robert Wiene, which Whale reportedly screened repeatedly while preparing to shoot Frankenstein. Frankenstein roughly alternates between distorted expressionistic shots and more conventional styles, with the character of Dr. Waldman serving as "a bridge between everyday and expressionist spaces". Expressionist influence is also evident in the acting, costuming and the design of the Monster. Whale and makeup artist Jack Pierce may also have been influenced by the Bauhaus school of design. The expressionist influence lasted throughout Whale's career, with Whale's final film, Hello Out There, praised by Sight & Sound as "a virtuoso pattern of light and shade, a piece of fully blown expressionist filmmaking plonked down unceremoniously in the midst of neo-realism's heyday".
Whale was known for his use of camera movement. He is credited with being the first director to use a 360-degree panning shot in a feature film, included in Frankenstein. Whale used a similar technique during the Ol' Man River sequence in Show Boat, in which the camera tracked around Paul Robeson as he sang the song. (The sequence also uses expressionist montages illustrating some of the lyrics.) Often singled out for praise in Frankenstein is the series of shots used to introduce the Monster: "Nothing can ever quite efface the thrill of watching the successive views Whale's mobile camera allows us of the lumbering figure". These shots, starting with a medium shot and culminating in two close-ups of the Monster's face, were repeated by Whale to introduce Griffin in The Invisible Man and the abusive husband in One More River. Modified to a single cut rather than two, Whale uses the same technique in The Road Back to signal the instability of a returning World War I veteran.
## Legacy
Influential film critic Andrew Sarris, in his 1968 ranking of directors, lists Whale as "lightly likable". Noting that Whale's reputation has been subsumed by the "Karloff cult", Sarris cites Bride of Frankenstein as the "true gem" of the Frankenstein series and concludes that Whale's career "reflects the stylistic ambitions and dramatic disappointments of an expressionist in the studio-controlled Hollywood of the thirties".
Whale's final months are the subject of the novel Father of Frankenstein (1995) by Christopher Bram. The novel focuses on the relationship between Whale and a fictional gardener named Clayton Boone. Father of Frankenstein served as the basis of the 1998 film Gods and Monsters with Ian McKellen as Whale and Brendan Fraser as Boone. McKellen was nominated for an Academy Award for his portrayal of Whale. Bram's novel has also been adapted as a play which premiered in London at the Southwark Playhouse in February 2015.
Only two of Whale's films received Oscar nominations: The Man in the Iron Mask (for its musical score), and Bride of Frankenstein (for its sound recording).
A memorial sculpture was erected for Whale in September 2001 on the grounds of a new multiplex cinema in his home town of Dudley. The sculpture, by Charles Hadcock, depicts a roll of film with the face of Frankenstein's monster engraved into the frames, and the names of his most famous films etched into a cast concrete base in the shape of film canisters. Other sculptures related to Whale's cinema career were planned, referencing his early work in a local sheet metal factory, but none had been installed as of 2019.
Horror in Hollywood: The James Whale Story, a retrospective of Whale's artwork, opened at the Dudley Museum and Art Gallery in October 2012 and ran through to January 2013.
## Filmography |
929,969 | Kiribati at the 2004 Summer Olympics | 1,037,761,766 | null | [
"2004 in Kiribati sport",
"Kiribati at the Summer Olympics by year",
"Nations at the 2004 Summer Olympics"
]
| Kiribati competed in the Summer Olympic Games for the first time at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, from August 13–29, 2004. The country sent three representatives to the Games: two in athletics and one in weightlifting. As of 2012, Meamea Thomas has the best finish of any I-Kiribati athlete in Olympic history. Kiribati did not win medals at these Games.
## Background
The 2004 Olympics were Kiribati's first Games, along with East Timor. Kiribati had interest in Olympic participation in the 1980s, and the country later formed their National Olympic Committee (NOC) in 2002, which was recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2003.
Weightlifter Meamea Thomas was the flagbearer for the Opening Ceremonies. During the ceremony, the men wore grass skirts with braided hair belts. Kaitinano Mwemweata wore a skirt of coconut leaves with a woven grass top. For the closing ceremonies, Mwemweata was the flagbearer.
## Athletics
Both athletes did not know they were going to compete until a couple of weeks prior to the Olympics. A competitor broke their foot, and another's fear of flying prevented their trip to the Games, opening up two spots for I-Kiribati athletes. The I-Kiribati athletes had to travel to Australia early so they could learn how to use starting blocks.
Kakianako Nariki's competed in his first and only Olympics. Nariki was afraid of being disqualified because there were false starts in his heat. He ended up finishing seventh in his heat, with a time of 11.62, beating disqualified athlete Marc Burns.
Kaitinano Mwemweata competed in the women's 100 meter dash. She finished the race with a time of 13.07 seconds, a personal best she was very excited about. She finished seventh in her heat, failing to advance to the next round.
### Key
### Men
### Women
## Weightlifting
Although Meamea Thomas won gold in the men's −85 kg in the Oceania Championships, he did not automatically qualify and later received a wildcard entry.
Thomas competed in the men's −85 kg weightlifting competition, finishing 17th in the snatch and 13th in the clean and jerk. Overall, he finished 13th out of 21 competitors. As of the 2012 Olympics, Meamea Thomas has the highest finish of any I-Kiribati athlete in Olympic history. |
7,268,282 | Power (Ice-T album) | 1,150,707,359 | null | [
"1988 albums",
"Albums produced by Afrika Islam",
"Ice-T albums",
"Sire Records albums"
]
| Power is the second studio album by American rapper Ice-T, released on September 13, 1988 by Sire Records. Recorded at Syndicate Studios West in Los Angeles, the home studio of DJ Evil E, it was produced by Ice-T and Afrika Islam. The Los Angeles Daily News noted that its lyrical themes ranged from sex to gun violence, and that Ice-T "implicates everyone from radio programmers to the police as accomplices in the decline of western civilisation." The album contains lyrics which began a feud between Ice-T and rapper LL Cool J. The album cover, which features Ice-T's then-girlfriend Darlene Ortiz, Ice-T, and DJ Evil E, was described as "perpetuating stereotypes" by the Chicago Tribune and "violence-glorifying" by both the Chicago Sun-Times and The Sydney Morning Herald.
Two singles were released from the album: "I'm Your Pusher" and "High Rollers". The album was certified platinum by 2006. Music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented that on its release, Power received "strong reviews" and continued to receive positive retrospective reviews from music guides such as AllMusic, The Rolling Stone Album Guide and the Spin Alternative Record Guide.
## Background and production
Following the success of Ice-T's album Rhyme Pays, which went gold in the United States, Ice-T was featured on the soundtrack to the film Colors (1988). He felt by the time he started working on Power that he "was aware that people were listening" and that he "had to be more serious, and ... get some points across". The beats for the album were written by Afrika Islam at his apartment with his SP-1200 sampler and a Roland 909 drum machine. Tracks such as "Drama" had a Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer connected to an SP-1200. Islam stated that he felt that he was creating a different sound for hip hop with this track as the 303 was usually only heard in techno music and that the 303 created a unique "shreiky sound". Others such as "Girls L.G.B.N.A.F." were made by connecting two Roland TR-909 drum machines together.
Power was recorded in Los Angeles at DJ Evil E's home, which was known as Syndicate Studios West. Ice-T described how Syndicate Studios West was set up with a board connected to speakers to resemble a car stereo system so they could test how tapes would sound. A closet in the home was converted into a booth to record the vocals. Afrika Islam noted that recording at his home meant the group had no time constraints while recording the album. Ice-T stated that recording it did not take a long time saying: "The recording was fast" and that he recorded every record he's made in "a matter of a month, maybe two at the most". Power was mixed at Entourage Studios in Los Angeles by Mark Wolfson. Some tracks feature guest vocalists, such as Donald D and Hen-Gee on "The Syndicate". Donald D was a DJing partner of Afrika Islam in the 1970s while Hen-Gee is DJ Evil-E's brother. The vocals on "I'm Your Pusher" are credited to Pimpin' Rex, who Ice-T mentioned was "one of my buddies, a real live pimp".
The Chicago Tribune noted the controversy surrounding the album cover, stating that Ice-T had been charged with perpetuating stereotypes with an album cover featuring a scantily clad woman. The Sydney Morning Herald described the cover as a "violence-glorifying, women-denigrating sleeve". The woman on the cover was Darlene Ortiz, Ice-T's girlfriend at the time. In 1989, the Los Angeles Daily News stated that: "Darlene has become as much a part of Ice-T's image as gangs, guns and boom boxes." Ortiz originally met Ice-T when she was 17, stating she was "totally smitten and ready to settle down" and that she "would've done whatever he asked". Of her appearance on the album cover she explained that it was "like nothing" for her. To prepare for the cover, Ortiz bought five different bathing suits and went to the photo studio with Glen E. Friedman. Ortiz felt comfortable with the sawed-off shotgun, stating that she got her first gun when she was 11 years old and that she thought "it would be a powerful statement to see a woman holding a gun". Ice-T chose the bathing suit and the red high heel pumps and earrings for the cover. Clothing on the cover was shared between shots. Ortiz and DJ Evil E both shared the gold bracelet for the photo shoot and Ice-T and DJ Evil E wore the same Rolex. Ortiz also appeared in music videos for the singles from Power – "I'm Your Pusher" and "High Rollers".
## Music and lyrics
The Los Angeles Daily News described Power's themes: "Sex and guns are but two forms of power explored on Ice-T's Power album, a disc that implicates everyone from radio programmers to the police as accomplices in the decline of western civilization." These tracks included "Radio Suckers", which Ice-T wrote to say he would not compromise his music to have it played on radio. He noted his albums still sold well without radio support. The final track on the album "Soul on Ice" was Ice-T's tribute to Iceberg Slim, whose books he read in high school. Ice-T described Slim as "fascinating" and said his books "made me wanna be a pimp".
"I'm Your Pusher" sees Ice-T dissing fellow rapper LL Cool J. Ice-T explained later that he felt that LL Cool J was "at that time on his 'I'm the great rapper in the world' thing. Me being from L.A., I was trying to rep our entire city alone, so had to step to him". Ice-T also replied that he had no personal problem with him but just "thought I could beat him rapping anyways". Ice-T stated that he recorded "Girls L.G.B.N.A.F." as a humorous response to LL Cool J's song "I Need Love". Ice-T stated that: "Girls came to me and asked, 'Ice, why don't you write a ballad'? Now can you imagine saying, 'I need loooove?' That's a wimp. So I wrote ('Girls') as a joke." LL Cool J later retaliated dissing Ice-T in his song "To da Break of Dawn" from his album Mama Said Knock You Out (1990). Afrika Islam said their feud ended when a group meeting involving Flavor Flav, DJ Red Alert, Mike Tyson and Afrika Bambaataa persuaded them to stop fighting. Islam explained Tyson's role: "[he was] down with hip-hop and the Zulus and I've always considered rappers like boxers anyway". Ice-T commented on the feud in NME magazine in 2012, stating: "You need a nemesis in hip hop. It's part of what fuels good rap. L was coming out of New York saying he was the best rapper in the world. I was trying to get my feet out of LA. You can't have someone saying they're the best if you're trying to. We had a little hip hop thing but it was never serious."
## Release
Power was released in the United States on September 13, 1988, through Sire on vinyl, compact disc, and cassette. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 on October 1, 1988, at number 102. Power stayed on this chart for 33 weeks and peaked at number 35 on November 12, 1988. While touring to support Power, Ice-T visited schools as a mentor "telling the students of his shady past and profitable present". By January 1989, Power had sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States and went gold. A profanity-free version of the record was never released. Ice-T compared this to the release of N.W.A.'s album, stating that he felt releasing a clean album was "selling out" and that "N.W.A. made more money because of it, but I had my integrity."
The single "I'm Your Pusher" was released on August 23, 1988, by Sire. The follow-up single "High Rollers" was released on January 20, 1989. In the United Kingdom "High Rollers" charted on the UK Singles chart for two weeks, peaking at number 63 on the chart.
## Reception
Erlewine commented that on its release, Power received "strong reviews". In contemporary reviews, The New York Times described Power as "Constantly menacing, the album affords no breathing room." The review noted: "Ice-T makes the claustrophobia work by spinning ever denser rhymes and more concrete images, remaining as intense as his subject. Power has the oppressive detail of a novel. Though Ice-T indulges in gallows humor ... he allows no release. If this is the life of a gangster, it is also hell." The review commented that along with Eazy-E's album Eazy-Duz-It, the rappers come off as "unenlightened when it comes to women. Whatever their rough spots, Power and Eazy-Duz-It represent the makings of a brutal new music scene." Robert Christgau, writing for the Village Voice, gave the album a B+ rating, noting that Ice-T had "his own sound—flat, clipped, quick-lipped. And when he sticks to his subject, his narrative style is as gripping and understated as Islam's samples." The Sydney Morning Herald opined that Ice-T's "odd attempts at making a moral point become lost amidst the nauseating imagery, though the music's malevolent power is impossible to deny".
From retrospective reviews, the Spin Alternative Record Guide compared Power to Ice-T's previous album Rhyme Pays stating it was "richer, and much more clearly didactic". The review highlighted "I'm Your Pusher", opining that it "might still be Ice-T's most unforgettable song". AllMusic described the release as "outstanding", and noted that "in the next few years, gangsta rap would degenerate into nothing more than cheap exploitation and empty clichés, but in Ice's hands, it was as informative as it was captivating". (The New) Rolling Stone Album Guide gave the album a four star rating, declaring that the messages on the album were still relevant but that found the drum programming had not dated well.
## Track listing
All songs are composed and produced by Ice-T and Afrika Islam except where noted.
## Personnel
Credits are adapted from the sleeve, sticker and back cover of Power.
- Ice-T – producer, writer, arrangements, executive producer
- Afrika Islam – producer, programming
- Mark (Full Moon) Wolfson – mix engineer
- Glen E. Friedman – photography
- Kav Deluxe – design
- Jorge Hinojosa – management
- DJ Evil E – cutting
- Pimpin' Rex – performer (on "I'm Your Pusher")
- Microphone King Donald D and DJ Hen G – performer (on "The Syndicate")
- Amazing Many Styles Kid Jazz – performer (on "High Rollers")
- Bilal Bashir – programming (on "Personal")
## Charts
## Certifications
## See also
- 1988 in hip hop music
- 1988 in music
- New school hip hop |
48,854,378 | Lake Street station (Arlington, Massachusetts) | 1,144,074,649 | Former railway station in Arlington, Massachusetts, US | [
"1846 establishments in Massachusetts",
"1977 disestablishments in Massachusetts",
"Arlington, Massachusetts",
"Former MBTA stations in Massachusetts",
"MBTA Commuter Rail stations in Middlesex County, Massachusetts",
"Railway stations closed in 1977",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1846"
]
| Lake Street station was a commuter rail station on the Lexington Branch, located in the East Arlington section of Arlington, Massachusetts. The line opened as the Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad in 1846, with a station at Pond Street among the earliest stops. It was renamed Lake Street in 1867. The Boston and Lowell Railroad (B&L) acquired the line in 1870 and built a new station building in 1885. Service continued under the Boston and Maine Railroad (B&M) – successor to the B&L – though it declined during the 20th century. Lake Street station and three others on the line were closed in May 1958. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) began subsidizing service in 1965, and Lake Street station reopened in March 1968. All passenger service on the Lexington Branch ended on January 10, 1977; it was converted into the Minuteman Bikeway in the early 1990s.
## History
The Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad opened from West Cambridge station (on the Fitchburg Railroad) to through the town of West Cambridge on September 1, 1846. Several intermediate stations, including Pond Street at the eponymous street in West Cambridge, were open by 1850. When the town of West Cambridge changed its name to Arlington in 1867, Spy Pond was renamed Lake Arlington. The street and soon the railroad station were renamed Lake Street, though Spy Pond soon returned as the pond's name. The railroad was acquired by the Boston and Lowell Railroad (B&L) in 1870; a new line was constructed from Lake Street to Somerville Junction to reach the B&L mainline. The new line opened on December 1, 1870, and the old route to West Cambridge was abandoned.
The original station was on the east side of the tracks on the north side of Lake Street. In 1876, residents voted for the town selectmen to push for the B&L to replace the station building. Not until June 1884, however, did the state railroad commissioners recommend immediate construction of a new station. The new station, on the west side of the tracks about 200 feet (61 m) north of Lake Street, opened in November 1885. The old station building was moved to Hill Crossing on the Central Massachusetts Railroad. By the late 19th century, Lake Street station was commonly used to reach Spy Pond for winter ice skating.
The B&L was leased by the Boston and Maine Railroad (B&M) in 1887. In the 1890s and 1900s, during the City Beautiful movement, the B&M held contests among its station agents to create floral displays around stations. Station agent Thomas P. Brosnahan's displays at Lake Street won prizes in several years. In 1926–27, the B&M rebuilt the abandoned line between Lake Street and West Cambridge to allow the Lexington Branch to use the Fitchburg mainline east of West Cambridge. On April 24, 1927, passenger service was rerouted over the rebuilt line. Most of the 1870-built connector was retained as the freight-only Fitchburg Cutoff.
### Closure
By 1950, the Lexington Branch had three daily round trips, one of which was discontinued within several years. On April 18, 1958, the B&M received permission from the Massachusetts Public Utilities Commission to drastically curtail its suburban commuter service, including abandoning branches, closing stations, and cutting trains. Among the approved cuts was the closure of four stations on the Lexington Branch in Arlington – Lake Street, , Brattles, and Arlington Heights – because Arlington was part of the funding district of the Metropolitan Transit Authority, which provided parallel bus service on Massachusetts Avenue. The four stations, with collective daily ridership around 200 passengers, were closed on May 16, 1958. The Lexington Branch was reduced to a single daily round trip at that time.
Lake Street station was demolished prior to 1959; the only surviving stations of the Lexington Branch are Bedford and Lexington. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) was formed in August 1964 to subsidize suburban rail service. MBTA subsidies for B&M service began on January 4, 1965. Although the MBTA initially planned to close the Lexington Branch, the single round trip was retained.
Due to community input, Arlington station was reopened in October 1965, followed by Lake Street in March 1968. Ridership at Lake Street station generally did not exceed 10 passengers per day. Although taking the Lexington Branch allowed a faster trip than taking a bus to Harvard (then the northwestern terminus of the Red Line) and then transferring to the Red Line to get to downtown Boston, it had only the single round trip and was substantially more expensive. The MBTA purchased most B&M commuter lines, including the Lexington Branch, on December 27, 1976.
After a major snowstorm temporarily closed the line on January 10, 1977, Lexington Branch passenger service was permanently ended. At that time, the MBTA planned to extend the Red Line along the Lexington Branch right-of-way to Arlington Heights. Stations were to be at , , , Arlington, and Arlington Heights; Lake Street would not have been a stop. However, by the time construction began in 1978, opposition in Arlington and reductions in federal funding had caused the MBTA to choose a shorter alternative with Alewife as the terminus. Freight service on the Lexington Branch continued until 1981; it was abandoned in 1991. The Minuteman Bikeway was constructed on the abandoned right-of-way, with the section through Arlington opening in 1992. |
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