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173,616 | Battle of Helm's Deep | 1,168,522,287 | Battle in Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" | [
"Fictional elements introduced in 1954",
"Fictional valleys",
"Middle-earth battles"
]
| The Battle of Helm's Deep, also called the Battle of the Hornburg, is a fictional battle in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings that saw the total destruction of the forces of the Wizard Saruman by the army of Rohan, assisted by a forest of tree-like Huorns.
Helm's Deep was a valley in the north-western White Mountains of Middle-earth. Helm's Deep, with its fortress the Hornburg, becomes the refuge of some of the army of Rohan, the Rohirrim, under King Théoden, from assault by the forces of Saruman. Although Théoden says that "the Hornburg has never fallen to assault," in the battle a massive army of Uruk-hai and Dunlendings sent by Saruman almost overwhelms the defences. Saruman's Orcs breach the fortress wall that blocks the valley by setting off an explosion in a culvert; Aragorn names it "Saruman's devilry" and "the fire of Orthanc"; the critic Tom Shippey calls it "a kind of gunpowder". The defenders hold out in the fortress until dawn, when Théoden and Aragorn lead a cavalry charge that drives the Orcs from the fortress. They are surprised to see the valley to the enemy's rear blocked by a forest of tree-like Huorns that have walked from Fangorn in the night. On the side of the valley are relieving forces assembled by Gandalf and Erkenbrand, a Rohirrim leader. These attack, driving the Orcs into the angry Huorn forest, from which the Orcs never emerge; the Huorns bury the Orcs' bodies in an earthen mound known as "Death's Down".
Peter Jackson's 2002 film The Two Towers makes the battle dramatic, following Tolkien's account quite closely, but with changes to the forces involved: the defenders include a group of Elf-warriors sent by Elrond (intended in a preliminary treatment to also feature Aragorn's love-interest Arwen in leadership as an Elf-warrior princess, but this did not test well in early screenings); the attackers do not include men or wargs (battle-wolves), and the original theatrical release did not include the Huorns, either; the Huorns, however, are included as additional scenes in the Extended Edition, later released on DVD.
Tolkien based Helm's Deep on England's Cheddar Gorge, and the Glittering Caves of Aglarond on the cave complex that he had visited there.
## Fictional geography
Helm's Deep is based on the Cheddar Gorge, a limestone gorge 400 ft (120 m) deep in the Mendip Hills, with a large cave complex that Tolkien visited on his honeymoon in 1916 and revisited in 1940, and which he acknowledged as the origin of the Glittering Caves of Aglarond at the head of Helm's Deep, behind the fortress.
Helm's Deep is properly the narrow gorge or ravine at the head of a larger valley (the Deeping-coomb), but the name is also used for the fortifications at the mouth of the gorge and the larger valley below. The gorge, which wound deep into the White Mountains at the feet of the Thrihyrne mountain, led into the Glittering Caves of Aglarond, an extensive series of spectacular speleothems. In The Lord of the Rings, the Dwarf Gimli, who like all dwarves is well versed in geology, horrified that the caves are used only as a refuge, describes them lyrically as:
> immeasurable halls, filled with everlasting music of water that tinkles into pools, as fair as Kheled-zâram in the starlight. [...] when torches are kindled and men walk on the sandy floors under the echoing domes, ah! then [...] gems and crystals and veins of precious ore glint in the polished walls; and the light glows through folded marbles, shell-like, translucent as the living hands of Queen Galadriel. There are columns of white and saffron and dawn-rose [...] fluted and twisted into dreamlike forms; they spring up from many-coloured floors to meet the glistening pendants of the roof: wings, ropes, curtains fine as frozen clouds; spears, banners, pinnacles of suspended palaces! Still lakes mirror them: a glimmering world looks up from dark pools covered with clear glass; cities such as the mind of Durin could scarce have imagined in his sleep, stretch on through avenues and pillared courts, or into the dark recesses where no light can come.
The mouth of the gorge, Helm's Gate, was closed by the battlemented Deeping Wall, 20 ft (6.1 m) tall, and wide enough for four men to stand abreast, with a culvert for the Deeping-stream which flowed down the valley. At one end of the wall the Hornburg castle stood on a spur of the mountain; a long stair led to its rear gate, and a long causeway led down forwards from its main gate. About two furlongs (400 metres) down from the gate was an outer trench and rampart, Helm's Dike, built right across the Deeping-coomb. Tolkien drew detailed sketches of the fortifications.
The valley was named after King Helm Hammerhand of Rohan, when he and his people sought refuge from the invading Dunlendings under Wulf during the winter of .
## Description
### Background
Théoden had been released by the Wizard Gandalf from the influence of Gríma Wormtongue, his malevolent adviser and Saruman's spy. He then set out to the Fords of Isen, where his marshal Erkenbrand was fighting Saruman's forces. However, Théoden found out that his forces had been scattered. Gandalf advised him to take refuge in the Hornburg fortress of Helm's Deep. Gandalf then left on an unexplained errand. Théoden's army went to the area, where local people were commanded by a captain called Gamling the Old. Many of the men there were very old or young. The women and children of Théoden's capital Edoras were safe in Dunharrow, led by the King's niece Éowyn.
The garrison of Helm's Deep consisted of some 1,000 men, but around 1,000 more defenders had arrived from across Rohan by the time of the battle. The enemy, Saruman's army, consisted of at least 10,000 Orcs and men, most marching from Isengard to Helm's Deep, and others heading to the Fords of Isen. An additional force of Men of Dunland joined the enemy.
### The battle
The forces of Saruman, common Orcs, large Uruk-hai, "half-orcs and goblin-men", and Dunlendings (Men of Dunland), arrived at Helm's Deep on a stormy night. They stormed the first defence, Helm's Dike, forcing the defenders to fall back to the fortress. They attempted to break down the gate with a battering ram, but a sortie led by Aragorn and Éomer briefly scattered the attackers.
The Orcs and Dunlendings raised ladders to scale the wall, but were held back by the Men of Rohan atop the wall. Orcs crept into the culvert and made a breach in the wall using a "blasting-fire" from Orthanc, perhaps "a kind of gunpowder"; Saruman's army rushed in. Some defenders retreated to the Glittering Caves of Aglarond, while others retreated to the Hornburg.
Saruman's forces broke through the Hornburg gate just before dawn. At this moment, Helm's horn was sounded, and Théoden and Aragorn rode out, followed by all the Rohirrim left inside. They cut their way through the Orcs and drove them back from the fortress walls to Helm's Dike.
As day dawned, both armies saw that a forest of angry, tree-like Huorns now filled the valley, trapping Saruman's army. Above them, Gandalf appeared on Shadowfax, with Erkenbrand and a thousand footsoldiers who had escaped from the Fords of Isen. They charged into the fray. The Dunlendings dropped their weapons, while the Orcs fled into the Huorn forest and were destroyed.
Tolkien noted in a letter that he had created walking tree-creatures partly in response to his "bitter disappointment and disgust from schooldays with the shabby use made in Shakespeare's Macbeth of the coming of 'Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane hill': I longed to devise a setting in which the trees might really march to war". The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey calls it a "shock" that the battle is decided in this way.
### Aftermath
After the battle, the Dunlendings were given amnesty by Erkenbrand and allowed to return home (much to their surprise, since Saruman had told them that the men of Rohan would burn all survivors alive). The Rohirrim required that all hostilities cease, and that the Dunlendings retreat behind the River Isen again and never recross while bearing arms. Before they were freed, though, the Dunlending captives were put to work in repairing the fortress.
The bodies of the Orcs that had entered the forest of Huorns were never seen again; the Huorns had buried them in an earthen mound known as "Death's Down".
Among the Rohirrim dead was Háma, captain of Théoden's personal guard and doorward of his hall; the Orcs had hewn his corpse, an atrocity that Théoden recalled during his later parley with Saruman. Gimli had been wounded, but had killed 42 Orcs to Legolas's 41.
### Literary history
In Book III, ch. 5 of The Two Towers, Helm is described only as a "hero of old wars"; Tolkien did not envision him as a king when he wrote that chapter.
Tolkien had not yet envisioned Helm's Deep in his first sketch for the decisive battle between Rohan and the forces of Saruman. In an outline published in The Treason of Isengard as “The Story Foreseen from Fangorn," the Rohirrim rode west at Gandalf's urging, as in the published text, but met the army of Saruman on the open plain. An indecisive battle ensued, after which the Rohirrim camped for the night, and woke to see the enemy surrounded and destroyed by a wood that had appeared overnight.
In a 1958 letter to Rhona Beare, one of a group of enthusiasts, Tolkien stated that the Rohirrim "were not 'Mediaeval' in our sense", but that all the same "the styles of the Bayeux Tapestry (made in England) fit them well enough", explaining that the soldiers in the tapestry are wearing chain-mail.
### Later writings
After the publication of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien wrote about the history of Rohan, in writings now collected by his son Christopher in Unfinished Tales. These state that the fortresses of Aglarond and Angrenost (renamed Isengard by the Rohirrim) were built by Gondor to guard the shoulders of the Gap of Rohan. Like Angrenost to the north, it was initially well guarded, but as the population of Calenardhon dwindled it was not maintained and was left to a hereditary small guard who intermarried with Dunlendings. When Cirion, Steward of Gondor, gave Calenardhon to the Éothéod, Aglarond was transferred into the care of the Rohirrim, who named it Súthburg ("South-fortress" in Old English). The Gondorian guard was merged with that of Isengard. Guard duty of the Fords was initially shared between Gondor and Rohan, but later maintained only by the Rohirrim.
## Adaptations
### Peter Jackson's film
In Peter Jackson's 2002 film The Two Towers the keep was built into the mountainside and resembles a World War I bunker, in keeping with Tolkien's history as a soldier in that war. The entrance to the Glittering Caves of Aglarond is within the Hornburg itself, rather than at the top of the deep behind the Deeping Wall as in the book. Further, the Uruk-hai assault the main gateway in a testudo, or locked-shields style formation, and the 'blasting fire' is depicted as gunpowder. The battle was filmed mainly at night, in frequent heavy natural rain or when necessary with artificial rain on the actors, for more than three months. The Helm's Deep set used some computer-generated imagery; some parts were constructed as full size sets; some shots used a 1/4 scale physical model, while more distant shots used a 1/85 scale model. In the final battle scene, Weta's "Massive" crowd simulation software and "Grunt" rendering software were used, with thousands of Uruk-hai modelled using Alias/Wavefront's "Maya" software. It has been described as one of the greatest battle scenes in film, combining "technical mastery, sweeping spectacle and tonal balance". In the film, 10,000 of Saruman's Uruk-hai (with no Orcs of other races, Dunlendings or wargs to accompany them) lay siege to the fortress, defended by around 300 Rohirrim. Soon after, however, a large group of the Elves of Lothlórien join the defences, sent by Elrond, at Galadriel's prompting. The defenders suffer heavy losses, but hold out until dawn, when Gandalf arrives with 2,000 riders led by Éomer, who turn the tide of the battle and rout Saruman's forces. In the original script of the film, Elrond and Arwen had gone to see Galadriel in person, and it was Arwen who led the Elves to fight alongside the Rohan defenders. Jackson rejected Arwen's involvement, revising her character from a "warrior princess" to a role closer to that of the book, but kept the Elves in the battle.
### Other
The 2013 expansion to The Lord of the Rings Online entitled Helm's Deep depicts the fortress of Helm's Deep as well as the surrounding area of Western Rohan, the Battle of Helm's Deep featuring prominently.
## See also
- Battle of the Pelennor Fields – the next battle, in which the Rohirrim ride to the rescue of Gondor
- Battle of the Morannon – the last battle of the Third Age, with a contingent of the Rohirrim |
44,204,636 | 2014 Scottish Labour leadership election | 1,134,249,924 | 2014 Scottish Labour Party leadership election | [
"2010s elections in Scotland",
"2014 elections in the United Kingdom",
"2014 in Scotland",
"2014 political party leadership elections",
"Scottish Labour leadership elections"
]
| The 2014 Scottish Labour Party leadership election was an internal party election to choose a new leader and deputy leader of the Scottish Labour Party, following the resignations of Johann Lamont as leader and Anas Sarwar as deputy. Lamont announced her decision in an interview with the Daily Record on 24 October, saying that she was stepping down effective immediately because the UK Labour Party treated the Scottish party as a "branch office of London". Lamont, who had won the 2011 leadership contest, thus becoming the first Scottish leader to have authority over Labour's Scottish MPs in the House of Commons as well as in the Scottish Parliament, was the second leader of a Scottish political party to resign in the wake of the 2014 independence referendum. Before her resignation, Alex Salmond announced his intention to relinquish the role of Scottish National Party (SNP) leader and First Minister. Sarwar announced his own resignation on 30 October, saying he felt it was right for the party to elect a new leadership team.
Sarwar became interim leader following Lamont's resignation, and announced plans for the party to hold a leadership contest, with the winner to be announced on 13 December. Sarah Boyack became the first person to confirm that she would be standing as a candidate for party leader; she was subsequently joined by Neil Findlay and Jim Murphy. Katy Clark and Kezia Dugdale entered the deputy leadership race. Findlay was among those to call on former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown to enter the contest, but he ruled out doing so. Other senior Labour figures who decided not to put their names forward included Sarwar, Jackie Baillie, and Jenny Marra.
Voting took place between 17 November and 10 December using the three-tier electoral college system, which gives parliamentarians, individual members, and affiliated bodies such as trade unions an equal say in the outcome. During this time, the candidates toured Scotland for a number of hustings meetings, at which they set out their direction for the party if elected. Policy options raised were centred on issues such as health, education, employment, and the prospect of further devolution to Scotland. The three leadership candidates were from different wings of the party–Murphy from the Labour right, Boyack from the centre, and Findlay from the left. Controversy ensued when the Unite trade union issued a mock ballot paper instructing members on which candidates to elect, and when two prominent Labour figures engaged in an argument about the contest on social media. On 13 December, Murphy was elected to lead the party, while Dugdale was chosen to become his deputy. In his victory speech, Murphy said that his election was a "fresh start" for Scottish Labour.
The 2014 referendum had seen a 55 per cent vote in favour of keeping Scotland in the United Kingdom. However, opinion polls in the weeks following the referendum suggested an increased support for the SNP at Labour's expense, while SNP membership quadrupled. After his election as its leader, Murphy led Labour into the 2015 general election, which saw the party's worst-ever election result in Scotland and a landslide victory for the SNP. Labour lost all but one of its 41 Scottish Westminster seats, including Murphy's own East Renfrewshire constituency, while the SNP won 56 of the 59 seats in Scotland. Although Murphy subsequently said that he wished to remain as Scottish Labour leader, the poor result prompted senior party figures and trade unionists to question the viability of his future in the post. After narrowly surviving a vote of no confidence on 16 May, Murphy announced his intention to relinquish the role, triggering a fresh leadership contest. Dugdale was elected to succeed Murphy on 15 August.
## Background
Lamont was elected to lead the Scottish Labour Party in December 2011 following the resignation of Iain Gray, who stepped down in the wake of the party's second consecutive defeat by Alex Salmond's Scottish National Party in the 2011 Scottish Parliament election. She was the first leader to take charge of the entire Scottish Labour Party, previous leaders having only had responsibility for Labour's MSPs at Holyrood, and she initiated a review of Labour policy on issues such as devolution and the party's commitment to free universal public services. The Scotsman's Euan McColm wrote that although Lamont was given greater autonomy over Labour in Scotland, her Westminster colleagues "restrained" her attempts to develop a devolution policy, and her debate on universal benefits resulted in the SNP portraying her as "a politician dedicated to seizing from the people that which was rightfully theirs". Her leadership was further harmed by a controversy over the 2013 Falkirk candidate selection, in which the trade union Unite allegedly tried to engineer the selection process in the Falkirk constituency; an investigation into the matter was led from London rather than Edinburgh. Lamont also led the party through the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, during which Labour joined the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats in the Better Together campaign, an alliance of parties that campaigned for a "No" vote. Lamont herself had a relatively low profile during the period prior to the poll, while Labour's association with the Conservatives was viewed as a betrayal among its traditional supporters.
The referendum was held on 18 September 2014, and saw a turnout of 3,619,915, or 85 per cent of those eligible to vote. Scotland rejected independence, with a 55 per cent vote in favour of staying part of the United Kingdom. Salmond announced his resignation as SNP leader and First Minister the day after the referendum. In the subsequent leadership election, the SNP selected Nicola Sturgeon as its leader. Also on 19 September, UK Prime Minister David Cameron established the Smith Commission to look at the prospect of devolving further powers to Scotland. Chaired by Lord Smith of Kelvin, the cross-party Commission published its findings on 27 November. Among its recommendations were proposals to give the Scottish Parliament responsibility for some welfare payments and for setting income tax levels. Although it had previously been opposed to giving Holyrood greater tax powers amid concerns it could diminish the role of Scottish MPs at Westminster and lead to "independence by the back door", Labour confirmed its intention to support income tax devolution shortly before details of the Commission's report were made public.
Although Scotland had voted to remain part of the UK, the independence referendum had returned "Yes" votes in some traditional Labour strongholds, particularly Glasgow and North Lanarkshire, prompting media speculation about Lamont's future as the party's leader. Shortly after the referendum, Shadow International Development Secretary Jim Murphy put himself forward as a candidate for the party leadership; The Herald reported that party delegates concerned about the referendum results had started to view Murphy as a possible successor. Lamont had attempted to quash rumours of a leadership challenge at the 25 September 2014 session of First Minister's Questions, the first of the post-referendum era: "When the First Minister is long gone I will still be doing my job on behalf of the people of Scotland." Her position remained uncertain. The Daily Telegraph's Alan Cochrane wrote that many Labour MPs in Scotland feared losing their seats in the 2015 general election without a change of leadership. In the weeks following the referendum, SNP membership increased fourfold, reaching more than 100,000 by mid-December. Labour's membership over the same period was less clear. Paul Hutcheon noted in the 9 November edition of the Sunday Herald that Labour had "consistently declined" to confirm the number of its members in Scotland, but quoted an "informed source" suggesting the figure was slightly short of 13,500. However, Peter Jones of The Scotsman subsequently quoted a less favourable figure of fewer than 10,000, with "most of the existing constituency membership [comprising] the relatives and friends of councillors/MSPs/MPs [who] would not welcome ... an influx of new members who might try to oust second-rate post-holders in favour of somebody new and better".
In October, two former first ministers voiced their concern about the direction of the party. Jack McConnell expressed fears that Labour would experience increased difficulty in regaining the confidence of Scottish voters following the election of Nicola Sturgeon as SNP leader, and described Labour as "a political machine that is angry about what has happened in Scotland in the recent past". Shortly afterwards, his predecessor, Henry McLeish suggested Labour had ceded "enormous ground to the SNP unnecessarily" because its supporters no longer understood "what the party stands for". Margaret Curran, the Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland, said that although the party was changing, it needed to reconnect with its "socialist principles". Lamont's deputy, Anas Sarwar, later suggested that during the referendum campaign, Labour "had stopped being a movement for change and fell into a trap of being defenders of the past and defenders of the establishment". The New Statesman claimed that Labour had spent "decades treating Scotland as little more than a one-party state" and needed to "[make] itself relevant again for the people whom it was established to represent". Stephen Daisley, political editor of STV News, suggested that Labour had "responded to the Nationalist advance by electing a succession of decent but ineffectual Holyrood leaders who were dominated by the Westminster party machine".
## Resignations
Lamont announced her resignation in an interview with the Daily Record on 24 October 2014, saying that it was her intention to step down immediately. She told the newspaper that she was resigning because Labour's Westminster leadership had undermined her attempts to reform the party in Scotland, and had treated Scottish Labour "like a branch office of London". In her letter of resignation, submitted to Scottish Labour Party Chairman Jamie Glackin, Lamont accused "senior members of the party" of questioning her role and said that she was taking herself "out of the equation" to allow Scottish Labour to have a discussion about the best way forward. Anas Sarwar became Labour's acting leader. On 26 October, following a meeting of the party's executive committee, he outlined the details of the leadership election. It was confirmed the next day that Jackie Baillie would represent Labour in the Scottish Parliament at the following session of First Minister's Questions.
On 30 October, an IPSOS/Mori poll conducted for STV indicated that the SNP had much greater support among Scottish voters than Labour, putting the SNP at 52 per cent, compared to 23 per cent for Labour. On the same day, a YouGov poll conducted for The Times gave the two parties 43 and 27 per cent respectively. The BBC's Mark Mardell later noted that a total of four polls in October and November gave the SNP an average 20-percentage-point lead over Labour, which he suggested could allow the SNP to win as many as 30 Westminster seats from Labour in the next election. Also on 30 October, Anas Sarwar announced his resignation as deputy leader at a Scottish Labour fundraising dinner in Glasgow, triggering a deputy leadership election. Sarwar said that he disagreed with Lamont's assessment of UK Labour, and that he was stepping down because he felt that it was "right that we have a concurrent leadership and deputy leadership election. This will allow a Scottish Labour party, its members and affiliates the opportunity to not only elect a leader, but a new leadership team focused on winning in 2016."
## Election details
Anas Sarwar announced details of the timetable for the contest on 26 October 2014, following a meeting of Scottish Labour's executive committee. Potential candidates would be invited to declare their interest from the following day, with nominations open from 31 October to 4 November. Balloting would begin on 17 November, and the announcement of the new leader would occur on 13 December. Sarwar said that voting would be held using the three-tier electoral college, in which three groups – individual party members, parliamentarians, and affiliated bodies such as trade unions – each make up a third of the electorate. Plans to change Scottish Labour's electoral system to a one-person, one-vote ballot like that of the UK Labour Party were under review at the time of the leadership contest, but as forging ahead with these changes before the election of a new Scottish leader would delay the process, the decision was taken to use the existing method instead. Explaining this decision on the day the contest was announced, Sarwar told BBC News, "We have had unanimous agreement to get the balance right between moving quickly to elect a new leader and also allowing a period of time to have an open, frank and honest debate about the future direction of the Scottish Labour party." The deputy leadership contest followed the same timetable after Sarwar relinquished that role.
After nominations closed on 4 November, the candidates took part in a series of hustings meetings at locations around Scotland. Venues for the events were announced on 13 November, with the first set to take place in Dundee on 20 November. This would be followed by meetings in Glasgow, Dumfries, Edinburgh, Inverness, Aberdeen, and Cumbernauld. In addition, the candidates would also address the Scottish Women's Conference, the Youth and Student Conference, and the Councillors' Conference. The candidates also took part in a televised debate on a special edition of BBC Two Scotland's political programme, Scotland 2014, on 18 November. Voting closed at midday on 10 December.
## Declarations
On 28 October, MSP and Shadow Local Government Minister Sarah Boyack became the first person to announce her candidacy for party leader. MSP and Shadow Health Minister Neil Findlay, and then MP and Shadow Secretary of State for International Development Jim Murphy, were the second and third candidates to declare their candidacies, on 29 October. On 1 November, Katy Clark, the MP for North Ayrshire and Arran, became the first person to join the deputy leadership race. Kezia Dugdale, an MSP for Lothian and Labour's Shadow Education Secretary at Holyrood, announced on 2 November that she would also be a deputy leadership candidate. Each candidate was required to secure ten nominations from among the 80 Scottish Labour members of the House of Commons, Scottish Parliament, and European Parliament. Of those standing in the contest, Murphy received the support of 43 parliamentarians, and Findlay and Boyack secured 12 and 10 nominations, respectively. Dugdale was backed by 51 of her colleagues and Clark had 11 nominations.
Several other prominent Labour figures declined to stand. Neil Findlay and Michael Connarty, the MP for Linlithgow and East Falkirk, both urged former Prime Minister Gordon Brown to enter the race, but he declined. Other potential candidates who decided not to run were Sarwar, who wished to concentrate on plans for the next general election, and Baillie, Holyrood's Shadow Health Secretary, who said she wanted a "supporting role" rather than to be Labour leader. Jenny Marra, Labour's deputy finance and youth employment spokeswoman, also decided not to stand. Marra was subsequently appointed to lead Murphy's campaign alongside James Kelly, MSP for Rutherglen.
## Candidates and campaigns
### Leadership
#### Jim Murphy
Murphy, a former President of the National Union of Students, was first elected to the House of Commons as the MP for Eastwood in the 1997 general election. Having spent nine years at university without graduating, he worked for the Labour Party before becoming an MP. After serving in junior roles in the post-1997 Labour government, he was appointed as Secretary of State for Scotland in 2008, where he led a Scottish business mission to Shanghai and played a key role in organising the Scotland leg of Pope Benedict XVI's visit to the United Kingdom. He took charge of Labour's Scottish campaign for the 2010 general election, securing a three per cent swing to Labour in Scotland amid a defeat for the party at UK level. He became Shadow Defence Secretary after the election before moving to the post of Shadow International Development Secretary in 2013. In 2011, he co-chaired the Murphy–Boyack review of the structure of the Scottish Labour Party, and was a prominent figure in the Better Together campaign during the 2014 referendum, touring 100 towns in 100 days to campaign for a "No" vote. Commentators, such as the BBC's Aiden James and The Guardian's Severin Carrell, have described Murphy as being from the Blairite right wing of the party. Murphy launched his leadership campaign in Edinburgh on 1 November, and subsequently stepped down from the role of Shadow International Development Secretary in order to concentrate on his campaign. His bid to lead the party was backed by the Community and USDAW trade unions. He was also endorsed by Neil Kinnock, a former leader of the UK Labour Party, who donated an undisclosed sum of money to Murphy's campaign, and by Shadow Scottish Secretary Margaret Curran.
Murphy spoke of uniting Scottish Labour – and Scotland – after the referendum, and said that, if chosen to lead the party, he would stand for election to the Scottish Parliament at the 2016 election, "if not before". He claimed that a "lack of vision" and a failure to listen to Scottish voters had led to voters' deserting Labour. He suggested that it was "compulsory" that an MSP should be his deputy, and expressed support for greater devolution for Scotland. Murphy said that Scottish Labour should take greater responsibility in areas such as policy making, fundraising, and campaigning, and that funds paid to UK Labour by Scottish Labour councillors should be used exclusively for Scotland. Murphy also wanted to spend £5,000 on campaigns in every Labour-held Scottish constituency at Holyrood and Westminster, as well as seats the party planned to target at future elections, and pledged a "radical change" in Labour's campaign strategy.
He promised to introduce gender-equality legislation requiring an equal male/female representation in the Scottish Cabinet and on the boards of Scottish-based companies, and planned to appoint a Cabinet Minister for Women. He announced plans to invite the leaders of Scotland's other political parties to talks aimed at developing a strategy for the provision of services for the elderly, services which were coming under increasing pressure from an aging population. He urged Scottish Labour to support the full devolution of tax-raising powers, stating it was "as important a change for the Scottish Labour Party as the rewriting of Clause Four was for the UK Labour Party". He further said that he would introduce a 50 per cent top income tax rate for earners above £150,000 and devolve some welfare responsibilities handed to Holyrood by the Smith Commission, such as the Work Programme, to local authorities. On education, he pledged to create a facility to promote good teaching practice, introduce chartered status for teachers, and identify and provide support to secondary schools that were deemed to be failing. Unlike his two opponents, Murphy supported the continuation of the UK Trident programme, due for renewal in 2016.
#### Sarah Boyack
Boyack, a former planning officer and lecturer who served as chair of Scottish Labour Students and its UK-wide counterpart, Labour Students, was elected as the MSP for Edinburgh Central at the Scottish Parliament's inaugural election of 1999. She served in both the Dewar and McLeish governments, where she was Environment Minister and later Transport Minister. When McConnell succeeded McLeish in 2001, Boyack lost the Transport brief in a cabinet reshuffle and became a backbencher. After subsequently chairing the Parliament's Environmental and Rural Affairs Committee, she briefly returned to government prior to Labour's defeat in the 2007 election. She lost her Edinburgh seat in 2011 but was elected as a list MSP for the Lothian region in the same election. As well as co-chairing the Murphy–Boyack review, she served as a member of Labour's Devolution Commission in 2013. The Guardian reported that she would stand as a centrist candidate; Lesley Riddoch of The Scotsman suggested that Boyack had "an instinct for co-operation and consensus building". Boyack describes herself as a socialist. Her campaign was launched in Edinburgh on 7 November, supported by the Scottish Co-Operative Party.
Boyack said that she would be a "listening leader" who would tackle funding shortfalls in the National Health Service (NHS) and local government. She also said that she would publish 100 new ideas aimed at improving lives after meeting people during her campaign. Positioning herself as a unifying candidate who would make the party "fit for purpose", she called for "bold and radical" new approaches to policy, which would require Labour to be honest about funding crises in local government and health. She pledged that, if elected, she would work with the SNP government when she felt it was in the best interest of Scotland to do so, but said Labour would also be an effective opposition, holding the government to account when necessary.
Boyack said that as leader, she would campaign on better funding for healthcare, improvements to childcare, education and youth employment opportunities, and the devolvement of power to local government. She backed the scrapping of the Trident programme. She wanted to reform Council Tax, which had been frozen since the SNP came to power in 2007, and suggested the existing eight tax bands should be redrawn. She would allow local authorities to raise a tourism tax, while environmentally friendly power firms and bus companies would be created to raise public funds. She supported establishing a consensus on whether or not to have full tax devolution, but had "reservations" about the prospect of devolving further taxes to Holyrood. She favoured devolving welfare benefits to Scotland. She told STV's Stephen Daisley that she wished "to make Scottish Labour a force in Scottish politics again". After publishing a list of social justice-themed policies, she announced plans to establish a commission similar to the Social Justice Commission created by UK Labour leader John Smith in 1994, which had helped shape Labour policy in areas such as employment and welfare.
#### Neil Findlay
Findlay, a former bricklayer and teacher, was elected to Holyrood as a list MSP for Lothian in 2011, having previously been a councillor in West Lothian. Subsequently, appointed as Shadow Health Minister, he was also a member of the Red Paper Collective, a group of politicians who called on Labour to support the full devolution of income tax powers to Scotland. A BBC profile said that Findlay was "widely described as being on the left wing of his party [and] happy to describe himself as a socialist". His campaign was launched on 8 November at the Miners' Welfare Club in Fauldhouse, West Lothian, his home village, and endorsed by the trade unions ASLEF, CWU, GMB, Musicians' Union, NUM, RMT, TSSA, UCATT, UNISON, and Unite.
Policy options raised by Findlay included increasing the minimum wage, reintroduction of council house building, reduction in the use of the private sector in NHS Scotland, and allowing councils to set their own taxes to help reverse job losses within local government. He described himself as "no machine politician", and called for a return to the "timeless Labour values of community, solidarity, fairness and justice". He said that if elected as leader, his 2016 election campaign would focus on tackling youth unemployment, the introduction of a living wage, and improvements to health and social care. He said that he wanted to make the party more "autonomous" by involving its members and trade unions to create a party that was "more collective and co-operative in nature". He also expressed the desire to establish a public inquiry into the practice of trade union blacklisting. Among his plans for devolution was for Holyrood to have power over employment regulations to enable the creation of a Scottish Health and Safety Executive and the introduction of corporate culpable homicide legislation.
On gender equality, Findlay announced plans for legislation to address the gender pay gap, as well as increasing the number of women MSPs and the number of women on "the bodies that take decisions for our country". He said that he would lobby the UK government to scrap the UK Trident programme if UK Labour leader Ed Miliband became prime minister in the next election and that he wanted to renationalise the railways in Scotland, bring an end to public-private partnerships, and commit the party to full employment. He supported introducing a 50 per cent tax band "to tackle poverty and youth unemployment", but urged caution on tax devolvement to ensure Scotland did not end up "worse off". He said there would be "no privatisation of the NHS under my leadership". If elected he promised to "hit the ground running", and said he would be ready to take on SNP leader Nicola Sturgeon at the next session of First Minister's Questions.
### Deputy leadership
#### Kezia Dugdale
Dugdale, who had joined the Labour Party in 2004 after graduating from the University of Aberdeen, was elected as an MSP for the Lothian region in 2011 and later appointed to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Health Minister. She quickly ruled herself out of running for the leadership, but told the Edinburgh Evening News that she would consider entering a deputy leadership contest, describing herself as a "sidekick, not a superhero". She also spoke of her intention to serve no more than three terms in Parliament. Like Murphy, she secured the backing of the Community trade union. She was also endorsed by the Scottish Co-Operative Party.
Dugdale talked of improving employment, wages, education, and childcare, saying that she stood for "tomorrow's Scotland – a country free from poverty and injustice, with opportunity for everyone". Many of the parliamentarians who nominated Dugdale for deputy leader also endorsed Murphy's leadership bid, but she ruled out standing with Murphy on a joint ticket. She suggested taxing bankers in order to pay for jobs.
#### Katy Clark
Clark, a former solicitor with UNISON, joined the Labour Party at the age of 17. She was elected to the House of Commons as the MP for North Ayrshire and Arran in the 2005 general election. The Ardrossan and Saltcoats Herald reported that as a parliamentarian, she developed a reputation as a party rebel who, at the time of the leadership contest, had most recently voted against British participation in the 2014 military intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. She won the support of UNISON after announcing her intention to enter the deputy leadership contest, and was also backed by the Communication Workers' Union, Unite, the GMB, and the Musicians' Union.
Clark spoke of a need to recognise "that Scottish politics has changed and it can't be business as usual." Policy areas she intended to focus on included improvements in employment, housing, and public services, which she said were "prevented for too many by wealth being held in the hands of a minority." She also spoke of reaching out to people she claimed had "abandoned hope in Labour" or voted for independence, and said that the party needed to "take a new path" because people wanted social and economic change, which previous Labour governments had not delivered. Among the policies she supported were renationalisation of the railways, introducing free childcare for children over the age of twelve months, introducing a living wage, and the abolition of both the Trident programme and student tuition fees. She also claimed that Labour in Scotland had "been taken to the political abyss" by "New Labour and its architects". She claimed that Labour would find it harder to be re-elected unless she was chosen as its deputy leader.
### Controversy
While Labour distributed ballot packs to its members, the trade unions were responsible for sending out literature relating to the contest to their members, leading to concerns from each side about the content of the other's election material. After Labour included only the endorsements of parliamentarians in an information booklet sent to individual members, the Unite union wrote to Iain McNicol, the party's general secretary, to ask why details of support from organisations, such as trade unions, was omitted. Unite said that the decision unfairly favoured Murphy, and the union suggested that it and other unions would make a formal complaint, if necessary. Pat Rafferty, secretary of Unite's Scottish branch, described the incident as "a gross error of judgment". On 30 November, Sunday Herald journalist Paul Hutcheon reported that along with voting packs, Unite had also sent its members a "mock ballot paper" instructing them to vote for Findlay and Clark, while the GMB union had also included material endorsing Findlay and Clark as their preferred candidates. Hutcheon quoted an unnamed senior Labour Party source, who described the actions as "absolutely desperate stuff from Unite".
Following a Sunday Herald article in which the Labour MP Tom Watson suggested Murphy's election would be "disastrous" for the party, he and Ivan Lewis, the Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, engaged in a heated exchange on Twitter during which Lewis accused Watson of manipulating past UK Labour leadership contests and of wanting to influence the election of the party's next Scottish leader. Watson, who had resigned as a defence minister in 2006 after suggesting that Tony Blair should step down as Prime Minister, rejected claims that he had sought to manipulate previous Labour leadership contests.
On 10 December, David Robertson, the moderator-elect of the Free Church of Scotland, expressed concerns that Murphy had been subject to religious discrimination after Gary Otton, leader of the Scottish Secular Society, posted several threads on Facebook commenting on the leadership candidate's Roman Catholic faith and his support for denominational schools. The posts described Murphy as a "Catholic fanatic" and a "Pope Benedict fan". Robertson said that Murphy "should be judged on his political views and abilities, not what church he belongs to". Otton rejected claims of sectarianism, but said that the Society was concerned that Murphy's beliefs would "influence his political decisions". Murphy described the practice of religious intolerance as "stupid" and "sickening".
## Results
### Leadership
### Deputy leadership
The result of the election was announced on 13 December 2014 at Glasgow's Emirates Arena; Murphy secured an overall majority with 55.8 per cent of the vote in the first round. His closest rival was Findlay with 35.0 per cent, while Boyack was third with 9.2 per cent. Murphy also won majorities in two groups of Labour's three-tier electoral college system, securing the support of parliamentarians and individual members. Findlay was backed by the majority of party affiliates. In the first round of the deputy leadership race, Dugdale secured 62.9 per cent of the vote compared to 37.1 per cent for Clark. Dugdale was also backed by parliamentarians and individual party members, while affiliates gave their majority support to Clark. In his victory speech, Murphy said that his election marked a "fresh start" for Scottish Labour: "Scotland is changing and so too is Scottish Labour. I'm ambitious for our party because I'm ambitious for our country". He also said that he planned to defeat the SNP in 2016, and that he would use the increased powers being devolved to Holyrood to end poverty and inequality. Urging Labour voters who had backed independence to support his vision for the party, he claimed Labour had "so much more in common with [those who] voted 'Yes' in the referendum than we do with many of the political leaders who campaigned for 'No' on the 18th of September". In her speech, Dugdale said that the party's "focus has to be on the future – a Scottish Labour party that's fighting fit and fighting for our future".
## Aftermath
Murphy was congratulated on his leadership victory by Miliband, who said he would be "standing shoulder to shoulder with Jim in the campaign to get David Cameron out at the general election." Sturgeon also welcomed his election, and spoke of her hope that they could "find common ground and work together in the best interests of people in Scotland". Scottish Conservative Party leader Ruth Davidson also congratulated Murphy on his election, but claimed he would "have his hands full" when it came to getting Labour elected, and that it would "take more than a 100-town tour to persuade people in Scotland to put Ed Miliband in Downing Street."
In what a Scottish Labour spokesman described as a bid to "encourage transparency", the party took the decision to publish details of how its parliamentarians had voted during the ballot, a process that had previously been kept private. Those results showed that the parliamentarians who chose Murphy as their first candidate included Baillie, Brown, Curran, Dugdale, Gray, Kelly, Marra, and Sarwar. The MSPs Claudia Beamish, Rhoda Grant, and Lewis Macdonald were among those to vote for Boyack, while Findlay was backed by Clark, Ian Davidson, and Lamont. In the deputy leadership contest, Baillie, Boyack, Brown, Connarty, Curran, Gray, Kelly, Marra, Murphy, and Sarwar were among those to vote for Dugdale, while Clark's first preference voters included Connarty, Ian Davidson, Findlay, and Lamont. Having chosen Findlay and Boyack as first and second preferences, Lamont did not vote for a third, while Sarwar chose only first preferences in both elections. Murphy and Dugdale also chose no alternative preferences, Murphy voting for himself and Dugdale, and she doing likewise. The full results of the leadership contest were as follows:
### Party direction and shadow cabinet appointments
Speaking to BBC Radio 5 Live following his election, Murphy said that while he disagreed with the "branch office" theory, he would not be consulting London on policy: "[t]he days in which anyone needed permission from the Labour Party anywhere else in the United Kingdom to make a decision about what happens in Scotland are gone and they're gone for good." On the 14 December edition of BBC One's Sunday Politics Scotland, he repeated his pledge to seek election to the Scottish Parliament, and said that he was "determined" to retain every Westminster seat held by Labour. The following day, he announced plans to rewrite Scottish Labour's constitution to give the party greater autonomy over its affairs and bring it "closer to the centre of Scottish life." On 17 December, Murphy announced that he had been given a Holyrood security pass and would be establishing a presence in the Scottish Parliament Building.
On 16 December, Murphy announced the lineup of his Shadow Cabinet, which included posts for the two people who had stood against him in the leadership contest. Findlay was appointed to the Fair Work, Skills and Training portfolio, while Boyack became Shadow Minister for Rural Affairs, Food and Environment. Baillie was handed the post of Shadow Minister for Finance, Constitution and Economy, while Marra took on Health, Wellbeing and Sport. Other appointments to Labour's frontbench team were Mary Fee (Infrastructure, Investment and Cities), Gray (Education and Lifelong Learning), Ken Macintosh (Social Justice, Communities and Pensioners' Rights), Hugh Henry (Justice), Claire Baker (Culture, Europe and External Affairs), Kelly (Parliamentary Business Manager), Neil Bibby (Chief Whip), and Graeme Pearson (Enterprise). It was also announced that Dugdale would speak for Labour at First Minister's Questions. Lamont did not have a place in the new cabinet, but Murphy stated that she had not wanted one: "Johann and I have been in touch with one another; she has wished me well. I'm looking forward to getting together with her, but Johann wasn't looking for a job in today's reshuffle. I think Johann will be a big part of the Scottish Labour Party for years to come".
### 2015 general election and resignation of Murphy
Murphy took the party into the 2015 United Kingdom general election, which saw a majority win for the Conservatives, and Labour's worst-ever election result in Scotland. There was a landslide shift towards the SNP, which took 56 of the 59 Scottish seats at Westminster, while Labour lost 40 of the 41 Westminster seats it was defending. Notable losses included Murphy's constituency of East Renfrewshire and Brown's former constituency of Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, previously Labour's safest seat in Scotland. Other high-profile figures such as Sarwar, Clark, Curran, Ian Davidson, and Shadow Foreign Secretary Douglas Alexander also lost their seats. Following his defeat, Murphy spoke of his intention to stand for a Holyrood seat in 2016. However, the result prompted Labour figures and those in the trade union movement to question the future of his leadership. Ian Davidson suggested that it would be difficult for Murphy to remain as Scottish Labour leader without a parliamentary seat and in the wake of such a heavy defeat. Rafferty, and Kevin Lindsay of ASLEF, called for his resignation, while Findlay, and Labour's local government spokesman Alex Rowley, expressed their concerns about the party's future under Murphy's leadership and resigned from his shadow cabinet.
After narrowly surviving a vote of no confidence by 17 votes to 14 at a meeting of the party's Executive Committee in Glasgow on 16 May 2015, Murphy announced that he would step down as Leader of the Scottish Labour Party in June. Stating that he wanted to have a successor in place by the summer, he confirmed that he would no longer be standing for a seat in the Scottish Parliament. Before relinquishing the leadership role, Murphy drew up proposals for a number of party reforms, including the adoption of a one-member, one-vote ballot for future leadership contests. His resignation took effect on 13 June after his reforms had been provisionally accepted by Labour's executive committee. A timetable was also set out that would see a new leader elected on 15 August, while Gray was appointed as acting leader. Dugdale and Macintosh stood in the contest to choose Murphy's successor; Dugdale was subsequently elected as Scottish Labour's new leader with a 72% share of the vote. At the same time, Rowley became her deputy. |
50,453,365 | Kojo Aidoo | 1,149,863,862 | Former Canadian football player (born 1978) | [
"1978 births",
"Edmonton Elks players",
"Ghanaian emigrants to Canada",
"Hamilton Tiger-Cats players",
"Living people",
"McMaster Marauders football players",
"Sportspeople from Kumasi",
"Toronto Argonauts players",
"Winnipeg Blue Bombers players"
]
| Kojo Aidoo (born November 27, 1978) is a former Canadian football fullback and special teams specialist who played for the Edmonton Eskimos, Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Hamilton Tiger-Cats, and Toronto Argonauts in the Canadian Football League (CFL) from 2003 to 2007.
Originally from Ghana, Aidoo played college football for the McMaster Marauders from 1998 to 2002. Aidoo was most successful during the 2000 season, when he broke conference records for rushing yards and touchdowns. His performance earned him the Hec Crighton Trophy as the most outstanding university football player in Canada, and he was honored with numerous other accolades. After breaking his right leg while filming Brian's Song, Aidoo missed most of his final two seasons with the Marauders.
The Edmonton Eskimos selected Aidoo in the second round of the 2003 CFL Draft. He went on to play for four CFL teams, spending the most time with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats. With the Tiger-Cats, Aidoo primarily played on special teams. He also occasionally started at fullback and served as a back-up for other players in the backfield. He retired from the CFL after playing in 60 regular season games and recording 20 special team tackles.
## High school career
Aidoo was a multi-sport athlete at St. Ignatius of Loyola High School, playing Canadian football, soccer, track and field, and basketball. With the track and field team, he was twice named most valuable player, participating in events including the 110 metres hurdles, shot put, and javelin. Aidoo played on the Loyola Hawks football team from 1995 to 1997, and he ruptured his spleen during a playoff game in 1996. Despite this, Aidoo increasingly focused on football, eventually leaving the track and field team in his final year. In 1997, he played for the Oakville-Burlington Invictas of the Great Lakes Football League, a junior football league. Aidoo played a major role on the Invictas, including rushing for 165 yards and two touchdowns on only 11 carries against the Essex Ravens. Returning to his high school football team in the fall, Aidoo helped the Hawks reach the Halton final in 1997. In both of his final two years at Loyola, he was selected as the High School Athlete of the Year.
## College career
According to McMaster Head Coach Greg Marshall, Aidoo was "one of the most recruited backs in Ontario". Marshall competed with Acadia University in his attempts to recruit Aidoo to the McMaster Marauders. After visiting Acadia, Aidoo decided to attend McMaster primarily due to its proximity to his hometown. He made an immediate impact on the Marauders. In October, Aidoo rushed for three touchdowns and 129 yards on 14 carries against the Windsor Lancers. Aidoo was named the Canadian Interuniversity Sport football (CIAU) Rookie of the Year for the 1998 season after finishing the season with 69 carries for 435 yards and 20 receptions for 205 yards with 11 total touchdowns. The Marauders finished the season with a 4–4 record and advanced to the playoffs for the first time in 12 years, where they lost to the first-ranked Western Ontario Mustangs 34–32. Head Coach Marshall praised Aidoo for his rookie season, saying he was "as good as or better a running back as a freshman as I've coached".
Aidoo was less successful in his second year, finishing with only 403 rushing yards and two touchdowns. The Marauders finished the season with a 6–2 record and were nationally ranked as high as fifth before losing to the Laval Rouge et Or. In December 1999, the Bernie Faloney Scholarship Award was awarded to Aidoo for "excellence on and off the field".
Led by a strong performance from Aidoo, the Marauders had their most successful season in 2000. In the season opener against the tenth-ranked Waterloo Warriors, Aidoo was afflicted by leg cramps early in the game. Despite this, he went on to rush for 244 yards and scored two touchdowns in the final two minutes of the game to secure a Marauders win, 41–33. By the second game of the season, Aidoo had topped his previous season's rushing yardage total with 414 yards. He went on to be named the CIAU Offensive Player Of The Week for scoring three touchdowns and rushing for 209 yards in a 47–15 upset of the third-ranked Wilfrid Laurier Golden Hawks. The large victory caused the Marauders to rise to third-place in the national rankings. Aidoo had his best game of the season against the Toronto Varsity Blues, scoring five touchdowns in a 62–0 blowout. The Marauders continued to improve to a 6–0 record against the Bishop's Gaiters, where Aidoo scored twice and ran for 230 yards.
The Marauders finished their 2000 season with a record of 7–1 and emerged at the top of their division. Aidoo broke conference records for rushing yardage and touchdowns with 1,329 yards and 20 touchdowns, averaging over 150 yards and two touchdowns per game. He was also named a first-team Ontario University Athletics (OUA) all-star. In the postseason, the Marauders won the Yates Cup by defeating the Wilfrid Laurier Golden Hawks, and Aidoo was named the most valuable player for the game with 168 yards and two touchdowns. McMaster lost 20–15 against the Ottawa Gee-Gees in the Churchill Bowl. They finished the season one game away from playing in the Vanier Cup. Aidoo was named the most valuable player in the OUA conference and won the Hec Crighton Trophy as the most outstanding university football player in the nation. Additionally, he was named CIAU Male Athlete of the Year, McMaster Male Athlete of the Year, and a finalist for the 2000 Golden Horseshoe Athlete of the Year. In April 2001, Aidoo was also one of three running backs selected for the McMaster Team of the Century.
Prior to the start of the 2001 season, Aidoo broke his leg while filming Brian's Song. Although initially expected to heal in time for training camp, Aidoo's recovery was slower than expected, and he missed the first two games of the season with a broken right fibula. Aidoo returned to the Marauders in mid-September. In his first game back, Aidoo scored two touchdowns and broke the OUA conference record for career touchdowns with 35 total majors. He played a large role in a 27–15 upset of first-ranked Ottawa, scoring two of three touchdowns in the final five minutes of the game. Due to recurring issues with his healing leg, Aidoo missed multiple games in October but returned for the playoffs.
He scored twice in his first game back against the York Yeomen and found the endzone again against Western in the conference semi-finals. McMaster won the Yates Cup after defeating the Ottawa Gee-Gees 30–22, but ended their season with a loss in the Churchill Bowl for the second year in a row. Aidoo described the 26–7 loss against the Manitoba Bisons as "a horrible game, probably the worst I've ever played". Aidoo was limited to only 69 carries for 390 yards in the 2001 season, but rushed for eight touchdowns. He was limited by his leg injury throughout the season, missing games and also receiving a reduced number of carries to prevent additional injury. Despite this, Aidoo was selected as one of two Canadians to play in the East–West Shrine Game, an American football post-season game that includes the best players from around the nation. The East–West Shrine Game is widely attended by scouts from the National Football League. Aidoo participated as a fullback for the East team and caught two receptions for four yards.
Although he was eligible to declare for the CFL Draft, Aidoo chose to remain with the Marauders for the 2002 season, citing a desire to further recover from his leg injury. His season was again plagued by injury. Aidoo struggled in the season opener, rushing six times for 16 yards. Due to his recurring leg injury and a new back injury, he sat out the next five games. Aidoo returned in mid-October and played in a 72–0 blowout against the Toronto Varsity Blues, but he received only three carries. He also played on special teams. He did not appear in another game for the Marauders that season due to his leg injury.
In 2013, Aidoo was inducted into the McMaster Athletic Hall Of Fame.
## Professional career
Following the 2002 season, Aidoo's five years of college eligibility expired. He participated in a Canadian Football League (CFL) evaluation camp in March 2003, where he impressed commentators by bench pressing 250 pounds (110 kg). Aidoo was selected in the second round of the 2003 CFL Draft by the Edmonton Eskimos with the tenth overall pick. Eskimos Head Coach Tom Higgins acknowledged Aidoo's injury history but stated the Eskimos "think he can do what we need him to do as far as blocking is concerned."
### Edmonton Eskimos
The Eskimos acquired Deitan Dubuc during the offseason and intended to use him as their starting fullback, but Dubuc chose to sign with the Seattle Seahawks of the NFL. This allowed Aidoo the chance to compete for a starting position as a fullback. He also competed for a spot on the special teams as a kick returner. The Edmonton Journal noted that Aidoo looked "impressive" in training camp, but he had difficulties adapting to professional football. Aidoo earned a place on the regular season roster. He made his CFL debut on June 21, 2003, against the Montreal Alouettes. Aidoo recorded two special teams tackles in a Week 3 game against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, which was Aidoo's first professional game played in his hometown. After playing 10 regular season games for the Eskimos, Aidoo was released on August 29, 2003. Eskimos Head Coach Higgins told the press Aidoo missed several team meetings, which played a role in his departure from the team. Aidoo made six special teams tackles with the Eskimos and rushed for two yards on a single carry.
### Winnipeg Blue Bombers
Aidoo was signed by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in October 2003 after starting defensive back Tom Europe's season ended due to an ankle injury. He remained with the Blue Bombers for the rest of the season, playing in two regular season games. The Blue Bombers lost the West Semi-Final to the Saskatchewan Roughriders 37–21, marking Aidoo's first playoff game in the CFL.
### Hamilton Tiger-Cats
Prior to the 2004 season, Hamilton Tiger-Cats signed Greg Marshall as their head coach. Marshall coached Aidoo for five seasons with the McMaster Marauders, and quickly traded for the fullback. On February 12, 2004, the Tiger-Cats acquired Aidoo by trading a third-round pick in the 2004 CFL Draft to the Blue Bombers. In training camp, Aidoo competed with Julian Radlein and Ray Thomas for the starting fullback position. While Aidoo made the opening roster, he did not earn a starting position. As the season progressed, Aidoo increasingly focused on special teams. The Ottawa Citizen called him a "star" player on special teams after a 20–17 win against the Ottawa Renegades in October. In his first season with the Tiger-Cats, Aidoo recorded two special teams tackles, caught one reception for 11 yards, and rushed for another 11 yards on six carries. He played in 12 regular season games.
Aidoo was designated as the backup running back out of training camp in 2005, with the Tiger-Cats electing to keep only the trio of Troy Davis, Aidoo, and fullback Julian Radlein on the roster as running backs. In August, Aidoo briefly stepped in for Davis after the latter suffered an injured hamstring. Through the first 11 regular season games, Aidoo made two special teams tackles and rushed for 51 yards on six carries. This led The Hamilton Spectator to speculate he would be dropped from the active roster in favor of recently signed running back Jesse Lumsden. After Troy was traded to the Eskimos, this never came to pass, and Aidoo started as a fullback for the last few games of the season. The Tiger-Cats did not make the playoffs. Aidoo finished the season with five special teams tackles and 116 rushing yards from 18 carries.
Aidoo was resigned by the Tiger-Cats prior to the 2006 season. In training camp, newcomer Les Mullings competed with Aidoo to become backup running back. Head Coach Greg Marshall praised Aidoo for his performance in training camp, saying "Kojo came into camp in great shape. The best shape I've ever seen him." Aidoo was rewarded with a spot on the active roster. He played in 16 regular season games, mostly on special teams. He finished the season with a career-high seven special teams tackles in 17 games, along with a single reception and two carries.
Head coach Greg Marshall was released prior to 2007 after two disappointing seasons, and Aidoo was viewed as "expendable" according to general manager Marcel Desjardins. He was released on April 19, 2007.
### Toronto Argonauts
The Toronto Argonauts signed Aidoo to their practice squad on October 25, 2007. He later played in one regular season game for the Argonauts in the 2007 season.
### Season statistics
## Personal life
Kojo Aidoo was born to James and Janet Aidoo in Ghana, but moved to Oakville, Ontario later in life. His brother, Kwame Aidoo, was a cornerback for the McMaster Marauders and attended training camp with the Tiger-Cats in 2005.
Aidoo appeared in Second String, a fictional movie about a Buffalo Bills run to the Super Bowl, as a linebacker. He also appeared in the 2001 remake of Brian's Song. |
488,534 | HMS Superb (1907) | 1,136,832,148 | Bellerophon-class British dreadnought | [
"1907 ships",
"Bellerophon-class battleships",
"Ships built by Armstrong Whitworth",
"Ships built on the River Tyne",
"World War I battleships of the United Kingdom"
]
| HMS Superb was one of three Bellerophon-class dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century. She spent almost her whole career assigned to the Home and Grand Fleets. Aside from participating in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 and the inconclusive action of 19 August, her service during the First World War generally consisted of routine patrols and training in the North Sea.
Superb was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in October 1918 and became its flagship. She supported Allied forces in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea after the war ended in November. The ship was deemed obsolete and was reduced to reserve when she returned home in early 1919 and was then used as a training ship. Superb was used for gunnery experiments in 1920 and then became a target ship in 1922. The ship was sold for scrap late that year and broken up in 1923.
## Design and description
The design of the Bellerophon class was derived from that of the revolutionary battleship HMS Dreadnought, with a slight increase in size, armour and a more powerful secondary armament. Superb had an overall length of 526 feet (160.3 m), a beam of 82 feet 6 inches (25.1 m), and a normal draught of 27 feet (8.2 m). She displaced 18,596 long tons (18,894 t) at normal load and 22,359 long tons (22,718 t) at deep load. In 1914 her crew numbered 840 officers and ratings.
The Bellerophons were powered by two sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each driving two shafts, using steam from eighteen Yarrow boilers. The turbines were rated at 23,000 shaft horsepower (17,000 kW) and intended to give the ship a maximum speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). During Superb's sea trials on 2 April 1909, she reached a top speed of 21.56 knots (39.93 km/h; 24.81 mph) from 27,407 shp (20,437 kW). The ship carried enough coal and fuel oil to give her a range of 5,720 nautical miles (10,590 km; 6,580 mi) at a cruising speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
### Armament and armour
The Bellerophon class was equipped with ten breech-loading (BL) 12-inch (305 mm) Mk X guns in five twin-gun turrets, three along the centreline and the remaining two as wing turrets. The centreline turrets were designated 'A', 'X' and 'Y', from front to rear, and the port and starboard wing turrets were 'P' and 'Q' respectively. The secondary, or anti-torpedo boat armament, comprised 16 BL 4-inch (102 mm) Mk VII guns in single mounts. Two of these guns were each installed on the roofs of the fore and aft centreline turrets and the wing turrets in unshielded mounts, and the other eight were positioned in the superstructure. The ships were also fitted with three 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes, one on each broadside and the third in the stern.
The Bellerophon-class ships had a waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour that was 10 inches (254 mm) thick between the fore and aftmost barbettes. The three armoured decks ranged in thicknesses from 0.75 to 4 inches (19 to 102 mm). The main battery turret faces were 11 inches (279 mm) thick, and the turrets were supported by 9–10 inches (229–254 mm) thick barbettes.
#### Modifications
The guns on the forward turret roof were transferred to the superstructure in 1914 and the guns from the wing turrets were remounted in the aft superstructure in 1914–1915; all of the four-inch guns in the superstructure were enclosed to better protect their crews. In addition, a single three-inch (76 mm) anti-aircraft (AA) gun was added on the former searchlight platform between the aft turrets. Shortly afterwards, the guns on the aft turret were removed as were one pair from the superstructure. Around the same time another three-inch AA gun was added to the aft turret roof.
By May 1915, a fire-control director had been installed high on the forward tripod mast and approximately 23 long tons (23 t) of additional deck armour was added after the Battle of Jutland a year later. By April 1917, Superb had exchanged the three-inch AA gun on 'Y' turret for a four-inch gun and the stern torpedo tube had been removed. In 1918 a high-angle rangefinder was fitted, the starboard aft four-inch gun was removed and the four-inch AA gun was moved to the quarterdeck. By this time, the ship mounted 11 four-inch guns, plus one three- and one four-inch AA gun. After the war ended, both AA guns were removed.
## Construction and career
Superb was the eighth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy. The ship was ordered on 26 December 1906 and was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at their shipyard in Elswick on 6 February 1907. She was launched on 7 November and completed in May 1909. Including her armament, her cost is variously quoted at £1,676,529 or £1,641,114. Superb was commissioned on 29 May 1909 and assigned to the 1st Division of the Home Fleet, under the command of Captain Frederick Tudor. She was reviewed by King Edward VII and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia during Cowes Week on 31 July. The ship participated in fleet manoeuvres in April and July before beginning a refit in late 1910 at Portsmouth. Captain Herbert Heath relieved Tudor on 16 August. Superb took part in the combined exercises for the Mediterranean, Home and Atlantic Fleets in January 1911 and was present during the Coronation Fleet Review for King George V at Spithead on 24 June. Heath was relieved by Captain Ernest Gaunt on 22 September. On 1 May 1912, the 1st Division was renamed the 1st Battle Squadron (BS). The ship was present in the Parliamentary Naval Review on 9 July at Spithead and then participated in manoeuvres in October. On 30 April 1913 Captain George Hope assumed command. The following July, the squadron visited Cherbourg, France.
### First World War
Superb took part in a test mobilisation and fleet review between 17 and 20 July 1914 as part of the British response to the July Crisis. Arriving in Portland on 27 July, she was ordered to proceed with the rest of the Home Fleet to Scapa Flow two days later to safeguard the fleet from a possible German surprise attack. Captain Price Lewes relived Hope on 28 July. In August, following the outbreak of World War I, the Home Fleet was reorganised as the Grand Fleet, and placed under the command of Admiral John Jellicoe. Most of it was briefly based (22 October to 3 November) at Lough Swilly, Ireland, while the defences at Scapa were strengthened. Lewes was relieved on 4 November for reasons of ill-health and died five days later from a kidney disease. Captain Rudolf Bentinck assumed command of the ship on the 6th. On the evening of 22 November, the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea, during which Superb stood with the main body in support of Vice-Admiral David Beatty's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron. The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November. The 1st BS cruised north-west of the Shetland Islands and conducted gunnery practice on 8–12 December. Four days later, the Grand Fleet sortied during the German raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, but failed to make contact with the High Seas Fleet. Superb and the rest of the Grand Fleet conducted another sweep of the North Sea on 25–27 December.
The ship departed Scapa Flow to have her turbines repaired at Portsmouth on 18 January 1915 and rejoined her squadron on 11 March. During this time, Captain Edmond Hyde Parker relieved Bentinck. On 7–10 March, the Grand Fleet made a sweep in the northern North Sea, during which it conducted training manoeuvres. Another such cruise took place on 16–19 March. On 11 April, the fleet patrolled the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April; another patrol in the area took place on 17–19 April, followed by gunnery drills off Shetland on 20–21 April. It made further sweeps into the central North Sea on 17–19 May and 29–31 May without encountering any German vessels. Superb had to be escorted from Devonport on 16 June after the completion of her refit. The Grand Fleet conducted training off Shetland beginning on 11 July. On 2–5 September, the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills. Throughout the rest of the month, the fleet was performing numerous training exercises before making another sweep into the North Sea on 13–15 October. Almost three weeks later, Superb participated in another fleet training operation west of Orkney during 2–5 November. Five days later, the ship was transferred to the 4th Battle Squadron.
The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February 1916; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force of cruisers and destroyers to sweep the Heligoland Bight, but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea. As a result, the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea. Another sweep began on 6 March, but had to be abandoned the following day as the weather grew too severe for the escorting destroyers. On the night of 25 March, Superb and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow to support Beatty's battlecruisers and other light forces raiding the German Zeppelin base at Tondern. By the time the Grand Fleet approached the area on 26 March, the British and German forces had already disengaged and a strong gale threatened the light craft, so the fleet was ordered to return to base. On 21 April, the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans while the Imperial Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea. The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft, but only arrived in the area after the Germans had withdrawn. On 2–4 May, the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea. When the dreadnought Emperor of India began a refit later that month, she was relieved by Superb as the flagship of the 3rd Division of the 4th BS, commanded by Rear-Admiral Alexander Duff.
#### Battle of Jutland
In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, the High Seas Fleet, composed of 16 dreadnoughts, 6 pre-dreadnoughts, and supporting ships, departed the Jade Bight early on the morning of 31 May. The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper's 5 battlecruisers. The Royal Navy's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation. In response the Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet, totalling some 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers, to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet.
On 31 May Superb was the eleventh ship from the head of the battle line after deployment. During the first stage of the general engagement, the ship opened fire with her main guns at 18:26 at the crippled light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden, claiming several hits. At 19:17, the ship fired seven salvos at the battlecruiser SMS Derfflinger, but did not make any hits. This was the last time that the ship fired her guns during the battle. She received no damage and fired a total of 54 twelve-inch shells (38 high explosive and 16 common pointed, capped) during the battle.
#### Subsequent activity
The Grand Fleet sortied on 18 August to ambush the High Seas Fleet while it advanced into the southern North Sea, but a series of miscommunications and mistakes prevented Jellicoe from intercepting the German fleet before it returned to port. Two light cruisers were sunk by German U-boats during the operation, prompting Jellicoe to decide to not risk the major units of the fleet south of 55° 30' North due to the prevalence of German submarines and mines. The Admiralty concurred and stipulated that the Grand Fleet would not sortie unless the German fleet was attempting an invasion of Britain or there was a strong possibility it could be forced into an engagement under suitable conditions. Superb was refitting at this time and did not participate in this action. On 2 January 1918, Hyde Parker was relieved by Captain Sidney Drury-Lowe before he was transferred to command the battleship Monarch on 3 April. The ship began a refit that same month before recommissioning in June. Captain Stephen Radcliffe assumed command of the ship on 22 June and remained in command until 15 December 1919.
In October 1918, Superb and her sister ship, Temeraire, were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet and Superb became the flagship of its commander, Vice-Admiral Sir Somerset Gough-Calthorpe, upon her arrival at Mudros on 31 October. The ship led an Allied squadron that entered the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, on 13 November, following the Armistice of Mudros. A month later, Gough-Calthorpe tasked Superb to provide a crew for the Russian destroyer Derzky, which had been turned over to the Allies by the Germans after the Armistice of 11 November. On 4 December, the ship conveyed Gough-Calthorpe to Odessa, Russia, to inspect the situation there; he made another such visit to Port Said, Egypt, in late March 1919.
The following month, she was relieved and sailed for England, and was reduced to reserve at Sheerness upon her arrival on 26 April as she was thoroughly obsolete in comparison to the latest dreadnoughts. Superb became a gunnery training ship in September, until she was relieved of that duty in December. The ship was listed for disposal on 26 March 1920 at the Nore and was used for gunnery experiments in December. Beginning in May 1922, she was used as a target ship for the next several months. In December, she was sold to Stanlee Shipbreaking Company, but was not towed to Dover for demolition until 7 April 1923. |
49,648,598 | Hvila vid denna källa | 1,147,614,890 | Song by the 18th century Swedish bard Carl Michael Bellman | [
"1790 compositions",
"Fredmans epistlar",
"Swedish songs"
]
| Hvila vid denna källa (in modern Swedish "Vila ...", Rest by this spring) is a song by the Swedish poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman from his 1790 collection, Fredman's Epistles, where it is No. 82, the final Epistle. It is subtitled "Eller Oförmodade avsked, förkunnat vid Ulla Winblads frukost en sommarmorgon i det gröna. Pastoral dedicerad till Kgl. Sekreteraren Leopoldt" ("Or unexpected parting, proclaimed at Ulla Winblad's breakfast one summer morning in the countryside. Pastoral dedicated to the Royal Secretary Leopoldt"). It depicts the Rococo muse Ulla Winblad, as the narrator offers a "little breakfast" of "red wine with burnet, and a newly-shot snipe" in a pastoral setting in the Stockholm countryside.
The popular song, described as one of Sweden's best-loved, has been used in at least 16 Swedish films. Its melody appears to be one of the few, possibly the only one, composed by Bellman. In the song's last stanza, the dying Bellman, in words attributed to the dying Fredman, says farewell.
## Context
## Song
### Melody and verse form
The song is in time, marked Andante. It has six verses, each consisting of 14 lines, the end of the last line being repeated after a Corno interlude. The verses have the rhyming pattern AAAB-CCCB-BABABB. The origin of the melody is disputed, and it may well have been one of the very few of Fredman's Epistles (perhaps the only one) composed by Bellman himself, apparently in 1790, making it one of the last to be written. Afzelius noted that the melody resembles that of Epistle 25, "Blåsen nu alla"; this would involve a change from to time, which Bellman is known to have been skilful at. Hildebrand argued that the melody was Bellman's; Olof Åhlström wrote that it must have been borrowed from an unknown source. Bellman set two other songs, "Skåden den lugna stranden" (See the calm shore) and "Hjertat det kännes klappa" (The heart is felt beating) to the same melody.
### Lyrics
## Reception and legacy
Carina Burman writes in her biography of Bellman that Fredman does finally say goodbye in this, the last Epistle, as the subtitle ("An unexpected departure...") makes clear, as does the final stanza:
> Äntlig i detta gröna, Får du mitt sista afsked röna; Ulla! farväl min Sköna, Vid alla Instrumenters ljud. Finally in this greenery, you'll hear my last farewell; Ulla! adieu my lovely, to the sound of all the instruments.
Indeed, Burman notes, the Epistle represents Bellman's dying words as well as Fredman's, and perhaps Ulla Winblad's too; at least, she certainly dies in one sense, and perhaps in the other as well; Bellman knew that he was writing his last Epistles. All the same, Burman remarks, the song is a bright counterpart to the farewell of Epistle 79, with Ulla's beauty, green grass and music instead of apocalypse. The Epistle's pastoral tone and descriptions of food are to an extent anticipated, writes Burman, in Bellman's longest poem, Bacchi Tempel, which mentions exotic imports such as melon and Parmesan.
Lars Lönnroth, writing in Svenska Dagbladet, suggests that the "spring" in the Epistle was in fact not a stream in summer meadows but a fashionable spa, perhaps Djurgårsbrunn on what was in Bellman's time the edge of Stockholm.
Henrik Mickos, in the 2011 Bellman lecture, discussed what the "pimpinella" of the first verse might be, concluding that salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor) was quite likely, given it was known at the time as pimpinella, and was more common in Sweden then than in the 21st century. Mickos dismisses the possibility that it was aniseed (Pimpinella anisum), which was used to flavour brännvin but not as the song has it ("red wine and pimpinella") a wine-based punch.
Epistle 82 has appeared in at least 16 Swedish films from 1929 onwards. It is included in the 1894 Danish High School Songbook. It has been described as one of Sweden's best-loved songs. It has been recorded by Fred Åkerström, as the title track of his third album of Bellman interpretations in 1977. An earlier performance by the noted Bellman interpreter Sven-Bertil Taube on his Fredmans Epistlar och Sånger, recorded 1959–1963, was re-released on an EMI-Svenska CD in 1983. The Epistle has been translated into English by Eva Toller. |
13,023,500 | Sully Historic Site | 1,158,187,864 | Historic house in Virginia, United States | [
"Historic house museums in Virginia",
"Houses completed in 1799",
"Houses in Fairfax County, Virginia",
"Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia",
"Lee family residences",
"Museums in Fairfax County, Virginia",
"National Register of Historic Places in Fairfax County, Virginia",
"Plantations in Virginia"
]
| Sully Historic Site, is both a Virginia landmark and nationally registered historic place in Chantilly, Virginia.
The earliest recorded claim to the land was made by the Doeg. Later the Lee family of Virginia owned the land from 1725 to 1839. Richard Bland Lee did not build the main house until 1794. Following the purchase by William Swartwort in 1838, Sully was used as a home, a working farm, or both by a series of private owners. Then in 1958, Sully was acquired by the federal government as a part of the area to be used for the construction of Dulles Airport. Today the Fairfax County Park Authority operates the site with a specific focus on the Lee family.
## History
### Pre-Lee period
The land that would become part of Sully was likely controlled by several groups before the Doeg claimed the area. English settlers encountered Algonquian language speaking members of the Doeg in modern-day Northern Virginia. The Doeg are most well known for their raid in July 1675 that became a part of Bacon's Rebellion. English colonists settling in modern Northern Virginia came into conflict with the Doeg from 1661 to 1664. When diplomatic attempts failed, the governor sent the Rappahannock County militia in June 1666. The specifics of that military action are unclear, but later land grants to English settlers are not disputed, suggesting the English gained control of the area. The English presumptively took control after a violent conflict with the Doeg in 1666. Little is recorded about the disposition of this land from the time when the English gained control of it until the land is patented by the Lee family of Virginia.
### Lee period
Originally acquired in 1725 by Richard Bland Lee's grandfather, Henry Lee I, Sully was inherited by Richard's father Henry Lee II of "Leesylvania". At his death in 1787, the land was divided between Richard and his younger brother Theodorick Lee. Being the older of the two, Richard was given the more alluvial northern half, having resided there as manager of the property since approximately 1781. During this period the predominant crop grown was tobacco.
#### Richard Bland Lee
Richard severely curtailed tobacco production in favor of more sustainable crops, including wheat, corn, rye, and barley. This reduced the soil depletion inherent to tobacco production, and allowed for the practice of crop rotation. He also planted fruit orchards, including peach and apple trees, which he used to produce spirits. In 1801 Richard constructed a dairy, which ran primarily under the supervision of his wife Elizabeth Collins Lee.
After his election to the United States Congress in 1789, and for most of the next five years, Richard turned day-to-day management of his estate over to his brother Theodorick, who supervised spring planting and fall harvest. Theodorick also managed the collection of rent from tenant farmers and the construction of the large house Richard had planned for the estate, on which construction had begun in 1794. Before he left for Congress in 1789, Richard had chosen the name "Sully" for his estate.
By 1811, having been drawn into heavy debt trying to aid his brothers, Henry Lee III and Charles Lee, extricate themselves from severe financial difficulties, Richard Bland Lee decided he could no longer sustain ownership of Sully. Accordingly, he decided to sell the plantation to raise cash to pay some of the debt. He sold Sully for \$18,000 to his second cousin, Francis Lightfoot Lee II, son of Richard Henry Lee.
#### Francis Lightfoot Lee II
For several years after his purchase of Sully, Francis Lightfoot Lee II, called F. L. by his family, was able to realize an annual profit of \$1,500 to \$2,500. At least part of that success was due to the "judicious system of husbandry" employed by F. L.'s wife Jane Fitzgerald Lee. Then in 1816, due to complications during the delivery of their fifth child Frances Ann Lee, Jane Fitzgerald Lee died. Four years later in 1820, F. L. had either a nervous breakdown or stroke. Unable to care for himself, he was committed to the Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia in 1825.
Following the breakdown, Sully was placed under the administrative care of F. L.'s nephew Richard Henry Lee II. Richard Henry Lee II's management was marked by negligence and apparent apathy towards the dishonesty of managers who were embezzling money from the estate:
> ... mismanagement, having allowed an estate clear of debt, well stocked, well arranged under a good system as it had been for years' according to 'the universal belief and opinion of all friends, connections and neighbors' to be 'wasted and the debts lost.' ... Colonel W.C.B. Butler replaced Richard Henry Lee as the 'Committee' for the Estate on January 1, 1827, but Butler also proved unsatisfactory. On June 23, 1830 the county court ordered his removal and, 'for the safekeeping and good management' of the estate ...
Control of Sully was next placed in the hands of Colonel George Washington Hunter in 1830. Gamble claims, "in no hands ... would Sully fare as well as when it had been assiduously maintained by a single, devoted, industrious proprietor."
After their father's move to the Pennsylvania Hospital during the summer of 1825, F. L.'s children (with the exception of Samuel Philips Lee who had entered the Navy), were under the care of William Brent, Jr. and Winifred Brent. The Brents were relatives who had moved to Sully to care for the Lee children and to start at Sully, a "select seminary" for boys and girls.
During subsequent years, as the Lee children grew older they began to leave Sully. Samuel Phillps Lee had entered the Navy, and John Lee went to West Point. Arthur Lee moved west to the Ohio country, while his oldest daughter Jane Elizabeth Lee married Henry Tazewell Harrison in a sunrise ceremony at Sully on February 6, 1834. With his brothers-in-law absent from the estate, Harrison took over representing their interests with the appointed administrator, Colonel Hunter, whom he replaced on July 18, 1836. Finally, in 1838, after a bizarre period, in which the estate had ostensibly been sold to a buyer who was arrested in England prior to completing the purchase, Sully was sold to merchant William Swartwort.
### Post-Lee period
Starting in 1838 Sully was used as a home, working farm, or both by Swartwort, then Haight, Haight, Barlow, Shear, Shear, Miller, Poston, Thurston, then Nolting. The federal government acquired the property in 1958 to construct Dulles Airport. A campaign to save the site began almost immediately afterwards. Those involved included previous owners of the property, Lee descendants, and a neighbor, Eddie Wagstaff, who later endowed the Sully Foundation that still provides support for the site. This campaign ended in 1959 when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed legislation making Sully a national historic site.
The Fairfax County Park Authority agreed to operate the site as a county historical park, and has since acquired an additional 60 acres (240,000 m<sup>2</sup>; 2,600,000 sq ft; 24 ha) to bring the total size of Sully Historic Site to approximately 120 acres (490,000 m<sup>2</sup>; 5,200,000 sq ft; 49 ha). The site's historic period of significance encompasses the ownership of Richard Bland Lee and Francis Lighfoot Lee (1787–1838). Interpretation at the site reflects the ownership of its founder Richard Bland Lee, which explains the park authority decision to have Sully "completely furnished with antiquities from the Federal period."
### Chain of ownership
### HABS Drawings
1960 Historic American Buildings Survey Drawings
## Outbuildings
### Kitchen / Laundry
The kitchen / laundry building is divided in two by a large double fireplace. One fireplace faces the kitchen on the side nearest the main house, the other fireplace faces the laundry. Both fireplaces are served by the large chimney that comes through the center of the roof.
The kitchen building was built at the same time as the main house.
1960 Historic American Buildings Survey drawings of the Kitchen
### Stone Dairy
Built by Richard Bland Lee around 1801 - 1802. The thick stone walls would have helped keep milk cool.
This building is notable for the unusual "galleted" or "garneted" masonry. The small stones pressed into the mortar joints is seldom seen in North America.
1960 Historic American Buildings Survey drawings of the Dairy, identified as a "Patent House".
### Schoolhouse
This log schoolhouse was originally from Antioch Farm, in Haymarket, Virginia. It was moved to Sully Historic Site in 1963, for preservation.
### Slave Cabin
This replica of an enslaved worker's cabin was built in 2001. Location and construction details were based on historical records and archeological data. |
54,311,888 | SMS Blitz (1862) | 1,151,189,263 | Gunboat of the Prussian and German Imperial Navy | [
"1862 ships",
"Camäleon-class gunboats",
"Ships built in Danzig"
]
| SMS Blitz was a Camäleon-class gunboat of the Prussian Navy (later the Imperial German Navy) that was launched in 1862. A small vessel, armed with only three light guns, Blitz served during all three wars of German unification in the 1860s and early 1870s. The ship was present during the Battle of Heligoland in May 1864 during the Second Schleswig War, but was too slow to engage the Danish squadron. During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, she operated against the Kingdom of Hanover in the North Sea, but did not see extensive action. In August 1870, Blitz and three other light vessels attacked the French blockade force in the Baltic Sea during the Franco-Prussian War, but they withdrew without either side scoring any hits. During her peacetime career, Blitz was sent to the Mediterranean Sea twice, in 1863 and 1867–1868. She was employed as a fisheries protection ship, a guard ship, and a survey vessel in the early 1870s, before being decommissioned in 1875 and broken up for scrap in 1878. Parts of her machinery were reused in the gunboat Wolf.
## Design
The Camäleon-class gunboats came about as a result of a program to strengthen the Prussian Navy in the late 1850s in the aftermath of the dissolution of the Reichsflotte and in the midst of rising tensions with Denmark. In 1859, Prince Regent Wilhelm approved a construction program for some fifty-two gunboats to be built over the next fifteen years, of which eight became the Camäleon class. They were similar to the contemporaneous Jäger-class gunboats, but were substantially larger vessels.
Blitz was 43.28 meters (142 ft) long, with a beam of 6.96 m (22 ft 10 in) and a draft of 2.67 m (8 ft 9 in). She displaced 422 metric tons (415 long tons) at full load. The ship's crew consisted of 4 officers and 67 enlisted men. She was powered by a pair of marine steam engine that each drove one 3-bladed screw propeller, with steam provided by two coal-fired trunk boilers, which gave her a top speed of 9.3 knots (17.2 km/h; 10.7 mph) at 320 metric horsepower (320 ihp). As built, she was equipped with a three-masted schooner rig. The ship was armed with a battery of one rifled 15 cm (5.9 in) 24-pounder gun and two rifled 12 cm (4.7 in) 12-pounder guns, all three of which were muzzleloaders.
## Service history
Blitz was laid down at the Königliche Werft (Royal Dockyard) in Danzig on 26 July 1861; her name was already assigned on 23 May, two months before work began. She was launched on 27 August 1862. On 22 May 1863, Blitz was ordered to deploy to the Mediterranean Sea along with her sister ship Basilisk and the aviso Preussischer Adler. Blitz began sea trials five days later, and on 13 June the gunboat was formally commissioned into service for her tour abroad. On 18 August, the three vessels departed Prussia, bound for Greek waters. Blitz's first commander was then Leutnant zur See (Lieutenant at Sea) Archibald MacLean. Upon arrival, the three ships protected German nationals in Greece, which was experiencing a period of civil unrest. Later that year, the vessels entered the Black Sea; under the terms of the Treaty of Paris that had ended the Crimean War in 1856, Prussia was permitted to station warships in Sulina at the mouth of the Danube to enforce the peace. Basilisk and Blitz had their 15 cm gun removed during the trip to prevent damage in heavy weather. On 18 August 1863, the vessels left the Black Sea and returned to Piraeus, Greece, arriving on 9 October. There, on 3 December, they received the order to return to Prussia, as conflict with Denmark over the latter's November Constitution, which integrated the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg with Denmark, a violation of the London Protocol that had ended the First Schleswig War.
### Second Schleswig War
The crisis between Denmark and the German Confederation erupted in the Second Schleswig War, which began on 1 February 1864, after the Prussian and Austrian Empires delivered an ultimatum to Denmark to cede the disputed duchies to Austro-Prussian control. At the time, the Danish fleet was far superior to the Prussian naval forces initially available, which allowed the Danes to blockade the German coast. To assist the Prussians, the Austrian Navy sent Kommodore (Commodore) Wilhelm von Tegetthoff with the screw frigates Schwarzenberg and Radetzky to break the Danish blockade. The Austrian and Prussian squadrons rendezvoused in Texel, the Netherlands, and Blitz and the other Prussian vessels came under Tegetthoff's command. On 4 May, the combined squadron arrived in Cuxhaven, then an enclave of the free city of Hamburg, at the mouth of the Elbe river.
On the morning of 9 May, Tegetthoff learned that a Danish squadron consisting of the steam frigates Niels Juel and Jylland and the corvette Hejmdal were patrolling off the island of Heligoland. Tegetthoff took the five ships under his command out to attack the Danish vessels, resulting in the Battle of Heligoland. Blitz and the other Prussian ships were too slow to keep pace with Schwarzenberg and Radetzky. After Schwarzenberg caught fire, Tegetthoff broke off the action and escaped to the neutral waters around Heligoland, where the ships remained until early the next day. During the period off Heligoland, the Prussian vessels sent their doctors to the Austrian frigates to help tend to their wounded. The next morning, the ships returned to Cuxhaven. Though the Danish squadron had won a tactical victory at Heligoland, the arrival of Austrian warships in the North Sea forced the Danes to withdraw their blockade.
In June, a second Austrian squadron arrived, which included the ship of the line Kaiser and the armored frigate Don Juan d'Austria; the now outnumbered Danish fleet remained in port for the rest of the war and did not seek battle with the Austro-Prussian squadron. For the next month, Blitz and the rest of the Austro-Prussian squadron patrolled the North Sea, taking Danish prizes. On 19 July, Blitz, Basilisk, and three Austrian gunboats supported landing operations conducted with two companies from the Austrian Kaiserjäger-Regiment in the North Frisian Islands. The operations were covered by the heavy units of the Austrian fleet, including Kaiser Don Juan d'Austria, and the corvette Erzherzog Friedrich, though the Danish fleet did not venture out to oppose the landing. The Danes could muster only a small force of light craft, including two small armored steamers, and several cutters and dinghies.
With the war all but over by August, the Austrian and Prussian warships were visited on 20 August by the commanders of the Prussian and Austrian armies that had conquered Denmark, Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia and Field Marshal Ludwig von Gablenz, respectively. Prince Adalbert visited the ships on 31 August. On 28 November, Blitz, Basilisk, and the corvette Augusta passed through the Kattegat and into the Baltic, arriving in Stralsund, where they were decommissioned on 10 December.
### Later career
In 1865, the boat's 24-pounder was replaced with a rifled 21 cm (8.3 in) 68-pounder gun. At the start of the Austro-Prussian War in June 1866, Blitz was mobilized for wartime service, though her reactivation was delayed by shortages of engine and boiler room personnel. She was initially stationed in the Baltic, but in early July was transferred to the North Sea. There, she joined a unit commanded by then-Korvettenkapitän (KK—Corvette Captain) Reinhold von Werner from his flagship, the ironclad turret ship Arminius. For the duration of the conflict, the flotilla operated out of Geestemünde. Without a naval threat from Austria, the Prussian navy therefore concentrated its effort against the Kingdom of Hanover. After the Hanoverian coastal fortresses were occupied, Blitz returned to Geestemünde on 25 September.
With the war over, Blitz was deployed to the Mediterranean a second time, now to represent the interests of the newly formed North German Confederation. She arrived in Constantinople on 12 January 1867. On 3 March, the boat was sent from Smyrna to the island of Mytilene to bring supplies to the population in the aftermath of a severe earthquake. She was joined in this endeavor by the North German steam frigate Gazelle. Blitz made a second trip to Mytilene on 16 March; on the return legs of both voyages, she evacuated refugees to mainland Anatolia. In September 1867, Blitz was sent to the island of Crete, then in the midst of the Cretan Revolt; between two trips that month, she carried more than 500 women and children first to the island of Milos and then to Piraeus. She was thereafter joined by the corvette Medusa, the two vessels remaining in Cretan waters until the end of November. Blitz returned to Smyrna, but was sent to Chios on 4 December along with the frigate Hertha to assist the French corvette Roland, which had run aground on the island. The Germans helped to lighten Roland until she could be pulled free; for their efforts, the French government awarded the Legion of Honor to Blitz's commander.
After assisting Roland, Blitz returned to Smyrna, before being sent to the Aegean Sea to represent German interests there. On 22 April 1868, she steamed to the Black Sea for another stint at Sulina. She proceeded up the Danube to Galați, and there, on 2 May, she received the order to return to Germany. Blitz arrived in Stralsund on 3 July, where she was withdrawn from active duty. She underwent an extensive overhaul at the Königliche Werft in Danzig in 1869. Shortly after the start of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870, the gunboat was recommissioned on the 24th of the month. She was assigned to a gunboat flotilla commanded by KK Franz von Waldersee, along with the aviso Grille and the gunboats Salamander and Drache. On 12 August, Waldersee took his four vessels to Rügen, where they briefly engaged blockading French vessels before returning to port. On 10 September, the unit was disbanded, and Blitz was sent first to Kiel and then in October to Wilhelmshaven to strengthen the defenses of the Jade Bay. She remained there until the end of January 1871, when she and Drache steamed to Tönning; there, they towed several cannon-armed shallops back to Wilhelmshaven.
Following the end of the war in May, Blitz was stationed as a guard ship in the Elbe, primarily in Glückstadt, where a large number of French prisoners of war were being transferred back to France. In July, Blitz became a fishery protection ship; though the duty was generally uneventful, in one case she had to fire a warning shot toward a British fishing vessel to force the crew to recognize German sovereignty. In late July, Blitz steamed to the island of Sylt, where Kronprinz (Crown Prince) Frederick, his wife Kronprinzessin (Crown Princess) Victoria, and their two sons, Wilhelm and Heinrich came aboard for a fishing trip. From 7 October 1871 to June 1872, Blitz was stationed as a guard ship in Altona, and on 26 June she began another stint as a fishery protection ship. While Blitz was patrolling in the northern North Sea on 29 June, one of her masts broke, forcing her to put into Aberdeen, Scotland for repairs. The crew's unfamiliarity with tidal conditions in Aberdeen nearly caused the boat to run aground. On 5 July, Blitz was ready to depart for the Shetland Islands, and she arrived in Lerwick three days later. On 9 July, she began the journey back to Germany, arriving in Wihelmshaven on the 20th.
Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven, she entered the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) for an overhaul that lasted until 30 July. She thereafter went to Cuxhaven, where she temporarily hosted Prince Friedrich Karl. On 29 September, she once again became a guard ship in Altona, though only briefly, before returning to Wilhelmshaven, where she was decommissioned. On 16 April 1873, Blitz was reactivated for survey work with the aviso Pommerania. She was equipped for this service in Kiel on 2 May, and on 16 May began surveying the coast of Mecklenburg. By the end of October, she returned to Wilhelmshaven, where she was again decommissioned on 12 November. She returned to active service one last time in 1874, again for survey work, this time the coast of Holstein. This work lasted until October, when she was decommissioned for the last time. Blitz was stricken from the naval register on 28 December 1876 and converted into a coal storage hulk, though she served in this capacity for less than two years before being broken up for scrap in 1878, at the now-Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Danzig. Some parts of her machinery were reused in the gunboat Wolf. |
38,003,829 | Identitet | 1,171,477,543 | 2013 song by Adrian Lulgjuraj and Bledar Sejko | [
"2013 singles",
"2013 songs",
"Albanian-language songs",
"Eurovision songs of 2013",
"Eurovision songs of Albania",
"Hard rock songs",
"Songs involved in plagiarism controversies"
]
| "Identitet" (; transl. Identity) is a song by Albanian singers Adrian Lulgjuraj and Bledar Sejko. It was first released on 12 March 2013 as a music video release which were uploaded on the official YouTube channel of the Eurovision Song Contest, and then, it were therefore released as a single as part of a CD compilation on 29 April 2013 by Universal Music. The Albanian-language folk-inspired heavy rock song was composed by the latter singer and written by Eda Sejko.
The song represented Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö, Sweden, after winning the country's pre-selection competition Festivali i Këngës. It failed to qualify for the grand final in fifteenth place marking the country's fourth non-qualification in the contest. During their rock and roll-themed show, the duo was accompanied by four instrumentalists and a variety of flashing red and orange colours displayed on the LED screens in the background.
## Background and composition
In 2012, Adrian Lulgjuraj and Bledar Sejko were among the contestants selected to compete in the 51st edition of Festivali i Këngës, a competition to determine Albania's participant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2013. As part of the competition's rules, the lyrics of the participating entries had to be in the Albanian language. They took part with "Identitet" written by Eda Sejko and composed by Bledar Sejko himself. For the purpose of their Eurovision Song Contest participation, the song was remastered and shortened at the Kingside Studios in Gnesta, Sweden.
Musically, "Identitet" is an Albanian-language folk-inspired heavy rock song, which lyrically discusses about the concepts of freedom, cohesion, brotherhood and identity. In an interview, Sejko stated that the song is inspired by Albanian folk music from the cultural regions of Tropojë and Çamëria. The rhythm of the tupan is borrowed from that of southern Albania, whereas the guitar work is borrowed from the sounds of northern Albania's çifteli. Meanwhile, the traditional southern Albanian iso-polyphony is remembered through the use of violins, whereas the northern Albanian call "hey" is also present in the chorus.
## Reception and plagiarism accusation
After winning Festivali i Këngës, the song received mixed reviews from music critics. In a Wiwibloggs review containing several reviews from individual critics, it was given a score of 2.86 out of 10 points. The reviewers negatively noted that the song was "old-fashioned" and anticipated it cannot qualify for the grand final of the Eurovision Song Contest. Although, various reviewers expressed praise towards the song's instrumental and folklore-inspired sound. "Identitet" was accused of plagiarising the Bajaga's "Plavi safir" from 1988 by different medias and websites throughout the Balkans. Although, music experts have reported that both "Identitet" and "Plavi Safir" are influenced by Balkan folk music, which is similar in many countries in the region. According to Bledar Sejko, the starting notes of "Plavi safir" are a plagiarism from those of "Kur bie fyelli e çiftelia" by Albanian singer and songwriter Vaçe Zela from the middle of the 20th century.
## Promotion and release
For promotional purposes, the singers made various appearances to perform the song on different occasions, including in Amsterdam's Eurovision in Concert. The song were first released on 12 March 2013, when it were premiered as a music video release on the official YouTube channel of the Eurovision Song Contest. The song was therefore than initially issued as a single on 29 April 2013 as part of the Eurovision Song Contest: Malmö 2013 compilation album on CD through CMC Records and Universal Music. On 14 February 2018, it was released as a standalone download through Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH).
## At Eurovision
### Festivali i Këngës
The national broadcaster of Albania, Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH), organised the 51st edition of Festivali i Këngës to determine the country's participant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö, Sweden. It opened a submission period for artists and composers to submit their entries between 8 and 9 October 2012 to the competition. Following the grand final, Adrian Lulgjuraj & Bledar Sejko were chosen to represent the country in the contest after the votes of an expert jury were combined, resulting in 74 total points.
### Malmö
The 58th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest took place in Malmö, Sweden, and consisted of two semi-finals held on 14 and 16 May, and the grand final on 18 May 2013. According to the Eurovision rules, each participating country, except the host country and the "Big Five", consisting of , , , and the , were required to qualify from one of the two semi-finals to compete for the grand final, although, the top ten countries from the respective semi-final progress to the grand final. On 17 January 2013, it was announced that "Identitet" would be performed in the second half of the second semi-final of the contest. During the live show, Albania performed fourteenth, following and preceding , and failed to qualify for the grand final in fifteenth place with 31 points, ranking twelfth by the jury's 11.78 points and fifteenth by the televote of 9.10 points.
Adrian Lulgjuraj and Bledar Sejko were accompanied by a drummer, bass guitarist, percussionist and keyboard player during their rock and roll-themed performance. Behind the singers, the LED screen displays flashing red, orange and white lights, while pyrotechnics and fog were also used throughout the performance.
## Track listing
- Digital download
1. "Identitet (Festivali i Këngës)" – 4:02
## Release history |
26,859,272 | 2010 Crown Royal Presents the Heath Calhoun 400 | 1,106,347,654 | null | [
"2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series",
"2010 in sports in Virginia",
"May 2010 sports events in the United States",
"NASCAR races at Richmond Raceway"
]
| The 2010 Crown Royal Presents the Heath Calhoun 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race held on May 1, 2010 at Richmond International Raceway in Richmond, Virginia. Contested over 400 laps, it was the tenth race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season. The race was won by Kyle Busch for the Joe Gibbs Racing team. Jeff Gordon finished second, and Kevin Harvick, who started seventh, clinched third.
Pole position driver Kyle Busch maintained the lead after the start of the race. Kyle Busch would eventually lead to the race high of 226 laps. Afterward, Gordon became the leader during the final laps. He remained the leader until Kyle Busch passed him with four laps remaining. Kyle Busch crossed the finish line first to clinch his first win of the season, and his third at Richmond International Raceway.
There were six caution flags and twelve lead changes among eight different drivers throughout the course of the race. The result moved Kyle Busch up two spots to third in the Drivers' Championship, 109 points behind of leader Kevin Harvick and ten ahead of Matt Kenseth. Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, eighteen points ahead of Toyota and thirty ahead of Ford, with twenty-six races remaining in the season.
## Race report
### Background
Richmond International Raceway is one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races, the others being Bristol Motor Speedway, Dover International Speedway, Martinsville Speedway, and Phoenix International Raceway. The NASCAR race makes use of the track's standard configuration, a four-turn short track oval that is 0.75 miles (1.21 km) long. The track's turns are banked at fourteen degrees. The front stretch, the location of the finish line, is banked at eight degrees while the back stretch has two degrees of banking. The racetrack has seats for 97,912 spectators.
Before the race, Jimmie Johnson led the Drivers' Championship with 1,323 points, while Kevin Harvick stood in second with 1,297 points. Greg Biffle was third in the Drivers' Championship with 1,237 points, Matt Kenseth was fourth with 1,224 points, and Kyle Busch was in fifth with 1,163 points. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet was leading with seventy points, twenty-one points ahead of their rival Toyota. Ford, with forty-two points, was four points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third.
### Practices and qualifying
Two practice sessions were held on Friday before the Saturday race. In the first session, the fastest drivers were Jamie McMurray, Clint Bowyer, Joey Logano, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and Kyle Busch. During the second practice session, Kyle Busch, David Reutimann, Logano, Juan Pablo Montoya, and Jeff Gordon had the quickest times.
During qualifying, forty-six cars were entered, but Michael McDowell, Max Papis, and Dave Blaney did not qualify; NASCAR's qualifying procedure only allow forty-three cars to make the race. Kyle Busch clinched the pole position with a fastest lap time of 21.247 seconds. He was joined on the front row of the grid by Reutimann. Johnson qualified third, Gordon took fourth, and Newman started fifth.
### Race summary
The race, the tenth out of a total of thirty-six in the season, began at 7:30 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on Fox. Conditions were clear with a high of 88 °F (31 °C). Joe Ellison, from Essex Village Community Church, began pre-race ceremonies, by giving the invocation. Next, the Commandants own United States Marine Drum and Bugle performed the national anthem, and Heath Calhoun gave the command for drivers to start their engines.
Kyle Busch held the lead going through the first corner with David Reutimann behind him. One lap later, Jeff Gordon moved into the third position. On lap 6, Gordon emerged in second, after passing Reutimann. Jimmie Johnson, who had started third, fell to fourth by lap 7. By lap 8, Kyle Busch had a lead of 1.5 seconds. One lap later, Kevin Harvick moved into fourth, after passing Johnson. On lap 18, Harvick moved into third, as Jamie McMurray moved to the sixth position. Six laps later, Reutimann had fallen to the fourth position, after starting second. By lap 35, Gordon had caught Kyle Busch for the first position, but after six laps he was two seconds behind Kyle Busch. On lap 42, the first caution came out because Joe Nemechek collided with the wall after suffering a blown tire. During this caution, drivers made there pit stops. On lap 49, Kyle Busch led on the restart.
Afterward, Gordon moved into the third position, after passing Jamie McMurray. By lap 55, Juan Pablo Montoya had moved from nineteenth to eighth. On lap 59, Harvick moved into second, but four laps later, Gordon passed him for the second position. By lap 66, Kyle Busch had a 2.3 second lead over Gordon. After starting tenth, Clint Bowyer had moved to the fifth position by lap 68. Kyle Busch remained the leader until green flag pit stops began. On lap 143, Jeff Gordon received the lead, as Kyle Busch made a pit stop. Two laps later, Kyle Busch reclaimed the lead. On lap 153, the second caution came out because of debris. Kyle Busch, again, led the field to the restart. Ten laps later, on lap 170, the third caution came out because of debris. Ryan Newman, because of a two tire change, was in the lead on the restart. On lap 177, one lap after the restart, Kyle Busch took the lead away from Newman.
Kyle Busch kept the lead until Jeff Burton passed him on lap 230. Burton led only twenty laps before Jeff Gordon claimed the lead. Jeff Gordon made a pit stop on lap 266, allowing Kevin Harvick to pass him. Green flag pit stops continued, as Carl Edwards received the lead on lap 268. Three laps later Tony Stewart passed Edwards for the lead. On lap 272, Jeff Gordon reclaimed the lead. By this time, the race was under green flag conditions for 102 laps, but the green flag run only continued until lap 367, 265 laps after the last restart, when the fourth caution came out. The cause for the caution was that Elliott Sadler had a tire that blew. On lap 377, Jeff Gordon led the field toward the green flag. Two laps later, though, the fifth caution, caused by a spin from Sam Hornish Jr., came out.
On lap 385, Jeff Gordon led the field to the green flag. Four laps later Hornish Jr. spun and collided with the inside wall, to bring out the sixth caution. Jeff Gordon, on lap 395, led toward the restart. With four laps remaining, Kyle Busch passed Gordon for the lead. Busch kept the lead to win his first race in 2010.
### Post-race
Kyle Busch appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season, and his third at Richmond International Raceway. Following his win, he added, "I don’t even remember what just happened. I drove it down into Turn 1 and hoped it stuck. I knew I had to baby it into Turn 3 and finally got to clear Jeff. We set sail there from there."
After finishing second, Jeff Gordon stated, "A little disappointed again that we are coming up short, but we are getting plenty of practice. It’s a little disappointing we haven’t won some races yet. If we keep doing this, those will come. We’ve got to keep putting ourselves in position." Gordon followed the race by saying, "I’ve been doing this long enough to know that they don’t give out trophies for leading any lap other than the last one." In the subsequent press conference, Kyle Busch said, "I can’t thank Dave enough, it’s unbelievable to be back in victory lane. A lot of people doubted what we were doing, but I never did." Gordon stated:
> "I figured I was going to get the outside [for the last restart]. All I wanted to do was just get into Turn 1 smooth and get a good launch up off Turn 2 down the backstretch—and then make sure I got into [Turn] 3 without over-driving it. ...I knew if I could just get through Turn 3 OK and hammer down off Turn 4 and get him cleared that it would be pretty good—and it worked. That’s what I did. Did I have a plan? Was that exactly my plan? No. I was just going to drive it as hard as I could, and make whatever happened happen. It worked, just off the cuff."
Dave Rogers, Kyle Busch's crew chief, stated, "It would have been great to keep that many cars a lap down, but it would have been selfish. Everybody behind us was going to pit. If we stay out, we keep all those guys down. Then the seven guys behind us are going to drive by us, we’re going to lose our track position just to keep cars a lap down. It’s not worth it." The race result moved Kevin Harvick in the lead for the Driver's Championship with 1,467 points. Jimmie Johnson, who finished tenth, was second on 1,457, ninety-nine points ahead of Kyle Busch and 149 ahead of Matt Kenseth. Greg Biffle was fifth with 1,334 points. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet maintained their lead with 76 points. Toyota maintained second with 58 points. Ford followed with 46 points, six points ahead of Dodge in fourth.
## Results
### Qualifying
### Race Results
## Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Manufacturers' Championship standings
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings. |
23,466,744 | Haymarket affair | 1,172,838,610 | 1886 aftermath of a bombing in Chicago, US | [
"1880s in Chicago",
"1880s strikes in the United States",
"1886 crimes in the United States",
"1886 in Illinois",
"1886 labor disputes and strikes",
"1886 riots",
"Anarchism in the United States",
"Anti-communism in the United States",
"Communism in the United States",
"Crimes in Chicago",
"Haymarket affair",
"History of anarchism",
"History of labor relations in the United States",
"History of social movements",
"History of socialism",
"Labor disputes in Illinois",
"Labor disputes in the United States",
"Labor-related riots in the United States",
"Left-wing terrorism",
"May 1886 events",
"Political riots in the United States",
"Protest-related deaths",
"Riots and civil disorder in Chicago",
"Terrorist incidents in the United States"
]
| The Haymarket affair, also known as the Haymarket massacre, the Haymarket riot, the Haymarket Square riot, or the Haymarket Incident, was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago, Illinois, United States. The rally began peacefully in support of workers striking for an eight-hour work day, the day after the events at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, during which one person was killed and many workers injured. An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at the police as they acted to disperse the meeting, and the bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; dozens of others were wounded.
In the internationally publicized legal proceedings that followed, eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy. The evidence was that one of the defendants may have built the bomb, but none of those on trial had thrown it, and only two of the eight were at the Haymarket at the time. Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison. Illinois Governor Richard J. Oglesby commuted two of the sentences to terms of life in prison; another committed suicide in jail before his scheduled execution. The other four were hanged on November 11, 1887. In 1893, Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the remaining defendants and criticized the trial.
The Haymarket Affair is generally considered significant as the origin of International Workers' Day held on May 1, and it was also the climax of the social unrest among the working class in America known as the Great Upheaval.
The site of the incident was designated a Chicago landmark in 1992, and a sculpture was dedicated there in 2004. In addition, the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997 at the defendants' burial site in Forest Park.
## Background
Following the Civil War, particularly following the Long Depression, there was a rapid expansion of industrial production in the United States. Chicago was a major industrial center and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about \$1.50 a day. American workers worked on average slightly over 60 hours, during a six-day work week. The city became a center for many attempts to organize labor's demands for better working conditions. Employers responded with anti-union measures, such as firing and blacklisting union members, locking out workers, recruiting strikebreakers; employing spies, thugs, and private security forces and exacerbating ethnic tensions in order to divide the workers. Business interests were supported by mainstream newspapers, and were opposed by the labor and immigrant press.
During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886, socialist and anarchist organizations were active. Membership of the Knights of Labor, which rejected socialism and radicalism but supported the eight-hour work day, grew from 70,000 in 1884 to over 700,000 by 1886. In Chicago, the anarchist movement of several thousand, mostly immigrant, workers centered about the German-language newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung ("Workers' Newspaper"), edited by August Spies. Other anarchists operated a militant revolutionary force with an armed section that was equipped with explosives. Its revolutionary strategy centered around the belief that successful operations against the police and the seizure of major industrial centers would result in massive public support by workers, start a revolution, destroy capitalism, and establish a socialist economy.
### May Day parade and strikes
In October 1884, a convention held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1, 1886, as the date by which the eight-hour work day would become standard. As the chosen date approached, U.S. labor unions prepared for a general strike in support of the eight-hour day.
On Saturday, May 1, thousands of workers who went on strike and attended rallies that were held throughout the United States sang from the anthem, Eight Hour. The chorus of the song reflected the ideology of the Great Upheaval, "Eight Hours for work. Eight hours for rest. Eight hours for what we will." Estimates of the number of striking workers across the U.S. range from 300,000 to half a million. In New York City, the number of demonstrators was estimated at 10,000. and in Detroit at 11,000. In Milwaukee, some 10,000 workers turned out. In Chicago, the movement's center, an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 workers had gone on strike and there were perhaps twice as many people out on the streets participating in various demonstrations and marches, as, for example, a march by 10,000 men employed in the Chicago lumber yards. Though participants in these events added up to 80,000, it is disputed whether there was a march of that number down Michigan Avenue led by anarchist Albert Parsons, founder of the International Working People's Association [IWPA], his wife and fellow organizer Lucy, and their children.
Speaking to a rally outside the plant on May 3, August Spies advised the striking workers to "hold together, to stand by their union, or they would not succeed". Well-planned and coordinated, the general strike to this point had remained largely nonviolent. When the end-of-the-workday bell sounded, however, a group of workers surged to the gates to confront the strikebreakers. Despite calls for calm by Spies, the police fired on the crowd. Two McCormick workers were killed (although some newspaper accounts said there were six fatalities). Spies would later testify, "I was very indignant. I knew from experience of the past that this butchering of people was done for the express purpose of defeating the eight-hour movement."
Outraged by this act of police violence, local anarchists quickly printed and distributed fliers calling for a rally the following day at Haymarket Square (also called the Haymarket), which was then a bustling commercial center near the corner of Randolph Street and Desplaines Street. Printed in German and English, the fliers stated that the police had murdered the strikers on behalf of business interests and urged workers to seek justice. The first batch of fliers contain the words Workingmen Arm Yourselves and Appear in Full Force! When Spies saw the line, he said he would not speak at the rally unless the words were removed from the flier. All but a few hundred of the fliers were destroyed, and new fliers were printed without the offending words. More than 20,000 copies of the revised flier were distributed.
### Rally at Haymarket Square
The rally began peacefully under a light rain on the evening of May 4. August Spies, Albert Parsons, and the Rev. Samuel Fielden spoke to a crowd estimated variously between 600 and 3,000 while standing in an open wagon adjacent to the square on Des Plaines Street. A large number of on-duty police officers watched from nearby.
Paul Avrich, a historian specializing in the study of anarchism, quotes Spies as saying:
> There seems to prevail the opinion in some quarters that this meeting has been called for the purpose of inaugurating a riot, hence these warlike preparations on the part of so-called 'law and order.' However, let me tell you at the beginning that this meeting has not been called for any such purpose. The object of this meeting is to explain the general situation of the eight-hour movement and to throw light upon various incidents in connection with it.
Following Spies' speech, the crowd was addressed by Parsons, the Alabama-born editor of the radical English-language weekly The Alarm. The crowd was so calm that Mayor Carter Harrison Sr., who had stopped by to watch, walked home early. Parsons spoke for almost an hour before standing down in favor of the last speaker of the evening, the English-born socialist, anarchist, and labor activist Methodist pastor, Rev. Samuel Fielden, who delivered a brief ten-minute address. Many of the crowd had already left as the weather was deteriorating.
A New York Times article, with the dateline May 4, and headlined "Rioting and Bloodshed in the Streets of Chicago ... Twelve Policemen Dead or Dying", reported that Fielden spoke for 20 minutes, alleging that his words grew "wilder and more violent as he proceeded". Another New York Times article, headlined "Anarchy's Red Hand" and dated May 6, opens with: "The villainous teachings of the Anarchists bore bloody fruit in Chicago tonight and before daylight at least a dozen stalwart men will have laid down their lives as a tribute to the doctrine of Herr Johann Most." It referred to the strikers as a "mob" and used quotation marks around the term "workingmen".
#### Bombing and gunfire
At about 10:30 pm, just as Fielden was finishing his speech, police arrived en masse, marching in formation towards the speakers' wagon, and ordered the rally to disperse. Fielden insisted that the meeting was peaceful. Police Inspector John Bonfield proclaimed:
> I command you [addressing the speaker] in the name of the law to desist and you [addressing the crowd] to disperse.
A home-made bomb with a brittle metal casing filled with dynamite and ignited by a fuse was thrown into the path of the advancing police. Its fuse briefly sputtered, and then the bomb exploded, killing policeman Mathias J. Degan, who sustained shell wounds in the abdomen and legs by flying metal fragments, and severely wounding many of the other policemen.
Witnesses maintained that immediately after the bomb blast there was an exchange of gunshots between police and demonstrators. It is unclear who fired first. Historian Paul Avrich maintains that "nearly all sources agree that it was the police who opened fire", reloaded and then fired again, killing at least four and wounding as many as 70 people. In less than five minutes the square was empty except for the casualties. According to the May 4 New York Times, demonstrators began firing at the police, who then returned fire. In his report on the incident, Inspector Bonfield wrote that he "gave the order to cease firing, fearing that some of our men, in the darkness might fire into each other". An anonymous police official told the Chicago Tribune, "A very large number of the police were wounded by each other's revolvers. ... It was every man for himself, and while some got two or three squares away, the rest emptied their revolvers, mainly into each other."
In all, seven policemen and at least four workers were killed. Avrich maintains that most of the police deaths were from police gunfire. Historian Timothy Messer-Kruse argues that, although it is impossible to rule out lethal friendly fire, several policemen were probably shot by armed protesters. Another policeman died two years after the incident from complications related to injuries received on that day. It remains the single most deadly incident of officers being killed in the line of duty in the history of the Chicago Police Department. About 60 policemen were wounded in the incident. They were carried, along with some other wounded people, into a nearby police station. Police captain Michael Schaack later wrote that the number of wounded workers was "largely in excess of that on the side of the police". The Chicago Herald described a scene of "wild carnage" and estimated at least fifty dead or wounded civilians lay in the streets. It is unclear how many civilians were wounded since many were afraid to seek medical attention, fearing arrest. They found aid where they could.
### Aftermath and red scare
A harsh anti-union clampdown followed the Haymarket incident and the Great Upheaval subsided. Employers regained control of their workers and traditional workdays were restored to ten or more hours a day. There was a massive outpouring of community and business support for the police and many thousands of dollars were donated to funds for their medical care and to assist their efforts. The entire labor and immigrant community, particularly Germans and Bohemians, came under suspicion. Police raids were carried out on homes and offices of suspected anarchists. Dozens of suspects, many only remotely related to the Haymarket Affair, were arrested. Casting legal requirements such as search warrants aside, Chicago police squads subjected the labor activists of Chicago to an eight-week shakedown, ransacking their meeting halls and places of business. The emphasis was on the speakers at the Haymarket rally and the newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung. A small group of anarchists were discovered to have been engaged in making bombs on the same day as the incident, including round ones like the one used in Haymarket Square.
Newspaper reports declared that anarchist agitators were to blame for the "riot", a view adopted by an alarmed public. As time passed, press reports and illustrations of the incident became more elaborate. Coverage was national, then international. Among property owners, the press, and other elements of society, a consensus developed that suppression of anarchist agitation was necessary while for their part, union organizations such as The Knights of Labor and craft unions were quick to disassociate themselves from the anarchist movement and to repudiate violent tactics as self-defeating. Many workers, on the other hand, believed that men of the Pinkerton agency were responsible because of the agency's tactic of secretly infiltrating labor groups and its sometimes violent methods of strike breaking.
## Legal proceedings
### Investigation
The police assumed that an anarchist had thrown the bomb as part of a planned conspiracy; their problem was how to prove it. On the morning of May 5, they raided the offices of the Arbeiter-Zeitung, arresting its editor August Spies, and his brother (who was not charged). Also arrested were editorial assistant Michael Schwab and Adolph Fischer, a typesetter. A search of the premises resulted in the discovery of the "Revenge Poster" and other evidence considered incriminating by the prosecution.
On May 7, police searched the premises of Louis Lingg where they found a number of bombs and bomb-making materials. Lingg's landlord William Seliger was also arrested but cooperated with police and identified Lingg as a bomb maker and was not charged. An associate of Spies, Balthazar Rau, suspected as the bomber, was traced to Omaha and brought back to Chicago. After interrogation, Rau offered to cooperate with police. He alleged that the defendants had experimented with dynamite bombs and accused them of having published what he said was a code word, "Ruhe" ("peace"), in the Arbeiter-Zeitung as a call to arms at Haymarket Square.
### Defendants
Rudolf Schnaubelt, the police's lead suspect as the bomb thrower, was arrested twice early on and released. By May 14, when it became apparent he had played a significant role in the event, he had fled the country. William Seliger, who had turned state's evidence and testified for the prosecution, was not charged. On June 4, 1886, eight other suspects, however, were indicted by the grand jury and stood trial for being accessories to the murder of Degan. Of these, only two had been present when the bomb exploded. Spies and Fielden had spoken at the peaceful rally and were stepping down from the speaker's wagon in compliance with police orders to disperse just before the bomb went off. Two others had been present at the beginning of the rally but had left and were at Zepf's Hall, an anarchist rendezvous, at the time of the explosion. They were: Arbeiter-Zeitung typesetter Adolph Fischer and the well-known activist Albert Parsons, who had spoken for an hour at the Haymarket rally before going to Zepf's. Parsons, who believed that the evidence against them all was weak, subsequently voluntarily turned himself in, in solidarity with the accused. A third man, Spies's assistant editor Michael Schwab (who was the brother-in-law of Schnaubelt) was arrested as he had been speaking at another rally at the time of the bombing; he was also later pardoned. Not directly tied to the Haymarket rally, but arrested for their militant radicalism were George Engel (who was at home playing cards on that day), and Louis Lingg, the hot-headed bomb maker denounced by his associate, Seliger. Another defendant who had not been present that day was Oscar Neebe, an American-born citizen of German descent who was associated with the Arbeiter-Zeitung and had attempted to revive it in the aftermath of the Haymarket riot.
Of the eight defendants, five – Spies, Fischer, Engel, Lingg and Schwab – were German-born immigrants; a sixth, Neebe, was a U.S.-born citizen of German descent. The remaining two, Parsons and Fielden, born in the U.S. and England, respectively, were of British heritage.
### Trial
The trial, Illinois vs. August Spies et al., began on June 21, 1886, and went on until August 11. The trial was conducted in an atmosphere of extreme prejudice by both public and media toward the defendants. It was presided over by Judge Joseph Gary. Judge Gary displayed open hostility to the defendants, consistently ruled for the prosecution, and failed to maintain decorum. A motion to try the defendants separately was denied. The defense counsel included Sigmund Zeisler and William Perkins Black. Selection of a jury was extraordinarily difficult, lasting three weeks, and nearly one thousand people called. All union members and anyone who expressed sympathy toward socialism were dismissed. In the end a jury of 12 was seated, most of whom confessed prejudice against the defendants. Despite their professions of prejudice Judge Gary seated those who declared that despite their prejudices they would acquit if the evidence supported it, refusing to dismiss for prejudice. Eventually the peremptory challenges of the defense were exhausted. Frustrated by the hundreds of jurors who were being dismissed, a bailiff was appointed who selected jurors rather than calling them at random. The bailiff proved prejudiced himself and selected jurors who seemed likely to convict based on their social position and attitudes toward the defendants. The prosecution, led by Julius Grinnell, argued that since the defendants had not actively discouraged the person who had thrown the bomb, they were therefore equally responsible as conspirators. The jury heard the testimony of 118 people, including 54 members of the Chicago Police Department and the defendants Fielden, Schwab, Spies and Parsons. Albert Parsons's brother claimed there was evidence linking the Pinkertons to the bomb. This reflected a widespread belief among the strikers.
Police investigators under Captain Michael Schaack had a lead fragment removed from a policeman's wounds chemically analyzed. They reported that the lead used in the casing matched the casings of bombs found in Lingg's home. A metal nut and fragments of the casing taken from the wound also roughly matched bombs made by Lingg. Schaack concluded, on the basis of interviews, that the anarchists had been experimenting for years with dynamite and other explosives, refining the design of their bombs before coming up with the effective one used at the Haymarket.
At the last minute, when it was discovered that instructions for manslaughter had not been included in the submitted instructions, the jury was called back, and the instructions were given.
### Verdict and contemporary reactions
The jury returned guilty verdicts for all eight defendants. Before being sentenced, Neebe told the court that Schaack's officers were among the city's worst gangs, ransacking houses and stealing money and watches. Schaack laughed and Neebe retorted, "You need not laugh about it, Captain Schaack. You are one of them. You are an anarchist, as you understand it. You are all anarchists, in this sense of the word, I must say." Judge Gary sentenced seven of the defendants to death by hanging and Neebe to 15 years in prison. The sentencing provoked outrage from labor and workers' movements and their supporters, resulting in protests around the world, and elevating the defendants to the status of martyrs, especially abroad. Portrayals of the anarchists as bloodthirsty foreign fanatics in the press along with the 1889 publication of Captain Schaack's sensational account, Anarchy and Anarchism, on the other hand, inspired widespread public fear and revulsion against the strikers and general anti-immigrant feeling, polarizing public opinion.
In an article datelined May 4, entitled "Anarchy's Red Hand", The New York Times had described the incident as the "bloody fruit" of "the villainous teachings of the Anarchists". The Chicago Times described the defendants as "arch counselors of riot, pillage, incendiarism and murder"; other reporters described them as "bloody brutes", "red ruffians", "dynamarchists", "bloody monsters", "cowards", "cutthroats", "thieves", "assassins", and "fiends". The journalist George Frederic Parsons wrote a piece for The Atlantic Monthly in which he identified the fears of middle-class Americans concerning labor radicalism, and asserted that the workers had only themselves to blame for their troubles. Edward Aveling remarked, "If these men are ultimately hanged, it will be the Chicago Tribune that has done it." Schaack, who had led the investigation, was dismissed from the police force for allegedly having fabricated evidence in the case but was reinstated in 1892.
### Appeals
The case was appealed in 1887 to the Supreme Court of Illinois, then to the United States Supreme Court where the defendants were represented by John Randolph Tucker, Roger Atkinson Pryor, General Benjamin F. Butler and William P. Black. The petition for certiorari was denied.
### Commutations and suicide
After the appeals had been exhausted, Illinois Governor Richard James Oglesby commuted Fielden's and Schwab's sentences to life in prison on November 10, 1887. On the eve of his scheduled execution, Lingg committed suicide in his cell with a smuggled blasting cap which he reportedly held in his mouth like a cigar (the blast blew off half his face and he survived in agony for six hours).
### Executions
The next day (November 11, 1887) four defendants—Engel, Fischer, Parsons, and Spies—were taken to the gallows in white robes and hoods. They sang the Marseillaise, then the anthem of the international revolutionary movement. Family members including Lucy Parsons, who attempted to see them for the last time, were arrested and searched for bombs (none was found). According to witnesses, in the moments before the men were hanged, Spies shouted, "The time will come when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today." In their last words, Engel and Fischer called out, "Hurrah for anarchism!" Parsons then requested to speak, but he was cut off when the signal was given to open the trap door. Witnesses reported that the condemned men did not die immediately when they dropped, but strangled to death slowly, a sight which left the spectators visibly shaken.
### Identity of the bomber
Notwithstanding the convictions for conspiracy, no actual bomber was ever brought to trial, "and no lawyerly explanation could ever make a conspiracy trial without the main perpetrator seem completely legitimate." Historians such as James Joll and Timothy Messer-Kruse say the evidence points to Rudolph Schnaubelt, brother-in-law of Schwab, as the likely perpetrator.
### Documents
An extensive collection of documents relating to the Haymarket Affair and the legal proceedings related to it, The Haymarket Affair Digital Collection, has been created by the Chicago Historical Society.
## Pardons and historical characterization
Among supporters of the labor movement in the United States and abroad and others, the trial was widely believed to have been unfair, and even a serious miscarriage of justice. Prominent people such as novelist William Dean Howells, celebrated attorney Clarence Darrow, poet and playwright Oscar Wilde, playwright George Bernard Shaw, and poet William Morris strongly condemned it. On June 26, 1893, Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld, the progressive governor of Illinois, himself a German immigrant, signed pardons for Fielden, Neebe, and Schwab, calling them victims of "hysteria, packed juries, and a biased judge" and noting that the state "has never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policeman, and the evidence does not show any connection whatsoever between the defendants and the man who threw it". Altgeld also faulted the city of Chicago for failing to hold Pinkerton guards responsible for repeated use of lethal violence against striking workers. Altgeld's actions concerning labor were used to defeat his reelection.
Soon after the trial, anarchist Dyer Lum wrote a history of the trial critical of the prosecution. In 1888, George McLean, and in 1889, police captain Michael Shack, wrote accounts from the opposite perspective. Awaiting sentencing, each of the defendants wrote their own autobiographies (edited and published by Philip Foner in 1969), and later activist Lucy Parsons published a biography of her condemned husband Albert Parsons. Fifty years after the event, Henry David wrote a history, which preceded another scholarly treatment by Paul Avrich in 1984, and a "social history" of the era by Bruce C. Nelson in 1988. In 2006, labor historian James Green wrote a popular history.
Christopher Thale writes in the Encyclopedia of Chicago that lacking credible evidence regarding the bombing, "...the prosecution focused on the writings and speeches of the defendants." He further notes that the conspiracy charge was legally unprecedented, the Judge was "partisan," and all the jurors admitted prejudice against the defendants. Historian Carl Smith writes, "The visceral feelings of fear and anger surrounding the trial ruled out anything but the pretense of justice right from the outset." Smith notes that scholars have long considered the trial a "notorious" "miscarriage of justice". In a review somewhat more critical of the defendants, historian Jon Teaford concludes that "[t]he tragedy of Haymarket is the American justice system did not protect the damn fools who most needed that protection... It is the damn fools who talk too much and too wildly who are most in need of protection from the state." Historian Timothy Messer-Kruse revisited the digitized trial transcript and argued that the proceedings were fair for their time, a challenge to the historical consensus that the trial was a travesty.
## Effects on the labor movement and May Day
Historian Nathan Fine points out that trade-union activities continued to show signs of growth and vitality, culminating later in 1886 with the establishment of the Labor Party of Chicago.
Fine observes:
> [T]he fact is that despite police repression, newspaper incitement to hysteria, and organization of the possessing classes, which followed the throwing of the bomb on May 4, the Chicago wage earners only united their forces and stiffened their resistance. The conservative and radical central bodies – there were two each of the trade unions and two also of the Knights of Labor – the socialists and the anarchists, the single taxers and the reformers, the native born...and the foreign born Germans, Bohemians, and Scandinavians, all got together for the first time on the political field in the summer following the Haymarket Affair.... [T]he Knights of Labor doubled its membership, reaching 40,000 in the fall of 1886. On Labor Day the number of Chicago workers in parade led the country.
On the first anniversary of the event, May 4, 1887, the New-York Tribune published an interview with Senator Leland Stanford, in which he addressed the consensus that "the conflict between capital and labor is intensifying" and articulated the vision advocated by the Knights of Labor for an industrial system of worker-owned co-operatives, another among the strategies pursued to advance the conditions of laborers. The interview was republished as a pamphlet to include the bill Stanford introduced in the Senate to foster co-operatives.
Popular pressure continued for the establishment of the 8-hour day. At the convention of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1888, the union decided to campaign for the shorter workday again. May 1, 1890, was agreed upon as the date on which workers would strike for an eight-hour workday.
In 1889, AFL president Samuel Gompers wrote to the first congress of the Second International, which was meeting in Paris. He informed the world's socialists of the AFL's plans and proposed an international fight for a universal eight-hour workday. In response to Gompers's letter, the Second International adopted a resolution calling for "a great international demonstration" on a single date so workers everywhere could demand the eight-hour workday. In light of the Americans' plan, the International adopted May 1, 1890, as the date for this demonstration.
A secondary purpose behind the adoption of the resolution by the Second International was to honor the memory of the Haymarket martyrs and other workers who had been killed in association with the strikes on May 1, 1886. Historian Philip Foner writes "[t]here is little doubt that everyone associated with the resolution passed by the Paris Congress knew of the May 1 demonstrations and strikes for the eight-hour day in 1886 in the United States ... and the events associated with the Haymarket tragedy."
The first International Workers Day was a spectacular success. The front page of the New York World on May 2, 1890, was devoted to coverage of the event. Two of its headlines were "Parade of Jubilant Workingmen in All the Trade Centers of the Civilized World" and "Everywhere the Workmen Join in Demands for a Normal Day". The Times of London listed two dozen European cities in which demonstrations had taken place, noting there had been rallies in Cuba, Peru and Chile. Commemoration of May Day became an annual event the following year.
The association of May Day with the Haymarket martyrs has remained strong in Mexico. Mary Harris "Mother" Jones was in Mexico on May 1, 1921, and wrote of the "day of 'fiestas'" that marked "the killing of the workers in Chicago for demanding the eight-hour day". In 1929, The New York Times referred to the May Day parade in Mexico City as "the annual demonstration glorifying the memory of those who were killed in Chicago in 1887". The New York Times described the 1936 demonstration as a commemoration of "the death of the martyrs in Chicago". In 1939, Oscar Neebe's grandson attended the May Day parade in Mexico City and was shown, as his host told him, "how the world shows respect to your grandfather".
The influence of the Haymarket Affair was not limited to the celebration of May Day. Emma Goldman, the activist and political theorist, was attracted to anarchism after reading about the incident and the executions, which she later described as "the events that had inspired my spiritual birth and growth". She considered the Haymarket martyrs to be "the most decisive influence in my existence". Her associate, Alexander Berkman also described the Haymarket anarchists as "a potent and vital inspiration". Others whose commitment to anarchism, or revolutionary socialism, crystallized as a result of the Haymarket Affair included Voltairine de Cleyre and "Big Bill" Haywood, a founding member of the Industrial Workers of the World. Goldman wrote to historian Max Nettlau that the Haymarket Affair had awakened the social consciousness of "hundreds, perhaps thousands, of people".
## Suspected bombers
While admitting that none of the defendants was involved in the bombing, the prosecution made the argument that Lingg had built the bomb, and two prosecution witnesses (Harry Gilmer and Malvern Thompson) tried to imply that the bomb thrower was helped by Spies, Fischer and Schwab. The defendants claimed they had no knowledge of the bomber at all.
Several activists, including Robert Reitzel, later hinted they knew who the bomber was. Writers and other commentators have speculated about many possible suspects:
- Rudolph Schnaubelt (1863–1901) was an activist and the brother-in law of Michael Schwab. He was at the Haymarket when the bomb exploded. General Superintendent of the Chicago Police Department Frederick Ebersold issued a handwritten bulletin for his arrest for murder and inciting a riot on June 14, 1886. Schnaubelt was indicted with the other defendants but fled the city and later the country before he could be brought to trial. He was the detectives' lead suspect, and state witness Gilmer testified he saw Schnaubelt throw the bomb, identifying him from a photograph in court. Schnaubelt later sent two letters from London disclaiming all responsibility, writing, "If I had really thrown this bomb, surely I would have nothing to be ashamed of, but in truth I never once thought of it." He is the most generally accepted and widely known suspect and figured as the bomb thrower in The Bomb, Frank Harris's 1908 fictionalization of the tragedy. Written from Schnaubelt's point of view, the story opens with him confessing on his deathbed. However, Harris's description was fictional and those who knew Schnaubelt vehemently criticized the book.
- George Schwab was a German shoemaker who died in 1924. German anarchist Carl Nold claimed he learned Schwab was the bomber through correspondence with other activists, but no proof ever emerged. Historian Paul Avrich also suspected him but noted that while Schwab was in Chicago, he had only arrived days before. This contradicted statements by others that the bomber was a well-known figure in Chicago.
- George Meng (b. around 1840) was a German anarchist and teamster who owned a small farm outside of Chicago where he had settled in 1883 after emigrating from Bavaria. Like Parsons and Spies, he was a delegate at the Pittsburgh Congress and a member of the IWPA. Meng's granddaughter, Adah Maurer, wrote Paul Avrich a letter in which she said that her mother, who was 15 at the time of the bombing, told her that her father was the bomber. Meng died sometime before 1907 in a saloon fire. Based on his correspondence with Maurer, Avrich concluded that there was a "strong possibility" that the little-known Meng may have been the bomber.
- An agent provocateur was suggested by some members of the anarchist movement. Albert Parsons believed the bomber was a member of the police or the Pinkertons trying to undermine the labor movement. However, this contradicts the statements of several activists who said the bomber was one of their own. For example, Lucy Parsons and Johann Most rejected this notion. Dyer Lum said it was "puerile" to ascribe "the Haymarket bomb to a Pinkerton".
- A disgruntled worker was widely suspected. When Adolph Fischer was asked if he knew who threw the bomb, he answered, "I suppose it was some excited workingman." Oscar Neebe said it was a "crank". Governor Altgeld speculated the bomb thrower might have been a disgruntled worker who was not associated with the defendants or the anarchist movement but had a personal grudge against the police. In his pardoning statement, Altgeld said the record of police brutality toward the workers had invited revenge adding, "Capt. Bonfield is the man who is really responsible for the deaths of the police officers."
- Klemana Schuetz was identified as the bomber by Franz Mayhoff, a New York anarchist and fraudster, who claimed in an affidavit that Schuetz had once admitted throwing the Haymarket bomb. August Wagener, Mayhoff's attorney, sent a telegram from New York to defense attorney Captain William Black the day before the executions claiming knowledge of the bomber's identity. Black tried to delay the execution with this telegram, but Governor Oglesby refused. It was later learned that Schuetz was the primary witness against Mayhoff at his trial for insurance fraud, so Mayhoff's affidavit has never been regarded as credible by historians.
- Reinold "Big" Krueger was killed by police either in the melee after the bombing or in a separate disturbance the next day and has been named as a suspect but there is no supporting evidence.
- A mysterious outsider was reported by John Philip Deluse, a saloon keeper in Indianapolis who claimed he encountered a stranger in his saloon the day before the bombing. The man was carrying a satchel and on his way from New York to Chicago. According to Deluse, the stranger was interested in the labor situation in Chicago, repeatedly pointed to his satchel and said, "You will hear of some trouble there very soon." Parsons used Deluse's testimony to suggest the bomb thrower was sent by eastern capitalists. Nothing more was ever learned about Deluse's claim.
## Burial and monument
Lingg, Spies, Fischer, Engel, and Parsons were buried at the German Waldheim Cemetery (later merged with Forest Home Cemetery) in Forest Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. Schwab and Neebe were also buried at Waldheim when they died, reuniting the "Martyrs". In 1893, the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument by sculptor Albert Weinert was raised at Waldheim. Over a century later, it was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior.
Throughout the 20th century, activists such as Emma Goldman chose to be buried near the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument graves.
In October 2016, a time capsule with materials relating to the Haymarket Affair was dug up in Forest Home Cemetery.
## Haymarket memorials
In 1889, a commemorative nine-foot (2.7 meter) bronze statue of a Chicago policeman by sculptor Johannes Gelert was erected in the middle of Haymarket Square with private funds raised by the Union League Club of Chicago. The statue was unveiled on May 30, 1889, by Frank Degan, the son of Officer Mathias Degan. On May 4, 1927, the 41st anniversary of the Haymarket Affair, a streetcar jumped its tracks and crashed into the monument. The motorman said he was "sick of seeing that policeman with his arm raised". The city restored the statue in 1928 and moved it to Union Park. During the 1950s, construction of the Kennedy Expressway erased about half of the old, run-down market square, and in 1956, the statue was moved to a special platform built for it overlooking the freeway, near its original location.
The Haymarket statue was vandalized with black paint on May 4, 1968, the 82nd anniversary of the Haymarket Affair, following a confrontation between police and demonstrators at a protest against the Vietnam War. On October 6, 1969, shortly before the "Days of Rage" protests, the statue was destroyed when a bomb was placed between its legs. Weatherman took credit for the blast, which broke nearly 100 windows in the neighborhood and scattered pieces of the statue onto the Kennedy Expressway below. The statue was rebuilt and unveiled on May 4, 1970, to be blown up yet again by Weatherman on October 6, 1970. The statue was rebuilt, again, and Mayor Richard J. Daley posted a 24‐hour police guard at the statue. This guard cost \$67,440 per year. In 1972, it was moved to the lobby of the Central Police Headquarters, and in 1976 to the enclosed courtyard of the Chicago police academy. For another three decades the statue's empty, graffiti-marked pedestal stood on its platform in the run-down remains of Haymarket Square where it was known as an anarchist landmark. On June 1, 2007, the statue was rededicated at Chicago Police Headquarters with a new pedestal, unveiled by Geraldine Doceka, Officer Mathias Degan's great-granddaughter.
In 1992, the site of the speakers' wagon was marked by a bronze plaque set into the sidewalk, reading:
> A decade of strife between labor and industry culminated here in a confrontation that resulted in the tragic death of both workers and policemen. On May 4, 1886, spectators at a labor rally had gathered around the mouth of Crane's Alley. A contingent of police approaching on Des Plaines Street were met by a bomb thrown from just south of the alley. The resultant trial of eight activists gained worldwide attention for the labor movement, and initiated the tradition of "May Day" labor rallies in many cities.
>
> Designated on March 25, 1992, Richard M. Daley, Mayor
On September 14, 2004, Daley and union leaders—including the president of Chicago's police union—unveiled a monument by Chicago artist Mary Brogger, a fifteen-foot (4.5 m) speakers' wagon sculpture echoing the wagon on which the labor leaders stood in Haymarket Square to champion the eight-hour day. The bronze sculpture, intended to be the centerpiece of a proposed "Labor Park", is meant to symbolize both the rally at Haymarket and free speech. The planned site was to include an international commemoration wall, sidewalk plaques, a cultural pylon, a seating area, and banners, but construction has not yet begun.
## See also
- List of homicides in Illinois
- Bay View Massacre (in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, May 5, 1886)
- First Red Scare of 1919–1920
- International Workers' Day, also known as May Day
- May Day Riots of 1894
- May Day Riots of 1919
- Palmer Raids of 1919
- Sacco and Vanzetti
- Wall Street bombing of 1920
- List of massacres in the United States
- Violent labor disputes in the United States
- List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
- Argentinos Juniores |
22,724,963 | Alekseyev I-212 | 1,149,683,888 | 1948 fighter prototype by Alekseyev | [
"1940s Soviet fighter aircraft",
"Abandoned military aircraft projects of the Soviet Union",
"Alekseyev aircraft"
]
| The Alekseyev I-212 was a twin-engined, jet fighter designed in the USSR in 1947 at OKB-21 (OKB - experimental design bureau). It was a two-seat variant of the I-21 (Istrebitel' - Fighter) designed in response to a requirement for a very long-range fighter issued by the Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS), (Soviet Air Forces), in 1946. Intended as an escort fighter, it was also designed for use as a night fighter and reconnaissance aircraft. No prototype was built, although some parts may have begun building before the project was completed.
## Development
After working as Lavochkin's right-hand man during World War II, Semyon Alekseyev was appointed as Chief Designer of OKB-21 at Gor'kiy in 1946. The Council of the People's Commissars directed Alekseyev, among others, to develop jet fighters using more powerful engines than the captured German examples and Soviet-built copies. The OKB was tasked to design a single-seat jet fighter that could meet the very demanding specification of a maximum speed of 980 km/h (610 mph) and a range of 3,000 km (1,900 mi) with drop tanks. The OKB responded with the I-21, which was planned to be built in several variants.
Development of the I-212, one such variant, began in 1947 as a twin-engined, all-metal, two-seat jet fighter. The round, streamlined fuselage was optimized to reduce drag and house the considerable amount of equipment and fuel required by the VVS. It had mid-mounted straight laminar flow wings and the engine nacelles were mounted in the middle of the wing, with the wing spars continued by banjo rings around the engines. The cruciform tail unit was swept at 45°. To save weight, the main load-bearing structures of the airframe were constructed from V-95 aluminium alloy and high-strength steel. Elektron (a magnesium alloy) was used for many components and castings. The aircraft used a tricycle undercarriage with the main wheels retracting into the fuselage. Hydraulically actuated air brakes were fitted either side of the rear fuselage.
The pilot and gunner/radio operator sat in tandem, back to back in a single pressurized cockpit, protected by armour plates to their front and rear, as well as by a bulletproof windscreen, seated on ejection seats. The aircraft was intended to use Klimov VK-1 engines, a derivative of the Rolls-Royce Nene II, but the engine was still under development, so less powerful Kuznetsov RD-45s were substituted instead. The aircraft carried a Toryii-1 radar for use by the gunner/radio operator.
The primary armament was to have been four 23 mm (0.91 in) Nudel'man Suranov NS-23 autocannon mounted in the nose, each with 150 rounds per gun (rpg), and a remote controlled tail barbette, armed with a pair of 20 mm (0.79 in) Berezin B-20 autocannon also equipped with 150 rpg. The design team considered several variations, the first of which was two Nudel'man Suranov NS-23s with 150 rpg and a 45 mm (1.8 in) Nudel'man Suranov NS-45 autocannon with 45 rounds in the nose of the aircraft and a pair of NS-23 in the tail barbette. The second alternative consisted of two 37 mm (1.5 in) Nudel'man Suranov NS-37 and a 57 mm (2.2 in) Nudel'man Suranov NS-57 autocannon in the nose. A single hardpoint under each wing could carry a single 500 kg (1,100 lb) bomb or a drop tank carrying 550 kg (1,210 lb) of fuel.
Despite reports that a prototype began taxiing tests on 30 June 1948, it is now clear that no prototype was actually built and that only manufacturing of the tailplane may have begun.
## Variants
- I-212: Initial version, never built.
- I-213: Proposed heavier version with more fuel and only two forward-facing NS-23s and a single NS-23 in the tail barbette.
- I-214: Proposed version with the tail barbette replaced with a rearwards-facing radar and heavier forward-facing armament.
- UTI-212: Proposed training variant of the I-212 with both crewmen facing forward.
## Specifications (I-212 (estimated))
## See also |
11,740,457 | Washington State Route 538 | 1,152,121,239 | State highway in Washington | [
"State highways in Washington (state)",
"Transportation in Skagit County, Washington"
]
| State Route 538 (SR 538, alternatively named College Way) is a 3.62-mile (5.83 km) long state highway located within the northern area of Mount Vernon city limits and the urban growth boundary, located in Skagit County, a subdivision of the U.S. state of Washington. The highway, which has existed as a county road since 1911, travels from Interstate 5 (I-5) in the west, passing former U.S. Route 99 (US 99), now Riverside Drive, and Skagit Valley College's main Mount Vernon campus before terminating at a roundabout with SR 9.
Before being designated Secondary State Highway 1G (SSH 1G) in 1937, the current roadway that is now SR 538 was a county road through farmland for 26 years. SSH 1G traveled between Primary State Highway 1 (PSH 1), also known as US 99, and SSH 1A until 1964, when the current designation of SR 538 was created. US 99 was bypassed by I-5 after 1966 and became Riverside Drive. The roundabout at SR 9 was constructed in 2007 while the Riverside Drive intersection was widened in 2009.
## Route description
State Route 538 (SR 538) begins at the Interstate 5 (I-5) interchange in northern Mount Vernon located south of the Skagit River. The roadway, which handled a daily average of 27,000 motorists at the interchange in 2008, is named College Way and travels east through a commercial zone, passing Riverside Drive, the former route of U.S. Route 99 (US 99), and crossing a set of rail tracks used by BNSF Railway. Transitioning from a commercial to residential area, the Mount Vernon campus of the Skagit Valley College, located on the north side of the highway, is passed and eventually SR 538 leaves Mount Vernon city limits. The road turns southeast and ends at a roundabout with SR 9 within Mount Vernon's urban growth boundary.
## History
Originating as a county road by 1911, SR 538 was designated Secondary State Highway 1G (SSH 1G) in 1937. SSH 1G ran from Primary State Highway 1 (PSH 1), co-signed as U.S. Route 99 (US 99), to SSH 1A. During the 1964 highway renumbering, SR 538 was created to replace SSH 1G, PSH 1 and US 99 were replaced with Interstate 5 (I-5) and SR 9 replaced SSH 1A. I-5 was not built until after 1966 and the western terminus of SR 538 was still US 99. Between early June and late July 2007, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) constructed a roundabout at the SR 9 and Schopf Lane intersection, the first in Skagit County. The new roundabout reduced the length of SR 538 by 0.05-mile (0.08 km).
In early 2009, between I-5 and 18th Street, WSDOT repaved the highway and expanded the Riverside Drive intersection. A city-led project to widen the section of College Way that passes under I-5 at the western terminus of SR 538 began construction in December 2018 and was completed in 2020. The street was expanded to six lanes, including dedicated left turn lanes and two through lanes that are separated from the rest of traffic by the columns of the underpass.
## Major intersections |
4,163,127 | Global Buddhist Network | 1,170,575,248 | Thai online television channel | [
"2002 establishments in Thailand",
"2016 disestablishments in Thailand",
"Buddhist media",
"Buddhist television",
"Streaming television",
"Television channels and stations disestablished in 2016",
"Television channels and stations established in 2002",
"Television stations in Thailand"
]
| The Global Buddhist Network (GBN), previously known as the Dhammakaya Media Channel (DMC) is a Thai online television channel concerned with Buddhism. The channel's taglines were "The secrets of life revealed" and "The only one", but these were later replaced by "Channel for the path to the cessation of suffering and attainment of Dhamma". The channel features many types of programs with Buddhist content, and has programs in several languages.
The channel started in 2002, as a means to reach remote provinces in Thailand. Controversially, the channel made international headlines in 2012 when it featured a teaching on the afterlife of Steve Jobs. On 26 December 2016, Thai authorities withdrew the permit for the satellite channel permanently, during the legal investigations into the temple by the Thai junta. In April 2017, it was reported, however, that the channel's programming had continued, but broadcast through the Internet only. In its online format, the channel has been renamed Global Buddhist Network.
## Background
DMC started in 2002. The channel was owned by the Dhamma Research for Environment Foundation, part of the temple Wat Phra Dhammakaya. The channel was founded to provide an alternative to the many distractions that surround people in modern life, which lure "people into doing immoral things", as stated by Phra Somsak Piyasilo, spokesperson of the organization. The channel originated from an initiative in 2001 when people living in the far provinces of Thailand wanted to listen to the teachings of the temple. The temple therefore provided live teachings through a thousand public telephone lines, through which people could follow the activities. The telephone lines had many restrictions in use, and the temple started to broadcast through a satellite television channel instead. Later, in 2005, the temple developed an online counterpart to the channel.
The channel is managed by Phra Maha Nopon Puññajayo, who supervises a team of thirty volunteers. Previously, it was known by the pun 'the Dhamma satellite' (Thai: จานดาวธรรม). The channel was one of the first widely spread satellite channels in Thailand, described as a form of "positive television" (Thai: สื่อสีขาว, lit. 'white media'). The channel's taglines were "The secrets of life revealed" and "The only one". Although the channel broadcasts over thirty different programs, the soap operas with Buddhist content have been most awarded: in 2008, the channel received an award from the Society for Positive Television in Thailand, and in 2010, it received an award from the National Anti-Corruption Commission—both were given for the edifying effects of the channel's soap operas. However, a more general award was also given by the House of Representatives in 2010.
In 2016, the channel was ordered to shut down and its permit eventually withdrawn permanently when the junta cracked down on Wat Phra Dhammakaya during the Klongchan controversy. The channel was later revived in a new digital format, called GBN, short for Global Buddhist Network, which can only be accessed through the Internet.
## Programming and availability
The main focus of the channel, as described by the temple, is moral education. It has programs for people of different ages. It broadcasts guided meditations, talks, preaching, songs, documentaries, dramas, live events and cartoons twenty-four hours a day. Songs played on the channel are often parody versions of popular songs, in diverse genres, with Buddhist content. They explain Buddhist customs and pay homage to important teachers. The programming is aimed at different age groups and diverse communities: e.g. there is a cartoon series about the Jātaka tales for children. The most popular program is a broadcast of a teaching called Fan Nai Fan, which also includes a guided meditation. Before the 2016 crackdown by the Thai junta, the channel could be watched or listened to for free through satellite television, Internet, cable and radio. In 2005, it was reported that DMC had a hundred thousand viewers. In 2016, the satellite channel could be received in all continents in the world, except for South America. The channel has programs in Thai, English, French, Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese, Polish, Russian, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Mongolian and Japanese, and other's Etc. language.
The channel was also broadcast in public places like temples, hotels and prisons. It sought cooperation with other Buddhist countries as well: the temple has assisted with establishing a Sri Lankan television channel with Buddhist content called Shraddha TV, for which it has made content available for free and hired Sri Lankans to help translate. For some programs Burmese Abhidhamma teachers were consulted.
## Steve Jobs episode
In 2012, the temple broadcast a talk by Luang Por Dhammajayo, the then abbot of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, about what happened to Steve Jobs after his death. The talk came as a response to a software engineer of Apple who had sent a letter with questions to the abbot. Luang Por Dhammajayo described how Steve Jobs looked like in heaven. He said that Jobs had been reborn as a deva (heavenly being) living close to his former offices, as a result of the karma of having given knowledge to people. He was a deva with a creative, but angry temperament. The talk was much criticized, and the abbot was accused of pretending to have attained an advanced meditative state and of attempting to outshine other temples. The temple answered the critics, saying that the talk was meant to illustrate principles of karma, not to defame Jobs, nor to fake an advanced state.
Critics such as Phra Paisal Visalo and religion scholar Surapot Taweesak pressed the Supreme Sangha Council, who leads the monastic community in Thailand, to investigate further as to whether Luang Por Dhammajayo had fraudulent intentions. Surapot, known for his libertarian views on separation of religion and state, was criticized by sociologist Kengkit Kitirianglap and others, however, for abandoning his libertarian position. With regard to the teaching about Steve Jobs, Kengkit argued that the state, of which the council is part, should not get involved in what is "true Buddhism" and what is not. Surapot replied that urging the council to crack down on Luang Por Dhammajayo does not go against democratic principles, because the monastic discipline applies to all monks equally.
## Shutdown
In 2014, Wat Phra Dhammakaya came under scrutiny under the new military junta and in 2015 was implicated in the Klongchan controversy. 11.37 billion baht (\$3.6M, €2.9M or £2.6M, as of April 2018) was allegedly embezzled from the Klongchan Credit Union Cooperative, in which a portion totaling over one billion baht was found to have been given to the temple via public donations. The investigations resulted in several failed raids on the temple and the channel was ordered to shut down for thirty days, authorities citing that the channel was used to mobilize people to resist a possible arrest of the former abbot, as people had done during the first raid. The temple appealed to a higher court, denying the accusations and stating that insufficient evidence had been provided. The temple further described the shutdown as an infringement of human rights.
The channel's broadcast permit was permanently withdrawn the same month, on 26 December. Critics compared the shutdown with the military crackdown during the 1992 Black May protest, news outlet Bangkok Post criticizing the National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission for "operating outside the courts and justice system". The online channel was still available. Despite the channel being shut down, Thai Rath and other main media outlets have continued to broadcast the temple's ceremonies. The temple has stated that the number of people joining ceremonies has increased since the shutdown, people showing sympathy with the temple and the satellite channel.
## Revival and aftermath
On 24 April 2017, a host of the Inside Thailand program on Spring News noticed a revival of the Dhammakaya Media Channel through a new digital format, called GBN, short for Global Buddhist Network. The new tagline of the channel was "Channel for the path to the cessation of suffering and attainment of Dhamma". The channel could be received through the Internet only, and featured very similar contents as before, although the temple's spokesperson assured there would be no further attempts at mobilizing people. Thus, the channel continued in online formats only, through a website and a separate online broadcast. As of 2017, the website ranked 674th of all Thai websites on the Alexa ranking.
The closing down of DMC was not the last time that the junta decided to impose sanctions against a media outlet. In March 2017, the junta closed down Voice TV for seven days, after the channel criticized the martial law imposed on Wat Phra Dhammakaya during the junta's crackdown. And in August the same year, Peace TV was also closed down for a month, the junta citing "it broke the rules of the NCPO". Some reports related this to a policy of removing former PM Thaksin's influence, a policy which has also been connected with Wat Phra Dhammakaya.
## See also
- The Buddhist (TV channel)
- Shraddha TV
- Lord Buddha TV |
69,643,476 | Carl Etelman | 1,163,228,829 | American football player and coach (1900–1963) | [
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| Carl Edward Etelman (April 1, 1900 – December 18, 1963) was an American football back and coach. After playing college football at Tufts University in Massachusetts, he played semi-professional football for the independent St Alphonsus Athletic Association from 1924 to 1926. He also played professionally in the American Football League (AFL) and National Football League (NFL) for the Boston Bulldogs and Providence Steam Roller, before returning to the semi-pro ranks with the Fitton Athletic Club, where he spent three seasons. After his playing career, Etelman coached the Whitman High School football team in Massachusetts for 18 years, and also coached the semi-professional Old Town team of Abington for two years.
## Early life and education
Etelman was born on April 1, 1900, in Fairhaven, Massachusetts. He attended Fairhaven High School and Academy and graduated in 1920. In football, he was team captain as a senior and played the quarterback position, leading the team to several "big wins with his dramatic passing and running," according to The Standard-Times. At five feet eight inches tall, he was nicknamed "midget" by his teammates.
In 1920, Etelman matriculated at Tufts College—now known as Tufts University—where he starred in football, baseball, and basketball. He eventually earned five varsity letters, including three in football. A 1922 article in The Boston Globe wrote, "Coach Casey's best bet at quarter[back] is Carl Etelman. He is a good general and may be trusted to run the team in an excellent manner and, if need be, reel off many gains himself."
On a play in the 1923 season opener against , Etelman returned a punt and after "dodging a handful of defenders and bouncing off a couple of others, eventually fought his way into the end zone" for a touchdown. He collapsed onto the field after reaching the goal line, and it was found that he fractured his ankle and injured his collarbone. He was done for the game, and several newspaper headlines called him out for the year. However, he returned to the starting lineup against Harvard three weeks later with a reinforced special plate and extra strap in his shoe. Stanley Woodard, for the Boston Herald, wrote:
> "If you had seen Carl Etelman reeling one substantial gain after another against the freshmen team you would have been among those who could not be convinced that he broke his left ankle in the first game of the season. Yet it is a fact and two weeks ago it was in a cage.
>
> ...
>
> After this year's Lowell Textile game Carl was done up in a cast and consigned to the sidelines. George Perry was trained to fill the position. Ten days thereafter Carl emerged from the cast and hopped about on a pair of crutches. The leg got well in surprising fashion no doubt stimulated somewhat by his great desire to play football. Soon the crutches were discarded along with the cast and before anyone knew it he was back in a football uniform and just as fast and shifty as ever.
>
> That is the story of Carl Etelman. Two fractures of the left ankle in two years have failed to keep him out of the Tufts lineup. If anyone should give his leg a thump tomorrow and break it again you could not convince anyone at Tufts that he would not be back on the field in a week or two."
In the season finale against Massachusetts, Etelman broke his ankle again, but stayed in the game and two plays later kicked a 40-yard field goal, after which he was carried off the field. The field goal was the margin of victory for Tufts. Following the season, he was named all-New England at quarterback and to the all-Eastern team by The New York Times.
Etelman, who was Jewish, was a member of the Phi Epsilon Pi fraternity at Tufts. After graduating from Tufts with a bachelor's degree in 1924, Etelman had graduate studies at Harvard University and Boston University.
## Professional career
Following his graduation from Tufts, Etelman played professional and semi-professional football to stay in shape while coaching the Whitman High School football team. He started with the St Alphonsus Athletic Association, also referred to as the "Roxbury Club", in 1924. In their opening game of the 1925 season before 12,000 fans, the Athletic Association won against the Dorchester Town Team 20–0. Etelman's play was described as "the game's feature." The Boston Globe wrote,
> "The St Alphonsus Association football team of Roxbury opened its season yesterday afternoon at the Fens Playground, defeating the Dorchester Town Team, 20 to 0 ... The Town Team was kept on the defensive throughout the game and not once did it succeed in carrying the ball beyond the St Alphonsus 40-yard line. Carl Etelman, quarterback on the Tufts College team last season, was at the helm for St Alphonsus, and his running of punts and all-around play proved the feature of the game."
Prior to a game against the Fitton Athletic Club in the season finale, The Boston Globe wrote, "Carl Etelman, whose spectacular work has featured all the St Alphonsus victories this season, will again be at the helm. He is a good punter, a clever passer and one of the best broken field runners ever turned out at Tufts."
Etelman played for several teams during the 1926 season. At the beginning of the year, he returned to Fairhaven High School with former teammates to play the New Bedford High School, in the first matchup between the two teams in years; they had previously stopped the rivalry due to a dispute. It was played before a crowd of about 2,000, which was the largest opening day attendance the stadium had received in years. Fairhaven was victorious on a game-winning 23-yard field goal by Etelman.
Most of the crowd had reportedly come to watch him, as he was under contract in the American Football League (AFL) with the Boston Bulldogs. He was one of the "big names" on the team, and was their "signal caller." He played in just three games with the Bulldogs, wearing number 5, before returning to the St Alphonsus Athletic Association.
Etelman also played one game during 1926 for the Providence Steam Roller of the National Football League (NFL), coming in as a starter in his only appearance with the team. He wore number 14 with the Steam Roller.
His final team of 1926 was the Fitton Athletic Club, and he returned to play with them again in 1927, "turning many a seeming defeat into a victory with his skill and daring." He retired in 1928, but made a final return to his playing career in 1929 with Fitton.
## Coaching career
After graduating from Tufts, Etelman acquired a position at Whitman High School in Whitman, Massachusetts, as director of physical education and football coach. He served as their head coach for 18 years before serving in World War II. The Boston Globe in October 1935 wrote, "Carl Etelman, ex-Providence Steamroller backfield wizard, coaches the Whitman High bunch, and has been doing a bang-up job. Whitman was South Shore champion last year, losing but one game, to North Quincy. That tilt was the second game of the 1934 season, and since then, Whitman has gone unbeaten and untied."
In 1928, while serving as head coach for Whitman High School, Etelman also coached the Old Town team of Abington in football. On October 12, 1928, he coached Abington against the Fitton Athletic Club, who he had formerly played for in 1926 and 1927. A game preview in The Boston Globe wrote, "Then there is the presence of Carl Etelman as coach of Abington team. For two years Etelman was a power in the Fitton backfield ... Now that he is mentor for the Abington outfit, the Fittons will need all their skill and strength to pull out a win." In 1929, Etelman left Abington to play for Fitton, but returned to Abington in 1930 as their head coach.
## Personal life and death
Etelman was married to Idyla Etelman, with whom he had two children. His brother-in-law, Benjamin D. Gould, also attended Tufts and was a mayor of Vergennes, Vermont.
From 1945 until his death in 1963, he worked as a sales manager for Ward Machinery Co. of Brockton, Massachusetts. He was also involved in several civic endeavors, serving as a member of Puritan and Ezra Lodges, the finance chairman of the local Republican Party, chairman of the Temple Israel Hebrew School, and director of several youth camps.
Etelman died on December 18, 1963, in Boston, Massachusetts, after a long illness. He was 63 at the time of his death. |
6,996,933 | Missy Higgins | 1,173,613,020 | Australian musician (born 1983) | [
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]
| Melissa Morrison Higgins (born 19 August 1983) is an Australian singer-songwriter and musician. Her Australian number-one albums are The Sound of White (2004), On a Clear Night (2007) and The Ol' Razzle Dazzle (2012), and her singles include "Scar", "Steer" and "Where I Stood". Higgins was nominated for five ARIA Music Awards in 2004 and won 'Best Pop Release' for "Scar". In 2005, she was nominated for seven more awards and won five. Higgins won her seventh ARIA in 2007. Her third album, The Ol' Razzle Dazzle, was released in Australia in June 2012 (July 2012 in the US). As of August 2014, Higgins' first three studio albums had sold over one million units.
Higgins' fourth studio album, OZ, was released in September 2014 and consists of cover versions of Australian composers, as well as a book of related essays.
Alongside her music career, Higgins pursues interests in animal rights and the environment, endeavouring to make her tours carbon neutral. In 2010 she made her acting debut in the feature film Bran Nue Dae and also performed on its soundtrack.
## Biography
### Early life
Higgins was born in Melbourne, to Christopher Higgins, an English-Australian general practitioner, and Margaret (née Morrison), an Australian childcare centre operator. Her sister, Nicola, is seven years older and her brother, David, six years older. Higgins learned to play classical piano from age six, following in the footsteps of Christopher and David, but realised she wanted to be a singer at about 12, when she appeared in an Armadale Primary School production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. Bored with practice, she gave up playing piano at that time. Hoping for more freedom, she urged her parents to send her to Geelong Grammar School, an independent boarding school that her siblings attended. At Geelong, Higgins took up the piano again, this time playing jazz and performing with her brother David's group on weekends. Introverted by nature, Higgins found that piano practice helped her cope with living at boarding school.
At 15, while attending Geelong Grammar's Timbertop, she wrote "All for Believing" for a school music assignment, completing it just hours before the deadline. The assignment earned an A and she performed her song in front of classmates. She approached a Melbourne record company and was told that they wanted more than one song. She wrote more songs and worked with the Kool Skools project, which enables students to record music. In 2001, Missy's sister Nicola entered "All for Believing" on her behalf in Unearthed, radio station Triple J's competition for unsigned artists. The song won the competition and was added to the station's play list.
Two record companies showed an interest in Higgins—Sony and Eleven. She signed with Eleven, partly because they agreed that she would not be "made into a pop star" and partly because they were happy for her to take time off for a backpacking holiday. Higgins' manager is Eleven's John Watson, who also managed rock band Silverchair. Watson later disclosed that "Missy's the only time in my career I knew after 90 seconds I really wanted to sign her." The backpacking trip had been planned with a friend for years and the pair spent most of 2002 in Europe; while Higgins was travelling, "All for Believing" started to receive airplay on Los Angeles radio station KCRW. Such radio exposure attracted the attention of American record labels and, by year's end, an international recording deal with Warner Bros. had been negotiated.
### 2003–2005: The Sound of White
Higgins was the support act on a 2003 Australian tour by folk rock band The Waifs and rock band george. She travelled to the US to work with John Porter, who produced her first EP, The Missy Higgins EP, which was released in November and entered the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Singles Chart Top 50 in August 2004.
She toured Australia, supporting Pete Murray and John Butler Trio. Her four-track single "Scar'" was released in July 2004 and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Charts. Her first album, The Sound of White, was released in September, and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart. Also produced by Porter, it sold over 500,000 copies. She was nominated in five categories at the ARIA Music Awards of 2004 for "Scar": Best Female Artist', 'Single of the Year', 'Best Pop Release', 'Breakthrough Artist – Single' and 'Best Video' (directed by Squareyed Films). At the awards ceremony on 17 October, she received the award for Best Pop Release, beating Delta Goodrem, The Dissociatives, Kylie Minogue and Pete Murray. This was followed by her first national headline tour. Her second single "Ten Days" was co-written with Jay Clifford (guitarist in US band Jump, Little Children) and was inspired by Higgins' 2002 break-up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe. Released in November, it peaked at No. 12.
On 29 January 2005, Higgins performed with other local musicians including Nick Cave and Powderfinger at the WaveAid fundraising concert in the Sydney Cricket Ground. The concert raised A\$2.3 million for four charities supporting the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. In March Higgins performed at the MTV Australia Awards and won the prize for 'Breakthrough Artist of the Year'. The following month she released her third single, "The Special Two", which was a radio hit and reached No. 2. "The Special Two" was released on an EP which included her cover of the Skyhooks song, "You Just Like Me Cos I'm Good in Bed", recorded for Triple J's 30th anniversary. The song had been the first track played on Triple J when it launched (as Double J) in 1975. In May, Higgins won the 'Song of the Year' and 'Breakthrough' awards for "Scar" from the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA). She continued touring in mid-2005 and released her fourth single, "The Sound of White", in August. In September she played a sold-out performance at the Vanguard in Sydney with the proceeds going to charity. She was nominated for seven more ARIAs and in October won 'Album of the Year', 'Best Pop Release', 'Breakthrough Artist – Album' and 'Highest Selling Album' (all for The Sound of White) and 'Best Female Artist' (for "Scar"). She teamed up with fellow ARIA award-winning singer Ben Lee in late 2005 for a national tour.
### 2006–2009: On a Clear Night
During 2006, Higgins lived in Broome, Western Australia for six months, away from the entertainment industry. The relaxed lifestyle helped her focus on writing new material. The landscape made a big impression, "It was the first place I'd ever felt honestly connected with my country, with the physical land of my country" and inspired her to write "Going North". She then toured the United States and South Africa, writing more material on the road. In September she based herself in Los Angeles to record her second album, On a Clear Night, with producer Mitchell Froom. "Steer" was released as an EP, followed a fortnight later by its album on 28 April 2007, both debuted at No. 1 on their respective charts.
In February, Higgins had contributed a tribute song to the album, Cannot Buy My Soul, for noted indigenous singer, Kev Carmody, singing "Droving Woman" with musician Paul Kelly and group Augie March. On 7 July, she participated in the Live Earth concert in Sydney, performing her own set before joining Carmody, Kelly and vocalist John Butler on stage for the song "From Little Things Big Things Grow". Emily Dunn in The Sydney Morning Herald wrote "[the song] could have been the event's anthem". Rolling Stone'''s Dan Lander pointed out a highlight, when the "whole crowd sung along – all eleven verses."
Higgins returned to Los Angeles to focus on the US market—she spent September and October touring—where she was still relatively unknown. On 26 October, backed by the Sydney Youth Orchestra, she headlined the annual Legs 11 concert, a breast cancer benefit held in The Domain, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Two days later Higgins performed at the 2007 ARIAs where she was nominated for 'Best Pop Release', 'Highest Selling Album' and 'Highest Selling Single' (for "Steer") and won 'Best Female Artist' (for On a Clear Night)—her seventh ARIA Music Award. On 31 October, she was a guest at television music channel MAX's inaugural Concert for the Cure, a private concert for people affected by breast cancer. She sang headline act Powderfinger's "Sunsets" with front man Bernard Fanning and joined in with the encore of "These Days". She spent November and December on her For One Night Only Tour, taking in Cairns, Sydney and Perth. You Am I lead singer, Tim Rogers, joined her on some shows.
On a Clear Night, was released in the US on 26 February 2008, supported by a tour in March. Her ten-month stay in Los Angeles during 2008 promoted her songs for films and television shows. Her first US single "Where I Stood" was featured in US series including Grey's Anatomy, One Tree Hill and So You Think You Can Dance. During 2008, Higgins supported the Indigo Girls and then Ben Folds on their respective US tours. February and March 2009 saw her co-headlining a US tour with Canadian Justin Nozuka. On 31 March she released an EP, More Than This in Australia that features cover versions of "More Than This" by Roxy Music, "(I'm) In Love Again" by Peggy Lee, "Breakdown" by Tom Petty and "Moses" by Patty Griffin. "Moses" had been included on Triple J's 2005 compilation album Like a Version: Volume One and "More Than This" was recorded as part of Covered, A Revolution in Sound, a Warner Bros. tribute album also released in March 2009.
### 2010–2013: The Ol' Razzle Dazzle
Higgins started writing music for her third album in 2009. After about seven years of touring and recording she took a break from the music industry to pursue other interests. In 2010 she enrolled in a course in indigenous studies at the University of Melbourne. Her acting debut was as Annie in 2010 film Bran Nue Dae directed by Rachel Perkins. The film is an adaptation of the 1990 musical Bran Nue Dae, "Australia's first Aboriginal musical". Although Higgins would consider future acting projects, she has no plans to actively pursue it as a career.
In July and August 2010, Higgins played several dates of Sarah McLachlan's Lilith Fair tour in the US. At Lilith Fair, she met Australian musician Butterfly Boucher and they decided to work together. In 2011, Higgins travelled to where Boucher was living in Nashville to record her third album, which is co-produced by Boucher and Brad Jones. Titled The Ol' Razzle Dazzle, the album was released on 1 June 2012. Its first single, "Unashamed Desire", co-written with Boucher, was released on 23 April. In November 2011, at the ARIA Music Awards, Higgins performed a duet of "Warwu" with Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu, from his Rrakala album.
"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle" album debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart the week of 12 June 2012. It was Higgins' 3rd straight number one album. As of January 2019, Higgins ties Olivia Newton-John for the 3rd highest tally of Australian Number One albums by an Australian female artist. Only Delta Goodrem (with four Number 1 ARIA albums) and Kylie Minogue and Kasey Chambers (with five each) have achieved more.
### 2014: Oz
In September 2014, Higgins released her fourth studio album, Oz, which features cover versions of Australian composers, including The Angels, Slim Dusty, Something For Kate, Warumpi Band, Paul Kelly and The Drones. The album is also accompanied by a book of related essays, in which Higgins uses each of the recordings to reflect upon subjects such as music and love. Higgins collaborated with Dan Sultan for the recording of the Slim Dusty song "The Biggest Disappointment".
Higgins explained in an October 2014 interview that she experienced a significant bout of writer's block following the completion of her second album and someone suggested an album of cover versions at the time, but she only revisited the idea during the conception of Oz. Higgins further explained:
> I responded to all these songs on an emotional level, when I first heard them. I wanted songs I felt I could tell with my own voice, and interpret them authentically ... But it was important to maintain the emotional integrity and the heart of the song. It was a high priority to keep true to the songs.
The album was co-produced by Jherek Bischoff, who previously worked with David Byrne, formerly of Talking Heads, and Amanda Palmer.
Oz debuted at number 3 on the ARIA Albums chart and remained in the top five positions until 18 October 2014.
The national Australian tour in support of Oz commenced on 20 September 2014 in Cairns, Queensland, and ended in Melbourne in October 2014. Higgins was accompanied by Bischoff, and Australian artist Dustin Tebbutt appeared as a special guest.
### 2015–present: Solastalgia, The Special Ones and Total Control
On 19 February 2016, Higgins released a new single titled, "Oh Canada", in her response to the death of Alan Kurdi.
In May 2017, Higgins released "Torchlight", for the Australian drama film, Don't Tell.
In October 2017, Higgins appeared in a revival of the 1996 musical Miracle City by Nick Enright and Max Lambert at the Sydney Opera House, playing the role of Bonnie Mae.
In February 2018, Higgins released the single "Futon Couch", the first single from her fifth studio album, called Solastalgia, released in May 2018.
In February 2018, it was announced that Missy Higgins would support Ed Sheeran's tour around Australia.
In November 2018, Higgins released her first greatest hits album titled The Special Ones. A stand-alone single, "When the Machine Starts", was released in November 2020; a second, "Edge of Something", was released in October 2021.
In October 2019, new music by Higgins featured in the Australian television series Total Control. This would later serve as the basis of a mini-album, also titled Total Control, that Higgins announced in February 2022. It is set for release on 4 March 2022.
## Musical influences and technique
Higgins grew up in the 1980s and 1990s listening to artists that her older siblings liked—Nicola played Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston, while David favoured Queen and Kiss. Departing for boarding school at age 13, she was exposed to alternative artists like Nirvana and Hole and started teaching herself guitar and writing her own music. She also began singing with David's jazz group on weekends. As an adult she prefers Nina Simone and Ray Charles to "poppy dance music". She has cited Patty Griffin, Ron Sexsmith, Rufus Wainwright, Paul Kelly and Sarah McLachlan as influences. Material from her third album is influenced by ambient music from Low, Jon Hopkins, Icelandic band Sigur Rós and Estonian classical composer Arvo Pärt.
Higgins' song writing grew out of a desire to express her emotions when she was at school and her lyrics describe her feelings about her own life and relationships. The piano was the first instrument she learned to play, and she continues to use it as well as digital pianos including a Roland RD-300SX, RD-700 and KR-15. She also uses guitars extensively in her music particularly when touring, due to their portable nature and favours the Australian brand, Maton. On occasion she plays keytar, xylophone and melodica during performances.
On 7 September 2012, Higgins recorded a cover version of Gotye's "Heart's A Mess" for the "Like a Version" segment on Australian radio station Triple J, explaining on-air that the song is her favourite Gotye composition. Higgins had travelled with Gotye previously and referred to him as "an incredible singer" in the interview prior to the rendition.
In the 2020 Australian documentary film Slim and I, directed by Kriv Stenders, Higgins paid tribute to the influence on her life and career of acclaimed Australian country music singer-songwriting couple Slim Dusty and Joy McKean. The film features interviews and covers of McKean songs by acclaimed contemporary artists including Higgins (The Biggest Disappointment), Keith Urban, Paul Kelly, and Troy Cassar-Daley.
## Activism and charitable works
Higgins has been active and vocal about many issues including climate and environmental issues, animal welfare, female empowerment, refugees and Indigenous issues.These issues have been influential to her works throughout her career.
### Climate and environment
Higgins has been a longtime advocate for the environment and has actively participated in many environmental initiatives and events aimed at raising awareness on climate change and environmental issues. She is currently a patron of Green Music Australia, which aims to harness the cultural power of music to create a greener and safer planet.
From her early tours such as her ‘On A Clear Night’ tour, Higgins has aimed for her tours to be carbon neutral, and she was named one of Billboard magazine’s 2007 Top 10 Green Artists. She also contributed to Green Music Australia and Creative Victoria’s 2022 initiative ‘Sound Country: A Green Artist Guide’ which aims to provide a practical framework for touring musicians to implement sustainable solutions.
Higgins has also participated in many environmental fundraising and donation campaigns including the Sierra Club’s 2009 2% Solution Campaign where she made her song ‘Where I Stood’ available for free to those who pledged to decrease their carbon output by 2% . Higgins also donated royalties from her 2009 digital EP More Than This to the Save the Kimberley organisation focused on conservation of Western Australia’s Kimberley Region; an area which Higgins is passionate about protecting from industrialisation. In October 2012, Higgins also performed at two "Save the Kimberley" events held at Federation Square in Melbourne and The Esplanade in Fremantle, Western Australia; march to protest against the proposed gas refinery construction at James Price Point accompanied the free concert and campaign supporters were photographed with banners and placards.
Higgins was among 21 artists to write and record music for the album ‘Sounds for the Reef’ which raised funds for legal action against plans to turn Queensland’s Abbot Point into one of the world’s largest coal ports and the decision to allow dredging near the Great Barrier Reef. The album's 21 songs were sold on the Bandcamp website.
Higgins also vocally protested against the Adani coal mine in 2017, writing an open letter to the former Australian Opposition Leader Bill Shorten and current Australian Attorney-General Mark Dreyfus, and donating time to narrating two campaign videos and the \#StopAdani Roadshow Opener.
Climate change played a large role in the creation of the music for her 2018 album ‘Solostalgia', which was named for a kind of distress brought on by environmental changes close to home. The album is also influenced by the feeling of climate grief and climate anxiety.
### Animal welfare
Higgins has been a vegetarian for many years after being introduced to the idea by an ex-boyfriend and wanted to do something for animals rights after reading ‘Eating Animals’ by Jonathan Safran Foer. She helped promote the 2005 People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) advertising campaign and has supported their anti-fur stance.
In 2012, Higgins voiced a series of radio advertisements organised by the group Animals Australia in a campaign to put an end to battery-hen egg production in Australia. Higgins was one of numerous publicly known advocates for the 'Oscar's Law' campaign. The campaign, launched in 2010, protests against the existence of "puppy factories" in Australia, whereby animals are factory farmed. One of the campaign's slogans was "Break the Puppy Trade—Don't buy puppies from pet shops" and the list of notable advocates included Paul Dempsey, Kate Ceberano and Mick Molloy.
Higgins has also performed at animal welfare and conservation related fundraising and awareness concerts.This includes kicking off Animal Australia’s 2013 event ‘Animal Matters’ with a performance of ‘Hidden Ones’, and performing at Melbourne Zoo’s Twilights concert in 2012, 2013 and the 2020 where proceeds from the event went to conservation efforts and aims to save threatened species.
### Refugees
In 2016, Missy Higgins released “Oh Canada” which was written from the perspective of the refugee father of Alan Kurdi, a two year old Syrian boy who drowned while fleeing to Europe. All of the song’s net profits went to the Asylum Seeker Resource Centre (ASRC), and Higgins performed the song during the ASRC telethon held on World Refugee Day. In 2017 Higgins was announced as a new ASRC Ambassador and in 2018 appeared on ABC’s Q&A program and expressed her views on the Australian Government’s treatment of asylum seekers.
Higgins also featured in the 2022 documentary ‘Scattered People: A Song Can Take You Home’ presented by the ASRC and Being Reel Films, along with other Australian Musicians.
### Female empowerment
Rolling Stone Australia called Higgins’ soundtrack for the second season of the ABC drama Total Control an “outspoken fight for equality”, and the work was inspired by Grace Tame and Brittany Higgins and the 2021 Australian Parliament House sexual misconduct allegations, with themes of exploitation and female empowerment. The album was about taking control as a woman, with songs like ‘I Take It Back’ which was written about reclaiming story, identity and power as a woman.
In 2021, Higgins appeared on the panel of ABC’s Q&A Season Finale 'Power, Protests and Parliament' and discussed her views on the behaviour of Australian Parliament in relation to women in parliament, advice for young women who want to move into the music industry and the power imbalance of the music industry.
Higgins also headlined the all-female festival tour ‘Wildflower’ in 2022 alongside Kate Miller-Heidke, Kasey Chambers, Sarah Blasko, Deborah Conway, Thornbird and Alice Skye in order to celebrate women and the return of the live scene.
Generational strength has also been a motivator for Higgins, wanting to show her daughter how to be a strong, independent woman.
### Indigenous issues
Higgins undertook an Indigenous Studies course at the University of Melbourne and has been a vocal supporter of Indigenous Australian peoples for years. In 2007 she joined the Oxfam Australia ‘Close the Gap’ campaign and recorded a cover of 'Droving Woman' with Augie March on the tribute album to Kev Carmody, an Aboriginal Australian singer-songwriter and musician. In 2008, Higgins collaborated on a re-release of the song “From Little Things Big Things Grow” along with Tim Levison and others. The song begins with a sample from the 2008 Formal Apology to the Stolen Generations made by former Australia Prime Minister Kevin Rudd.
When discussing the Indigenous Voice to Parliament Higgins stated that First Nations people have never been treated as equals and have been oppressed as a people.
Higgins mentioned that her album Total Control was partly inspired by strong First Nations women who she knew and in an interview with Rolling Stone Australia, Higgin’s was quoted saying “Australian First Nations people have to cop so much every day and they’re still surviving in a country that refuses to acknowledge our history.”.
### Other charitable works
Higgins has also been involved in other charitable works throughout her career.
All proceeds from her 2015 charity show at Sydney’s ‘The Vanguard’ were donated to the One In Five Foundation, a Melbourne charity supporting research into mental health.
In 2020, along with Tim Minchin, Higgins gave her support to the Fred Hollows Foundation with the collaborative song "Carry You" which was adapted to the foundation's 2020 campaign to encourage people to carry on Fred Hollows's legacy of ending avoidable blindness. She also performed the song with Minchin at the streamed charity concert Music from the Home Front which paid tribute to the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and workers on the frontline of COVID-19 pandemic responses. Proceeds from the album of the same name went towards the music crisis charity Support Act.
In 2022, Higgins headlined the Nine Network telethon concert in support of the Children’s Hospital Foundation, raising funds for medical research, equipment and support services for young patients and their families. Higgins also joined the Australian Red Cross event Australia Unites: Red Cross Flood Appeal along with other Australian artists in order to raise funds for victims of the 2022 eastern Australia floods.
## Personal life
Higgins has been a patron of multiple mental health charities since 2003. She described her younger self as "a bit of a depressed child" and "introverted", and that she had "experienced various degrees of depression". Prescribed antidepressant medication while in high school, she learned to channel low moods into songwriting, calling music her "emotional outlet". In a 2006 interview she said that her songs were "coming from more of a happier place". While recording her second album, she discovered a passion for rock climbing, as a "meditative pursuit" and that, "It's the first and last thing I've had – other than music – that I'm passionate about."
From 2004 to 2007, Higgins' sexual orientation was the subject of media speculation based partly on interpretations of her lyrics and her interviews. In an October 2007 interview with Australian lesbian magazine Cherrie, she was asked if she fell under the moniker of "not-so-straight" girls. She replied "Um, yeah, definitely. ... I think sexuality is a fluid thing and it's becoming increasingly more acceptable to admit that you're that way." In November 2007, her Myspace page and website reported, "I've been in relationships with both men and women so I guess I fall most easily under the category 'Bisexual'."
In 2013, Higgins began a relationship with Broome playwright and comedian Dan Lee. Higgins gave birth to a son in 2015. Higgins and Lee were married in March 2016, and she gave birth to a daughter in August 2018. In early 2022, Higgins and Lee amicably separated.
## Discography
- The Sound of White (2004)
- On a Clear Night (2007)
- The Ol' Razzle Dazzle (2012)
- Oz (2014)
- Solastalgia (2018)
## Filmography
- 2010: Bran Nue Dae as Annie
- 2014: Unity – Narrator (Documentary)
## Awards and nominations
### APRA Awards
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA). Higgins has won two awards from eight nominations.
\|- \|rowspan="3"\| 2005 \| "Scar" (Missy Higgins, Kevin Griffin) – Missy Higgins \| Song of the Year \| \|- \| "Ten Days" (Missy Higgins, Jay Clifford) – Missy Higgins \| Song of the Year \| \|- \| Missy Higgins \| Breakthrough Award \|\| \|- \|rowspan="3"\| 2006 \| rowspan="2"\| "The Special Two" (Missy Higgins) – Missy Higgins \| Song of the Year \| \|- \| Most Performed Australian Work \| \|- \| "Ten Days" (Missy Higgins, Jay Clifford) \| Most Performed Australian Work \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 2013 \| "Everyone's Waiting" (Missy Higgins and Daniel Wilson) \|rowspan="2"\| Song of the Year \| \|- \| "Set Me On Fire" (Missy Higgins, Butterfly Boucher and Daniel Wilson) \| \|- \| 2017 \| "Oh Canada" \| Song of the Year \| \|- \|rowspan="3"\| 2020 \| "Carry You" (Tim Minchin) – Missy Higgins \|rowspan="2"\| Best Original Song Composed for the Screen
\| \|- \| "Edge of Something" (Higgins, Antony Partos, Matteo Zingales) – Missy Higgins \| \|- \| "Arrows" \| Song of the Year \| \|- \| 2021 \| "Carry You" (Tim Minchin) – Missy Higgins \| Song of the Year \| \|- \| 2022 \| "Bloody Game" from Total Control \| Best Original Song Composed for the Screen \| \|- \| 2023 \| "Edge of Something" \| Song of the Year \| \|-
### ARIA Awards
The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Higgins has won nine awards from twenty-five nominations.
\|- \| rowspan="5"\| 2004 \| rowspan="4"\|"Scar" \| Single of the Year \| \|- \| Best Female Artist \| \|- \| Breakthrough Artist – Single \| \|- \| Best Pop Release \| \|- \| "Scar" – Squareyed Films \| Best Video \| \|- \| rowspan="8"\| 2005 \| rowspan="5"\| The Sound of White \| Album of the Year \| \|- \| Best Female Artist \| \|- \| Highest Selling Album \| \|- \| Breakthrough Artist – Album \| \|- \| Best Pop Release \| \|- \| The Sound of White – Cathie Glassby \| Best Cover Art \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\|"The Special Two" \| Single of the Year \| \|- \| Highest Selling Single \| \|- \| 2006 \| If You Tell Me Yours, I'll Tell You Mine \| Best Music DVD \| \|- \| rowspan="4"\| 2007 \| rowspan="3"\| On a Clear Night \| Best Female Artist \| \|- \| Best Pop Release \| \|- \| Highest Selling Album \| \|- \| "Steer" \| Highest Selling Single \| \|- \| 2008 \| "Peachy" \| rowspan="2"\| Best Female Artist \| \|- \| rowspan="4"\| 2012 \| rowspan="3"\| The Ol' Razzle Dazzle \| \|- \| Album of the Year \| \|- \| Best Adult Contemporary Album \| \|- \| "Everyone's Waiting" – Natasha Pincus \| Best Video \| \|- \| 2013 \| "Set Me on Fire" \| Best Female Artist \| \|- \| 2018 \| Solastalgia \| rowspan="2"\| Best Adult Contemporary Album \| \|- \| 2022 \| Total Control \| \|-
### EG Awards / Music Victoria Awards
The EG Awards (known as Music Victoria Awards since 2013) are an annual awards night celebrating Victorian music. They commenced in 2006.
\|- \| 2007 \| rowspan="2"\| Missy Higgins \| rowspan="2"\| Best Female \| \|- \| 2014 \| \|-
### Helpmann Awards
The Helpmann Awards is an awards show, celebrating live entertainment and performing arts in Australia, presented by industry group Live Performance Australia since 2001. Note: 2020 and 2021 were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
! Ref. \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 2005 \| rowspan="2"\| Missy Higgins \| Best Performance in an Australian Contemporary Concert \| \| rowspan="2"\| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Best Australian Contemporary Concert \| \|- \| 2017 \| Missy Higgins Orchestral Concert Series 2016'' \| \| \|-
### MTV Australia Video Music Award
The MTV Australia Video Music Award were presented annually from 2005 to 2009 by MTV Australia.
\|- \| rowspan="3"\| 2005 \|\| rowspan="3"\| Missy Higgins \|\| Best Female \|\| \|- \| Best Breakthrough \|\| \|- \| Supernova Award \|\| \|- \| 2006 \|\| "The Special Two" Missy Higgins \|\| Best Female Artist \|\| \|- |
71,537,925 | Vladimirka (painting) | 1,146,038,784 | Painting by Isaac Levitan | [
"1892 paintings",
"Collections of the Tretyakov Gallery",
"Paintings by Isaac Levitan"
]
| Vladimirka (Russian: Владимирка) is an 1892 oil painting by the Russian artist Isaac Levitan. The painting depicts the Vladimir Highway, a dirt road leading east from Moscow to Vladimir. Vladimirka is one of three large paintings by Levitan completed in the first half of the 1890s. Together with By the Pool [ru] (1892) and Over Eternal Peace [ru] (1894), they are sometimes referred to as Levitan's "gloomy trilogy".
Levitan began sketching Vladimirka in 1892, when he was living in the Vladimir Governorate of the Russian Empire. The painting was completed in Moscow the same year. It was displayed at the Society for Travelling Art Exhibitions' 21st exhibition in February 1893, which opened in Saint Petersburg and then moved to Moscow in March. Levitan donated the painting to the Tretyakov Gallery in March 1894, where it is still housed today.
According to artist Mikhail Nesterov, Vladimirka could be "boldly called a Russian historical landscape, of which there are few in our art". Art historian Aleksei Fedorov-Davydov described the painting as one of Levitan's best; it was his "universally recognised masterpiece", in which "deep social content is expressed organically and directly in the landscape".
## History
Levitan left Moscow for the Vladimir Governorate on 12 May 1892, accompanied by the artist Sofia Kuvshinnikova. They settled in Gorodok, a village on the Peksha River (now part of Peksha village, Vladimir Oblast). On 13 May, Levitan wrote to Pavel Tretyakov: "I've settled in a pretty nice area and I'm thinking of working here". He spent the summer of 1892 there. The house Levitan lived in was later turned into a museum before being destroyed by fire on 22 August 1999.
Kuvshinnikova wrote about the source of inspiration for Levitan's Vladimirka. On one occasion, as they were returning from a hunt, they emerged onto the Vladimir Highway, an unpaved road that ran east from Moscow and was frequently used to ferry prisoners to Siberia for exile. Kuvshinnikova summarised their feelings as follows: "The view had a wonderful, quiet charm to it. Between the trees, a long, white-washed stretch of road extended into the distance. A crumbling old dovecote with a weathered icon and two distant golubets [ru] (a roof on a grave or worship cross) both hinted at long-forgotten antiquity. Everything seemed soft and cozy". Levitan later recalled that this was the same Vladimirka where the chained prisoners had travelled to Siberia. In the days that followed, Levitan came back to this road several times to paint a sketch for a future painting. He finished the sketch in a few sessions. Then, in order to quickly paint the picture he had imagined, he departed for Moscow. The work on the canvas was swiftly finished after being recently inspired by the landscape seen on the Vladimir Highway. After completing the work, Levitan inscribed the title of the painting—Володимірка (Vladimirka)—on the canvas. The artist had never previously added painting titles to his canvases, so this was an unusual step for him.
Vladimirka and four other Levitan works were exhibited at the Society for Travelling Art Exhibitions' twenty-first exhibition, which debuted in Saint Petersburg in February 1893 before moving to Moscow in March. The landscape paintings in the exhibition received very little attention from Saint Petersburg critics; the only mention of Vladimirka was in the 47th issue of the Peterburgskaya Gazeta on 18 February 1893, where it was noted that Vladimirka had "the most unattractive 'grey' motives" and the author remarked, "What could be more boring than 'Vladimirka' by Levitan?" More reviews of the painting appeared in the press after the exhibition was relocated to Moscow, the majority of which were complimentary; in particular, Vladimir Sizov [ru] (Russkiye Vedomosti), Vladimir Gringmut [ru] (Moskovskiye Vedomosti), and Mikhail Korelin [ru] (Russkaya mysl) all praised the work.
Despite the positive reviews, the painting was not purchased during the exhibition. Levitan gave the painting to the Tretyakov Gallery a year later, in March 1894. In a letter to Pavel Tretyakov dated 11 March 1894, Levitan wrote: "'Vladimirka' will probably return from the exhibition one of these days; take it and calm me and her [the painting]".
## Description
"Vladimirka" was a common name for the Vladimir Highway, notorious for being the road where prisoners were transported to Siberia on foot. Prisoners were being transported by train by the time the painting was created at the end of the 19th century.
The painting depicts a vast plain with a road that extends from the foreground into the middle, passing through woods and fields before vanishing in the horizon's blue haze. Vladimirka has an immense depth of field, drawing the viewer's attention all the way to the horizon. The length of the road is highlighted by the narrow paths that run alongside it on either side. Two other paths also cross the street from left to right. There is a golubets on the right where a praying woman is standing with her knapsack on her shoulders. According to Averil King, the lonely figure of the woman praying to the golubets, the cloudy landscape and the desolate road all create a "picture filled with sadness and foreboding" that suggests "the despair of the shackled men and women who had trudged eastward through these lonely wastes". The only signs of hope are the bright spot in the horizon and the distant white church.
Vladimirka is rendered with broad brushstrokes in grey-blue and ash tones. The muted colours used to depict a grey, gloomy day determine the colour tonality of the landscape. The lighter colours of the white church and the yellow stripe of ripening rye near the horizon do not stand out in this colouristic scheme. Despite using a muted palette, the painter is able to maintain the depth and variety of colour; he retains all the hues found in nature and incorporates them harmoniously into the landscape, giving it a single tone. Levitan accomplishes this by blending various colours together and making delicate transitions between tones. Vladimirka, together with By the Pool [ru] (1892) and Over Eternal Peace [ru] (1894), is sometimes referred to as Levitan's "gloomy trilogy".
## Sketches and replications
An oil-on-cardboard sketch of Vladimirka in the size of 10 by 16.5 centimetres (3.9 in × 6.5 in) is in the collection of the Moscow collector A. M. Koludarov, having previously been in the collections of Nikolai Mesherin [ru] and N. Yu. Kislitsin. Levitan gifted another sketch of the painting to Mikhail Chekhov. Chekhov later gave the sketch to Ivan Belousov [ru], but it was lost "during the move from one apartment to another". The current location of the sketch is unknown.
There is also one known replication of the painting by Levitan made in the 1890s in the size of 50.5 by 80.2 centimetres (19.9 in × 31.6 in) that was initially in the collection of Z. Z. Rabinovich. Initially commissioned by the physician and collector Ivan Troyanovsky [ru], this replication became part of the collections of A. N. Lyapunov since 1917, Yevgeniy Opochinin [ru] since 1922 and later I. I. Ilyin-Goldman.
## Reception
In his book Long Days, artist Mikhail Nesterov recalled how much he admired Levitan's Vladimirka. He stated that one could "boldly call this painting the Russian historical landscape, of which there is little in our art". Nesterov wrote that Vladimirka successfully combined "historical fiction with a complete, finished workmanship" and that it is "one of the most mature creations" of the artist in a letter he sent to the art historian Vladimir Kemenov on 10 October 1938.
Art historian Aleksei Fedorov-Davydov stated that Vladimirka is one of Levitan's best works and his "universally recognised masterpiece" in his monograph on the artist. He thought that this painting's "deep social content is expressed organically and directly in the landscape". Fedorov-Davydov states that Levitan portrays nature in this painting in a conventional manner while revealing the rich inner content of even the most commonplace objects through the "most simple and ordinary motive of the plain with the road going away". According to him, the road that forms the foundation of the image motif successfully draws the viewer into the complexity of the landscape and progressively reveals its inner meaning.
According to art historian Faina Maltseva, Vladimirka'''s significance in Russian realist art of the 1890s can not be overstated. Maltseva believed that Levitan was able to capture the sorrow and pathos of citizenship in his works "without undermining the beauty of Russian nature, without diminishing the poetic beauty and grandeur of its image". Art historian Vladimir Petrov noted that Vladimirka is a rare instance of a polyphonic historical landscape.
Poet Korney Chukovsky, after visiting Levitan's exhibition, wrote: "admire his Vladimirka''. What a greedy distance, what a frenzy of its scope! Inspirational, intoxicating, beckoning breadth...". Drawing a parallel with the infamous Vladimir Highway, Chukovsky questioned whether it could represent all of the great artist's creations, with his calm and reconciled awareness of the hopelessness of all Faustian impulses of the human spirit.
## Literature |
12,429,777 | White-bellied imperial pigeon | 1,172,724,738 | Species of bird from Indonesia | [
"Birds described in 1854",
"Birds of Sulawesi",
"Ducula",
"Endemic birds of Indonesia",
"Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot"
]
| The white-bellied imperial pigeon (Ducula forsteni) is a species of bird in the pigeon family Columbidae. First described by the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854, it is endemic to Indonesia, where it is found on Sulawesi, Buton, Taliabu, Togian, and Peleng. It inhabits primary forest, dense secondary forest, and isolated areas of hill forest. A large pigeon with a long tail, it measures 42.5–51.5 cm (16.7–20.3 in) long and weighs 510 g (18 oz) on average. Males are mainly green, with pale-grey heads and bellies, chestnut vents, and a pale grey tail band, along with a red orbital ring. Females are nearly identical, but have darker grey areas in their plumage.
The white-bellied imperial pigeon feeds on fruit. It is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List due to its sufficiently large range and lack of significant population decline. However, its population is declining due to habitat destruction.
## Taxonomy and systematics
The white-bellied imperial pigeon originally described as Hemiphaga forsteni by the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854. It was then moved to the now-defunct genus Carpophaga in 1856 by the British zoologist George Robert Gray. Carpophaga was later lumped with Ducula. The generic name Ducula is from dukul, the Nepali name for imperial pigeons. The specific name forsteni is in honour of Eltio Forsten, a Dutch zoologist and collector who worked in the East Indies. White-bellied imperial pigeon is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. Other common names for the species include Celebes imperial pigeon, emerald imperial pigeon, Forster's imperial pigeon, green-and-white zone-tailed pigeon, green-and-white imperial pigeon, white-bellied imperial pigeon, Celebes zone-tailed imperial pigeon, and Celebes large zone-tailed pigeon.
The white-bellied imperial pigeon is one of 41 species in the imperial pigeon genus Ducula, members of which are found from southern Asia to New Guinea, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. The species is closely related to the pink-bellied imperial pigeon, with which it is occasionally considered conspecific. These two species form a species group with the Mindoro and grey-headed imperial pigeons. All four of these species have sometimes been split into their own genus, Zonophaps. This group may also form a link between the imperial pigeons and the Ptilinopus fruit doves. It is currently monotypic, but the population on the Sula Islands may be a distinct subspecies.
## Description
The white-bellied imperial pigeon is a very large, boldly marked pigeon with a long tail, measuring 42.5–51.5 cm (16.7–20.3 in) long and weighing 510 g (18 oz) on average. Its and breast are mainly dark green, with bronze-red glossing, especially on the . The head is pale grey, becoming white on the forehead and throat, while the breast and belly are white with a pink or cream tinge. The are dark chestnut, while the outside of the tail has a pale grey band across the centre. The iris is yellow or orange with a darker red or orange orbital ring. Its bill is black, with feathering on the top of the cere, and the feet are purplish. Females are nearly identical to males, but have darker grey in the plumage.
The white-bellied imperial pigeon may be confused with the grey-headed imperial pigeon, but the latter species is smaller, has a narrower and darker tail band, and more uniform grey upperparts and head. It also lacks green on the breast and white on the belly, along with having greenish instead of red orbital skin. The green imperial pigeon may also be confused with the white-bellied imperial pigeon, but has wine-grey head, neck, breast and abdomen, chestnut on the nape, and lacks a tail band.
### Vocalisations
The white-bellied imperial pigeon's advertising call is a short, low-pitched whuu-whooo....whuu-whooo. Both notes are 0.2–0.3 seconds long, and the second is lower-pitched and more emphasized than the first. A three-note variation has also been recorded, in which the third note is the same as the second note. It mainly vocalises before dawn and after mid-day.
## Distribution and habitat
The white-bellied imperial pigeon is endemic to Indonesia, where it is found on Sulawasi, Buton, Taliabu, Togian, and Peleng. It inhabits primary forest and dense secondary forest in mountains or along the coast, along with isolated areas of hill forest. It is found at elevations of 150–2,200 m (490–7,220 ft), but is most common at elevations of 800–1,600 m (2,600–5,200 ft).
## Behaviour and ecology
The white-bellied imperial pigeon is mostly seen singly or in pairs, but also in small flocks near fruit trees. It is most easily seen while flying over the canopy, high in tall trees, or in smaller trees along forest edges. Its flight is heavy, with deep and slow wingbeats.
### Diet
The white-bellied imperial pigeon feeds exclusively on fruit. Flocks of up to 30 birds can form at fruiting trees, especially figs.
## Status
The white-bellied imperial pigeon is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List due to its sufficiently large range and lack of significant population decline. However, its population is thought to be declining due to habitat loss. It is moderately common overall on Sulawesi, being locally common in some areas, and uncommon on Taliabu. |
27,562,382 | White Horse Prophecy | 1,173,681,241 | Possible prophetic statement made by Mormonism founder Joseph Smith | [
"1843 in Christianity",
"1843 works",
"Mormon folklore",
"Mormonism and politics",
"Mormonism-related controversies",
"Prophecy in Mormonism",
"Works by Joseph Smith"
]
| The White Horse Prophecy is the popular name of an influential but disputed version of a statement on the future of the Latter Day Saints (popularly called Mormons) and the United States. It was given by Edwin Rushton in about 1900, and supposedly made in 1843 by Joseph Smith, Jr., the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement.
The Latter-day Saints, according to Rushton's version, would "go to the Rocky Mountains and... be a great and mighty people," associated in the prophecy's figurative language, with one of the biblical four Horsemen of the Apocalypse in the Book of Revelation.
Smith's supposed original statement predicts that the US Constitution will one day "hang like a thread" but be saved by Latter-day Saints. The embellished version portrays it to be "by the efforts of the White Horse."
On the basis of either Rushton's version or Smith's original statement, some critics of Mormonism and some Mormon folk doctrine enthusiasts hold that Mormons should expect that the US will eventually become a theocracy dominated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
The idea that members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints will at one or more times take action to save an imperiled US Constitution has been referenced by numerous Church leaders, but as to the Rushton version of the Prophecy, the Church has stated that "the so-called 'White Horse Prophecy'... is not embraced as Church doctrine; while numerous Mormon fundamentalists continue to preach the doctrine."
## Background
Latter-day Saint Church founder Joseph Smith went to Washington, DC, in November 1839 in an unsuccessful attempt to obtain help for his persecuted followers. Pat Bagley of the Salt Lake Tribune wrote that from then on, Smith and his followers "considered themselves the last Real Americans" and "the legitimate heirs of the pilgrims and Founding Fathers," who would be called upon one day to save the US Constitution. Smith is believed to have said in 1840 that when the Constitution hung by a thread, Latter Day Saint elders would step in "on the white horse" to save the country.
Joseph Smith is said to have made his statement in early May 1843, while the Latter-day Saints were headquartered in Nauvoo, Illinois. One of Smith's associates who heard the statement was Edwin Rushton. The most complete copy of Rushton's version of Joseph Smith's statement is contained in a 1902 diary entry made by John Roberts of Paradise, Utah. That rendering asserted that in his statement, Smith had prophesied that the Mormons "will go to the Rocky Mountains and will be a great and mighty people established there, which I will call the White Horse of peace and safety." Smith added "I shall never go there" and predicted continued persecution by enemies of the church, and he reportedly said, "You will see the Constitution of the United States almost destroyed. It will hang like a thread as fine as a silk fiber.... I love the Constitution; it was made by the inspiration of God; and it will be preserved and saved by the efforts of the White Horse, and by the Red Horse who will combine in its defense." According to the diary, Smith also said that Mormons would send missionaries to "gather the honest in heart from among the Pale Horse, or people of the United States, to stand by the Constitution of the United States as it was given by the inspiration of God." The account quotes Smith as predicting numerous wars involving Great Britain, France, Russia, China, and other countries, and saying that the European nobility "knows that [Mormonism] is true, but it has not pomp enough, and grandeur and influence for them to yet embrace it." He is also reported to have said that a temple that the Latter-day Saints had planned to build in Jackson County, Missouri "will be built in this generation."
In 1844, Smith rejected the platforms of the major candidates for president of the United States and decided to conduct his own third-party campaign which was cut short by his murder on June 27 that year. After a succession crisis in which Brigham Young was accepted as Smith's successor by the majority of the Latter-day Saints, the Mormon migration to the Intermountain West began, under Young's direction, in February 1846.
## Disputed authenticity
The authenticity of the White Horse Prophecy is much disputed. Most of its symbolistic content was not attested to during Smith's lifetime but was instead asserted by Rushton many years after Smith's death. Whereas a philosophical kernel in Rushton's version is confirmed by contemporary Church leaders as having been taught by Smith, Rushton's formulation, as a whole, has often been repudiated by the Church over the years since as early as 1918. An analysis of the White Horse Prophesy was included, along with mentions of its questioned authenticity, as an appendix within Prophecy: Key to the Future, by scriptural scholar and lay theologian Duane Crowther in 1962; and, more recently, the Prophecy has been referenced in the writings of speculative theology by the Mormon fundamentalist Ogden Kraut.
In 1918, Joseph F. Smith, president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, dismissed the White Horse Prophecy as a "ridiculous story... and a lot of trash that has been circulated about... by two of our brethren who put together some broken sentences from [Joseph Smith] that they may have heard from time to time." In his 1966 book Mormon Doctrine, Latter-day Saint theologian (and later apostle) Bruce R. McConkie wrote, "From time to time, accounts of various supposed visions, revelations, and prophecies are spread forth by and among the Latter-day Saints, who should know better than to believe or spread such false information. One of these false and deceptive documents that has cropped up again and again for over a century is the so-called White Horse Prophecy."
In early 2010, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints issued a statement stating that "the so-called 'White Horse Prophecy' is based on accounts that have not been substantiated by historical research and is not embraced as Church doctrine." Also in 2010, Latter-day Saint historian Don L. Penrod examined significant differences in two early handwritten accounts of the prophecy, noted some words and phrases that were not characteristic of Joseph Smith's speaking style or current in his time, and speculated that Rushton had "in his elderly years recorded some things that [Smith] actually said, mixing in words of his own creation." It additionally noted that "memories of words and events, especially many years later, are often faulty."
## Similar statements
Several sources attribute to Smith the idea that the US Constitution would one day hang by a thread, and Church leaders have issued similar warnings about the Constitution.
### Brigham Young
In 1855, Brigham Young reportedly wrote that "when the Constitution of the United States hangs, as it were, upon a single thread, they will have to call for the 'Mormon' Elders to save it from utter destruction; and they will step forth and do it."
### Orson Hyde
In 1858, Orson Hyde, another contemporary of Smith, wrote that Smith believed "the time would come when the Constitution and the country would be in danger of an overthrow; and... if the Constitution be saved at all, it will be by the elders of Church."
### Charles W. Nibley
In 1922, the Church's fifth presiding bishop, Charles W. Nibley, stated that "the day would come when there would be so much of disorder, of secret combinations taking the law into their own hands, tramping upon Constitutional rights and the liberties of the people, that the Constitution would hang as by a thread. Yes, but it will still hang, and there will be enough of good people, many who may not belong to our Church at all, people who have respect for law and for order, and for Constitutional rights, who will rally around with us and save the Constitution."
### Melvin J. Ballard
In 1928, the apostle Melvin J. Ballard of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints remarked that "the prophet Joseph Smith said the time will come when, through secret organizations taking the law into their own hands... the Constitution of the United States would be so torn and rent asunder, and life and property and peace and security would be held of so little value, that the Constitution would, as it were, hang by a thread. This Constitution will be preserved, but it will be preserved very largely in consequence of what the Lord has revealed and what [the Mormons], through listening to the Lord and being obedient, will help to bring about, to stabilize and give permanency and effect to the Constitution itself. That also is our mission."
### Joseph L. Wirthlin
In 1938 Joseph L. Wirthlin second counselor in the Church's Presiding Bishopric in the October 1938 General Conference quoted Brigham Young, and then says, "We see from this prophecy, uttered by a prophet of God that there will yet devolve upon the Priesthood of this Church the responsibility of protecting the rights and the Constitution of our great country."
Then again in general conference in 1941 he says, "If our rights expire in a convulsion, the body politic now being slowly drugged by the opiate of a borrowed prosperity, will suffer a major financial operation, which will cause the death of the world's greatest democracy; and the vultures and the buzzards of some foreign "ism" will be waiting the moment to step in and devour the carcass" and then refers to the Brigham Young prophecy.
### J. Reuben Clark
In 1942, J. Reuben Clark, an apostle and a member of the church's First Presidency, said that "You and I have heard all our lives that the time may come when the Constitution may hang by a thread.... I do know that whether it shall live or die is now in the balance." On the Constitution, Clark went on to cite its "free institutions," separation of powers, and the Bill of Rights. He added that "if we are to live as a Church, and progress, and have the right to worship... we must have the great guarantees that are set up by our Constitution."
### Ezra Taft Benson
In a 1986 Brigham Young University speech, Ezra Taft Benson, then president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, stated, "I have faith that the Constitution will be saved as prophesied by Joseph Smith. But it will not be saved in Washington. It will be saved by the citizens of this nation who love and cherish freedom. It will be saved by enlightened members of this Church – men and women who will subscribe to and abide by the principles of the Constitution."
### Dallin H. Oaks
In 2010, Elder Dallin H. Oaks spoke at a Constitution Day Celebration and warned about the importance of preserving the US Constitution. To that end, he claimed that "all citizens—whatever their religious or philosophical persuasion" should maintain several responsibilities regarding the Constitution: understand it, support the law, practice civic virtue, maintain civility in political discourse, and promote patriotism.
## Interpretation
Questions on Latter-day Saint attitudes towards the United States government, whether they are considered on their own or as parts of the White Horse Prophecy, have arisen from time to time as prominent church members have become involved in American politics. The White Horse Prophecy has been characterized as "effectively plac[ing] believers on perpetual Red Alert for the Constitution's possible demise" and as admonishing Mormons to "come to the rescue and restore the true Constitution by any means necessary."
Writers such as Richard Abanes and Elaine Wolff have speculated, on the basis of the prophecy, that Mormons expect that the US will eventually become a "Mormon-ruled theocracy divinely ordained to 'not only direct the political affairs of the Mormon community, but eventually those of the United States and ultimately the world'" and that "a Mormon, if he were elected president, would take his orders from Salt Lake City."
Besides many members of the Republican Party, some Democratic Party church members have also been inspired to run for office by the White Horse Prophecy.
### Romney family
In 1967, US presidential candidate George W. Romney said the following on the White Horse Prophecy: "I have always felt that they meant that sometime the question of whether we are going to proceed on the basis of the Constitution would arise and at this point government leaders who were Mormons would be involved in answering that question." In 2007, US presidential candidate Mitt Romney, George's son, told the Salt Lake Tribune, "I haven't heard my name associated with [the White Horse Prophecy] or anything of that nature. That's not official church doctrine.... I don't put that at the heart of my religious belief."
### Glenn Beck
Conservative media figure Glenn Beck, who joined the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1999, has alleged that President Barack Obama "is going to bring us to the verge of shredding the Constitution, of massive socialism." On November 14, 2008, after Obama's election, Beck appeared on Bill O'Reilly's show The O'Reilly Factor and said that "we are at the place where the Constitution hangs in the balance, I feel the Constitution is hanging in the balance right now, hanging by a thread unless the good Americans wake up." Earlier in November, while interviewing US Senator Orrin Hatch of Utah, also a Mormon, Beck had remarked, "I heard Barack Obama talk about the Constitution and I thought, we are at the point or we are very near the point where our Constitution is hanging by a thread." Hatch appeared on Beck's Fox News show in January 2009, and Beck prompted him by declaring, "I believe our Constitution hangs by a thread."
Blogger and religious commentator Joanna Brooks has said that "it is likely that Beck owes his brand of Founding Father–worship to Mormonism.... Many Mormons also believe that Joseph Smith prophesied in 1843 that the US Constitution would one day 'hang by a thread' and be saved by faithful Mormons." Washington Post journalist Dana Milbank has described Beck's views as essentially "White Horse Prophecy meets horsemen of the apocalypse," but Milbank has also observed that the White Horse Prophecy is "actually a fairly benign prophecy. They're talking about restoring law and order and peace and tranquility. It doesn't sound like a violent thing."
### Rex Rammell
In 2009, Idaho gubernatorial candidate Rex Rammell announced plans to hold a series of meetings with believing Mormon men, which were to include discussion of the White Horse Prophecy. In response, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints issued a statement that said that the church is "politically neutral" and hoped that "the campaign practices of political candidates would not suggest that their candidacy is supported by or connected to the church."
Rammell later retracted his original plan to limit his meetings to Latter-day Saint men and apologized to "all those citizens who are not members of the LDS faith, who have expressed a sincere interest in attending my meetings and discussing this prophecy and how we can step forward and save the United States Constitution."
## See also
- List of prophecies of Joseph Smith
- Mormon folklore
- Theodemocracy |
3,887,790 | Hurricane Kathleen | 1,171,862,277 | Category 1 Pacific hurricane in 1976 | [
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| Hurricane Kathleen was a tropical cyclone that had a destructive impact in California. On September 7, 1976, a tropical depression formed; two days later it accelerated north towards the Baja California Peninsula. Kathleen brushed the Pacific coast of the peninsula as a hurricane on September 9 and made landfall as a fast-moving tropical storm the next day. With its circulation intact and still a tropical storm, Kathleen headed north into the United States and affected California and Arizona. Kathleen finally dissipated late on September 11.
Damage in the United States was considerable. California received record rainfall, with over a foot of rain falling in some areas. Flooding caused catastrophic destruction to Ocotillo, and six people drowned. Flooding extended west; railway tracks were destroyed in Palm Desert and high winds and severe flooding were recorded in Arizona. Overall, the damage total was \$160 million (1976 USD) and 12 deaths were attributed to the storm.
## Background
Tropical cyclones do not typically bring high winds to the southwestern United States. Most Pacific hurricanes are embedded in easterly winds south of the subtropical ridge, and thus move westward—away from large land masses—until they dissipate over cold waters. However, during early autumn, tropical cyclones generally form closer to the Mexican shoreline than average, making them more likely to recurve, or to curve again, northwards under the influence of an approaching trough. These troughs tend to extend farther to the south during the latter part of the Pacific hurricane season, in the period between late August and early October. They also produce a synoptic-scale flow that is conducive to steering hurricanes towards the southwestern United States. However, many hurricanes that approach the southwestern United States tend to be undergoing extratropical transition as they encounter increased wind shear and markedly cooler sea surface temperatures, and as they interact with the deep troughs that caused them to recurve. Kathleen is one of only six recorded tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean known to have brought gale-force or hurricane-force winds to the Continental United States.
## Meteorological history
A large area of thunderstorms, with a diameter of about 500 mi (800 km), formed 270 mi (430 km) southwest of Acapulco. Moving rapidly west-northwest, a tropical depression formed on September 7. While briefly moving towards the east, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kathleen. Moving above 83 °F (28 °C) sea surface temperatures, Kathleen quickly strengthened. Before passing 40 mi (64 km) east of Socorro Island, Kathleen reached its secondary peak with winds of 65 mph (115 km/h). Kathleen then weakened considerably, and by 0600 UTC September 9, Tropical Storm Kathleen was barely a tropical storm. At this time, the system was located at 55 mi (89 km) north of the island. Shortly thereafter, Kathleen turned north-northeast into warmer waters.
Subsequently, the tropical storm began to re-strengthen. Despite moving rapidly north, the cyclone strengthened into Hurricane Kathleen. The hurricane passed near several ships, and was intercepted by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft early on September 10. It is estimated that the storm peaked in intensity around that time, with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 986 mb (986 hPa). However, Kathleen never developed an eye. About an hour after the first flight reached Kathleen, a second flight suggested that Kathleen had weakened back into a tropical storm. With precipitation falling in the United States, some 700 mi (1,100 km) north of the cyclone's atmospheric circulation, Kathleen's motion accelerated to speeds of 35 mph (56 km/h)-38 mph (61 km/h).
After crossing the Point Eugenia peninsula (the cyclone's first landfall) later on the morning of September 10, Kathleen made its second landfall 120 mi (190 km) south of Ensenada at 1130 UTC the same day. Unlike most tropical cyclones, Kathleen weakened slowly over California. Tropical Storm Kathleen weakened further into a depression over southern California and shortly thereafter, moved across Death Valley. On September 11, Kathleen entered western Nevada. Finally, the center became difficult to locate, and the depression dissipated later on September 11. After undergoing a Fujiwhara-like interaction, where two circulations interact with each other, with a low-pressure area stalled off the Pacific coast, moisture later spread into the northwestern part of the United States. After the stalled low was pulled inland, Kathleen combined with the low to produce additional rainfall over parts of California.
## Impact
### Mexico
The bulk of the rainfall from the tropical cyclone fell over Baja California and Baja California Sur, to the east of its track. The highest amount reported was 6.52 in (166 mm) in San Antonio.
### California
The state received record rainfall, with 14.76 in (37.5 cm) falling on the southern slopes of Mount San Gorgonio, and 10.13 in (25.7 cm) accumulated on Mount Laguna. Because the village is situated atop an alluvial fan, a 40 ft (12 m) wall of water exited a mountain canyon. Ocotillo was flooded with 4 ft (1.2 m)-6 ft (1.8 m) of water; subsequently, half the town was destroyed. Six people drowned in the mud and waters in the town and two people were initially reported missing, though they were later found by officials. Overall, Ocotllio was 70%–80% destroyed. Officials evacuated 175 people from the flooded area of Ocotillo and the nearby communities that surround the Salton Sea; the sea rose 6 in (150 mm)-8 in (200 mm). A quarter mile of Interstate 8 and a 60-foot bridge were destroyed by the flood, which also washed away mobile homes, trucks, and cars.
In Los Angeles, two people died of injuries suffered from slippery roads. One man drowned in El Centro. and two people drowned when their cars tumbled into the water near the city. Record flood stage was attained at numerous streams near the Coachella Valley. Widespread property damage was recorded on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada as well as the nearby desert. Across the San Joaquin Valley, 2/3 of the \$150 million raisin crop was threatened. Crops including cotton, lettuce, and hay were damaged. About half of the lettuce in the Palo Verde Valley were lost.
Homeowners in Palm Desert suffered \$4 million in damage from the storm; the town received more than a year's worth of rainfall in a matter of days. No serious injuries were reported throughout the desert city, though two agricultural dikes broke.
Several miles of railway track, including three trestles that belonged to the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway, were destroyed and five others were damaged. At more than 50 other locations, tracks were buried by mudslides or had the ground under them washed away. After assessing the damage from Kathleen, the Southern Pacific Transportation Company decided in 1977 to abandon most of the railroad. The United States Gypsum narrow gauge railroad line from Plaster City and the Santa Fe Railway line from Rice to Blythe also had tracks damaged, and a Santa Fe freight train was stranded and quickly rescued. A 700 ft (210 m) section of Interstate 8 from Yuma to San Diego was destroyed.
Overall, hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed; Tropical Storm Kathleen was described as a one-in- 160-year event. Total damage was \$160 million, making Kathleen one of the costliest tropical storms in state history. Parts of California were declared a disaster area, and flash flood watches were issued throughout Southern California, including the desert and mountains. Flash flood warnings were also issued for parts of California, as well as nearby states Nevada and Arizona, but were dropped as the rain tampered off on September 11.
### Arizona
On September 10–11, gale-force winds caused considerable damage to the city of Yuma. For a time, the sustained winds exceeded 50 mph (80 km/h), with gusts up to 76 mph (122 km/h). The National Weather Service's forecast office in Tucson estimates that tropical storm-force winds extended as far east as Pima County, and as far north as Lake Havasu. Rains caused severe flash-flooding in Mohave County. One man was killed when the wind blew a palm tree onto his mobile home and 13 people across the state were hurt. The Tucson metropolitan area was particularly hard hit with flash flooding and golf-ball size hail. On Mount Lemmon, the hail reached a depth of 5 in (13 cm). While most of the rainfall from Tropical Storm Kathleen fell in California, 2.87 in (73 mm) fell at the Davis Dam on the Colorado River.
### Rest of the United States
In Montana, Kathleen dropped locally heavy rainfall approaching 2 inches (51 mm) in localized spots, enough to become the wettest known tropical cyclone in state history, which was later broken in 2023 by Hurricane Hilary. The remnants of the storm also affected Oregon and Idaho.
## See also
- List of California hurricanes
- List of Arizona hurricanes
- List of wettest tropical cyclones in California
- Hurricane Nora (1997) Took similar track to Kathleen, brought heavy rains to Arizona and California.
- Hurricane Dolores (2015) – Brought record breaking heavy rains to Southern California, as a remnant low, during one of the worst dry periods on record.
- Hurricane Linda (2015) – Brought a record heavy rain to Southern California in September.
- Hurricane Kay (2022)- Caused similar impacts to California as a downgraded tropical storm and remnant low.
- Hurricane Hilary (2023) – Took a similar track and struck Baja California as a tropical storm. |
7,910,496 | MLS Cup 2007 | 1,169,228,298 | 2007 edition of the MLS Cup | [
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| MLS Cup 2007 was the 12th edition of the MLS Cup, the post-season championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS) in the United States. It was played on November 18, 2007, at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C., between the New England Revolution and Houston Dynamo in a rematch of the previous edition. The match determined the championship of the 2007 season and was attended by 39,859 spectators.
Houston won the match 2–1 after falling behind on a Revolution goal scored by Taylor Twellman in the 20th minute. The Dynamo made a tactical change in the second half that yielded two goals from Joseph Ngwenya and Dwayne De Rosario, the latter of whom was named the match's most valuable player. The Dynamo became the second team to win consecutive MLS Cups, while New England lost their third consecutive and fourth overall cup.
## Venue
MLS Cup 2007 was hosted at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C., the home of four-time champions D.C. United. The stadium had previously hosted the MLS Cup in 1997 and 2000, and was announced as the host of a third cup on December 14, 2006. The decision to use RFK Stadium came after several editions at smaller soccer-specific stadiums that had recently opened for MLS teams. D.C. United shared the stadium with the Washington Nationals baseball team, requiring turf and seat reconfiguration between games; the league announced plans to re-sod the field and add temporary seating if necessary during the weeks before the cup. RFK Stadium was opened in 1961 for baseball and football, but grew to host major national and international soccer events, including the United States men's national team. The North American Soccer League's Soccer Bowl was staged there in 1980, as well as group stage matches during the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the 1996 Olympics men's soccer tournament, and the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup. It was also the host venue of the 1996 U.S. Open Cup Final and the MLS All-Star Game in 2002 and 2004.
## Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league based in the United States and Canada. The 2007 season was the twelfth in the league's history and was contested by 13 teams in two conferences, divided into the east and west. Each team played a total of 30 matches in the regular season from April to October, facing other teams twice and playing an additional six matches against teams within their conference—with teams in the Western Conference playing an additional intra-conference match. The post-season playoffs ran from late October to November and was contested by the top two teams in each conference and four wild card teams in the next positions regardless of conference. It was organized into three rounds: a home-and-away series in the Conference Semifinals, a single-match Conference Final, and the MLS Cup final.
The 2007 edition of the MLS Cup was contested by the New England Revolution and the Houston Dynamo in a rematch of the 2006 final—the first MLS Cup rematch featuring the same teams in consecutive years. The finalists both finished second in their respective conferences and met twice in the regular season, with the Revolution winning 1–0 in May on the road in Houston and drawing 3–3 at home with the Dynamo in July. Under the new playoff qualification format, five teams from the Eastern Conference participated in the playoffs while the Western Conference had three. As the eighth seed overall, the Kansas City Wizards were placed in the Western Conference bracket. The 2007 season also marked the introduction of the Designated Player Rule, which allowed clubs to bypass salary cap requirements for up to three marquee players. Unlike other clubs, the Revolution and Dynamo did not immediately take advantage of the new rule to sign a marquee player.
### New England Revolution
The New England Revolution had won the Eastern Conference Championship for the fourth time in their history, following three defeats at the MLS Cup in 2002, 2005, and 2006. The team was managed by Steve Nicol and remained mostly unchanged from their previous seasons, losing Clint Dempsey to a transfer and José Cancela in the expansion draft, but found replacements in Amaechi Igwe and Wells Thompson from the SuperDraft. The Revolution began the season with injuries to Shalrie Joseph, Pat Noonan, Michael Parkhurst, and Joe Franchino that kept them out of the starting lineup for several weeks, but earned 17 points in their first eight matches with a five-win record.
The Revolution went undefeated across six matches in July and continued to remain atop the Eastern Conference standings ahead of the New York Red Bulls and D.C. United. New England made few changes to their roster during the summer transfer window, adding Gambian duo Abdoulie Mansally and Sainey Nyassi and recalling a loaned player, relying on their core group of veteran and rookies like Igwe, Thompson, and Adam Cristman. Parkhurst returned from an injury and earned Defender of the Year honors and was named to the MLS Best XI alongside Joseph. Despite falling behind the pace set by the team in previous seasons and conceding the first-place spot to D.C. United, the Revolution clinched a playoff berth and finished the season in second place with 50 points and a 14–8–8 record. New England also won the U.S. Open Cup in October against FC Dallas—the club's first trophy in five attempts.
New England entered the playoffs on a three-match winless streak and faced the third-seeded New York Red Bulls in the Conference Semifinal. After a scoreless draw in the first leg hosted by the Red Bulls in New Jersey, the Revolution won 1–0 on a 64th-minute goal by Taylor Twellman and advanced to their sixth consecutive Eastern Conference Final. The team hosted the Eastern Conference Final against the fourth-place Chicago Fire, who had upset D.C. United with a 3–2 aggregate win. New England defeated Chicago 1–0 in the conference final, with the lone goal coming in the 38th minute from a bicycle kick by Twellman, and clinched a berth in their third consecutive MLS Cup final. Matt Reis maintained a clean sheet through the team's three playoff matches.
### Houston Dynamo
The Houston Dynamo were relocated from San Jose in December 2005 and retained most of their roster from their move before their run to win the MLS Cup over New England in 2006. The roster remained mostly unchanged as they entered the 2007 season, adding forward Nate Jaqua in a trade from the Los Angeles Galaxy and drafting defender Corey Ashe to replace Adrian Serioux after he left to join FC Dallas. Richard Mulrooney was traded to Houston from Toronto FC after two matches in exchange for Kevin Goldthwaite. While the Dynamo did not sign a Designated Player, the club sought an international signing to bolster its roster.
Houston began the season with two wins in their first eight matches, with close 1–0 losses to several teams. After a win against in-state rivals FC Dallas in early June, the Dynamo embarked on an eleven-match unbeaten streak that included eight wins and three draws as well as a league-record 726-minute shutout streak for goalkeeper Pat Onstad. The unbeaten run brought Houston to first place in the Western Conference and came with the loss of midfielder of Brad Davis to a knee injury and a congested schedule featuring SuperLiga and U.S. Open Cup matches. The team used its reserves to rotate out players and saw the emergence of forwards Jaqua, Stuart Holden, and Joseph Ngwenya as key goalscorers alongside starters Brian Ching and Dwayne De Rosario.
The unbeaten streak was briefly interrupted for the Dynamo with a pair of 1–0 losses to Real Salt Lake and the Colorado Rapids in early August, which caused them to fall behind FC Dallas in the conference standings. Houston then continued with strong offensive performances and lost only one of their remaining nine matches, but were eclipsed in conference rankings by Chivas USA in the final match. The Dynamo finished the regular season in second place with 52 points from a 15–8–7 record and conceded 23 goals, the fewest of any MLS team. The team would enter the playoffs without midfielder Ricardo Clark, who was suspended nine matches for kicking Carlos Ruiz during a match against FC Dallas on September 30.
In the Western Conference Semifinals, the Houston Dynamo played against FC Dallas and lost the opening leg 1–0 in a repeat of the series against Chivas USA in the previous year's semifinals. After a goal by Carlos Ruiz in the 14th minute to give Dallas a 2–0 aggregate lead, the Dynamo took advantage of a red card shown to Arturo Álvarez to press forward with a 3–5–2 formation. Stuart Holden was substituted during the formation switch and scored in the 67th minute to tie the match; a series-equalizing goal came five minutes later from Brian Ching, who received a through pass from De Rosario. The match went to extra time, where Ching added a second goal in the 97th minute to lead on aggregate and Brad Davis scored Houston's fourth and final goal with a free kick in the 100th minute. The Dynamo won the match 4–1 and the series 4–2 on aggregate, advancing to a second consecutive Western Conference Final against the Kansas City Wizards, who were seeded from the East as a wild card team and defeated Chivas USA. With more than 30,000 spectators at Robertson Stadium, the Houston Dynamo repeated as Western Conference Champions by defeating Kansas City 2–0 with goals by Nate Jaqua in the 34th minute and Dwayne De Rosario in the 81st minute.
### Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away).
## Broadcasting
The MLS Cup final was televised in the United States on ABC in English and TeleFutura in Spanish for the first time. English play-by-play commentary was provided by Boston-based sportscaster Dave O'Brien, reprising his role from the 2006 broadcast, and color analysis by Eric Wynalda and Julie Foudy. The match was also broadcast on local radio stations in New England and the Houston area. The match was broadcast nationally for the first time in Canada, where it was carried by CBC Country Canada using the commentary feed from ABC.
The U.S. national anthem was performed by Plácido Domingo of the Washington National Opera prior to the match. Arizona-based rock band Jimmy Eat World performed their single "Big Casino" during the match's halftime show.
## Match
### Summary
The match was played in front of 39,859 spectators at RFK Memorial Stadium, including a large contingent of traveling New England and Houston supporters alongside the home D.C. United fans. The Revolution organized several free buses for fans traveling between Foxborough, Massachusetts, and RFK Memorial Stadium, and also organized a free viewing party at Gillette Stadium.
The Dynamo were without injured striker Brian Ching, who was replaced by the pairing of Nate Jaqua and Joseph Ngwenya, and suspended midfielder Ricardo Clark; the Revolution fielded a full-strength lineup that was similar to those used in their other playoff matches. Alex Prus was named the referee for the MLS Cup final, reprising his role from the 2007 U.S. Open Cup Final, which also featured the Revolution.
Houston took several of the early chances to score, but New England were the first to score. A few minutes after a tackle in the Revolution box by Avery John was waved off as a potential penalty, the team made a series of passes on a counterattack towards Steve Ralston at the top of the penalty box. Ralston crossed to the far post, where the ball found Taylor Twellman, who headed in the opening goal in the 20th minute. The Revolution continued to control possession in the midfield and created additional chances to extend their lead, but failed to capitalize on them.
At halftime, Dynamo coach Dominic Kinnear switched his team from a 4–4–2 to an attack-oriented 3–5–2 formation to encourage scoring chances. Before the new formation was allowed to set in, Revolution forward Pat Noonan had a close-range shot in the first minute of the second half that was saved by Pat Onstad. After another shot from Noonan that missed the target, the Dynamo pushed ahead for an equalizing goal and won a corner kick in the 61st minute. The corner was taken by Brad Davis and cleared away by New England's defense, but fell to Brian Mullan, whose far-post cross found Dwayne De Rosario. De Rosario sent the ball back across the goal to Joseph Ngwenya, who misplayed his first touch but used his right foot to make a shot that passed under goalkeeper Matt Reis and into the net.
With the score tied at 1–1, New England attempted to strike back, but an attempt by Khano Smith was tackled away by Craig Waibel for a goal kick. After exchanging words with Waibel, Smith attempted to headbutt the Houston defender in front of referee Alex Prus, who issued a yellow card. Kinnear had planned to switch back to a defensive 4–4–2 formation after the equalizing goal, but kept Houston in the existing 3–5–2 formation at the behest of the players, who communicated using hand signals. The Revolution kept a majority of possession, but only produced a single shot to challenge Onstad before the Dynamo had taken a 2–1 lead on a counterattack. In the 74th minute, Brad Davis sent a lateral cross to Dwayne De Rosario, who headed the ball from 13 yards (12 m) and scored Houston's second goal. New England brought more of their players into a series of attacks while looking for an equalizing goal, with chances by Pat Noonan in the 77th and 82nd minutes that missed the target. Ralston was substituted for Andy Dorman in the 78th minute, who served a corner kick in the 87th minute that was headed towards goal by Jeff Larentowicz. Larentowicz's point-blank header was saved by Pat Onstad with a kick to preserve the lead and win the Houston Dynamo a second consecutive MLS Cup title.
### Details
## Post-match
The Houston Dynamo became the second team to win consecutive MLS Cups, a decade after D.C. United won the first two editions in 1996 and 1997—the latter also hosted at RFK Memorial Stadium. This feat would not be repeated until 2011 and 2012 by the Los Angeles Galaxy, who won against the Dynamo. The third MLS Cup to feature a repeat match-up of finalists was in 2017, which saw Toronto FC winning against defending champion Seattle Sounders FC. New England's third consecutive and fourth overall loss at the MLS Cup final moved it ahead of the Galaxy for the all-time record as runners-up in the competition. Dwayne De Rosario became the first player to win the MLS Cup MVP award twice, having also been named MVP in 2001 with the Earthquakes, and also became the third player to win four MLS Cups. The match also featured the lowest number of substitutes in MLS Cup history, at only one per team. Revolution midfielder Steve Ralston played in his 371st MLS match, setting a new U.S. record for matches played in the country's top-flight league by surpassing a record set in the 1930s by Bill McPherson.
Houston qualified alongside Supporters' Shield winners D.C. United for the 2008 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, and won 3–1 in the quarterfinals to advance past CSD Municipal of Guatemala. In the semifinals, the Dynamo fell 3–0 in the second leg to Costa Rica's Deportivo Saprissa and were eliminated. Both MLS Cup finalists also qualified for the 2008–09 CONCACAF Champions League, the first edition of the new continental competition that replaced the Champions' Cup, alongside D.C. United and Chivas USA, the second-place team in the 2007 regular season. The Revolution were eliminated in the preliminary round by Trinidadian club Joe Public F.C., who defeated them by an aggregate score of 6–1 over two legs, including a 4–0 loss at home. The Dynamo were seeded directly into the group stage and finished in second behind Pumas UNAM, drawing 4–4 at their stadium in Mexico City, and qualified for the knockout stage ahead of C.D. Luis Ángel Firpo from El Salvador. In the quarterfinals, Houston faced Atlante, another Mexican team, and lost 4–1 on aggregate after conceding three goals in the away leg.
Houston would meet New England again in the 2008 SuperLiga Final, hosted by New England at Gillette Stadium, after qualifying based on their regular season standings. The finalists drew 2–2 after extra time to force a penalty shootout that was won 6–5 by the Revolution after eight rounds. Both teams qualified for the 2008 MLS Cup Playoffs, but failed to advance beyond the Conference Semifinals. The Revolution qualified for their fifth MLS Cup final in 2014, which it lost to the Galaxy. |
2,406,246 | Interest rate parity | 1,150,614,704 | No-arbitrage equilibrium state | [
"Financial economics",
"Foreign exchange market",
"Interest rates",
"International finance"
]
| Interest rate parity is a no-arbitrage condition representing an equilibrium state under which investors interest rates available on bank deposits in two countries. The fact that this condition does not always hold allows for potential opportunities to earn riskless profits from covered interest arbitrage. Two assumptions central to interest rate parity are capital mobility and perfect substitutability of domestic and foreign assets. Given foreign exchange market equilibrium, the interest rate parity condition implies that the expected return on domestic assets will equal the exchange rate-adjusted expected return on foreign currency assets. Investors then cannot earn arbitrage profits by borrowing in a country with a lower interest rate, exchanging for foreign currency, and investing in a foreign country with a higher interest rate, due to gains or losses from exchanging back to their domestic currency at maturity. Interest rate parity takes on two distinctive forms: uncovered interest rate parity refers to the parity condition in which exposure to foreign exchange risk (unanticipated changes in exchange rates) is uninhibited, whereas covered interest rate parity refers to the condition in which a forward contract has been used to cover (eliminate exposure to) exchange rate risk. Each form of the parity condition demonstrates a unique relationship with implications for the forecasting of future exchange rates: the forward exchange rate and the future spot exchange rate.
Economists have found empirical evidence that covered interest rate parity generally holds, though not with precision due to the effects of various risks, costs, taxation, and ultimate differences in liquidity. When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity hold, they expose a relationship suggesting that the forward rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot rate. This relationship can be employed to test whether uncovered interest rate parity holds, for which economists have found mixed results. When uncovered interest rate parity and purchasing power parity hold together, they illuminate a relationship named real interest rate parity, which suggests that expected real interest rates represent expected adjustments in the real exchange rate. This relationship generally holds strongly over longer terms and among emerging market countries.
## Assumptions
Interest rate parity rests on certain assumptions, the first being that capital is mobile - investors can readily exchange domestic assets for foreign assets. The second assumption is that assets have perfect substitutability, following from their similarities in riskiness and liquidity. Given capital mobility and perfect substitutability, investors would be expected to hold those assets offering greater returns, be they domestic or foreign assets. However, both domestic and foreign assets are held by investors. Therefore, it must be true that no difference can exist between the returns on domestic assets and the returns on foreign assets. That is not to say that domestic investors and foreign investors will earn equivalent returns, but that a single investor on any given side would expect to earn equivalent returns from either investment decision.
## Uncovered interest rate parity
When the no-arbitrage condition is satisfied without the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk, interest rate parity is said to be uncovered. Risk-neutral investors will be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the exchange rate between those countries is expected to adjust such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on euro deposits, thereby eliminating the potential for uncovered interest arbitrage profits. Uncovered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the spot exchange rate. The following equation represents uncovered interest rate parity.
$(1 + i_\$) = \frac {E_t(S_{t + k})} {S_t} (1 + i_c)$
where
$E_t(S_{t + k})$ is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
S<sub>t</sub> is the current spot exchange rate at time t
i<sub>\$</sub> is the interest rate in one country (for example, the United States)
i<sub>c</sub> is the interest rate in another country or currency area (for example, the Eurozone)
The dollar return on dollar deposits, $1 + i_\$$, is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits, $\frac {E_t(S_{t + k})} {S_t} (1 + i_c)$.
### Approximation
Uncovered interest rate parity asserts that an investor with dollar deposits will earn the interest rate available on dollar deposits, while an investor holding euro deposits will earn the interest rate available in the eurozone, but also a potential gain or loss on euros depending on the rate of appreciation or depreciation of the euro against the dollar. Economists have extrapolated a useful approximation of uncovered interest rate parity that follows intuitively from these assumptions. If uncovered interest rate parity holds, such that an investor is indifferent between dollar versus euro deposits, then any excess return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected loss from depreciation of the euro against the dollar. Conversely, some shortfall in return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected gain from appreciation of the euro against the dollar. The following equation represents the uncovered interest rate parity approximation.
$i_\$ = i_c + \frac {{\Delta}E_t(S_{t + k})} {S_t}$
where
${{\Delta}E_t(S_{t + k})}$ is the change in the expected future spot exchange rate
${{\Delta}E_t(S_{t + k})} / {S_t}$ is the expected rate of depreciation (or appreciation) of the dollar
A more universal way of stating the approximation is "the home interest rate equals the foreign interest rate plus the expected rate of depreciation of the home currency."
## Covered interest rate parity
When the no-arbitrage condition is satisfied with the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk, interest rate parity is said to be covered. Investors will still be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the forward exchange rate sustains equilibrium such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on foreign deposit, thereby eliminating the potential for covered interest arbitrage profits. Furthermore, covered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the forward exchange rate. The following equation represents covered interest rate parity.
$(1 + i_\$) = \frac {F_t} {S_t} (1 + i_c)$
where
$F_t$ is the forward exchange rate at time t
The dollar return on dollar deposits, $1 + i_\$$, is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits, $\frac {F_t} {S_t} (1 + i_c)$.
## Empirical evidence
Covered interest rate parity (CIRP) is found to hold when there is open capital mobility and limited capital controls, and this finding is confirmed for all currencies freely traded in the present day. One such example is when the United Kingdom and Germany abolished capital controls between 1979 and 1981. Maurice Obstfeld and Alan Taylor calculated hypothetical profits as implied by the expression of a potential inequality in the CIRP equation (meaning a difference in returns on domestic versus foreign assets) during the 1960s and 1970s, which would have constituted arbitrage opportunities if not for the prevalence of capital controls. However, given financial liberalization and resulting capital mobility, arbitrage temporarily became possible until equilibrium was restored. Since the abolition of capital controls in the United Kingdom and Germany, potential arbitrage profits have been near zero. Factoring in transaction costs arising from fees and other regulations, arbitrage opportunities are fleeting or nonexistent when such costs exceed deviations from parity. While CIRP generally holds, it does not hold with precision due to the presence of transaction costs, political risks, tax implications for interest earnings versus gains from foreign exchange, and differences in the liquidity of domestic versus foreign assets.
Researchers found evidence that significant deviations from CIRP during the onset of the global financial crisis in 2007 and 2008 were driven by concerns over risk posed by counter parties to banks and financial institutions in Europe and the US in the foreign exchange swap market. The European Central Bank's efforts to provide US dollar liquidity in the foreign exchange swap market, along with similar efforts by the Federal Reserve, had a moderating impact on CIRP deviations between the dollar and the euro. Such a scenario was found to be reminiscent of deviations from CIRP during the 1990s driven by struggling Japanese banks which looked toward foreign exchange swap markets to try and acquire dollars to bolster their creditworthiness.
When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) hold, such a condition sheds light on a noteworthy relationship between the forward and expected future spot exchange rates, as demonstrated below.
$UIRP: (1 + i_\$) = \frac {E_t(S_{t + k})} {S_t} (1 + i_c)$
$CIRP: (1 + i_\$) = \frac {F_t} {S_t} (1 + i_c)$
Dividing the equation for UIRP by the equation for CIRP yields the following equation:
$1 = \frac {E_t(S_{t + k})} {F_t}$
which can be rewritten as:
${F_t} = E_t(S_{t + k})$
This equation represents the unbiasedness hypothesis, which states that the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate. Given strong evidence that CIRP holds, the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis can serve as a test to determine whether UIRP holds (in order for the forward rate and expected spot rate to be equal, both CIRP and UIRP conditions must hold). Evidence for the validity and accuracy of the unbiasedness hypothesis, particularly evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and future spot rate, is mixed as researchers have published numerous papers demonstrating both empirical support and empirical failure of the hypothesis.
UIRP is found to have some empirical support in tests for correlation between expected rates of currency depreciation and the forward premium or discount. Evidence suggests that whether UIRP holds depends on the currency examined, and deviations from UIRP have been found to be less substantial when examining longer time horizons. Some studies of monetary policy have offered explanations for why UIRP fails empirically. Researchers demonstrated that if a central bank manages interest rate spreads in strong response to the previous period's spreads, that interest rate spreads had negative coefficients in regression tests of UIRP. Another study which set up a model wherein the central bank's monetary policy responds to exogenous shocks, that the central bank's smoothing of interest rates can explain empirical failures of UIRP.
A study of central bank interventions on the US dollar and Deutsche mark found only limited evidence of any substantial effect on deviations from UIRP. UIRP has been found to hold over very small spans of time (covering only a number of hours) with a high frequency of bilateral exchange rate data. Tests of UIRP for economies experiencing institutional regime changes, using monthly exchange rate data for the US dollar versus the Deutsche mark and the Spanish peseta versus the British pound, have found some evidence that UIRP held when US and German regime changes were volatile, and held between Spain and the United Kingdom particularly after Spain joined the European Union in 1986 and began liberalizing capital mobility.
## Real interest rate parity
When both UIRP (particularly in its approximation form) and purchasing power parity (PPP) hold, the two parity conditions together reveal a relationship among expected real interest rates, wherein changes in expected real interest rates reflect expected changes in the real exchange rate. This condition is known as real interest rate parity (RIRP) and is related to the international Fisher effect. The following equations demonstrate how to derive the RIRP equation.
$UIRP: {\Delta}E_t(S_{t + k}) / S_t = (E_t(S_{t + k}) - S_t) / S_t = i_\$ - i_c$
$PPP: {\Delta}E_t(S_{t + k}) / S_t = E_t({p^\$}_{t + k}) - E_t({p^c}_{t + k})$
where
$p$ represents inflation
If the above conditions hold, then they can be combined and rearranged as the following:
$RIRP: i_\$ - E_t({p^\$}_{t + k}) = i_c - E_t({p^c}_{t + k})$
RIRP rests on several assumptions, including efficient markets, no country risk premia, and zero change in the expected real exchange rate. The parity condition suggests that real interest rates will equalize between countries and that capital mobility will result in capital flows that eliminate opportunities for arbitrage. There exists strong evidence that RIRP holds tightly among emerging markets in Asia and also Japan. The half-life period of deviations from RIRP have been examined by researchers and found to be roughly six or seven months, but between two and three months for certain countries. Such variation in the half-lives of deviations may be reflective of differences in the degree of financial integration among the country groups analyzed. RIRP does not hold over short time horizons, but empirical evidence has demonstrated that it generally holds well across long time horizons of five to ten years.
## See also
- Carry trade
- Covered interest arbitrage
- Financial crisis
- Foreign exchange derivative
- Uncovered interest arbitrage |
2,400,150 | Gunfright | 1,161,941,428 | 1985 action-adventure game video game | [
"1985 video games",
"Action-adventure games",
"Amstrad CPC games",
"MSX games",
"Rare (company) games",
"Video games about police officers",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games with isometric graphics",
"Western (genre) video games",
"ZX Spectrum games"
]
| Gunfright is an action-adventure game developed by Ultimate Play the Game and published by U.S. Gold. It was first released for the ZX Spectrum in December 1985, then released for Amstrad CPC and the MSX the following year. The player takes the role of a sheriff in the town of Black Rock and is tasked with eliminating outlaws who are scattered throughout the settlement.
The game was developed directly after Nightshade, and re-uses the latter game's Filmation II game engine that allows images to be rendered without overlapping each other. The game received mostly positive reviews upon release; praise was directed at the graphics and presentation, but criticism was directed at the game's similarity to Nightshade. It was later included in Rare Replay, Rare's 2015 Xbox One retrospective compilation.
## Gameplay
The game is presented in an isometric format and set in the fictional town of Black Rock. The player takes on the role of Sheriff Quickdraw, whose main objective is to track down and kill a gang of outlaws who are hiding in the town. The game begins with a first-person perspective targeting minigame in which vertically scrolling bags of money can be shot at using crosshairs. Shooting the bags give the player initial sums of money which can be used to purchase ammunition.
Sheriff Quickdraw must locate the wanted outlaws one by one. Once an outlaw has been found and shot to initiate a duel, the game shifts to the first-person targeting minigame. This time, the player must shoot the rapidly moving outlaw as quickly as possible. The player can either wait for the outlaw to draw, or take the initiative and shoot first, which will make the bandit draw his weapon as well. If the player successfully shoots an outlaw, a bounty is paid (increasing with every round), and a new outlaw enters the town.
Players encounter helpful residents who will point the way to outlaws. The residents need to be protected during gameplay, as the player has to pay a fine if any are shot by either bandits or Sheriff Quickdraw himself. Some outlaws are mounted on horseback, meaning that the player may have to saddle a horse power-up to pursue them.
## Development
The game was developed with the isometric projection game engine known as Filmation II, which was used previously in Ultimate's 1985 ZX Spectrum game Nightshade. The Filmation engine was created by the Stamper brothers to portray 3D imagery. Filmation II used an image masking technique that drew and filled holes in the background, allowing the game to create composite structures out of pixelated drawings without visual overlay, despite the limitations platforms such as the ZX Spectrum offered.
Gunfright was initially released for the ZX Spectrum in 1985 and was the last game to be developed under the direct involvement of the Stamper brothers. Realising that the graphical limits of platforms such as the ZX Spectrum had been pushed, future projects such as Blackwyche and Dragon Skulle were handed over to designer brothers Dave and Bob Thomas, who were often uncredited for their work. Gunfright, along with Knight Lore, Alien 8 and Nightshade, were re-released for the MSX in 1986, with Gunfright and Sabre Wulf being ported to the Amstrad CPC later that year.
## Reception
The game received mostly positive reviews upon release. Reviewers writing for Crash praised the game's graphics as highly detailed and "colourful", but stated that the game was visually similar to Ultimate's immediately previous game, Nightshade. Gwyn Hughes of Your Sinclair thought the graphics were the best aspect of the game, despite similarly comparing them to those of Nightshade. Hughes also praised the game's smooth animation and the techniques used to portray the western town. A reviewer for CVG suggested that the game's style and gameplay was a mix of Nightshade and Nintendo's Duck Hunt. Reviewing the MSX version, a reviewer for Computer Gamer praised the game's plot, and was complimentary of the way the game was able to separate itself from Ultimate's previous game, which had used the same Filmation engine.
Reviewers writing for Crash praised the gameplay, stating that the game's "element" was considerably developed and that the several different stages were "highly addictive". Writers in CVG criticised the gameplay, noting that they found it difficult to distinguish the outlaws from other male inhabitants of the town. They also noted the absence of puzzle elements which was considered "unusual" for an Ultimate game. Bill Bennett of Your Computer similarly considered the omission of puzzle elements unusual, but welcomed the "witty" change in genre from the previous dungeon-themed video games.
## Legacy
Gunfright is part of an Xbox One compilation of 30 Rare titles, Rare Replay, released in August 2015. |
21,077,710 | The Fame Ball Tour | 1,171,515,800 | 2009 concert tour by Lady Gaga | [
"2009 concert tours",
"Concert tours of Asia",
"Concert tours of Australia",
"Concert tours of Austria",
"Concert tours of Belgium",
"Concert tours of Canada",
"Concert tours of China",
"Concert tours of Denmark",
"Concert tours of Europe",
"Concert tours of Finland",
"Concert tours of France",
"Concert tours of Germany",
"Concert tours of Ireland",
"Concert tours of Japan",
"Concert tours of New Zealand",
"Concert tours of North America",
"Concert tours of Norway",
"Concert tours of Oceania",
"Concert tours of Russia",
"Concert tours of Singapore",
"Concert tours of South Korea",
"Concert tours of Spain",
"Concert tours of Sweden",
"Concert tours of Switzerland",
"Concert tours of the Netherlands",
"Concert tours of the Philippines",
"Concert tours of the United Kingdom",
"Concert tours of the United States",
"Lady Gaga concert tours"
]
| The Fame Ball Tour was the debut concert tour by American singer Lady Gaga, in support of her debut studio album The Fame (2008). North American shows began in March, followed by dates in Oceania and a solo trek through Europe. Dates in Asia soon followed, as well as two performances at England's V Festival and two shows in North America that had been postponed from April. Gaga described the tour as a traveling museum show incorporating artist Andy Warhol's pop-performance art concept. Tickets were distributed for charity also. Alternate versions of the show with minimal variations were planned by Gaga to accommodate different venues.
The show consisted of four segments, with each segment being followed by a video interlude to the next segment, and it ended with an encore. The set list consisted of songs from her debut album, as well as an unreleased track called "Future Love". Gaga's performance involved multiple costume changes, and included an innovative dress made entirely of plastic bubbles. An alternate set list with minor changes were performed after the first North American leg of the tour. The show has received critical acclaim with critics complimenting her vocal clarity and fashion sense as well as her ability to pull off theatrics like a professional artist.
## Background
The tour was officially announced on January 12, 2009, through Gaga's official Myspace page. It was her first headlining tour; she has previously served as opening act for New Kids on the Block's New Kids on the Block: Live tour, as well as The Pussycat Dolls' Doll Domination Tour. Gaga stated, "I consider what I do to be more of an Andy Warhol concept: pop performance art, multimedia, fashion, technology, video, film. And it's all coming together, and it's going to be traveling museum show." Gaga started planning for the show while on the tour with The Pussycat Dolls. In an interview with MTV News, she described the concert series:
> "It's not really a tour, it's more of a traveling party. I want it to be an entire experience from [the] minute you walk in [the] front door to [the] minute I begin to sing. And when it's all over, everyone's going to press rewind and relive it again. [...] It's going to be as if you're walking into New York circa 1974: There's an art installation in the lobby, a DJ spinning your favorite records in the main room, and then the most haunting performance that you've ever seen on the stage. [...] I'm on the phone every minute of every day, talking to people, being creative, planning this Ball, and my tour manager is constantly saying, 'Come on, we have to go, we've got to go right now,' [...] But to me, the Ball is so important. I want so much to make every depression dollar that everyone spends on my show worth it. And, yeah, I'm paying a lot for it — out of my own pocket. But that's OK. I just don't care about money."
Gaga prepared three versions of her show to cater to different sizes of the venues she played. In an interview with Billboard she said,
> "I am so mental and sleepless and excited for this tour, [...] This is so different than anything you've seen from me in the past year. What's fantastic about [the show] was I was able to plan it while I was on another tour that was on a much smaller scale, opening for the Dolls. This is going to be, like, the ultimate creative orgasm for me 'cause I'm ready to move on. I'm not restricted to a certain structure for my show anymore. No limitations. I'm free. [...] I want to have a clear schedule of the dimensions for each venue so that we can properly execute all the technology and visuals. I need to mentally prepare days in advance if things are going to be taken out; otherwise, I won't have a good show...Every show's gonna be an A show by the time I'm done screaming at everyone – 'Hang it! Hang everything! Find a place to hang it!' That's gonna be my motto."
The set list consisted of songs from her debut album mainly, but some new songs like "Fashion" from the Confessions of a Shopaholic soundtrack were also considered. In May, during an interview with Edmonton Sun, Gaga announced that the tour would continue through European festivals in summer. She also declared plans for a bigger North American tour including Canada. Gaga explained that the show is supposed to be much bigger than the previous version. She said, "Oh, you have no idea, [...] The tour that we're about to announce is such a dream that I have to pinch myself almost every day to remind myself that it's happening."
## Concert synopsis
The show is mainly divided into four parts with the last part being the encore. The main show began with a video introduction called "The Heart" where Gaga appeared as alter-ego Candy Warhol. She was shown dressing up and displayed the symbol of a pink heart on her T-shirt and said "My name is Lady Gaga, and this is my house." The video was projected on a giant screen in front of the stage. As the video approached towards the end, a countdown from ten to one happened, Gaga's face was shown wearing the video sunglasses, and flames engulfed the screen as it dropped. Gaga appeared in the middle of the stage being surrounded by her dancers holding glass encrusted plates which camouflage them. She wore a futuristic black dress in geometric patterns with a triangular piece on her right breast and peplum. DJ Space Cowboy was present at a corner, playing the backing music. Gaga came out in the center as the plates rolled around and started singing "Paparazzi".
The performance ends with continuous clicking of the camera. Gaga comes to the top of the pillar and sings a combination of "Starstruck" and "LoveGame" as she is joined by her dancers in tracks and jackets and hands Gaga her trademark disco stick. After "LoveGame", she talks a monologue about the year "3009". And says that "The kids came out of New York and shot the paparazzi." followed by saying "It was a thousand years before when the monster first entered the city, vanished for our hearts and for our brains and for our faces (referencing to the three video interludes of the tour)" and "we knew we could co-exist with this monster with our MUSIC!!! With our art and with our fashion. My name is Lady Gaga." and tells the crowd she feels "beautiful and dirty rich" and sang "Beautiful, Dirty, Rich". This leads to the end of the first part wherein a video introduction called "The Brain" starts with Gaga appearing again as Candy Warhol and brushing her hair. After the video ends, Gaga appears on the stage in a black and white leotard with high-pointed "puff" shoulders and lightning shaped symbols, while riding on a similarly colored vespa. She then starts singing "The Fame". This is followed by a speech. Gaga said she's been "travelling the whole world, but when I get back, I can still smell the stench of greed." And then she performs "Money Honey" with the dancers who are wearing backpacks. "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)" starts immediately, accompanied by hand-waving and Gaga wore a hat made of toppled dominoes.
Gaga then leaves the stage only to appear shortly after in a dress completely made of plastic bubbles. She sits in front of a glass piano and starts singing an acoustic version of "Poker Face". She sometimes puts her leg on the piano and even plays it with her stilettos. And then, thanks the audience and surprises them by performing an unreleased and new song called "Future Love" whose lyrics referenced far-off galaxies, mechanical hearts and constellations. She was surrounded by a glowing mannequin while singing the song. The stage had a blue setting with mechanical fog. Gaga left for a costume change as the third video interlude titled The Face starts.
After the video ended, she then came on the stage wearing a tutu shaped dress with pointed shoulder pads and peplum. Her dancers were clad in Louis Vuitton Steven Sprouse printed trousers which matched Gaga's shoes. The backdrop changed to show blinking disco lights and Gaga stood in the center wearing her video sunglasses which display the line "Pop Music Will Never Be Low Brow". A remix of the intro for "Just Dance" started and Gaga was joined by her dancers on stage. When the song shifts to the bridge, Gaga once again is handed her disco stick and performs the bridge with it. The ending shifts to a remixed version of the song. Then Gaga and the dancers, joined by DJ Space Cowboy or DJ Nicodemus, take a bow in front of the audience. Gaga comes back with her dancers to perform the encore. The encore of the tour consisted of "Boys, Boys, Boys" and the original version of "Poker Face". Gaga was dressed in a khaki leotard embellished with crystals. She wore an admiral's cap and gloves on her hands, both were decorated with the word Gaga on them.
### Changes from Oceania shows
Since the Fame Ball show in Auckland, New Zealand, Gaga performed a different setlist during the rest of the tour, involving outfit changes as well. "Paparazzi", "LoveGame", and "Beautiful, Dirty, Rich" were performed in a similar, this time tinfoil tutu with a triangular piece. "The Fame" and "Money Honey" were then followed by "Boys Boys Boys" – all three songs were performed in a glittering silver leotard with small pointy wings, riding a similarly colored vespa. "Just Dance" and "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)" were performed in the yellow dress from the American leg of the tour. After performing "Brown Eyes" (replacing "Future Love") and "Poker Face" on the piano, Gaga closed the show with the album version of "Poker Face", wearing a nude corseted leotard embellished with crystals.
## Critical response
Sheri Linden from Yahoo! gave a positive review of the concert saying "Gaga's first theater tour is a hot ticket – and the Lady did not disappoint. Borrowing from Madonna, Grace Jones, David Bowie and Daryl Hannah's Blade Runner replicant, Gaga put on a compelling show revolving around her mysterious persona, a trio of leather-jacketed dancers, multiple costume changes and props and a lone DJ providing musical accompaniment." Christopher Muther from The Boston Globe reviewed the concert in House of Blues and said "The combination of song and spectacle was crowd-pleasing and exhilarating. Her club-ready songs were delivered by a woman who is clearly studied, intelligent, and talented." Lynn Saxberg from the Ottawa Citizen was also positive in her review, which she wrote after the concert at Bronson Centre in Ottawa and said, "Accompanied by a DJ who also played a funky electric guitar, the curvy dynamo (Gaga and Space Cowboy) fronted one of wildest spectacles ever mounted at Bronson Centre, an action-packed circus of sound, lights, video images, fog and choreography. Though heavy on theatrics, there was no skimping on the music." She also commented on Gaga's fashion sense and style in her costumes by saying, "In an hour, Gaga proved her star power by packing in all her hits, displaying influences that ranged from Motown to 80s pop, and exhibiting a fearless fashion sense in several costume changes, none of which covered her bum." Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review of the concert, saying, "Her onstage banter was at times a bit silly and the visuals occasionally lacking in coherent theme, but her voice was strong and refreshingly free of overbearing tracking vocals. For all her cocky bluster, perhaps the most undeniable aspect of Gaga's talent is this: The girl can, and does, sing." The show was described to be a "sartorial experimentation that it made Rocky Horror look like cotillion. One presumed the Lady approved – and somewhere, to be sure, Andy Warhol stirred in his grave."
Andy Downing from Chicago Tribune was impressed by the show at House of Blues and said "The work is paying off. Just weeks into her first nationwide headlining tour, the 22-year-old New Yorker [...] already commands the stage like a seasoned pro." Jill Menze from Billboard also gave a positive review for the performance and complimented songs like "Just Dance", "LoveGame", "Poker Face", "Boys Boys Boys" and the fame obsessed "Paparazzi". The reviewer also said that "[From] her chart success, Lady Gaga has proven herself to be an of-the-moment pop sensation. Dig deeper, and it's clear she's versatile and talented enough to have staying power." Mikel Wood from Rolling Stone also gave a positive review saying "The tongue-in-cheek tabloid-victim shtick that provides some laughs on The Fame grew somewhat tiresome at the Wiltern, especially when the singer started spewing half-baked media-studies nonsense like, 'Some say Lady Gaga is a lie'... Fortunately, this is a woman who knows how to lighten a mood: Within 10 minutes or so, she'd donned a flesh-colored leotard and a bedazzled admiral's cap and was rhyming 'boys in cars' with 'buy us drinks in bars'." Craig Rosen from The Hollywood Reporter said that "Lady Gaga showed she's a serious contender to Madonna's crown [...]. She might be a relative newcomer, but the artist born Stefani Joanne Germanotta commanded the stage with a royal air during her hourlong set, at times even sporting a glowing scepter."
## Opening acts
- The White Tie Affair (North America)
- Chester French (North America)
- Cinema Bizarre (North America)
- Gary Go (Great Britain)
## Set list
### Original
This set list was used from March 12 to May 2, 2009. Gaga would later use it again for her concert on June 9.
1. "Paparazzi"
2. "LoveGame" (contains elements of "Starstruck")
3. "Beautiful, Dirty, Rich"
4. "The Fame"
5. "Money Honey"
6. "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)"
7. "Poker Face" (piano version)
8. "Future Love"
9. "Just Dance"
Encore
1. <li value=10>
"Boys Boys Boys"
2. "Poker Face"
### Revamped
This set list was used from June 26 to August 23, 2009.
1. "Paparazzi" (Alvinos Remix)
2. "LoveGame"
3. "Beautiful, Dirty, Rich"
4. "The Fame"
5. "Money Honey"
6. "Boys Boys Boys"
7. "Just Dance"
8. "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)"
Encore
1. <li value=9>
"Brown Eyes"
2. "Poker Face"
## Tour dates
## Box office score data |
211,557 | Doggystyle | 1,173,889,229 | 1993 studio album by Snoop Dogg | [
"1993 debut albums",
"Albums produced by Dr. Dre",
"Death Row Records albums",
"G-funk albums",
"Gangsta rap albums by American artists",
"Interscope Records albums",
"Snoop Dogg albums"
]
| Doggystyle is the debut studio album by American rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg. It was released on November 23, 1993, by Death Row Records and Interscope Records. The album was recorded and produced following Snoop's appearances on Dr. Dre's debut solo album The Chronic (1992), to which Snoop contributed significantly. The West Coast style in hip-hop that he developed from Dre's first album continued on Doggystyle. Critics have praised Snoop Dogg for the lyrical "realism" that he delivers on the album and for his distinctive vocal flow.
Despite some mixed criticism of the album initially upon its release, Doggystyle earned recognition from many music critics as one of the most significant albums of the 1990s, as well as one of the most important hip-hop albums ever released. Much like The Chronic, the distinctive sounds of Doggystyle helped introduce the hip-hop subgenre of G-funk to a mainstream audience, bringing forward West Coast hip-hop as a dominant force in the early-mid 1990s.
Doggystyle debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, selling 806,858 copies in its first week alone in the United States, which was the record for a debuting artist and the fastest-selling hip-hop album ever at the time. Doggystyle was included on The Source magazine's list of the 100 Best Rap Albums, as well as Rolling Stone magazine's list of Essential Recordings of the '90s. About.com placed the album in No. 17 of the greatest hip hop/rap albums of all time. The album was certified 4× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). By November 2015, the album had sold 7 million copies in the United States, and over 11 million copies worldwide.
## Conception
### Background
In 1992, Snoop Dogg came to attention of the music industry through his vocal contributions on Dr. Dre's The Chronic. That album is considered to have "transformed the entire sound of West Coast rap" by its development of what later became known as the "G-funk" sound. The Chronic expanded gangsta rap with profanity, anti-authoritarian lyrics and multi-layered samples taken from 1970's P-Funk records. Snoop Doggy Dogg contributed vocals to Dre's solo single, "Deep Cover", which led to a high degree of anticipation among hip hop for the release of his own solo album.
Doggystyle and The Chronic are associated with each other mainly because each prominently featured Snoop Dogg and because both contain G-funk style production from Dr. Dre. The two releases are linked by the high number of vocal contributions from Death Row Records artists, including Tha Dogg Pound, RBX, The Lady of Rage, while both contain a high density of misogyny and profanity in their lyrics. In addition, the two albums are each viewed by critics as early "G-funk classics", and have been described as "joined at the hip". 'Doggystyle' also marked the debut of Death Row vocalist, Nanci Fletcher - the daughter of jazz legend Sam Fletcher.
Gangsta rap has been criticized for its extreme lyrics, which are often accused of glamorizing gang violence and black-on-black crime. The Gangsta rappers responded that they were simply describing the realities of life in places such as Compton, California, and Long Beach, California. Describing Doggystyle in 1993, Snoop Doggy Dogg likewise points to the album's realism, and the extent to which it is based on his personal experience. He said, "I can't rap about something I don't know. You'll never hear me rapping about no bachelor's degree. It's only what I know and that's that street life. It's all everyday life, reality." Explaining his intentions, Snoop Doggy Dogg claims he feels he is a role model to many young black men, and that his songs are designed to relate to their concerns. "For little kids growing up in the ghettos," he said, "it's easy to get into the wrong types of things, especially gangbanging and selling drugs. I've seen what that was like, and I don't glorify it, but I don't preach. I bring it to them rather than have them go find out about it for themselves." He further explained the "dream" that he would pursue after making the album: "I'm going to try to eliminate the gang violence. I'll be on a mission for peace. I know I have a lot of power. I know if I say, 'Don't kill', niggas won't kill".
### Recording
Doggystyle was recorded in early 1993 at Death Row Studios. It was produced in a style similar to The Chronic; some critics called it a "carbon copy". Snoop Doggy Dogg collaborated with two music groups, 213 and Tha Dogg Pound. Daz Dillinger, of the latter group, accused Dr. Dre of taking sole recognition for producing the album and alleged that Warren G and himself contributed substantially to the production of the project. Death Row Records co-founder Marion "Suge" Knight stated in 2013 that, "Daz pretty much did the whole album", and that credit was signed over to Dr. Dre for a fee. Snoop Doggy Dogg said Dr. Dre was capable of making beats without the help of collaborators and addressed the issues with Warren G and Daz, stating "They made beats, Dre produced that record". He discussed the track "Aint No Fun", mentioning that Daz and Warren G brought Dr. Dre the beat but "Dre took that muthafucka to the next level!" Bruce Williams, closely affiliated with Dr. Dre, discussed the recording process during Dre's time at Death Row Records, stating:
> Dre's going to be the first one in the studio and the last one to leave. He'll start messing with a beat. As the beat starts pumping, the guys start filtering in. Everybody will get their little drink and smoke in. Soon enough, the beat starts to make a presence. You'll look around the room and every cat that was a rapper – from Kurupt to Daz to Snoop – will grab a pen. They would start writing while Dre is making a beat so by the time he's finished with the beat, they are ready to hit the booth and start spittin'. To see those young cats – they were all hungry and wanted to make something dope. The atmosphere that was there, you couldn't be wack.
Williams said the album was never finished and because of the demand for the record, the distributors insisted the album be completed, otherwise they would cancel the album's orders. This resulted in Dr. Dre mixing the album and inserting the skits within 48 hours, which enabled the album to be released. Rolling Stone writer Jonathan Gold described how Dr. Dre produced a beat from scratch to complete instrumental: "Dre may find something he likes from an old drum break, loop it and gradually replace each part with a better tom-tom sound, a kick-drum sound he adores, until the beat bears the same relationship to the original that the Incredible Hulk does to Bill Bixby". Gold also described how the track progressed with other musicians adding to the song, stating "A bass player wanders in, unpacks his instrument and pops a funky two-note bass line over the beat, then leaves to watch CNN, though his two notes keep looping into infinity. A smiling guy in a striped jersey plays a nasty one-fingered melody on an old Minimoog synthesizer that's been obsolete since 1982, and Dre scratches in a sort of surfadelic munching noise, and then from his well-stocked Akai MPC60 samples comes a shriek, a spare piano chord, an ejaculation from the first Beastie's record—'Let me clear my throat'—and the many-layered groove is happening, bumping, breathing, almost loud enough to see."
While recording Doggystyle with Dr. Dre in August 1993, Snoop Dogg was arrested in connection with the death of Phillip Woldermarian, a member of a rival gang who was shot and killed in a gang fight. According to the charges, the rapper's bodyguard shot Woldermarian as Snoop Dogg drove the vehicle; the rapper claimed it was self-defense, alleging the victim was stalking him. He spent most of 1995 preparing the case which went to trial in late 1995. He was cleared of all charges in February 1996 when he began working on his second album, Tha Doggfather.
### Title significance
The album's title alludes to the doggy style sex position and is a reference to the musician's name. The artwork, which was done by artist Joe Cool, represents the themes covered in the album and the style of implementation of those ideas. Some critics believe the artwork portrays a woman merely as a hole to be filled by the man, which they believe adheres to the narcissistic and sexist lyrical themes Snoop Dogg covers. In this interpretation, the cover art and lyrics convey what they refer to as the self-indulgent "gangsta" lifestyle, drugs, cars, sex, and money. The artwork uses several quotes from the 1982 George Clinton single "Atomic Dog". The quotes come from the dogs at the top of the brick wall on the album cover, which say, "Why must I feel like dat?", "Why must I chase da cat?" and "Nuttin' but da dogg in me".
## Music
### Production
Dre's handling of the production was praised by critics. AllMusic writer Stephen Erlewine stated: "Dre realized that it wasn't time to push the limits of G-funk, and instead decided to deepen it musically, creating easy-rolling productions that have more layers than they appear". He added that the beats were "laid-back funky, continuing to resonate after many listens". Rolling Stone writer Touré noted "The Chronic's slow, heavy beats were a sonic representation of angry depression as accurate as Cobain's feedback blasts; Doggystyle is leaner, with its high-tempo Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield-derived tracks". He went on to say that "Most of Dre's hooks and nearly all his beats refuse to linger, as if the songs themselves are nervous, fearful of exposure, restless to get offscreen." Entertainment Weekly magazine's David Browne mentioned that "The mix of samples and live music on Dre's latest, The Chronic, gave it texture and depth, and he continues his knob-turning growth on Doggystyle, fluidly weaving together a gaggle of background singers and rappers, quirky samples, his trademark horror-flick keyboard lines". The Source magazine columinst wrote: "Dre's brand of G-funk may be common now, but it is still painstakingly well-produced".
### Lyrics
Snoop Doggy Dogg's lyrics were generally praised by critics, although they caused some controversy. He was acclaimed for the realism in his rhymes and his harmonious flow. AllMusic's Stephen Erlewine commended Snoop Doggy Dogg, saying: "he's one of hip-hop's greatest vocal stylists with this record" and he "takes his time, playing with the flow of his words, giving his rhymes a nearly melodic eloquence. Snoop is something special, with unpredictable turns of phrase, evocative imagery, and a distinctive, addictive flow". Time magazine's Christopher John Farley noted "Snoop's rapping isn't flashy, but it is catchy" and stated "His relaxed vocal style is a perfect match for Dre's bass-heavy producing. Snoop's voice is lithe enough to snake its way around the big beats," said Farley on November 29, 1993. The ideas put forward through the lyrics include Snoop Doggy Dogg's adolescent urges, as he freely talks of casual sex, smoking marijuana and gunning down rival gang members. Time magazine remarked that the notions "are often unnecessarily graphic; at some points they're downright obscene" and that "the album would have been stronger if such misgivings about the criminal life, as well as Snoop's touches of introspection, had been applied to some of the cruder songs". The album also covered gun play, drug dealing and pimping. The New York Times said that the lyrical concepts were delivered in "crudest, rudest terms".
Some critics said Snoop Doggy Dogg was "obsessed with being a 'G', a gangster, a lawbreaker who smokes dope and kills with impunity" and that his lyrics depict the black-on-black crime in the inner-cities. The lyrics involve many derogatory terms against women, with expressions such as "bitches" and "hoes" being used throughout, which illustrates the feeling of sexism and oppression within American society. In certain tracks Snoop Doggy Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound casually speak of group sex, illustrating the demeaning of women. Snoop Doggy Dogg's lyrics depict drugs, alcohol, sex, and money as methods of escape from oppression, but they also show an underside of the "gangsta" lifestyle and the results of following this lifestyle. The lyrics' violent representations, including murder and aggressive behaviour, have also generated controversy. C. DeLores Tucker of the National Political Congress of Black Women named gangsta rap "a profane and obscene glorification of murder and rape", which can be attributed to Doggystyle.
### Content
"Who Am I? (What's My Name?)" was the first single released from the album, on November 11, 1993. It peaked at No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart and reached No. 1 on the Hot Rap Singles, receiving a Gold certification from the RIAA on February 8, 1994. It reached No. 20 on the UK Singles Chart in 1994 and re-entered the chart in 2004, reaching No. 100.
"Gin and Juice" was the second single released on January 18, 1994. Like the previous single, it was a hit on multiple charts. It reached No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100, No. 13 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, No. 1 on Hot Rap Singles, and No. 39 on the UK Singles Chart. The RIAA certified it Gold on April 6, 1994. The song was nominated at the 1995 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance, but lost to Queen Latifah's "U.N.I.T.Y.". "Doggy Dogg World" was released as a Europe-only single on August 8, 1994. Even though the single was not officially released in the U.S., it received some radio airplay which resulted in position 19 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart. A music video was produced for the single, which gained American video TV-play and won the 1994 MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video. It reached No. 32 on the UK Singles Chart.
"Lodi Dodi" and "Murder Was the Case" were not official singles, but they received radio airplay and charted in Rhythmic Top 40. An 18-minute music video was shot for the two songs, with an accompanying Murder Was the Case soundtrack. The video won the 1995 Video of the Year award at The Source Hip-Hop Music Awards. "Gin and Juice" was nominated at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance. A bonus track, "Gz Up, Hoes Down", was included in the album's first pressing, but not in later versions because of sample clearance issues. Snoop Doggy Dogg could not gain the rights to use the beats because the record company was not willing to pay license fees for using the samples. "Gz Up, Hoes Down" was later released on the Death Row compilation "15 Years on Death Row". "Tha Next Episode" was listed on the cover, but not included in any pressing. It is considered the original material used for the 2000 Dr. Dre single "The Next Episode" but bears no resemblance to the later song. It was 4 minutes and 36 seconds (4:36) long. "Tha Next Episode" was later released on the Dr. Dre mixtape Pretox under the name "Chronic Unreleased Studio Session", but only 1:10 long. "Doggystyle" featuring George Clinton was a 5:26 long outtake from the album sessions. It is a singing melody with vocals dominating the song and it extensively samples "Oh I" by Funkadelic from their album The Electric Spanking of War Babies. Jewell & The Brides of Funkenstein are featured on the chorus. The song was released on Death Row: The Lost Sessions Vol. 1 amongst other songs recorded by Snoop Doggy Dogg during his tenure at Death Row.
## Legacy and influence
### Hip-hop music
Doggystyle is seen by many hip hop pundits as a "classic". It is credited with defining West Coast hip hop; shifting the emphasis to more melodious, synth-driven, and funk-induced beats. About.com stated during the period the album was released, "Gangsta rap never sounded so sweet." The album is credited for further establishment of the slurred "lazy drawl" that sacrificed lyrical complexity for clarity and rhythmic cadence on Doggystyle and The Chronic. The album is considered one of the first G-funk albums, the style of which many rappers duplicated in later years.
### Hip-hop culture
It has been suggested by some writers and publications that Doggystyle has considerably affected African-American culture. Some publications have held the rap genre responsible for social problems such as sexual violence and sexism, which has been blamed on Snoop Doggy Dogg and other rappers for calling their controversial lyrics "keeping it real." The problems of sexual violence and sexism are attributed to lyrics degrading women such as "bitches" and "ho's," which some believe have influenced black males. Snoop Doggy Dogg and other hip hop artists, including N.W.A, especially Eazy-E, Dr. Dre and Ice Cube (due to their success) and 2Pac, have been held accountable for developing the gangsta rap form; a genre which articulated the rage of the urban underclass and its sense of intense oppression and defiant rebellion, which has been attained through the ability to communicate free of censorship, and has allowed hip hop culture to become a dominant style and ethos throughout the world. Mariah Carey sampled the song "Aint No Fun (If the Homies Can't Have None)" in her 1999 album Rainbow for the remix of Heartbreaker which featured Missy Elliott and Da Brat.
The writers of Enculturation, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner, have noted that Snoop Doggy Dogg and other rappers only condemn violence when it is directed against them, otherwise "they celebrate it, internalize it, and embrace it as an ethos and means of self expression," which some believe has an effect on the black-on-black crime. The release of music videos from Doggystyle and The Chronic has enabled the artists to add visual illustrations to their lyrics, which generally involve Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg driving around South Central Los Angeles in a lowrider (a vehicle with lowered suspension). This imagery of the "gangsta lifestyle" is thought to have influenced young black males into trying to live the same lifestyle and it is also noted by T. Denean, writer of Pimps Up, Ho's Down: Hip Hop's Hold on Young Black Women, that the videos highlight the representation of class, race and Black masculinity within contemporary urban America.
### Subsequent work
Doggystyle is generally considered Snoop Dogg's best album, in addition to being his highest charting and best-selling album as his later albums were certified double Platinum, Platinum or Gold although Da Game Is to Be Sold, Not to Be Told was certified double Platinum making it his second best selling album and also his only other one to be certified multi Platinum. It differs from following albums as his later work featured production from multiple individuals, such as The Neptunes, Timbaland and Daz Dillinger, with reduced input from Dr. Dre, which shows a shift from G-funk production. Snoop Doggy Dogg's follow-up album, Tha Doggfather (1996), did not involve Dr. Dre, as he left Death Row Records. As a result, DJ Pooh was the main beat-maker for the album. Tha Doggfather followed the methods of a G-funk record and initially sold well, but received mixed reviews and failed to produce a major hit single. In 1998, Snoop Dogg left Death Row and joined No Limit Records, changing his stage name from Snoop Doggy Dogg to Snoop Dogg. During his tenure at the label, he continued several of the themes from Doggystyle with follow-ups to earlier songs, such as "Gin & Juice II" (1998) and "Snoop Dogg (What's My Name II)" (2000).
Subsequent studio albums such as Paid tha Cost to Be da Boss (2002) and R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece (2004) exhibited a more mainstream, pop-oriented theme with new sounds, but remained "hardcore throughout" and featured "plenty of street and commercial appeal". These releases included three hit singles, "Beautiful", "Drop It Like It's Hot" and "Signs". Snoop Dogg was credited for returning to his G-funk roots in 2006, which was established with his eighth studio album, Tha Blue Carpet Treatment (2006). The album was noted for being a "hard and very G-Funk record".
In March 2022, Doggystyle and other Death Row albums were removed from all streaming platforms.
In October 2022, Snoop announced a spiritual sequel of the album, Missionary, also produced by Dr. Dre. The album is going be released by Death Row Records and Dr. Dre's label, Aftermath.
On March 10, 2023, Doggystyle and many other Death Row releases were brought back to streaming services.
## Critical reception
Doggystyle was released to widespread critical acclaim. Rolling Stone writer Touré mentioned "Doggystyle is filled with verbal and vocal feats that meet its high expectations. It speeds through 55 minutes of constant talk as if on a suicide hot line". David Browne of Entertainment Weekly noted "It is the most limber, low-rider gangsta album to date" and went on to say "Doggystyle is a grim, bleak-faced record. It's set in a dead-end, no-tomorrow world of cheap thrills". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated "Doggystyle and The Chronic stand proudly together as the twin pinnacles of West Coast G-funk hip-hop of the early '90s" Stylus magazine presented "The Chronic vs. Doggystyle" article, and stated a strong point of Doggystyle compared to Dre's album was its follow-up singles and that "some of the album tracks are more famous than the singles". Vibe magazine expressed that "Snoop is no ordinary gangsta; that's impossible for an artist this playful. On his debut, with Dre riding shotgun anthems abound as often as gin-soaked debauchery". The Source magazine gave the album a 4/5 mic rating. It said Snoop Doggy Dogg emerged as a rapper who lived up to all the advance hype which came from his work on The Chronic, and discussed songs on the record, stating "If 'Murder Was The Case' is a stroke of near genius, then 'Lodi Dodi' is an example of total genius." NME magazine called the lead single "a pinnacle he conquered effortlessly" and went on to name the record a "benchmark album".
The album also received some negative criticism. Erlewine of AllMusic mentioned the album did not "surprise or offer anything that wasn't already on The Chronic". Christopher John Farley noted Snoop Doggy Dogg had little examination over his emotions and feelings. David Browne spoke of "Aint No Fun", stating it was an example of how "musically artful, yet lyrically repellent, this album can be" and went on to say "It's easy to be impressed one moment and appalled the next". Renowned rock critic Robert Christgau gave the album a "dud" rating, which signifies "a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought. At the upper level it may merely be overrated, disappointing, or dull. Down below it may be contemptible." Q's Danny Kelly observed: "Snoop Doggy Dogg's record is more or less a 19-track homage to/gleeful rip off of George Clinton's 'Atomic Dog' ... It's inclined to become a touch unimaginative; a tad, let's be honest, dull ... And the sleeve competes with The Waterboys' Dream Harder and Billy Joel's River of Dreams as the worst attached to a recent release."
Despite the initial mixed criticism, critical perception of the album later improved, as Doggystyle has earned several accolades and rankings on critics' "best album" lists. A review of the album's reissue upped Q's rating from three to four stars out of five. "A modern classic," observed reviewer Tom Doyle. The Source magazine later gave the album a classic five-mic rating. In 2020, "Doggystyle" placed 340 in Rolling Stone's Top 500 Albums of All Time.
### Accolades
The information regarding accolades attributed to Doggystyle is adapted from AcclaimedMusic.net.
## Commercial performance
Doggystyle debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, powered by spectacular first week sales of 806,000 copies. In the second week Doggystyle remained at the top of the Billboard 200, selling 378,000 copies. In the third week the album dropped to number 2 on the chart, selling 259,000. In the fourth week the album dropped to number 3 on the Billboard 200, selling 297,000 copies. In the fifth week the album remained number 3 on the Billboard 200, selling 407,000 copies. In the sixth week the album returned to the top of the Billboard 200, selling 270,000 copies, marking Doggystyle's last week at the top of the chart to date. Doggystyle topped the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart for five weeks. As of November 2015, the album had sold seven million copies in the United States, and over eleven million copies worldwide. It was certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 31, 1994. It is Snoop Doggy Dogg's most successful album; his following albums were certified single or double platinum. Doggystyle first appeared on music charts in 1993, peaking on the Billboard 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums at No. 1. It re-peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 in January 1994, when it was already certified three times platinum by the RIAA. The record was mildly successful in Europe, reaching No. 18 in Sweden, No. 21 in Germany and No. 35 in Austria. It also peaked at No. 25 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand album chart. At the end of 1994, the album was No. 3 on the Billboard Year-End Top Albums Chart and No. 1 on the Billboard Year-End Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums Chart. It re-entered the charts in 2003, peaking on the Ireland Albums Top 75 at No. 70. As of September 2015, it had spent a total of 74 nonconsecutive weeks on the Billboard 200 album chart.
## Track listing
- All songs produced by Dr. Dre.
### Cut tracks
- "Gz Up, Hoes Down", only included on original pressings of the album. Omitted due to sample clearance issues.
- "Tha Next Episode", produced by and featuring Dr. Dre, was listed on the track listing provided to retailers before the album's release, but does not feature on any pressings of the album. A similar instrumental (i.e., it used the same sample as its main melody) was later used for Warren G's track "Runnin' Wit No Breaks" from his 1994 debut album, Regulate...G Funk Era Snoop Dogg and Dr. Dre later recorded a track titled "The Next Episode" for Dre's second studio album, 2001, which is completely different from the original.
- "Doggystyle", featuring Jewell and George Clinton, was recorded during the album sessions but remained unreleased until its inclusion on the compilation album Death Row: The Lost Sessions Vol. 1
- "The Root of All Evil (Outro)", featuring Teena Marie, was recorded during the album sessions but remained unreleased until its inclusion on the compilation album Death Row: The Lost Sessions Vol. 1. The instrumental was later significantly reworked and used for the remix of "California Love", by 2Pac featuring Dr. Dre.
- "Every Single Day", featuring Kurupt, Jewell and Nate Dogg, was recorded during the album sessions, remaining unreleased until an alternate version was released on Tha Dogg Pound compilation album 2002.
## Personnel
- Snoop Doggy Dogg – lead vocals
- Dr. Dre – producer, vocals
- Daz Dillinger – vocals, performer
- Sam Sneed - performer, inspiration
- Ulrich Wild – engineer
- Tha Dogg Pound – performer
- Warren G – performer
- The D.O.C. – performer
- The Lady of Rage – performer
- RBX – performer
- Kurupt – performer
- Nate Dogg – performer
- The Dramatics – performer
- Emanuel Dean – producer
- Chris "The Glove" Taylor – songwriter, mixing
- Suge Knight – executive producer
- Bernie Grundman – mastering
- Chi Modu – photography
- Nanci Fletcher – performer, vocals (featured and background)
- Dan Winters – photography
- Kimberly Holt – artwork
- Kimberly Brown – project coordinator
- Joe Cool – cover artwork
- Lasheena Denty - performer, vocals (featured)
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Catalog charts
### Year-end charts
### Decade-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
## See also
- List of number-one albums of 1993 (U.S.)
- List of number-one albums of 1994 (U.S.)
- List of number-one R&B albums of 1993 (U.S.)
- List of number-one R&B albums of 1994 (U.S.)
- Billboard Year-End |
3,457,121 | Murder of John Lennon | 1,171,766,092 | 1980 murder in New York City | [
"1980 crimes",
"1980 in New York City",
"1980 in music",
"1980 murders in the United States",
"1980s crimes in New York City",
"1980s in Manhattan",
"Assassinations in the United States",
"Crimes in Manhattan",
"Death conspiracy theories",
"Deaths by firearm in Manhattan",
"Deaths by person in New York City",
"December 1980 events",
"December 1980 events in the United States",
"John Lennon",
"Male murder victims",
"Murder in New York City",
"Upper West Side"
]
| On the evening of 8 December 1980, English musician John Lennon, formerly of the Beatles, was shot and fatally wounded in the archway of the Dakota, his residence in New York City. The killer was Mark David Chapman, an American Beatles fan who was jealous and enraged by Lennon's rich lifestyle, alongside his 1966 comment that the Beatles were "more popular than Jesus". Chapman said he was inspired by the fictional character Holden Caulfield from J. D. Salinger's novel The Catcher in the Rye, a "phony-killer" who loathes hypocrisy.
Chapman planned the killing over several months and waited for Lennon at the Dakota on the morning of 8 December. Early in the evening, Chapman met Lennon, who signed his copy of the album Double Fantasy and subsequently left for a recording session at the Record Plant. Later that night, Lennon and his wife, Yoko Ono, returned to the Dakota. As Lennon and Ono approached the entrance of the building, Chapman fired five hollow-point bullets from a .38 special revolver, four of which hit Lennon in the back. Lennon was rushed to Roosevelt Hospital in a police car, where he was pronounced dead on arrival at 11:15 p.m. at age 40. Chapman remained at the scene reading The Catcher in the Rye until he was arrested by the police.
A worldwide outpouring of grief ensued; crowds gathered at Roosevelt Hospital and in front of the Dakota, and at least three Beatles fans died by suicide. The next day, Lennon was cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. In lieu of a funeral, Ono requested ten minutes of silence around the world. Chapman pleaded guilty to murdering Lennon and was given a sentence of 20-years-to-life imprisonment. He has been denied parole twelve times since he became eligible in 2000.
## Background
### Mark David Chapman
Mark David Chapman, a 25-year-old former security guard from Honolulu, Hawaii, was a fan of the Beatles with no prior criminal convictions. J. D. Salinger's novel The Catcher in the Rye had taken on great personal significance for Chapman, to the extent that he wished to model his life after the novel's protagonist, Holden Caulfield. One of the novel's main themes is Caulfield's rage against adult hypocrisy and "phonies". Chapman claimed that he had been enraged by Lennon's infamous, much-publicised remark in 1966 that the Beatles were "more popular than Jesus", and by the lyrics of Lennon's songs "God", in which Lennon states that he does not believe in the Beatles, God or Jesus, and "Imagine", where Lennon states "imagine no possessions", yet had a lavish lifestyle as depicted in Anthony Fawcett's 1976 book John Lennon: One Day at a Time, making Lennon a "phony".
On 27 October 1980, Chapman purchased a five-shot .38 calibre Charter Arms revolver in Honolulu. He flew to New York on 29 October, after contacting the Federal Aviation Administration to learn the best way to transport a revolver. Chapman learned that bullets can be damaged on the plane, so he arrived without ammunition. He left New York on 12 or 13 November, then flew back on 6 December and checked into the Upper West Side YMCA for a night before moving to a Sheraton hotel in Midtown Manhattan.
### 8 December 1980
Chapman waited for Lennon outside the Dakota in early-morning and spent most of the day near the entrance to the Dakota, talking to fans and the doorman. During that morning, Chapman was distracted and missed seeing Lennon step out of a cab and enter the Dakota. Later in the morning, Chapman met Lennon's family nanny, Helen Seaman, who was returning from a walk with Lennon's five-year-old son Sean. Chapman reached in front of the housekeeper to shake Sean's hand and said that he was a beautiful boy, quoting Lennon's song "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy)".
Portrait photographer Annie Leibovitz went to the Lennons' apartment to do a photo shoot for Rolling Stone magazine. Leibovitz promised them that a photo of the two of them naked together would make the front cover of the magazine. Leibovitz took several photos of John Lennon alone and one was originally set to be on the cover. Although Ono did not want to be naked, Lennon insisted that both he and his wife be on the cover, and after taking the pictures, Leibovitz left their apartment at 3:30 p.m. After the photo shoot, Lennon gave what would be his last interview, to RKO Radio Network's San Francisco DJ Dave Sholin and writer/producer Laurie Kaye, for a music show to be broadcast on the RKO Radio Network. At around 5 p.m., Lennon and Ono, delayed by a late limousine shared with the RKO Radio crew, left their apartment to mix the song "Walking on Thin Ice", an Ono song featuring Lennon on lead guitar, at the Record Plant.
As they left the building, they were approached by Chapman who asked for Lennon's autograph, a common practice, on a copy of his album, Double Fantasy. Lennon liked to give autographs or pictures, especially to those who had been waiting for long periods of time to meet him. Later, Chapman said, "He was very kind to me. Ironically, very kind and was very patient with me. The limousine was waiting ... and he took his time with me and he got the pen going and he signed my album. He asked me if I needed anything else. I said, 'No. No sir.' And he walked away. Very cordial and decent man." Paul Goresh, an amateur photographer and Lennon fan, took a photo of Lennon signing Chapman's album.
## Murder
The Lennons returned to the Dakota at approximately 10:50 p.m. Lennon wanted to say goodnight to his son before going to the Stage Deli restaurant with Ono. The Lennons exited their limousine on 72nd Street instead of driving into the more secure courtyard of the Dakota. The Lennons passed Chapman and walked toward the archway entrance of the building. As Ono passed by, Chapman nodded at her. As Lennon passed by, he glanced briefly at Chapman, appearing to recognise him from earlier. Seconds later, Chapman drew his gun, which was concealed in his coat pocket, aimed at the center of Lennon's back, and rapidly fired five hollow-point bullets from a distance of about nine to ten feet (2.7–3.0 m).
Based on statements made that night by New York City Police Department Chief of Detectives James Sullivan, numerous reports at the time claimed that Chapman called out "Mr. Lennon" and dropped into a combat stance before firing. Later court hearings and witness interviews did not include either of these details. Chapman said that he does not remember calling out to Lennon before he fired, and that Lennon did not turn around. He claimed to have taken a combat stance in a 1992 interview with Barbara Walters.
One bullet missed Lennon and struck a window of the Dakota. According to the autopsy report, two bullets entered the left side of Lennon's back, travelling through the left side of his chest and his left lung with one exiting from the body and one lodged in his neck. Two more bullets hit Lennon in his left shoulder. Lennon, bleeding profusely from his external wounds and from his mouth, staggered up five steps to the security/reception area where he said, "I'm shot! I'm shot!" He then fell to the floor, scattering cassettes that he was carrying.
Jose Perdomo, the doorman, shook the gun out of Chapman's hand and kicked it across the pavement. Concierge worker Jay Hastings first started to make a tourniquet, but upon ripping open Lennon's blood-stained shirt and realising the severity of his injuries, he covered Lennon's chest with his uniform jacket, removed his blood-covered glasses, and summoned the police. Chapman removed his coat and hat to show that he was not carrying any concealed weapons and remained standing on 72nd Street, waiting for police to arrive. Underneath his coat, he wore a promotional T-shirt for Todd Rundgren's album Hermit of Mink Hollow. Perdomo shouted at Chapman, "Do you know what you just did?" to which Chapman calmly replied, "I just shot John Lennon."
Officers Steven Spiro and Peter Cullen were the first policemen to arrive at the scene; they were at 72nd Street and Broadway when they heard a report of shots fired at the Dakota. The officers arrived around two minutes later and found Chapman standing very calmly on 72nd Street reading a paperback copy of J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye. They immediately put Chapman in handcuffs and placed him in the back seat of their squad car. Chapman made no attempt to flee or resist arrest. Cullen said of Chapman: "He apologized to us for ruining our night. I turned around and said to him, 'You've got to be fucking kidding me. You're worried about our night? Do you know what you just did to your life?' We read him his rights more than once."
Officer Herb Frauenberger and his partner Tony Palma were the second team arriving on the crime scene. They found Lennon lying face down on the floor of the reception area, blood pouring from his mouth and his clothing already soaked with it, with Hastings attending to him. Officers James Moran and Bill Gamble then arrived on the scene and Frauenberger put Lennon in their car, concluding his condition was too serious to wait for an ambulance to arrive. Moran and Gamble then drove Lennon to Roosevelt Hospital on West 59th Street, followed by Frauenberger and Palma, who drove Ono to the hospital. According to Gamble, in the car, Moran asked, "Are you John Lennon?" or "Do you know who you are?" Lennon nodded, but could only manage to make a moaning and gurgling sound when he tried to speak, and lost consciousness shortly thereafter.
## Resuscitation attempt
A few minutes before 11:00 p.m., Moran arrived at Roosevelt Hospital with Lennon in his squad car. Moran was carrying Lennon on his back and onto a gurney, demanding a doctor for a multiple gunshot wound victim. When Lennon was brought in, he was not breathing, and had no pulse. Three doctors, a nurse, and two or three other medical attendants worked on Lennon for 10 to 20 minutes in an attempt to resuscitate him. As a last resort, the doctors cut open Lennon's chest and attempted manual heart massage to restore circulation, but they quickly discovered that the damage to the blood vessels above and around Lennon's heart from the multiple bullet wounds was too great.
Three of the four bullets that struck Lennon's back passed completely through his body and out of his chest, while the fourth lodged itself in his aorta beside his heart. One of the exiting bullets from his chest hit and became lodged in his upper left arm. Several of the wounds could have been fatal by themselves, because each bullet had ruptured vital arteries around the heart. Lennon was shot four times at close range with hollow-point bullets and his affected organs—particularly his left lung and major blood vessels above his heart—were virtually destroyed upon impact.
Reports regarding who operated on and attempted to resuscitate Lennon have been inconsistent. Stephan Lynn, the head of the Emergency Department at Roosevelt Hospital, is usually credited with performing Lennon's surgery. In 2005, Lynn said he massaged Lennon's heart and attempted to resuscitate him for 20 minutes, that two other doctors were present, and that the three of them declared Lennon's death. Richard Marks, an emergency room surgeon at Roosevelt Hospital, stated in 1990 that he operated on Lennon, administered a "massive" blood transfusion, and provided heart massage to no avail. "When I realized he wasn't going to make it," said Marks, "I just sewed him back up. I felt helpless." David Halleran, who had been a third-year general surgery resident at Roosevelt Hospital, disputed the accounts of both Marks and Lynn. In 2015, Halleran stated that the two doctors "didn't do anything", and that he did not initially realise the identity of the victim. He added that Lynn only came to assist him when he heard that it was Lennon.
According to his death certificate, Lennon was pronounced dead on arrival at 11:15 p.m., but the time of 11:07 p.m. has also been reported. Witnesses noted that the Beatles song "All My Loving" came over the hospital's sound system at the moment Lennon was pronounced dead. Lennon's body was then taken to the city morgue at 520 First Avenue for an autopsy. The cause of death was reported on his death certificate as "hypovolemic shock, caused by the loss of more than 80% of blood volume due to multiple through-and-through gunshot wounds to the left shoulder and left chest resulting in damage to the left lung, the left subclavian artery, and both the aorta and aortic arch". According to the report, even with prompt medical treatment, no person could have lived for more than a few minutes with multiple bullet wounds affecting all of the major arteries and veins around the heart.
## Media announcement
Ono asked the hospital not to report to the media that her husband was dead until she informed their five-year-old son Sean, who was at home. Ono said he was probably watching television and that she did not want him to learn of his father's death from a TV announcement. However, news producer Alan J. Weiss of WABC-TV happened to be waiting for treatment in the Roosevelt Hospital emergency room after being injured in a motorcycle crash earlier in the evening. Police officers wheeled Lennon into the same room as Weiss and mentioned what happened. Weiss called his station and relayed the information.
ABC News president Roone Arledge received word of the death during the last few moments of a national telecast of a Monday Night Football game between the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins, with the game tied and the Patriots about to attempt a field goal to win the game. Arledge informed Frank Gifford and Howard Cosell of the shooting and suggested that they report the murder. Cosell, who had interviewed Lennon during a Monday Night Football broadcast in 1974, was chosen to do so but balked at being the one to deliver the news. Gifford convinced Cosell otherwise, saying, "You've got to. If you know it, we've got to do it. Don't hang on it. It's a tragic moment, and this is going to shake up the whole world".
The news was broken as follows:
> Cosell: ... but [the game]'s suddenly been placed in total perspective for us. I'll finish this; they're in the hurry-up offense.
>
> Gifford: Third down, four. [Chuck] Foreman ... it'll be fourth down. [Matt] Cavanaugh will let it run down for one final attempt; he'll let the seconds tick off to give Miami no opportunity whatsoever. (Whistle blows.) Timeout is called with three seconds remaining; John Smith is on the line. And I don't care what's on the line, Howard, you have got to say what we know in the booth.
>
> Cosell: Yes, we have to say it. Remember this is just a football game, no matter who wins or loses. An unspeakable tragedy confirmed to us by ABC News in New York City: John Lennon, outside of his apartment building on the West Side of New York City – the most famous, perhaps, of all of the Beatles – shot twice in the back, rushed to Roosevelt Hospital, dead on arrival. Hard to go back to the game after that newsflash, which, in duty-bound, we have to take. Frank?
>
> Gifford: (after a pause) Indeed, it is.
The first official confirmation of Lennon's death apparently came from WLIR's news director Steve North, according to North and DJ Bob Waugh. North was doing a special comment on the murder of gun control advocate Dr. Michael J. Halberstam, when an intern ran in with the news about Lennon. North then read the AP wire bulletin and spoke several times with a police contact, who was finally able to confirm Lennon had died. Waugh has since released an aircheck from that night.
New York rock station WNEW-FM 102.7 immediately suspended all programming and opened its lines to calls from listeners. Stations throughout the country switched to special programming devoted to Lennon and/or Beatles music.
## Reactions
### Lennon's associates
According to Stephan Lynn, when he informed Ono of Lennon's death, she banged her head against the concrete floor of the hospital. His account is disputed by two of the nurses who were there. In a 2015 interview, Ono denied hitting her head on the floor and stated that her chief concern at the time was to remain calm and take care of her son, Sean. She was led away from Roosevelt Hospital by a policeman and Geffen Records president, David Geffen. The following day, Ono issued a statement: "There is no funeral for John. Later in the week we will set the time for a silent vigil to pray for his soul. We invite you to participate from wherever you are at the time. ... John loved and prayed for the human race. Please pray the same for him. Love. Yoko and Sean."
George Harrison issued a prepared statement for the press: "After all we went through together, I had and still have great love and respect for him. I am shocked and stunned. To rob a life is the ultimate robbery in life. The perpetual encroachment on other people's space is taken to the limit with the use of a gun. It is an outrage that people can take other people's lives when they obviously haven't got their own lives in order." Harrison later privately told friends, "I just wanted to be in a band. Here we are, 20 years later, and some whack job has shot my mate. I just wanted to play guitar in a band."
Paul McCartney addressed reporters outside his Sussex home that morning and said, "I can't take it at the moment. John was a great man who'll be remembered for his unique contributions to art, music and peace. He is going to be missed by the whole world." Later that day, McCartney was leaving an Oxford Street recording studio when reporters asked him for his reaction; he ended his response, "Drag, isn't it? Okay, cheers, bye-bye". His apparently casual response was widely criticised. McCartney later said that he had intended no disrespect and simply was unable to articulate his feelings, given the shock and sadness he felt over Lennon's murder. Reflecting on the day two years later, McCartney said the following: "How did I feel? I can't remember. I can't express it. I can't believe it. It was crazy. It was anger. It was fear. It was madness. It was the world coming to an end. And it was, 'Will it happen to me next?' I just felt everything. I still can't put into words. Shocking. And I ended up saying, 'It's a drag,' and that doesn't really sum it up."
Ringo Starr, who was in the Bahamas at the time, received a phone call from his stepchildren informing him about the murder. He flew to New York City to console Ono and played with Lennon's son, Sean.
### Public response
Per Ono's wishes, on 14 December, millions of people around the world paused for ten minutes of silence to remember Lennon, including 30,000 people gathered in Lennon's hometown of Liverpool, and over 225,000 people at Naumburg Bandshell in Central Park, close to the scene of the shooting. For those ten minutes, every radio station in New York City went off the air.
At least three Beatles fans died by suicide after the murder, leading Ono to make a public appeal asking mourners not to give in to despair. On 18 January 1981, a full-page open letter from Ono appeared in The New York Times and The Washington Post. Titled "In Gratitude", it expressed thanks to the millions of people who mourned Lennon's loss and wanted to know how they could commemorate his life and help her and Sean.
Double Fantasy, which was released three weeks before Lennon's murder to mixed critical reaction and initially unremarkable sales, became a worldwide commercial success and won the 1981 Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the 24th Annual Grammy Awards.
Ono released a solo album, Season of Glass, in 1981. The cover of the album is a photograph of Lennon's blood-spattered glasses that he was wearing when he was shot. That same year, she also released "Walking on Thin Ice", the song the Lennons had mixed at the Record Plant less than an hour before he was murdered, as a single.
The attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley Jr. took place three months after Lennon's murder, and the police found a copy of The Catcher in the Rye among Hinckley's personal belongings. Hinckley left a cassette tape in his hotel room on which he stated that he mourned Lennon's death. He said that he wanted to make "some kind of statement" after Lennon's death.
In June 2016 Jay Hastings, the Dakota concierge who tried to help Lennon, sold the shirt he was wearing that night, stained with Lennon's blood at an auction for \$42,500.
## Aftermath
The day after Lennon's murder, his remains were cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, Westchester County, New York, and his ashes were scattered in Central Park, in sight of their apartment. Chapman was taken to the 20th Precinct on West 82nd Street, where he was questioned for eight hours before being brought to New York County Criminal Court on Centre Street in Lower Manhattan. A judge remanded Chapman to Bellevue Hospital for psychiatric evaluation.
Meanwhile, Chapman was charged with second-degree murder of Lennon, as premeditation in New York state was not sufficient to warrant charge of first-degree murder. Despite advice by his lawyers to plead insanity, Chapman pleaded guilty to murdering Lennon, saying that his guilty plea was the will of God. Under the terms of his guilty plea, he was sentenced to 20-years-to-life with eligibility for parole in 2000. Before his sentencing, he was given the opportunity to address the court, at which point he read a passage from The Catcher in the Rye. As of September 2022, he has been denied parole 12 times and remains incarcerated at Green Haven Correctional Facility.
## Memorials and tributes
### Photography
Leibovitz's photo of a naked Lennon embracing his wife, taken on the day of the murder, was the cover of the 22 January 1981 issue of Rolling Stone, most of which was dedicated to articles, letters and photographs commemorating Lennon's life and death. In 2005, the American Society of Magazine Editors ranked it as the top magazine cover of the last 40 years.
### Events
- Every 8 December, a remembrance ceremony is held in front of the Capitol Records building on Vine Street in Hollywood, California. People also light candles in front of Lennon's Hollywood Walk of Fame star, outside the Capitol Building.
- On 28–30 September 2007, Durness held the John Lennon Northern Lights Festival, which was attended by Lennon's half-sister, Julia Baird, who read from his writings and her own books; and Stanley Parkes, Lennon's Scottish cousin.
- Ono places a lit candle in the window of Lennon's room in the Dakota every year on 8 December.
- Every 9 October, Lennon's birthday, through 8 December, the date Lennon was shot, the Imagine Peace Tower in Iceland is lit.
- On 24 March 2018, Paul McCartney participated in the March for Our Lives, a protest against gun violence, because of Lennon's killing.
### Music
- Bob Dylan wrote and recorded the song "Roll on John" on his 2012 album Tempest, which explicitly references the assassination ("They shot him in the back and down he went").
- David Bowie, who befriended Lennon while Lennon co-wrote and performed on Bowie's US \#1 hit "Fame" in 1975, performed a tribute to Lennon in the final show of his Serious Moonlight Tour at the Hong Kong Coliseum, on 8 December 1983—the third anniversary of Lennon's death. Bowie said he last saw Lennon in Hong Kong, and performed Lennon's song "Imagine".
- David Gilmour of Pink Floyd wrote and recorded the song "Murder" in response to Lennon's death. It was released on his album About Face (1984).
- George Harrison released a tribute song, "All Those Years Ago" (1981), with Ringo Starr and Paul McCartney.
- Elton John, who recorded the US number-one hit "Whatever Gets You thru the Night" with Lennon, teamed up with his lyricist Bernie Taupin for the tribute "Empty Garden (Hey Hey Johnny)". It appeared on his album Jump Up! (1982), and peaked at No. 13 on the US Singles Chart that year. When he performed the song at a sold-out concert in Madison Square Garden in August 1982, he was joined on stage by Ono and Sean.
- Paul McCartney released his tribute, "Here Today", on his album Tug of War (1982).
- Paul Simon's homage to Lennon, "The Late Great Johnny Ace", initially sings of the rhythm and blues singer Johnny Ace, who is said to have shot himself in 1954, then goes on to reference John Lennon, as well as President John F. Kennedy, who was assassinated in 1963, the year "Beatlemania" started. The song also appears on Simon's Hearts and Bones (1983) album.
- Queen performed "Imagine" the night after Lennon's death at Wembley Arena in London.
- Freddie Mercury wrote "Life Is Real (Song For Lennon)" as a tribute to John Lennon. The song appeared on the Queen album Hot Space (1982).
- The Bellamy Brothers mentioned Lennon's death in their 1985 single "Old Hippie".
- The Cranberries' 1996 album To the Faithful Departed includes a song about the murder, "I Just Shot John Lennon".
- XTC performed "Rain" and "Towers of London" in Liverpool the night after Lennon's death.
### Physical memorials
- In 1985, New York City dedicated an area of Central Park where Lennon had frequently walked, directly across from the Dakota, as Strawberry Fields. In a symbolic show of unity, countries from around the world donated trees, and the city of Naples, Italy, donated the Imagine mosaic centerpiece.
- On 9 October 2007, Ono dedicated a memorial called the Imagine Peace Tower, on the island of Viðey, off the coast of Reykjavík, Iceland. Each year, between 9 October and 8 December, it projects a vertical beam of light high into the sky in Lennon's memory.
- In 2009, the New York City annex of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame hosted a special John Lennon exhibit that included many mementos and personal effects from Lennon's life, as well as the clothes he was wearing when he was murdered, still in the brown paper bag from Roosevelt Hospital.
- In 2018, Ono created an artwork in John Lennon's memory, titled "Sky", for MTA Arts & Design. The artwork was installed during the renovation of the 72nd Street station on the New York City Subway (served by the ), outside the Dakota.
## Biographical films
- The Killing of John Lennon (2006), by Andrew Piddington, focuses on Chapman's life up to the murder.
- Chapter 27 (2007), a drama by Jarrett Schaefer based on Jack Jones's book "Let Me Take You Down", attempts a nonjudgmental portrayal of Chapman.
- The Lennon Report (2016) focuses on attempts by doctors and nurses to save Lennon's life.
## Conspiracy theories
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) surveillance of Lennon due to his left-wing activism and the actions of Chapman during the murder or subsequent legal proceedings have led to conspiracy theories postulating CIA involvement:
- Fenton Bresler, a barrister and journalist, raised the idea of CIA involvement in the murder in his book Who Killed John Lennon?, published in 1990. Chapman allegedly may have been brainwashed by the CIA as an assassin, such as in "The Manchurian Candidate".
- Liverpool playwright Ian Carroll staged a drama, "One Bad Thing", conveying the theory Chapman was manipulated by a rogue wing of the CIA "who wanted Lennon off the scene".
- In a 2004 book, Salvador Astrucia argued that forensic evidence proves Chapman did not commit the murder.
- The 2010 documentary The Day John Lennon Died suggests that Jose Perdomo, the doorman at the Dakota, was a Cuban exile with links to the CIA and the Bay of Pigs invasion. |
2,976,107 | The Italian Job (2003 film) | 1,173,409,456 | 2003 film by F. Gary Gray | [
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| The Italian Job is a 2003 American heist action film directed by F. Gary Gray and starring an ensemble cast consisting of Mark Wahlberg, Charlize Theron, Edward Norton, Jason Statham, Seth Green, Mos Def, and Donald Sutherland. An American remake of the 1969 British film, but with an original story, the plot follows a motley crew of thieves who plan to steal gold from a former associate who double-crossed them. Despite the shared title, the plot and characters of this film differ from its source material; Gray described the film as "an homage to the original."
Most of the film was shot on location in Venice and Los Angeles, where canals and streets, respectively, were temporarily shut down during principal photography. Distributed by Paramount Pictures, The Italian Job was theatrically released in the United States on May 30, 2003, and grossed over \$176 million worldwide. Critical response was largely positive, with publications comparing it favorably to the original film while highlighting the action sequences, performances of the cast and humor. A sequel, The Brazilian Job, was reportedly in development in 2004, but the sequel was subsequently cancelled.
## Plot
Professional safecracker John Bridger's team have plans to steal \$35 million worth of gold bullion from a safe in Venice from Italian gangsters who had stolen it weeks earlier. Professional fixer Charlie Croker, computer expert Lyle or "Napster", wheelman Handsome Rob, inside man Steve, and explosives expert Left Ear comprise the team. Although the heist is successful, Steve double-crosses them as they drive towards Austria with the bullion. With another crew he takes it for himself and kills John. Rob drives the van over the bridge into the water to protect the others, using air tanks from the heist to stay alive. Steve leaves them for dead.
A year later in Philadelphia, Charlie finds Steve, under a new identity, is laundering the gold through Ukrainian jeweler Yevhen to finance his lavish lifestyle in Los Angeles. Charlie gathers the team, and also recruits John's daughter Stella, a skilled private safe expert, offering her the chance to avenge her father's death. They stake out Steve's mansion, and Stella, disguised as a cable technician, maps out its interior and determines the location of Steve's safe containing the bullion.
Unaware of Stella's identity, Steve asks her out on a date. The plan is to blow the safe while Steve is away on his supposed date, using three heavily modified Mini Coopers to transport the gold out of the mansion. Supplier Skinny Pete gets the explosives and mechanic Wrench modifies the cars.
On Steve's last visit to Yevhen, Yevhen accidentally reveals that he knows about the Venice heist. To cover his tracks, Steve kills him. Mashkov, the leader of a Ukrainian crime family and Yehven's cousin, traces the gold back to Skinny Pete via Yevhen's ex-employee Vance.
On the night of the planned heist, the crew discovers that Steve's neighbors are having a party so they have to abort, as the explosives would draw attention. Stella still has to meet Steve, but inadvertently gives away her identity by using her dad's catchphrase. The team arrives to protect her, and Steve taunts them as he says he still has the upper hand.
Steve plans to transport the gold to Mexico City by armored car to a private plane from LAX which Napster hears through his tap on his phone. Charlie and his gang make a new plan to steal the gold en route to the airport by hijacking the city's traffic control system, forcing the armored car to a planned spot where they will execute the heist.
On the day, they are surprised when three armored trucks leave Steve's mansion, but Napster determines which one carries the bullion and manipulates the traffic accordingly. As Steve is monitoring the transport by helicopter, they maneuver the car to the target spot and detonate explosives to drop the part of the road with the car into the subway tunnel below. Opening the truck, they find the gold in a different safe from the one that held it before. Struggling initially, Stella cracks it open and they divide the \$27 million in gold among the three Coopers. They race from the subway to the Los Angeles River and through the city, pursued by Steve's henchmen on motorcycles, with Napster creating a green wave to evade traffic.
Stella, Handsome Rob, and Left Ear head to Union Station, while Charlie lures Steve away in his helicopter. Steve tries to kill him by having his helicopter pilot destroy Charlie's Mini Cooper, but the helicopter's tail rotor is damaged, grounding it.
Steve carjacks a Ford Bronco to follow Charlie to Union Station, where the cars are loaded onto a train car with the help of Wrench. He tries to bribe Wrench to let him in, but finds Charlie and the others waiting. When Steve pulls a gun, demanding the gold back, Mashkov and his armed men disarm him. Charlie explains that he has offered Mashkov part of the gold and Steve in exchange for helping with security protection (it is implied that Skinny Pete put him in touch).
Stella punches Steve in the face as revenge. Mashkov then takes him away, implying he intends to not kill him, but rather torture him for killing Yevhen. The group boards the train as it departs to New Orleans, and celebrate in John's honor.
The team uses their share of the gold for their own desired purposes: Handsome Rob purchases an Aston Martin Vanquish, getting pulled over by a beautiful policewoman; Left Ear buys a mansion in Andalusia with a room for his shoe collection; Napster buys a powerful stereo capable of blowing a woman's clothes off; and Charlie takes John's advice about finding someone he wants to spend the rest of his life with, and he and Stella travel to Venice together.
## Cast
- Mark Wahlberg as Charlie Croker, the team's leader, master thief and professional fixer. He seeks revenge for the murder of his mentor, John Bridger.
- Charlize Theron as Stella Bridger, John's daughter and a professional safe-cracker. She uses tools and technology to open safes, in contrast to her father who opened them by feel.
- Edward Norton as Steve Frazelli, a thief who turned on Charlie's crew and left them for dead after stealing the gold from them.
- Donald Sutherland as John Bridger, Stella's father and safe-cracker who is pulled in by Charlie for one more job.
- Jason Statham as Handsome Rob, the team's wheelman and a charming ladies' man.
- Seth Green as Lyle, the team's computer expert. He claims he is the real inventor of Napster, insisting that Shawn Fanning stole the idea from him. Fanning appears as himself in a cameo role.
- Mos Def as Gilligan "Left Ear", the team's demolition and explosives expert.
- Franky G as Wrench, a mechanic whom Rob contacts to engineer the Minis to carry the gold. He later joins the team for the heist.
- Boris Lee Krutonog as Yevhen, a jewelry store owner with ties to the Ukrainian mafia. He is a conspiracy theorist who is buying the stolen gold bars from Steve.
- Aleksander Krupa as Mashkov, a member of the Ukrainian mafia family and Yevhen's cousin. He operates a junkyard as a base as he searches for Yevhen's killer.
## Production
### Development
Neal Purvis and Robert Wade wrote a draft of a remake of the 1969 British crime film The Italian Job which was rejected by Paramount. Screenwriting team Donna and Wayne Powers were subsequently commissioned to write a remake. The duo viewed the original film, which neither had seen before, only once "because [they] wanted to get a sense of what it was about" in regards to its tone. Over the course of two years and through 18 drafts, they developed a screenplay which was described by director F. Gary Gray as "inspired by the original." Gray, Powers and Powers, and executive producer James Dyer identified the most prominent similarities as the trio of Mini Coopers used by the thieves, as well as the titular heist involving the theft of gold bullion. Some sequences of the film were storyboarded and previsualized by Gray before production began.
### Casting
Gray had been interested in working with Wahlberg since seeing his performance in Boogie Nights (1997). After reading the script for The Italian Job, Gray contacted Wahlberg, who "fell in love with it" after reading it himself. Green was also attracted to the project because of the script. Theron was Gray's first choice for the character of Stella Bridger, and Wahlberg also recommended her for the role. She spent time with a safecracker in preparation for the role. Gray's casting director Sheila Jaffe suggested Statham for the role of getaway driver Handsome Rob, and Gray agreed with her choice. Norton took the role of Steve Frazelli, due to a contractual obligation he had to fulfill. Wahlberg, Theron, and Statham attended special driver's training sessions at Willow Springs International Motorsports Park for nearly a month during pre-production.
### Filming
Gray and cinematographer Wally Pfister worked together to develop a visual style for the film before production began. They viewed car commercials and magazine photographs, as well as chase sequences from The French Connection (1971), Ronin (1998), and The Bourne Identity (2002) as visual references. Pfister wanted "dark textures and undertones and strong contrast;" he collaborated with production designer Charlie Wood on the color palette, and the two would confer with Gray on their ideas. It was Wally Pfister's first experience using the Super 35 format since Paramount preferred that the film not be shot in the anamorphic format, despite Pfister's wishes to do so. However, Gray still wanted a widescreen aspect ratio, just like the original, so they chose to shoot the film in Super 35 for a 2.39:1 aspect ratio. Once principal photography began, Gray frequently utilized dollies, as well as Steadicams and a Technocrane, to keep the cameras almost constantly moving.
Most of The Italian Job was shot on location, at sites Pfister scouted over 12 weeks during pre-production, but some scenes were filmed on sets. The Venice building where the film's opening heist sequence takes place, the van from which the thieves survey Steve Frazelli's mansion, a hotel room, and the LACMTA Red Line subway tunnel were sets constructed at Downey Studios in California. For the scene in which an armored truck falls through Hollywood Boulevard and into the subway tunnel below, Pfister set up seven cameras to capture the vehicle's \~30 foot (9.1 m) descent. Three hundred cars were used to simulate the traffic jam at the intersection of Hollywood and Highland, which was controlled by the production crew for a week. Three of the 32 custom-built Mini Coopers used during principal photography were fitted with electric motors since combustion engines were not allowed in the subway tunnels, where some scenes were shot. Other Mini Coopers were modified to allow for camera placement on and inside the vehicles. The director remarked that "[the Mini Coopers are] part of the cast."
Gray wanted the film to be as realistic as possible; accordingly, the actors did most of their own stunts, and computer-generated imagery was used very sparingly. The second unit, under director Alexander Witt and cinematographer Josh Bleibtreu, filmed establishing shots, the Venice canal chase sequence, and the Los Angeles chase sequence over a period of 40 days. Filming on location posed some challenges. The opening heist sequence in Venice, Italy, was strictly monitored by the local authorities, due to the high speeds of the boats. The frigid temperatures at Passo Fedaia in the Italian Alps created problems during production: "The guns would jam, and if you could imagine not being able to walk 40 feet with a bottle of water without it freezing, those are the conditions we had to work in," Gray remarked. Pedestrians had to be allowed to use the sidewalks of Hollywood Boulevard between takes. Also, scenes which took place on freeways and city streets were only filmed on weekends.
## Release
### Box-office performance
The Italian Job premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on May 11, 2003, and was theatrically released in the United States on May 30, 2003, along with Finding Nemo and Wrong Turn. In its opening weekend, the film grossed \$19.5 million, ranking at \#3 behind Bruce Almighty and Finding Nemo. Paramount re-released the film on August 29, and by the time its theatrical release closed in November, the film had grossed \$106.1 million in the United States and Canada, and \$69.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of \$176.1 million. It was the highest-grossing film produced by Paramount in 2003.
### Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, The Italian Job holds an approval rating of 73% based on 183 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Despite some iffy plot elements, The Italian Job succeeds in delivering an entertaining modern take on the original 1969 heist film, thanks to a charismatic cast." Metacritic calculated an average score of 68 out of 100 based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Stephanie Zacharek, writing for Salon.com, liked the reinvention of the plot and the style and execution of the action sequences, specifically those involving the trio of Mini Coopers, which she wrote were the stars of the film. BBC reviewer Stella Papamichael gave The Italian Job 4 stars out of 5, and wrote that the "revenge plot adds wallop lacking in the original." Los Angeles Times reviewer Kevin Thomas praised the opening Venice heist sequence and the characterization of each of the thieves, but felt that the Los Angeles heist sequence was "arguably stretched out a little too long." Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4, writing that the film was "two hours of mindless escapism on a relatively skilled professional level." Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle concurred, describing The Italian Job as pure but smart entertainment "plotted and executed with invention and humor." Reviewer James Berardinelli also gave the film 3 stars out of 4, and said that Gray had discovered the right recipe to do a heist movie: "keep things moving, develop a nice rapport between the leads, toss in the occasional surprise, and top with a sprinkling of panache." Variety's Robert Koehler compared The Italian Job to The Score (2001), another "finely tuned heist pic" which also featured Edward Norton in a similar role.
David Denby, writing for The New Yorker, praised Norton's performance, as well as Seth Green and Mos Def, and the lack of digital effects in the action sequences. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B− grade, comparing it positively to the 2000 remake of Gone in 60 Seconds, as well as the 2001 remake of Ocean's Eleven. New York Daily News reviewer Jack Mathews gave The Italian Job 2.5 stars out of 4, writing that the action sequences and plot twists were a "vast improvement" from the original, and that the Los Angeles heist sequence was "clever and preposterous". Mike Clark of USA Today also questioned the probability of the Los Angeles heist sequence and wrote that the film was "a lazy and in-name-only remake," giving it 2 stars out of 4. Peter Travers, writing for Rolling Stone, gave The Italian Job 1 star out of 4, describing the film as "a tricked-out remake of a heist flick that was already flat and formulaic in 1969." Travers enjoyed the comic relief in Green's and Def's characters, and added that Norton's was "[t]he most perversely magnetic performance" outside of the Mini Coopers, but felt that there was a lack of logic in the film.
### Home media
The Italian Job was released on DVD and VHS by Paramount Home Entertainment October 7, 2003, and includes five bonus features on different aspects of the film's production, in addition to six deleted scenes. It was released on HD DVD August 8, 2006 and on Blu-ray Disc October 24, 2006.
### Accolades
F. Gary Gray won a Film Life Movie Award for Best Director at the 2004 American Black Film Festival. Clay Cullen, Michael Caines, Jean Paul Ruggiero, and Mike Massa won an award for Best Specialty Stunt at the 2004 Taurus World Stunt Awards for the boat chase through the canals of Venice. The Italian Job was nominated for the 2003 Saturn Award for Best Action/Adventure/Thriller Film, but lost to Kill Bill. In April 2009, IGN named the film's Los Angeles chase sequence one of the top 10 car chases of the 21st Century.
### Analysis
Criminologist Nicole Rafter saw The Italian Job as part of a revival of the heist film around the start of the 21st century, along with The Thomas Crown Affair (1999) and Ocean's Eleven (2001), both of which were also remakes of 1960s heist films. In describing his theory of a "team film" genre, film scholar Dr. Jeremy Strong writes that The Italian Job could be categorized as such, along with The Magnificent Seven (1960), The Great Escape (1963), The Dirty Dozen (1967), and more recently The Usual Suspects (1995) and Mission: Impossible (1996). He states that
> a team film involves a group working towards a particular objective. However, goal-orientation is a widely shared plot attribute of many texts and genres and it is also the case that the overwhelming majority of films involve a plurality of interacting characters. An element that distinguishes the team film then is that a heightened significance is afforded to the group as the means by which a given objective is attempted. [...] From film to film there is variation in the extent to which particular central characters may determine events and take up screen time but team films are recognizable by their insistence upon the relationship between group and goal.
Strong additionally makes a direct comparison between The Italian Job and Mission: Impossible, citing the plot device of "a first task that elucidates the roles and skills of team members but which is sabotaged by betrayal, necessitating a re-constitution of the team."
The use of BMW's then-new line of retro-styled Minis in the film was mentioned by critics and business analysts alike as a prime example of modern product placement, or more specifically "brand integration". Film critic Joe Morgenstern called The Italian Job "the best car commercial ever". Zacharek and Mathews both noted the cars' prominence in their reviews of the film, also writing that their presence served as a connection to the 1969 film upon which it was based. BusinessWeek reported in April 2004 that sales of the Mini in 2003—the year in which The Italian Job was theatrically released—had increased 22 percent over the previous year.
## Possible sequel
A sequel to The Italian Job, tentatively titled The Brazilian Job, was in development by the summer of 2004, but has since faced multiple delays. Principal photography was initially slated to begin in March 2005, with a projected release date in November or December 2005. However, the script was never finalized, and the release date was pushed back to sometime in 2006, and later summer 2007.
Writer David Twohy approached Paramount Pictures with an original screenplay entitled The Wrecking Crew, and though the studio reportedly liked the idea, they thought it would work better as a sequel to The Italian Job. Gray was slated to return as director, as well as most, if not all, of the original cast. At least two drafts of the script had been written by August 2007, but the project had not been greenlit.
In March 2008, in an interview, Jason Statham said that "somebody should just erase it from IMDb.... and put it back on there when it's fully due and ready. [...] It's one of those things that's just sitting around." Producer Donald De Line revealed in June that a script for The Brazilian Job had been developed and budgeted, but "a lot of things were happening with various management changes and it got tabled." Describing its story, he said it "starts in Brazil, the set up is in Rio and the picture moves to Belgium where there’s something involving diamonds." However, Green stated that September that the sequel was unlikely in the near future.
On March 9, 2009, De Line said that "[we] have a version at Paramount that we're talking very serious about", additionally mentioning that the cast was interested in the project. Neal Purvis and Robert Wade had been working on a draft of the sequel that year. The Daily Record reported in September that Theron was signed up for the film. That October, Gray said that he enjoyed making The Italian Job and hoped that he would still be interested in directing the sequel if the script became finalized and mentioned that it would be dependent upon scheduling.
In January 2010, Twohy was quoted in an interview as saying "The Brazilian Job probably isn't happening. I wrote it years ago, and they just keep rolling it over on IMDb. Paramount—what can I say?" When asked about the sequel that June, Green said "The Brazilian Job doesn't exist actually" and called it a "wonderful myth of IMDb." However, the next month, Mark Wahlberg said that sequel production was "active" again.
## See also
- 2003 in film
- Players—a 2012 Indian action thriller heist film, a remake of 1967 classical film
- 2 Fast 2 Furious-another film released in the same year involving cars
- Fast Five
- Backlot Stunt Coaster, the name of three roller coasters at three former Paramount theme parks which were originally themed to and named after this film |
47,645,621 | French ironclad Savoie | 1,131,203,938 | Provence-class armored frigates | [
"1863 ships",
"Provence-class ironclads",
"Ships built in France"
]
| The French ironclad Savoie was one of 10 Provence-class armored frigates built for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) during the 1860s. Commissioned in 1865, she was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron (Escadre du Nord), often serving as a flagship. The ironclad played a minor role in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, blockading the North Sea coast of Prussia. Savoie was reduced to reserve after the war, but was reactivated in 1872 and assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron (Escadre de la Méditerranée). The ship was decommissioned in 1879 and was used for testing in 1883. Savoie was stricken in 1888 and was scrapped the following year.
## Design and description
The Provence class was designed as an enlarged version of the Gloire-class ironclads with thicker armor, more powerful guns, and better seakeeping qualities. The ships had an overall length of 82.9 meters (272 ft), a beam of 17.06 meters (56 ft), and a draft of 8.4 meters (27 ft 7 in) at deep load. They displaced 5,810 metric tons (5,720 long tons). Their crew numbered 579–594 officers and enlisted men.
When the French discovered that the British ironclad Warrior had reached 14.3 knots (26.5 km/h; 16.5 mph) during her sea trials, they decided to add an extra cylinder to the engine of the five ships still under construction in an attempt to achieve 14.5 knots (26.9 km/h; 16.7 mph). In Savoie and her sister ships Valeureuse and Magnanime, the middle cylinder received the steam provided by eight boilers first which then expanded into the two outer cylinders, making the engine an early form of a compound-expansion steam engine. The engine drove the single propeller shaft and was rated at 1,000 nominal horsepower or 3,200 metric horsepower (2,400 kW). The Provence class carried enough coal to allow them to steam for 2,410 nautical miles (4,460 km; 2,770 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). They were fitted with a three-masted barque rig that had a sail area of 1,960 square meters (21,100 sq ft).
### Armament and protection
The main battery of the Provence-class ships was intended to be thirty 164.7-millimeter (6.5 in) Modèle 1858–60 rifled muzzle-loading (RML) guns, but this was changed to a mixed armament of four 240-millimeter (9.4 in) Modèle 1864 RMLs and six 194-millimeter (7.6 in) Modèle 1864 smoothbore muzzle-loading guns on the gundeck. Positioned on the quarterdeck and the forecastle were another 194 mm smoothbore and six 164.7 mm Modèle 1858 RMLs, at least some of which served as chase guns. By 1869–1870, Savoie's armament consisted of eight 240 mm Modèle 1864 RMLs on the gundeck and four 194 mm Modèle 1864 smoothbores as chase guns on the quarterdeck and forecastle.
From the upper deck down to below the waterline, the sides of the ships were completely armored with 150 mm (5.9 in) of wrought iron, backed by 750 mm (29.5 in) of wood. The sides of the battery itself were protected with 110 mm (4.3 in) of armor that was backed by 610 mm (24 in) of wood. The conning tower's sides consisted of 100-millimeter (3.9 in) armor plates.
## Construction and service
Savoie, named after the historic province, was ordered on 16 November 1860 from the Arsenal de Toulon, laid down in March 1861 and launched on 29 September 1864. The ship was commissioned (armement définitif) on 25 March 1865. She was assigned to the Ironclad Division (division cuirassée) of the Northern Squadron, based in Cherbourg and became the flagship of Rear Admiral (contre-amiral) Charles de Dompierre d'Hornoy on 22 July 1867. He was relieved by Rear Admiral Alexandre Dieudonné on 16 September 1869 and Savoie was later reduced to reserve.
When the Franco-Prussian War began on 19 July 1870, Savoie was still in reserve and she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Jérôme-Hyacinthe Penhoat. The ship was assigned to Vice Admiral Léon Martin Fourichon's squadron that was tasked to blockade German ports in the Heligoland Bight. It departed Brest on 8 August and arrived off the British-owned island of Heligoland three days later. The neutral British denied the French permission to re-coal there and the ships were forced to perform it at sea under dangerous conditions. Bad weather and a series of storms beginning in late August prevented the squadron from coaling and the ships were forced to return to France in early September. By then the Prussians were besieging Paris and many of the trained gunners aboard the squadron's ships were transferred to defend the city. The squadron resumed the blockade with reduced crews until December when smaller ships took it over.
Savoie was paid off in 1871 at Toulon, but she was recommissioned on 1 January 1872 as the flagship of Rear Admiral de Chaillé. He was relieved by Rear Admiral Charles Jules de Surville on 5 October. The ship was reduced to reserve at Toulon in 1874–1876. She was reactivated on 15 April 1876 and was commanded by Captain (Capitaine de Vaisseau) Théophile Aube, the future French Minister of Marine, in 1878. Savoie returned to reserve the following year, initially at Brest and then at Lorient. In 1883 she was assigned to the Experimental Division (division d'essais) at Cherbourg. The ship was stricken from the navy list on 19 November 1888 and was broken up the following year. |
8,429,933 | Centennial Light | 1,165,712,740 | World's longest-lasting light bulb | [
"1901 establishments in California",
"Individual lamps",
"Livermore, California"
]
| The Centennial Light is the world's longest-lasting light bulb, burning since 1901, and almost never turned off. It is located at 4550 East Avenue, Livermore, California, and maintained by the Livermore-Pleasanton Fire Department. Due to its longevity, the bulb has been noted by The Guinness Book of World Records, Ripley's Believe It or Not!, and General Electric.
## History
The Centennial Light was originally a 30-watt (or 60-watt) bulb, but is now very dim, emitting about the same light as a 4-watt nightlight. The hand-blown, carbon-filament common light bulb was invented by Adolphe Chaillet, a French engineer who filed a patent for this technology. It was manufactured in Shelby, Ohio, by the Shelby Electric Company in the late 1890s; many just like it still exist and can be found functioning. According to Zylpha Bernal Beck, the bulb was donated to the Fire Department by her father, Dennis Bernal, in 1901. Bernal owned the Livermore Power and Water Company and donated the bulb to the fire station when he sold the company. That story has been supported by firefighter volunteers of that era.
Evidence suggests that the bulb has hung in at least four locations. It was originally hung in 1901 in a hose cart house on L Street, then moved to a garage in downtown Livermore used by the fire and police departments. When the fire department consolidated, it was moved again to a newly constructed City Hall that housed the unified department.
Its unusual longevity was first noticed in 1972 by reporter Mike Dunstan. After weeks of interviewing people who had lived in Livermore all their lives, he wrote "Light Bulb May Be World's Oldest", published in the Tri-Valley Herald. Dunstan contacted the Guinness Book of World Records, Ripley's Believe It or Not, and General Electric, who all confirmed it as the longest-lasting bulb known in existence. The article came to the attention of Charles Kuralt of the CBS-TV program On the Road with Charles Kuralt.
Retired Deputy Fire Chief Tom Bramell wrote a history of the bulb. It is titled "A Million Hours of Service".
In 1976, the fire department moved to Fire Station \#6 with the bulb; the bulb socket's cord was severed for fear that unscrewing the bulb could damage it. It was deprived of electricity for only 22 minutes during the transfer, which was made in a specially designed box and with full firetruck escort. An electrician was on hand to install the bulb into the new fire station's emergency generator. Ripley's Believe It Or Not stated that the short delay would not mar the bulb's continuous burning record. Since that move, the bulb has run continuously on an uninterruptible power supply; previously it had only been off the grid for short periods of time (e.g. a week in 1937 for a renovation and the odd power outage). In 2001, the bulb's 100th birthday was celebrated with a community barbecue and live music.
On the evening of May 20, 2013, the general public witnessed, through a dedicated webcam, that the bulb had apparently burned out. The next morning, an electrician was called in to confirm its status. It was determined that the bulb had not burned out when the dedicated power supply was bypassed, using an extension cord. The power supply was found to have been faulty. Approximately 9 hours and 45 minutes had passed before the light was reestablished.
The bulb is cared for by the Centennial Light Bulb Committee, a partnership of the Livermore-Pleasanton Fire Department, Livermore Heritage Guild, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories, and Sandia National Laboratories. The Livermore-Pleasanton Fire Department plans to house and maintain the bulb for the rest of its life, regardless of length. When it does go out, they have no plans for it, although Ripley's Believe it or Not! has requested it for their museum.
## Publicity
The bulb was officially listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as "the most durable light" in 1972, replacing another bulb in Fort Worth, Texas. The bulb was listed in the book for the next 16 editions. It was not listed during 1988–2006, without a reason being given, before returning in 2007.
According to the fire chief, every few months a news outlet will publish a story on the bulb, generating visitors and general interest, then it will drop back into obscurity for a while. Dozens of magazines and newspapers have featured articles on the bulb. The bulb has been visited and featured by many major news channels in the United States, including NBC, ABC, Fox, CBS, WB, CNN and NPR. The bulb has received letters acknowledging and celebrating its longevity from the city of Shelby, Ohio, the Alameda County Board of Supervisors, the California State Assembly, the California State Senate, Congresswoman Ellen Tauscher, Senator Barbara Boxer, and President George W. Bush. The bulb was featured on an episode of MythBusters on December 13, 2006, in the PBS documentary Livermore and an episode of California's Gold with Huell Howser, in an episode of 99% Invisible, in the web series 17776, and by documentary filmmaker Roberto Serrini in the web series TravelClast.
## See also
- Adolphe Alexandre Chaillet
- Eternal flame
- Longest-lasting light bulbs
- Phoebus cartel |
341,778 | 130th Engineer Brigade (United States) | 1,166,934,391 | Engineer brigade of US army | [
"Engineer Brigades of the United States Army",
"Military units and formations established in 1943"
]
| The 130th Engineer Brigade is an engineer brigade of the United States Army headquartered in Schofield Barracks, Hawaii that provides engineering support to the United States Army Pacific. The brigade specializes in combat engineering, construction, and bridging operations.
The brigade traces its lineage back to an engineering regiment active during World War II, but the brigade itself did not see real-world action until the mid-1990s. As a part of the V Corps for most of the Cold War, the brigade was stationed in western Europe as a deterrent to a possible Soviet aggression and/or invasion. It finally saw action in 1991 when the Brigades 317th Engineer Battalion was deployed for Operation Desert Sheild/Storm. The 317th provided support for the 1st Infantry Division during the ground war and its Delta Company received a Presidential unit citation.
`Operation Joint Endeavor, providing bridging assistance for the international force in the Bosnia region. Several years later, the brigade was the primary engineering component during the invasion of Iraq in 2003. With numerous difficulties, the brigade was forced to take on several unexpected missions during its year in Iraq. It saw a second tour in 2005 and a third in 2009 in which it once again was the primary engineering component in the country. The brigade deployed to Afghanistan as the Theater Engineer Brigade in support of Operation Enduring Freedom from 2013 to 2014.`
The brigade had a long history of supporting V Corps of United States Army Europe from 1969 until 2007, during which it was based at Warner Barracks in the Bavarian town of Bamberg, Germany. That ended when the brigade was relocated to Hawaii to support United States Army Pacific as part of a major restructuring plan of the United States Army. Reactivated in 2008, the brigade is currently based out of Schofield Barracks in Hawaii.
## Organization
The 130th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 8th Theater Sustainment Command which is operationally controlled by United States Army Pacific. It provides engineering assistance to United States forces stationed throughout the Indo-Pacific region.
The Brigade's Headquarters and Headquarters Company is stationed at Schofield Barracks and permanently commands two subordinate battalions. The 11th Engineer Battalion located at Camp Humphreys, Korea, and the 84th Engineer Battalion located at Schofield Barracks. The total force of the brigade is approximately 1,600 personnel. As the brigade is modular in nature, it is able to take command and control of more units when deployed.
## History
### Origins
The 130th Engineer Brigade traces its lineage to the 1303rd Engineer General Service Regiment which saw action in World War II. The regiment was activated on 15 July 1943 at Camp Ellis, Illinois. It was deployed to the European Theatre where it participated in the Battle of Normandy and subsequent invasion of Germany before being transferred to the Pacific after V-E Day. The 1303rd received campaign streamers for Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe, and the Asian-Pacific theatre. It was deactivated in Japan on 31 January 1946.
The regiment was re-designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade in Japan on 8 July 1955 before being activated in September of that year. Only a few months later, this brigade was inactivated on 25 June 1956 without having seen any deployment.
On 16 June 1969, Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade was re-designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 130th Engineer Brigade and activated in Pioneer Kaserne, Hanau, Germany. The 130th Engineer Brigade was a consolidation of V Corps' 37th and 11th Engineer Groups into a single unit that would provide more efficient command and control. It was subsequently put under the command of V Corps, as part of United States Army Europe. The brigade received its shoulder sleeve insignia on 23 September 1969, and its distinctive unit insignia on 3 November 1969. Brigade members specially designed these with images alluding to the 1303rd Regiment's battle honors in World War II using scarlet and white, colors signifying US Army engineer units.
The brigade remained in Germany in support of V Corps for almost 25 years, on the Cold War frontline against the Warsaw Pact and Soviet 8th Guards Army. It underwent a shuffling of units as several of its battalions were reassigned elsewhere following the end of the Cold War in 1990, and it gained new battalions from units deactivating elsewhere. Though three of the brigade's subordinate battalions deployed to support Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm, the brigade headquarters itself remained in Germany along with the rest of V Corps. The operations were conducted by VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps, which had significant engineer assets of their own. Throughout the early 1990s, the brigade would continue to see units come and go from its command as they were transferred from the restructuring 18th Engineer Brigade and the deactivating 7th Engineer Brigade (United States).
### Operation Joint Endeavour
From December 1995 to January 1996, all units in the brigade, except the 320th Engineer Company (Topographic), deployed to Croatia or Bosnia and Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Endeavor. The 320th Engineer Company deployed their topographic surveying platoon the following year. The 130th Engineer Brigade was tasked with building an assault bridge over the Sava River. Despite severe flooding conditions around the river and international pressure against such a structure, the brigade sent its units to begin work on the bridge. In December 1995, the 502nd Engineer Company deployed to Zupanja, Croatia and placed the historic ribbon bridge over the river. This bridge, at 2,239 feet (682 m) was the longest assault floating bridge in military history. The company operated 24-hours a day for three months crossing critical traffic in support of Task Force Eagle and NATO's Implementation Force. The company also assisted in the construction of a second bridge over the Sava River in Brčko-Gunja. The 502nd Engineer Company redeployed in May 1996, with a rafting section remaining at Slavonski Brod to support the force restructuring of Task Force Eagle. The 130th Engineer Brigade would go on to construct seven fixed bridges in support of the operation. During the deployment, the brigade was also tasked with creating and maintaining maps and overlays of the area of operations. It would produce over 300,000 such maps. The 130th Engineer Brigade was also tasked with repairing and maintaining much of the Task Force's infrastructure.
The brigade returned to Germany after the operation was complete. Throughout 1998–2002 it would train with German engineers, including German units from Lahnstein and Speyer, as well as the German Engineering School. The brigade also set up marksman competitions with German units, to give US soldiers the chance to earn the German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship, the German Sports Badge, and other badges. Over 2,500 of these badges would be earned by soldiers of the 130th over the years that it served in Germany. It also trained extensively in bridging operations at rivers throughout Germany. In summer of 2000, the brigade participated in a joint engineering exercise in Moldova with US Navy Seabees and the 505th Engineer Brigade of the North Carolina Army National Guard. The exercise was the first ever conducted in Moldova and featured numerous training scenarios as well as the construction of a medical clinic. Several other such exercises were conducted in nations throughout Europe including Albania, Romania, Georgia, Latvia, Bulgaria and Macedonia. They also performed annual humanitarian missions to Poland, working on community projects around the country with the assistance of Polish Armed Forces every September, as a training exercise.
### Operation Iraqi Freedom
The 130th Engineer Brigade mobilized for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. It was commanded by Colonel Gregg F. Martin. As preparations were being made for Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 130th Engineer Brigade was placed in charge of the largest engineering force in the theater. This included seven different engineering battalions as well as several separate group and company-sized elements. Units of the brigade were then deployed to Kuwait in early 2003, along with much of V Corps' staff. They would provide command and assistance for the 3rd Infantry Division, 82nd Airborne Division and 101st Airborne Division as they crossed the border to Iraq and attacked to the capitol region of Baghdad from the south. Coupled with the landings of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team to the north, the operation would see the US Forces surround and destroy Iraqi forces in and around the capitol.
The first obstacle facing the brigade was "the berm", a 10-kilometer-deep defensive obstacle complex that spanned Iraq's border with Kuwait. The berm consisted of large tank ditches, berms of dirt, electrified fencing, and razor wire. It was decided that the 3rd Infantry Division's Brigade Combat Teams would breach this berm in eight locations and move through. The 130th Engineer brigade analyzed the berms and provided a layout of them to coalition forces. The 130th Engineer Brigade then conducted the actual breaches in late March, using CEV, armored combat earthmovers to build roads for tracked vehicles, while armored vehicle-launched bridges set up for wheeled vehicles. The 130th worked with Kuwaiti engineers to breach the berm in 12 places, and the 3rd Infantry Division's Brigade Combat Teams moved through, starting the Iraq War. After combat forces moved through, the brigade and the Kuwaitis then sealed off ten of these breaches to prevent Iraqi forces from using then, leaving two open for US forces that followed from the 82nd and 101st.
After the breach, the 130th moved into Iraq. They provided support for the divisions as they advanced along the path to Baghdad. When a large sandstorm grounded aviation and large dust clouds became a problem, the brigade repurposed oil for use in dust abatement around airfields, allowing the 101st's fleet of AH-64 Apaches to take off and engage Iraqi ground forces on 24 March. Retreating Iraqi units detonated many bridges to slow the 3rd Infantry Division's advance. The 130th Engineers conducted rapid repairs to allow the brigades to continue to move through. The brigade supported combat elements moving through An Najaf, clearing roads and pathways of debris and obstacles to allow rapid movement through the city. The 565th Engineer Battalion built the "birthday bridge" – the longest float bridge constructed in a combat theatre with a span of 580 meters – over the Tigris River in Tikrit on Saddam Hussein's birthday, 28 April 2003.
After the invasion was over, the brigade was supposed to support the operation with bridging and infrastructure support. During the planning for the invasion, the engineers of the brigade were told that reconstruction in Iraq would be conducted by Department of Defense contractors and Iraqi civilians. They were not originally prepared to conduct major reconstruction efforts. When V Corps became the commanding element for the task force to rebuild Iraq, much of the invasion force, including the 130th Engineer Brigade, was sent to do jobs they had not been originally planned for, as basic utilities and sanitation conditions in Iraq were far below what was expected. Throughout the rest of 2003 and 2004, the engineers engaged in a large number of initial reconstruction projects on basic utilities, including schools, water treatment plants, waste removal, and the nation's power grid. It was determined that the scale of these projects was much greater than what the US had expected or what had been encountered in previous contingencies. It was also decided that reconstruction was essential to the coalition since it would help win over the Iraqi people. By May 2003, the brigade had been completely repurposed. Though originally tasked with demolishing obstacles, building fortifications, and bridging operations, the brigade was tasked entirely with construction projects. This conversion was a difficult process, as the brigade did not have the equipment and specialist units designed to handle reconstruction on a national scale. As more US military reconstruction units arrived in Iraq, the brigade grew to eight battalions and three groups.
The 130th Engineer Brigade focused on bridging projects as was its specialty, but it ultimately found itself undertaking numerous different projects throughout the country for much of 2003 and into 2004. Not all of its units were confined entirely to construction, though. The 502nd Engineer Company also conducted river patrol operations in Baghdad and Tikrit. This new mission for the company was essential for force protection, troop transportation, search and cordon operations, and to protect against sabotage on fixed bridges. In September 2003, with the inactivation of the 38th Engineer Company (Medium Girder Bridge), the 502nd Engineer Company became a multi-role bridge company with both float and fixed bridging capabilities and the only active bridge company in USAREUR.
The 130th was headquartered at Logistical Support Area Anaconda for the majority of the deployment. Throughout Operation Iraqi Freedom, the headquarters commanded up to 15,000 engineers at one time, conducting missions including bridging, humanitarian assistance, topographic missions, dive missions, firefighting, base construction, river patrols, mine detection, missile removal and many more. Brigade units redeployed to Hanau in late 2003 and early 2004. Most of the brigade's soldiers returned to Hanau on 5 February 2004 after numerous logistical delays. Most of the 130th Engineer Brigade's subordinate units would receive Meritorious Unit Commendation for their roles in the invasion of Iraq, though the Brigade's headquarters did not.
### Second tour in Iraq
The 502nd Engineer Company became the first V Corps company-sized unit to return for a second tour in Iraq when it deployed in September 2004. The company returned to Hanau in September 2005. In December 2004, the 130th Engineer Brigade's headquarters was informed that it would be deployed back to Iraq the next year. The brigade mobilized and began this new deployment in September 2005; it began operating in the country the next month. The 54th Engineer Battalion followed in October. The brigade eventually replaced the 130th, 194th, and 20th Engineer Brigades, becoming the only engineer brigade operating in the country. By December 2006, the brigade commanded all engineering formations in Multi-National Corps - Iraq, including engineers from other branches of the US Military, for a total of 3,300 soldiers. During the tour they were supported by the 412th Engineer Command.
The 130th Engineers had a variety of reconstruction tasks during their second tour in Iraq. The top priority of the brigade was to "maintain and upgrade lines of communications" to "insure uninterrupted ground movement through the area of operations." This duty also included detection and removal of Improvised Explosive Devices. The brigade undertook numerous construction projects, primarily in building coalition forward operating bases, but they were tasked with construction projects for the Iraqi army and civilians as well. Many of the units of the brigade were integrated with military from other branches for projects. US Navy and US Marine Corps engineers operated side by side with 130th Engineer Brigade soldiers, and though commanders reported a "culture clash" between different branches of service, the soldiers, sailors, and Marines were able to adapt to the situation quickly.
The brigade's Headquarters Company managed the engineer battalions but it also undertook its own missions, including humanitarian missions and public affairs assignments. It was supported by the brigade's Special Troops Battalion which provided a wide range of duties for the Headquarters. The task of detecting and removing IEDs proved particularly difficult for the brigade, as IEDs were a serious issue for coalition forces and the leading cause of casualties at the time. The 54th Engineer Battalion under the 130th was specially tasked with counter-IED operations on the over 300 kilometers of roads that the brigade was responsible for. The 249th Engineer Battalion was charged with maintaining the power grid throughout Iraq. They were required to assess 200 power stations throughout the country and make repairs to each one individually. The 84th Engineer Battalion was tasked with most construction projects in the Forward Operating Bases. These projects involved expansion of many of the larger FOBs as smaller ones were shut down and consolidated. One of the main focuses of the Battalion was the expansion of living quarters at Al Asad Air Base. The 565th Engineer Battalion was responsible for maintaining the supply yards housing building materials for the rest of the Brigade's battalions, and to ensure that the materials were dispersed and used as efficiently as possible. The brigade's mechanical and vehicle maintenance duties were provided by civilian contractors. These contractors also handled transportation of construction vehicles and vehicle parts to the theater.
During the year of its deployment in Iraq, the brigade reported progress in numerous areas. Brigade commander Colonel Thomas Kula reported that "greater than 50 percent" of IEDs found on roads used by the Corps were recognized and disarmed before they could be used against coalition forces. The brigade also cleared 700 kilometers of road from trash and debris and filled more than 600 potholes caused by explosions. It also completed 1,800 mapping projects in the theater. The brigade also finished numerous building projects around Iraq. Soldiers of the 130th Engineer Brigade completed 345 construction projects during the year in the country, including emplacing four bridges and maintaining eight more, well digging projects throughout western Iraq, maintaining the power grid to 25 coalition bases, repairing and expanding services at FOBs throughout the region, and construction of outposts and checkpoints throughout the country's roadways with the assistance of Iraqi engineers. During the deployment, a total of 15 soldiers from the brigade were killed in action. The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Hanau from its second tour in Iraq in October 2006.
### Reactivation in Hawaii
With Army forces in Europe experiencing draw-downs and re-deployments, it was announced that V Corps would be eliminated, and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved elsewhere. The brigade formally left Hanau with a Casing of the Colors ceremony at Pioneer Kaserne on 4 May 2007. Casing the unit's colors was a tradition formally signifying its inactivation and, for all official purposes, the brigade had ceased to be an active Army unit. The brigade headquarters became part of U.S. Army Pacific on 16 June 2007.
The brigade had originally been slated to relocate to Fort Lewis, Washington to replace the 555th Engineer Brigade, which was scheduled to be inactivated. But with the announcement of the Grow the Army plan in early 2007, it was decided that no engineer brigades would be inactivated permanently, and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved to Hawaii instead. Both the 130th and 555th Engineer Brigades remained on active duty.
The brigade was inactive for a year while it was reconstructed in Hawaii. As a part of the transformation of the US Army, the brigade was reorganized into a modular force with new and updated equipment and new personnel. The Brigade stood up provisionally on 27 June 2008 as it neared ready status. On 23 October, the brigade's colors were formally uncased at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii. This signified the end of the brigade's relocation to Hawaii as well as its completion and readiness to take on new missions.
The brigade took command of the 6th, 65th and 84th Engineer battalions.
### Third tour in Iraq
The brigade was alerted for another deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom in summer 2009. There, its missions will once again include construction, route clearance, and training of Iraqi engineers. Since being alerted for deployment, the brigade began conducting vigorous Mission Rehearsal Exercise (MRE) training at Schofield Barracks. Among this training has been updated strategies for detection and clearance of Improvised Explosive Devices. The brigade began its deployment on 17 July 2009, uncasing its colors in Mosul and taking command of construction projects in the area from the 18th Engineer Brigade.
The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks Hawaii from Iraq on 4 June 2010.
### Theater Security Cooperation Program Exercises
Upon the 130th Engineer Brigade's return from Iraq in 2010, the 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Theater Engineer Brigade in the PACOM AOR. In this capacity, the brigade provided combat engineering, construction engineering and dive operations support to joint and combined partners at more than 30 Theater Security Cooperation Program (TSCP) exercises and multiple company sized deployments to Operations New Dawn and Enduring Freedom.
The 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Combined Joint Civil Military Operations Task Force (CJMOTF) for Balikatan 2011 in the Philippines. For over two months, the brigade headquarters along with platoons from the 84th Engineer Battalion built schools and all-purpose facilities. Meanwhile, the brigade's subordinate joint partners conducted veterinarian and medical events to help improve the lives of the Filipino people. This event sharpened the brigade's skills at responding to humanitarian aid and disaster response (HADR) events throughout the region. Upon completion of BK11, the brigade shifted its training focus from stability operations to major combat operations. Specifically, the brigade initiated a 9-month train-up plan for its MCTP graded war-fighter with the 2nd Infantry Division in Korea. Through a series of individual and collective training events the brigade honed, sharpened and in some cases re-learned the skills necessary to achieve victory in a high-intensity conflict. Through UFG12, 2ID's War-Path II Exercise, and finally the Full Spectrum Exercise in November 2011, the 130th Engineer Brigade earned some of the highest marks and accolades ever given to a brigade by the MCTP during a certification war-fighter exercise. Through these series of exercises, the 130th Engineer Brigade helped USFK, 8th Army, and 2ID refine and improve their most significant OPLANs by updating TPFDDs, task organizations, engineer concepts of operations, and combined arms gap-crossing plans. The 130th Engineer Brigade, along with 8th Army and 2ID remain ready to "Fight Tonight" if called upon.
### Operation Enduring Freedom
The 130th Engineer Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), and one of their subordinate battalions, the 65th Engineer Battalion (Combat Effects), deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in September and October 2013. This marked the brigade headquarters' first deployment to Afghanistan. After a two-week handover period, the 130th Engineer Brigade officially took over on 2 October 2013 from the 555th Engineer Brigade (from Joint Base Lewis-McChord, WA), Joint Task Force Triple Nickel, thus becoming Joint Task Force Sapper, overseeing U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force engineer units across Afghanistan. A direct subordinate element of ISAF Joint Command and U.S. Forces-Afghanistan, JTF Sapper constituted the fourth largest command in theater, behind only regional commands. The 130th Engineer Brigade became the core of a provisional multi-role brigade headquarters for engineer operations in Afghanistan with seven subordinate battalions, one Naval Mobile Construction Battalion, and one Engineer Prime Beef Squadron consisting of over 4,200 Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen operating in each Regional Command.
From September to December 2013, Joint Task Force Sapper's mission in theater was "The Theater Engineer Brigade trains, certifies and advises the ANA Engineers on construction, facility management, and assured mobility capabilities while supporting the retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and assured mobility across the CJOA-A."
From January to May 2014, Joint Task Force Sapper's mission in theater was "Joint Task Force Sapper partners with ANA engineers to enable their independent operations and support the redeployment and retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and deconstruction across the CJOA-A in order to set the conditions for the resolute support mission."
The 130th Engineer Brigade turned over responsibility as Operation Enduring Freedom's Theater Engineer Brigade to the 2nd Engineer Brigade (from Joint Base Elmedorf-Richardson, AK), Joint Task Force Trailblazer, on 29 May 2014. The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks, Hawaii from Afghanistan on 4 June 2014.
## Honors
### Unit Decorations
### Campaign streamers |
19,918,687 | Hurricane Baker (1950) | 1,167,159,564 | Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 1950 | [
"1950 Atlantic hurricane season",
"1950 in Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla",
"1950 in the Caribbean",
"1950 meteorology",
"1950 natural disasters in the United States",
"Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Alabama",
"Hurricanes in Anguilla",
"Hurricanes in Antigua and Barbuda",
"Hurricanes in Florida",
"Hurricanes in Guadeloupe",
"Hurricanes in Montserrat",
"Hurricanes in Saba (island)",
"Hurricanes in Saint Barthélemy",
"Hurricanes in Saint Kitts and Nevis",
"Hurricanes in Saint Martin (island)",
"Hurricanes in Sint Eustatius",
"Hurricanes in the Leeward Islands"
]
| Hurricane Baker was a Category 2 hurricane that affected the Leeward Islands, Greater Antilles, and the Gulf Coast of the United States. The tropical cyclone was the second tropical storm and second hurricane of the 1950 Atlantic hurricane season. Originating as a tropical depression east of the Windward Islands on August 18, Baker became a tropical storm on August 19, and further intensified into a hurricane on August 21. It attained an initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) on August 22 before weakening to a tropical storm as it made landfall on the island of Antigua. Baker weakened to a tropical depression late on August 23 while southwest of Puerto Rico. By the following morning, it had restrengthened into a tropical storm, though a landfall in Cuba caused it to weaken once again. Entering the Gulf of Mexico, Baker began to strengthen once more, regaining hurricane strength on August 29 and reaching its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) early the following day. The cyclone weakened before making its final landfall in the United States near Gulf Shores, Alabama, with winds of 85 mph (137 km/h). Hurricane Baker produced extensive damage in the Lesser Antilles and Cuba, but impacts were minimal in the United States.
## Meteorological history
On the morning of August 20, a strong tropical storm developed about 446 miles (718 km) east of Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe. The tropical storm deepened to hurricane intensity. On August 21, it rapidly attained maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (190 km/h), equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane. The hurricane passed over Antigua during the evening, while still producing winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). On August 22, it lost intensity and weakened to a tropical storm. On August 23, Baker made landfall near the Puerto Rican town of Guánica as a minimal tropical storm. The highest winds on the island of Puerto Rico were 35–40 mph (56–64 km/h). The storm then degenerated into an easterly tropical wave, and moved west-northwestward over northeastern Hispaniola. On August 24, it re-entered the Atlantic Ocean, and Tropical Depression Baker crossed the coast of eastern Cuba early on the next day.
On August 25, Baker redeveloped a center over the Caribbean Sea off southern Cuba, and re-intensified to tropical storm status. On August 27, Baker affected the Pinar del Río Province with 60 mph (97 km/h) winds, and then turned northward over the southern Gulf of Mexico. On August 28, Baker re-strengthened to hurricane intensity; reconnaissance and ship reports suggest the hurricane attained a second peak intensity of 110 mph (180 km/h) on August 30. The minimum central pressure was 979 mbar (28.9 inHg) on this date. The cyclone diminished in intensity prior to landfall. On August 31, the hurricane struck Gulf Shores, Alabama as a Category 1 hurricane with sustained winds estimated near 85 mph (137 km/h). The estimated central pressure at landfall was 980 mbar (29 inHg). Baker moved inland over Alabama and dissipated over southeastern Missouri on September 1.
## Impact
On Antigua, the Pan American Airways station's power failed when winds reached 85 mph (137 km/h) around midnight on August 22. Unofficial estimates placed winds between 95–120 mph (153–193 km/h) at the location, although damages and casualties were unknown. Subsequent reports indicated light damage occurred on the island; later, information from the island indicated extensive damage. More than 100 homes were destroyed or damaged in the Willkie and Piggott areas, and large homes were destroyed in Prestown. Additionally, a manse was also demolished in Prestown. Electronic communications were dismantled, and thousands of homeless people sheltered in churches and schools. No deaths occurred on the island, but damages were expected to reach several thousand dollars. In Cuba, 37 people died, and the property losses reached several million dollars.
In the United States, the greatest property and crop damage occurred from Mobile, Alabama to Saint Marks, Florida, where losses approached \$2,550,000 (1950 USD); high tides and winds inflicted minimal damage in both cities. Panama City, Florida incurred heavy damage to homes and businesses from high tides and rainfall, which peaked at 14.96 inches (380 mm). The highest rainfall total was 15.49 inches (393 mm) at Caryville, Florida. Peak gusts exceeded 100 mph (160 km/h) on Santa Rosa Island, Florida. 200 to 300 cottages received damage in Panama City, and homes were flooded near the bay. Losses reached \$200,000 (1950 USD) in Gulf Shores, Alabama. Hurricane Baker spawned two tornadoes. On August 30, a F1 tornado touched down in Apalachicola, Florida, destroying four dwellings and a store building and damaging another eleven buildings. On August 31, a F0 tornado demolished one building near Marianna, Florida, in Jackson County. Inland, Birmingham International Airport recorded 50 mph (80 km/h) wind gusts; higher gusts were estimated near 75 mph (121 km/h) in elevated, mountainous locations. Hundreds of trees were prostrated as far north as the Birmingham, Alabama area, and one person was killed and two more injured by live wires falling from utility poles.
## See also
- List of Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Florida hurricanes
- List of United States hurricanes
- List of Atlantic hurricanes |
974,917 | Juha Vainio | 1,150,699,233 | Finnish singer-songwriter, lyricist and teacher | [
"1938 births",
"1990 deaths",
"20th-century Finnish male singers",
"Finnish expatriates in Switzerland",
"Finnish male songwriters",
"People from Kotka"
]
| Juha Harri "Junnu" Vainio, also known as Juha "Watt" Vainio (10 May 1938 in Kotka, Finland – 29 October 1990, Gryon, Switzerland) was a Finnish lyricist, singer, composer and teacher. With the lyrics or music to over 2,400 songs to his name, Vainio is one of Finland's most prolific lyricists along with Sauvo Puhtila, Reino Helismaa and Vexi Salmi. Vainio enjoyed a short professional career as a teacher at Kymenranta Primary School.
Vainio began writing songs in the early 1960s and continued until his death. Apart from his home town Kotka, he lived for several years in Helsinki and Espoo. In his last years Vainio lived in Gryon, Switzerland, where he died of a heart attack in October 1990. He is buried in the family grave in Helsinki.
He was given the nickname "Watt" on account of a song on his first solo record, the 1964 Paras rautalankayhtye ("The Best Rautalanka Band"). Never used by itself, the nickname was always part of "Juha Watt Vainio".
## Biography
### Family and childhood
Juha Harri Vainio was born on May 10, 1938, in Kotka, the first child of Tauno and Kaarina Vainio. He spent much of his early childhood in Vuoksenniska, Imatra. his two siblings were Marja (born 1944) and Markku (born 1946).
Vainio's grandfather, Emil Alajääski (born 1881), changed his name to Vainio soon after the turn of the century. Vainio's family on his father's side boasted many athletes whilst Kaarina Vainio had some athletic background. After becoming engaged to Kaarina in 1937, Tauno Vainio worked in Vuoksenniska as a regional head of the White Guard, and was known as a man of principle. Kaarina Vainio had a middle school education, and Tauno Vainio had graduated as a trade technician.
As a child, Juha Vainio loved singing and the family's neighbours often asked him to come over and perform. When the Winter War started in 1939, Juha was too young to understand events. After his father went to war as a captain of the military reserve force, Juha moved with his mother to Metsola, Kotka. As an adult, the only thing Juha Vainio remembered from the war were the air-raid sirens and people's anxiety. He once said that he was more afraid of the women next door than the war, but on the other hand admitted that the war left him with emotional scars. His song Eräänlainen sotaveteraani ("Some Kind of War Veteran"), on the album Sellaista elämä on ("That's How Life Is"), echoes these sentiments. Because Kotka was a harbour town and often bombed, Juha and his mother had to often evacuate. Sometimes they went to stay at her mother's cousins during the evacuations where Juha became friends with Olli Miettinen, a cousin of his mother. The two had an age difference of six years. The only brother of Kaarina Vainio, Mauno, was killed in the war.
In 1945, the Vainios moved into a detached house in Metsola where they lived until 1950 before moving again to Kotkansaari, in the centre of Kotka. Juha Vainio recalled that the most beautiful years of his childhood were spent in Metsola. It was there that he met Nestori Miikkulainen, four years his senior and who later featured in Vainio's song Vanhojapoikia viiksekkäitä ("Moustached Bachelors"). Vainio often spent time in the harbour of Kotka with his friends. He was fond of the sea throughout his life.
As a child Juha Vainio was diagnosed with congenital heart disease, causing his lips to turn blue, and the onset of rapid breathlessness. He underwent a heart operation in early 1949 at the same time as his mother suffered an attack of tuberculosis from which she later recovered. Juha was at first kept in the adults' ward due to the serious nature of the operation, but later transferred to the children's ward to recover. He soon went home and began to get better.
### School
Juha Vainio's education did not start well. Frustrated with school he was once absent for three weeks without permission. After primary school he attended a gymnasium in Kotka. At the same time his family moved from Metsola to Kotkansaari. During his school years, Vainio's best friend was Risto "Tiso" Warjus, two years his senior. They both sang in the Kotka Gymnasium choir. Vaino's music teacher at the gymnasium, Arvo Vainio, was nicknamed "Junnu" on account of his big nose resembling that of a comic book character of the same name. Later on the name was given to Juha Vainio because he had the same surname as the teacher.
When he was fifteen, Vainio felt sure he would become a writer. As a young man he read a book about poetics, and later said that the rules were easy to break once he had learned them. It became apparent in essays written whilst at the gymnasium that Juha had talent as a writer. However, teachers sometimes had mixed feelings about his writing; at one time he received no grade for a lighthearted column-like text he had written, because the teacher felt that it could not be graded as an essay. Although essays were his strong point, school was uninteresting for Juha. He considered quitting school, but the principal persuaded him to change his mind. He was transferred to another school and was later joined there by his friend Risto Warjus. In the end, the only school subjects in which Vainio excelled were singing and sports.
Around 1957 Vainio's family moved from the centre of Kotka to near the harbour. After a few years they moved again, this time to a neighbourhood near Sibeliuspuisto. From childhood, Juha Vainio practiced sport even though before surgery he had suffered from heart problems. He liked football and basketball, which were very popular in Kotka and also practiced high jump together with Tiso Warjus. After his heart operation, Juha's physical condition deteriorated, but doing sport helped him improve it.
### First contact with music
Juha Vainio became interested in music and started socializing with musicians in the mid-1950s. The centre of jazz music in Kotka was the restaurant Fennia where performers including Keijo Laitinen and the cousin of Vainio's mother, Olli Miettinen played. Although Vainio was under-21 and classed as a minor, he managed to slip into the restaurant where he presented his lyrics to the musicians and was occasionally allowed to play the piano. Vainio recalled that his friends remembered him as being always penniless. He started drinking more and more, often asking his friends for a drink.
In late 1956 Vainio lived next door to one of his musician friends, Heikki Kauppinen, who was three years his senior. Vainio also became acquainted with drummer Erkki Liikanen. The friends had different tastes in music with Olli Miettinen and Reijo "Rempo" Tani listening to jazz, while Vainio liked schlager music. Vainio later named and described many of his friends in his song lyrics.
Vainio was called up in 1957 for service in the Finnish army. He was 19 years old and in the penultimate grade of gymnasium. However, he did not want to start his military service right after the matriculation exams, because he wanted to find a profession first. The next spring, the last year of gymnasium, he decided to go to Paris for the holidays with his friend Pekka. Vainio was supposed to pass his matriculation exams in the spring of 1959, but he failed the Swedish exam and had to wait until the autumn to pass it.
### Fatherhood, teaching and military service
In Fennia, Juha Vainio met his future wife Taina Kaukonen. When Taina became pregnant in early 1960, Juha's parents scolded the young father. As a result, the couple married in the summer of 1960 and a son Ilkka followed in October of the same year. Juha and Taina had three more children: Sami in 1961, Kalle in 1963 and Kati in 1967. At first the young couple lived at Juha's parents', but moved to Helsinki when Juha started his studies there. He studied at the Yhteiskunnallinen korkeakoulu (School of Social Sciences, which later became the University of Tampere) and later the Opettajakorkeakoulu (School of Vocational Teacher Education) where he graduated as a school teacher.
Juha Vainio taught higher classes at Yläpää Primary School where the pupils informally called him "Junnu". His teaching methods were relaxed, such as making the pupils sing a children's song instead of a hymn in the morning. The pupils could also eat and watch television with Vainio. In 1964 he had a temporary absence from teaching due to military service. Already having some reputation as a lyricist, whilst in the army Vainio was assigned to write the lyrics for the new cadence of the Karelia Brigade. Vainio finished his military service in the autumn of 1964, at the age of 26.
### Breakthrough
Vainio's musical influences included Tapio Rautavaara, Georg Malmstén and Henry Theel. As a young man he trained to play music because he wanted to become a professional musician. He started writing lyrics for friends' bands, and his texts brought him some fame. Vainio was above all a lyricist; he wrote lyrics or music for over 2,400 published songs, the majority of which were recorded by others. Many of Vainio's lyrics were written for Toivo Kärki's compositions. He translated popular foreign songs into Finnish, work that he later abandoned since translators only received a fixed payment for their work rather than royalties.
At the beginning of his career, comedian Spede Pasanen asked Vainio and his friends to play in a radio show called Ruljanssiriihi ("Thrashing House of Rigmarole"). The band accepted, and after Pasanen gave up the radio show to start his television career, the musicians followed him. They played in Pasanen's shows including Speden saluuna ("Spede's Saloon") and 50 pientä minuuttia ("50 Small Minutes").
With the help of his friend Erkki Liikanen, Vainio got a record deal with recording company Finndisc. His debut single, Paras rautalankayhtye was recorded in 1964. At the same time Vainio received the nickname "Watt", which was printed on the front cover of the single. Vainio wrote lyrics for several performers, including Katri Helena. In 1965 his parents and siblings moved to Helsinki, and at about the same time Vainio and his family moved to Espoo, where they lived for over 25 years. In 1966 he lost a good friend when Olli Miettinen died at the age of 34.
Vainio's songs Mistä löydän ystävän ("Where Do I Find a Friend") and Maanantaitango ("Monday Tango") had already been recorded by Katri Helena in 1963 before Vainio's military service. After leaving the army, Vainio befriended composer and music journalist Sauvo Puhtila (known to the Finnish public by the pseudonym Saukki), who told him that Yleisradio was in need of lyricists. Eager to leave his job as a teacher, Vainio quit and started collaborating with musician Reino Markkula. Their song Sä kuulut päivään jokaiseen ("You Belong in Every Day"), composed by Markkula with lyrics by Vainio, was given to Eino Grön who made it into a hit.
Vainio worked at Fazer Music as a lyricist with monthly salary and at the same time wrote his own songs. He translated several international hits into Finnish, including Piilopaikka ("Hideout", originally "You've Got Your Troubles") by Danny and Nyt meni hermot ("Now I'm Furious"), which became the breakthrough recording of pop group "The First". Vainio was often late for arranged studio sessions, which irritated the bands and the company's management. At 30, Vainio wrote one of his best-known translations, Fredi's Kolmatta linjaa takaisin ("Back along Kolmas Linja"). Another success was his translation of The Beatles' "Penny Lane", recorded by Pepe Willberg as Rööperiin ("To Rööperi"). Although Vainio's version is set in Helsinki, he has said he was thinking about Kotka when he wrote the lyrics.
In addition to writing songs for others, Vainio became a popular solo artist. He also wrote the music to several of his songs, despite never considering himself a singer or a composer but above all a lyricist. At first he worked with Pertti Metsärinne's orchestra, recording the song "Hum-Boogie" (wordplay on the word humpuuki, meaning "humbug"). Among his first recorded songs were Jos vain saisin nastahampaan takaisin ("If Only I Would Get the Spike Tooth Back") from 1964 and Suolaa, suolaa, enemmän suolaa ("Salt, Salt, More Salt") along with Juhannustanssit ("Midsummer's Ball") from 1965. All were included on Vainio's debut album, Juha "Watt" Vainio.
In the mid-1960s Vainio had success with Sellanen ol' Viipuri ("Such Was Viipuri"), Turistit tuppukylään ("Tourists Arrive in the Small Town") and a song written with Erik Lindström, Herrat Helsingin ("Big Shots of Helsinki"). When the Finndisc company was sold to Scandia, Vainio and Lindström's collaboration ended. Vaino soon afterwards became acquainted with composer Jaakko Salo, who was introduced to him by Saukki. He started writing lyrics for composer Toivo Kärki, who had lost his primary lyricist Reino Helismaa in January 1965.
Well-known songs from the late 1960s and early 1970s included Suomi–Ruotsi ("Finland–Sweden") and the 1971 release Matkarakastaja ("Travelling Lover"), which met with criticism. While Vainio's early albums were collections of singles, he recorded his first proper studio album in 1972. The album Viisari värähtää ("The Pointer Twitches") included the song Kaunissaari (a reference to a place in Finland), which Vainio recorded several times during his career. It was also included on his next album, Tulin, näin ja soitin ("I Came, I Saw, I Played"), which was released in 1975. Although Matkarakastaja and Viisari värähtää were Vainio's earliest published compositions, it was not until the late 1970s that he began to compose music more actively.
In 1966 Vainio befriended Vexi Salmi and Irwin Goodman. The trio made a summer tour called Kansalle mitä kansa haluaa ("Give People What the People Want") but at times Vainio was too intoxicated to perform. Vainio and Reijo Tani made a collection of singles in 1968 called Juha "Watt" Vainio ja Reijo Tani. The album included Vainio's Kauhea kankkunen ("Horrible Hangover") and Vanha salakuljettaja Laitinen ("Old Smuggler Laitinen"), which were both collaborations with Toivo Kärki. The latter song was named after Keijo Laitinen, a good friend of Vainio's. In 1970 Vainio started writing causeries with Gunnar Mattsson.
### Back to teaching
Vainio returned to teaching in the early 1970s. Vainio made up nicknames for all his pupils, who in return called him Junnu. He had a habit of coming up with very unorthodox methods of punishment but in general got on well with his pupils. Often late and in the habit of leaving a lot of paperwork unfinished, shortly before he quit teaching Vainio organized an excursion for the pupils to express his gratitude for the time he had spent with them.
### Alcohol use
As time went by, Vainio consumed more and more alcohol. In the late 1960s he frequented Tapion Tuoppi with Gunnar Mattsson and Aarre Elo. He often carried a hip flask in case he ran out of something to drink. Vainio's deteriorating family relationships are considered to be one reason for his drinking. Many of his friends were heavy drinkers as well but despite his drinking problem, he always managed to finish his lyrics on time.
Vainio's friends Heikki Kauppinen and Reijo Tani quit drinking in 1972, and at first Vainio found their decision odd. When Vexi Salmi was hired by Fazer in 1970, Vainio and Salmi started drinking together often and sometimes even came to work with hangovers. On one occasion, Vainio forgot that he was supposed to have finished the text of an advertising tune. When the deadline arrived, Vainio was too hung over to finish the lyrics and eventually Salmi agreed to help by writing the lyrics for Vainio's composition. Vainio's alcohol use increased in the 1970s, and his parents watched without being able to do anything about it. It is reported that Vainio would not go to sleep at night unless he had liquor under his bed, and he always kept a bottle with him. Vainio began to realize that he could not live like this forever. By summer 1975 he decided that he needed to stop drinking altogether. He was especially helped in this decision through his meeting footballer Kai Pahlman, who told Vainio that he was surprised he was still alive. In late 1975, Vainio stayed sober for four months, but then caved in for a short time. In January 1976 he finally managed to quit drinking for good.
Vainio was supported by his friends who had quit drinking a few years earlier, such as Osmo "Osku" Kanerva. Eino Grön, a friend of Vainio's, decided to follow his example and managed to quit a year and a half after Vainio. Vainio never wanted to be called a teetotaler and considered himself a recovered alcoholic. After he quit drinking, Vainio's songs became more serious and more sensitive, although he still wrote humorous lyrics as well.
Although Vainio himself did not consume alcohol, he was tolerant about others' alcohol use and could spend time with his friends even if they drank, keeping alcohol in his house in case his friends came over. He also began discussing the topic of drinking in his lyrics. Getting rid of his alcohol problem did not solve Vainio's domestic problems; he and Taina ended up divorcing.
### Changes
After his divorce, Vainio's life slowly began to change. Creatively he was more prolific than ever in the late 1970s and 1980s. He began composing in addition to writing lyrics. He worked a lot with Veikko Samuli and Jaakko Salo, and Salo started arranging songs Vainio had written.
In 1976 Vainio's Jawohl, jawohl from Kansi kiinni ja kuulemiin ("Shut the Lid and Goodbye") was criticized for its commentary about German tourists who visit Lapland. The album also featured a sensitive song, Mä uskon huomispäivään ("I Believe in Tomorrow"). Other well-known songs from the album are Playboy 60 v ("Playboy 60 yrs"), Suomi–Ruotsi ("Finland–Sweden") and Taas lapsuuden maisemiin ("Back Again to Where I Grew Up").
Vainio began composing actively in the late 1970s, although he had already published his own compositions at the beginning of the decade. His earliest compositions include Matkarakastaja and Viisari värähtää. Among his most popular songs from the late 1970s is Käyn ahon laitaa ("I Walk by the Side of a Glade") from the 1979 album of the same name. Even though Vainio had already quit drinking, he still occasionally sang about alcohol. Vainio started writing more sensitive songs, a trend which became evident in his next albums. 1981's Albatrossi ja sorsa ("The Albatross and the Duck") contains one of Vainio's most well-known songs, Albatrossi. The topic of the song was lost youth. Another sensitive song on the album is Apteekin ovikello ("The Pharmacy Doorbell"), the idea for which Vainio got from Tapio Rautavaara. Other well-known songs were Panaman konsuli ("The Consul of Panama") and Kun mä rupesin ryyppäämään ("When I Started Drinking").
In 1976, Vainio was hired to write a number of bawdy songs which were later released on cassette tape. Vainio wrote a part of the songs and sang on the record with all musicians using pseudonyms, Vainio's being Junnu Kaihomieli. Many of the songs were based on a familiar melody whose copyright had already expired; for example, the song Kumi-Roope ("Rubber Roope") was an obscene version of the folk song Rosvo-Roope ("Roope the Robber"). In 1979 Vainio participated in another recording of similar songs. The songs were released on compact disc in 1992 and 1997 as Pahojen poikien lauluja 1–2 ("Bad Boys' Songs 1–2") and Porno-ooppera / Pahojen poikien lauluja 3 ("Porn Opera / Bad Boys' Songs 3"). Both records went gold.
In 1982 Vainio collaborated with bodybuilder Kike Elomaa when they sang together on the single Kunto nousee sullakin ("You'll Get in Shape Too"), with lyrics by Vainio. The B-side of the single was Pokkana ja paikallaan ("Serious and Still"), sung by Elomaa alone. A compilation album called Sellaista elämä on ("That's How Life Is") followed in 1983, consisting of the most popular songs Vainio had himself recorded. 1985's Elämää ja erotiikkaa ("Life and Erotica") was Vainio's last finished studio album. Popular pieces from the album included Aleks ja Jaan ("Aleks and Jaan"), Heiskasen kanssa kun heiluttiin ("When We Hung Out with Heiskanen") and Yksinäinen saarnipuu ("Lonely Ash Tree").
After his divorce, Vainio had started dating Pirkko Heikkala. The couple were married on 27 December 1981 in Kuusamo. In 1983 they had a daughter, Suvi. The couple moved to Switzerland in the late 1980s. In 1988 Katri Helena, Eino Grön, Pave Maijanen and other popular artists performed at a concert organized to celebrate Vainio's 50th birthday.
### Death
Vainio's childhood heart problems surfaced again in 1990 with his sister Marja recalling that he often placed his hand over his heart. He had even finished writing his will. At one time Vainio was travelling to Florida with his friend, composer Veikko Samuli. Vainio had to go to the bathroom during the flight, and soon there was a call for a doctor from the flight crew. Vainio had kept his heart medicines in his pocket, where the box had opened and mixed with his pastilles. Vainio had eaten too much of the medicine by accident, and his heartbeat started to slow down. Once a stewardess found out what had happened, she saved Vainio's life by quickly forcing him to vomit.
Vainio gave his last performance on 12 October 1990. He died of a heart attack in his home in Gryon, Switzerland, on October 29, 1990, in the arms of his wife. He was 52 years old. A burial ceremony was held in the town of Vevey, and Vainio's body brought back to Finland and buried in the family grave in Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki.
The day before he died, Vainio had become friends with ice hockey coach Juhani Tamminen and dined with his family. According to Tamminen, Vainio had been in good condition at the time. The following week Tamminen learned of Vainio's death from a friend who had read about it in a Finnish newspaper.
The record Vainio had worked on during the final years of his life was released posthumously by Scandia in 1991 as Viiskymppisen viisut ("Tunes of a Fifty-year-old"). Especially important for Vainio had been the song Kauan sitten ("Long Ago") which he had recorded in the early 1970s. Vainio's most important collaborator during his last years was producer Jaakko Salo.
## Nicknames and pseudonyms
Juha Vainio's best-known nicknames were Junnu and Juha "Watt" Vainio. Junnu was a familiar name also used in connection with his last name as Junnu Vainio. The name Juha "Watt" Vainio was used on the cover of several albums and was a name he was publicly known by. Vainio's friends never used the nickname Watt – for them he always remained Junnu.
Among the pseudonyms used by Vainio were Junnu, Junnu Kaihomieli, Jorma Koski, Ilkka Lähde, Mirja Lähde, Kirsi Sunila and Heikki Ilmari. The name Junnu Kaihomieli was used for Vainio's bawdy songs in the late 1970s.
## Critical commentary
Peter von Bagh regards Vainio as the pioneer of Finnish 1960s humorous songs since he began their composition before Irwin Goodman. Producer Jaakko Salo commented that Vainio's career found a new start once Vainio quit drinking. According to him, it is evident from Vainio's texts that his songs are based on his own experiences.
According to writer and film director Jukka Virtanen, Vainio usually wrote his lyrics at the same time as the music. This is evident in the song Vanhojapoikia viiksekkäitä, written as a waltz and whose lyrics feature an aged bachelor who never got to dance at his own wedding. Virtanen has said that while Vainio worked at a fast pace, songs were never easy for him to write. His work did not become easier when he quit drinking, but it did become more emotional.
## Hobbies
Vainio frequently played football and basketball in his youth and later on remained an enthusiastic spectator. He wrote the lyrics for ice-hockey team Tappara's anthem Tappara on terästä ("Tappara Is Made of Steel"), which was composed by Reijo Lehtovirta in 1976. Tappara's manager Mikko Westberg asked Vainio to write a song for the team, requesting that the lyrics contain the phrases "Tappara is made of steel" and "rye bread". Vainio became a lifetime fan of Tappara after writing the song.
Vainio was fond of the sea and sailing. He often took his family and friends sailing in his boat, and in 1987 bought an island in Österskär with his wife Pirkko. His love for sailing is evident in the song Kaikki paitsi purjehdus on turhaa ("Everything But Sailing Is Pointless"), which was composed by Lasse Mårtenson.
## Legacy
Since Vainio's death many tribute concerts have been staged, with an event to celebrate his 70th birthday taking place in May 2008. Vainio's friend, songwriter Jukka Virtanen, wrote a play called Albatrossi ja Heiskanen ("The Albatross and Heiskanen") based on Vainio's songs. It was first performed in his hometown Kotka in 1992 and has been performed many times since. The Finnish film Keisarikunta [fi] ("The Empire") describes the youth of Vainio and his friends in Kotka during the 1950s.
The "Juha Vainio Award" (Juha Vainio-palkinto) for writers was introduced in 1991 and is given annually to notable Finnish lyricists with yearly prize money of 5,000 euros (previously 30,000 Finnish markkas). In December 1994, a club named Junnun Lauluseura (Junnu's singing club) was established. Its members include Vainio's friends Keijo Laitinen, Pertti Metsärinne and Reijo Tani. The club has published two books entitled Junnun laululipas 1 and Junnun laululipas 2.
Vainio's work continues to have major relevance in Finnish popular music, an example of which being two Vainio cover albums by Vesa-Matti Loiri in 2003 and 2004.
All of the songs that Vainio recorded were published in 2008 in a CD boxed set Legendan laulut – Kaikki levytykset 1963–1990 ("Songs of the Legend – All Recordings 1963–1990"). It included his advertising jingles, bawdy songs and a book. A compilation album released with the boxed set called Legendan laulut – 48 mestariteosta ("Songs of the Legend – 48 Masterpieces") reached second place on the Finnish album charts. Juha Vainio's son Ilkka Vainio [fi] is in the music business and works as a music producer and songwriter.
## Discography
- Juha 'Watt' Vainio (1966, compilation of singles)
- Juha 'Watt' Vainio ja Reijo Tani (1968, compilation of singles) (Translation: "Juha 'Watt' Vainio and Reijo Tani")
- Viisari värähtää (1972) (Translation: "The Pointer Twitches")
- Tulin, näin ja soitin (1975) (Translation: "I Came, I Saw, I Played")
- Kansi kiinni ja kuulemiin (1976) (Translation: "Shut the Lid and Goodbye")
- Käyn ahon laitaa (1979) (Translation: "I Walk by the Side of a Glade")
- Albatrossi ja sorsa (1981) (Translation: "The Albatross and the Duck")
- Sellaista elämä on (1983) (Translation: "That's How Life Is")
- Elämää ja erotiikkaa (1985) (Translation: "Life and Erotica")
- Viiskymppisen viisut (1991) (Translation: "Tunes of a Fifty-year-old") |
53,336,627 | 1959 Philadelphia municipal election | 1,173,913,348 | 1959 municipal election in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | [
"1950s in Philadelphia",
"1959 Pennsylvania elections",
"1959 United States local elections",
"1959 United States mayoral elections",
"City council elections in the United States",
"Mayoral elections in Philadelphia"
]
| 1959 Philadelphia's municipal election, held on November 3, involved contests for mayor, all seventeen city council seats, and several other executive and judicial offices. Citywide, the Democrats took majorities of over 200,000 votes, continuing their success from the elections four years earlier. Richardson Dilworth, who had been elected mayor in 1955, was re-elected over Republican nominee Harold Stassen. The Democrats also took fifteen of seventeen city council seats, the most seats allowed to any one party under the 1951 city charter. They further kept control of the other citywide offices. The election represented a continued consolidation of control by the Democrats after their citywide victories of the previous eight years.
## Background
After taking control of the city government in 1951, Democrats consolidated their majorities with further success in 1955 and 1957. They hoped to continue the victories made possible by the continuing coalition of reform-minded independents and the Democratic organization led by Democratic City Committee chairman William J. Green Jr., but tension between the two groups had begun to increase by 1959 as more of the jobs and elected offices went to organization men, with reformers being increasingly marginalized. The Republican organization had largely collapsed after the 1955 defeat, but looked to rebuild and consolidate under the leadership of former sheriff Austin Meehan. However, as political scientist Robert Freedman wrote several years later, "there was not much left to consolidate." The Philadelphia Inquirer noted the dire condition of the Republicans while predicting a major Democratic victory: "the Republican organization has been on the border of collapse during the last few years and it is probable that it will not man a number of polling places on Election Day."
## Mayor
In the mayor's race, incumbent Democrat Richardson Dilworth ran for reelection against Republican Harold Stassen. After service in World War I and a law degree from Yale, Dilworth practiced law in Philadelphia. He and Joseph S. Clark Jr., were allies in the anti-corruption reform effort that had swept the city eight years earlier in coalition with the Democratic political organization. Dilworth had run for mayor unsuccessfully in 1947, with Clark as his campaign manager. In 1949, he was elected City Treasurer. He resigned that post to run for governor in 1950, but was defeated by Republican John S. Fine. Democratic party leaders had intended Dilworth to be their candidate for mayor again in 1951, but when Clark announced his candidacy, Dilworth agreed to run for district attorney instead, and won. In 1955, Dilworth got his shot at the mayor's office when Clark instead ran for the Senate; he was elected with 59% of the vote. Four years later, he was renominated without opposition.
The Republicans nominated Harold Stassen. In 1938, Stassen was elected Governor of Minnesota at the age of thirty-one. He became known as an efficient, honest, and moderately liberal governor, and was reelected in 1940 and 1942. Stassen resigned as governor shortly after his 1942 reelection to serve in World War II. He made an unsuccessful bid for the Republican nomination for president in 1948; later that year, he was appointed president of the University of Pennsylvania. After four years, he left that position to work in the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration as a special assistant for nuclear disarmament efforts. In 1958, he sought the nomination for Governor of Pennsylvania, but was unsuccessful.
As the 1959 election approached, Republican City Committee leaders Wilbur H. Hamilton and Austin Meehan backed Stassen for their party's nomination. Triumphing over token opposition in the May primary, Stassen pledged to cut taxes and promised to run a "fusion campaign," inviting the support of Democrats dissatisfied with Dilworth's administration. Dilworth called for more spending, especially on streets, highways, and public housing, and admitted that increased taxation was likely the price of those improvements.
As in 1955, the result was a landslide for Dilworth. Dilworth called the victory "greater than we had anticipated" and said the scale of the landslide "puts us on a spot. We really have to deliver during the next four years." Stassen said he would return to his law practice and promised to continue to build the Republican Party in Philadelphia. Dilworth secured nearly two-thirds of the vote and fifty-eight out of fifty-nine wards, continuing a trend of Democratic dominance in the city's politics.
## City Council
Philadelphians elected a seventeen-member city council in 1959, with ten members representing districts of the city, and the remaining seven being elected at-large. For the at-large seats, each political party could nominate five candidates, and voters could only vote for five, with the result being that the majority party could only take five of the seven seats, leaving two for the minority party. The Democrats' citywide dominance continued into the city council races, as took control of all ten of the district seats, up from nine in the previous election. They also retained five of seven at-large seats.
In the at-large races, four incumbent Democratic candidates, Victor E. Moore, Paul D'Ortona, Marshall L. Shepard, and Leon Kolankiewicz, were re-elected. A fifth Democrat, state legislator Mary Varallo, was elected to the seat vacated by Henry W. Sawyer when he declined to run for re-election. On the Republican side, at-large councilman Louis Schwartz retired and was replaced by Virginia Knauer. Incumbent Thomas M. Foglietta, a lawyer and son of former councilman Michael Foglietta, was re-elected. Losing bids for the Republican at-large seats were attorneys Emil F. Goldhaber and William S. Rawls, and Baptist minister Clarence M. Smith.
At the district level, Democratic incumbents Emanuel Weinberg (district 1), Gaetano Giordano (district 2), Harry Norwitch (district 3), Samuel Rose (district 4), Michael J. Towey (district 6), James Tate (district 7), Henry P. Carr (district 9), and John M. McDevitt (district 10) were all reelected. In the 5th district, Raymond Pace Alexander chose not to run for re-election and fellow Democrat Thomas McIntosh took his place. In the 8th, the Republicans lost their only district-level seat when Wilbur H. Hamilton narrowly lost out to Democrat Alfred Leopold Luongo.
## City commissioners
In the race for city commissioners, each party nominated two candidates and the top three were elected. The office was a county office, a holdover from the time before consolidation of the townships in Philadelphia County into one city. The most important of the remaining duties of the commissioners in Philadelphia was the conduct of the city's elections; they also had responsibility for regulating weights and measures. The Democrats' success continued in those races, with incumbent commissioners Maurice S. Osser and Thomas P. McHenry being easily reelected. For the third seat, reserved for the minority party, Republican former city councilman Louis Menna edged out the incumbent Republican commissioner, Walter I. Davidson.
## Other offices and ballot measures
Democrat William M. Lennox was reelected county sheriff, his third consecutive term. Louis Amarando, also a Democrat, was reelected clerk of the court of quarter sessions (a court whose jurisdiction was later transferred to the court of common pleas). In the special election for Register of Wills that followed the previous officeholder's appointment as a judge, Democrat John F. Walsh Jr. easily defeated Republican Jay H. Rosenfeld (Walsh had been appointed in 1959 to fill the vacancy).
The Democrats also took six of the ten magisterial district judge positions up for election that year (a local court, the duties of which have since been superseded by the Philadelphia Municipal Court) with former state representative Ralph M. Dennis leading the list. The ballot contained two referendums authorizing the city to take loans for construction of building repairs, streets, sewers, and other civic improvements. They passed with overwhelming support, tallying 70% and 72% affirmative votes.
## See also
- List of members of Philadelphia City Council since 1952 |
25,590,170 | Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop | 1,169,230,654 | null | [
"Buildings and structures in Norwich, Connecticut",
"Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut",
"Historic American Buildings Survey in Connecticut",
"Historic district contributing properties in Connecticut",
"National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut"
]
| The Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop is a historic building that was built between 1772 and 1774 on the green in Norwichtown, now a section of Norwich, Connecticut. It is a 30 feet (9.1 m) by 24 feet (7.3 m) 1+1⁄2-story clapboarded building with a gambrel roof. The interior has a single brick chimney that was used for the forge, but it has been modified and adapted for modern use with modern doors, electric lighting and heat, and a disappearing overhead stairway that leads to the attic. Joseph Carpenter (1747–1804) was a successful of silversmith, clockmaker, and pewterer, and shared the building with his brother, a merchant. The shop was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 6, 1970, and was listed as a contributory property for the Norwichtown Historic District on January 17, 1973.
## Original occupants
Born in 1747 to Joseph and Elizabeth Carpenter (née Lathrop), Joseph Carpenter was a successful silversmith in Norwich, Connecticut. The shop was constructed between 1772 and 1774 and Joseph shared it with his brother Gardner Carpenter, who operated a mercantile business from the shop. In 1775, Joseph Carpenter married Eunice Fitch, and they had six children. He died in 1804. Carpenter was noted to be one of the "most successful of the Norwich silversmiths, clockmakers and pewterers..."
## Design
Facing southeast on the Norwichtown green, the Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop is a 30 feet (9.1 m) by 24 feet (7.3 m) 1+1⁄2-story clapboarded building with a gambrel roof. Constructed between 1772 and 1774, the building was built on a stone foundation and has a stone stoop leading to the front entrance. The gambrel roof is framed without a ridge pole. It overhangs the front and back facades by 2 feet (0.61 m), but does not project the sides. At the time of the National Historic Register of Places nomination, the roof used wooden shingles. The interior has a single brick chimney that was used for the forge. The main floor was originally open, with only a single supporting post in the center, but this was later partitioned into several rooms. Modern additions to the shop include modern doors, electric lighting and heat, and a disappearing overhead stairway that leads to the attic. The shop's cellar was not described in the survey. In 1915, the house passed out of the Carpenter family, and it was restored by Norman Isham in 1916. In 1956, the building came into the ownership of the "Society of the Founders of Norwich, Connecticut, Inc.". According to the 1966 edition of Fodor's Modern Guides, the Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop was "still furnished as it was when Mr. Carpenter plied his trade." The National Historic Register of Places noted that the partitioning was "recent" at the time of its 1970 nomination. In 1997, a \$5000 grant was used to replace the roof.
## Importance
The Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop is an example of a small frame silversmith's shop, and is believed to be the only surviving example in New England. The shop was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 6, 1970 and it was listed as a contributory property for the Norwichtown Historic District on January 17, 1973. As early as 1917, the shop was the subject of a preservation effort. The shop was photographed by the Historic American Buildings Survey. The shop was featured as part of a historic house tour in 1993's "Reflections on the Past."
## See also
- National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut
- Dr. Daniel Lathrop School, next door
- Carpenter House (Norwich, Connecticut) - The house of Joseph Carpenter's brother, Gardner Carpenter. |
4,857,781 | Drosera anglica | 1,144,973,590 | Species of carnivorous flowering plant in the family Droseraceae | [
"Carnivorous plants of Asia",
"Carnivorous plants of Europe",
"Carnivorous plants of North America",
"Carnivorous plants of the Pacific",
"Drosera",
"Flora of Hawaii",
"Flora without expected TNC conservation status"
]
| Drosera anglica, commonly known as the English sundew or great sundew, is a carnivorous flowering plant species belonging to the sundew family Droseraceae. It is a temperate species with a circumboreal range, although it does occur as far south as Japan, southern Europe, and the island of Kauai in Hawaii, where it grows as a tropical sundew. It is thought to originate from an amphidiploid hybrid of D. rotundifolia and D. linearis, meaning that a sterile hybrid between these two species doubled its chromosomes to produce fertile progeny which stabilized into the current D. anglica.
## Morphology
Drosera anglica is a perennial herb which forms an upright, stemless rosette of generally linear-spatulate leaves. As is typical for sundews, the laminae are densely covered with stalked reddish colored mucilaginous glands, each tipped with a clear droplet of a viscous fluid used for trapping insects. The lamina, which is 15–35 millimetres (0.59–1.38 in) long, is held semi-erect by a long petiole, bringing the total leaf size to 30–95 millimetres (1.2–3.7 in). Plants are green, coloring red in bright light. In all populations except those in Kaua'i, D. anglica forms winter resting buds called hibernacula. These consist of a knot of tightly curled leaves at ground level, which unfurl in spring at the end of the dormancy period. The root system is weak and penetrates only a few centimeters, serving mainly as an anchor and for water absorption. Nitrogen is in short supply in bogs and trapping and digesting insects provides an alternate source.
Drosera anglica flowers in the summer, sending up peduncles 6–18 centimetres (2.4–7.1 in). long bearing several white flowers which open individually. Like other sundews, the flowers have five sepals, petals, and stamens with three styles. The petals for this species are 8–12 mm (1⁄4 to 1⁄2") long, and the flowers have branched 2-lobed styles. The odorless, nectar-less flowers do not rely on insect pollinators for pollination, rather setting seed well through self-pollination (autogamy). The black roundish spindle-shaped seeds, are 1 to 1+1⁄2 mm long. The fruits are a dehiscent three-valved capsule.
## Carnivory
Like all sundews, D. anglica uses stalked mucilaginous glands called tentacles which cover its laminae to attract, trap, and digest small arthropods, usually insects. These are attracted by a sugary scent exuded by the glands, and upon alighting on the plant adhere to the sticky drops of mucilage. Although most of its prey consists of small insects such as flies, bulkier insects with large wings are also caught. Small butterflies, damselflies, and even dragonflies can become immobilized by the plant's sticky mucilage.
The plant's initial response to contact with prey consists of thigmotropic (movement in response to touch) tentacle movement, with tentacles bending toward the prey and the center of the leaf to maximize contact. D. anglica is also capable of further movement, being able to bend the actual leaf blade around prey to further the digestion process. Tentacle movement can occur in a matter of minutes, whereas the leaf takes hours or days to bend. When something gets caught, the tentacles touching the prey exude additional mucilage to mire down the prey, which eventually dies of exhaustion or is asphyxiated as the mucilage clogs its tracheae. Once the prey has been digested and the resulting nutrient solution has been absorbed by the plant, the leaf unfurls, leaving only the prey's exoskeleton behind.
## Habitat
Drosera anglica grows in open, non-forested habitat with wet, often calcium-rich soils. These include bogs, marl fens, quaking bogs, cobble shores, and other calcareous habitats. This tolerance of calcium is relatively rare in the rest of the genus. D. anglica is often associated with various sphagnum mosses, and many times grows in a soil substrate that is entirely composed of living, dead, or decomposed sphagnum. The sphagnum wicks moisture to the surface while simultaneously acidifying it. What soil nutrients are not seeped away by the constant moisture are often used up by the sphagnum or made unavailable by the low soil pH. Since nutrient availability is low, competition from other plants is diminished, allowing the carnivorous English sundew to flourish.
## Distribution
Drosera anglica is one of the most widely distributed sundews in the world. It is generally circumboreal, meaning that it is found at high latitudes around the globe. In a few areas, however, it is found farther south, particularly in Japan, southern Europe, the Hawaiian island of Kauaʻi, and California. Plants from Hawaiʻi, where it is known as mikinalo, are generally smaller than normal and do not experience a winter dormancy period. Its natural habitat includes 12 U.S. states, including Alaska, and 11 Canadian provinces and territories. The altitudinal range is from 5 metres (20') to at least 2000 metres (6000'). In the US state of Minnesota, it was found in 1978 growing in shallow pools in peatlands with minerotrophic water dominated by low growing mosses and sedge species; because of its limited to small populations, and the type of microhabitats that it occupies, it is listed as a threatened species in the state.
## Special origins
All North American Drosera species except for D. anglica have a chromosome count of 2n=20. In 1955, Wood noted that D. anglica had a chromosome count of 2n=40, and hypothesized that it was of hybrid amphidiploid origin. Since the leaf morphology of D. anglica is an intermediary between that of D. rotundifolia and D. linearis and the two occur sympatrically in several locations, Wood conjectured that D. anglica likely originated from a hybrid between these two.
All North American Drosera species produce sterile hybrids. The natural hybrid D. rotundifolia × D. linearis (conventionally but incorrectly referred to as Drosera ×anglica), is also sterile but is morphologically similar to the modern D. anglica. Errors in meiosis during ovule and pollen production, however, can result in a chromosome doubling which can allow for viable seed to be produced. The resulting plants, known as amphiploids, would be fertile. Woods noted that this appeared to be an ongoing process with D. anglica speciating from D. rotundifolia × D. linearis through amphidiploidy in multiple locations. The question remains as to why D. anglica is so widespread, whereas the range of D. linearis is limited to the Great Lakes region of North America. The greater adaptability of D. anglica to varied habitat conditions could be a major factor.
## Botanical history
Drosera anglica was first described by William Hudson in 1778. It has frequently been confused with the other circumpolar long-leaf Drosera, D. intermedia. This confusion was fueled by the resurfacing of an older name, D. longifolia (described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753), which was regarded as being too ambiguous in description and had been applied to specimens of both D. anglica and D. intermedia. Herbarium specimens were also a mix of the two species. These points led Martin Cheek to propose D. longifolia for rejection as a species name in 1998. The proposal was accepted and the taxon listed as rejected in 1999.
## Hybrids
Several naturally occurring hybrids involving D. anglica exist. These include:
These are all sterile. In addition, several man-made hybrids have been made.
## Gallery |
600,199 | Gendo Ikari | 1,172,637,949 | Fictional character from Neon Genesis Evangelion | [
"Animated characters introduced in 1995",
"Fictional Japanese people in anime and manga",
"Fictional United Nations personnel",
"Fictional commanders",
"Fictional mass murderers",
"Fictional politicians",
"Fictional private military members",
"Fictional roboticists",
"Male characters in anime and manga",
"Neon Genesis Evangelion characters",
"Science fiction film characters",
"Television characters introduced in 1995"
]
| Gendo Ikari (Japanese: 碇 ゲンドウ, Hepburn: Ikari Gendō) is a fictional character from the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise, created by Gainax. In the original anime series with the same name, Gendo is the supreme commander of the special agency Nerv, which is dedicated to the study and annihilation of Angels, a series of mysterious enemies of humans. Gendo is grief-stricken by the sudden death of his wife Yui, and abandons his son Shinji Ikari to devote himself to a plan named Human Instrumentality Project. Years later, Gendo asks Shinji to pilot a giant mecha named Evangelion; his pragmatic, cold, and calculating attitude leads him to use any means to achieve his personal goals. He also appears in the franchise's animated feature films and related media, video games, the original net animation Petit Eva: Evangelion@School, the Rebuild of Evangelion films, and the manga adaptation by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto.
The character, who was originally conceived as a modern version of Victor Frankenstein, is inspired by the personal experiences of the series' production staff, reflecting the absent, emotionally detached Japanese father figure. Neon Genesis Evangelion director Hideaki Anno's abusive father particularly influenced Gendo; the director also took inspiration from psychoanalytic concepts, especially the Freudian Oedipus complex, for his development.
Critics have negatively received Gendo, describing him as one of the meanest characters and one of the nastiest parents in Japanese animation history. Reviewers criticized his unscrupulous, abusive ways, while others were more appreciative of his role in spin-offs and the manga adaptation of the series. Reviewers appreciated Gendo's role in the theatrical saga Rebuild of Evangelion, and particularly in the film Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time (2021), and commented positively on his character development. Gendo's typical pose with hands clasped at mouth level has become popular, and has been homaged in other anime and manga. Merchandise on the character has also been released.
## Conception
Hideaki Anno, the Neon Genesis Evangelion anime series director and main screenwriter, took Gendo's name from a character in a failed Gainax studio project, an anime that was planned before Evangelion but was never produced. For his bachelor name, he chose the word rokubungi (六文儀, lit. "sextant"); for his married name, he chose Ikari (碇, lit. "anchor"), to connect to the names of other characters in Neon Genesis Evangelion, inspired by nautical jargon and ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The character was designed by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, mangaka of the comic version of the series. Sadamoto was influenced by the British television series UFO and modeled his relationship with Kozo Fuyutsuki on that between Commander Ed Straker and Colonel Alec Freeman from the classic series.
The show's production staff chose interpersonal communication, specifically intergenerational communication, as a central theme of the series to reflect on the lack of communication and relational difficulties of the modern world. For the psychology of the character, the protagonist's father who is unable to emotionally communicate with his son, the director took inspiration from his personality, just like all the other characters in the series. The special agency Nerv, in particular, was conceived as a metaphor for Gainax studio; Anno also described Gendo as a representation of his shadow, the dark, unconscious side of an individual's psyche. The director stated he did not conceive Gendo as a concrete father with a blood tie to his son but as a representation of society, adding; "I don't think I projected that much [into him]". Gendo was influenced by the personal experiences of staff members, including that of Hideaki Anno, whose father injured his left leg with a power saw in a youthful accident, forcing him to wear a prosthesis. According to Anno himself, his father became emotionally unstable as a result of the accident and he grew up in a tense family environment, marked by physical and emotional punishment from his father. According to Kazuya Tsurumaki, assistant director of the series:
> A lot of families in Japan a generation ago—and perhaps even now—had fathers that were workaholics and never home. They were out of their children's lives. My own father was like that, and I hardly ever got to associate with him until quite recently. I'm the same sort of person as Hideaki Anno. That probably influences the type of anime I create.
In the early design stages of Neon Genesis Evangelion, Gainax decided to portray Gendo as a "mysterious person in behavior and words", a staunch defender of the Instrumentality Project, expressive, tumultuous, akin to a twenty-first-century Dr. Victor Frankenstein. Over time, he would become obsessed with research, justifying any means to achieve his goal to the point of transforming his own body and becoming a digitized human being. His goal, however, would be benevolent, in the belief he could realize a utopian dream capable of bringing true equality among people. In the first episode of the series, Gendo would have called Shinji to fight against an Angel named Raziel, and in the fourth episode, titled "Fourteen years, the first day" (14歳、 始まりの日, 14-sai, hajimari no hi), he would have ignored his son on his birthday, but these ideas were discarded during the show's production.
The writers originally intended Gendo would not have participated in a survey expedition to Antarctica, as in the final scenario; the original draft had him involved in a mysterious accident that would cause the Dead Sea to evaporate, as revealed in the twentieth episode of the show. In the finale, Gendo's true goals and the true purpose of the Instrumentality Project would be revealed; the ruins of a place called Arqa (アルカ, Aruka), which is never mentioned in the final version, would be revealed. The conclusion originally planned by the staff also included a scene in which Gendo, separating from his son Shinji, would have said "Live!" (生きろ, Ikiro), similarly to the ending of the previous Gainax studio work, Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water.
### Voice
Fumihiko Tachiki voiced Gendo in the original series, in the later films, spin-offs, video games and the Rebuild of Evangelion saga. Tachiki found it difficult to empathize with or understand Evangelion and Gendo, and wondered "whether I hated or loved Gendo". Tachiki was confused during the recordings; he failed to frame Gendo's laconic phrases and intentions, and was forced to ask how to recite his lines and interpret a particular phrase. He stated; "Honestly, when I first started the television series, I’d only just been exposed to the story. It turned out to be tough; I really agonized about how to make the character come across. I can't say it was a pleasant experience". During recording sessions for the original series and the 1997 feature films, he received support from the staff, and Hideaki Anno and the sound director coached and directed him.
Tachiki encountered similar difficulties for the Rebuild of Evangelion saga, and in particular for the third installment, Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo (2012), which was dubbed almost twenty years after the original series. However, Tachiki, while disconcerted by the futuristic setting and plot changes, was helped by his accumulated experience and greater maturity, due to which he acted more frankly and serenely than in the classic series. For the last installment of the saga, Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time (2021), Tachiki remained surprised by the script, having to go over his lines several times while looking at the still-incomplete drawings of the film. The first voice-recording sessions focused on his dialogue with Fututsuki, with a colleague older than him, which allowed him to relax more during the recording phase. Despite the changes in Gendo's characterization, the staff did not ask Tachiki to dub him emotionally but naturally, without passion and particular tension. Even in the case of Thrice Upon a Time, he had difficulties, given the change of direction. Tachiki's throat hurt while he was recording a complicated scene in which he shouts Yui's name and had to raise his voice; the production asked him to convey all his emotions and feelings at that moment.
In the North American A.D. Vision version of the series and the 1997 films, Gendo is voiced by Tristan MacAvery, except for additional parts in the director's cut and Rebuild, in which he is played by John Swasey. MacAvery had difficulties when dubbing the last two episodes, which are entirely set in Shinji's inner world; "I had no idea what was going on [in the last two episodes]. I had to figure how I should read the part, flat or philosophical". MacAvery and the other actors said there was nothing wrong with the English translation since the Japanese original was "incomprehensible". Ray Chase voiced Gendo in the Netflix dub, while Swasey reprised his role for the Amazon Prime Video Rebuild dub.
## Appearances
### Neon Genesis Evangelion
Gendo Ikari, originally named Gendo Rokubungi, is presented at the beginning of the series as a cold man head of the special agency Nerv, deputy to the annihilation of the Angels. His parents are never named in the series, and no details are given about his childhood and adolescence. His past is explored in the twenty-first episode of the series. In 1999, when he is thirty-two years old, Gendo is arrested and designates Professor Kozo Fuyutsuki, a lecturer at Kyoto University, as his guarantor. After being exonerated at the hands of the professor, Gendo becomes romantically involved with Yui Ikari, a brilliant researcher and student of Fuyutsuki. The professor does not approve Gendo's actions, suspecting ulterior motives on his part. Yui is linked to a secret organization named Seele, and rumors say Gendo's only interest is to get close to Seele and exploit Yui's talent. To secretly carry out Seele's plans, Gendo participates in a research group known as the Katsuragi expedition, which leaves for Antarctica to conduct experiments regarding a mechanism known as the S2 engine. On September 12, 2000, Gendo leaves Antarctica with other members of the group, including a man named Lorenz Keel, head of Seele. The next day, in an apparent coincidence, a gigantic natural disaster known as the Second Impact occurs. After marrying Yui, Gendo changes his surname in Ikari and, along with other members of Seele and Professor Fuyutsuki, participates in a United Nations-organized expedition to investigate the Second Impact. A little later, Seele assigns Gendo the role of director of the Laboratory for Artificial Evolution, with the task of directing a secret plan known as Project E.
In 2003, Professor Fuyutsuki collects information about the Second Impact and arrives at the Artificial Evolution Laboratory, threatening the director to make public the truth. Gendo takes him to a bunker below the Laboratory, the headquarters of an organization known as Gehirn, and invites him to collaborate "to build the new history of mankind". After careful consideration, Fuyutsuki accepts the offer. The following year, Gendo attends an experiment to activate an Eva called Unit 01; due to an accident, Yui disappears and Gendo decides to leave his son Shinji to a guardian. A week after his wife's disappearance, Gendo tells Fuyutsuki about the Human Instrumentality Project, which he describes as "the path to godhood that none have ever succeeded in before". From that moment his goal changes and becomes that of reaching his deceased wife again. In 2010 the Gehirn is disbanded and replaced with the special agency Nerv.
In 2015, after years of silence, Gendo summons Shinji to the city of Tokyo-3 to let him pilot the Eva-01 and face the Angels. He keeps a cold attitude towards his son. Following the battle against the sixth Angel Gaghiel, a man named Ryoji Kaji gives Gendo a small, embryo-like object that is identified as the first Angel Adam. Gendo later implants the embryo in the palm of his right hand. Meanwhile, discrepancies arise between the commander and the Seele, both of which are intent on starting the Human Instrumentality Project. Gendo, unlike the Seele, decides to cause a "forbidden union" between Adam, implanted in his body, and the second Angel Lilith, whose soul is kept inside a girl named Rei Ayanami. After the defeat of the last Angel, Gendo attempts to reunite with Yui, betraying Seele. To implement the plan, he enters the deepest section of the headquarters, Terminal Dogma, with Rei and inserts his right hand into the girl's body so she can absorb Adam's embryo. Rei, however, betrays Gendo's expectations and joins the second Angel against his will, causing his plans to fail. During Instrumentality, Gendo meets the spirit of his wife Yui and is devoured by a projection of the Eva-01.
### Rebuild of Evangelion
Gendo returns as a primary character in Rebuild of Evangelion and appears in the first installment of the saga, Evangelion: 1.0 You Are (Not) Alone (2007). His character remains virtually identical to that in the anime, summoning Shinji to pilot Evangelion Unit-01. In the movie Evangelion: 2.0 You Can (Not) Advance (2009), the second installment of the Rebuild tetralogy, his relationship with his son appears better than that in the original anime and manga. In the film's opening sequences, Gendo and Shinji visit Yui's grave, despite communication difficulties, and later begin to more sincerely communicate their feelings and spend more time together, building a more affectionate relationship than their animated counterparts. Shinji, in particular, begins to connect with his parent through the nudging and encouragement of Misato Katsuragi and, to an even greater extent, Rei Ayanami, who tries to bring the two closer together by cooking them dinner. Anno originally thought of using a similar idea for the fourth episode of the television series, "Hedgehog's Dilemma", but the proposal was shelved during production.
In the following installment, Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo (2012), set fourteen years after the previous one, Gendo continues to pursue his Instrumentality as the commander of the Nerv, apparently reduced to Vice Commander Fuyutsuki and a boy named Kaworu Nagisa. The man also presents a more aged appearance than in the classic series. In the course of the film, Gendo comes into conflict with Wille, a company headed by Misato Katsuragi created to destroy the Nerv, and orders Shinji to pilot the Eva 13, maintaining the same aloof attitude as fourteen years earlier.
In the movie Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time (2021), Gendo, having injected an object called the Key of Nebuchadnezzar into his body, transcends humanity and enters Eva-13 to initiate the Human Instrumentality Project, and accomplish deicide and Additional Impact, fighting with Eva-01 and Shinji inside it. Unit 01 and Unit 13, defined by Gendo as units of "hope" and "despair" respectively, are tuned and synchronized with each other; Shinji loses the fight and argues with Gendo instead of using force. Gendo speaks to his son, revealing his lonely childhood in which he was fond of the piano and not very sociable until he met his future wife. For a long time, Gendo had a connection with Mari, and at the end of the trial, he resolves his suffering by embracing Shinji and asking him for forgiveness. Eva-01 and Eva-13 inflict themselves with spears, and Gendo and Yui sacrifice themselves to allow their son to continue living, reuniting for one last time.
In the last two chapters of Rebuild, Gendo wears different glasses that cover his eye sockets, an idea that came from Mahiro Maeda, who wanted to give the impression Gendo was falling into darkness. Maeda, considering the eyes as the mirror of an individual's mind, wanted Gendo to have no human perspective and projected Anno onto Gendo during production, wondering what Anno's childhood had been like. Megumi Hayashibara, Rei Ayanami's voice actress, said she sometimes recognized Anno in Gendo's character and sometimes in Shinji's. Anno himself stated he no longer felt as close to Shinji as he once did, identifying more with Gendo. At the beginning of production, assistant director Kazuya Tsurumaki instructed mecha designer Ikuto Yamashita to create a scenario in which Gendo and Shinji would clash for eternity, even after losing their bodies.
### In other media
In a scene from the last episode of the animated series, a parallel universe is presented with a different story than the previous episodes; in the alternative reality, Gendo appears as a normal man who is reading a newspaper in a kitchen, and cohabits with Shinji and his wife Yui. According to his newspaper, Antarctica still exists and no accident occurred at the South Pole. A similar version of events occurs in the manga Shinji Ikari Raising Project and in Neon Genesis Evangelion: Girlfriend of Steel 2nd. In The Shinji Ikari Raising Project, Gendo has a henpecked personality but less severely than his animated counterpart. In the original net parody anime Petit Eva: Evangelion@School, Gendo is the principal at a school named Tokyo-3 Municipal academy "Nerv", attended by Shinji, Asuka, Rei, and the other Evangelion characters; he is also portrayed as a less-negative character and as a calm, strict father who act as though he has a crush on Ritsuko but still loves his wife, with whom he has a good relationship.
The manga version, which was written and illustrated by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, introduces more differences in Gendo's characterization and development. Sadamoto tried to portray Gendo in a more balanced way compared to Hideaki Anno's Gendo; although putting him in a negative light, Sadamoto tried to better explain the reasons for Yui's attraction towards him, emphasizing his stubbornness and representing Fuyutsuki as a rebel. In the manga, Gendo leaves his son with his aunt and uncle, whereas in the animated series the identity of the guardian to whom he entrusts Shinji is not revealed. In the anime, Gendo has Adam's embryo implanted in the palm of his right hand, whereas in Sadamoto's version he swallows it, thus developing the ability to extend an AT Field, a directional force field characteristic of Angels and Evangelion. Unlike the original series, the confrontation with the Angel Bardiel culminates in the death of Toji Suzuhara. Gendo feels no remorse; his attitude arouses the ire of his son, who tries to punch him. He saves Shinji during an attack by the Japanese Self-Defense Forces, telling him he was jealous of him since birth because he suddenly became the center of his wife's attention and affection. In the last chapters, he also shoots Dr. Akagi, telling her "I loved you" and is in turn killed by the doctor. Before he dies, he sees Yui again during the Instrumentality, and remembers the moment when he first saw his son; Yui tells him that Shinji is the fruit of their love, and Gendo passes away.
## Characterization
Gendo Ikari is a mysterious, emotionally closed, austere, determined, calculating, ruthless, and unscrupulous man. His innate pragmatism and his phlegmatic, selfish character, lead him to use any means to achieve his goals, even if it means hurting other people's feelings. The only people who seem to understand his thoughts are the vice-commander of the Nerv, Kozo Fuyutsuki, and Dr. Ritsuko Akagi, who shares his philosophy. Gendo flaunts a detached attitude with his subordinates, keeping calm and cool-headed in all circumstances and sticking to his plans. He is confident in his war strategies; to implement them he often takes the place of the United Nations as if he considered it his right, not hesitating to use Shinji and Ayanami. His Japanese voice actor Fumihiko Tachiki, however, stated; "[Gendo] is not just cold or immoral. I don’t know how to articulate it, but I feel that he shows a strength that’s unique to humans."
To carry out his plans, Gendo uses his subordinate Ryoji Kaji and embarks on a secret affair with Dr. Naoko Akagi, a scientist and researcher, taking advantage of her scientific talents. He does not actually love the woman, since he considers Dr. Akagi a tool for Instrumentality and being able to meet Yui, whom he cannot forget. Naoko, realizing Gendo is exploiting her, commits suicide in 2010, after which he enters into a sexual relationship with her daughter, Ritsuko. Ritsuko also realizes Gendo is using her, saying that from the beginning the man never had any real expectations for her.
Gendo is indifferent to his son's life but shows an attachment to Rei, to whom he is closer and more intimate. Gendo constantly devotes himself to the Instrumentality Project following his wife's sudden death, trying at all costs to meet her again. In the fifteenth episode of the series, he visits her symbolic tomb with his son, claiming "Yui made me know that something irreplaceable to me". On other occasions, he shows a human character; during the battle against the Angel Matarael, he helps his men to manually operate the Evangelion units, while shortly after the defeat of the Angel Sahaquiel, he praises Shinji. Gendo disappoints his son's expectations during the battle against the Angel Bardiel, in which he has the Evangelion 03 unit destroyed without remorse, wounding and mutilating its pilot Toji Suzuhara, Shinji's friend.
According to an encyclopedia named Evangelion Chronicle, Gendo's behavior can be interpreted as a "reverse manifestation of affection": not wanting to hurt his son, he turns away from him. A pamphlet for the film The End of Evangelion likens their relationship to Arthur Schopenhauer's porcupine's dilemma. Gendo's path has its climax during Instrumentality, in which he meets Yui again and asks his son's forgiveness just before dying. He is then devoured by Eva-01; according to Yūichirō Oguro, editor of extra materials from the home video editions of the series, the Eva-01 visible in the sequence may be an illusion and the scene may symbolize Gendo's success in becoming one with his wife.
### Cultural references and themes
According to cultural critic Hiroki Azuma, Gendo's uniform is an homage to Leiji Matsumoto's series Space Battleship Yamato, while his pose with joined hands has been compared to that of Gargoyle, the antagonist of Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water. Gendo's motto, "The hands of the clock cannot turn back", is also similar to a phrase from an earlier Gainax work; "If the overflowed water could be poured out again" from GunBuster. Japanese critic Akio Nagatomi compared Gendo to Kōichirō Ōta, also called "Coach", and his son Shinji to Noriko from Gunbuster. Gendo has also been interpreted as a reflection of Shinji and as a representation of paternalism. Critics have interpreted the Nerv as a patriarchal society that is commanded by an austere, dictatorial man who gives unquestionable orders, far from his son. Writer Andrea Fontana compared the series' theme of Oedipal conflict between fathers and sons to other works in the mecha genre, such as those by director Yoshiyuki Tomino, while Anime News Network's Jonny Lobo compared the conflict between Shinji and Gendo to the world presented by the OVA Megazone 23, in which parental figures are almost absent; according to him, however, Megazone protagonist Shogo Yahagi rebels against the government, the de facto enforcer of patriarchy, rather than an individual like Gendo. It is left to the viewer's sensibilities to decide whether the series supports or critiques the macho model, attempting to refute the intrinsic value of the patriarchal view.
Gendo's egocentricity has been associated by Japanese psychiatrist Kōji Mizobe with a narcissistic personality disorder. Fifthy Wall Renaissance's Alexander Greco associated Shinji with the individual or ego, Rei with the psychological concept of Anima, and Gendo with society, authority, and super-ego. Moreover, U.S. writer Susan J. Napier, noting Angels are "explicitly associated" with Gendo throughout the series, has interpreted the enemies as father figures. Hideaki Anno himself described Gendo as a metaphor for the "system" and the limits imposed by society; he intentionally depicted Gendo and the Angels as "amorphous" entities, since society and the concept of the enemy are undefined for him. Writer Mark MacWilliams also described the series as a portrait of childhood loneliness in a broken society where the father is constantly working, comparing this depiction to the Japanese family context and children growing up in the 1990s before the collapse of the speculative bubble.
In a draft of the twenty-fourth episode of the series, which was shelved during production, Kaworu Nagisa's character would compare Gendo to Paul, the protagonist of Erich Wolfgang Korngold's opera Die tote Stadt, a character who locks himself in his home after the death of his wife, building a "Temple of the Past" with her belongings; and later meets a young woman who looks similar to his late wife and falls in love with her. The Nerv base would be a "Temple of the Past" built by Gendo. In the director's-cut version of the episode, Seele also links Gendo's Instrumentality scenario to the myth of Pandora's box, which, as in the ancient Greek myth, Gendo metaphorically opens causing an uncontrollable catastrophe and releasing all of the world's evils, with only hope which remains at the bottom of the box.
The series includes Gendo's dialogues about religion and the value of science, themes already present in other works by Hideaki Anno. Scholar Mariana Ortega compared Yui to a Madonna nursing Shinji and protecting him from Gendo, whom she associated with the Gnostic figure of the demiurge. For the Japanese critic Kotani Mari, Gendo assumes the connotations of the Supreme Being of Gnosticism, also named Monad. He has also been compared to Satan, Go Nagai's Devilman's antagonist; unlike Seele, who follows a plan based on faith in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Gendo wants to become a God himself, like a fallen angel who rebels against God.
According to the book Neon Genesis Evangelion: The Unofficial Guide, written by Kazuhisa Fujie and Martin Foster, a different spelling of the word Gendo (言動) can be translated as "conduct" and "words and behavior". This detail, together with the name of his son Shinji, which is phonetically similar to the word shinjin (神人), "God-man", a Japanese epithet of Jesus Christ, and that of Rei Ayanami, which in kanji can be rendered as "spirit", "soul" (零, rei), could be linked to the Christian Trinity and to the philosophical concept of "Logos", which in Evangelion seems to become an attribute of God the Father. In such a perspective, Rei represents the Holy Spirit, Shinji God the Son, and Gendo the God the Father, referring to the first verses of the Gospel of John: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God" (John 1:1). Writer Gerald Alva Miller also described Gendo's Instrumentality as an attempt to "return to Edenic bliss".
Throughout the series, Gendo becomes the object of sexual desire for Dr. Naoko Akagi and at the same time for her daughter Ritsuko, in a modern retelling of the Electra complex. In the film The End of Evangelion, he shoots his former lover Ritsuko Akagi, telling her, "Dr. Akagi, actually...". The last part of the line was silently rendered, leaving it to the viewer to imagine the missing words; according to the interpretation of some fans, Gendo says "I need you" or "I needed you", in reference to "I need you", the title of the second half of the movie. Further reference to psychoanalysis is detectable in his relationship with Rei Ayanami, to whom Gendo is emotionally close, a clone of his deceased wife, and has a tense relationship with his son. Neon Genesis Evangelion can therefore be seen as a reinterpretation of the Oedipus legend and as a story focused on the Oedipus complex postulated by Sigmund Freud. Anno himself compared Evangelion to Ryu Murakami's novel Ai to gensō no fascism, whose protagonist Toji Suzuhara attempts to kill the Japanese prime minister, whom he finds similar to his father, and rapes his mother, who in the novel is Japan itself. Anno also described Neon Genesis Evangelion as a story in which the Oedipal rivalry between Gendo and his son is resolved in the last episode; the Eva represents a mother figure, while Gendo and the first Angel Adam represent the fathers of a "multi-layered Oedipus complex," in which Shinji "kills his father" and takes his mother away from him.
## Cultural impact
### Popularity
After the conclusion of the series, Gendo emerged as the sixteenth-most-popular male character of the time in the 1996 Anime Grand Prix, a large survey conducted annually by the Japanese magazine Animage. The following year he rose to fourteenth place in the same poll, becoming the fourth-most-popular male character in Neon Genesis Evangelion. In February 1998, the magazine ranked him sixty-fifth among the hundred-most-popular anime characters. Gendo was also ranked in several surveys of the most-attractive anime characters in different categories, as well as in a Goo Ranking survey in which he was elected the third-most-hated father in Japanese animation. The character also appeared in rankings on Evangelion's most-beloved characters, usually in the top ten.
### Critical reception
Gendo's character has elicited negative opinions from critics and animation fans. The website Otaku Vines ranked him sixth among the most-hated characters in Japanese animation, describing him as "the worst father in anime history" and comparing him to Shou Tucker from Fullmetal Alchemist. The magazine Wired named him among the "worst relatives in television series", calling him "the most monstrous father ever". THEM Anime Reviews' Tim Jomes described him as "creepy", frightening, plagued by a "God complex", and unpleasant man. Screen Rant and writers at Comic Book Resources listed him among the least-likable characters in the series, criticizing his abusive ways. Comic Book Resources' Jacob Buchalter similarly ranked Gendo as the second-worst character in shōnen anime. Zac Bertschy, a reviewer for Anime News Network, criticized the character's manipulative, self-centered attitude, calling him a "giant douchebag" and defended his son Shinji, whom he says has been unfairly criticized by fans of being cowardly or wimpy. Bertschy, however, praised his characterization, naming him among the most-memorable antagonists in the history of Japanese animation: "Gendo Ikari is the worst dad ever imagined, and so it logically follows that he is also the most memorable villain. It's just science. I don't make the rules". Comic Book Resources' Michael Iacono similarly named Gendo, for his "diabolical brilliance, all-or-nothing attitude, and deeply flawed character traits", among the best antagonists in anime history.
Several reviewers have criticized his development. Anime News Network's Lynzee Loveridge described Gendo's betrayal and actions in the film The End of Evangelion as "shocking", listing them among eight betrayals that have shocked the audience. Sci Fi Weekly's Tasha Robinson was disappointed with the series finale, saying it does not fully explore Gendo's motivations and abilities. Anime News Network's Kenneth Lee also noted Shinji, willing to die during the fight against the Eva-04, has a similar determination to his father Gendo, saying; "it is rather frightening and interesting to see so many possible parallels between the characters", which "remain inconclusive", criticizing the series for leaving "a group of suppositions that will never be answered".
Other reviewers were more appreciative of his role in spin-offs and the manga adaptation of the series. Kotaku's Richard Eisenbeis appreciated the developments and insights into Gendo's past introduced in Sadamoto's manga version, which he said are clearer and more interesting than the original series. This view is echoed by Carlos Santos from Anime News Network, who praised the changes in the spin-off comic The Shinji Ikari Raising Project which, according to Santos, with its comic moments and less dark-and-twisted backgrounds than the animated series, would offer a more serene and enjoyable image of Gendo as a "hapless, comedic father which is good for a few chuckles".
Gendo's role in Rebuild of Evangelion also drew criticism and praise. The online magazine Visual Nippon appreciated the development of his relationship with Shinji in Evangelion 2.0, describing it as more sincere and genuine than the rigid animated counterpart, and Gendo's efforts to get closer to his son. Anime News Network's Justin Sevakis praised the film's opening scene, in which he visits Yui's grave with Shinji, saying, "There's a warmness here, a feeling of great affection that wasn't so prevalent in the original [series]". Conversely, Comic Book Resources's Angelo Delos Trinos negatively received Gendo's role in Rebuild, deeming the character too powerful. Anime Reign magazine criticized Gendo's new role in Evangelion 3.0 as underdeveloped and shadowy. A diametrically opposite opinion was expressed by Nicoletta Christina Browne of THEM Anime Reviews; Browne stated she greatly appreciated the dynamism of the fight between Gendo's "egoistical genius" and his former Wille subordinates, which "suits this franchise perfectly".
Other reviewers have praised Gendo's role in the last installment of the saga, Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time, in which his motivations and psychology, and his relationship with Shinji are analyzed, UK Film Review praised its "brilliant character reveal", while Vulture.com wrote; "To longtime Eva fans, Gendo explaining himself feels monumental". Anime News Network's Richard Eisenbeis wrote; "Thrice Upon a Time makes great strides in expanding and developing his character". Eisenbeis also described its focus on Gendo as "the most important element of the film ... Even if you still hate Gendo by the end of this exploration, it's hard not to empathize with him". Reviewers lauded the film for giving the character more depth, and the conflict with Shinji has a central part in the plot's development. According to IGN's Devin Meenan, Rebuild brings a closure to the character "that the original lacked". Geek Ireland similarly praised Thrice Upon a Time for giving a sense of conclusion to Gendo and the other characters from the franchise, while IndieWire lauded the fact the father-son dynamic is a central part of the story, culminating in "some of the most emotionally raw moments Evangelion has ever put on screen". Fiction Horizon's Robert Milakovic similarly noted their connection results in "very emotionally raw moments Evangelion has ever placed on the film". Thrillist's Kambole Campbell described the emotional openness of Gendo and the other characters as "moving" while The Future of the Force's Thomas Storai wrote: "For me, that's what makes the conclusion so powerful and meaningful. Violence is not the answer".
### Merchandise and legacy
Gendo has been used to produce merchandising items, such as sunglasses and eyeglasses, action figures, collectible models, shirts, culinary products, and reproductions of his clothing for cosplay. Gendo has appeared in video games and spin-offs based on the original animated series, and in media unrelated to the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise, such as in the Million Arthur video games, Monster Strike, and Puzzle & Dragons. The character was also used for campaigns of Japan Racing Association and for advertisements of the Schick razor company, a collaboration that attracted the attention of animation fans and was renewed years after the first advertising video. In 2011, he inspired an attraction at the Japanese amusement park Fuji-Q Highland. In 2015, Gendo, along with other characters from the series, was used for features on the 500 Type Eva, a high-speed train dedicated to Evangelion. Famous people, including Minoru Takashita, president of the AnimeJapan company; Takashi Kawamura, mayor of Nagoya; and economist Takkaki Mitsuhashi, who founded a Cosplay Party for the 2010 Japanese House of Councillors election, have paid homage to Gendo by cosplaying as him. Gendo has also inspired the pose of a character that appears in the opening sequence of the video game Evil Factory, developed by Neople.
According to Vice*'s Ricardo Contreras, Gendo's image and austere face have achieved notoriety and have reached non-animation-fan audiences, becoming "one of the most easily recognizable images of anime on the internet". On the web, Gendo is often associated with the phrase; "Get in the fucking robot, Shinji", which has also gone viral. The phrase has become an internet meme and has been used for merchandise items dedicated to the series. Screen Rant's Adam Beach noted Ragyō Kiryūin's office in Kill la Kill is similar to Gendo's. Holland Novak from Eureka Seven has also been compared with Gendo. Fans have renamed his characteristic pose, with his hands joined at face height, the "Gendo pose", which has been copied, homaged, and parodied in other animated series, such as Taizo Haisegawa in Gintama, which is also voiced by Fumihiko Tachiki, Voltron: Legendary Defender, by Stella in Rose Guns Days, by Nifuji Hirotaka in Wotakoi: Love Is Hard for Otaku, and by Hayato in an official crossover episode between Evangelion and Shinkansen Henkei Robo Shinkalion*. |
45,429,059 | Typhoon Sarah (1959) | 1,169,621,311 | Pacific typhoon in 1959 | [
"1959 Pacific typhoon season",
"Miyako Islands",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in Japan",
"Typhoons in Russia",
"Typhoons in South Korea"
]
| Typhoon Sarah, known as the Miyakojima Typhoon in Japan, was a destructive typhoon, and among the deadliest on record in the western Pacific Ocean, killing around 2,000 people. It formed during the peak of the busy 1959 Pacific typhoon season near Guam, and moved generally to the west-northwest. Continued observations from the hurricane hunters allowed the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) to track Sarah from its origins to its peak as a powerful typhoon, with maximum sustained winds estimated at 305 km/h (190 mph) on September 15. Shortly thereafter, the typhoon struck the small Japanese island of Miyako-jima, where the barometric pressure fell to 908.1 mbar (26.82 inHg), the second-lowest on record for the country. Sarah turned to the north and northeast, weakening from its peak intensity. On September 17, the typhoon made landfall just west of Busan, South Korea with winds of 185 km/h (115 mph), the nation's strongest landfall at the time and only to be surpassed by Typhoon Maemi in 2003. Sarah later became extratropical over the Japanese island of Hokkaido on September 18, although the remnants persisted for several days, crossing into the Russian Far East and later dissipating on September 23.
On Miyako-jima, Sarah damaged all of the crops and destroyed about 6,000 houses. Damage was estimated at \$2 million, and there were seven deaths. The damage prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the "Miyakojima Typhoon". However, the effects were worst in South Korea, and Sarah was described as the worst typhoon there in 50 years. Wind gusts there peaked at 169 km/h (105 mph), the highest at the time in the country. High winds and waves heavily damaged the port of Busan. Nationwide, the storm destroyed over 14,000 homes and left 782,126 people homeless, causing over \$100 million in damage. At least 669 people were killed in South Korea, and an additional 1,200 fishermen were lost offshore the country. In Japan, widespread flooding killed 47 people and destroyed 16,632 homes.
## Meteorological history
On September 10, a tropical disturbance persisted within the Intertropical Convergence Zone near Pohnpei. When the hurricane hunters approached the system at 02:00 UTC on September 11, they observed a center with several small circulations about 130 km (81 mi) east of Guam. On that basis, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Sarah. The depression passed near or just north of Guam, as tracked by radar. By late on September 11, the hurricane hunters were reporting flight-level winds of 95 km/h (60 mph). Early on September 12, the JTWC upgraded Sarah to a tropical storm after the circulation became better defined. The storm exhibited a parabolic trajectory that was slightly to the west of the typical September storm. It moved westward initially but gradually curved to the northwest. A hurricane hunters flight at 14:15 UTC on September 12 observed a 65 km (40 mi) eye diameter, prompting the JTWC to upgrade Sarah further to typhoon status, with maximum sustained winds of 120 km/h (75 mph).
After becoming a typhoon, Sarah quickly intensified; at 08:00 UTC on September 13, the hurricane hunters reported flight-level winds of 185 km/h (115 mph). Subsequent analysis estimated that the typhoon attained these winds at 00:00 UTC that day. At 12:00 UTC on September 14, the JTWC estimated that Sarah intensified to the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson scale, based on aircraft estimates. The typhoon intensified further, and late on September 14 the hurricane hunters reported flight-level winds of 250 km/h (155 mph), estimating surface winds of 315 km/h (195 mph). The intensity was adjusted slightly downward in a post-analysis, with peak winds of 305 km/h (190 mph) at 06:00 UTC on September 15 about 415 km (258 mi) east of Taiwan. In addition, the typhoon attained a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar (26.7 inHg).
About three hours after Sarah reached peak winds, the typhoon moved directly over Miyako-jima, an island of Japan east of Taiwan. Sarah weakened while curving to the north, and it passed west of Okinawa late on September 15. The winds dropped quickly; by 24 hours after peak intensity, Sarah's winds had decreased from 305 to 185 km/h (190 to 115 mph). The typhoon turned and accelerated to the northeast toward the Korean peninsula, re-intensifying slightly. By late on September 16, the winds increased to 215 km/h (135 mph) while Sarah passed just east of Jeju island. The typhoon weakened again to winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) by 00:00 UTC on September 17. That day, Sarah made landfall a few miles west of Busan, South Korea at that intensity; this made Sarah the strongest typhoon to strike the country since records began in 1904, and it remained as such until Typhoon Maemi surpassed it in 2003. The typhoon very quickly emerged into the Sea of Japan, its circulation becoming poorly defined. On September 18, Sarah became extratropical after moving over the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. The remnants continued to the northeast initially before turning sharply westward, passing over Sakhalin. The circulation progressed into Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East before turning back east. Former Typhoon Sarah struck Sakhalin a second time on September 20 while moving east-southeastward. After passing through the Kuril Islands, the remnants of Sarah dissipated on September 23.
## Preparations and impact
Early in its duration, Sarah brought gusty winds and passing showers to Guam.
Shortly after reaching peak intensity, Sarah passed near the island of Miyako-jima. The pressure there fell to 908.1 mbar (26.82 inHg), which was the lowest recorded for the station and the second-lowest on record for Japan, both as of 2003. The typhoon produced sustained winds of 196 km/h (122 mph) and gusts up to 240 km/h (150 mph) before the anemometer broke. The winds destroyed over 6,000 homes and wrecked all of the crops. Sarah also left the island without power for an extended period of time after damaging power lines. The combination of high winds and rough seas destroyed a fishing pier and 670 m (2,200 ft) of seawall, as well as several tidal weirs. Sarah also sank four fishing boats and damaged seven others. On Miyako-jima, Sarah killed seven people, injured 88 others, and left \$2 million in damage. The heavy damage on the island prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the "Miyakojima Typhoon". Sarah was part of a series of typhoons striking the island in 1959, causing food shortages that forced the population to change their diet. The storm brushed Okinawa with gusts of 135 km/h (85 mph).
Sarah was the worst typhoon to strike the Korean peninsula in 50 years. The peak wind gust in South Korea was 169 km/h (105 mph), which was the highest for a typhoon at the time, with records dating back to 1904; as of 2010, the value has fallen to the ninth place. Damage was heaviest at Busan where the storm struck. The port there sustained over \$100,000 in damage, and nearby American military bases had over \$900,000 in damage. Coastal floods washed away or damaged 15,379 homes in the Busan area, leaving 25,834 people homeless. The waves also damaged or sank 5,400 boats. Nationwide, floods damaged 127,000 hectares (313,000 acres) of crop fields. Throughout South Korea, Sarah destroyed over 14,000 homes and left 782,126 people homeless, thousands of whom were injured. The Ministry of Social Affairs estimated property damage at over \$100 million, and the typhoon killed at least 669 people. After the storm, the CARE relief agency launched an appeal in the United States, collecting \$18,500 worth of shoes and underwear for storm victims. The Australian Red Cross also provided assistance to the country, including money, sheets, and blankets. Due to the ongoing Korean War and Sarah, South Korea lost much of its fishing fleet, resulting in diminished catches over the subsequent decades. The typhoon also caused a rise in the wholesale price index, in conjunction with political uncertainty.
A fleet of 46 boats left Oenarodo near Busan on August 28 to fish near Komundo Island. The fleet failed to return after the passage of Typhoon Sarah, and local newspapers reported all 1,200 fishermen were lost.
Late in its duration, Sarah struck Hokkaido, producing a 6 m (20 ft) storm surge at Taisei along the southwest coast that left behind a sediment layer 60 m (200 ft) inland. Before the storm arrived, the United States evacuated planes from Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni to Misawa Air Base, although Sarah approached closer to the latter base. The storm affected much of the nation, flooding many communities, including 14,360 houses. Across the country, the typhoon damaged 778 boats. The storm also damaged 3,566 ha (8,810 acres) of crop fields. Nationwide, Sarah destroyed 16,632 homes, injured 509 people, and killed 47.
Overall, Typhoon Sarah caused around 2,000 deaths, making it among the deadliest typhoons on record.
## See also
- Typhoon Maemi – powerful storm in 2003 that became the strongest typhoon to strike South Korea
- Typhoon Emma (1956) – took a similar track near Japan and South Korea three years before Sarah
- Typhoon Cora (1966) – 2nd Miyakojima Typhoon
- Typhoon Della (1968) – 3rd Miyakojima Typhoon
- Typhoon Hinnamnor - a powerful typhoon that made landfall near Busan on September 6, 2022 |
1,696,008 | Beautiful (Christina Aguilera song) | 1,171,859,486 | 2002 single by Christina Aguilera | [
"2000s ballads",
"2002 singles",
"2002 songs",
"2003 singles",
"Canadian Singles Chart number-one singles",
"Christina Aguilera songs",
"Contemporary R&B ballads",
"Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance",
"Irish Singles Chart number-one singles",
"LGBT-related songs",
"Music videos directed by Jonas Åkerlund",
"Number-one singles in Australia",
"Number-one singles in New Zealand",
"Number-one singles in Romania",
"Number-one singles in Scotland",
"Pop ballads",
"RCA Records singles",
"Songs written by Linda Perry",
"UK Singles Chart number-one singles"
]
| "Beautiful" is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her fourth studio album, Stripped (2002). It was released as the album's second single on November 15, 2002. A pop and R&B ballad, "Beautiful" was written and produced by Linda Perry and discusses inner-beauty, as well as self-esteem and insecurity. Aguilera commented that she put "her heart and soul" into the track, which she felt represented the theme of Stripped.
"Beautiful" received universal acclaim from music critics, who have ranked it among Aguilera's strongest material. It won the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and was also nominated for Song of the Year at the 2004 ceremony. "Beautiful" was also a commercial success, topping the charts in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Romania, and the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, where it was certified double platinum for over 2 million units sold.
"Beautiful" has been widely embraced as an anthem by the LGBT community for its message of self-empowerment and inner-beauty. An accompanying music video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund, and earned Aguilera a GLAAD Media Award for its positive portrayal of gay and transgender people. In 2011, UK LGBT rights organization Stonewall named "Beautiful" the most empowering song of the previous decade for gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. In 2009, Rolling Stone and VH1 listed it as one of the best songs of the 2000s. The song was later re-recorded in an electronic style, entitled "You Are What You Are (Beautiful)", for her first greatest hits album Keeps Gettin' Better: A Decade of Hits (2008).
## Background and recording
"Beautiful" was written and produced by Linda Perry. Christina Aguilera recorded the song at two studios: The Enterprise Studios in Burbank, California, and Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood. Prior to the collaboration with Aguilera, Perry had written the song and wanted to keep the "personal" record for her own singing career. Perry previewed the song for Pink during recording sessions for the latter's sophomore studio album Missundaztood (2001), on which Perry worked as a producer. However, after hearing Aguilera sing the song at Perry's house to "break the ice", Perry was very impressed and allowed Aguilera to include the track on her then-upcoming album Stripped, effectively deciding not to pursue a solo career. The choice resulted in a feud between Pink against Aguilera and Perry, with the former stating that it was "annoying" for the latter to collaborate with artists "[she] didn't like".
Perry later revealed to ASCAP, "When Christina came over to my house to start working, she asked me to play some songs to break the ice. [...] I had a long conversation with my manager about it. We both decided to hear Christina sing it. We demoed the song with her singing it, and I was like, 'Wow'. That rough vocal is what is out there on radio. It was that vocal that got her the song". Perry's then-wife Sara Gilbert confirmed on her show The Talk that the final version was "just a demo." Gilbert also revealed that Aguilera wanted to re-record the song because she did not like the initial vocals. Perry denied the request because the song is supposed to be about imperfection and being vulnerable. Perry said as Aguilera stepped in the booth to record, she said to her friend, "Don't look at me" – which Perry left at the start of the final track. She told Rolling Stone: "I knew I was going to keep that on the record, and I knew she was the right person for the song. I realized, 'Oh, she's insecure. She's one of those beautiful people who's got everything but is super insecure. Okay, this song is hers.'"
## Composition and lyrics
"Beautiful" is a pop and R&B ballad that discusses issues of self-esteem and insecurity, promoting a message of self-empowerment and embracing inner beauty. Larry Flick of Billboard added that the song talks about "overcoming life's trials", Chuck Taylor also of Billboard observed that it has a message of "holding oneself up against criticism from the outside," and Todd Burns of Stylus noted that the song "also explores the main theme of the record, being stripped bare in front of the public." Its instrumentation incorporates bass guitar, cello, drum kits, keyboards, piano, and violin. "Beautiful" is composed in the key of E major and moving at a slow 76 beats per minute. Aguilera's vocal range spans over two octaves from the low note of E<sub>3</sub> to the high note of G<sub>5</sub>; she uses several melismas in the song, fitting as many as seven notes in one syllable.
## Release
"Beautiful" was released as the second single from Stripped. It was first sent to American contemporary hit and rhythmic radio stations on November 15, 2002. The song was later released as a CD single on January 27, February 10, February 24, and February 25, 2003, in Germany, Australia, the United Kingdom, and France, respectively. Also on February 25, a digital remix EP of "Beautiful" was released worldwide. Two days later, the single was released as a maxi single in Canada. On March 11, 2003, the single was released as a CD in the United States.
## Critical reception
"Beautiful" received universal acclaim from music critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commended the song for not following the "club and street-level R&B, which fit her poorly". Similarly, a reviewer from Billboard described "Beautiful" as a "single-worthy ballad" from a record of "pleasantly surprising depth". In a separate review, Chuck Taylor from the same magazine deemed the song "breathtaking", and highlighted its melody and lyrical message. Entertainment Weekly's David Browne called the song one of Stripped's "moments", noting that it is "more restrained" than the other songs from the album. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the collaboration with Linda Perry found Aguilera "truly naked" and reflective of the album's title. Stylus Magazine's Todd Burns gave Stripped a negative review, but complimented "Beautiful" for "tastefully [reining] in Aguilera's frequent vocal acrobatics". Jane Dark of The Village Voice compared the song to the works of Mariah Carey "made back when she was a natural", and the Attitude magazine called it "universal". The Advocate's Larry Flick named "Beautiful" a "Beatlesque ballad" and the "great queer anthem of 2003". He also listed it as one of the best songs of the year. In contrast, Amanda Murray from Sputnikmusic criticized the "platitude-drenched" lyrics but praised the overall production. At the 2004 Grammy Awards, "Beautiful" won the award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and was nominated for Song of the Year.
"Beautiful" is considered to be Aguilera's signature song and has been recognized as being among the strongest tracks in her catalog. The song was ranked as her third-best single by Rachel McRady of Wetpaint, who commented that "[Aguilera]'s inspiration ballad motivated an entire generation". PopCrush's Alexandra Capotorto named it as her favorite track by Aguilera, opining that the song is "definitely one of the most memorable and greatest Christina Aguilera songs to date". Rolling Stone ranked "Beautiful" at number 52 on their list of the 100 best songs of the 2000s, stating that it is "delivered with full-fathom force by the bottle-blond with the biggest voice". Similarly, VH1 positioned the track at number 18 on their list of the 100 greatest songs of the past decade. It is listed as one of the 100 best pop songs of all time by About.com.
## Chart performance
"Beautiful" was quickly released after the underperformance of the album's first single, "Dirrty" in the United States. It achieved international success and was the highest-charting single from Stripped in several territories. The song peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 for one week, becoming Aguilera's longest-charting solo track, spending 27 weeks on the chart. The song additionally topped Billboard Adult Contemporary, Hot Dance Club Songs, and Pop Songs component charts. In October 2022, it was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 2,000,000 copies. As of August 2014, the single has sold 1,512,000 digital copies in that country. In Canada, the song peaked at number one on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100. In 2022, the song was certified 2x platinum by the RIAA for sale in excess of 2 million units. Similarly, "Beautiful" proved successful in Europe, where it peaked within the top five of most markets in which it was released. Spending a total of 51 weeks on the UK Singles Chart, the song eventually peaked atop the chart becoming Aguilera's fourth UK number one; it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry. It peaked at numbers three and 18 on the Belgian Ultratop 50 and Ultratop 40, respectively. In Germany, the song peaked at number four after charting for thirteen weeks on the Media Control Charts. However, "Beautiful" proved less successful on the French Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique, where it reached number 27. The song was a success in Australia, peaking at number one on the ARIA Charts, where it spent a total of 13 weeks. "Beautiful" was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units. The song also charted on the New Zealand Top 40 Singles Chart for 23 weeks, during which period it peaked at number one.
In 2011, Aguilera performed the song alongside her finalist Beverly McClellan on the first-season finale of The Voice. The following week, it debuted at number 74 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at number 52 on the Hot Digital Songs diagram with first-week sales of 42,000 downloads on the iTunes Store.
## Music videos
The accompanying music video for "Beautiful" was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and premiered on December 9, 2002. It opens with Aguilera speaking the line "Don't look at me", followed by scenes of her singing alone in a room intercut with self-image-related sequences of other people. An anorexic girl examines herself in a mirror, eventually punching through it; a thin teenage boy stands lifting weights in a room plastered with images of bodybuilders; and an African-American girl rips out pages of women's magazines including photos of only white women and throws them into a fire. In one sequence, a girl is physically bullied by several peers, and in another, a goth man sits at the back of a bus while several people get up and move. The video also touches on LGBT issues; one scene features a gay couple, portrayed by Jordan Shannon and Justin Croft, kissing on a bench and ignoring the stares of people who pass them. Another shows a transgender woman, played by Robert Sherman, putting on makeup, a wig, and women's clothing. The music video debuted at number 2 on Total Request Live, spending a total of 50 days on the chart and retiring at number 6. It topped MuchMusic's Countdown for two consecutive weeks and remained on the countdown for 15 weeks.
The video was positively reviewed by music critics, and received a Special Recognition award, presented by David LaChapelle, from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation at its 14th GLAAD Media Awards. After an a cappella performance of the song, Aguilera stated in her acceptance speech that "this song is definitely a universal message that everybody can relate to – anyone that's been discriminated against or unaccepted, unappreciated or disrespected just because of who you are. It was so important to me that I support the gay community in this sense." Billboard included "Beautiful" on its list of the greatest music videos of the 21st century, and Gail Mitchell wrote that it "eloquently touches on insecurity". Gay journalist Larry Flick praised the video for its "stunning execution" and depiction of self-love, and noted that with its help the song "became a perfect slice of cinematic empowerment".
On October 21, 2022, Aguilera released a new music video for the song, which depicts kids and teens grappling with the onslaught of negative messaging on social media, body dysmorphia, plastic surgery, depression, and suicidal ideation. CelebMix called the message behind the video "powerful", noting that it "highlights the impact of popular culture and social media on young people". Aguilera was given the Cybersmiler of the Month Award after the video was released. It also won the British Television Advertising Award, and won two awards at the 2023 Webby's — Best Music Video and Best Video (People's Voice).
## Live performances
Recognized as one of her signature songs, Aguilera has performed "Beautiful" at a number of venues and events. During the promotion of Stripped, she appeared on VH1's Big In Awards, Top of the Pops, and the 46th Annual Grammy Awards. The song was included on the setlists of The Stripped Tour, the Justified and Stripped Tour in 2003 and the Back to Basics Tour in 2006. "Beautiful" was also sung on the television special VH1 Storytellers in 2010. "Beautiful" has also been performed on charity events and fundraisings, such as CNN Heroes introduced by Anderson Cooper saying, "It's my pleasure to introduce a performer with unparalleled range and passion; her song is a reminder that out of great trials and tribulations we can all create something beautiful"; Justin Timberlake & Friends in 2010, and Hurricane Sandy: Coming Together in 2012.
In 2021, Aguilera sang "Beautiful" at the Verizon's "Big Concert for Small Business" Super Bowl afterparty, at her performance at the Hollywood Bowl with Gustavo Dudamel and the Los Angeles Philharmonic, as well as the 47th People's Choice Awards.
## Legacy
"Beautiful" has been embraced by the LGBT community as an anthem. The Advocate's Larry Flick believed the release of the song was "one of the most powerful moments of queer activism in 2003". On October 5, 2010, several hundred people gathered in front of the Massachusetts State House and sang "Beautiful" as a tribute to the teenagers who had committed suicide due to anti-gay bullying during the previous months. In March 2011, the Columbus Children's Choir and Columbus Gay Men's Chorus joined to perform the song as a contribution to the It Gets Better Project. UK LGBT rights charity Stonewall named "Beautiful" the most empowering song of the decade for lesbian, gay and bisexual people; media personality and Stonewall contributor Paul Gambaccini called the song "a major achievement that has inspired millions of young people around the world." The result is based on the choice from 1,007 readers. Aguilera commented of the song's reception from the LGBT community, "I cannot express in words how much the LGBT community means to me. On my darkest day their support lifts me up. I feel honored that some of my songs become anthems to them as well."
"Beautiful" inspired a subgenre of empowerment pop songs including Katy Perry's "Firework" (2010) and Lady Gaga's "Born This Way" (2011). The transgender character from its music video seemingly influenced the Denis O'Hare's Liz Taylor role in the horror television series American Horror Story: Hotel. In 2022, Billboard ranked the song the second on their list of "The 100 Greatest Songs of 2002". They noted that the "Grammy-winning empowerment anthem provides a stunningly detailed illustration of the search for one's inner beauty amid battling insecurities".
## Formats and track listings
- US, Germany and France CD single
1. "Beautiful" – 3:58
2. "Dame lo que Yo Te Doy" – 3:46
3. "Beautiful" (music video) – 3:59
- UK CD single
1. "Beautiful" – 3:58
2. "Dirrty" (MaUVe Remix) – 8:11
3. "Beautiful" (music video) – 3:59
- Digital remix EP
1. "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer Radio Mix) – 3:58
2. "Beautiful" (Al B Rich Radio Mix) – 4:14
3. "Beautiful" (Valentin Radio Mix) – 3:59
4. "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer Short Club) – 7:3
5. "Beautiful" (Brother Brown Mishow) – 5:11
6. "Beautiful" (Brother Brown Divine Mix) – 9:3
7. "Beautiful" (Al B Rich Next Level Mix) – 8:36
8. "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer Beautiful Theme) – 3:40
9. "Beautiful" (Valentin Club Mix) – 5:56
10. "Beautiful" (Peter Rauhofer Extended Club) – 10:33
11. "Beautiful" (Brother Brown Dub) – 7:50
## Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the "Beautiful" CD single liner notes.
### Recording locations
- Mixed at The Enterprise Studios, Burbank, California
- Engineered at Mad Dog Studios, Burbank, California
- Additional recording at The Enterprise Studios, Burbank, California
- Mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering
### Personnel
- Writing, Composing, Producing – Linda Perry
- Mixing – Dave "Hard Drive" Pensado
- Assisted mixing – Ethan Willoughby
- Engineering – Linda Perry, David Guerrero
- Pro Tools engineering – Davy Vain
- Mastering – Brian "Big Bass" Gardner
- Editing – Mike Barnard
### Musicians
- Vocals – Christina Aguilera
- Piano, Guitar, Bass – Linda Perry
- Keyboards – Damon Fox
- Drums – Brian MacLeod
- Strings – The Section Quartet
- Violin – Eric Gorfain
- Viola – Shanti Randall
- Cello – Richard Dodd
- Additional Strings and String Arrangement – Linda Perry
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
## See also
- List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 2003 (U.S.)
- List of number-one dance singles of 2003 (U.S.)
- List of Romanian Top 100 number ones of the 2000s |
45,644,015 | Nanticoke Creek | 1,138,897,734 | River in the United States of America | [
"Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania",
"Rivers of Pennsylvania",
"Tributaries of the Susquehanna River"
]
| Nanticoke Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately 4.4 miles (7.1 km) long and flows through Hanover Township and Nanticoke. The watershed of the creek has an area of 7.57 square miles (19.6 km<sup>2</sup>). The creek has one named tributary, which is known as Espy Run. Nanticoke Creek impaired by pH and metals due to abandoned mine drainage. Abandoned mine drainage discharges in the creek's watershed include the Truesdale Mine Discharge and the Askam Borehole. The creek is located in the Northern Middle Anthracite Field and is in the Anthracite Valley Section of the ridge and valley physiographic province. The main rock formations in the watershed include the Mauch Chunk Formation, the Pottsville Group, and the Llewellyn Formation. The surficial geology consists of coal dumps, surface mining land, alluvium, Wisconsinan Outwash, Wisconsinan Till, urban land, and bedrock.
The watershed of Nanticoke Creek is mainly forested, but urban land and mining land are also present. The city of Nanticoke is partially in the watershed and many unincorporated communities are there as well. The creek is named after the Nanticoke tribe, but was historically known as Muddy Run before appearing on maps with its present name by 1776. Extensive mining, both underground and on the surface, has been done in the creek's watershed. Numerous passive and active treatment systems have been installed in the watershed in recent times.
Nanticoke Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. However, it is relatively lacking in aquatic life.
## Course
Nanticoke Creek begins in a valley on Penobscot Mountain in Hanover Township. It flows west for a short distance before turning north-northwest and passing through the Weller Gap. The creek then leaves behind the mountain and turns north for a few tenths of a mile before turning west-northwest, briefly passing through Nanticoke before reentering Hanover Township. It then turns north-northwest for nearly a mile, crossing Pennsylvania Route 29/US Route 11/South Cross Valley Expressway and passing by the community of Loomis Park. The creek then turns northwest for several tenths of a mile before turning west and crossing the South Cross Valley Expressway again. After this, it turns northwest again for a few tenths of a mile before receiving Espy Run, its only named tributary, from the left. It then crosses the Sans Souci Parkway and turns northwest for a few tenth of a mile, crossing the South Cross Valley Expressway once more before reaching its confluence with the Susquehanna River.
Nanticoke Creek joins the Susquehanna River 183.04 miles (294.57 km) upriver of its mouth.
### Tributaries
In addition to having several unnamed tributaries, Nanticoke Creek has one named tributary, which is known as Espy Run. Espy Run joins Nanticoke Creek 0.42 miles (0.68 km) upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of 3.14 square miles (8.1 km<sup>2</sup>). An unofficially named tributary known as Leuders Creek is also in the watershed.
## Hydrology
Nanticoke Creek is considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be impaired, meaning that it fails to attain water quality standards. The causes of impairment are metals and pH and the probable source is abandoned mine drainage. The creek is also impacted by abandoned mine lands in its watershed. However, a total maximum daily load is not planned. The upper reaches of the creek do not experience any major pollution.
Nanticoke Creek loses water to mines and also receives abandoned mine drainage discharges from them. The Truesdale Mine Discharge, which is also known as the Dundee Outfall, discharges into the creek. In low-flow conditions, its flow ranges from 0 to 38 cubic feet per second. A smaller abandoned mine drainage discharge with a discharge of 0.01 to 0.06 cubic feet per second also discharges into the creek. It has a substantial concentration of dissolved aluminum, but low levels of dissolved oxygen.
The discharge of Nanticoke Creek downstream of the Truesdale Mine Discharge ranges from 0.019 to 40 cubic feet per second, with a mean of 6.3 cubic feet per second. The discharge of the creek at its mouth was measured to be 3.8 cubic feet per second in June 1999 and 8.2 cubic feet per second in October 1999. Both values were significantly lower than those of the nearby Newport Creek.
In June 1999, the pH of Nanticoke Creek downstream of the Truesdale Mine Discharge was 6.8 and in October 1999, it was 6.4. At the creek's mouth, the pH was 6.8 in October 1999. The net alkalinity concentration was 40.0 milligrams per liter at the mine discharge in June, 3.70 milligrams per liter at the discharge in October, and 18.0 milligrams per liter at the mouth in October. During the 1970s, the acidity concentration of the creek's waters ranged from 18 to 365 parts per million on the main stem. The alkalinity concentration ranged from 0 to 3 parts per million. The specific conductance of the creek below the mine discharge was 1380 micro-siemens per centimeter in June 1999 and 1430 micro-siemens per centimeter in October. The specific conductance at the creek's mouth was 1390 micro-siemens per centimeter in October.
In June 1999, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in Nanticoke Creek downstream of the Truesdale Mine Discharge was measured to be 9.4 milligrams per liter. In October of the same year, the concentration of dissolved oxygen at the creek's mouth was 8.9 milligrams per liter. The chloride concentration of the creek at the Truesdale Mine Discharge was 19.0 milligrams per liter in June 1999 and 720 in October 1999. It was 22.0 milligrams per liter at the mouth in October 1999. The sulfate concentration of the creek at the Truesdale Mine Discharge was 690 milligrams per liter in June 1999 and 720 in October 1999. It was 690 milligrams per liter at the mouth in October 1999.
The concentration of dissolved aluminum in the waters of Nanticoke Creek at the Truesdale Mine Discharge was 23.0 micrograms per liter in June 1999 and approximately 15.0 micrograms per liter in October 1999. The concentration at the creek's mouth in October 1999 was less than 15.0 micrograms per liter. The dissolved iron concentration in the creek at the Truesdale Mine Discharge was 37,000 micrograms per liter in June 1999 and approximately 43,000 micrograms per liter in October 1999. The concentration at the creek's mouth in October 1999 was 15,000 micrograms per liter. The dissolved manganese concentration at the mine discharge was 4900 micrograms per liter in June 1999 and approximately 5200 micrograms per liter in October 1999. The concentration at the creek's mouth in October 1999 was 4900 micrograms per liter. The combined load of the three metals was 320 pounds (150 kg) per day at the mine discharge in June, 800 pounds (360 kg) per day at the discharge in October, and 880 pounds (400 kg) per day at the mouth in October.
There is some evidence of sewage contamination, including sewer odors and debris, in the lower reaches of Nanticoke Creek. The city of Nanticoke has a permit to discharge sewage into the creek. Four combined sewer overflows are present in the watershed. Orange sediment is deposited on the creek's streambed, indicating a high concentration of iron in the waters. Yellow boy is also present along the creek in some places and can be seen from South Cross Valley Expressway. The concentration of total dissolved solids in the creek is 622 milligrams per liter, higher than the United States Environmental Protection Agency criterion for suitability for aquatic life.
## Geography, geology, and climate
The elevation near the mouth of Nanticoke Creek is 515 feet (157 m) above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,000 and 1,020 feet (300 and 310 m) above sea level.
The watershed of Nanticoke Creek is mostly in the Coal Region of Pennsylvania. It is at the southwestern end of that coal basin. The creek is also at the southern end of the Anthracite Valley Section of the ridge and valley physiographic province. The Anthracite Valley Section is a crescent-shaped synclinal basin. The creek is located in the Wyoming Valley. The Lower Hanover Flats begin at its mouth. There are three headwater streams in the watershed, all of which are on a valley in a plateau above the Susquehanna River. Some of the upper mine pools in the South-East Mine Pool Complex underlie the creek's watershed.
The main rock formations in and near the watershed of Nanticoke Creek include the Mauch Chunk Formation (which dates to Late Mississippian and Early Pennsylvanian times), the Pottsville Group (from Pennsylvanian times), and the Llewellyn Formation (also from Pennsylvanian times). The Lower Red Ash coal seam is present near the headwaters of the creek.
Near its mouth, the surficial geology in the vicinity of Nanticoke Creek mainly consists of alluvium (which mainly consists of stratified silt, sand, and gravel, with some boulders), Wisconsinan Outwash (which contains stratified sand and gravel), and urban land (which is highly disrupted by cut and fill). Further upstream, the surficial geology mainly consists of coal dumps and surface mining land (both of which are rich in rick waste), as well as a glacial or resedimented till known as Wisconsinan Till, and bedrock consisting of sandstone and shale. The upper reaches of the creek mainly are around surficial geology consisting of surface mining land, bedrock, and Wisconsinan Till.
Mountains such as Little Wilkes-Barre Mountain and Penobscot Mountain are partially in the watershed. The topography of the watershed features refuse piles, crop falls, and strip pits in numerous places due to past mining. Some parts of the creek are known to run dry at times. Some water from the watershed flows to the South Wilkes-Barre Boreholes, outside of the Nanticoke Creek watershed.
A borehole known as the Askam Borehole discharges directly into Nanticoke Creek. It has a diameter of 36 inches (91 cm) and was created in the early 1970s by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (then known as the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources). It was created to alleviate flooding from an underground mine pool. The discharge of the borehole is typically around 3500 gallons per minute, but can rise to twice that during heavy rain.
In June 1999, the water temperature of Nanticoke Creek was 20.0 °C (68.0 °F) downstream of the Truesdale Mine Discharge. In October of that year, the creek's water temperature was 14.0 °C (57.2 °F) at the mine discharge and 15.0 °C (59.0 °F) at its mouth.
## Watershed
The watershed of Nanticoke Creek has an area of 7.57 square miles (19.6 km<sup>2</sup>). The creek is entirely within the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Wilkes-Barre West. The watershed is in the central part of Luzerne County.
Most of the watershed of Nanticoke Creek (67.3 percent) consists of forested land. Significantly less common are urban land and mining land, which make up 12.2 and 10.3 percent of the watershed's area. A total of 8.6 percent is grassland and 1.6 percent is wetlands.
Much of the watershed of Nanticoke Creek, save for its upper reaches, have been heavily mined, both via strip mining and underground mining.
Municipalities in the watershed of Nanticoke Creek include Loomis Park, Lower Askam, Hanover, Espy Gap, Truesdale Terrace, Witinski Villa, and Warrior Gap. The city of Wilkes-Barre is not far from the creek. A reservoir known as the Hanover Reservoir is located in the southwestern part of the watershed. There are also a number of silt ponds in the vicinity of the creek. The creek's mouth is half a mile to the east of Nanticoke Falls.
## History and etymology
Nanticoke Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1182159.
Nanticoke Creek, like the nearby Nanticoke city and Nanticoke Falls, is named for a group of Nanticoke People who for a time had a village in the Wyoming Valley before Europeans settled there. The creek was known as Muddy Run on some very early maps of the area. However, its current name was appearing on maps as early as 1776. The creek has also historically been referred to by many other names, including Lee's Creek, Miller's Creek, Robbins Creek, Bobbs Creek, Rummage Creek, and Warrior Run Creek. All of these names were described as erroneous in Henry C. Bradsby's 1893 book History of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania.
A forge was constructed on Nanticoke Creek in 1778 by Mason F. Alden and John Alden. A log gristmill was also built in the area in the same year by a Mr. Chapman. The mill was heavily guarded in 1780. In 1793, there was a sawmill and gristmill on the creek.
Mining has historically been done in the watershed of Nanticoke Creek. This has substantially altered the hydrology and topography of the watershed. The period during which the watershed was mined lasted more than 100 years. A flume made of concrete has been constructed in the watershed of the creek.
A concrete tee beam bridge carrying State Route 2002 over Nanticoke Creek was built in 1955 and repaired in 1969. It is situated in Hanover Township and has a length of 30.8 feet (9.4 m). A concrete culvert bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 29 over the creek was built in 1969. It is 29.9 feet (9.1 m) long and is also in Hanover Township.
In the mid-1970s, studies indicated that active treatment would be the most suitable remedy for abandoned mine drainage in the watershed of Nanticoke Creek, with hydrated lime being proposed as one possible treatment method. However, some small scale passive treatment has been attempted in the watershed. A 2008 paper estimated that the Nanticoke Creek Assessment and Restoration Project would cost \$5,000,000. An active treatment project by the Earth Conservancy began in 2012, with the intent to repair damage caused by the Askam Borehole. The Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection has a permit to discharge stormwater into the creek during earth-moving activities involving filling in dangerous strip pits.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers published a report on Nanticoke Creek in 2005.
## Biology
The drainage basin of Nanticoke Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. In the 1970s, the Operation Scarlift report for the creek noted that the creek was almost entirely devoid of aquatic life due to low water quality. However, the creek had potential for fish life.
An artificial wetland known as the Espy Run Wetland is in the watershed of Nanticoke Creek. If all of the 527 acres (213 ha) of mining land in the watershed were converted to forested land, the trees could sequester 179 short tons (160 long tons; 179 short tons) of carbon per year and 22,767 short tons (20,328 long tons; 22,767 short tons) of carbon could be stored by the time the trees become mature.
## See also
- Newport Creek, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver
- Warrior Creek, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver
- List of rivers of Pennsylvania |
24,822,315 | 23rd Battalion (Australia) | 1,067,895,974 | null | [
"1915 establishments in Australia",
"Australian World War I battalions",
"Military units and formations disestablished in 1929",
"Military units and formations established in 1915"
]
| The 23rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. It was raised in 1915 as part of the Australian Imperial Force for service during World War I and formed part of the 6th Brigade, attached to the 2nd Division. After being formed in Australia, the battalion was sent to Egypt to complete its training, before being committed to the Gallipoli Campaign as reinforcements in September 1915. They remained on the peninsula until the evacuation of Allied troops in December, when they were withdrawn back to Egypt where they were reorganised before being transferred to the Western Front in March 1916. Over the course of the next two-and-a-half years, the 23rd took part in a number of significant battles in France and Belgium, before being disbanded in mid-1919 following the conclusion of hostilities. In 1921, the battalion was re-raised as a part-time unit within the Citizens Forces in the state of Victoria, but was amalgamated with the 21st Battalion in 1929 to form the 23rd/21st Battalion.
## History
### World War I
#### Formation
The 23rd Battalion was raised in Victoria in March 1915 as part of the formation of the 2nd Division of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). Its first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Morton. Together with the 21st, 22nd and 24th Battalions, it formed the 6th Brigade under the command of Colonel Richard Linton. Organised into four rifle companies, designated 'A' through to 'D', with a machine gun section in support, the Australian infantry battalion of the time had an authorised strength of 1,023 men of all ranks. After completing initial training at Broadmeadows, in May 1915 the 23rd embarked upon the troopship Euripides bound for Egypt. They arrived in Alexandria on 11 June and after being moved by train to Cairo they marched to a camp at Heliopolis where they undertook further training in preparation for deployment to Gallipoli, where the units of the 1st Division had landed on 25 April 1915.
#### Gallipoli
While they were training, the Allies launched the August Offensive in an attempt to break the deadlock that had developed on the Gallipoli Peninsula following the initial landing. The offensive largely failed and heavy casualties resulted. In order to replace the men that were lost and give the survivors a rest, the decision was made by Allied commanders to move the 2nd Division from Egypt. After being moved to Lemnos Island, the 23rd Battalion embarked for Gallipoli on 4 September, arriving there at 9:30 pm that evening. A day of familiarisation followed before the battalion took up defensive positions at Lone Pine. On 12 September, the 23rd, along with their sister battalion, the 24th, took over responsibility for the post from the 1st Division battalions that had held it previously. During the stalemate that followed, manning positions that, in some places, were only a few metres from the Ottoman lines, the 23rd Battalion began countermining operations after Turkish mining operations were discovered. For the next three months, due to the intensity of the fighting in the sector, the battalion alternated their position with the 24th Battalion almost every day until the evacuation of Allied troops from the peninsula occurred, embarking with the last troops to leave on the night of 19/20 December 1915.
Following their withdrawal from Gallipoli, the 23rd Battalion was moved to Lemnos Island, where they remained until January 1916 when they were transferred back to Egypt. At this time, the AIF was reorganised and expanded in preparation for future operations. Two new infantry divisions were formed from the experienced troops of the 1st Division who had deployed to Gallipoli at the start of the campaign, while a third division was raised in Australia from scratch. The 2nd Division was largely left untouched, so that it could complete its formation which had been interrupted by its deployment to Gallipoli. The 23rd subsequently spent the early months of 1916 rebuilding its strength and conducting further training in preparation for its transfer to Europe.
#### Western Front
After arriving in France in March, the battalion moved to the Western Front, occupying the forward positions around Armentières in northern France on 10 April 1916. In mid-July, the battalion was transferred to the Somme, where they subsequently took part in the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm, during which they suffered almost 90 per cent casualties. In early 1917, the Germans shortened their lines and withdrew to the Hindenburg Line and the Australian divisions in the Somme were ordered to carry out an advance to follow them up. After being reinforced, the 23rd Battalion was committed to the fighting at the Second Battle of Bullecourt in early May 1917 after the first attempt to capture the town by the 4th Australian Division failed. Succeeding in capturing all its objectives, it was heavily counter-attacked by German forces, suffering a large number of casualties, including 100 men killed or died of wounds before being relieved by the Australian 3rd Battalion. After this the battalion was withdrawn from the line until early September 1917 when they moved into positions around Ypres, Belgium, and participated in the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October. During this battle, the 6th Brigade was positioned to the south of Zonnebeke Lake, and the 23rd Battalion lost three officers and 101 other ranks killed or wounded, some of which were inflicted when an intense German mortar barrage fell upon their "waiting line" prior to the attack. Nevertheless, the attack which followed, after overcoming an encounter with a German regiment, the 212th, in no man's land, resulted in success as the Australians captured the ridge.
In early 1918, Russian resistance on the Eastern Front collapsed in the wake of the October Revolution and, as a result, the Germans were able to transfer a large number of troops to the Western Front. This greatly improved the German strength in the west and, as a result, in March, they launched their Spring Offensive. With the Germans making rapid gains, many Australian units, including the 23rd Battalion, were thrown into the line to blunt the attack in early April, as the 6th Brigade relieved the 12th around Dernancourt. After the German offensive was halted, a brief lull followed during which the Allies sought to regain the initiative, launching a series of "Peaceful Penetration" operations. Following this, the 23rd participated in the fighting at Hamel on 4 July, advancing as the right-hand battalion on the southern front behind a devastatingly accurate preparatory barrage. On 8 August 1918, the 23rd joined the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which was launched at Amiens, and was followed by a series of advances followed as the Allies began advancing through the Somme. For his actions during the fighting at Mont St. Quentin in early September, one of the battalion's soldiers, Private Robert Mactier, was awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously. After participating in the Battle of Beaurevoir between 3 and 4 October, the battalion was sent to the rear for rest when the units of the Australian Corps, severely depleted, were withdrawn from the line upon the insistence of the Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes. As a result, it took no further part in the fighting before the armistice was declared on 11 November.
Following the end of hostilities, the demobilisation process began and slowly the battalion's numbers began to dwindle as its personnel were repatriated back to Australia and returned to civilian life. The 23rd Battalion was disbanded in Belgium on 30 April 1919. Throughout its service during the war, it suffered 686 killed and 2,317 wounded (including gassed). For its involvement during the war, the 23rd Battalion received a total of 19 battle honours; these were bestowed upon the battalion in 1927.
### Re-raising and subsequent amalgamation
In 1921, the decision was made to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF by re-organising the units of the Citizens Forces to adopt the numerical designations of the AIF units with which they were affiliated. As a result of this decision, the 23rd Battalion was re-raised in Victoria, drawing personnel from the 2nd and 5th Battalions, 23rd Infantry Regiment, and part of the 29th Light Horse Regiment, and perpetuating the battle honours of its AIF predecessor. It later adopted the title of the "23rd Battalion (The City of Geelong Regiment)" when territorial titles were introduced in 1927. At the same time it was granted the motto Nulli Secundus. In 1928, the battalion was part of the 2nd Brigade, within the 3rd Military District.
Initially, the Citizen Forces units were maintained through a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service, but in late 1929, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, the compulsory training scheme was abolished and this, coupled with the economic privations of the Great Depression drastically reduced the number of recruits available. As a result, the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units. The 23rd Battalion was one of those chosen and it was linked with the 21st Battalion to become the 23rd/21st Battalion, adopting the territorial designation of "The City of Geelong Regiment/The Victoria Rangers". This battalion undertook garrison duties in the Northern Territory during World War II, before being disbanded in August 1943 as being surplus to Army requirements without having served overseas. After the war, following the demobilisation of the wartime Army, Australia's part-time military was re-formed in 1948, but the 23rd Battalion was not re-raised at the time. In 1961, although the battalion was in a state of suspended animation, it was entrusted with the 13 battle honours awarded to the 2/23rd Battalion for its service in North Africa and New Guinea during World War II.
## Commanding officers
During World War I, the following officers served as commanding officer of the 23rd Battalion:
- George Frederick Morton;
- George Hodges Knox;
- Wilfred Kent Fethers;
- William Brazenor;
- William Joseph Bateman.
## Battle honours
The 23rd Battalion was awarded the following battle honours:
- World War I: Gallipoli 1915, Egypt 1915–16, Somme 1916–18, Pozières, Bapaume 1917, Bullecourt, Ypres 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Hamel, Amiens, Albert 1918, Mont St Quentin, Hindenburg Line, Beaurevoir, France and Flanders 1916–18.
- World War II: North Africa 1941–42, Defence of Tobruk, The Salient 1941, Defence of Alamein Line, El Alamein, South-West Pacific 1943–45, Lae–Nadzab, Finschhafen, Borneo, Busu River, Sattelberg, Wareo and Tarakan (inherited). |
9,472 | Euro | 1,173,815,192 | Currency of most countries in the European Union | [
"1999 in economics",
"Currencies introduced in 1999",
"Currencies introduced in 2002",
"Currencies of Finland",
"Currencies of South America",
"Currencies of Zimbabwe",
"Currencies of the Caribbean",
"Currencies of the Commonwealth of Nations",
"Euro"
]
| The euro (symbol: €; currency code: EUR) is the official currency of 20 of the member states of the European Union. This group of states is officially known as the euro area or, commonly, the eurozone, and includes about 344 million citizens as of 2023. The euro is divided into 100 euro cents.
The currency is also used officially by the institutions of the European Union, by four European microstates that are not EU members, the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, as well as unilaterally by Montenegro and Kosovo. Outside Europe, a number of special territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally, over 200 million people worldwide use currencies pegged to the euro.
The euro is the second-largest reserve currency as well as the second-most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. As of December 2019, with more than €1.3 trillion in circulation, the euro has one of the highest combined values of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world.
The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1:1 (US\$1.1743 at the time). Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002, making it the day-to-day operating currency of its original members, and by March 2002 it had completely replaced the former currencies.
Between December 1999 and December 2002, the euro traded below the US dollar, but has since traded near parity with or above the US dollar, peaking at US\$1.60 on 18 July 2008 and since then returning near to its original issue rate. On 13 July 2022, the two currencies hit parity for the first time in nearly two decades due in part to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
## Characteristics
### Administration
The euro is managed and administered by the European Central Bank (ECB, Frankfurt am Main) and the Eurosystem, composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries. As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.
The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, although not all participating states have done so. Denmark has negotiated exemptions, while Sweden (which joined the EU in 1995, after the Maastricht Treaty was signed) turned down the euro in a non-binding referendum in 2003, and has circumvented the obligation to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements. All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. The Maastricht Treaty was later amended by the Treaty of Nice, which closed the gaps and loopholes in the Maastricht and Rome Treaties.
### Eurozone members
The 20 participating members are
- Austria
- Belgium
- Croatia
- Cyprus
- Estonia
- Finland
- France
- Germany
- Greece
- Ireland
- Italy
- Latvia
- Lithuania
- Luxembourg
- Malta
- Netherlands
- Portugal
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Spain
#### EU members not using the euro
The EU member states not in the Eurozone are Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Sweden.
#### Future eurozone members
The government of Bulgaria aims to replace the Bulgarian lev by the euro on 1 January 2025.
The government of Romania aims for the Romanian leu to be replaced by the euro on 1 January 2026.
EU members Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Sweden are legally obligated to adopt the euro eventually, though they have no required date for adoption, and their governments do not currently have any plans for switching. Denmark negotiated for the right to retain its currency.
### Other users
Microstates with a monetary agreement:
- Andorra
- Monaco
- San Marino
- Vatican City
EU special territories
- French Southern and Antarctic Lands
- Saint Barthélemy
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon
British Overseas Territory
- Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Unilateral adopters
- Kosovo
- Montenegro
### Pegged currencies
The currency of a number of states is pegged to the euro. These states are:
- Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, ISO 4217 code )
- Bulgaria (Bulgarian lev, )
- Cape Verde (Cape Verdean escudo, )
- Cameroon (Central African CFA franc, )
- Central African Republic (Central African CFA franc)
- Chad (Central African CFA franc)
- Equatorial Guinea (Central African CFA franc)
- Gabon (Central African CFA franc)
- Republic of the Congo (Central African CFA franc)
- French Polynesia (CFP franc, )
- New Caledonia (CFP franc)
- Wallis and Futuna (CFP franc)
- Comoros (Comorian franc, )
- Denmark (Danish krone, )
- North Macedonia (Macedonian denar, )
- Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Sahrawi peseta)
- Sovereign Military Order of Malta (Maltese scudo)
- São Tomé and Príncipe (São Tomé and Príncipe dobra, )
- Benin (West African CFA franc, )
- Burkina Faso (West African CFA franc)
- Côte d'Ivoire (West African CFA franc)
- Guinea-Bissau (West African CFA franc)
- Mali (West African CFA franc)
- Niger (West African CFA franc)
- Senegal (West African CFA franc)
- Togo (West African CFA franc)
## Coins and banknotes
### Coins
The euro is divided into 100 cents (also referred to as euro cents, especially when distinguishing them from other currencies, and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins). In Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France.
All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background. Due to the linguistic plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used (as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic) and Arabic numerals (other text is used on national sides in national languages, but other text on the common side is avoided). For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, the map only showed the 15 member states which were members when the euro was introduced. Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country), the old map was replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the EU. The 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the 15 member states of 2002 raised somewhat above the rest of the map. All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx. The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin. Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro.
The coins are issued in denominations of €2, €1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c. To avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland and Italy (by law). This practice is discouraged by the commission, as is the practice of certain shops of refusing to accept high-value euro notes.
Commemorative coins with €2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin. These include both commonly issued coins, such as the €2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece. These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them.
#### Coin minting
A number of institutions are authorised to mint euro coins:
- Bayerisches Hauptmünzamt, Munich (Mint mark: D)
- Currency Centre
- Fábrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre
- Hamburgische Münze (J)
- Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda SA
- Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato
- Koninklijke Nederlandse Munt
- Koninklijke Munt van België/Monnaie Royale de Belgique
- Mincovňa Kremnica
- Monnaie de Paris
- Münze Österreich
- Rahapaja Oy/Myntverket i Finland Ab
- Staatliche Münze Berlin (A)
- Staatliche Münze Karlsruhe (G)
- Staatliche Münze Stuttgart (F)
- Lithuanian Mint
- Croatian Mint
### Banknotes
The design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides. The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina. Notes are issued in €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, and €5. Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture. The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges, symbolising links between states in the union and with the future. While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly, and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic. The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone.
The Europa series, or second series, consists of six denominations and no longer includes the €500 with issuance discontinued as of 27 April 2019. However, both the first and the second series of euro banknotes, including the €500, remain legal tender throughout the euro area.
In December 2021, the ECB announced its plans to redesign euro banknotes by 2024. A theme advisory group, made up of one member from each euro area country, was selected to submit theme proposals to the ECB. The proposals will be voted on by the public; a design competition will also be held.
#### Issuing modalities for banknotes
Since 1 January 2002, the national central banks (NCBs) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECB's banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs, thereby incurring matching liabilities vis-à-vis the ECB. These liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The other 92% of euro banknotes are issued by the NCBs in proportion to their respective shares of the ECB capital key, calculated using national share of European Union (EU) population and national share of EU GDP, equally weighted.
#### Banknote printing
Member states are authorised to print or to commission bank note printing. As of November 2022, these are the printers:
- Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato
- Banco de Portugal
- Bank of Greece
- Banque de France
- Bundesdruckerei
- Central Bank of Ireland
- De La Rue
- Fábrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre
- François-Charles Oberthur
- Giesecke & Devrient
- Royal Joh. Enschedé
- National Bank of Belgium
- Oesterreichische Nationalbank
- Setec Oy
### Payments clearing, electronic funds transfer
Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one state to another. All intra-Union transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs. This includes all member states of the EU, even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro. Credit/debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions; however paper-based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic-based. The ECB has also set up a clearing system, TARGET, for large euro transactions.
## History
### Introduction
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. To participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than 3% of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than 60% of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which resulted in the introduction of the euro.
The name "euro" was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995. Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot, a former teacher of French and history, is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, suggesting the name "euro" on 4 August 1995.
Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown on the right.
The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally sterling) that day.
The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.
The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.
The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to indefinitely (the latter for Austria, Germany, Ireland, Estonia and Latvia in banknotes and coins, and for Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Slovakia in banknotes only). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remained exchangeable until 2022.
### Currency sign
A special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed ten of the original thirty proposals down to two. The President of the European Commission at the time (Jacques Santer) and the European Commissioner with responsibility for the euro (Yves-Thibault de Silguy) then chose the winning design.
Regarding the symbol, the European Commission stated on behalf of the European Union:
> The symbol € is based on the Greek letter epsilon (Є), with the first letter in the word "Europe" and with 2 parallel lines signifying stability.
The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions. Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from state to state, but for texts in English published by EU institutions, the symbol (or the ISO-standard "EUR") should precede the amount.
### Eurozone crisis
Following the U.S. financial crisis in 2008, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed in 2009 among investors concerning some European states, with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010. Greece was most acutely affected, but fellow Eurozone members Cyprus, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also significantly affected. All these countries used EU funds except Italy, which is a major donor to the EFSF. To be included in the eurozone, countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria, but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same level of strictness among countries.
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011, "[I]f the [euro area] is treated as a single entity, its [economic and fiscal] position looks no worse and in some respects, rather better than that of the US or the UK" and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area's government debt/GDP ratio of 86% in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States. "Moreover", they write, "private-sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo-Saxon economies". The authors conclude that the crisis "is as much political as economic" and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of "institutional paraphernalia (and mutual bonds of solidarity) of a state".
The crisis continued with S&P downgrading the credit rating of nine euro-area countries, including France, then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) fund.
A historical parallel – to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt, unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors – gained attention in summer 2012 even as Germany received a debt-rating warning of its own.
## Direct and indirect usage
### Agreed direct usage with minting rights
The euro is the sole currency of 20 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. These countries constitute the "eurozone", some 347 million people in total as of 2023. According to bilateral agreements with the EU, the euro has also been designated as the sole and official currency in a further four European microstates awarded minting rights (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City). With all but one (Denmark) EU members obliged to join when economic conditions permit, together with future members of the EU, the enlargement of the eurozone is set to continue.
### Agreed direct usage without minting rights
The euro is also the sole currency in three overseas territories of France that are not themselves part of the EU, namely Saint Barthélemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, as well as in the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia.
### Unilateral direct usage
The euro has been adopted unilaterally as the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo. It has also been used as a foreign trading currency in Cuba since 1998, Syria since 2006, and Venezuela since 2018. In 2009, Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and introduced major global convertible currencies instead, including the euro and the United States dollar. The direct usage of the euro outside of the official framework of the EU affects nearly 3 million people.
### Currencies pegged to the euro
Outside the eurozone, two EU member states have currencies that are pegged to the euro, which is a precondition to joining the eurozone. The Danish krone and Bulgarian lev are pegged due to their participation in the ERM II.
Additionally, a total of 21 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 14 countries in mainland Africa (CFA franc), two African island countries (Comorian franc and Cape Verdean escudo), three French Pacific territories (CFP franc) and two Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark) and North Macedonia (Macedonian denar). On 1 January 2010, the dobra of São Tomé and Príncipe was officially linked with the euro. Additionally, the Moroccan dirham is tied to a basket of currencies, including the euro and the US dollar, with the euro given the highest weighting.
These countries generally had previously implemented a currency peg to one of the major European currencies (e.g. the French franc, Deutsche Mark or Portuguese escudo), and when these currencies were replaced by the euro their currencies became pegged to the euro. Pegging a country's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure, especially for currencies of areas with weak economies, as the euro is seen as a stable currency, prevents runaway inflation, and encourages foreign investment due to its stability.
In total, as of 2013, 182 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro, 27 million people outside the eurozone in Europe, and another 545,000 people on Pacific islands.
Since 2005, stamps issued by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta have been denominated in euros, although the Order's official currency remains the Maltese scudo. The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order.
### Use as reserve currency
Since its introduction, the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. The share of the euro as a reserve currency increased from 18% in 1999 to 27% in 2008. Over this period, the share held in U.S. dollar fell from 71% to 64% and that held in RMB fell from 6.4% to 3.3%. The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency. The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the International Monetary Fund the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to \$1.1 trillion or €850 billion, with a share of 22% of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31% of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies.
The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency has been debated among economists. Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it was "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency". In contrast to Greenspan's 2007 assessment, the euro's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign-debt crisis.
## Economics
### Optimal currency area
In economics, an optimum currency area, or region (OCA or OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximise economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency. There are two models, both proposed by Robert Mundell: the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model. Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro. However, even before the creation of the single currency, there were concerns over diverging economies. Before the late-2000s recession it was considered unlikely that a state would leave the euro or the whole zone would collapse. However the Greek government-debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form. Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up. John Lanchester, writing for The New Yorker, explains it:
> The guiding principle of the currency, which opened for business in 1999, were supposed to be a set of rules to limit a country's annual deficit to three per cent of gross domestic product, and the total accumulated debt to sixty per cent of G.D.P. It was a nice idea, but by 2004 the two biggest economies in the euro zone, Germany and France, had broken the rules for three years in a row.
### Transaction costs and risks
The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades. For consumers, banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals).
Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past. The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone. However, although transaction costs were reduced, some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone.
### Price parity
Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices—in particular in price levels—should decrease because of the law of one price. Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e., speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential. Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition. Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets.
### Macroeconomic stability
Before the introduction of the euro, some countries had successfully contained inflation, which was then seen as a major economic problem, by establishing largely independent central banks. One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; the European Central Bank was modelled on the Bundesbank.
The euro has come under criticism due to its regulation, lack of flexibility and rigidity towards sharing member states on issues such as nominal interest rates. Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies. While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role. A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate.
There is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States, United Kingdom, and China. The result is that seen from those countries, the euro has become expensive, making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers; hence export from the eurozone becomes more difficult.
In general, those in Europe who own large amounts of euro are served by high stability and low inflation.
A monetary union means states in that union lose the main mechanism of recovery of their international competitiveness by weakening (depreciating) their currency. When wages become too high compared to productivity in the exports sector, then these exports become more expensive and they are crowded out from the market within a country and abroad. This drives the fall of employment and output in the exports sector and fall of trade and current account balances. Fall of output and employment in the tradable goods sector may be offset by the growth of non-exports sectors, especially in construction and services. Increased purchases abroad and negative current account balances can be financed without a problem as long as credit is cheap. The need to finance trade deficit weakens currency, making exports automatically more attractive in a country and abroad. A state in a monetary union cannot use weakening of currency to recover its international competitiveness. To achieve this a state has to reduce prices, including wages (deflation). This could result in high unemployment and lower incomes as it was during the European sovereign-debt crisis.
#### Trade
The euro increased price transparency and stimulated cross-border trade. A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5% to 10%, although one study suggested an increase of only 3% while another estimated 9 to 14%. However, a meta-analysis of all available studies suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible. Although a more recent meta-analysis shows that publication bias decreases over time and that there are positive trade effects from the introduction of the euro, as long as results from before 2010 are taken into account. This may be because of the inclusion of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 and ongoing integration within the EU. Furthermore, older studies based on certain methods of analysis of main trends reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before, and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade. These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade. According to Barry Eichengreen, studies disagree on the magnitude of the effect of the euro on trade, but they agree that it did have an effect.
#### Investment
Physical investment seems to have increased by 5% in the eurozone due to the introduction. Regarding foreign direct investment, a study found that the intra-eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20% during the first four years of the EMU. Concerning the effect on corporate investment, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe. The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies. A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22% of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency.
#### Inflation
The introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation. In the short term, there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices, but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies. A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices: while it had no effect on most goods, it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro. The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased. It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction, retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so.
#### Exchange rate risk
One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates. It has been found that the introduction of the euro created "significant reductions in market risk exposures for nonfinancial firms both in and outside Europe". These reductions in market risk "were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non-euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe".
#### Financial integration
The introduction of the euro increased European financial integration, which helped stimulate growth of a European securities market (bond markets are characterized by economies of scale dynamics). According to a study on this question, it has "significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets [...] However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated." Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone. On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries. Financial integration made it cheaper for European companies to borrow. Banks, firms and households could also invest more easily outside of their own country, thus creating greater international risk-sharing.
#### Effect on interest rates
As of January 2014, and since the introduction of the euro, interest rates of most member countries (particularly those with a weak currency) have decreased. Some of these countries had the most serious sovereign financing problems.
The effect of declining interest rates, combined with excess liquidity continually provided by the ECB, made it easier for banks within the countries in which interest rates fell the most, and their linked sovereigns, to borrow significant amounts (above the 3% of GDP budget deficit imposed on the eurozone initially) and significantly inflate their public and private debt levels. Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008, governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so nearly worthless there was no liquid market for them. This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable, via increasing government bond interest rates, producing the ongoing European sovereign-debt crisis.
#### Price convergence
The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed. Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s. Other studies have found evidence of price convergence, in particular for cars. A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear, slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003, and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study (2009).
#### Tourism
A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU, with an increase of 6.5%.
## Exchange rates
### Flexible exchange rates
The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general, does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This is because of the implications of the Mundell–Fleming model, which implies a central bank cannot (without capital controls) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously, because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency. In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets and, as the ECB has inflation targeting as its monetary policy, the exchange-rate regime of the euro is floating.
### Against other major currencies
The euro is the second-most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 (3 May vs sterling, 25 October vs the U.S. dollar, 26 October vs Japanese yen). Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 (15 July vs US dollar, 23 July vs Japanese yen, 29 December vs sterling). With the advent of the global financial crisis the euro initially fell, to regain later. Despite pressure due to the European sovereign-debt crisis the euro remained stable. In November 2011 the euro's exchange rate index – measured against currencies of the bloc's major trading partners – was trading almost two percent higher on the year, approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis kicked off in 2007. In mid July, 2022, the euro equalled the US dollar for a short period of time.
- Current and historical exchange rates against 32 other currencies (European Central Bank): link
## Political considerations
Besides the economic motivations to the introduction of the euro, its creation was also partly justified as a way to foster a closer sense of joint identity between European citizens. Statements about this goal were for instance made by Wim Duisenberg, European Central Bank Governor, in 1998, Laurent Fabius, French Finance Minister, in 2000, and Romano Prodi, President of the European Commission, in 2002. However, 15 years after the introduction of the euro, a study found no evidence that it has had any effect on a shared sense of European identity.
## Euro in various official EU languages
The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor (one-hundredth) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular. This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages.
Bulgaria has negotiated an exception; euro in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled eвро (evro) and not (euro) in all official documents. In the Greek script the term ευρώ (evró) is used; the Greek "cent" coins are denominated in λεπτό/ά (leptó/á). Official practice for English-language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural, although the European Commission's Directorate-General for Translation states that the plural forms euros and cents should be used in English. The word 'euro' is pronounced differently according to pronunciation rules in the individual languages applied; in German , in English /ˈjʊəroʊ/, in French , etc.
In summary:
For local phonetics, cent, use of plural and amount formatting (€6,00 or 6.00 €), see Language and the euro.
## See also
- Captain Euro, The Raspberry Ice Cream War
- Currency union
- Digital euro
- European debt crisis
- List of currencies in Europe
- List of currencies replaced by the euro |
811,387 | Boston Manor tube station | 1,164,468,497 | London Underground station | [
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| Boston Manor is a London Underground station at the boundary of the boroughs Hounslow and Ealing. The station is situated on the Heathrow branch of the Piccadilly line, between Osterley and Northfields stations, in Travelcard Zone 4.
The station is on a street-level bridge over the line on Boston Manor Road, serving the neighbourhood around Boston Manor House, north-west of Brentford, and southern parts of Hanwell. Opened in 1883 by the District Railway, it was reconstructed in 1932 to a Grade II-listed building. Designed by architect Charles Holden, the Art Deco styled structure features a tall tower which acts as a landmark of the area. The station was once served by both the Piccadilly and District lines, with the latter having its last service withdrawn in 1964.
## Location
Boston Manor station entrance is on Boston Manor Road, and the station serves a small residential area in Brentford. The station sits close to the boundary between the London Borough of Hounslow and London Borough of Ealing. Nearby places include Boston Manor playing fields, Elthorne Park high school, Gunnersbury Boys School and Swyncombe playing field. The Grand Union Canal and Brent river are also accessible from the station. Northfields depot is just to the east of the station. Boston Manor dates back to the 1170s as "Bordwadestone", which referred to Bord's tun, or farm, by the stone. The Jacobean mansion named Boston Manor House was constructed in 1622–23, and is also near the station.
## History
In 1866, permission was given to local landowners for a Hounslow and Metropolitan Railway, which would serve areas in Hounslow such as Boston Manor, and to connect to another proposed line called the Acton & Brentford railway. However, the latter was never constructed but instead a 5+1⁄2-mile-long (8.9 km) extension of the District Railway (DR) from Mill Hill Park (now Acton Town) to Hounslow Barracks (now Hounslow West) was considered and granted.
Boston Manor was initially opened by the DR on 1 May 1883 as part of an extension from Mill Hill Park to Hounslow Town. The station was originally named Boston Road. The signs on the platforms gave the name as Boston Manor for Brentford & Hanwell. Electrification of the DR's tracks took place between 1903 and 1905 with electric trains replacing steam trains on the Hounslow branch from 13 June 1905. Northfield (Ealing) Halt (now Northfields), the next stop to the east was only opened on 16 April 1908. The station was given its current name on 11 December 1911.
To prepare for the Piccadilly line extension to Hounslow, the station was rebuilt between 1932 and 1934 in a Modernist style which replaced the 1883 station building. During the reconstruction, a temporary booking hall was built. Most of the platform infrastructure was kept, partly due to its substantial buildings compared to other stations. Piccadilly line services, which had been running as far as Northfields since 9 January 1933, were extended to run to Hounslow West on 13 March 1933 when the partially completed Boston Manor station was opened to passengers. The new station building was finally completed on 25 March 1934.
Because of the Piccadilly line extension, off-peak District line services through the station was converted to a Hounslow West to South Acton shuttle. This was discontinued on 29 April 1935 while peak hour services were withdrawn completely on 9 October 1964.
In 2018, it was announced that the station would gain step-free access by 2022, as part of a £200m investment to increase the number of accessible stations on the network.
## Station features
The original 1883 station building was built by the District Railway. It was a red brick building with an enamel pecked half roundel attached to the arched window space above the booking office entrance. A lampshade branded Tiffany was above the roundel. The original stairs to the platforms with cast iron balustrades are retained. The fretted wooden awnings at the platform remain intact, with the canopy pillars painted black and yellow. Cast iron columns with capitals and octagonal bases provide support for the part-glazed timber roof on iron trusses.
The new station building occupies a narrow site due to the nearby depot, where it was built out over the tracks. It features a Modernist style design by Stanley Heaps, in consultation with Charles Holden. The main structure is of brown bricks and reinforced concrete, topped by a flat roof. Inspired by contemporary Dutch and German architecture, the distinctive tower functions as a landmark within the low-height suburban residential area. The tower is decorated with glazed ceramic tiles and pasted with an enamelled London Underground logo. The upper stages of the tower are fitted with a vertical strip of glass bricks which is part of a lighting feature. The booking hall sits to the right of the single-storey structure, lit with clerestory windows. The ticket office kiosk retains its banded tile decoration. A curved shop unit adjoins to the left side of the structure. Metal-framed windows were added to the western ends of the shelters at platform level.
The station, architecturally noted for Holden's Art Deco design, was granted Grade II Listed status on 21 March 2002. On 9 January 2013, the station appeared on a British postage stamp as part of a set commemorating the 150th anniversary of the first London underground train journey. The stamp's caption read "Boston Manor Art Deco Station". The station also has a Labyrinth puzzle, which is installed at all stations on the Underground network. This labyrinth puzzle is part of the Woodcut family, installed at the top of the stairs leading to eastbound Platform 2, next to a booking office window.
## Services and connections
### Services
Boston Manor is between Osterley and Northfields on the Heathrow branch of the Piccadilly line. The typical off-peak frequencies, in trains per hour (tph), are as follows:
- 12 tph eastbound to Cockfosters or Arnos Grove
- 6 tph westbound via the Heathrow Terminal 4 loop
- 6 tph westbound to Heathrow Terminal 5
Night tube is also operational on this part of the line, with 6 tph on both directions between Heathrow Terminal 5 and Cockfosters.
Just to the west of the station, Piccadilly line trains can enter or exit the Northfields depot via crossovers. The depot has more than 20 sidings and was built in the 1930s to facilitate the extension of the Piccadilly line to Hounslow.
### Connections
London Buses routes 195 and E8 serve the station. |
64,348,639 | Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time | 1,172,886,242 | 2020 video game | [
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"Xbox Series X and Series S games"
]
| Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time is a 2020 platform game developed by Toys for Bob and published by Activision. It was originally released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, with releases for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S, and Windows following in 2021. The eighth main installment in the Crash Bandicoot series, the game's story follows Crash Bandicoot and his sister Coco as they recover the all-powerful Quantum Masks in a bid to prevent Doctor Neo Cortex and Doctor Nefarious Tropy from taking over the multiverse. They are indirectly aided by their former enemy Dingodile and an adventuring alternate-dimension counterpart of Crash's old girlfriend Tawna.
The game retains the series' core platforming gameplay, and adds new elements through the use of the Quantum Masks, who can alter levels and provide means to traverse or overcome obstacles. It also includes additional game modes for replaying levels, and the ability to control five characters, three of whom – Cortex, Dingodile, and Tawna – have their own unique gameplay and levels. The development team intended for the game to be a direct continuation from the original trilogy in both narrative and gameplay, and created the Quantum Masks and additional playable characters after studying the series' mechanics and determining fresh elements to add to the gameplay.
The game was met with a positive critical reception, with praise going to the preservation and refinement of the series' classic formula as well as the implementation of the new gameplay mechanics. The controls, amount of content and replay value, visuals, music, voice-acting, and story were also commended. The physics, level design, and difficulty drew mixed reactions, and the rail-grinding sections were criticized. Commercially, the game had the highest first-month earnings for a contemporary Crash Bandicoot title, topped sales charts in some territories, and was nominated for four awards.
## Gameplay
Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time is a platform game in which the player primarily controls either the titular character Crash or his sister Coco, who are tasked with saving the multiverse from domination by Doctors Neo Cortex and Nefarious Tropy. The game's levels take place and progress along a linear map that is divided into ten "Dimensions", each with their own theme. While Dornbush preferred the hub room format of selecting levels from the second and third games, he was charmed by the presentation of the linear overworld maps, comparing them to pop-up storybooks. Epstein commended the increased frame rate and faster loading times of the PlayStation 5 version, observing that the smoother and more clearly articulated animations resulted in faster gameplay and improved reaction times. Green and Chris Scullion of Nintendo Life, while acknowledging the lowered resolution and frame rate on the Switch version, considered the visuals to be impressive regardless.
The soundtrack was positively received for its upbeat and catchy nature and emulation of Josh Mancell's work on the original trilogy. Leri and Dornbush additionally enjoyed the special effects that the Quantum Masks' abilities had on the background music. Michael Damiani of Easy Allies, however, felt that the soundtrack was mediocre and had no stand-out pieces. Critics enjoyed the light-hearted, humorous, and self-aware script, and also commended the voice-acting, with Goslin singling out Horvitz's and Eagles's performances. Dunsmore, while entertained by the plot, characters, writing, and voice-acting, felt that the limited use of cutscenes left an inadequate amount of time to enjoy the performances, and wished for a longer story.
### Sales
In the United States, the game finished as the 11th best-selling game of September; despite being released in October, October 2–4 is considered by the NPD Group to be a part of the last week of September. It rose to tenth place in the October 2020 NPD charts. The game sold 402,000 units digitally in its first month, a lower figure than those of the recent remastered titles; by comparison, the Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy sold 520,000 digital units within the last day of June 2017, and Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled sold 552,000 throughout June 2019. SuperData Research speculated there was lessened demand for the new title, and observed that its particular release period was more crowded than that of its predecessors. However, they noted that the game's first-month earnings were the highest for a contemporary Crash Bandicoot title due to its higher price tag. Following the release of the PS5, Xbox Series X and Series S, and Switch versions of the game, the game rose to No. 15 on the NPD monthly sales charts from No. 65 the previous month. On March 30, 2021, NPD Group analyst Mat Piscatella observed that console sales for Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time were being sustained by the success of the mobile runner game Crash Bandicoot: On the Run!, as well as the game's launch on the Switch and continued digital promotion.
The game made \#1 in the UK physical sales charts, selling 1,000 copies more than Star Wars: Squadrons, but physical sales were 80% less than Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy. The game made No. 2 in the UK digital charts. In Japan, the PlayStation 4 version sold 10,437 physical copies within its first week of release, making it the fifth best-selling retail game of the week in the country. The Switch version was released in Japan the following year and sold 2,288 copies during its first week, and was the 20th best-selling retail game in the country during that week. The game topped sales charts for the week of September 28 – October 4, 2020 in Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and France, with just three days' worth of sales. In Switzerland, it was the second best-selling game during its first week of release.
### Awards and nominations
The game was nominated for Best Family Game in The Game Awards 2020, but lost to Animal Crossing: New Horizons. It was also nominated for Outstanding Control Precision, Outstanding Family Game (Franchise), and Outstanding Sound Effects in the 20th NAVGTR Awards, but lost to Spider-Man: Miles Morales, Animal Crossing: New Horizons, and The Last of Us Part II respectively. GameSpot named the game one of the best of 2020 by score, and GameRevolution voted it the tenth best game of 2020. |
27,342,460 | Ouvrage La Ferté | 1,054,060,519 | Ouvrage in Maginot Line, Ardennes, France | [
"Fortified Sector of Montmédy",
"Maginot Line",
"Monuments historiques of Grand Est",
"World War II memorials in France",
"World War II museums in France"
]
| Ouvrage La Ferté, also known as Ouvrage Villy-La Ferté, is a petit ouvrage of the Maginot Line, located in the Fortified Sector of Montmédy, facing Belgium. The ouvrage lies between the towns of Villy and La Ferté-sur-Chiers. It possesses two combat blocks linked by an underground gallery. The westernmost position in its sector, it was a comparatively weakly armed fortification in an exposed position that left it vulnerable to isolation and attack. After a sustained attack during the Battle of France, the position was overwhelmed by German forces and was destroyed with its entire garrison killed. The fighting at La Ferté was the heaviest of any position in the Maginot Line. It is preserved as a war memorial.
## Design and construction
La Ferté is one of four positions in the so-called Tête du Pont de Montmédy ("Montmédy Bridgehead"), a salient in the French defensive lines along the Belgian border. The isolated area was one of the "New Fronts" to the west of the main Maginot Line, created to defend against the increased threat of a German advance through Belgium. The New Front positions suffered from restricted funding, as well as discontinuity in the fortification lines. Large distances between fortifications compared to earlier portions of the Line made mutual support between ouvrages difficult.
The site was approved in 1934, under the supervision of CORF (Commission d'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées), the Maginot Line's design and construction agency. Work by the contractor Chanel of Antibes began in 1935 at a cost of 14.5 million francs. A second phase was planned to add an artillery block. This was scaled back to a pair of separate artillery casemates. A separate entrance block was proposed in April 1940, linking to the casemates. As the initial confrontation with Germany was already underway, it was too late to be built, with a projected construction time of 18 months.
Compared to earlier Maginot positions, the La Ferté site suffered from a number of design and construction deficiencies. The site contours around Block 2 required a great deal of rubble fill to cover the sides of the block. This rubble had not yet stabilised by the spring of 1940 and could be dislodged by artillery fire. Block 2 suffered from restricted fields of fire to the west and south-west, which were covered only by an automatic rifle cloche. The nearby road ran in a cutting that could not be swept by direct fire. Since La Ferté lacked mortars, the road was dead ground.
The separate artillery casemates were not habitable for any extended period and lacked close-in defences. With unusually large gun embrasures measuring 1.3 metres (4.3 ft) by 1.7 metres (5.6 ft), they afforded little protection to their crews against accurate fire, while coverage from the main ouvrage was poor.
## Description
La Ferté is a petit ouvrage. It is located immediately to the west of the Chiers River, with two semi-buried reinforced concrete combat blocks containing the position's armament and observation posts, linked by a deep underground gallery.
- Block 1: infantry/entry block with one automatic rifle cloche (GFM-B), one observation cloche (VDP), two mixed-arm cloches (AM), one twin machine gun embrasure and one machine gun/47 mm anti-tank gun (JM/AC47) embrasure.
- Block 2: infantry block with one retractable mixed-arm turret, one AM cloche, one GFM-B cloche and one GFM-B observation cloche. Block 2 was the principal focus of the German assault.
A separate entry block was planned, adjacent to the Villy Est casemate. The underground gallery system at La Ferté is simple, limited to a gallery linking the two blocks, which were initially designed to function as separate units with separate generating plants and ventilation facilities in each block. The 275-metre (902 ft) gallery contained some shared facilities, such as a kitchen, a laundry and an infirmary, at an average depth of 24 metres (79 ft) below the surface. The gallery's small size made it most useful as a link, rather than as the garrison, magazine, command post and long-term shelter afforded by the gallery systems of most Maginot ouvrages. Unlike most ouvrages, La Ferté's living spaces were near the surface in the two combat blocks. A more typical Maginot position would have such spaces under 30 metres (98 ft) of earth or rock cover. Unlike many Maginot positions, the main drain at La Ferté was not configured as an emergency exit. The mixed-arm turret used on Block 2 was known to be mechanically trouble-prone, and La Ferté's turret particularly so.
### Casemates
A number of small blockhouses are associated with La Ferté, as well as unconnected casemates:
- Casemate de Margut: Double block with one JM/AC47 embrasure, one JM embrasure, two AM cloches and one GFM-B cloche, about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east-southeast on the far side of the Chiers.
- Casemate de Villy Ouest: Artillery block with one 75 mm gun.
- Casemate de Villy Est: Artillery block with one 75 mm gun.
The Villy gun casemates are close to Block 2, directly adjacent to the 1940 road. They replaced the planned 75 mm gun turret block. The casemates are not connected to each other or to the main ouvrage, a weakness that influenced the 1940 combat action.
### Villy
The village of Villy lies about one kilometre to the north-west of ouvrage La Ferté. Villy itself was fortified with more than a dozen blockhouses, along with networks of barbed wire and tank obstacles. The blockhouses were primarily prepared, reinforced firing positions and did not necessarily possess fixed armament.
## Manning
The 1940 manning of the ouvrage under the command of Lieutenant Bourguignon comprised 97 men and 3 officers of the 155th Fortress Infantry Regiment (155th RIF) and the 169th Position Artillery Regiment (169th RAP). The units were under the umbrella of the Second Army, Army Group 1. The Casernement de Montmédy provided peacetime above-ground barracks and support services to La Ferté and other fortifications in the area.
Lieutenant Bourguignon had exchanged commands with Lieutenant Guiard on 20 March 1940, Guiard taking Bourguignon's former position at the casemate of Thonne-le-Thil. Bourguignon was assisted by Sub-Lieutenant Thouémont, who commanded Block 2. Thouémont, who had been previously posted to a machine gun battalion in the 149th and 132nd RIF, lacked specific training on Maginot systems. He replaced Captain André, a reservist and mayor of Villy, who had been promoted. Bourguignon was responsible for command of Block 1, as well as for overall command. Compared to similar positions, La Ferté was understaffed with officers.
## Strategic situation
The Second Army was commanded by General Charles Huntziger, who was responsible for the defence of the Ardennes region of the frontier, including the Fortified Sector of Montmédy. The sector was composed of two parts. The eastern portion was defended by the Maginot positions of La Ferté, Chesnois, Thonnelle and Vélosnes, widely spaced and small, compared to the massive fortifications of other sectors like Thionville. The western portion of the Montmédy sector was even more lightly defended, with several lines of fortifications ranging from fortified houses near the border to small blockhouses farther back. None of the western defences were of a scale sufficient to support La Ferté or to act as a significant block to an invading force without the organized support of mobile army formations. The relatively weak La Ferté position effectively acted as the western end of fixed fortifications.
On 13–14 May, German forces crossed the Meuse near Sedan using integrated land and air tactics that broke the morale of the French 55th Infantry Division, driving them out of the blockhouse line and allowing the Germans to gain a strong position from which to exploit the breakthrough. A progressive collapse of the French Second and Ninth Armies from 14 May to 17 May allowed German forces to move to the west of La Ferté, cutting La Ferté off from much of its mobile support.
## 1940
See Fortified Sector of Montmédy for a broader discussion of the events of 1940 in the Montmédy sector of the Maginot Line.
On 13 May advance elements of the German 71st Infantry Division approached La Ferté (which the Germans called Panzerwerk 505) and occupied the surrounding area, out of range of fire from the ouvrage. The 71st ID had trained specifically for an assault on the Maginot Line, and were provided with shaped charge explosives of the type used in the assault on the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael a few days before. The night of the 13th and 14th La Ferté installed a periscope in its machine gun turret, which had just been delivered on the 11th. On 15 May the Villy Est casemate opened fire on German troops advancing on a nearby farm. On the 16th the Germans took nearby Hill 226, which overlooked La Ferté from the west and attacked the higher Hill 311 (overlooking La Ferté from the south-west) despite fire from the Villy Ouest casemate. That evening, German reconnaissance around La Ferté and the Moiry and Sainte Marie casemates drew supporting fire from Ouvrage Chesnois's 75 mm guns. Chesnois fired 1200 rounds in seven hours. On 17 May, German forces made a series of determined attacks on Hill 311, and German artillery began bombardment of La Ferté with 21 cm mortars and 88 mm high-velocity anti-tank guns. About midday on the 17th, La Ferté's telephone communications were cut, forcing the position to communicate by radio, which could be monitored by the Germans, and which required Bourguignon to transmit through Chesnois to reach headquarters.
The Germans eventually captured Hill 311 just before nightfall, driving off the 1st Battalion of the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment with losses. During the afternoon of the 17th, the Villy artillery casemates were evacuated, while the German bombardment continued amid French fire from Chesnois. At about this time, General Huntziger ordered that Villy and La Ferté be relieved to prevent their encirclement, emphasising the importance of French possession of Hill 311, and directing that the town of Inor to the south-west be held at all costs. General Brochard, responsible for the area, decided to counterattack from the south through Hill 311 to La Ferté using the 3rd North African Infantry Division and the newly arrived 6th Infantry Division. Through the ensuing night, La Ferté requested and received supporting fire from Chesnois to suppress German movements on top of the ouvrage.
Telephone service was restored on the morning of 18 May, allowing better artillery coordination in support of La Ferté. By the afternoon, the Germans had occupied the village of Villy, completing the encirclement of the ouvrage. Between 1400 and 1500, Block 2's automatic rifle/observation (GFM) cloche was hit by German fire, killing three. At about the same time, the retractable mixed arms turret on Block 2 became stuck in the opened position, facing to the rear and unable to aim. As this comprised La Ferté's heaviest armament, it significantly reduced the position's defensive strength. At 1700, Germans entered the vacant Villy Est casemate, occupying Villy Ouest an hour later. Both had been evacuated by the French amid concerns about the German presence on Hill 311. From 1800 to 1830, three batteries of German 210 mm howitzers fired on La Ferté with supporting fire on the fort's surroundings from 155 mm howitzers. At 1810, four German 88 mm guns opened fire on the exposed portions of the main ouvrage. The combined artillery fire destroyed the barbed wire entanglements surrounding La Ferté and cratered the ground. Firing ceased after 20 minutes to allow German sappers to destroy the previously damaged GFM cloche. They then threw smoke bombs into the resulting hole and destroyed the stuck turret and two more cloches, leaving Block 2 incapable of further resistance. Supporting fire from Chesnois was hampered by smoke shells that obscured French observation posts' view of La Ferté.
The French counterattack was ordered from French lines using ten Char B tanks supported by two battalions of the 119th Infantry Regiment of the 6th Infantry Division. The attack was launched at 1930. With the infantry making a late start, the tanks halted at the saddle between Hill 311 and La Ferté to let them catch up. The infantry was met on the slopes of Hill 311 by two battalions of the 119th German Infantry Regiment, while three tanks were lost, two to enemy fire. The counterattack failed to reach La Ferté. In the meantime, Chesnois was ordered to cease supporting fire for fear of hitting the French rescue force, allowing the Germans to move freely about the surface. After dark, the Germans opened artillery fire on Block 1, while at the same time blasting the Block 2 mixed arms turret into the air so that it landed askew in its opening. At 2300, a ground assault on Block 1 was launched. Two hours later, all of Block 1's cloches were out of action. Chesnois was directly ordered not to fire on La Ferté by the 6th ID artillery director, despite continuing assertions from observers that the Germans were on top of the position. Lieutenant Bourguignon repeatedly asked General Aymé, his commander at the 3rd Colonial Infantry Division, for permission to abandon the position. Aymé refused to grant it, saying "Your mission has not changed." The commander of Chesnois, Bourguignon's former commander who pleaded with the divisional staff to allow Bourguignon to evacuate, advised him that "A Maginot Line ouvrage is like a submarine. One doesn't leave a submarine: one sinks with it." Contact was lost with La Ferté overnight.
By the morning of the 19th, resistance ceased. There was no response to repeated telephone calls from French headquarters. It became apparent that the interior of Block 2 was on fire. On the 20th, equipped with respirators, the Germans entered Block 2, encountering no one. The next day they were able to enter Block 1. Finding no resistance, the Germans moved on to other objectives. French patrols reached La Ferté on the 28th and 29th, reporting dense smoke within, but were unable to advance. On 2 June a German patrol made a full survey of the ouvrage, finding "the most difficult conditions imaginable," and discovering the corpses of the garrison in the underground gallery, apparently suffocated, most wearing gas masks. By 9 June the area was firmly under German control. The bodies of the garrison were recovered by a German disciplinary battalion and buried. Examination indicated that the garrison died of carbon monoxide poisoning. While the gas masks were effective against low concentrations of carbon monoxide, they could not cope with a concentration greater than 2%.
The entire garrison was posthumously awarded the Ordre de l'Armée and Bourguignon was made a chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur. On the German side, Oberleutnant Alfred Germer, who led the assault on Block 2, was awarded the Knight's Cross. Belated Unteroffizier Walter Pape was also awarded the Knight's Cross for conquering Panzerwerk 505 and for his leading of a storm troop (Sturmtruppführer) against Verdun in June 1940.
## Current condition
La Ferté is preserved as it was in 1940, with the scars of shellfire visible on cloches and concrete. The site includes a military memorial facing the new road alignment. A small cemetery, established in 1960 opposite the memorial, is the burial site for the majority of the garrison. The ouvrage and surrounding casemates are recorded as French historic monuments. The interior is open to the public on stated days. There is a short documentary (in English) made in May 2019, which tours the fort inside and outside
## See also
- List of all works on Maginot Line
- Siegfried Line
- Atlantic Wall
- Czechoslovak border fortifications |
4,152,180 | Christy Jenkins | 1,163,424,627 | Fictional character from the American television supernatural drama Charmed | [
"American female characters in television",
"Charmed (TV series) witches",
"Female supervillains",
"Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities",
"Fictional telepaths",
"Sororicide in fiction",
"Television characters introduced in 2006"
]
| Christy Jenkins is a fictional character from the American television supernatural drama Charmed, which aired on The WB Television Network (The WB) from 1998 to 2006. The character was created by executive producer Brad Kern and was portrayed by actress Marnette Patterson. Developed in response to the WB's request for a new character, Christy was originally planned to expand the show in a new direction for a possible ninth season or spin-off. It was later confirmed that all future plans for the show were cancelled following the WB's closure to launch The CW.
Introduced as Billie Jenkins's long-lost sister, she secretly collaborates with the demonic council known as the Triad with their plans to destroy the Charmed Ones. She eventually convinces Billie that the Charmed Ones are corrupt, and use their power to fulfill their own personal desires, rather than help for the greater good. Billie kills Christy in self-defense after being unable to convince her to understand the Halliwell sisters were good, and to return home with her. Throughout season eight, Christy is shown to be a powerful witch with a mastery of her powers of telepathy and pyrokinesis. She is also called the Key to the Ultimate Power due to her connection with Billie, who is prophesied to be the Ultimate Power. Christy is referenced in canonical Charmed material such as comic books and novels.
Christy has received mixed commentary from critics—much of it relating to her storyline with Billie, which was compared to those from previous seasons. Her role as a villain received positive attention, while Patterson's acting was criticized as exaggerated. The exact nature of Christy's morality and her status as the season's antagonist have been the subject of debate among television critics and the series' fans.
## Development
### Creation and casting
The WB Television Network (the WB) renewed Charmed for an eighth season on condition that it incorporated new characters that could either sustain a ninth season or lead to a spin-off series. The WB reached this decision after the show's three lead actors Alyssa Milano, Holly Marie Combs, and Rose McGowan choose to not renew their contracts for future seasons. Executive producer Brad Kern scripted the sisterhood between Christy and Billie Jenkins as a way to preserve the series' focus on family. Kern said the inclusion of Patterson and Cuoco as Christy and Billie Jenkins was done to "take the series out the way it began" through a focus on sisters. In an interview with Starry Constellation Magazine, Marnette Patterson said she enjoyed the opportunity to join an established series and be featured in its finale. She added that she had an instant chemistry with her co-star Kaley Cuoco.
During the WB's merge with United Paramount Network (UPN) to form the CW Television Network (The CW) in 2006, network executives announced that there was not enough room in the schedule for a Charmed spin-off. Cuoco confirmed that a spin-off involving her character would not be developed during an interview with E!'s Kristin Veitch, and said "Charmed is done". Following the show's cancellation, Brian Krause, who played Leo Wyatt, expressed confusion over the direction of its final season. He questioned the decision to prominently feature Patterson and Cuoco, stating: "I don't know if they were trying to groom talent to go on to something else".
### Characterization
Developed as a recurring character, Christy has been noted as a "source of fandom controversy" over the exact definition of her morality. When discussing Christy's kidnapping and subsequent imprisonment by demons, Kern raised the question of whether or not she was experiencing a form of Stockholm syndrome. He cited the nature versus nurture debate as one of the factors behind the development of the character. Kern said the character returned to: "[a question] we've played with and toyed with and worked every way possible over the last eight years, and [for the finale] we would like to return to it."
Even though Kern intended for the character's morality to be left ambiguous and to the viewer's interpretation, a majority of television commentators characterized Christy as an antagonist. Brittany Spanos of Vulture.com determined that Christy was an evil witch due to her betrayal of Billie and the Charmed Ones, and SpoilerTV's Gavin Hetherington identified her as the season's big bad. In their book The Book of Three, authors Diana G. Gallagher and Paul Ruditis wrote that she served as the Triad's protégée. Ruditis followed this up in a later interview by calling Christy a pawn under the control of the Triad rather than a proper villain; he found that the series lacked a strong, female antagonist.
### Powers
Christy is the older of Carl and Helen Jenkins's two daughters. Both of her parents are mortal, and her powers were inherited from her maternal grandmother, making her a carrier of the genes determining magical ability. As a witch, Christy possesses the basic ability to cast spells, perform rituals, brew potions, scry for lost people or objects through the use of a crystal pendant, and communicate with the dead.
Christy also possesses an advanced form of telepathy, enabling her to hear and project her thoughts, as well as channeling other magical creatures' powers. Carl and Helen Jenkins (David Starzyk and Barbara Niven) said Christy heard voices prior to her kidnapping, implying that this power was already active. As a firestarter, Christy had the power of pyrokinesis; this power could be augmented by Billie's projection powers to vanquish demons previously believed to be invincible. Christy was identified as the Key to the Ultimate Power due to her relationship with Billie. Demain of Television Without Pity compared Christy to Buffy the Vampire Slayer character Dawn Summers as they were both referenced as the Key.
## Appearances
### Television
As a child, Christy was kidnapped by a demon called Reinhardt (Brian Oerly) as part of a plan by the demonic council known as the Triad (Steven J. Oliver, Søren Oliver, and Leland Crooke) to destroy the Charmed Ones: Piper Halliwell (Holly Marie Combs), Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano), and Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan). Prior to her abduction, the Triad sent the demon Dumain (Anthony Cistaro) to pose as Christy's imaginary friend and corrupt her. It is implied that Christy had some awareness about the Triad as her parents found the council's symbol on the final page of her diary. During the fifteen years of her kidnapping, Christy is taught to believe that it is her destiny to unite with her sister Billie Jenkins (Kaley Cuoco) and stop the Charmed Ones since they have become corrupted by their selfish desires. After gaining the power to warp reality, Billie travels back in time to speak with an 11-year-old Christy, and tracks down her location. She rescues Christy off-screen between the episodes "12 Angry Zen" and "The Last Temptation of Christy".
With the Halliwells' help, Billie attempts to help Christy reintegrate back into everyday life and to gain control over her powers. Billie and the Halliwells are unaware of Christy's collaboration with the Triad. The Triad identifies Billie as the Ultimate Power, which was foreshadowed in earlier episodes as the season's big bad, and refers to Christy as the key to unlocking Billie's power. The Triad arranges for Christy's parents to be killed by a pair of Noxon demons (John Rosenfeld and David S. Lee), believing prolonged contact with them could sway her morality to the side of good. Billie becomes angry by the Halliwell sisters when they decide to interrogate the demons to gather more information about the Ultimate Power rather than killing them to avenge her parents' deaths. Christy uses Billie's feeling of betrayal to turn her against the Charmed Ones. Billie and Christy vanquish the Noxon demons, who were previously believed to be invincible, and the Halliwell sisters realize that Billie is the Ultimate Power.
Christy attempts to convince Billie that the Charmed Ones only use their powers for their own personal gain rather than to support the greater good; however, Billie expresses doubts about whether or not it is really their destiny to stop the Charmed Ones. Billie agrees with Christy's plans to kill the Halliwells after exploring the sisters' dreams and believing their "inner-truths" were driven by selfish desires. After turning the magical community against the Halliwells, Billie and Christy engage in the ultimate battle with the sisters, which destroys the Halliwell Manor and kills Christy, Phoebe, and Paige. Billie uses her projection power to travel back in time to save Christy, and discovers that she knowingly working with the Triad. She questions Christy's morality, and reunites with the Halliwell sisters to help them defeat the Triad. Christy and Dumain steal the cupid Coop's (Victor Webster) ring to travel back in time to warn the Triad about the outcome of the ultimate battle. Billie helps the sisters project back in time to vanquish the Triad and the past and present versions of Dumain. Billie unsuccessfully attempts to convince Christy to come back home with her. Christy refuses and throws a fireball at Billie and the Halliwell sisters; Billie telekinetically deflects it back at her and kills her.
### Literature
Christy is also referenced in the comic books and novels based on the Charmed television series. In "Trickery Treat", Paige experiences guilt over her inability to prevent the massacre of the magic community instigated by Christy. Leo is also shown as still coping with Christy's betrayal. He keeps a scorch mark left by Christy on one of the manor's walls as a reminder to Piper that the house is no longer a "danger-free zone", and that she is not invincible. In the Charmed: Season 9 issue "The Heavens Can Wait", Prue Halliwell reveals that Billie and Christy were not destined to be powerful enough to confront the Charmed Ones. She explains that her bond to the Charmed Ones prophecy, extending even after her death, restricted her sisters from reaching their true powers and made them vulnerability to the Triad's plot with Billie and Christy. Christy does not make a physical appearance in either instance.
## Reception
Television critics have expressed differing opinions about Christy's story arc with Billie. DVD Talk's Jeffrey Robinson felt that Billie and Christy were the strongest parts of the season, and Sheldon Wiebe of the entertainment website Eclipsemagazine.com regarded the characters as re-establishing a "dark undercurrent" reminiscent of the show's first and second seasons. Shawn S. Lealos of CHUD.com agreed that Billie and Christy's story was the highlight of the season, but asserted that more screen-time should have been given to properly develop Christy's character.
Christy's role as a villain has been widely praised by television commentators, though Patterson's performance was the subject of negative criticism. Spanos placed Christy as number three on its list of 161 of the series' antagonist as rated by scariness. Demain praised Christy as an interesting character following the reveal that she was secretly working for the Triad. Gavin Hetherington, on the other hand, wrote he was indifferent about Christy, and found Billie to be the stronger character of the two. The story arc was criticized by Digital Spy*'s Hugh Armitage, who felt it was weakened by Patterson's "habit of pulling 'evil' faces when no one could see her like a pantomime villain". Jon Langmead of PopMatters* summarized Patterson's acting as "huff[ing] and puff[ing] through her on-camera time".
Critics have commented that Christy was a sign of the show's declining quality. Christy and Billie were identified as one of the eight things that derailed the series by Armitage, who called them "the gruesome twosome". Hetherington opined that the Jenkins sisters were disappointing villains for the show's final season compared to Gideon (Gildart Jackson) and Zankou (Oded Fehr) from season six and season seven respectively. Langmead regarded the familial relationship as weaker than those already explored by the show. |
510,896 | USS Bougainville (CVE-100) | 1,172,730,297 | Casablanca-class escort carrier of the US Navy | [
"Casablanca-class escort carriers",
"S4-S2-BB3 ships",
"Ships built in Vancouver, Washington",
"World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States"
]
| USS Bougainville (CVE-100) was the forty-sixth of fifty Casablanca-class escort carrier built for the United States Navy during World War II. She was named after the Bougainville campaign, a prolonged action against Japanese forces entrenched in the island of Bougainville off Papua New Guinea . The ship was launched in May 1944, and commissioned in June, and served as a replenishment carrier in support of the invasion of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa. She was decommissioned in November 1946, when she was mothballed in the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Ultimately, she was sold for scrapping in August 1960.
## Design and description
Bougainville was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was 512 ft 3 in (156.13 m) long overall, with a length 490 ft (150 m) at the waterline, she had a beam of 65 ft 2 in (19.86 m), at her widest point, this was 108 ft (33 m), and a draft of 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m). She displaced 8,188 long tons (8,319 t) standard, 10,902 long tons (11,077 t) with a full load. She had a 257 ft (78 m) long hangar deck and a 477 ft (145 m) long flight deck. She was powered with two Uniflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing 9,000 shp (6,700 kW), thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of 10,240 nmi (18,960 km; 11,780 mi) at a speed of 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph). Her compact size necessitated the installation of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft.
One 5-inch (127 mm)/38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight Bofors 40 millimeters (1.6 in) anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as 12 Oerlikon 20-millimeter (0.79 in) cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20-mm cannons, and the amount of 40-mm guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Although Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to function with a crew of 860 and an embarked squadron of 50 to 56, the exigencies of wartime often necessitated the inflation of the crew count. The carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more. Because Bougainville only operated in a replenishment capability, she usually operated with about 60 aircraft on board, the maximum carrying capacity at which take-offs would still be possible.
## Construction
Her construction was awarded to Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington under a Maritime Commission contract, on 18 June 1942, under the name Didrickson Bay, as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds in Alaska. She was renamed Bougainville, as part of a new naval policy which named subsequent Casablanca-class carriers after naval or land engagements. The escort carrier was laid down on 3 March 1944, MC hull 1137, the forty-sixth of a series of fifty Casablanca-class escort carriers. She was launched on 16 May 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Sally A. Monfort; transferred to the United States Navy and commissioned on 18 June 1944, with Captain Charles Alonzo Bond in command.
## Service history
### World War II
Upon being commissioned, Bougainville got underway, on 7 July, on a shakedown cruise down the West Coast to San Diego. Upon arriving, she was assigned to the Carrier Transport Squadron of the Pacific Fleet. The carrier departed on 25 July with a load of aircraft, bound for the West Pacific. Transiting via Pearl Harbor, she headed to Majuro, in the Marshall Islands. She returned to the West Coast on 23 August, and following a seventeen-day period at port, she left on 9 September for another transport mission. She steamed to Finschhafen, New Guinea, before proceeding to Manus Island in the Admiralty Islands, where she unloaded her aircraft. There, she took on an air group returning to Pearl Harbor, arriving at Oahu in mid-October.
After unloading her cargo, she took on a complement of sixty-four fighter aircraft, all bound for the Mariana Islands. After arriving at Saipan, her crew went to general quarters for the first time on 3 November in response to Japanese aircraft. Departing on 4 November, she headed to Guam, before returning to Pearl Harbor. In the closing months of 1944, Bougainville made another transport mission from Pearl Harbor to the Marianas, making a stop at Eniwetok. Upon completing her mission, she departed in mid-December for the West Coast, arriving at San Diego on 22 December. There, she underwent another stay of availability, until 7 January 1945, when she headed back into the Pacific.
She stopped at Pearl Harbor on 13 January, where she commenced flight training and gunnery exercises. Upon the completion of these activities, she departed Hawaiian waters on 30 January, arriving back at Eniwetok a week later. There, on 8 February, she was assigned to become a replenishment carrier as a part of Task Group 50.8.4, the mobile replenishment group supporting the frontline Fifth Fleet. She served alongside three other escort carriers, Admiralty Islands, Attu, and Windham Bay. Replenishment escort carriers such as Bougainville enabled the frontline carriers to replace battle losses, and to stay at sea for longer durations of time. She departed Eniwetok to commence her replenishment duties on 9 February.
For the next four months, Bougainville operated in a replenishment capability, supplying the Third Fleet's Fast Carrier Task Force with supplies, replacement aircraft, and munitions. She first supported Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher's carriers as they conducted operations in support of the landings on Iwo Jima. Upon the conclusion of said campaign, she providing aircraft to replace losses sustained in raids against the Japanese mainland, and she also provided support throughout the first six weeks of the Battle of Okinawa. During the Okinawa campaign, she had the task of providing replacement aircraft for both the escort carriers and the fleet carriers. Throughout her service as a replenishment carrier, she received supplies and additional aircraft from bases located within Eniwetok, Guam, and Ulithi in the Caroline Islands.
On 5 June, Bougainville, along with the ships of Task Group 38.1 and Task Group 30.8, was trapped in the path of Typhoon Connie, which was proceeding northwards, and on a course to the east of Okinawa. Admiral William Halsey Jr., which had already led the Third Fleet into the deadly Typhoon Cobra in December 1944, now managed to lead the Third Fleet yet again into another deadly storm. At the peak of the storm, Windham Bay experienced estimated winds of 127 kn (235 km/h; 146 mph) and waves towering some 75 ft (23 m) high. As Task Group 50.8 emerged from the typhoon, Bougainville had suffered considerable damage, in both her hull, and her aircraft contingent. Twenty-seven planes on Bougainville had been lost or wrecked, and most of her remaining planes, located in her hangar deck, were inaccessible, because both of her aircraft elevators had been jammed. In addition, her flight deck supports had been damaged, and she suffered much additional superficial damage.
In mid-June, Bougainville was released from her replenishment duties, when she undertook a transport mission to bases located within the Philippines, before returning to Guam. After completing her mission, she steamed eastward, pausing at Pearl Harbor, before arriving back at San Diego, where she lay in port until early August for repairs and replenishment. On 9 August, she left San Diego, bound yet again for the West Pacific. En route, her crew received news of the Japanese surrender on 15 August. After stops at Pearl Harbor and Guam, she was anchored off of the island of Roi-Namur when the formal signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender was occurring on 2 September. There, she loaded inoperational aircraft, before heading back to Oahu. At Pearl Harbor, she took on a load of aircraft and passengers, departing port on 12 September, stopping at Apra Harbor, Guam, where she disembarked some passengers and took on additional aircraft. Continuing westwards, she anchored at Nakagusuku Bay on 27 September, before leaving harbor the following day to evade Typhoon Jean, which appeared to heading for the Okinawa Islands.
Bougainville returned to port on 3 October, where she took on two Marine Corps observation squadrons, VMO-3 and VMO-6, which were headed to China for occupation duty. On 10 October, she arrived at the Taku Forts, where she disembarked VMO-3, which was attached to the 3rd Marines. Proceeding southwards, she arrived at Qingdao on 11 October, and on 12 October, VMO-6, which was attached to the 6th Marines, disembarked. After a layover of four days at Qingdao, she steamed for Okinawa on 16 October. She entered Nakagusuku Bay on 19 October, where she took on a load of inoperational aircraft and passengers. Steaming eastwards, she made a brief layover at Pearl Harbor, arriving back at the West Coast by the end of October.
After a long stay in port, Bougainville once again departed on 28 November, heading to Eniwetok, via Pearl Harbor. She returned to San Diego on 12 January 1946, whereupon she steamed northwards, arriving at Tacoma, Washington in late-January. There, inactivation work was conducted, and she was placed in reserve on 29 July. She was decommissioned on 30 November, and mothballed in the Pacific Reserve Fleet, as part of its Tacoma Group. Whilst in reserve, she was reclassified as a utility aircraft carrier (CVU-100) on 12 June 1955. She was further reclassified as an aircraft ferry (AKV-35) on 7 May 1959. She was struck from the Navy list on 1 April 1960, and she was sold on 9 September to the Cole Export Corp. Delivered on 7 November, she was ultimately broken up in Japan later that year. Bougainville received two battle stars for her World War II service. |
492,207 | Black Cat (manga) | 1,168,852,797 | Japanese manga series by Kentaro Yabuki | [
"2003 Japanese novels",
"2005 anime television series debuts",
"Adventure anime and manga",
"Anime and manga about revenge",
"Anime series based on manga",
"Funimation",
"Gonzo (company)",
"Light novels",
"Manga adapted into television series",
"Science fiction anime and manga",
"Shueisha franchises",
"Shueisha manga",
"Shōnen manga",
"TBS Television (Japan) original programming",
"Thriller anime and manga",
"Viz Media manga"
]
| Black Cat (stylized in all caps) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Kentaro Yabuki. It was originally serialized in publisher Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from July 2000 to June 2004, with the chapters later collected into twenty tankōbon (bound volumes) by Shueisha. The story centers on a man named Train Heartnet who withdrew from an elite group of assassins called the Chronos Numbers to become a bounty hunter.
The series was adapted into a twenty-four episode anime television series by studio Gonzo, which originally aired on Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) from October 2005 to March 2006. The manga was licensed for English-language publication in North America by Viz Media and in Australasia by Madman Entertainment. Funimation Entertainment licensed the anime for an English dub and North American broadcast on their own Funimation Channel, with Madman releasing it in Australasia and MVM Films in the United Kingdom.
In Japan, the Black Cat manga sold over 12 million copies, while in North America several volumes have been featured in weekly top ten lists of best-selling manga. The anime has also been popular in both Japan and North America. Manga and anime critics had praise for Black Cat's action, differing views on the artwork and characters, and mainly negative comments for its plot which has been criticized for having typical elements of shōnen manga (targeted at boys).
## Plot
Set in a fictional universe, Train Heartnet, once an assassin for Chronos, an organization bent on world peace that rules one third of the world's economy, is now an easygoing Sweeper (licensed bounty hunter) traveling with his partner Sven Vollfied. They meet and team up with professional thief Rinslet Walker in order to break into an arms dealer's home and obtain some data, but encounter a human bio-weapon named Eve that was created using nanotechnology. Sven and Train ultimately decide to free Eve from her owner and train her to be a Sweeper. Rinslet is kidnapped by Creed Diskenth, a former Chronos assassin that killed Train's friend Saya Minatsuki for changing Train's outlook on life and which contributed to him leaving Chronos, to persuade Train to join his group the Apostles of the Stars in order to overthrow Chronos and start a world revolution. The duel ends as a draw, with both Creed and Train injured.
The Apostles of the Stars launch their first attack on the World Summit, killing the leaders from 20 top nations, causing Chronos to declare war on them. Chronos even notify Train of a new Sweeper bounty on Creed in order to gain his help, though he resists, planning to go after him on his own terms. Chronos assassin Jenos Hazard is sent to hire Rinslet to gather information on the Apostles, however, this is really in order to use her as bait to lure Creed out of hiding and force Train to get involved, who was lured to the same area via false Sweeper intel. Jenos and the other two members of the special unit Cerebus launch an assault on Creed's lair, that results in it being turned to rubble, while Train simply rescues Rinslet and leaves. Creed then tries to kill Sven, believing he is holding Train back from joining him, but accidentally shoots Train with a nanomachine-enhanced bullet that has the unplanned effect of reverting his body to that of a child. In order to return Train to normal, Train, Sven and Eve visit nanotechnology expert Dr. Tearju, who is also Eve's creator. While there, the Apostles of the Stars attack to force Tearju to join them in order to grant Creed eternal life through nanomachines, but are defeated by a returned Train who can now fire a railgun shot thanks to the nanomachines. However, Eathes was able to copy Tearju, gaining all of her knowledge, and Train, Sven and Eve finally decide to put a stop to Creed.
They team up with a group called the Sweeper Alliance to storm the Apostles of the Stars' island, organized by Chronos assassin Lin Shaolee in disguise to act as decoys for Chronos' own attack. Separated upon arriving, Train, Sven and Eve each get involved in fights with members of the Apostles, while Chronos, who landed after them, get to Creed first. Sephiria Arks faces off against Creed, but loses. Sven, Eve and Chronos then fight bio-warrior weapons fused with nanotechnology, while Train begins his battle with Creed. Creed has obtained immortality, although he reveals to Train his only weakness; his brain cannot be repaired like the rest of his body. Train defeats Creed using one last full-powered railgun shot to destroy his Imagine Blade and Eve uses her own nanomachines to take those that give Creed immortality out of his body. Train and Sephiria allow Creed to walk away, and the survivors of the Apostles of the Stars are shown on the run or hiding.
## Production
Six months before Black Cat began, Kentaro Yabuki's one-shot version titled Stray Cat was published. While it already included Sweepers and Tao, Train and Sven were Delivery Men instead. With Black Cat he wanted to expand on ideas he used in his previous serial Yamato Gensoki; an assassin betraying an organization, and the use of chi or life energy. His weekly schedule was four days to write the chapter and two to draw it, taking one day off. When the manga ended serialization, Yabuki expressed desire to make a sequel labeling this series as "Part 1". As he was not sure if there could be a sequel, he still remarked that the characters of Train Heartnet and Eve may appear in other titles he will create in the future.
## Media
### Manga
Written and illustrated by Kentaro Yabuki, Black Cat was originally serialized in Shueisha in the shōnen manga anthology Weekly Shōnen Jump from July 11, 2000, to June 14, 2004. Its 185 chapters were collected into 20 tankōbon (bound volumes) by Shueisha, released from January 6, 2001, to October 4, 2004. The series was re-released in twelve bunkobon format volumes, published from September 16, 2005 to February 17, 2006. Black Cat has also been published as part of the Shueisha Jump Remix series of magazine-style books. Nine volumes were released between March 24, and July 19, 2008.
It was licensed in English in North America by Viz Media as they first announced at the 2005 San Diego Comic-Con International. The first volume released on March 7, 2006 with the final volume released on May 5, 2009. Madman Entertainment published Viz's English release in Australia and New Zealand, from September 10, 2008 to June 10, 2009. The series was published in Chinese by Tong Li Publishing, in Dutch by Glénat Benelux, in French by Glénat, in German by Carlsen Comics, and in Italian by Star Comics.
### Anime
A 24-episode animated adaptation of the manga was produced by Shueisha, GDH, Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS), and Gonzo. It is directed by Shin Itagaki, with Shūichi Kōyama handling series composition, Yukiko Akiyama designing the characters and Taku Iwasaki composing the music. The series was broadcast on TBS from October 6, 2005 to March 30, 2006. Episode fifteen was not broadcast by TBS, but only included in the DVD release in Japan. On its airing on Animax all episodes were broadcast. The series was released across twelve Region 2 DVD volumes from December 21, 2005 to November 22, 2006 by GDH. Each volume was also published by Animate and Movic in Premium Edition which included various extras. The DVD volumes were gathered in a limited release DVD box set by Gonzo on April 23, 2008.
The anime was licensed for an English-language dubbed release by Funimation Entertainment in June 2006. The episodes were later broadcast on the Funimation Channel. The series was then released across six Region 1 DVD volumes released between December 19, 2006 and July 24, 2007. The DVDs were gathered in a box set and released on March 18, 2008. On May 29, 2012, Funimation re-released the box set in a "Super Amazing Value Edition" (S.A.V.E.) edition. Madman Entertainment distributed a box set of the series in the PAL region on September 17, 2008, while MVM Films released it on November 15, 2010 in the United Kingdom.
An anime soundtrack entitled Black Cat Original Soundtrack Nikukyu was released on March 15, 2006 by EMI Music Japan. It contains the anime's background music that was composed by Taku Iwasaki, and the three pieces of theme music used for the series: the opening theme by Yorico, the first ending theme by Puppypet, and the second ending theme by Ryōji Matsuda.
### Other media
Tomohito Ōsaki wrote three light novels based on the series. Simply titled Black Cat and Black Cat 2, the first two were released on March 10, and August 25, 2003. Titled , the last one that serves as the sequel to the manga, was released in Japan on October 24, 2005.
In 2005, there were three drama CDs, simply titled Black Cat 1–3, released by Shueisha on February 28, July 1, and October 4, respectively. An internet radio program was broadcast from March 30, to September 28, 2006, by the Onsen and hosted by Takashi Kondō and Misato Fukuen, the voice of Train and Eve respectively. Later, Frontier Works collected in into three CDs and released on October 21, November 18, and December 16, 2006.
There have been two video games based on the series released in Japan. was released for the PlayStation 2 on March 30, 2006 by Capcom. was released for the Nintendo DS on June 21, 2007 by Compile Heart. Characters of the Black Cat series have also made appearances in the games Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars. In Japan, various other types of merchandise were released, including action figures, plush dolls, key chains, clothing, cosplay pieces, and a trading card game by Movic.
## Reception
### Public response
Black Cat's twenty volumes have sold over 12 million units in Japan. Volumes from Viz's English publication of the series have also featured in best-selling manga rankings such as The New York Times as well as Nielsen BookScan. During 2006, Black Cat was North America's 9th best manga property, according to ICv2. In ICv2's Top 50 Manga, Black Cat was listed as the 15th manga property from North America during the first half of 2008. In ICv2's Top 25 Manga Properties Q1 2009, it was the 22nd best manga property from North America during 2009's first quarter.
The Black Cat anime premiered in Japan with a 3.4 percent television viewership rating. In 2006, Japanese television network TV Asahi conducted a "Top 100" online web poll, and Black Cat placed 93rd. In the subsequent year, it ranked 17th in a "Top 20" poll conducted by Japanese anime magazine Animage. Navarre Corporation cited the DVD releases of Black Cat as one of the reasons for Funimation's profit increase during the last quarter of 2006. The anime was listed as North America's 22nd anime property in summer 2008.
### Critical response
The manga has been praised for its fast-paced action, which "epitomizes the action genre", according to Anime News Network's Carlo Santos. Alexander Hoffman from Comics Village praised Yabuki for starting the story off with action rather than having a large amount of "info-dumps" for extensive character introductions. Writing for Manga Life, Michael Aronson commended it for having a restrained pace, layout and action scenes, calling it "more western" than Japanese because of it. Holly Ellingwood of Active Anime commented that Black Cat "knows how to pack the action and the excitement to good effect, visuals and nail-biting suspense." Sheena McNeil stressed that despite its flaws the series' action "makes it all worth reading." Ken Haley of Pop Culture Shock said that "writing and characterization-wise" it is a typical shōnen manga. Santos, Hoffman and McNeil criticized its plot for being "predictable", clichéd, and "not terribly original" respectively. Leroy Douresseaux of Comic Book Bin called it "an easy going version of Bleach", while Hoffman found it reminiscent of Cowboy Bebop, and McNeil compared it to Dragon Ball Z.
Santos called its art "plain", while McNeil commented that it "is very nice" but "there's nothing wow-ing about it," and likewise Haley considered the art sufficient enough to get "the job done", but that none of the characters are "cool or eye-catching". Conversely, Hoffman labeled the art "expressive", and Douresseaux deemed the character designs "imaginative." While Aronson and Hoffman dubbed the characters "likeable" and "memorable," Douresseaux asserted Yabuki "create[d] a joyful jumble of motivations and backstabbing" for them. On the other hand, Santos affirmed they "just don't feel real" as their motivations "aren't emotionally moving in any way; they're just plot points that give the characters motivation."
The contrast between "Train's seriousness and Sven's comedy" was appreciated by Sandra Scholes of Active Anime. Margaret Viera of the same site hailed its comedy usage as "well done and perfectly placed within the storyline." Its mixture of genres was appreciated by Scholes, as well as by IGN's Jeff Harris who said "it never appears too overdone." Ross Liversidge of UK Anime Network, however, commented that this makes it "a little hard to discern what the series is aiming for." While Stig Høgset, writing for THEM Anime Reviews, said the supernatural powers are "kept at a fairly realistic level", Liversidge felt the anime's ending was "just slightly too fantastical to be taken seriously." Høgset and Harris praised the show's imagery, with the latter claiming that it has a "story that in many ways improves on the original manga and fixes some of its problems." |
526,876 | STS-74 | 1,140,948,739 | 1995 American crewed spaceflight to Mir | [
"Space Shuttle missions",
"Spacecraft launched in 1995"
]
| STS-74 was the fourth mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program, and the second docking of the Space Shuttle with Mir. Space Shuttle Atlantis lifted off from Kennedy Space Center launch pad 39A on 12 November 1995. The mission ended 8 days later with the landing of Atlantis back at Kennedy. It was the second in a series of seven straight missions to the station flown by Atlantis.
The shuttle delivered a pair of solar arrays along with the Russian-built Mir Docking Module to allow docking with the station by the space shuttle without moving Mirs Kristall module. During the three-day docking, the Russian, Canadian, and American crew transferred supplies and equipment between Atlantis and Mir, moved several long-term experiments, and upgraded the station with new equipment, particularly during the installation of the docking module.
## Crew
## Mission background
The crew's preparation for the mission had begun some thirteen months earlier in 1994, with the crew being trained in the operation of the space shuttle, the mating and docking procedures that would be required as Atlantis approached Mir later in the mission, and the management of the various scientific experiments being carried on the orbiter during the mission.
Preparation of Atlantis itself for mission STS-74 began with the replacement of three thrusters in Atlantiss right-hand Orbital Maneuvering System pod in bay 2 of the Orbiter Processing Facility on 25 August 1995. Installation of the three Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) on Atlantis was completed on 5 September 1995, as were closeout operations on the Russian docking module.
On 7 November, engineers determined that there was no additional work needed to verify the solid rocket boosters for flight, following discovery of small cracks in the hold-down posts attached to boosters that had flown earlier that year. Close inspections of the STS-74 stack determined that no such cracks were present on the boosters to be used for the mission.
Pad 39A was cleared on 9 November in preparation for loading of the onboard cryogenic tanks with the cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen reactants that provided electricity through the three onboard fuel cells, and water for the flight as a by-product.
The initial launch attempt, scheduled for 11 November 1995 at 7:56 am EST (12:56 UTC) was postponed due to poor weather at the Transatlantic Abort (TAL) site. The original launch window was 6 min 57 secs and the countdown had begun on schedule. The crew was on board when the postponement was called at the T-minus 5 minute mark at approximately 7:51 am EST (12:51 UTC).
## Mission timeline
### 12 November (launch and flight day 1)
Following a poll of the mission management team at 7:12 am EST in which all stations (with the exception of the Shuttle Range Officer) returned a "go for launch" and the eventual clearance of the range for launch at 7:20 am EST, Atlantis raced into the sky at the beginning of a 10-minute, 9-second launch window following a flawless countdown with no unscheduled holds. The shuttle lifted off the pad at 7:30:43 am EST; the main engines were shut down at 7:39 am EST.
About 43 minutes after launch, a 2-minute and 13 second engine firing changed the shuttle's path into a 162 nautical mile circular orbit. Once on orbit, the five crew members began configuring Atlantis for on-orbit operations. Atlantiss payload bay doors were opened about 90 minutes into the flight, followed by a "go" for on-orbit operations.
Approximately three hours into the flight, Commander Ken Cameron and Pilot Jim Halsell fired the orbiter's reaction control thrusters in the first of a series of rendezvous burns that refined Atlantiss path towards Mir. Shortly after the burn, the first Canadian mission specialist, Chris Hadfield, activated the Russian-built docking module, housed in the shuttle's payload bay, ready for the docking of the module with Atlantis's Orbiter Docking System on flight day 2.
### 13 November (flight day 2)
The five-member crew aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis spent the bulk of their first full day in space readying the orbiter and its payloads for the 14 November mating of the Russian docking module to the Orbiter Docking System in advance of the 15 November docking to Mir. Both the module and the docking system were located in Atlantiss payload bay.
Mission specialists Jerry Ross and Bill McArthur inspected the spacesuits they would don should a spacewalk become necessary during the mating or docking operations. Following the space suit inspection, Mission Specialist Chris Hadfield powered up the orbiter's robot arm in preparation for the next day's transfer of the docking module over to ''Atlantiss docking system. All systems affiliated with the robot arm operated as expected and were ready to support the mating.
The crew members also checked out the Advanced Space Vision System, a precise alignment system for the robot arm that was tested on STS-74. The OSVS, which was used during the mating operation, consisted of a series of large dots placed on the exterior of the docking module and the docking system.
The day's schedule also included the installation and alignment of the centerline camera in the centre of the Orbiter Docking System. The camera later assisted Commander Ken Cameron in final piloting tasks as Atlantis moved towards and docked with Mir. At 5:00 am CST (11:00 UTC) on day 2, Atlantis was about 4,000 statute miles behind Mir, and was closing in to the space station at a rate of about 380 statute miles per orbit.
Cameron, Hadfield and other available crew members also spent the morning answering questions posed by Canadian reporters located in Montreal and Toronto. Hadfield, a Canadian Space Agency astronaut, was the fourth Canadian astronaut to fly on the shuttle.
With all of the systems that were to put the Russian Docking Module in place for a flight day 4 link-up with Mir checked out and ready to go, the STS-74 crew settled down for 8 hours of sleep that afternoon.
### 14 November (flight day 3)
On flight day 3, the STS-74 crew members successfully mated the 15-foot Russian built docking module with the shuttle's Orbiter Docking System. No problems were reported during the mating operation.
Chris Hadfield, a Canadian Space Agency astronaut and STS-74 mission specialist, used the shuttle's robot arm to hoist the docking module out of the aft portion of the payload bay, rotated it to a vertical position, and moved it to within five inches of the Orbiter Docking System. At that point, the shuttle fired its downward steering jets and moved the shuttle toward the docking module. Once the two spacecraft were locked together, the docking ring on the Orbiter Docking System retracted, and a series of hooks and latches were engaged to ensure an airtight seal between the two spacecraft.
The mating was confirmed at 1:17 am CST, with Atlantis over eastern Europe on its 30th orbit. Shortly after the capture, Commander Ken Cameron expressed the crew's appreciation for the training that prepared them for the docking module installation.
At about 3:00 am CST, the crew received a go from ground flight controllers to ungrapple the robot arm from the docking module. Shortly after that, crew members raised the orbiter's cabin pressure from 10.2 pounds per square inch to 14.7 psi. The cabin's pressure was lowered in the event that a problem during the mating process necessitated an emergency spacewalk.
Crew members also mounted a centerline camera into the top hatch of the docking module. The camera later provided the primary visual cue for Cameron as he maneuvered Atlantis to its docking with Mir on flight day four.
By 5:00 am EST, Atlantis was trailing Mir by about 1,450 statute miles and closing at a rate of about 180 statute miles every orbit. A series of rendezvous jet firings later further refined the closing rate, leading up to a docking with Mir at 06:27:38 UTC on 15 November.
### 15 November (flight day 4 and docking)
Atlantis finally docked to Mir's Kristall module using the docking module's top androgynous unit on flight day 4. The tension was high aboard Atlantis as Cameron maneuvered the shuttle towards Mir using the orbiter's thrusters. Atlantis docked with Mir at 06:27:38 UTC following a faultless set of orbital maneuvers. After all the required checks had been completed and the hatches had been opened, the five shuttle astronauts moved into Mir, ready to carry out three days of combined operations with Mirs resident crew, Russian cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Avdeyev (carrying out the Mir EO-20 expedition) and ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter (flying on the Euromir 95 expedition). The two crews greeted each other with handshakes and hugs before carrying out a traditional gift exchange, with flowers and chocolates being swapped between the crews.
### 16–19 November (flight days 5–8)
During the three days of combined Shuttle-Mir operations, Atlantiss crew transferred various items from the shuttle to the space station, including water, supplies, and equipment, along with two new solar arrays (one Russian and one jointly-developed) to upgrade Mir.
The crew also transferred various experiment samples, equipment for repair and analysis and products manufactured on Mir back to Atlantis for transfer back to Earth, along with the University of California Berkeley Trek Experiment which had been flying on orbit aboard Mir for the previous four years.
Meanwhile, flying aboard Atlantis was the GPP payload which consisted of two experiments – the GPP experiment and the Photogrammetric Appendage Structural Dynamics Experiment (PASDE). The payload was managed by Goddard Space Flight Center's Special Payloads Division. The GPP studied the Earth's thermosphere, ionosphere and mesosphere energetics and dynamics using broadband spectroscopy. GPP also studied spacecraft interactions with the atmosphere by observing shuttle and Mir glow, shuttle engine firings, water dumps and fuel cell purges.
Three PASDE canisters, located throughout the cargo bay, also photogrammetrically recorded structural response data of the Mir solar arrays during the docked phase of the mission. This data was later analyzed on the ground to verify the use of photogrammetric techniques to characterize the structural dynamics of the array, thus demonstrating that this technology would result in cost and risk reduction for the International Space Station.
At 08:15:44 UTC on 18 November, Atlantis undocked from the docking module's bottom androgynous unit, leaving the docking module permanently attached to the Kristall module, where it provided clearance between the shuttle and Mirs solar arrays during subsequent dockings.
### 20 November (flight day 9 and landing)
Flight day 9 consisted primarily of preparations for landing, and the landing itself. Atlantiss deorbit burn was performed on orbit 128 at around 11:00 am EST (16:00 UTC), leading to a landing at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on Runway 33 of the Shuttle Landing Facility.
The main landing gear touched down at 12:01:27 pm EST (17:01:27 UTC) on 20 November, a mission elapsed time (MET) of 8 days 4 hours 30 minutes and 44 seconds. Nose gear touched down at 8 days 4 hours 30 minutes 54 seconds (12:01:37 pm EST – 17:01:37 UTC) and Atlantis''' wheels stopped at a MET of 8 days 4 hours 31 minutes 42 seconds (12:02:24 pm EST – 17:02:24 UTC), bringing the 73rd space shuttle mission to a close.
A second landing opportunity had been planned in case of bad weather, for a KSC landing at 1:37 pm EST with a deorbit burn at 12:36 pm on orbit 129, but it was not required.
## See also
- List of human spaceflights
- List of human spaceflights to Mir
- List of Space Shuttle missions
- Outline of space science |
29,507,953 | Psilocybe pelliculosa | 1,130,473,034 | Species of fungus | [
"Entheogens",
"Fungi described in 1937",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of North America",
"Psilocybe",
"Psychedelic tryptamine carriers",
"Psychoactive fungi",
"Taxa named by Alexander H. Smith"
]
| Psilocybe pelliculosa is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have a conical brownish cap up to 2 cm (3⁄4 in) in diameter atop a slender stem up to 8 cm (3+1⁄8 in) long. It has a white partial veil that does not leave a ring on the stem. American mycologist Alexander H. Smith first described the species in 1937 as a member of the genus known today as Psathyrella; it was transferred to Psilocybe by Rolf Singer in 1958.
Psilocybe pelliculosa is found in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada, where it grows on the ground in groups or clusters along trails or forest roads in coniferous woods. A single collection has also been reported from Finland, and also in Norway. The mushrooms contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and baeocystin, although at relatively low concentrations. Several mushroom species that are similar in appearance to P. pelliculosa can be distinguished by subtle differences in the form of the fruit body, or by microscopic characteristics.
## Taxonomy
The species was first described scientifically by Alexander H. Smith in 1937 as Psathyra pelliculosa, based on specimens he collected in Washington and Oregon. The type specimen was collected near Tahkenitch Lake, Oregon, in November 1935. In a 1941 publication, Smith revised his opinion, and considered the species to be the same as Hypholoma silvatica (later Psilocybe silvatica), as he thought that the slight differences between the two were of no taxonomic significance. After reevaluating these two species in addition to several others closely related, Rolf Singer and Smith later reestablished the taxon and transferred it to Psilocybe in 1958. Psilocybe authority Gastón Guzmán classified the species in the section Semilanceatae, a grouping of related species characterized by having roughly ellipsoid, usually thick-walled spores, and lacking pleurocystidia.
The specific epithet pelliculosa is derived from the Latin pellicula, meaning "film", and refers to the gelatinous pellicle of the cap. The mushroom is commonly known as the "conifer Psilocybe" or the "striate Psilocybe".
## Description
The cap of P. pelliculosa is initially sharply cone-shaped, and expands slightly over time to become broadly bell-shaped, but it never expands to become completely flat. The cap margin is pressed against the stem initially, and for a short time is appendiculate (has partial veil fragments hanging from the margin). The caps of mature specimens are smooth, sticky, and have translucent radial striations that reach dimensions of 0.8 to 2 cm (3⁄8 to 3⁄4 in) in diameter. The color ranges from umber to isabella (dark dingy yellow-brown) when the mushroom is moist, and changes to pinkish-buff when dry. The cap margin can have a greenish-gray tinge. The cap cuticle is a thin gelatinous covering that can be peeled off.
The gills have an adnate attachment to the cap, are narrow to moderately broad, closely spaced, and eventually separate from the stem. Young gills are cinnamon-brown in color, with lighter edges, but darken in maturity because they become covered with the dark spores. The stem is 6 to 8 cm (2+3⁄8 to 3+1⁄8 in) long by 1.5 to 2 mm (1⁄16 to 3⁄32 in) thick, and roughly equal in width throughout except for a slightly enlarged base. The lower region of the stem is brownish in color and has silky "hairs" pressed against the stem; the upper region is grayish and pruinose (lightly dusted with powdery white granules). The flesh turns slightly bluish or greenish where it has been injured. The application of a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide solution on the cap or flesh will cause a color change to pale to dark yellowish to reddish brown; a drop on the stem produces a less intense or no color change.
The spore print is purplish brown. Under the microscope, the spores appear dull purple-brown. They are ellipsoid to somewhat egg-shaped, and, according to Singer's original description, measure 8–10 by 4–5 μm. A later study of specimens collected from British Columbia, Canada, instead reported a larger spore size range of 10–13 by 6–7 μm. The spores have an apical germ pore. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, hyaline (translucent), and measure 22–35 by 7–10 μm. There are abundant cystidia that form a sterile band on the edges of the gills (cheilocystidia); these cystidia are smooth, inflated, and fusoid-ventricose (enlarged in the middle and tapered toward both ends) with a sharp tip, and measure 25–30 by 6–9 μm. The cap cuticle (an ixocutis) is made of a layer of roughly horizontal, gelatinized, wavy, hyaline hyphae that are 0.8–5.5 μm in diameter.
### Similar species
The overall stature of the fruit bodies of P. pelliculosa is generally similar to those of Mycena, Galerina, or Hypholoma. Smith noted a superficial resemblance to Psathyrella fagicola, based on similarities in the nature of the cap cuticle, the coloring, and the stem base covered in silky fibers. Psilocybe pelliculosa may be distinguished from Psathyra fagicola by the presence of a partial veil, firm gills, and smaller fruit bodies. P. pelliculosa is frequently mistaken for the widespread P. semilanceata, but the latter can be distinguished by its larger spores and a conical, papillate cap. Another similar species is Psilocybe silvatica, and a microscope is needed to reliably distinguish between the two species. P. silvatica, found from New York to Michigan and north to Canada, has longer spores. P. pelliculosa has a general resemblance to Hypholoma dispersum, a species found in northern North America and Europe.
## Habitat and distribution
The fruit bodies of P. pelliculosa grow in groups or clusters on moss, forest debris, and humus in coniferous forests. The fungus prefers to fruit in disturbed areas such as trails and abandoned forest roads; it is not commonly found in grasslands. It is known from the Pacific Northwest region of North America where it has been collected in California, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and it is widely distributed in British Columbia, Canada. It is also found in northern Europe, a single collection from Finland. The fungus often fruits along forest paths and abandoned logging roads where alders and firs are growing. Fruit bodies tend to appear in late summer to early winter after cool, wet weather.
## Psychoactivity
Psilocybe pelliculosa contains the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and baeocystin, and is used as a recreational drug. In terms of psychoactive potency, Stamets considers the species "relatively weak". Psilocybin levels have been reported to range from 1.2 to 1.7 milligrams per gram of dried mushroom, while baeocystin was measured at 0.04%.
## See also
- List of Psilocybe species
- List of Psilocybin mushrooms
- Psilocybin mushrooms |
256,134 | James Shields (politician, born 1806) | 1,162,570,760 | American politician and soldier | [
"1806 births",
"1879 deaths",
"19th-century American politicians",
"19th-century Irish politicians",
"American military personnel of the Mexican–American War",
"Auditors of Public Accounts of Illinois",
"Catholics from Illinois",
"Democratic Party United States senators from Illinois",
"Democratic Party United States senators from Minnesota",
"Democratic Party United States senators from Missouri",
"Democratic Party members of the Illinois House of Representatives",
"General Land Office Commissioners",
"Irish emigrants to the United States",
"Irish-American culture in Minnesota",
"Justices of the Illinois Supreme Court",
"Members of the Missouri House of Representatives",
"Members of the United States Senate declared not entitled to their seat",
"Military personnel from Illinois",
"Minnesota Democrats",
"Missouri Democrats",
"People from Kaskaskia, Illinois",
"People of California in the American Civil War",
"Politicians from County Tyrone",
"Union Army generals"
]
| James Shields (May 10, 1806 – June 1, 1879) was an Irish American Democratic politician and United States Army officer, who is the only person in U.S. history to serve as a Senator for three different states, and one of only two to represent multiple states in the U.S. Senate. Shields represented Illinois from 1849 to 1855, in the 31st, 32nd, and 33rd Congresses, Minnesota from 1858 to 1859, in the 35th Congress, and Missouri in 1879, in the 45th Congress.
Born and initially educated in Ireland, Shields emigrated to the Americas in 1826. He was briefly a sailor, and spent time in Quebec, before settling in Kaskaskia, Illinois, where he studied and practiced law. In 1836, he was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives, and later as State Auditor. His work as auditor was criticized by a young Abraham Lincoln, who (with his then fiancée, Mary Todd) published a series of inflammatory pseudonymous letters in a local paper. Shields challenged Lincoln to a duel, and the two nearly fought on September 22, 1842, before making peace, and eventually becoming friends.
In 1845, Shields was appointed to the Illinois Supreme Court, from which he resigned to become Commissioner of the U.S. General Land Office. At the outbreak of the Mexican–American War, he left the Land Office to take an appointment as brigadier general of volunteers. He served with distinction and was twice wounded. In 1848, Shields was appointed to and confirmed by the Senate as the first governor of the Oregon Territory, which he declined. After serving as Senator from Illinois, he moved to Minnesota and founded the town of Shieldsville there. He was then elected as Senator from Minnesota. He served in the American Civil War, and at the Battle of Kernstown, his troops inflicted the only tactical defeat of Stonewall Jackson in the war. Shields resigned his commission shortly thereafter. After moving multiple times, Shields settled in Missouri and served again for three months in the Senate. He died in 1879 and represents Illinois in the National Statuary Hall.
## Early life and career
Shields was born in Altmore, County Tyrone, Ireland, to parents, Charles Shiells/O\`Shiells/Shields and Anne McDonnell, the first of three children. As his father died when Shields was six, his uncle, also named James Shields and also born in Ireland, played a large role in his life. The elder Shields was a professor of Greek and Latin, and served as a Congressman from Ohio.
The younger Shields obtained early schooling at a hedge school near his home, later at a school run by a clergyman from Maynooth College, and subsequently his uncle. He was educated in military science, fencing, and the French language by a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, of which there were many in Ireland at the time. Shields attempted to emigrate to the United States in 1822, but failed when his ship was driven aground off the coast of Scotland, leaving him one of only either three or four survivors. He successfully made it to America around 1826, although his uncle whom he had sailed to meet had died.
Shields took a job as a sailor, becoming a purser on a merchant ship. However, after a time, an accident left Shields disabled, and in the hospital with both legs broken for three months. After the accident, he volunteered and fought in the Second Seminole War, reaching the rank of lieutenant.
He spent some time in Quebec, founding a fencing school. Eventually, Shields settled in Kaskaskia, Randolph County, Illinois, where he studied and began practicing law in 1832, supplementing his income by teaching French. He served as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, beginning in 1836, and in 1839 was elected as state auditor. As auditor, Shields was involved in correcting the state's finances following the Panic of 1837. This was done, at times, through practices that proved unpopular.
### Duel with Abraham Lincoln
Shields almost fought a duel on September 22, 1842, with Abraham Lincoln, then a young lawyer in Springfield, Illinois. Lincoln had published an inflammatory letter in a local newspaper, the Sangamo Journal, that attacked Shields, impersonating a local farmer, and taking the pseudonym of Aunt Becca, or simply Rebecca. At the time, there was great controversy over the use of paper money, or that of gold and silver for the paying of public debts. The Illinois State Bank had been forced to close, and Shields as state auditor had become the target of resentment among members of the Whig Party, and more so given the upcoming 1842 elections. Lincoln's future wife and then fiancée, Mary Todd, helped to revise the letter, and she and a close friend Julia Jayne, continued writing to the paper without Lincoln's knowledge.
"Rebecca" as she was, denounced Shields in the paper as a "fool as well as a liar," and scandalously described him at a party among a group of women:
> If I was deaf and blind I could tell him by the smell ... All the galls about town were there, and all the handsome widows, and married women, finickin about, trying to look like galls, tied as tight in the middle, and puffed out at both ends like bundles of fodder that hadn't been stacked yet, wanted stackin pretty bad ... He was paying his money to this one and that one and tother one, and sufferin great loss because it wasn' silver instead of State paper ... [quoting Shields] "Dear girls, it is distressing, but I cannot marry you all. Too well I know how much you suffer, but do, do remember, it is not my fault that I am so handsome and so interesting."
The publications caused "intense excitement" in Springfield, and Shields, taking great offense at being publicly ridiculed, demanded satisfaction, as well as the true identity of the author, then known only to the editor of the paper. Lincoln took responsibility for the articles and accepted the challenge. Shields confronted Lincoln, demanded a full retraction, and the incident escalated to the two men picking seconds, and meeting on an island located between Missouri and Illinois called Bloody Island to participate in a duel. Lincoln, as the one challenged, chose the weapons for the duel, and selected the cavalry broadsword, as Shields was an excellent marksman, and because Lincoln stood 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) to Shields' 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m).
At least two accounts have John J. Hardin and R. W. English intervening and convincing the two to cease hostilities. Others have them resolving their differences without incident, whether through threats on the part of Lincoln, or through apology and explanation from him. However, all accounts agree that they left the island without following through with the duel. Thereafter, Shields and Lincoln became and remained good friends.
### Subsequent career
Shields was appointed as an Illinois Supreme Court justice on February 18, 1845, to take the seat vacated by Stephen A. Douglas. His term was relatively unremarkable, and he soon resigned to become Commissioner of the U.S. General Land Office. While at the Land Office, Shields spent much effort boring, testing, surveying and examining land in Iowa, as he planned to establish a colony for Irish immigrants there. He resigned from the position to assume command as a brigadier general following the outbreak of the Mexican–American War.
## Mexican–American War
On July 1, 1846, Shields was commissioned a brigadier general of volunteers to fight in the Mexican–American War. He served under Zachary Taylor, then also a brigadier general, and later under Brigadier General John E. Wool and Major General Winfield Scott.
In 1846, Shields left for war with two brigades under his command. In February 1847, when Tampico was abandoned, his men assumed control of the city. He commanded the 3rd Brigade, Volunteer Division, at the battles of Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo, where he was severely wounded by grapeshot, and spent nine weeks recuperating. He returned to fight in a single day, at both the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. His command that day was criticized as clumsy by some, and praised as skillful by others. He required reinforcements to overcome strong enemy resistance, but his brigade took over 800 prisoners.
Shields was again wounded, receiving a fractured arm in the Battle of Chapultepec, after his horse was shot out from underneath him, and he continued fighting on foot, and leading his troops with sword. He remained on the field until the conclusion of the battle, but was then forced to spend several months recuperating, where he remained until after the final battles of the war.
Shields returned to America, where he was mustered out and his brigade disbanded on July 28, 1848. Shields returned to his law practice in Illinois. He was brevetted to major general, and received two honorary swords from the states South Carolina and Illinois.
## Senator from Illinois
Following the war, on August 14, 1848, he was nominated by President Polk, and confirmed by the United States Senate to serve as governor of Oregon Territory, which had been created that same day. However, he declined the position and Joseph Lane was nominated and became the first governor of the new territory.
Shields declined the governorship to run for the Senate from Illinois. He won, but the election was voided by on the grounds that he had not been a U.S. citizen for the nine years required by the United States Constitution; having been naturalized October 21, 1840, and elected on January 13, 1849. He therefore resigned from the Senate on March 14, returned to Illinois, campaigned once again for the seat he had resigned, and won a special election held by the governor in December (after nine years had passed), in order to replace himself as senator.
As senator, he opposed slavery, and supported land grants to agricultural colleges, to railroads, to soldiers, and to settlers under a homestead act.
Shields published the 1854 book, A History of Illinois, from its Commencement as a State in 1818 to 1847, originally written by Illinois Governor Thomas Ford. According to the foreword by Shields, Ford gave him the manuscript on his death bed, so that Shields might publish it, and use the proceeds to benefit Ford's then orphaned children. In 1854, a military company in Chicago was named "The Shields Guards" in his honor. The Guards would come to make up companies I and K in the 23rd Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment.
## Senator from Minnesota
In 1855, Shields was defeated for re-election in Illinois in a three way runoff between himself, Lincoln, and Lyman Trumbull, with Trumbull eventually winning the seat after several ballots. Shields then moved to Minnesota, to inspect lands he had been awarded there in return for his military service. He arranged for Irish immigrants to move from the East Coast to Minnesota, settling in Rice and Le Sueur counties. Shields himself founded Shieldsville, Minnesota, and was also involved in the early settlement of Faribault, Minnesota. In 1857, Native Americans massacred settlers in Spirit Lake, Iowa. Shields led a group of about 100 people from Minnesota to fight the tribes; however, by the time he arrived, the tribes had been beaten by troops under the control of Judson Bishop.
When Minnesota achieved statehood in 1858, and the legislature convened in December, Shields was put forward as a compromise candidate for U.S. Senator along with Henry Mower Rice. The two drew straws to determine who would serve out the longer and shorter terms. Shields drew the short straw and thus served until only March 1859, losing his re-election bid to Morton S. Wilkinson.
## American Civil War
Shields then moved to California, and married Mary Carr in 1861. He was engaged in a mining venture in Mexico, and it was there that Shields was when he was appointed as brigadier general of volunteers from that state following the outbreak of the American Civil War, succeeding the late Frederick W. Lander. He commanded the 2nd Division of the V Corps, Army of the Potomac (subsequently part of the Army of the Shenandoah), during the Valley Campaign of 1862.
Shields was wounded at the Battle of Kernstown on March 22, 1862, but his troops inflicted the only tactical defeat of General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson during the campaign (or the war). The day after Kernstown, he was promoted to major general, but the promotion was withdrawn, reconsidered, and then finally rejected. Largely a result of his promotion being rejected, Shields resigned from the army. Shields was informally offered command of the Army of the Potomac by Abraham Lincoln. Shields declined owing to a poor relationship with Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.
## Senator from Missouri
In 1863, Shields moved to San Francisco, where he would serve as the state railroad commissioner, and then to the Mississippi Valley, and to Wisconsin. In 1866 he settled in Carrollton, Missouri, which remained his home, and where he tended to his farm, lectured, and continued public involvement until his death 13 years later.
He ran for Congress unwillingly in 1868, and, in a contested election, lost. The result was disputed, and Congress awarded a year's salary to Shields. A member of Congress, Benjamin Butler, proposed him as Doorkeeper of the United States House of Representatives in 1876, but Shields, viewing it as an indignity, declined. Shields was involved in fundraising to provide aid to the yellow fever stricken Southern US. He served as member of the Missouri State House of Representatives, and as railroad commissioner was involved in establishing the State Railroad Commission. In 1879, he was elected to fill the seat left vacant by the death of Senator Lewis V. Bogy. He served only three months and declined to run for re-election, but this made Shields the only person to have ever served as senator from three different states.
## Death and legacy
Shields died unexpectedly in Ottumwa, Iowa, on June 1, 1879, while on a lecture tour, after reportedly complaining of chest pains. His body was transferred to Carrollton, Missouri by train, where a funeral was held at the local Catholic church, and his body escorted to St. Mary's Cemetery by two companies of the Nineteenth Infantry, the Craig Rifles, and a twenty-piece brass band. His grave remained unmarked for 30 years, until the local government and the U.S. Congress funded a granite and bronze monument there in his honor.
Shields was not a wealthy man in later life, and upon his death the most valuable possessions he had to leave his family were his ceremonial swords, given to him following the end of the Mexican–American War. After his death, Mary Shields remained in Carrollton, with their daughter and two sons, until eventually moving to New York to live with their son Daniel.
A bronze statue of Shields was given by the State of Illinois in 1893, to the U.S. Capitol, and represents the state in the National Statuary Hall. The statue was sculpted by Leonard Volk, and dedicated in December 1893. A statue of Shields stands in front of the Carroll County Courthouse in Carrollton, Missouri. Dedicated on November 12, 1910, newspapers reported "hundreds of visitors from several states" that were present at the unveiling. Congress allocated \$5,000 for the monument. A third statue stands on the grounds of the state capitol in Saint Paul, Minnesota, dedicated in 1914.
## See also
- List of American Civil War generals (Union)
- List of duels
- List of sculptures in the National Statuary Hall Collection
- List of United States senators born outside the United States
- List of members of the United States Congress from multiple states |
5,829,439 | Great Notch station | 1,173,049,354 | Former New Jersey Transit rail station, Little Falls, NJ USA | [
"Former Erie Railroad stations",
"Former NJ Transit stations",
"Little Falls, New Jersey",
"Railway stations closed in 2010",
"Railway stations in Passaic County, New Jersey",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1873"
]
| Great Notch station was a small New Jersey Transit facility in the Great Notch section of Little Falls, New Jersey. The station was served seven times a day, three inbound morning trains to Hoboken Terminal and four outbound evening trains from Hoboken by the Montclair-Boonton Line from Monday to Friday. Located at the intersection of Notch Road and Long Hill Road, it was the second of three stations in Little Falls, the other two being Montclair State University and Little Falls and, after electrification, was the first on the line to be strictly served by diesel trains. However, most trains bypassed this station and continued on to Little Falls (westbound) and Montclair State University (eastbound). The station was served by a double track which ended west of the station. The last trains stopped at the station on January 15, 2010, at 7:41pm.
Train service at Great Notch originated in 1873, as part of the Montclair Railway. Service to Caldwell began in 1891, when the Caldwell Railway opened, serving Great Notch, Overbrook Hospital, Verona, and Caldwell. The station at Great Notch was first constructed in 1905 as a double station building for the Erie Railroad. The station was a green and red building serving the New York and Greenwood Lake Railway, along with the Caldwell Branch. The station also used an old boxcar as a tool shed for maintenance. By the early 1970s, the station had fallen into disrepair, and by 1974, was repainted Erie Railroad-style red with the tool shed box car removed. The station was abandoned when the Erie-Lackawanna Railroad went out of business and was later picked up by New Jersey Transit. After making deals with the mayor of Little Falls, New Jersey Transit gave the station a one-year "trial" to attract ridership. Ridership went down, however, and so the trial was canceled on December 18, 2009. The town of Little Falls was contacted by New Jersey Transit at that time, reporting that the Great Notch station would be closed on January 17, 2010 due to the "anemic" ridership at the station.
## History
Train service at Great Notch originated with the introduction of the Caldwell Railway, a service that went from the community of Caldwell, New Jersey to the New York & Greenwood Lake Railway. Twelve trains a day served Caldwell, Verona and Overbrook Hospital. The station at Great Notch was deemed Caldwell Junction, inferring the junction between the two railways. The branch was extended the following year to the municipality of Essex Fells, where it connected with the Morristown & Erie Railroad after the latter was extended to that point in 1903.
The Great Notch station depot was built in 1905 for the New York & Greenwood Lake Railway, a subsidiary of the Erie Railroad. The station was built as a green-red "type five" frame structure. While the main building was 12' × 28' × 18' in size, the station also included an old boxcar used as a tool house. The box car was only 12' × 45' and served the station for several decades. The station (telegraph call "GA") was just west of the Great Notch interlocking signal tower (telegraph call "GN"), which was built in 1900 to serve the junction of the Greenwood Lake Railway and its Caldwell Branch, heading south (railroad westbound) for the communities of Cedar Grove, Verona, Caldwell and Essex Fells. The station also served a local yard for train storage for the branch line via a wye. At Essex Fells, connections could be made for train service to Morristown via the Morristown and Erie Railroad. The Caldwell Railroad diverged from the current New Jersey Transit line about 0.25 miles (0.40 km) west of the New Jersey Transit Great Notch station and followed its own route to Caldwell. The station at Great Notch was more than just a building for people at the railroad. The station had a large water tower next to GA Signal and a potbelly stove. The station was tended by a husband and wife combination, serving the locals their daily newspapers and their mail. Great Notch did not receive mail delivery until the mid-1950s.
By the early 1970s, the Great Notch station, which was falling into disrepair, received a new paint job, changed from the red-green-cream colors for the Erie Railroad to a new all red Erie Lackawanna paint scheme. The abandoned tool shed made out of the old wooden boxcar was also removed. Due to the removal of the tool boxcar, the propane tanks that heated the station building were also made visible. After the ending of the Erie Lackawanna Railroad in 1976, the Great Notch station lay abandoned. In June 1979, the State of New Jersey began to remove the tracks for the Caldwell Branch, which also lay abandoned at Great Notch. Currently, what was the track leading to the Caldwell Branch is a siding. On April 16, 1988, the newly rehabilitated station building was destroyed by fire. The burned out structure was razed on April 23. New Jersey Transit, who owned the station depot, replaced it with glass structures to seat 90 people.
During the construction of the Montclair Connection in 2001, the adjacent Great Notch Yard received a major upgrade, becoming a new state-of-the-art yard with new trains storage facilities.
## Closure
When Montclair State University station opened in 2004 and the Wayne Route 23 Transit Center's train platform opened in 2008, this made Great Notch one of three stations in Little Falls, and it did not nearly have the ridership either of the other two stations had. The opening of Montclair State University Station helped to pull away commuters from Great Notch due to its location very near it. The small parking lot facing the station had very little room for cars and a parking lot on the opposite side of the single tracked station was isolated from it by fencing. Further exacerbating the problem was that the small lot abutting Notch Road was not marked specifically for train passengers only. Great Notch had (and still has) a bus stop on the corner of Notch and Long Hill Roads that serves buses headed for Port Authority Bus Terminal, and commuters using the bus would park in the train station's parking lot (and still do, as it was never blocked off) and catch the bus up the street.
In January 2008, without knowledge of the township council, New Jersey Transit announced further and drastic service cuts at Great Notch. The only train to serve outbound customers was a train leaving for Hoboken Terminal in the morning, and two trains from Hoboken would serve the station at night.
The future of the 103-year-old station was placed into further jeopardy on August 12, 2008, when New Jersey Transit announced to the community of Little Falls that they would possibly close the station as early as October 2008. A few days after the announcement, rebuttal by the community began to appear, with a public hearing was announced for September 3 to work on plans for Great Notch. The service with only one inbound train (to Hoboken) and two outbound trains (from Hoboken) was canceled on April 1, 2009. On that day, New Jersey Transit announced it would add two more trains in each direction on April 16 as a "one-year trial" for station ridership. The town hoped to get the then 67-person a day average to 100 people using the station by April 1, 2010, when the trial was set to expire. The mayor of Little Falls, Michael DeFrancisci, urged people to use the station more. However, by December 2009, ridership had declined to 9 per day.
On December 18, 2009, New Jersey Transit contacted Little Falls and said that the station would close in January 2010, three months before the year-long trial period to build ridership was set to end. The transit authority cited continued low ridership, as on average nine passengers a day boarded the train at Great Notch. On December 21, 2009, New Jersey Transit announced the closure stating that the "anemic" ridership had remained at Great Notch, with only an average of 9 boardings a day, compared to 203 at the local Little Falls station and 597 at the Montclair State University Station. The last train to depart Great Notch was the 6:51pm train from Hoboken Terminal on January 15 leaving Great Notch at 7:41pm, as weekend trains do not run on this portion of the Montclair-Boonton Line.
## See also
- Caldwell Branch to Essex Fells |
53,466,476 | Funny Lady (soundtrack) | 1,151,347,758 | null | [
"1975 soundtrack albums",
"Arista Records soundtracks",
"Barbra Streisand soundtracks"
]
| Funny Lady is the soundtrack album of the 1975 musical film of the same title, starring Barbra Streisand. Released by Arista Records on March 15, 1975, arranged, conducted, and coordinated by Peter Matz, the album's fifteen tracks are performed by Streisand, James Caan, and Ben Vereen. A sequel to the 1968 musical comedy-drama Funny Girl, the songs extend the semi-biographical account of the life of American performer Fanny Brice. Funny Lady also included songs written by Brice's third husband Billy Rose. New music by Kander and Ebb included "How Lucky Can You Get", the album's only single, released in April 1975.
The soundtrack divided music critics, with some negative notes on Caan's singing abilities, while others found it a worthy companion of the film. Commercially, it entered the charts in Australia, Canada and the United States, peaking within the Billboard 200 top ten in the latter country. The Recording Industry Association of America certified the album Gold for shipments exceeding 500,000 copies in late 1975. The album was first issued on CD in 1990, adhering to the original vinyl album sequence, then in 1998 with alternate tracks and the single release of "How Lucky Can You Get" as a bonus track.
## Background and promotion
Due to her contract with Ray Stark, Streisand was required to reprise her role as Fanny Brice in the sequel to Funny Girl (1968), which became Funny Lady. Accompanying the 1975 film was the official soundtrack and one of the first records to be released by Arista Records, a new label created by record producer Clive Davis. Davis later revealed in his autobiographical book, The Soundtrack of My Life, that Streisand was the perfect singer for the soundtrack as she was "the top female singer-actress in the world" and would likely be a good first effort to be released by a newly founded record company. The soundtrack to Funny Lady was released on March 15, 1975, by Arista Records, despite Streisand being signed to Columbia Records. It features fifteen songs, with a majority of them being brand new tracks written by the songwriting duo of Fred Ebb and John Kander. Bay Cities Records, a subsidiary of Arista, issued the compact disc for Funny Lady in 1990. Arista re-released the album on May 19, 1998, with alternate tracks of "Let's Hear It For Me" and "Great Day" as well as the single version of "How Lucky can You Get" as a bonus track. The Arista reissue reordered the track listing to reflect their sequence in the film. It would be reissued in February 2009 on the Sony Legacy label.
"How Lucky Can You Get" was released as the soundtrack's only commercial single in April 1975. It peaked on the Adult Contemporary charts in both the United States and Canada, peaking at numbers 27 and 19, respectively. The songwriting, by Ebb and Kander, was widely praised by music critics; at the 48th Academy Awards, the single was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song but lost to Keith Carradine's "I'm Easy" from the 1975 film Nashville. "How Lucky Can You Get" also lost to "I'm Easy" when nominated for Best Original Song at the 33rd Golden Globe Awards.
## Composition
The album features a total of fifteen songs, with eleven of them performed solely by Streisand, two of them ("Me and My Shadow" and the medley of "It's Only a Paper Moon" and "I Like Her") are sung by costar James Caan, one of them is by Ben Vereen, and the final one is a duet between Streisand and Vereen; Peter Matz executively produced the entire album, in addition to serving as the audio arranger and conductor. Lead single "How Lucky Can You Get It" features "sarcastic" and "ironic" lyrics to capture the character of Brice as accurately as possible. The soundtrack itself has been described as a collection of "rejuvenating classics" by author Ethan Mordden. The duet "So Long Honey Lamb" is another newly recorded song by Ebb and Kander, followed by "I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)", which was once performed by Brice during her musical Billy Rose's Crazy Quilt. Track four, "Isn't This Better", is a love song about the relationship of Brice and Billy Rose. "Me and My Shadow" is a solo by Caan, covering the original version which was written by Dave Dreyer, Al Jolson, and Rose. Streisand's "If I Love Again" is a ballad with a "wide range" and "disjunct melody", which was considered "unusual" for a pop song. "I Got a Code in My Doze" was written by Rose and Arthur Fields while "(It's Gonna Be A) Great Day" is a "gospel-rock style" track whose melody was rewritten by Streisand to better suit her.
The album's ninth track, "Blind Date", was recorded quickly during a strict three-week recording schedule. "Am I Blue" was finalized during the same aforementioned period and was originally written by Harry Akst. Two corresponding medleys, one of "It's Only a Paper Moon" and "I Like Him" by Streisand and "It's Only a Paper Moon" and "I Like Her" by Caan, are back-to-back tracks. "More Than You Know", which was originally included on Streisand's Simply Streisand album in 1967, follows and was also used as the B-side track for the commercial release of "How Lucky Can You Get". Vereen's solo of "Clap Hands! Here Comes Charlie" precedes "Let's Hear It for Me", which is the album's closing track and an updated version of the Funny Girl original "Don't Rain on My Parade".
## Critical reception
Funny Lady has received mixed reviews from music critics. A critic from Stereo Review was pleased with Streisand's Funny Lady, stating that it "will surely bring out the ravening glutton I suspect is lurking in all who are her fondest fans". However, the reviewer did warn that soundtrack did not contain anything for those of a "dispassionate and temperate nature". Also positive was a critic from Film, who called the album "more satisfying than the film". Initially, AllMusic's William Ruhlmann awarded the album 2 out of 5 stars. He was critical of Caan's singing abilities, finding it hard "to endure the singing of James Caan". In his review of the 1998 reissued CD, Ruhlmann listed "Am I Blue" as one of the best tracks on the album; he called it the "chief virtue of the soundtrack [...], even if she sometimes camped [it] up". Allison J. Waldman, author of The Barbra Streisand Scrapbook, was disappointed by the soundtrack, claiming that it is more like a "hodgepodge of a soundtrack". She also stated that it was "not nearly as well-produced" as the soundtrack for the predecessor, Funny Girl (1968).
## Commercial performance
Allison J. Waldman predicted that the commercial success of the soundtrack was due to Streisand's previous role and performance in the original film, Funny Girl. In the United States, the album debuted at number 75 on the Billboard 200 chart for the week ending March 29, 1975. It continued to climb the chart in that country for several weeks before peaking at number six on May 10. It spent four weeks within the top ten of chart, and a total of 25 weeks altogether. The Recording Industry Association of America certified the soundtrack Gold for shipments upwards of 500,000 sales on September 8, 1975. On Canada's Top Albums chart conducted and published by RPM, the record debuted at number 90 during the week of April 12, 1975. Similar to its progress in the United States, it soared up the charts for several weeks before peaking at number 17 on May 17 of the same year. It spent a total of 12 consecutive weeks charting in Canada, with its final position being number 56 on June 28. It also charted in Australia, where it peaked at number 50 according to the Kent Music Report.
## Track listing
All songs performed by Barbra Streisand except where noted.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the CD edition of Funny Lady.
- Harry Akst – songwriting (track 10)
- Harold Arlen – songwriting (tracks 11, 12)
- James Caan – vocals (tracks 4, 12)
- Dave Dreyer – songwriting (track 5)
- Fred Ebb – songwriting (tracks 1, 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 15)
- Edward Eliscu – songwriting (tracks 8, 13)
- Arthur Fields – songwriting (track 7)
- E.Y. "Yip" Harburg – songwriting (tracks 11, 12)
- Al Jolson – songwriting (track 5)
- John Kander – songwriting (tracks 1, 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 15)
- Ballard MacDonald – songwriting (track 14)
- Peter Matz – production, arrangements, conduction
- Joseph Meyer – songwriting (track 14)
- Jack Murray – songwriting (track 6)
- Ben Oakland – songwriting (track 6)
- Billy Rose – songwriting (tracks 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14)
- Barbra Streisand – vocals (tracks 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15)
- Ben Vereen – vocals (tracks 2, 14)
- Harry Warren – songwriting (track 3)
- Vincent Youmans – songwriting (tracks 8, 13)
## Charts
## Certifications |
13,898,832 | La Máscara | 1,160,441,920 | Mexican professional wrestler | [
"1982 births",
"21st-century professional wrestlers",
"Alvarado wrestling family",
"CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champions",
"CMLL World Tag Team Champions",
"CMLL World Trios Champions",
"Living people",
"Masked wrestlers",
"Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champions",
"Mexican National Trios Champions",
"Mexican National Welterweight Champions",
"Mexican male professional wrestlers",
"NWA World Historic Middleweight Champions",
"Professional wrestlers from Mexico City"
]
| Felipe de Jesús Alvarado Mendoza (born January 8, 1982) is a Mexican luchador, or professional wrestler best known by the ring name La Máscara for his time working for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) and was the co-founder and leader of Los Mercenarios (alongside El Hijo del Fantasma, Rey Escorpión, and Texano Jr.).
Alvarado worked for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) since 2001 until 2017, during that time he won several championships including the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship, CMLL World Tag Team Championship, CMLL World Trios Championship, NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship, Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship, Mexican National Trios Championship, and Mexican National Welterweight Championship. Alvarado is a founding member of Los Ingobernables along with Rush and La Sombra.
Alvarado is the son of Jesús Alvarado Nieves, better known under the name Brazo de Oro, and the promotion acknowledges the relationship. many of the Alvarado family have been, or currently are professional wrestlers, including family patriarch Shadito Cruz and uncles who worked under the ring names Brazo de Plata, El Brazo, Brazo Cibernético. Brazo de Platino and Súper Brazo. Many of Felipe Alvarado's cousins are also wrestlers including Psycho Clown, Máximo Sexy and Goya Kong among others. Alvarado originally used the name Brazo de Oro Jr. ("Golden Arm Jr.) after his father.
## Personal life
Felipe de Jesús Alvarado Mendoza was born on January 8, 1982, son of Jesús Alvarado Nieves and grandson of Juan Alvarado Ibarra, better known under the professional wrestling ring name Shadito Cruz. Jesús Alvarado and five of his brothers had following in Shadito Cruz's footsteps and all became professional wrestlers as well. Jesús Alvarado was the oldest brother and became known as Brazo de Oro ('Golden Arm") while his brothers would be known as Brazo de Plata ('Silver Arm"), El Brazo ("The Arm"), Brazo Cibernético ("Cyborg Arm"), Brazo de Platino ("Platinum Arm") and Súper Brazo. for a while Jesús Alvarado was married to Sandra González Calderón, better known as Lady Apache, Felipe Alvarado's step mother. Growing up Felipe Alvarado and several of his cousins would often attend wrestling events together, which led to Felipe and his cousins José Christian Alvarado (later known as Máximo) and the wrestler later known as Psycho Clown (real name unrevealed). Several of his cousins would later follow them into the wrestling business such as Robin, Goya Kong, Muñeca de Plata, Brazo Cibernetico Jr. and Brazo Celestial. Over the years several wrestler have paid to use the "Brazo" name, leading to some confusion and uncertainty to how many Alvarado family members have actually been professional wrestlers; it has been confirmed that Brazo Metálico, Brazo Jr. and Andros de Plata were not related to the Alvarado family.
## Professional wrestling career
Felipe Alvarado received most of his early training from his father, often in the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ("World Wrestling Council"; CMLL) where his father served as a trainer for several CMLL trainees.
### Brazo de Oro Jr. (2000-2005)
After his initial training, Felipe Alvarado would make his official wrestling debut on April 2, 2000, using the ring name "Brazo de Oro Jr.", wearing the same mask design as his father. As Brazo de Oro Jr. he often teamed up with his cousins (José Christian Alvarado and his brother) who worked as Brazo de Platino Jr. and Brazo de Plata Jr. respectively, collectively referred to as Los Brazos Junior. The trio worked primarily for CMLL, normally in the early parts of the shows as they gained in-ring experience. During the summer of 2002 Brazo de Oro Jr. was involved in his first significant storyline feud against a local wrestler on Oaxaca known as Némesis. On August 24, 2002, Brazo de Oro Jr. defeated Némesis in a Lucha de Apuestas, or "bet match", after which Némesis was forced to unmask. In Lucha libre the Lucha de Apuestas matches are generally considered more prestigious than winning a championship. Through CMLL's working relationship with International Wrestling Revolution Group Los Brazos Junior worked several major shows for that promotion. Including the Arena Naucalpan 26th Anniversary Show on December 21, 2003, where they defeated the trio of Angel de Tijuana and Los Megas (Mega and Ultra Mega). and the subsequent IWRG 8th Anniversary Show on January 1, 2004, where they defeated Los Comandos (Comando Alfa, Comando Delta and Comando Gama).
### La Máscara (2005-2017)
In 2005 all of the Brazos Junior members took on a new name, creating their own identity in Lucha Libre. Felipe Alvarado took the enmascarado (masked character) "La Máscara" ("The Mask"). In May 2005, he won his first major championship when he defeated Doctor X for the Mexican National Welterweight Championship. He held the title for over a year, before he lost the belt to Sangre Azteca on December 17, 2006. Earlier that year, he lost to Hajime Ohara in a match for the then vacant NWA World Welterweight Championship in Mexico City. La Máscara has been pushed strongly since changing to that gimmick (from Brazo de Oro Jr.), with some thought that it might be due to his family connections. His work has appeared to catch up with his push this year, and he's a solid high flier. On June 13, 2008, La Máscara teamed with Héctor Garza and El Hijo del Fantasma in a tournament for the vacant CMLL World Trios Championship and won the titles after beating Blue Panther, Dos Caras, Jr. and Místico in the finals. The three held the titles for over seven weeks until they lost it to Último Guerrero, Negro Casas and Atlantis on August 5. La Máscara and his partners regained the titles on a show in Guadalajara on January 18, 2009. On January 29, 2010, La Máscara teamed up with Negro Casas to participate in CMLL's "Torneo Nacional de Pareja Increíbles" ("National Amazing Pairs tournament"), a tournament where CMLL teams up a Tecnico (La Máscara) and a Rudo (Casas) for a tournament. The two defeated El Texano, Jr. and Rouge in the opening round, El Sagrado and Shocker in the second round and Héctor Garza and Toscano in the semi-final to earn a spot in the final of the tournament. On February 5, 2010, Casas and La Máscara lost to Máscara Dorada and Atlantis in the finals.
In March 2010 signs of dissention amongst the Trios champions began showing as Garza walked out on the team during a trios match mistakenly thinking that one of his teammates had attacked him. Following the walk out Garza kept insincerely insisting that he was still a tecnico and that his team was getting along great. Further doubts about Garza's allegiance arose when he teamed up with the Rúdo Pólvora to win the 2010 Gran Alternativa tournament. When Garza, La Máscara and Hijo del Fantasma were booked for a CMLL World Trios defense the following week Garza complained that his partners agreed to the match without asking him, but swore that he would still be professional about it. During the title defense on the May 7, 2010 Super Viernes Garza attacked both Hijo del Fantasma and La Máscara, allowing La Ola Amarilla (Hiroshi Tanahashi, Okumura and Taichi) to win the CMLL World Trios Championship, turning full blown Rudo in the process. On May 14, 2010, La Máscara teamed up with Máscara Dorada and La Sombra to defeat Ola Amarilla in a non-title match to earn a shot at the titles the following week. One week later the trio defeated Ola Amarilla again, ending the Japanese trios title reign after just two weeks, making La Máscara a three times Trios Champion By virtue of holding the CMLL World Trios Championship La Máscara participated in the 2010 Universal Championship tournament. He was part of "Block B" that competed on the August 6, 2010 Super Viernes show. In the first round of the tournament he defeated Mr. Águila, then moved on to a match against Volador Jr. during the match Volador Jr. turned rudo (bad guy) after teasing a turn for a long time and got himself disqualified for excessive violence. After the match Volador Jr. beat up La Máscara further, leaving him an easy target for his third round opponent, Jushin Thunder Liger, who quickly defeated La Máscara. On October 5, 2010, La Máscara defeated Volador Jr. to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship.
On January 22, 2011, La Máscara made his Japanese debut, when he took part in the Fantastica Mania 2011 weekend, co-promoted by CMLL and New Japan Pro-Wrestling in Tokyo. During the first night, he teamed with Tiger Mask in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Dragón Rojo, Jr. and Tomohiro Ishii. The following night, he, Máscara Dorada and La Sombra successfully defended the CMLL World Trios Championship against La Ola Amarilla (Okumura, Tetsuya Naito and Yujiro Takahashi). In April 2011, La Máscara began feuding with the WWE bound Averno, which led to CMLL booking the two to face each other in a Mask vs. Mask Lucha de Apuesta on June 17. On June 17 at Juicio Final, La Máscara picked up the biggest win of his career by defeating Averno two falls to one and forcing him to unmask himself. Afterwards, La Máscara and Averno continued their rivalry, building up to another singles match on July 4, where Averno successfully defended the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship. On July 15, La Generación Dorada lost the CMLL World Trios Championship to Los Hijos del Averno (Averno, Ephesto and Mephisto). After La Máscara pinned Averno in a six-man tag team match on July 22, the two agreed to another match for the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship on July 29, where Averno was again able to retain the title. La Máscara and Averno faced each other again on September 9 in the second round of the Universal Championship tournament, where Averno once again was victorious. On November 22, La Máscara defeated Averno to win the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship. He would go on to lose the title to Volador Jr. on February 14, 2012. On January 18, 2013, La Máscara returned to Japan to take part in the three-day Fantastica Mania 2013 event. During the first night, he teamed with Máscara Dorada and Máximo in a six-man tag team match, where they were defeated by Taichi, Taka Michinoku and Volador Jr. During the second night, he, Hiroshi Tanahashi and Rush were defeated in a six-man tag team match by Kazuchika Okada, Rey Escorpión and Volador Jr. During the third and final night, La Máscara successfully defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Volador Jr. La Máscara was once again forced to team up with Averno, for the 2013 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles, just like he was for the 2012 tournament. The team worked together without too many problems in the first round as they defeated the team of El Hijo de Fantasma and El Felino, but stumbled in the second round as they lost to eventual tournament winners La Sombra and Volador Jr. On April 7, La Máscara returned to New Japan Pro-Wrestling at Invasion Attack, where he and Valiente unsuccessfully challenged Tama Tonga and El Terrible for the CMLL World Tag Team Championship. On June 30, La Máscara, Rush and Titán defeated Los Invasores (Kráneo, Mr. Águila and Psicosis) to win the Mexican National Trios Championship. On August 13, La Máscara lost the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship to Mephisto. On October 18, La Máscara and Rush were awarded the CMLL World Tag Team Championship, when Rey Bucanero, one half of the previous champions, was unable to defend the title due to an injury. On February 18, 2014, La Máscara, Rush and Titán lost the Mexican National Trios Championship to La Peste Negra (El Felino, Mr. Niebla and Negro Casas). On June 13, La Máscara and Rush lost the CMLL World Tag Team Championship to Negro Casas and Shocker.
#### Los Ingobernables (2014–2017)
During the summer, La Máscara formed a trio named Los Ingobernables ("The Ungovernables") with Rush and La Sombra with the three essentially wrestling as rudos and being referred to as the most hated wrestlers in the past decade. On April 8, 2016, La Máscara defeated Ángel de Oro to win the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship, becoming the 15th light heavyweight champion in the history of the championship. After the match he got into an altercation with Ángel de Oro's corner man Dragon Lee. On May 13, the partnership between La Máscara and Rush came to an end, when Rush and Pierroth turned on their Los Ingobernables stablemate. Following the turn, La Máscara declared war on the entire Muñoz family, which included Rush, Pierroth, Dragon Lee and Místico. La Máscara won the 2016 Leyenda de Plata tournament when he defeated Negro Casas in the finals, held on July 22. On August 5, La Máscara accepted a challenge from Dragon Lee for a Mask vs. Mask Lucha de Apuestas between the two. On September 2 in the main event of the 83rd Anniversary Show, La Máscara was defeated by Dragon Lee and was forced to unmask and reveal his birthname. Afterwards, La Máscara reconciled with Rush.
On May 19, 2017, footage emerged of Felipe Alvarado and other members of the Alvarado family, including his cousins José (Máximo Sexy), Psycho Clown and Robin, as well as his uncle Daniel Alvarado (Brazo de Platino), destroying an expensive car belonging to José Gutiérrez, better known as Último Guerrero. The vandalism was reportedly motivated by the fact that Gutiérrez had spoken out against Felipe Alvarado as a possible the head of the wrestler's union after the death of Alvarado's father. The head of the CMLL wrestlers' union had been in the Avarado family for over a decade and the Alvarado family believed it should go to someone in their family. On May 22, CMLL publicly fired both Felipe and José Alvarado, as well as Bobby Villa, while also stripping the two Alvarados of their titles.
### The Crash (2017–2018)
On May 30, 2017, La Máscara and Máximo made a surprise appearance at The Crash Lucha Libre, confronting members of the La Rebelión stable. The cousins were originally announced as being booked to wrestle against L.A. Park and Dr. Wagner Jr. in the main event of a Lucha Libre Boom! show, but it was later announced that the match had been changed to L.A. Park vs. Dr. Wagner Jr. as Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) did not want wrestlers under contract with AAA (Wagner) to work with La Máscara and Máximo at the moment. In September, Rush and Pierroth arrived in The Crash, reuniting with La Máscara and kick starting a rivalry between Los Ingobernables and La Rebelión.
### Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2018–2019)
On January 26, La Máscara along with Máximo made their debut in Guerra de Titanes to help his brother Psycho Clown and thus forming his team called, Los Mosqueteros del Diablo ("The Musketeers of the Devil").
On May 4, La Mascara announced his departure from the AAA and declared himself independent.
## Alvarado family tree
† = deceased
## Championships and accomplishments
- Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
- CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- CMLL World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Rush
- CMLL World Trios Championship (3 times) – with Héctor Garza and El Hijo del Fantasma (2), Máscara Dorada and La Sombra (1)
- Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Mexican National Trios Championship (1 time) – Rush and Titán
- Mexican National Welterweight Championship (1 time)
- NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship (1 time)
- CMLL World Tag Team Championship \#1 Contender's Tournament (2013) – with Rush
- Leyenda de Plata (2016)
- Reyes del Aire (2006)
- CMLL Tecnico of the Year (2009)
- Torneo Gran Alternativa (2005) – with Atlantis
- CMLL Trio of the Year (2009) – with Héctor Garza and El Hijo del Fantasma
- CMLL Trio of the Year (2010) – with Máscara Dorada and La Sombra
- CMLL Bodybuilding Contest – Advanced (2014)
- Pro Wrestling Illustrated
- PWI ranked him \# 82 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2012
## Luchas de Apuestas record |
8,722,818 | Pullman Square | 1,160,873,442 | null | [
"2004 establishments in West Virginia",
"Buildings and structures in Huntington, West Virginia",
"Central business districts in the United States",
"Lifestyle centers (retail)",
"Shopping malls established in 2004",
"Shopping malls in West Virginia",
"Tourist attractions in Cabell County, West Virginia"
]
| Pullman Square is a lifestyle center in downtown Huntington, West Virginia, United States between 8th and 10th Street and 3rd Avenue and Veteran's Memorial Boulevard. It is located on what was known as the Superblock, a large urban renewal project that saw the demolishing of four city-square-blocks in 1970. The center opened in 2004, featuring approximately 20 stores, along with office space, restaurants, and a movie theater. It was developed by Metropolitan Partners.
## History
### Superblock
The Superblock was to be a large revitalization project in downtown Huntington. In 1970, a four-block 9-acre (36,000 m<sup>2</sup>) vacant site was created for the next "large development"; however, problems besieged the area for decades. In 1974, a master plan was developed for the vacant site.
In 1977, the Huntington Civic Arena was constructed on one parcel. One year later, a group of entrepreneurs wanted to construct a 350-room hotel and retail stores; however, the plan died by 1980. In 1983, the National Shamrock Development and Investment Company wanted to develop the property and took a two-year lease on the project. By mid-1985, however, the lease ran out and the developers could not receive financial backing due to the failure in their \$15 million Urban Development Action Grant request.
In the spring of 1986, the Huntington Development Corporation suggested that an off-track betting facility be constructed; however, the idea died after Governor Arch Moore vetoed an off-track betting bill that was critical to the project's success. In 1987, the Webb Companies presented a plan for a \$110 million mixed-use complex called RiverCenter that would feature a 20-story office tower, an underground parking garage and a skyway to the Harris Riverfront Park. The project failed when two large tenants could not be found to anchor the project. In 1988, the city's grant to help develop the project was revoked.
Another instance included an outlet mall proposal that was announced on May 6, 1987; however, two months later, the Herald-Dispatch reported that the project was "dead" and that the "13-year history of failure haunts (the) Superblock." Another proposal, on April 28, 1989 reported on a development that was "on tap," followed by an article several years later that stated, "super development dream fails to become reality." In 1992, a two-story shopping center was proposed but the idea failed to receive tenant support.
A Chi-Chi's Mexican restaurant was constructed on the corner of 3rd Avenue and 10th Street in 1991. These developments were mostly suburban in nature and was not conductive to improvements in downtown Huntington. A Holiday Inn was constructed adjacent to the Big Sandy Superstore Arena between 8th and 9th Street in 1998.
### Intermodal facility
In 1998, \$27 million for an intermodal facility was appropriated from Congress; an additional \$6.7 million came from state and local funding. Then Governor Cecil Underwood had promised \$700,000 in 1999, with local lawmakers funding the additional \$1.3 million; an additional \$4 million was to be allocated from the state over the next two years.
The proposed facility was for a Tri-State Transit Authority (TTA) bus transfer station, retail development and associated parking structures and would occupy a two-block surface parking lot between 8th Street and 10th Street along 3rd Avenue. A later study by Woolpert suggested at least 150,000 sq ft (14,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail and a parking structure that has 800 to 1,400 spaces. Yet another study suggested that retail, entertainment, dining, housing, cultural, and educational aspects be included in the project. A ground breaking ceremony was planned in early 2000 with initial completion of the project in 2001.
In order to complete the Superblock, Chi-Chi's would need to be evicted; however, it was granted an opportunity to have a restaurant within the proposed development. Chi-Chi's refused to leave the Superblock, however, citing that they wanted to "upgrade and remodel" the restaurant.
In 1999, Robert C. Byrd allocated \$8 million to federal appropriation bills for the Superblock project. Another \$400,000 was allocated from the Federal Transit Administration to the Huntington Transit Authority for the feasibility study and master plan for the intermodal facility.
### Pullman Square
On September 30, 1999, it was announced that the Huntington Urban Renewal Authority was in negotiations with the Transit Authority and an unnamed Columbus, Ohio developer for the Superblock. In early October, President Bill Clinton signed the Transportation Appropriations bill, which provided an additional \$12 million in funds for the intermodal facility.
On October 18, 2000, Steiner + Associates (dropped in favor of Metropolitan Partners with the same developers), a Columbus, Ohio developer that specializes in recreating downtown urban environments, announced a \$60 million 200,000 sq ft (20,000 m<sup>2</sup>). retail and entertainment complex between 10th streets and 3rd Avenue and Veterans Memorial Boulevard that would resemble an "old-time small town" and would fit within the "historic context of the existing downtown." The developers had previously constructed similar developments in Newport, Kentucky with the completion of Newport on the Levee and Easton Town Center in Columbus. The project would include stores, restaurants and a 12 to 16-screen movie theater and would open in fall of 2002. Two parking structures would be constructed as well. The parking structure between 8th and 9th Street would be four-levels and include 940 parking spaces, but could be expanded upward to include an office tower; the parking structure between 9th and 10th Streets would be three-levels and include the movie complex on top. Broken down, the project plan included,
- 65,000 sq ft (6,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail,
- 30,000 sq ft (3,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of restaurants,
- 25,300 sq, ft. of office space,
- 25,000 sq ft (2,300 m<sup>2</sup>) of entertainment, and
- a 2,300-seat, 50,000 sq ft (5,000 m<sup>2</sup>) theater.
The plan included narrowing 3rd Avenue from four-lanes westbound towards the Robert C. Byrd Bridge to one lane in each direction with angled parking; however, this was later revised to one-lane in each direction with parallel parking and a center variable lane. The road narrowing plan was envisioned as a traffic calming measure.
In January 2002, the Huntington Urban Renewal Authority began eminent domain proceedings against Chi-Chi's. The parent company of Chi-Chi's, Prandium Inc., had refused to sell the property and rejected the city's final offer on October 19, 2000 and refused all negotiations and communications with the Authority and with Metropolitan Partners. In March, Prandium Inc. refused an offer of \$975,000 for the property plus \$200,000 in relocation costs, which was over the appraised value of the property. The company requested a sale price of \$2 million instead. The company, however, went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization in March. In May, Chi-Chi's wanted to sell the property for \$1.15 million, including undisclosed costs for relocation and loss of business, but later reversed out of the deal and wanted \$1.75 million.
During November 2002, Metropolitan Partners filed a grant request to the West Virginia Economic Development Grant Committee. It received \$10.6 million in infrastructure improvements. A lawsuit was later filed by the Jackson County, West Virginia lawyer Larry Harless, questioning the legality of the committee and its work. Eventually, the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia nullified the grant process and the grants that were given.
On March 26, 2003, the Superblock was sold to the developers of Pullman Square, Metropolitan Partners. Chi-Chi's had until April 15 to vacate; it was demolished on the 29th. The opening date had been pushed back from spring to summer 2004 due to a court case that was being considered by the West Virginia Supreme Court. In July 2003, the West Virginia Legislature passed legislation that withstood the Court of Appeals; however, the Pullman Square project had to be re-approved by the reconstituted grant committee. The grant money was once again awarded in August; however, two citizens' lawsuits by Larry Harless once again disputed the process. In their case, they stated that the state may provide loans to the projects but not to the grants, and questioned the legality of the state's video lottery. The West Virginia Economic Development Grant Committee was to finance the grants by selling bonds which would be repaid from profits on video lottery.
On October 17, 2003, the state Supreme Court ruled that the state could proceed with the sale of bonds financing Pullman Square and 48 other projects throughout the state.
### Construction and opening
Construction began on Pullman Square on July 16, 2004 with the excavation of the parking lot for the parking structures. It opened on November 19, 2004 with Marquee Cinemas. Others, such as Empire Books & News, EB Games and Starbucks, opened in early December. In June 2005, the Funny Bone Comedy Club opened, followed by Cold Stone Creamery in July and pizzeria Uno Chicago Grill and Max & Erma's in August.
A few months after opening, the Uno Chicago Grill was sued for not paying the builders, suppliers, and utilities. It soon changed its name to La Sha's West Virginia Bistro and was headed by Powerball winner Jack Whittaker; however, it closed on February 22, 2007 after another lawsuit was filed after Metropolitan Huntington LLC complained that the Bistro owed thousands for rent.
Edible Arrangements was announced on August 5, 2006. The retail store, specializing in fruit bouquets and designer arrangements of fruit, opened in the fall. A few months later, on January 11, 2007, Moe's Southwest Grill closed for remodeling. The quick-casual restaurant later reluctantly announced that it was, in fact, moving to a nearby location on 9th Street. On March 17 Runway Couture opened next to Inspired, featuring west coast-inspired fashions; both are owned by Deneene Chafin. Moe's Southwest Grill maintained good faith talks with Pullman Square and after protracted negotiations Metropolitan Partners agreed to Moe's corporate lease arrangements and subsequently surrendered the keys to the former location on November 5, 2007.
On May 8, 2008, it was announced that Community Trust Bank would locate a bank branch at the corner of 3rd Avenue and 10th Street. It would include spaces for more retail that is currently "under negotiations". Construction began in August. The Garage Chophouse, however, pulled out of Pullman Square. In June, it was announced that Uno Chicago Grill would reopen under the franchise of Rick Rose, who owns some Bennigan's restaurants in Ohio, and under Mike Bartrum, a retired NFL player. The restaurant sells Chicago-style pizza and could open by July 30. Benny's Cheesesteaks opened on June 19, the second location for the Columbus, Ohio-based restaurant that sells Philadelphia-style hoagies, wings, wraps, and beer. Heels, a high-end shoe store owned by the owner of Inspired and Runway Couture made its debut in July.
In October 2018, Max and Erma’s closed its doors abruptly. Many employees claimed they were not informed by management that the location was closing.
In March 2019, Ohio businessman Benjamin Morgan announced he would be opening Quicksilver Arcade and Bar in the former Max and Erma’s space.
## See also
- Cityscape of Huntington, West Virginia |
1,316,796 | Ryan Leaf | 1,171,232,828 | American football player (born 1976) | [
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| Ryan David Leaf (born May 15, 1976) is a former American football player who was a quarterback in the National Football League (NFL) for four seasons. He played for the San Diego Chargers and the Dallas Cowboys between 1998 and 2001, and also played for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Seattle Seahawks.
Leaf spent his college career with the Washington State Cougars, where he was a finalist for the Heisman Trophy after his junior year. He was selected as the second overall pick by the San Diego Chargers in the 1998 NFL Draft after Peyton Manning, but his career was shortened due to poor play, bad behavior, injuries, and struggles with his work ethic and ability to stay focused.
After his NFL career ended, Leaf completed his degree at Washington State. He had legal troubles involving drugs beginning in 2010 when a Texas judge sentenced him to 10 years probation. Two years later, Leaf pleaded guilty to felony burglary and drug possession in Montana. After a suspended sentence with a stint in drug rehabilitation, Leaf began serving a seven-year sentence in state prison in December 2012. On September 9, 2014, Leaf was sentenced in Texas to five years in prison for violating his Texas probation by committing the robbery in Montana, but he never served time for this due to receiving credit for time served. He was released from prison in Montana on December 3, 2014. In October 2020, he pled guilty to a misdemeanor domestic violence charge in California and was sentenced to probation.
Leaf has worked as a Program Ambassador for Transcend Recovery Community, a group of sober living houses in Los Angeles, Houston, and New York. He also hosts a radio show and works as a college football analyst on television.
## College career
After leading Charles M. Russell High School in Great Falls, Montana, to the 1992 Montana state title, he was told that his build and athleticism was good for a tight end, or maybe a linebacker by the head coach of the time, Dennis Erickson, at the University of Miami. He chose to be a quarterback for the Washington State Cougars instead after head coach Mike Price, who had coached longtime New England Patriots starting quarterback Drew Bledsoe, called him on the phone while Leaf was watching the Rose Bowl, and told him "If you come here, we're going there". Leaf did not know that Washington State had not reached the Rose Bowl since 1931, but later told Sports Illustrated that he immediately knew he wanted to accept a scholarship and play for Price.
He played in 32 games for Washington State, starting 24 of them. In his junior year, he averaged 330.6 yards passing per game and threw for a then Pacific-10 Conference (Pac-10) record 33 touchdowns. He also led the Cougars to their first Pac-10 championship in school history. Despite his strong early showing in the 1998 Rose Bowl, Washington State was defeated 21–16 by the eventual Associated Press national champion Michigan Wolverines.
Leaf was a finalist in balloting for the Heisman Trophy that year, which is given annually to the "most outstanding" player in American college football voted in by media figures and former players. He finished third behind the winner, defensive back Charles Woodson of Michigan, and fellow quarterback Peyton Manning of Tennessee. He was named Pac-10 Offensive Player of the Year and was part of the All-Conference team. Leaf was also named first-team All-America by The Sporting News while finishing second in the nation in passer rating. The Rose Bowl helped make him a possible first overall selection in the NFL Draft, and Leaf decided to forgo his senior year at Washington State and enter the 1998 draft.
### Statistics
## Professional career
### 1998 NFL Draft
Peyton Manning and Leaf were widely considered to be the two best players available in the 1998 NFL Draft, and scouts and analysts debated who should be selected first. Tampa Bay Buccaneers coach Tony Dungy recalled that although his team did not need a quarterback, "Manning-Leaf was really split when you talked to people". Many favored Leaf's stronger arm and greater potential, while others deemed Manning the more mature player and safer pick. Most observers, however, believed that it would not greatly matter whether Manning or Leaf was drafted first because either would greatly benefit his team.
The Indianapolis Colts owned the first draft pick that year. Team scouts favored Leaf, but Colts president Bill Polian and coaching staff preferred Manning, especially after discovering during individual workouts that he could throw harder than Leaf. Manning also impressed the team during his interview, while Leaf missed his. Leaf's draft prospect profile described the player as "self-confident to the point where some people view him as being arrogant and almost obnoxious". Leaf gained about 20 pounds between the end of his junior season and the NFL Combine in February, which Jerry Angelo, one of six experts Sports Illustrated consulted on the choice, described as "a [negative] signal" about his self-discipline. All six believed that Manning was the better choice, but the magazine concluded "What does seem reasonably certain is that ... both Manning and Leaf should develop into at least good NFL starters".
The San Diego Chargers had the third overall pick. Polian told Chargers general manager Bobby Beathard that he would not trade the Colts' pick. Beathard later said that he would have taken Manning with the first pick because he knew his father Archie Manning, "but that didn't mean there was anything bad that way with Ryan at the time". His team needed a new quarterback after having scored the fewest touchdowns in the league in the previous season. To obtain the second draft pick from the Arizona Cardinals, San Diego traded its third overall pick, a future first round pick, a second round pick, and three-time Pro Bowler Eric Metcalf, guaranteeing the right to draft whichever of the two quarterbacks Indianapolis did not take first. Manning was drafted first by the Colts and Leaf second by the Chargers, who signed him to a four-year contract worth \$31.25 million, including a guaranteed \$11.25 million signing bonus, the largest ever paid to a rookie at the time. Leaf said, "I'm looking forward to a 15-year career, a couple of trips to the Super Bowl, and a parade through downtown San Diego." The night after the draft, Leaf flew to Las Vegas, Nevada on the jet of Chargers owner Alex Spanos and partied all night; the following day Leaf yawned during his first news conference.
### San Diego Chargers
#### 1998 season
San Diego's high hopes for Leaf were soon dashed as his rookie season was marred by poor behavior, starting with skipping the final day of a symposium mandatory for all NFL draftees and incurring a \$10,000 fine. Leaf nonetheless did well in the preseason and the start of the regular season, as the Chargers won their first two games. The Chargers won the season opener on September 6, 1998, 16–14 over the Buffalo Bills despite mistakes from Leaf such as fumbling his first snap and throwing two interceptions; Buffalo penalties voided two would-be interceptions from Leaf. In the game, Leaf's 6-yard touchdown pass to Bryan Still that followed a 67-yard pass to Still gave San Diego a 10–0 lead. However, late in the game, San Diego fell behind 14–13 after a Leaf interception. Leaf completed 16 of 31 passes for 192 yards in the opener and 13 of 24 passes for 179 yards (with 31 rushing yards in 7 carries) in the second game, a 13–7 win over the Tennessee Oilers.
Three days before the Chargers' September 20 game against the Kansas City Chiefs, Leaf was hospitalized for a viral infection that he attributed to an improperly cleaned artificial-turf burn. He started the game but completed only one of 15 passes for four yards, threw two interceptions and had four fumbles (three lost) in a 23–7 loss. The next day, Leaf was caught on camera shouting at San Diego Union-Tribune reporter Jay Posner to "knock it off" during a locker-room interview and was led away by Junior Seau and a team executive, during which he called Posner a "fucking bitch". He later apologized to Posner for the incident.
After Leaf had four first-half passes picked off by the New York Giants in Week 4 (September 28), he was benched by head coach Kevin Gilbride in favor of former sixth-round pick Craig Whelihan. He started the following game on October 4 in a 17–12 loss to the Indianapolis Colts and top pick Peyton Manning. Both quarterbacks completed 12 of 23 passes and threw one interception, with Leaf having 23 more passing yards (160) than Manning, but Manning threw the game's only touchdown and was never sacked while Leaf was downed four times. Inside the final two minutes and San Diego down 14–6, Leaf's 56-yard pass to Charlie Jones set up a one-yard Natrone Means touchdown run, but Leaf's potential tying two-point conversion pass to Webster Slaughter was incomplete. He then lost his starting job permanently to Whelihan following a 4-of-15, 23-yard performance with an interception against the Denver Broncos on November 8. Leaf finished the season with 1,289 passing yards in ten games and a 45.3% completion percentage with only two touchdowns against fifteen interceptions, earning him an abysmal quarterback rating of 39.0.
Leaf related poorly to both the media and his teammates, whom he tended to blame for his poor play, and developed a reputation for a poor work ethic, such as playing golf while other quarterbacks were studying film. Beathard said, "Guys can be jerks, but I've never seen a guy that worked harder at alienating his teammates. Junior Seau, Rodney Harrison, they came to me and said, 'Bobby, this guy is killing me.'" Harrison described the 1998 season as "a nightmare" due to Leaf's immaturity and Whelihan's inefficiency: "If I had to go through another year like that, I'd probably quit playing." During the offseason, Seau called on management to sign a veteran quarterback and "get a guy in here not to babysit, but to win".
#### 1999 season
Leaf suffered an injury to his throwing shoulder 20 minutes into the Chargers' opening training camp workout on July 23, 1999. One month later, a fan heckled Leaf by singing lyrics from the Little River Band song "Lonesome Loser" and comparing him to failed NFL quarterback Heath Shuler. Leaf, accompanied by a coach and security guards, went to confront the fan but was restrained by two coaches, with another Chargers employee saying, "No, don't do it, Ryan. Don't do it." Leaf later explained the incident: "...what I wanted to do was say, 'Hey, look, I've grown up, I'm calm about it, I would like to understand why you would say that about me.'"
Leaf underwent surgery to fix a labral tear in his shoulder and missed the 1999 season. He was placed on injured reserve but made headlines in early November when he got into a shouting match with Beathard and a coach, resulting in a fine, a suspension without pay, and an apology from Leaf four weeks later. During his suspension, he was caught on video playing flag football at a San Diego park, a violation of his contract according to team management.
#### 2000 season
In the final game of the 2000 preseason, Leaf completed a pass to Trevor Gaylor to seal a 24–20 win over the Arizona Cardinals. After the game, he appeared on the cover of the September 4, 2000 issue of Sports Illustrated along with headline "Back from the Brink". The cover story characterized his comeback as "an ascent from pariah to possible standout pro passer". He started the first two games of the 2000 season but completed less than half of his pass attempts and threw five interceptions against only one touchdown. In the season opener on September 3, a 9–6 loss to the Oakland Raiders, Leaf completed 17 of 39 passes for 180 yards and three picks, including one on a 4th-and-inches play with 1:37 left that sealed the Raiders' victory. He suffered swelling in his left hand in addition to a chin gash that required stitches following a late hit from Raiders defensive tackle Regan Upshaw. The following game, a 28–27 loss to the New Orleans Saints, Leaf completed 12 of 24 passes for 134 yards and threw his first touchdown pass since his rookie season, a 20-yarder to Curtis Conway, but also threw two interceptions, one of which again cost the Chargers at the end of the game.
Head coach Mike Riley planned to start backup Moses Moreno in Week 3, but Leaf started after Moreno suffered a shoulder injury. The following week, Leaf suffered a sprained wrist that caused him to miss the next five games. In November, he publicly speculated that the Chargers would release him after the season, and later that month, reports suggested that Leaf had lied about his wrist injury to get out of practice and play golf instead.
In the Week 11 game on November 12 against the Miami Dolphins, Leaf replaced Moreno mid-game. Leaf threw an interception on his fourth snap, led a touchdown drive in the Chargers' next series, and left the game with nearly a minute to go after straining a hamstring on a scramble. This game was the first since 1993 where three quarterbacks on the same team – in this case Leaf, Moreno, and Jim Harbaugh – each threw an interception in one game. On November 19 against the Denver Broncos, Leaf completed 13 of 27 passes and reached career single-game highs in quarterback rating (111.8), passing yards (311), and passing touchdowns (3), but the Chargers lost the game 38–37. After an 0–11 start, the Chargers got their first win on November 26, 17–16 over the Kansas City Chiefs. The Chargers took a 14–3 lead early in the second quarter after Leaf threw two touchdowns to Freddie Jones, but the offense struggled late in the game on the back of two interceptions, one of which was returned for a touchdown.
Leaf would again play poorly with four more picks against the San Francisco 49ers on December 3, and with only 9 of 23 passes completed on December 10 in a loss to the Baltimore Ravens. He rebounded with 23 of 43 passes for 259 yards, two touchdowns and one interception in a December 17 loss to the Carolina Panthers 30–22. In the Chargers' final drive, with nearly two minutes remaining in the game, Leaf completed a 10-yard pass to Curtis Conway that was ruled six inches short of the end zone. On first down, however, miscommunication between Leaf and running back Jermaine Fazande resulted in a fumble and 8-yard loss, and the next two plays followed by a penalty forced a fourth down and goal 10 yards from the end zone, and Leaf's fourth-down pass was incomplete. On the final game of the season on December 24, Leaf made a 71-yard touchdown pass to Jeff Graham on the first play from scrimmage, but San Diego lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers 34–21. In the game, Leaf completed 15 of 29 passes for 171 yards, 1 touchdown, and 1 interception, and a fumble of his final snap. For the 2000 season, Leaf completed 50% (161 of 322) of his passes for 1,883 yards, 11 touchdowns, and 18 interceptions.
After finishing the season with a disastrous 1–15 record, the Chargers released Leaf on February 28, 2001. In three seasons with the Chargers, he won only four of 18 games as a starter, and threw a total of 13 touchdowns and 33 interceptions.
### Tampa Bay Buccaneers
On March 2, 2001, two days after the Chargers released him, Leaf was claimed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who were intrigued by his physical talent and planned to develop him more slowly, giving him time to watch and learn. Leaf's wrist had still not healed, and doctors recommended surgery. After mediocre preseason performances, he was asked to accept demotion to fourth quarterback status on the team and accept a lower salary. He refused, and was released on September 3, five days before the start of the 2001 season.
### Dallas Cowboys
Leaf's next attempt at a comeback was with the Dallas Cowboys, who signed him after the Buccaneers released him, but he failed his first physical and was let go on September 5. After regular starter Quincy Carter suffered an injury, the Cowboys signed Leaf again on October 12. The Cowboys released him in May 2002 after he had appeared in only four games – all losses – throwing for a four-game total of 494 yards with only one touchdown and three interceptions.
### Retirement and legacy
Days later, Leaf got still another chance when the Seattle Seahawks signed him to a one-year contract, planning to let him develop slowly (as the Buccaneers had done) to allow his still-injured wrist time to heal. He attended the team's spring minicamps and seemed upbeat about his new team, but then abruptly retired at the age of 26 just before the start of the Seahawks' 2002 training camp, offering no explanation at first. Seahawks head coach and general manager Mike Holmgren told the media Leaf's wrist did not bother him with either the Cowboys or the Seahawks.
During his brief career in the NFL, Leaf appeared in 25 games and made 21 starts. He completed 317 of 655 (48.4%) passes for 3,666 yards, with 14 touchdowns and 36 interceptions and a career quarterback rating of 50.0. Rodney Harrison, one of Leaf's most outspoken critics on the Chargers, said of his retirement, "He took the money and ran. Personally, I could never rest good at night knowing my career ended like that. Normally in this game, you get back what you put into it, and he pretty much got back what he put into it".
ESPN put Leaf first on its list of 25 biggest sports flops between 1979 and 2004. NBC Sports commentator Michael Ventre called him "the biggest bust in the history of professional sports". Since Leaf's retirement, sportswriters and commentators have characterized subsequent drafted potential NFL quarterback flops as "the next Ryan Leaf". In 2010, NFL Network listed Leaf as the number one NFL quarterback bust of all time, adding that the only good that came out of drafting Leaf for the Chargers is that it put the team in position to draft LaDainian Tomlinson, Drew Brees, and eventually (after it initially appeared Brees himself would be a draft bust) Philip Rivers.
Deadspin ranked Leaf as the sixth worst NFL player of all time in 2011, opining "To call Leaf a bust is unfair to the Blair Thomases and David Carrs of the world."
Dish Network included Leaf in their 2015 "Biggest NFL Bust Bracket" where he was a "1 Seed" along with fellow busts JaMarcus Russell, Tony Mandarich, and David Carr.
Leaf in 2016 compared the problems of Cleveland Browns quarterback Johnny Manziel to his own, saying it was like "looking in the mirror" and that the only difference was that Leaf's substance abuse problems happened after he retired. Leaf went on to state that Manziel is able to get the help he needs. According to Leaf, Archie Manning asked Leaf's father before the 2004 NFL Draft about how the Chargers treated him. While accepting responsibility for his poor behavior and play, Leaf said that his father telling Archie that the team did not help him was part of why Peyton's brother Eli Manning forced the Chargers to trade him to the New York Giants that year.
## NFL career statistics
## Life after football
After retiring from professional football, Leaf returned to San Diego and became a financial consultant. In 2004, Leaf resumed his education at Washington State University and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in humanities in May 2005.
He then joined Don Carthel's West Texas A&M University staff as a volunteer quarterbacks coach in 2006, commenting, "About a year after I retired from playing, I decided that I wanted to get back to college, where I had the greatest time of my life, and to get involved with college football." He also admitted that he was unprepared for the NFL when he was drafted back in 1998. In April 2008, ESPN described Leaf as having come to terms with his past. He said at the time, "When playing football became a job, it lost its luster for me. I kind of got out of the spotlight, and life's never been this good." But in November 2008 he was put on indefinite leave, and resigned the next day, from his coaching position at West Texas A&M for allegedly asking one of his players for a pill to help him deal with pain in his wrist from past injuries. Leaf's usage of painkillers dates back to 2002, when he took Vicodin from a boxing promoter after attending a match in Las Vegas. Leaf described the event as what "started about an eight-year run of off-and-on opioid abuse that took my life to the very bottom".
In October 2009, he went to work in Vancouver, British Columbia as business-development manager for a travel company.
In September 2010, he began writing a regular column about Washington State University football for the website Cougfan.com. He wrote nine columns that football season and his work attracted a strong following among Washington State fans. In December 2010, he signed a contract with Pullman, Washington-based Crimson Oak Publishing to write no fewer than three memoirs. Crimson Oak describes its mission as publishing books with themes of "hope, possibility, and determination". Crimson Oak released Leaf's first book 596 Switch: The Improbable Journey from The Palouse to Pasadena in October 2011. The book focuses on the 1997 Washington State football team that made the 1998 Rose Bowl.
As of April 2018, he was working as a Program Ambassador for Transcend Recovery Community after staying sober the last six years. Transcend is a recovery community with nine locations in Houston, New York, and Los Angeles. In an interview with Ellen DeGeneres, he stated, "I started a foundation called the Focus Intensity Foundation, what I do is I raise money for scholarships for people who can't afford treatment, mental health treatment." In April, he wrote an article for The Players' Tribune titled "Letter to My Younger Self", describing his NFL career and life after its end.
Leaf also has a radio show and works as a college football analyst on television for the Pac-12 Network.
On July 14, 2019, Leaf was hired by ESPN as an analyst for the 2019–2020 college football season for games on ESPN2 and ESPNU. Leaf worked as an analyst for select weeks of Westwood One's Sunday night Football during the 2021 season. He has appeared as analyst in the show NFL overtime on Sky Sports in the UK during the 2021 season.
## Personal life
In 2001, Leaf married Nicole Lucia, a Charger cheerleader and daughter of financial radio host Ray Lucia. They separated in November 2003 and eventually divorced. In 2017 he got engaged to former Georgetown Hoyas volleyball player Anna Kleinsorge.
His younger brother Brady Leaf played quarterback for the Oregon Ducks football team behind Dennis Dixon from 2003 to 2006.
In September 2010, the Associated Press reported that Leaf was spending time with his family in Montana.
In June 2011, he had a benign tumor from his brainstem surgically removed.
On April 1, 2012, Leaf attempted suicide and slit his wrists.
Leaf has connected several times with Peyton Manning, who was the top pick above Leaf in the 1998 draft. Manning's family reached out to Leaf during Leaf's imprisonment, and Leaf texted congratulations when Manning's statue was unveiled at Lucas Oil Stadium.
### Legal troubles
In May 2009, Leaf was indicted on burglary and controlled-substance charges in Texas. He was in a drug-rehabilitation program in British Columbia, Canada at the time of the indictment and was arrested by customs agents at the border on his return to the U.S. as he was intending to fly to Texas to surrender on the indictment. However, his attorney Jeffrey A. Lustick successfully blocked the fugitive warrant extradition process, therefore legally allowing Leaf to go to Texas on his own. Lustick later successfully got the Washington fugitive action against Leaf dismissed with prejudice. On June 17, he posted a \$45,000 bond in Washington state for the criminal charges in Texas. In April 2010, he pled guilty in Amarillo, Texas to seven counts of obtaining a controlled substance by fraud and one count of delivery of a simulated controlled substance, all felonies. State District Judge John B. Board sentenced him to ten years of probation and fined him \$20,000.
On March 30, 2012, he was arrested on burglary, theft, and drug charges in his home town of Great Falls, Montana. Four days later, he was arrested again on burglary, theft, and two counts of criminal possession of dangerous drugs. As part of a plea bargain on May 8, 2012, he pled guilty to one count of felony burglary and one count of criminal possession of a dangerous drug.
In late April 2012, Texas authorities issued two arrest warrants for him and set his bond at \$126,000.
On June 19, 2012, Leaf was sentenced to seven years in custody of the Montana Department of Corrections, with two years suspended if he abided by the conditions imposed by District Judge Kenneth Neil in Montana. He was to spend the first nine months of his sentence in a lockdown addiction treatment facility, Nexus Treatment Center in Lewistown, Montana. But on January 17, 2013, Leaf was remanded to Montana State Prison in Deer Lodge after being found guilty of "behavior that violated conditions of his drug treatment placement". He was also accused of threatening a program staff member.
In May 2014, Leaf was incarcerated at Crossroads Correctional Facility in Shelby, Montana.
On September 9, 2014, a Texas judge sentenced Leaf to five years' imprisonment, giving credit for time spent in prison in Montana. According to ESPN, Leaf would not see further time in jail, but would also not be released from Montana prison. On December 3, 2014, Leaf was released from prison and placed under the supervision of Great Falls Probation and Parole.
On May 22, 2020, Leaf was arrested for misdemeanor domestic battery in Palm Desert, California. Nearly five months later, he admitted to the charge in a plea deal that resulted in three years of probation and a 12-month class on domestic violence.
## Writing
## See also
- List of college football yearly passing leaders
- JaMarcus Russell, another infamous NFL draft bust |
8,914,391 | Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s | 1,124,922,716 | 2007 video game | [
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| Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s (titled Guitar Hero: Rocks the 80s in Europe) is a music rhythm game and the third installment in the popular Guitar Hero series. It was released in July 2007 in North America and Europe, and in August 2007 in Australia.
Players use a guitar-shaped controller (purchased separately) to simulate playing rock music by hitting notes as they scroll towards the player. Rocks the 80s is an incremental title in the Guitar Hero series, rather than a full sequel. No changes in gameplay from Guitar Hero II have been introduced to this game. As implied by the game's title, the game features a 1980s theme, consisting of songs from the decade and playable characters, fashions, and artwork that reflect the time period.
The game was not as well-received as the prior two Guitar Hero games, due to the lack of new gameplay features and reduced soundtrack. Rocks the 80s is the third and final title in the Guitar Hero series to be developed by Harmonix before they moved on to create Rock Band. The next major installment of the series, Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock, was developed by Activision's Neversoft division.
## History
After the successful release of Guitar Hero II, RedOctane announced they were looking into genre-specific expansions to the series. Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s is the first of these genre-specific titles; Guitar Hero: Aerosmith, Guitar Hero: Metallica, Guitar Hero: Van Halen and Guitar Hero Smash Hits have since been released.
Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s was initially announced by EGM in January 2007 as Guitar Hero: 1980s Edition. Orange Lounge Radio claimed that the game would be released in June 2007, based on an Activision announcement, though no other source has cited this announcement. Activision officially revealed the first details of the game May 11, 2007, in addition to changing the game's title to Guitar Hero: Rocks the 80s. Only a few weeks later, the game name was revised again as Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s, as official artwork for the game was first released. Nevertheless, the word 'Encore' has been dropped from the title of the European releases.
## Gameplay and design
The mechanics of the game are nearly identical to that of its predecessor, Guitar Hero II; an early preview of the game described it as "more like an expansion pack for Guitar Hero II than a new game in its own right". Major differences to Guitar Hero II are mostly aesthetic. Six characters from previous Guitar Hero games (Johnny Napalm, Judy Nails, Izzy Sparks, Pandora, Axel Steel, and Grim Ripper) return with character designs influenced by styles of the 1980s. Venues from Guitar Hero II (with the exception of RedOctane Club and Stonehenge, which do not appear, and the Vans Warped Tour, which has been rebranded as the Rock For Safety Tour) have been redesigned with an 80s influence, and the interface mimics Guitar Hero II'''s, only with color changes (no "new" graphics were developed as far as the interface).
## Soundtrack
All of the tracks, excluding "Because, It's Midnite", were released during the 1980s, as the game's title suggests; "Because, It's Midnite" is performed by the fictional "80s hair metal" band Limozeen from the Internet cartoon Homestar Runner (Harmonix co-founder/CEO Alex Rigopulos is a professed fan of Homestar Runner). Two songs were originally written in the 1970s, but were covered by bands in the 1980s. These songs are "Radar Love" by Golden Earring, but covered by White Lion and "Ballroom Blitz" by Sweet and covered by Krokus. The song list includes tracks such as "Round and Round" by Ratt, "Metal Health" by Quiet Riot, "Holy Diver" by Dio, "Heat of the Moment" by Asia and "Nothin' But a Good Time" by Poison. Five of the songs are master tracks: "Because It's Midnite", "I Ran (So Far Away)" by A Flock of Seagulls, Scandal's "The Warrior", Twisted Sister's "I Wanna Rock", and Judas Priest's "Electric Eye", while the rest are covers.
The final setlist was revealed by GameSpy on June 28, 2007. Unlike previous Guitar Hero games, there are no bonus tracks in Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s. Bow Wow Wow's "I Want Candy" was originally announced for the game and appeared in many preview builds. However, RedOctane announced that it would no longer appear in the final version. No official comment in regards to the song's removal was given.
Limozeen is a fictional 80s glam metal band featured in the Homestar Runner series of web cartoons; while the song was created in 2003, it parodies the style of these bands.
Judas Priest's "Electric Eye" includes "The Hellion", the preceding track on the Screaming for Vengeance album that segues right into "Electric Eye".
Poison's "Nothin' But a Good Time" is labeled in game as "Ain't Nothin' But a Good Time".
Twisted Sister's "I Wanna Rock" is featured as a re-recorded master track of the song, not the original album version.
The original version of "Ballroom Blitz" was recorded by the band Sweet and was actually released in 1973.
The original version of "Radar Love" was recorded by the band Golden Earring and was actually released in 1973.
## Reception
Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s was released to generally lukewarm reviews and has received overall less praise than the first two games in the series. Most critics agreed that the game's \$49.99 price point was too high, considering the reduced soundtrack. GameSpot criticized the number of songs with regard to the game's price. The reviewer commented that "thirty songs for \$50 is a lousy value any way you slice it" and the game "feels like a quick and dirty cash-in." The reviewer also commented that the soundtrack was "eclectic," but "solid." Other reviewers, including 1UP.com, IGN, and Electronic Gaming Monthly criticized the game for its musical selection. GameSetWatch compared the game to Lou Reed's Metal Machine Music, saying that the game is "totally Harmonix's contractual obligation game" due to the bare minimum of changes made from Guitar Hero II.
### Lawsuit
On November 21, 2007, the rock group The Romantics filed a lawsuit against Activision, RedOctane, Harmonix, and Wavegroup Sound over the cover of the song "What I Like About You" used in Rocks the 80s''. While the game developers did secure appropriate rights to cover the song in the game, The Romantics claim that the cover is "virtually indistinguishable from the authentic version" and thus would "[confuse] consumers into believing that the band actually recorded the music and endorsed the product". The lawsuit requested the cessation of sales of the game and monetary damage. On December 20, 2007, Activision was awarded a preliminary injunction to prevent blockage of sales of the game. A summary judgment hearing was held on July 9, 2008, and the case was dismissed the next month, with a U.S. District Court judge stating that Activision had obtained the proper licensing for the works and that the band itself no longer held the copyright on the work. |
3,312,598 | Trials and Tribble-ations | 1,164,932,514 | null | [
"1996 American television episodes",
"Anniversary television episodes",
"Star Trek time travel episodes",
"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (season 5) episodes",
"Television episodes written by Ronald D. Moore"
]
| "Trials and Tribble-ations" is the 104th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, the sixth episode of the fifth season. It was written as a tribute to the original series of Star Trek, in the year of that show's 30th anniversary; sister series Voyager also produced a tribute episode, "Flashback".
Set in the 24th century, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine follows the adventures of the crew of the space station Deep Space Nine, near the planet Bajor, as the Bajorans recover from a brutal, decades-long occupation by the imperialistic Cardassians. In this episode, Captain Benjamin Sisko (Avery Brooks) and the crew aboard the USS Defiant are taken back in time to the events of the Original Series episode "The Trouble with Tribbles", and must work to prevent the assassination of Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner) of the USS Enterprise by a Klingon using a booby-trapped tribble.
The idea for the episode was suggested by René Echevarria, and Ronald D. Moore suggested the link to "The Trouble with Tribbles". The two were credited for their work on the teleplay, with the story credit going to Ira Steven Behr, Hans Beimler, and Robert Hewitt Wolfe. The episode features the Deep Space Nine actors digitally inserted into footage from the Original Series. Actor Charlie Brill, who played the role of Arne Darvin in "The Trouble With Tribbles", returned to reprise the role as an older Darvin.
"Trials and Tribble-ations" was warmly received by critics with praise directed at the nostalgia and level of detail seen on screen. It was the most watched episode of the fifth season. "Trials and Tribble-ations" was nominated in three Primetime Emmy Award categories and for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation but did not win any awards. It was released on VHS initially alongside "The Trouble with Tribbles", and later as part of the normal release schedule. It was subsequently released as part of the season five DVD set.
## Plot
The crew of Deep Space Nine are on the USS Defiant, returning to Bajor with the sacred Bajoran Orb of Time, which is being returned by the Cardassian government after being stolen during the occupation. They pick up a hitchhiker, a human called Barry Waddle. Suddenly the ship finds itself more than one hundred years in the past and approximately 200 light years away from its previous location, near Deep Space Station K7 and the USS Enterprise. They discover that the hitchhiker was Arne Darvin, a Klingon agent disguised as a human who was caught by Captain Kirk on K7 after poisoning a shipment of grain.
Fearing that Darvin used the Orb of Time to alter the past to prevent his capture, the crew dress in period uniforms and investigate the Enterprise and K7. The ship and station are infested with tribbles, small furry creatures that reproduce rapidly. They attempt to interact with history as little as possible while investigating Darvin, but Dr. Bashir, Chief O'Brien, Worf and Odo get involved in a bar brawl between the Enterprise crew and a number of Klingons on shore leave. During the brawl, Worf and Odo spot Darvin and bring him back to the Defiant. There, Darvin gloats that he has planted a bomb in a tribble to kill Kirk.
Captain Sisko and Lieutenant Commander Dax infiltrate the Enterprise bridge to scan for the bomb, and confirm it is not on the Enterprise. The rapid breeding of the tribbles makes searching for the bomb on K7 impractical, so they opt to shadow Kirk. They overhear him discussing the tribble infestation, and deduce that the bomb is in the grain storage compartments. They enter the compartments and begin scanning the tribbles, many of which are dead from eating the poisoned grain. Captain Kirk opens the compartment and is covered in falling tribbles. Dax and Sisko find the bomb among the tribbles still in the compartment and the Defiant transports it into space, where it explodes. The crew of the Defiant use the Bajoran Orb to travel back to their time.
Later, agents from the Department of Temporal Investigations arrive at Deep Space Nine to question Sisko about the incident. After interviewing Sisko, the agents leave, expressing optimism that the crew's actions have not seriously altered history. Once they are gone, Odo summons Sisko to DS9's Promenade, which is now covered in tribbles.
## Production
### Premise and writing
As the 30th anniversary of Star Trek was approaching, plans were being made. The film Star Trek: First Contact was entering production, a television special was planned to celebrate the franchise and original series actor George Takei had been cast to appear in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Flashback". Producer Ira Steven Behr later recalled that he thought that Deep Space Nine might not be included as he considered it to be the "middle child" of the franchise. Rick Berman contacted Behr and asked him if he would be interested in doing something to celebrate the anniversary. Behr agreed to discuss it with the staff writers. Initially, there was concern that if the proposed episode aired during the actual anniversary week (around September 8), that it would have to serve as the season opener, preempting the already planned opener.
The writers discussed potential ideas. Ronald D. Moore had previously brought back Original Series character Montgomery Scott for the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Relics", and since Takei was appearing in Voyager, they decided that having a member of the main cast from The Original Series return would be repetitive. Some consideration was given by Moore to sending the DS9 crew to revisit the Iotians, as seen on the gangster-themed planet visited by Kirk in the episode "A Piece of the Action". The concept was for the Iotans to have moved on from imitating gangsters to having become huge fans of Captain Kirk and Starfleet. It was intended as a way to honor the dedication of the fan community. René Echevarria suggested a time-travel episode, which was seen as an expensive proposition. Echevarria pressed for the idea. Moore suggested inserting the DS9 crew into "The Trouble with Tribbles", saying it could resolve the question of why a constant stream of tribbles kept hitting Kirk in the head.
When the discussion came to inserting the DS9 crew into the bar-brawl scene, Berman liked the idea but was unsure if it could actually be done. Visual effects supervisor Gary Hutzel created test footage and screened it for Behr and Moore, who thought that it was simply footage from the original episode. Once Hutzel revealed that an additional security officer (played by visual effects camera operator Jim Rider) had been seamlessly added to the sequence, the episode was green-lit. During the scripting process, "The Trouble with Tribbles" was regularly consulted, so the writers could decide where to insert characters. The names of Temporal Agents Dulmer and Lucsly were anagrammed from Mulder and Scully, characters on The X-Files.
Original "Tribbles" creator David Gerrold was contacted by The New York Times, who wanted to interview him about the anniversary and the rumored "tribbles" episode. When he questioned Berman about the episode, Berman initially denied it. Gerrold responded that he did not want to embarrass anyone, but would like to be able to endorse the project. Berman asked what the endorsement would cost, to which Gerrold requested public acknowledgement of his work and to be cast as an extra in the episode. Berman agreed. Gerrold compared inserting new footage into an existing episode to Back to the Future Part II (1989) and later said that he would have gone in a different direction had he written the story. Nonetheless, he said the final product ended up being better than anything he would have created.
### Directing, cinematography, and music
Jonathan West was hired to direct the episode after other potential directors were rejected. West had previously been the cinematographer on staff for both Deep Space Nine and The Next Generation, as well as directing several episodes of the franchise. He had nine days of preparation time before shooting began. He sought to match the same production values as The Original Series but found that lighting style and color saturation to film had changed in the intervening years. Visual effects supervisor Dan Curry directed some of the second-unit sequences, and together with West and cinematographer Kris Krossgrove worked to rectify these issues. This was achieved by switching to a finer grain of film, using different lenses, as well as by shooting from specific angles. With Gerrold on set as an extra, West used him as an unofficial advisor on matching the scenes from "The Trouble with Tribbles".
The actual digital insertion of actors was conducted in the same manner as seen in the 1994 film Forrest Gump (1994). The original footage was remastered, and was seen as such an improvement that it inspired the subsequent clean-up and re-release of all of "Original Series" episodes. This remaster was conducted by Hutzel and is the first transfer since 1983, when a version was created for VHS and laserdisc release. Hutzel identified 19 scenes from "The Trouble with Tribbles" which were matched in "Trials and Tribble-ations". The scene matching between the new footage and the old took nine weeks to complete with a budget of \$3 million. It involved both two-dimensional and three-dimensional tracking shots as well as insertion of matte shots and the use of both blue and green screens for the actors. The scene where Sisko meets Kirk on the bridge toward the end of the episode was taken from the episode "Mirror, Mirror".
Due in part to the special effects, the costuming, the set re-constructions, and the residual payments to The Original Series cast, Behr later described "Trials and Tribble-ations" as "probably the most expensive hour of episodic TV ever produced". The only member of The Original Series cast who was spoken to directly by the producers was Leonard Nimoy, who was enthusiastic about the idea and was surprised that it had taken them so long to come up with it. The remaining cast members were each contacted through Paramount's legal department. Dennis McCarthy wanted to re-work the Jerry Fielding score previously used on "The Trouble with Tribbles". He said that he intended to use the production equipment and orchestra available to bring the score up to the same scale previously seen on Deep Space Nine. However, the producers wanted a new score and so McCarthy explained that he composed it in a Fielding-inspired mindset. The only piece that was directly re-recorded by McCarthy is the Alexander Courage "Theme from Star Trek", which involved a 45 piece orchestra.
### Design and makeup
Art director Randy McIlvain led the set re-creation for the Enterprise and K7, describing the excitement of working on the episode as "contagious". McIlvain spent a fair amount of time getting the window angles correct on the sets. Mike Okuda re-created the graphics seen on the Enterprise sets using a computer, while others were re-drawn by artist Doug Drexler. Some sets were not re-created in full, such as the bridge, parts of which were later added digitally. The captain's chair from the bridge re-creation was later one of the Star Trek items to be auctioned by Christie's. Set designer Laura Richarz watched "The Trouble with Tribbles" carefully looking for small details to replicate on the new sets, such as the legs of benches in the bar on K7. However, she said her biggest challenge was tracking down the chairs seen on the space station. She contacted John M. Dwyer, who had worked on the original episode. He explained to her that the company which created the original chairs had gone out of business. After searching shops selling retro furniture, the production team found a single chair that matched those seen in the original episode. It was purchased and a mold was made to create more chairs. The actors were impressed when they saw the resulting sets, with Terry Farrell exclaiming "Wow, we're on the Enterprise!"
Greg Jein had already been working on a new model of the USS Excelsior for the "Flashback" episode of Voyager when he saw the test footage for "Trials and Tribble-ations". He promised to make a new model of the Enterprise too, but warned that he didn't know when he would have time to do it. He started work on it immediately, and together with his colleagues he not only built a 5.5-foot long (1.7 m) model of the Enterprise, but created a new model of Deep Space Station K7 and the Klingon cruiser as well. The Enterprise model is the first to have been built of the original Star Trek starship in more than 30 years. Other props were also recreated, with around 1,400 tribbles created for the various scenes. They were purchased from Lincoln Enterprises, a company set up by Majel Barrett, widow of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry. The rest of the era-specific props were newly created, and were made by Steve Horsch.
Costume designer Robert Blackman was concerned about the re-creation of the Klingon uniforms seen in The Original Series as he thought that the metallic material used would be nearly impossible to create accurately. He was subsequently relieved to have found four original costumes and an additional shirt in the costume archives, calling them a "godsend". His team created patterns from other costumes to remake them. Makeup supervisor Michael Westmore had previously worked on a television series during the 1960s and recalled what type of makeup was available at the time. He had the team restrict themselves to techniques of that era to ensure that the DS9 crew blended properly into the scenes. The hairstyles of the crew were meant to be reminiscent of The Original Series, with Alexander Siddig sporting a style previously seen on James Doohan. René Auberjonois said that Siddig's new hairstyle reminded him of Jerry Lee Lewis.
### Filming and casting
The cast and crew were enthusiastic on set, with editor Steve Tucker calling it a "giddy party". Behr said of the cast and crew in the episode that "They all were having fun. Just sitting on those sets, being on that bridge, it was a hoot, a real hoot." Deirdre L. Imershein was brought in at the last minute to play Lt. Watley, as she was a friend of one of the production crew and had previously appeared as a Risan pleasure girl in The Next Generation episode "Captain's Holiday". She was brought in because none of the actresses the producers had seen during the casting process could say the role's one line ("Deck 15") convincingly enough. Her involvement led to the expansion of the role into a second scene where she was revealed to possibly be Bashir's great-grandmother.
Charlie Brill returned to film new scenes as Klingon agent Arne Darvin, while original series writer Gerrold was allowed to appear as an extra in two scenes as a crewman from the Enterprise. In one of those scenes he was holding an original tribble from "The Trouble with Tribbles". Walter Koenig taught the DS9 actors how the consoles were operated on the Enterprise. Koenig later commented that he was paid eight times as much for this and the residual payment as he had been for the original episode. A string of other visitors came to the set during filming, including Majel Barrett and former The Next Generation producer (and TOS co-producer) Bob Justman.
## Reception
Before the episode was shown, a half-hour special was shown on the Sci Fi Channel about the making of "Trials and Tribble-ations" on November 2, 1996. Paramount also promoted the episode by arranging the placement of around 250,000 tribbles in subways and buses across the United States. It received Nielsen ratings of 7.7%, placing it in sixth place in the timeslot. It is the most watched episode of the fifth season during its initial broadcast. The last time the series had received similar ratings was nearly a year earlier with season four's "Little Green Men".
Two reviewers watched the episode for Tor.com in 2010. Torie Atkinson described "Trials and Tribble-ations" as a "perfect episode", and "one of the best Star Trek episodes ever made, in any series." She praised the humor and the references, and found Dax as a stand-in for fans of The Original Series. She gave the episode a score of six out of six. Eugene Myers wasn't disappointed following the hype about the episode, saying that it was "steeped in nostalgia". He thought that the bomb-in-a-tribble plot was ingenious and allowed the episode to step outside of merely being good due to the success of "The Trouble with Tribbles". His favorite scene was the constant stream of tribbles hitting Kirk on the head because Sisko and Dax were throwing them out of the grain compartment while looking for the bomb. He also gave the episode a score of six out of six. Keith R.A. DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in 2014; he also gave the episode a favorable review, with a score of 10 out of 10.
In his review for The A.V. Club, Zack Handlen called the episode a "delight" and a "lark". He thought that having Brill film new scenes showed some continuity between the old and the new, and that the special effects worked well enough. He summed it up by saying, "It's not tightly plotted, and once the initial rush of nostalgia fades, there isn't a lot of depth or suspense to replace it. But there are laughs, more than enough to justify the experiment, and the nostalgia never fades away entirely." In the book Deep Space and Sacred Time: Star Trek in the American Mythos, Jon Wagner and Jan Lundeen compared the temporal agents seen in "Trials and Tribble-ations" to the police detectives seen in the television series Dragnet. Gem Wheeler, in her list of the best episodes of Deep Space Nine for website Den of Geek, listed "Trials and Tribble-ations" as the sixth best. In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise, "Trials and Tribble-ations" was placed in 32nd place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9.
"Trials and Tribble-ations" was nominated for, but did not win, three Creative Arts Emmy Awards in the Outstanding Art Direction for a Series, Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series, and Outstanding Special Visual Effects. It was also nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, as "The Trouble with Tribbles" had been in 1968.
"Trials and Tribble-ations" was the winner of a 2012 poll conducted on the official Star Trek website to determine the best episode of Deep Space Nine.
A 2015 binge-watching guide for Star Trek: Deep Space Nine by Wired recommended this episode as essential.
In 2016, The Hollywood Reporter ranked this episode as the 17th best of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. SyFy ranked "Trials and Tribble-ations" as the third best time travel plot in Star Trek in 2016.
Empire ranked "Trials and Tribble-ations" 18th out of the 50 top episodes of all Star Trek in 2016. At that time, there were roughly 726 episodes and a dozen films released.
In 2017, Vulture.com listed this episode as one of the best of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
In 2018, SyFy included this episode on their binge-watching guide of Jadzia Dax.
In 2018, Vulture.com ranked this episode the 4th best of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
In 2018, CBR ranked this episode the third best time-travel episode of all Star Trek.
In 2019, Comicbook.com ranked this episode the 5th best episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
In 2019, Nerdist ranked this episode the third best time-travel episode of all Star Trek television.
In 2020, ScreenRant ranked this episode the 2nd best episode of all Star Trek franchise television episodes.
## Home media release
The tie-in novelization of "Trials and Tribble-ations" was written by Diane Carey and published by Pocket Books. In 1998, a "Talking Tribble Gift Set" was released containing both "The Trouble with Tribbles" and "Trials and Tribble-ations" on VHS. "Trials and Tribble-ations" was first released in the normal run of VHS issues as part of a two episode cassette alongside "The Assignment" in the United Kingdom on October 1, 1999. A single episode release followed in the United States and Canada on July 10, 2001. It was released on DVD as part of the season five box set on October 7, 2003.
The season 2 remastered DVD set of The Original Series includes "Trials and Tribble-ations", special features for the episode, "The Trouble with Tribbles", and "More Tribbles, More Troubles" from Star Trek: The Animated Series. |
60,110,119 | SMS Orjen | 1,136,856,176 | Austro-Hungarian Tatra-class destroyer | [
"1913 ships",
"Tátra-class destroyers"
]
| SMS Orjen was one of six Tátra-class destroyers built for the kaiserliche und königliche Kriegsmarine (Austro-Hungarian Navy) shortly before the First World War. Completed in 1914, she helped to sink an Italian destroyer during the action off Vieste in May 1915 after Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Two months later the ship participated in an unsuccessful attempt to recapture a small island in the central Adriatic Sea from the Italians. In November and early December Orjen was one of the ships conducting raids off the Albanian coast to interdict the supply lines between Italy and Albania, although she did not participate in the First Battle of Durazzo in late December. Orjen participated in several raids on the Otranto Barrage in 1916–1917 with limited success. She was transferred to Italy in 1920 in accordance with the peace treaties ending the war and renamed Pola. She mostly served as a training ship or in Italian North Africa when she was not in reserve from 1924 to 1928. Renamed Zenson in 1931, the ship was scrapped in 1937.
## Design and description
The Tátra-class destroyers were faster, more powerfully armed and more than twice as large as the preceding Huszár class. The ships had an overall length of 83.5 meters (273 ft 11 in), a beam of 7.8 meters (25 ft 7 in), and a maximum draft of 3 meters (9 ft 10 in). They displaced 870 long tons (880 t) at normal load and 1,050 long tons (1,070 t) at deep load. The ships had a complement of 105 officers and enlisted men.
The Tátras were powered by two AEG-Curtiss steam turbine sets, each driving a single propeller shaft using steam provided by six Yarrow boilers. Four of the boilers were oil-fired while the remaining pair used coal. The turbines, designed to produce 20,600 shaft horsepower (15,400 kW), were intended to give the ships a speed of 32.5 knots (60.2 km/h; 37.4 mph). The ships carried enough oil and coal to give them a range of 1,600 nautical miles (3,000 km; 1,800 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph).
The main armament of the Tátra-class destroyers consisted of two 50-caliber Škoda Works 10-centimeter (3.9 in) K10 guns, one each fore and aft of the superstructure in single, unprotected mounts. Their secondary armament consisted of six 45-caliber 66-millimeter (2.6 in) guns, two of which were on anti-aircraft mountings. They were also equipped with four 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes in two twin rotating mountings amidships.
## Construction and career
Orjen was laid down by Ganz-Danubius at their shipyard in Porto Ré in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia of the Austro-Hungarian Empire on 4 September 1912, launched on 26 August 1913 and completed on 11 August 1914. The Tátra-class ships did not play a significant role in the minor raids and skirmishing in the Adriatic in 1914 and early 1915 between the Entente Cordiale and the Central Powers. From 9 to 24 December, Orjen had her propeller shaft bearings replaced in Pola.
### Action off Vieste
The Kingdom of Italy signed a secret treaty in London in late April 1915 breaking its alliance with the German Empire and Austro-Hungary and promising to declare war on the Central Powers within a month. Austro-Hungarian intelligence discovered this and Admiral Anton Haus, commander of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, planned a massive surprise attack on Italian ports and facilities on the northern Adriatic coast, outside of interception range of the modern ships of the Regia Marina (Royal Italian Navy) stationed at Taranto. To warn of any Italian warships able to interfere with the bombardments, Haus prepositioned three groups of destroyers, each led by a scout cruiser. Placed in the central Adriatic between the island of Pelagosa and the Italian coast, four days prior to the Italian declaration of war on 23 May, were four Tátra-class destroyers, including Orjen, and the cruiser SMS Helgoland. Around midnight on the night of 23/24 May, Haus ordered the reconnaissance groups to move west and attack Italian coastal targets. About an hour later the four Tátras encountered a pair of Italian Nembo-class destroyers, Turbine and Aquilone, but in the darkness they were believed by the Italians to be friendly ships.
The Italian ships separated when Aquilone went to investigate a sighting; Helgoland began bombarding the city of Barletta at 04:00 and the Italian destroyer spotted the cruiser at 04:38. Aquilone turned away to the southeast and was able to disengage without any damage. Turbine, however, encountered Helgoland several minutes later and believed that she was an Italian ship until she was disabused by a salvo from the cruiser. The destroyer turned to the north, towards Vieste, to escape, with Helgoland and Orjen in pursuit. Alerted by Helgoland's commander, Linienschiffskapitän (Captain) Heinrich Seitz, the destroyers SMS Csepel and SMS Tátra, which had been bombarding Manfredonia, moved to intercept and spotted Turbine at 05:10, opening fire at 05:45. The destroyer SMS Lika, which had been bombarding Vieste, was ordered to block her escape to the north while Helgoland stayed to the east to cut off her access to the Adriatic. Lika scored the critical hit of the battle when one of her 66-millimeter shells broke Turbine's steam pipe and caused her to rapidly lose speed. Tátra and Helgoland also scored hits and Turbine was dead in the water with a list when her crew abandoned ship at 06:51. She had hit Tátra and Csepel during the engagement, but failed to inflict any significant damage. The Austro-Hungarians rescued 35 survivors before torpedoing the derelict ship. As they were withdrawing they were engaged by the protected cruiser Libia and the armed merchant cruiser SS Cittá di Siracusa between 07:10 and 07:19. Helgoland was struck by one shell before they were able to disengage from the slower ships.
On 28 July, all six Tátra-class ships and the scout cruisers SMS Saida and Helgoland, reinforced by the German submarine UB-14, attempted to recapture Pelagosa which had been occupied by the Italians on 11 July. Despite a heavy bombardment by the ships, the 108-man landing party was unable to overcome the 90-man garrison and was forced to withdraw. Three weeks later, Saida, Helgoland, Orjen, Lika and two other destroyers bombarded the island, destroying its freshwater cistern, which forced the Italians to withdraw on 18 August.
The Bulgarian declaration of war on Serbia on 14 October cut the existing supply line from Serbia to Salonika, Greece, and forced the Allies to begin supplying Serbia through ports in Albania. This took about a month to work out the details and the Austro-Hungarians took just about as long to decide on a response. Haus ordered Seitz to take Helgoland, Saida and all six Tátra-class destroyers on a reconnaissance mission off the Albanian coast on the night of 22/23 November. They encountered and sank a small cargo ship and a motor schooner carrying flour for Serbia; four Italian destroyers were unable to intercept them before they reached friendly territory. Haus was initially reluctant to send his ships so far south, but an order from the Armeeoberkommando (High Command) on 29 November to patrol the Albanian coast and to disrupt Allied troop movements caused him to transfer Helgoland, her sister SMS Novara and the Tátra-class ships to Cattaro. On 6 December, Helgoland and the Tátras swept down the coast to Durazzo, sinking five motor schooners, including two in Durazzo harbor.
### 1916–1918
On 27 January 1916, Novara, Csepel and Orjen departed Cattaro on a mission to attack the shipping in Durazzo harbor. En route the two sisters accidentally collided with each other and had to return to port although the cruiser continued the mission. The impact bent Orjen's bow and she was under repair until 16 February. The ship made unsuccessful sorties in search of Allied shipping on 23 and 26 February. On the night of 31 May/1 June 1916, Orjen and her sister SMS Balaton, together with three torpedo boats, attacked the Otranto Barrage and sank one of the drifters maintaining it with a torpedo. On 4 July Helgoland, Orjen, Balaton and Tátra raided the barrage, but could not find any targets in the poor visibility. Orjen made another unsuccessful raid on the barrage on the night of 23/24 July. Helgoland and Novara, escorted by Orjen and Balaton, comprised one of two bombardment groups that Haus planned to bombard the Italian coast on 29 August to provoke a reaction by Allied ships that would be ambushed by waiting U-boats. The weather did not cooperate and it was too foggy to see the coast, and all the ships involved returned to harbor without incident. Orjen was refitted in Pola during 1–22 October and spent the rest of the year escorting convoys. On the night of 11/12 March 1917, Orjen, Balaton, Csepel and Tátra swept through the Strait of Otranto, but failed to sink the French cargo ship SS Gorgone that they encountered. From 30 March to 14 May, Orjen had two of her boilers replaced and returned to Cattaro on 17 May. She participated in the unsuccessful search for the missing flying boat K222 on 11 August.
The smaller ships in the Austro-Hungarian Navy were the most active ones and their crews had the highest morale; most of the larger ships did little but swing on their moorings which did nothing to improve the morale of their crews. On 1 February, the Cattaro Mutiny broke out, starting aboard the armored cruiser Sankt Georg. The mutineers rapidly gained control of the armored cruiser Kaiser Karl VI and most of the other major warships in the harbor. Unhappy with the failure of the smaller ships' crews to join the mutiny, the mutineers threatened to fire at any ship that failed to hoist a red flag. Orjen's crew hoisted a flag with the permission of her captain with the proviso that there should be no disturbances aboard ship. The following day, many of the mutinous ships abandoned the effort after coast-defense guns loyal to the government opened fire on the rebel guard ship Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf. The scout cruisers and Orjen, among other ships, took advantage of the confusion to rejoin loyalist forces in the inner harbor where they were protected by coastal artillery. The next morning, the Erzherzog Karl-class battleships arrived from Pola and put down the uprising.
### End of the war
By October it had become clear that Austria-Hungary was facing defeat in the war. With various attempts to quell nationalist sentiments failing, Emperor Karl I decided to sever Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany and appeal to the Allies in an attempt to preserve the empire from complete collapse. On 26 October Austria-Hungary informed Germany that their alliance was over. At the same time, the Austro-Hungarian Navy was in the process of tearing itself apart along ethnic and nationalist lines. Vice Admiral Miklós Horthy was informed on the morning of 28 October that an armistice was imminent, and used this news to maintain order and prevent a mutiny among the fleet. While a mutiny was spared, tensions remained high and morale was at an all-time low.
The following day the National Council in Zagreb announced Croatia's dynastic ties to Hungary had come to an end. This new provisional government, while throwing off Hungarian rule, had not yet declared independence from Austria-Hungary. Thus Emperor Karl I's government in Vienna asked the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs for help maintaining the fleet stationed at Pola and keeping order among the navy. The National Council refused to assist unless the Austro-Hungarian Navy was first placed under its command. Emperor Karl I, still attempting to save the Empire from collapse, agreed to the transfer, provided that the other "nations" which made up Austria-Hungary would be able to claim their fair share of the value of the fleet at a later time. All sailors not of Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian, or Serbian background were placed on leave for the time being, while the officers were given the choice of joining the new navy or retiring.
The Austro-Hungarian government thus decided to hand over the bulk of its fleet, preferring to do that rather than give the fleet to the Allies, as the new state had declared its neutrality. Furthermore, the newly formed state had also not yet publicly repudiated Emperor Karl I, keeping the possibility of reforming the Empire into a triple monarchy alive.
### Post-war
On 3 November the Austro-Hungarian government signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy, ending the fighting along the Italian Front, although it refused to recognize the transfer of Austria-Hungary's warships. As a result, on 4 November, Italian ships sailed into the ports of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume and Italian troops occupied the naval installations at Pola the following day. The National Council did not order any men to resist the Italians, but they also condemned Italy's actions as illegitimate. On 9 November, all remaining ships in Pola harbour had the Italian flag raised. At a conference at Corfu, the Allies agreed the transfer could not be accepted, despite sympathy from the United Kingdom. Faced with the prospect of being given an ultimatum to surrender the former Austro-Hungarian warships, the National Council agreed to hand over the ships beginning on 10 November.
When the Allies divided up the Austro-Hungarian Fleet amongst themselves in January 1920, Orjen was awarded to Italy. She was commissioned in the Regia Marina with the name Pola on 26 September, refitted and was assigned to the Venetian squadron from March 1922 where she made training cruises with machine engineering students to the Eastern Mediterranean. The ship was reduced to reserve in Taranto from 1924 to 1928 and was recommissioned for service in Libya in March 1928. Pola was reassigned to the Venetian squadron in 1929 before returning to Libya the following year. The ship was renamed Zenson on 9 April 1931 and cruised the Aegean Sea in 1931 and 1932. The ship was discarded on 1 May 1937 and subsequently scrapped. |
47,096,553 | French submarine Mariotte | 1,136,274,351 | French Navy's submarine | [
"1911 ships",
"Maritime incidents in 1915",
"Scuttled vessels",
"Ships built in France",
"Shipwrecks of Turkey",
"World War I shipwrecks in the Dardanelles",
"World War I submarines of France"
]
| The French submarine Mariotte was a submarine built for the French Navy prior to World War I. Intended to accompany the fleet, she was designed for high speed on the surface. Although the navy was unsatisfied with her performance on the surface, the boat had a higher underwater speed than any French submarine before or during the following 35 years. Mariotte was plagued with engine problems during her construction and the navy spent years fixing the various issues before finally commissioning her five years after beginning construction. During the war, she participated in the Dardanelles Campaign, but had to be scuttled after she became entangled in the cables of a minefield on her first attempt to penetrate the Dardanelles.
## Design and description
Mariotte was the winning design in a competition conducted by the Ministère de la Marine (Navy Ministry) in 1906 for a submarine (displacing 530 metric tons (520 long tons) that could accompany a squadron of battleships on the surface and had a submerged range of 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi). The winning design, by Constructor, First Class (Ingénieur de 1ère classe) Charles Radiguer, was optimized for good sea-keeping qualities and high speed with moderate buoyancy, a long, thin single hull, and high freeboard. The most unusual feature of his design was the prominent forecastle that was built atop the forward part of the pressure hull, while the rear was virtually awash. This odd configuration gave the boat her nickname of toothbrush (brosse à dents).
The submarine actually displaced slightly more than planned, 545 metric tons (536 long tons) surfaced and 634 metric tons (624 long tons) submerged. She measured 64.75 meters (212 ft 5 in) between perpendiculars and had a beam of 4.3 meters (14 ft 1 in). Mariotte had a maximum draft of 3.82 meters (12 ft 6 in) and had a depth of 7.25 meters (23 ft 9 in) from the bottom of her keel to the top of the conning tower. This latter was faired into the rear of the forecastle. Two lead weights were located in the keel and could be dropped in an emergency.
Her hull was divided into nine compartments and she was fitted with five internal trim tanks, an internal central ballast tank and three external ballast tanks. She had a test depth of 35 meters (115 ft). Mariotte had two rudders, one above the waterline for submerged use and the other below the waterline for regular use. She had two sets of diving planes, fore and aft, to control her depth below the water. The boat was evaluated in 1914 and the commission felt that she was generally successful except for her surface speed and range. It noted that she had problems with a following sea as the superstructure rapidly filled with water, but drained slowly so that she was much heavier by the bow and would tend to wallow. It also felt that she was insufficiently buoyant and had mediocre stability on the surface.
For surface running, the boat was powered by two Sautter & Harlé six-cylinder, 700-metric-horsepower (690 bhp; 515 kW) diesel engines, each driving a 1.72-meter (5 ft 8 in) propeller. When submerged each propeller was driven by a Breguet 500-metric-horsepower (493 shp; 368 kW) electric motor using electricity from two 124-cell batteries. Mariotte could reach 14.2 knots (26.3 km/h; 16.3 mph) on the surface and 11.7 knots (21.7 km/h; 13.5 mph) underwater. This latter speed was a record that would not be exceeded by a French submarine for 35 years. On the surface, the boat had a range of 1,658 nmi (3,071 km; 1,908 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), submerged, she had a range of 143 nmi (265 km; 165 mi) at 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph).
She was armed with four internal 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes in the bow and two Drzewiecki drop collars in the forecastle. Two reloads were stowed internally, which gave her a total of eight torpedoes. During World War I, the boat probably used Modèle 1911V torpedoes. These had a 110-kilogram (240 lb) warhead and a range of 2,000 meters (2,200 yd) at a speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph).
## Construction and service
Mariotte, named after the physicist Edme Mariotte, was ordered from the Arsenal de Cherbourg on 31 December 1906. The boat was laid down on 30 March 1908 and launched on 2 February 1911 with only the starboard electric motor in place. The port electric motor was under repair at the time and was installed from 3 May to 21 June and a brief series of trials were conducted. The boat was refitted and further repairs were made to the port-side motor, although continuing problems with her propulsion system often immobilized Mariotte into 1912. She was able, however, to conduct diving, torpedo and underwater speed trials in August and September 1911. The boat was lightly damaged when the air heater of a Modèle 1909R torpedo exploded in its tube on 27 December. Her diesel engines, three years delayed by problems during factory testing, were installed from 1 March to 28 July 1912. They were judged satisfactory after the oil sump and the compressors were changed. After repeated breakdowns, Mariotte conducted her testing of the diesels from 23 October to 11 December and she was finally commissioned (armament définitif) on 5 February 1913 after a complete overhaul of her propulsion system.
The boat was assigned to the 2nd Division (escadrille) of the Light Squadron of submarines on 16 January and she joined them at Calais on 11 February. Mariotte visited Brest on 20 February and was inspected by Rear Admiral Charles Eugène Favereau. During the inspection the oil-fired galley stove in the forecastle exploded, lightly burning two sailors. The boat was in Calais for the visit of King Christian X of Denmark later in the year.
When World War I began in August 1914, Mariotte was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron at Toulon where she patrolled off the coast of Provence. In July 1915, she was transferred to Mudros to attempt to penetrate the Dardanelles. After making a reconnaissance flight over the straits and having studied the reports of the British submarines that had successfully entered the Dardanelles, Lieutenant de vaisseau Auguste Farbre ordered his crew to cast off on the evening of 25 July. Escorted by the French destroyer Poignard to the mouth of the Dardanelles, she rounded Cape Helles on the surface, but dived to avoid being spotted by a searchlight about an hour later and attempted to pass underneath a minefield near Çanakkale. The boat became entangled in the cables and when she surfaced in an unsuccessful attempt to free herself, she was immediately engaged by a Turkish gun battery at close range. Mariotte could not submerge because her conning tower had been penetrated by shells so Farbre decided to scuttle the boat and surrender. The Turks ceased fire when he signaled his surrender and so his crew was able to destroy documents and equipment before opening the seacocks to sink the submarine. The wreck lies off Cape Nara near a Turkish naval base at a depth of 5 meters (16 ft).
## See also
- List of submarines of France |
58,436,954 | SMS Kaiser Franz Joseph I | 1,136,522,468 | Austro-Hungarian Navy's Kaiser Franz Joseph I-class cruiser | [
"1889 ships",
"Cruisers of the Austro-Hungarian Navy",
"Kaiser Franz Joseph I-class cruisers",
"World War I cruisers of Austria-Hungary"
]
| SMS Kaiser Franz Joseph I (sometimes called the Kaiser Franz Josef I) was a protected cruiser built for the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Named for the Austrian emperor and Hungarian king Franz Joseph I, Kaiser Franz Joseph I was the lead ship of her namesake class. Constructed by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste, she was laid down in January 1888 and launched in May 1889. Kaiser Franz Joseph I was commissioned into the Navy in June 1890. As the first protected cruiser constructed by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, she was intended to serve as Austria-Hungary's response to the Italian cruisers Giovanni Bausan and Etna. Her design was heavily influenced by the Jeune École (Young School), a naval strategy which had gained prominence in the 1880s as a means to combat a larger and more heavily armored navy of battleships through the use of torpedo flotillas.
Changes in technology and strategic thinking through the adoption of Alfred Thayer Mahan's "decisive battle" doctrine which stressed the construction of powerful battleships as the primary capital ship of navies around the world rendered the design of the Kaiser Franz Joseph I obsolete shortly after her commissioning. Nevertheless, she and her sister ship Kaiserin Elisabeth remained an important component of Austro-Hungarian naval policy, which continued to emphasize coastal defense and overseas missions to show the flag around the world. During the course of her career, Kaiser Franz Joseph I participated in several overseas voyages, including several tours of duty to defend Austro-Hungarian interests in China following the Boxer Rebellion.
At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Kaiser Franz Joseph I was assigned to the Fifth Battle Division and stationed at the Austro-Hungarian naval base at Cattaro. Due to her age and obsolete design, Kaiser Franz Joseph I saw little action during most of the conflict, though she did participate in shelling Franco-Montenegrin artillery batteries located on the slopes of Mount Lovćen in late 1914, which overshadowed the Bocche di Cattaro. In January 1916, when the Austria-Hungary began an invasion of Montenegro, Kaiser Franz Joseph I assisted in again silencing Montenegrin batteries on Mount Lovćen in support of the Austro-Hungarian Army, which seized the mountain and subsequently captured the Montenegrin capital of Cetinje, knocking the country out of the war.
In 1917, Kaiser Franz Joseph I was decommissioned, disarmed, and converted into a headquarters ship for the Austro-Hungarian base at Cattaro. She remained in this capacity through the rest of the war. When Austria-Hungary was facing defeat in October 1918, the Austrian government transferred its navy to the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs in order to avoid having to hand the ship over to the Allies. Following the Armistice of Villa Giusti in November 1918, an Allied fleet sailed into Cattaro and seized the former Austro-Hungarian ships stationed in the Bocche, including Kaiser Franz Joseph I. She was ceded to France as a war reparation after the war, but sank during a gale off Kumbor in October 1919. Her wreck was twice salvaged in 1922 and 1967. Two of her cannons are in Cetinje, Montenegro.
## Background
On 13 November 1883, Emperor Franz Joseph I promoted Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck to the office of vice admiral, and named him Marinekommandant of the Austro-Hungarian Navy as well as Chief of the Naval Section of the War Ministry (German: Chef der Marinesektion). Sterneck's presence at the Battle of Lissa, and his past ties to Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, led to his promotion being widely supported within the Navy. After spending his first years as Marinekommandant reforming the administrative bureaucracy of the Navy, Sterneck began to pursue a new program of warship construction in the late 1880s and early 1890s.
### Emergence of Jeune École
In the 1880s, the naval philosophy of Jeune École began to gain prominence among smaller navies throughout Europe, particularly within the French Navy, where it was first developed by naval theorists wishing to counter the strength of the British Royal Navy. Jeune École advocated the use of a powerful armed fleet primarily made up of cruisers, destroyers, and torpedo boats to combat a larger fleet made up of ironclads and battleships, as well as disrupt the enemy's global trade. Jeune École was quickly adopted as the main naval strategy for Austria-Hungary under the leadership of Sterneck. His strong support for Jeune École was rooted in a belief that the strategy appeared to fit existing Austro-Hungarian naval policy, which stressed coastal defense and limited power projection beyond the Adriatic Sea. Tests conducted by the Austro-Hungarian Navy during the early and mid 1880s led Sterneck to believe that torpedo boat attacks against a fleet of battleships, a central component of Jeune École, would have to be supported by larger ships such as cruisers. As Austria-Hungary lacked the ability to disrupt global trade due to its location in the Adriatic Sea, and the two potential enemies the Navy could find itself at war with–Italy and Russia–lacked suitable targets for commerce raiding or overseas colonies, the cruisers which would be designed under the principles of Jeune École would instead focus on coastal defense and leading torpedo boat flotillas as opposed to commerce raiding. These tests, as well as the adoption of Jeune École as the principal naval strategy of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, led to the development of Kaiser Franz Joseph I.
### Proposals and budget
Under the Navy's 1881 plan which was passed by his predecessor, Friedrich von Pöck, Sterneck proposed the construction of a class of cruisers to the Austrian and Hungarian Delegations for Common Affairs as "replacements" for the Austro-Hungarian ironclads Lissa and Kaiser. Kaiser had not seen active service since 1875 and Pöck had intended to have her replaced prior to his resignation in 1883. Lissa had been reassigned to the II Reserve by 1888. The Delegations strongly supported the proposal for the cruisers, in large part due to their relatively low price compared to other capital ships of the era. Two cruisers built to the specifications of Kaiser Franz Joseph I would cost 5,360,000 florins, while the ironclad warship Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf, laid down in 1884, had cost ƒ5,440,000 to construct. The Delegations thus allocated funding to construct two Kaiser Franz Joseph I-class ships—"Ram Cruiser A" and "Ram Cruiser B" (German: "Rammkreuzer A" and "Rammkreuzer B")—under the 1888 and 1889 budgets. "Ram Cruiser A" would eventually become Kaiser Franz Joseph I. This means that Kaiser Franz Joseph I's construction costs were later recorded as being 5,146,884 Krone.
## Design
Authorized near the start of Austria-Hungary's second naval arms race against Italy, Sterneck had intended Kaiser Franz Joseph I and her sister ship to serve as Austria-Hungary's response to the Italian cruisers Giovanni Bausan and Etna. Intended as a counter to the growing strength of the Italian Regia Marina, Kaiser Franz Joseph I was designed to lead a torpedo flotilla into battle against a larger fleet of battleships. While Italy and Austria-Hungary had become allies under the 1882 Triple Alliance, Italy's Regia Marina remained the most-important naval power in the region which Austria-Hungary measured itself against, often unfavorably. Despite the Austrian victory at sea after the Battle of Lissa during the Third War of Italian Independence, Italy still possessed a larger navy than Austria-Hungary in the years following the war. The disparity between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian navies had existed ever since the Austro-Italian ironclad arms race of the 1860s. While Austria-Hungary had shrunk the disparity in naval strength throughout the 1870s, Italy boasted the third-largest fleet in the world by the late 1880s, behind the French Navy and the British Royal Navy.
Sterneck hailed the Kaiser Franz Joseph I and her sister ship as the "battleships of the future", and it was envisioned that she would lead a torpedo division made up of one light cruiser, one destroyer, and six torpedo boats. The displacement and speed of Kaiser Franz Joseph I also illustrated Austria-Hungary's application of Jeune École, while her prominent ram bow reflected the legacy of the Battle of Lissa, which saw a much smaller Austrian fleet defeat the Italian Regia Marina using ramming tactics. Sterneck envisioned a hypothetical engagement with the Italian Regia Marina devolving into a chaotic melee similar to the Battle of Lissa, with Kaiser Franz Joseph I and her sister ship leading torpedo divisions against their opponents. Her bow ram would maximize damage in an engagement of this sort and allow her to sink enemy vessels in a similar fashion to Tegetthoff at Lissa. Her two large guns were also chosen in order to give credence to Sterneck's plan for Kaiser Franz Joseph I to help replace heavily armored ironclads and battleships as the primary capital ship of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.
### General characteristics
Designed by Chief Engineer Franz Freiherr Jüptner, Kaiser Franz Joseph I had an overall length of 103.7–103.9 meters (340 ft 3 in – 340 ft 11 in) and a length between perpendiculars of 97.9 meters (321 ft 2 in). She had a beam of 14.75–14.8 meters (48 ft 5 in – 48 ft 7 in), and a mean draft of 5.7 meters (18 ft 8 in) at deep load. She was designed to displace 3,967 metric tons (3,904 long tons; 4,373 short tons) at normal load, but at full combat load she displaced 4,494 metric tons (4,423 long tons; 4,954 short tons). She was manned by a crew of 367 to 444 officers and men.
### Propulsion
Her propulsion systems consisted of two shafts which operated two screw propellers measuring 4.35 meters (14 ft 3 in) in diameter. These propellers were powered by two sets of horizontal triple expansion engines, designed to provide 8,000–8,450 shaft horsepower (5,970–6,300 kW). These engines were powered by four cylindrical double-ended boilers, which gave Kaiser Franz Joseph I a top speed of 19.65 knots (36.39 km/h; 22.61 mph) while conducting sea trials. In order to power her boilers, Kaiser Franz Joseph I carried 670 metric tons (660 long tons; 740 short tons) of coal. This gave her a range of approximately 3,200 nautical miles (5,900 km; 3,700 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
### Armament
Kaiser Franz Joseph I had an armament system which was based heavily off of the design of "Elswick cruisers" such as the Chilean cruiser Esmeralda. She was armed with a main battery of two 24 cm (9.4 in) K L/35 Krupp guns, mounted in turrets fore and aft. Her secondary armament consisted of six 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/35 guns, mounted in casemates amidships with three on either side. She also possessed 16 47 mm (1.9 in) SFK L/44 guns, and four 40–45 cm (16–18 in) torpedo tubes with two located at the bow and stern, and two located amidships. These heavy guns were intended to help the cruiser open fire on heavier battleships from a distance while supporting torpedo boat attacks on an enemy warship or fleet. In 1905, Kaiser Franz Joseph I underwent a refit for modernization. During this refit, her main battery was replaced by two 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/40 Škoda guns.
The mountings her main guns were located on consisted of a rotating platform and a domed gun turret. These turrets were operated by a series of steam pumps below the deck of both ships. While each turret had its own steam pump, pipes ran the length of the ship to connect each steam pump and their accompanying turret together in order to provide a backup system should one of the steam pumps be disabled in combat. The maximum elevation of the two main guns, as well as their loading angle, was 13.5°. When at this angle, the range of the main guns' 215 kilograms (474 lb) shells was 10,000 meters (11,000 yd). The maximum elevation of the ships' secondary armament was 16°, and their 21 kilograms (46 lb) shells had the same range as the main battery.
### Armor
Kaiser Franz Joseph I was protected at the waterline with an armored belt measuring 57 mm (2.2 in) thick. The turrets had 90 mm (3.5 in) thick armor, while the thickness of the deck armor was 38 mm (1.5 in). Her conning tower was protected by 50–90 mm (2.0–3.5 in) armor. The machinery for Kaiser Franz Joseph I was assembled by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, and she was constructed with a double-bottom hull and designed with over 100 watertight compartments. The steam-powered pumps used to control flooding aboard Kaiser Franz Joseph I could discharge 1,200 metric tons (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) of water per hour.
The defensive systems Kaiser Franz Joseph I- also consisted of coal bunkers located abreast the boiler rooms, and a horizontal cofferdam located at her waterline, which was filled with cellulose fiber. The fiber was intended to seal up any holes in the ship from artillery rounds by swelling up upon contact with seawater, while the impacting shell itself would be slowed down by the surrounding coal, which would also serve to contain any explosions.
## Service history
Kaiser Franz Joseph I was laid down by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino at Trieste under the designation "Ram Cruiser A" on 3 January 1888. "Ram Cruiser A" was formally named Kaiser Franz Joseph I when she was launched at Trieste on 18 May 1889. After conducting sea trials, Kaiser Franz Joseph I was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy on 2 July 1890.
### Pre-war
Changes in both technology as well as naval doctrine rendered Kaiser Franz Joseph I obsolete shortly after her commissioning. Indeed, the rapid decline of Jeune Ecole during the 1890s and 1900s soon rendered the concept of "ram cruisers" obsolete as a whole. The thin armor, slow speed, and slow-firing guns present on ships such as Kaiser Franz Joseph I led to Sterneck's "battleships of the future" being labeled as "tin cans" and "Sterneck's sardine–boxes" by Austro-Hungarian sailors and naval officers. The poor reception Kaiser Franz Joseph I and her sister ship received due to these changes in technological development and strategic thinking thus contributed to the Austro-Hungarian Navy's decision to transition away from cruisers to battleships as the primary capital ship of the Navy. Within ten years of the launching of Kaiser Franz Joseph I, the first Habsburg-class battleships were laid down.
Despite these shortcomings, Kaiser Franz Joseph I would have a career spanning nearly 30 years. In the summer of 1890, German Kaiser Wilhelm II invited Sterneck to participate in naval exercises in the Baltic Sea. Kaiser Franz Joseph I was dispatched along with Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf and Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie to represent the Austro-Hungarian Navy. While under the command of Rear Admiral Johann von Hinke, she visited Gibraltar and Cowes in the United Kingdom, where Queen Victoria reviewed the Austro-Hungarian fleet. The cruiser also made port in Copenhagen, Denmark, and Karlskrona, Sweden, before joining the German Imperial Navy in the Baltic for its summer exercises. Following these maneuvers, Kaiser Franz Joseph I made port in France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and British Malta before returning to Austria-Hungary.
#### 1895–1914
Throughout the 1890s, Kaiser Franz Joseph I participated in several diplomatic voyages on behalf of Austria-Hungary round the world. In 1895, Kaiser Franz Joseph I and her sister ship participated in the opening ceremony of the Kiel Canal. Two years later, she completed her first voyage to the Far East, and returned in late 1897 to participate in an international demonstration off the coast of Crete. The following year, she participated in celebrations honoring Vasco de Gama in Lisbon, Portugal.
Following the end of the Boxer Rebellion, Austria-Hungary was granted a concession in Tianjin in December 1902 as part of its contributions to the Eight-Nation Alliance. It was decided after the rebellion that the Austro-Hungarian Navy would maintain a permanent presence in the Far East to guard Austro-Hungarian interests in China, as well as provide protection for the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin. Kaiserin Elisabeth would be the first Austro-Hungarian ship stationed in China following the end of the Boxer Rebellion, while Kaiser Franz Joseph I conducted training exercises in the Mediterranean Sea throughout 1903 and 1904. While stationed in Austria-Hungary for training purposes, Kaiser Franz Joseph I underwent a refit in 1905 in order to have her Krupp guns replaced with 15-centimeter (5.9 in) Škoda guns. These guns were considered more modern than their predecessors, and had a faster loading time. Other changes included moving the location of the secondary guns to the upper deck, where they would be less exposed to the elements and have a better vantage points compared to their previous location in casemates located close to the waterline of both ships. Later that same year, she sailed for China to relieve Kaiserin Elisabeth, who underwent the same modernization upon her return to Austria-Hungary in 1906.
Kaiser Franz Joseph would remain stationed in China until 1908. That same year, she and her sister ship were re-classified as 2nd class cruisers and rotated duties once more, with the Kaiser Franz Joseph I being sent back to China and Kaiserin Elisabeth being transferred to Austria-Hungary to serve as a training vessel. In 1911, Kaiser Franz Joseph I and her sister ship were again re-designated, this time as small cruisers. That same year, Kaiserin Elisabeth returned to Austria-Hungary for the last time, while Kaiser Franz Joseph began her final deployment to China. During this period, Kaiser Franz Joseph's crew were deployed to protect Shanghai and Austro-Hungarian interests in China during the Xinhai Revolution. In 1913, the cruisers were ordered to rotate duties one final time, with Kaiserin Elisabeth going to China, and Kaiser Franz Joseph I returning to Austria-Hungary in 1914.
### World War I
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo triggered a chain of events which led to the July Crisis and Austria-Hungary's subsequent declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July. Events unfolded rapidly in the ensuing days. On 30 July 1914 Russia declared full mobilization in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia. Austria-Hungary declared full mobilization the next day. On 1 August both Germany and France ordered full mobilization and Germany declared war on Russia in support of Austria-Hungary. While relations between Austria-Hungary and Italy had improved greatly in the two years following the 1912 renewal of the Triple Alliance, increased Austro-Hungarian naval spending, political disputes over influence in Albania, and Italian concerns over the potential annexation of land in the Kingdom of Montenegro caused the relationship between the two allies to falter in the months leading up to the war. Italy declared neutrality on 1 August, citing Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia as an act of aggression, which was not covered under the Triple Alliance.
By 4 August Germany had already occupied Luxembourg and invaded Belgium after declaring war on France, and the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany in support of Belgian neutrality. Following France and Britain's declarations of war on Austria-Hungary on 11 and 12 August respectively, the French Admiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère was issued orders to close off Austro-Hungarian shipping at the entrance to the Adriatic Sea and to engage any Austro-Hungarian ships his Anglo-French fleet came across. Lapeyrère chose to attack the Austro-Hungarian ships blockading Montenegro. The ensuing Battle of Antivari ended Austria-Hungary's blockade, and effectively placed the Strait of Otranto firmly in the hands of Britain and France. At the start of the war, Kaiser Franz Joseph I was assigned to the Fifth Battle Division, alongside the three Monarch-class coastal defense ships, and the cruiser Panther at the Austro-Hungarian naval base at Cattaro. Rear Admiral Richard von Barry was assigned command of this division, which was tasked with coastal defense roles. After the loss of the cruiser Zenta at the Battle of Antivari, Austro-Hungarian Marinekommandant Anton Haus blamed Barry for failing to intercept the French forces and relieved him of command in October 1914, replacing him with Rear Admiral Alexander Hansa.
Kaiser Franz Joseph I served as a harbor defense ship for most of the remainder of the war, though she did see action against Montenegrin batteries atop Mount Lovćen, which overshadowed the Bocche di Cattaro, where she was stationed. In September 1914, a French landing party of 140 men assisted Montenegrin troops in installing eight heavy artillery pieces on the slopes of Mount Lovćen. This bolstered the artillery Montenegro had already placed on the mountain, and posed a major threat to the Austro-Hungarian base located at Cattaro. Throughout September and October, the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Division and the Franco-Montenegrin artillery dueled for control over the Bocche. The arrival of the Austro-Hungarian Radetzky-class battleships knocked out two of the French guns and forced the remainder to withdraw beyond the range of the Austro-Hungarian guns. In late November, the French withdrew and handed the guns over to Montenegro to maintain. Meanwhile, Kaiser Franz Joseph I's sister ship, Kaiserin Elisabeth would be the second Austro-Hungarian warship to be sunk during the war, having been trapped in China at the outbreak of hostilities. She was ultimately scuttled in early November at the German-held Kiautschou Bay concession during the Anglo-Japanese Siege of Tsingtao.
#### 1916–1918
In late 1915, it was decided by Austria-Hungary and Germany that after finally conquering Serbia, Montenegro would be knocked out of the war next. On 8 January 1916, Kaiser Franz Joseph I and the other ships of the Fifth Division began a barrage which would last three days against the Montenegrin fortifications on Mount Lovćen. The sustained artillery bombardment allowed the Austro-Hungarian XIX Army Corps to capture the mountain on 11 January. Two days later, Austro-Hungarian forces entered Montenegro's capital of Cetinje, knocking Montenegro out of the war. After the conquest of Montenegro, Kaiser Franz Joseph I remained at anchor in the Bocce di Cattaro for the remainder of the war. She almost never ventured outside of Cattaro for the next two years.
#### Cattaro Mutiny
By early 1918, the long periods of inactivity had begun to wear on the crews of several Austro-Hungarian ships at Cattaro, primarily those of ships which saw little combat. On 1 February, the Cattaro Mutiny broke out, starting aboard Sankt Georg. The mutineers rapidly gained control of most of the warships in the harbor, while others such as Kaiser Franz Joseph I flew the red flag despite remaining neutral in the rebellion. The crews of the cruisers Novara and Helgoland resisted the mutiny, with the latter preparing their ship's torpedoes, but rebels aboard the Sankt Georg aimed their 24 cm (9.4 in) guns at Helgoland, forcing them to back down. Novara's commander, Johannes, Prinz von Liechtenstein, initially refused to allow a rebel party to board his vessel, but after the rebel-held cruiser Kaiser Karl VI trained her guns on Novara, he relented and let the crew fly a red flag in support of the mutiny. Liechtenstein and Erich von Heyssler, the commander of Helgoland, discussed overnight how to extricate their vessels, their crews having abstained from actively supporting the rebels.
The following day, many of the mutinous ships abandoned the effort and rejoined loyalist forces in the inner harbor after shore batteries loyal to the Austro-Hungarian government opened fire on the rebel-held Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf. Liechtenstein tore down the red flag before ordering his ship to escape into the inner harbor; they were joined by the other scout cruisers and most of the torpedo boats, followed by several of the other larger vessels. There, they were protected by shore batteries that opposed the mutiny. By late in the day, only the men aboard Sankt Georg and a handful of destroyers and torpedo boats remained in rebellion. The next morning, the Erzherzog Karl-class battleships arrived from Pola and put down the uprising. In the immediate aftermath of the mutiny, Kaiser Franz Joseph I's complement was reduced to a caretaker crew while the cruiser was converted into a barracks ship. Her guns were also removed for use on the mainland.
After the Cattaro Mutiny, Admiral Maximilian Njegovan was fired as Commander-in-Chief (German: Flottenkommandant) of the Navy, though at Njegovan's request it was announced that he was retiring. Miklós Horthy, who had since been promoted to commander of the battleship Prinz Eugen, was promoted to rear admiral and named as the Flottenkommandant of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.
#### End of the war
By October 1918 it had become clear that Austria-Hungary was facing defeat in the war. With various attempts to quell nationalist sentiments failing, Emperor Karl I decided to sever Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany and appeal to the Allied Powers in an attempt to preserve the empire from complete collapse. On 26 October Austria-Hungary informed Germany that their alliance was over. At the same time, the Austro-Hungarian Navy was in the process of tearing itself apart along ethnic and nationalist lines. Horthy was informed on the morning of 28 October that an armistice was imminent, and used this news to maintain order and prevent another mutiny among the fleet.
On 29 October the National Council in Zagreb announced Croatia's dynastic ties to Hungary had come to a formal conclusion. The National Council also called for Croatia and Dalmatia to be unified, with Slovene and Bosnian organizations pledging their loyalty to the newly formed government. This new provisional government, while throwing off Hungarian rule, had not yet declared independence from Austria-Hungary. Thus Emperor Karl I's government in Vienna asked the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs for help maintaining the fleet and keeping order among the navy. The National Council refused to assist unless the Austro-Hungarian Navy was first placed under its command. Emperor Karl I, still attempting to save the Empire from collapse, agreed to the transfer, provided that the other "nations" which made up Austria-Hungary would be able to claim their fair share of the value of the fleet at a later time. All sailors not of Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian, or Serbian background were placed on leave for the time being, while the officers were given the choice of joining the new navy or retiring.
The Austro-Hungarian government thus decided to hand over the bulk of its fleet to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs without a shot being fired. This was considered preferential to handing the fleet to the Allies, as the new state had declared its neutrality. Furthermore, the newly formed state had also not yet publicly dethroned Emperor Karl I, keeping the possibility of reforming the Empire into a triple monarchy alive. The transfer to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs began on the morning of 31 October, with Horthy meeting representatives from the South Slav nationalities aboard his flagship, Viribus Unitis in Pola. After "short and cool" negotiations, the arrangements were settled and the handover was completed that afternoon. The Austro-Hungarian Naval Ensign was struck from Viribus Unitis, and was followed by the remaining ships in the harbor. Control over the battleship, and the head of the newly-established navy for the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, fell to Captain Janko Vuković, who was raised to the rank of admiral and took over Horthy's old responsibilities as Commander-in-Chief of the Fleet.
### Post-war
Despite the transfer, on 3 November 1918 the Austro-Hungarian government signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy, ending the fighting along the Italian Front. The Armistice of Villa Giusti refused to recognize the transfer of Austria-Hungary's warships to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. As a result, on 4 November 1918, Italian ships sailed into the ports of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. On 5 November, Italian troops occupied the naval installations at Pola. While the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs attempted to hold onto their ships, they lacked the men and officers to do so as most sailors who were not South Slavs had already gone home. The National Council did not order any men to resist the Italians, but they also condemned Italy's actions as illegitimate. On 9 November, Italian, British, and French ships sailed into Cattaro and seized the remaining Austro-Hungarian ships, including Kaiser Franz Joseph I, which had been turned over to the National Council. At a conference at Corfu, the Allied Powers agreed the transfer of Austria-Hungary's Navy to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs could not be accepted, despite sympathy from the United Kingdom. Faced with the prospect of being given an ultimatum to hand over the former Austro-Hungarian warships, the National Council agreed to hand over all the ships transferred to them by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to include Kaiser Franz Joseph I, beginning on 10 November 1918.
While Cattaro remained under Allied occupation after the war, Kaiser Franz Joseph I remained under the administration of France as it would not be until 1920 when the final distribution of the ships was settled among the Allied powers under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. While under French control, she was converted into an ammunition ship, but sank while moored in the Bocche di Cattaro during a heavy gale on 17 October 1919. Her sinking was attributed to several open hatches and her top-heaviness due to the ammunition stored aboard. In 1922, a Dutch salvage company discovered the Kaiser Franz Joseph I and began salvaging operations. Some of her fittings, including her deck cranes, were ultimately salvaged, though most of the ship remained intact at the bottom of the bay. In 1967, the Yugoslav salvage company Brodospas salvaged the wreck as well. |
1,082,555 | Sega AM3 | 1,155,591,427 | Defunct Japanese video game developer | [
"Defunct video game companies of Japan",
"Sega divisions and subsidiaries",
"Video game companies disestablished in 2004",
"Video game companies established in 1991",
"Video game companies established in 2000",
"Video game development companies"
]
| , known as from 2000 to 2004, is a defunct division of Sega, a Japanese video game company. Established by 1993, AM3 was managed by Hisao Oguchi and developed a number of arcade games for Sega. Series introduced by AM3 include Virtual On, Sega Rally, Crazy Taxi, and Virtua Tennis. AM3's main focus was on arcade games until the release of the Dreamcast. Additionally, developers Tetsuya Mizuguchi and Kenji Sasaki developed Sega Rally Championship with AM3 before departing to form AM Annex, which later split into Sega AM9 and Sega AM5.
In 2000, Sega reorganized its studios into semi-autonomous companies, and AM3 became Hitmaker. The company expanded its development into Dreamcast games and ports, but saw a reduced amount of success in compared to previous years. However Derby Owners Club, World Club Champion Football and The Key of Avalon, proved to be highly successful in the Japanese arcade scene. All of which were made by Hitmaker and used magnetic cards.
Hitmaker was one of the few profitable studios for Sega, which gave Oguchi the opportunity to expand beyond videogames and invest into the darts business. Owing to his work on medal and card related arcade games, Oguchi was promoted within Sega.
Oguchi departed Hitmaker in 2003 to become president of Sega. As part of Oguchi's studio consolidation plan with Sega, Sasaki's Sega Rosso studio was merged into Hitmaker. The next year, Hitmaker was integrated back into Sega. The AM3 designation would continue until 2009 until it was merged into other departments.
## History
Hisao Oguchi joined Sega in 1984, when there was only one research and development division for arcade and video games. As part of his earliest work, he worked on project planning for the Master System, and his first game developed was Doki Doki Penguin. He directed Super Derby, Super Monaco GP, Rad Mobile, and Heavyweight Champ. Oguchi worked with Sega AM1 before going to AM3. He was appointed as manager of AM3 one month after it opened.
AM3 opened by April 1993. By May 1993, a new Sonic the Hedgehog arcade project was in development. SegaSonic the Hedgehog was developed by AM3, with assistance from Sonic Team. Over the next four years, AM3 continued to develop new games, such as Sega Rally Championship, Gunblade NY, Manx TT Super Bike, Virtual On: Cyber Troopers, Last Bronx, and Top Skater. In 1995, Sega Rally was described by Next Generation as being potentially superior to the well reviewed Daytona USA. The same magazine described AM3 as a "fledgling" studio, being Sega's newest arcade development department at the time. Director Kenji Sasaki declared that AM3 "wanted to make a racing game that was very different to all the others out there", while producer Tetsuya Mizuguchi highlighted the game's realistic motion cabinet. Mizuguchi and Sasaki later departed AM3 with the team of Sega Rally Championship to develop Sega Touring Car Championship with their new group, AM Annex.
In a 1997 interview, Oguchi stated that the culture at AM3 was that he would not reject or interfere with ideas, although he would make suggestions. He likened the environment to a university laboratory and called it "the AM3 way". Oguchi also addressed AM3's lack of a genre of game in which they specialized, stating that his department's primary objective was to create games that "look interesting", which also meant a focus on arcade games that one would not find on a video game console. AM3 had a fondness for using the Model 2 arcade system board, which was used on Last Bronx and Top Skater even though the former released just a few weeks before AM2's Virtua Fighter 3 on the Model 3. Top Skater was released afterward with a deliberate selection of the Model 2. Of the newer hardware, Oguchi stated that AM3 would work with it, and that he anticipated it would eventually reduce in cost much as the Model 2 had already. Next Generation praised Last Bronx though comparing it to Virtua Fighter 3, stating it showed how AM3 had a "refusal to take a back seat to AM2 or any other R&D department". In 1999, AM3 released Top Skater developer Kenji Kanno's Crazy Taxi for the NAOMI system board. It quickly became a staple game at a number of arcades and received a Dreamcast port, with more than one million copies sold. Another arcade and home release, Virtua Tennis, helped to start a new wave of tennis video games and became one of the Dreamcast's best sellers. Derby Owners Club proved to be highly influential as an arcade game with physical card features.Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi-autonomous studios headed by the company's top designers in 2000. Oguchi chose to name his new company Hitmaker, as "the perfect translation of our image". He expressed a desire to move forward with network gaming and work on new concepts with his staff of 128 employees. The company's official name was Hitmaker Co., Ltd. Into 2001, Hitmaker continued to release arcade and Dreamcast games, including Cyber Troopers Virtual-On Force, Confidential Mission, and Segagaga. Even with these positive releases, Hitmaker was not reaching the level of success they had before. Although in the arcade market Hitmaker built upon the success of Derby Owners Club, with World Club Champion Football and The Key of Avalon which also used physical card features. In 2006, Japanese arcades made record profits based on these type of arcade games. World Club Champion Football has sold 850 million player cards, as of 2016, making it the bestselling arcade digital collectible card game. Sega was considered to be a pioneer of card related video games, which have become very prevalent in mobile games in Japan.
Oguchi was promoted in 2003 alongside Yuji Naka and Toshihiro Nagoshi, based on the success of arcade games that used cards. Due to Hitmaker being one of the few profitable studio of Sega, Oguchi had the freedom to pursue businesses outside of video games, and invested into the darts business. Hitmaker was involved in the establishment of DARTSLIVE Co., Ltd. which produces electronic darts machines, and a darts bar called Bee was opened in Shibuya in 2002.
In 2003, Oguchi was promoted to president of Sega when Hideki Sato stepped down. At the time, Sega had recently announced its first profit in five years. Virtua Tennis producer Mie Kumagai replaced Oguchi as president of Hitmaker, becoming Sega's first female studio head. Oguchi announced his intention to consolidate Sega's studios into "four or five core operations". As part of the consolidation, Hitmaker absorbed Sega Rosso, which worked on the Sega Rally and Initial D Arcade Stage series. Then, in 2004, Sega reintegrated all of its studios into the company, with Hitmaker shutting down its website on July 1. The AM3 designation continued within Sega until April 2009, when the studio was integrated into other departments. According to IGN's Travis Fahs, AM3 was one of Sega's top arcade studios but received little recognition in comparison to AM2. Rob Fahey of Gamesindustry.biz stated that Hitmaker had a strong reputation with consumers and within the industry.
## Sega Rosso
, previously Sega AM5, was a video game development studio headed by Kenji Sasaki, who had served as a designer on Sega Rally Championship. In 1996, producer Tetsuya Mizuguchi met with Hisashi Suzuki, the manager of the R&D division. He and Mizuguchi agreed to create a new department separate from AM3 that would be called AM Annex. Mizuguchi selected the initial team himself, a team of six or seven people that would later grow in number. The first game AM Annex began to develop was Sega Touring Car Championship on the Model 2 arcade board. AM Annex later received the AM8 designation and developed Sega Rally 2 and Star Wars Trilogy Arcade on Sega's Model 3 board.
According to Hisao Oguchi, Mizuguchi and Sasaki had departed AM3 with the team of Sega Rally Championship. AM Annex was rebranded as AM12 by September 1998, and AM5 in 1999. The AM5 designation was previously used for a team that designed large attractions for Sega's arcades and indoor amusement parks. Mizuguchi later chose to leave Sasaki after being granted his own department as CS4, later AM9, and even later United Game Artists. Sasaki became head of AM5, while the AM8 designation went to Sonic Team. As the smallest AM department with a staff between 40 and 50 employees, most of Sasaki's staff came from Namco, where Sasaki himself had a role in the development of the Ridge Racer series. AM5 developed Star Wars: Racer Arcade and released it by July 2000.
When the studios were separated from Sega, Sasaki chose the name "Sega Rosso" to have a "hotter" image than the "cool" blue color of Sega, and he liked the combination of Sega with the Italian word for red. Sega Rosso's next three games were NASCAR Arcade and Cosmic Smash. Sasaki expressed a desire to work on both arcade and Dreamcast games, as the arcade industry was struggling. Sega Rosso would also work on the Initial D Arcade Stage series before being merged with Hitmaker in 2003.
## See also
- Sega development studios
- Amusement Vision
- Smilebit
- Sonic Team |
8,711,145 | Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832) | 1,146,695,497 | null | [
"1832 in Michigan Territory",
"1832 in the United States",
"Battles and skirmishes of the Black Hawk War in Wisconsin",
"June 1832 events",
"Lafayette County, Wisconsin"
]
| The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, also referred to as the Battle of Pecatonica and the Battle of Bloody Lake, was fought on June 16, 1832 in present-day Wisconsin at an oxbow lake known as "Horseshoe Bend", which was formed by a change in course of the Pecatonica River. The battle was a major turning point in the Black Hawk War, despite being of only minor military significance. The small victory won by the U.S. militia at Horseshoe Bend helped restore public confidence in the volunteer force following an embarrassing defeat at Stillman's Run. The Battle of Horseshoe Bend ended with three militia men killed in action and a party of eleven Kickapoo warriors dead.
The militia men involved in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend proved their ability to obey orders, act as a disciplined unit, and show bravery. Unlike at Stillman's Run, the troops waited for Colonel Henry Dodge's commands before acting on the field of battle. When ordered to charge, the men obeyed and eventually won a fight that descended into a bloody hand-to-hand battle. A memorial marker was erected to commemorate the battle in 1922. Today the battleground at Horseshoe Bend is a county park.
## Background
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828. However, Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, between 1830 and 1831 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River, but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 1000 warriors and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return to Iowa, but the undisciplined Illinois Militia force's actions led to the Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other small skirmishes and massacres followed and the militias of Michigan Territory and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's Band. The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War.
The period between Stillman's Run and Horseshoe Bend was filled with war-related activity. A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove, the Plum River settlement, Fort Blue Mounds and the war's most famous incident, the Indian Creek massacre, all took place between mid-May and late June 1832. In the week before the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, Colonel Henry Dodge of the western Michigan Territory militia was busy responding to various incidents across the region. On the afternoon of June 8, 1832, Dodge and his men, including James W. Stephenson, proceeded to Kellogg's Grove and buried the victims of the St. Vrain massacre. That night Stephenson returned to Galena, Illinois, while Dodge moved to Hickory Point where he remained overnight. The next morning Dodge set out for Dixon's Ferry, where he camped with General Hugh Brady.
## Prelude
On June 11, Dodge escorted Brady to the mouth of the Fox River to confer with overall commander General Henry Atkinson. Dodge left the conference with clear authority from Atkinson to deal with the violence in the mining region. He first traveled to his home fort, at Gratiot's Grove, which he reached on June 13. The Spafford Farm massacre occurred the following day, and Dodge set out for Fort Hamilton as soon as he heard about it, stopping at Fort Blue Mounds for supplies. On the way to Hamilton, the soldiers passed a German immigrant, Henry Apple, exchanged greetings and kept traveling. Shortly afterwards the soldiers heard gunshots in the distance; Apple had met with a Kickapoo ambush, likely meant for Dodge himself. Dodge was probably saved by his last minute decision to make a detour from the main route. Later Apple's horse galloped wildly back past the men, wounded and carrying a large amount of blood in its saddle. The horse continued all the way to Fort Hamilton, where it raised a furor among the inhabitants.
A Native American band from the Kickapoo tribe, eleven warriors in all, was responsible for the attack on Apple; the same band had killed five men at Spafford Farm on June 14. This band was only loosely affiliated with Black Hawk's British Band.
On hearing the ambush in the distance, Dodge hurried on toward Fort Hamilton (present-day Wiota, Wisconsin) where he gathered together a company of 29 mounted volunteers and sped off to intercept the attackers. He led the chase through tangled underbrush until, breaking into prairie, his force caught sight of the raiding party. The Kickapoo crossed the Pecatonica River within sight of the pursuing militia, and entered into an overgrown swamp. The militia followed across the swollen river and dismounted when they reached the swamp.
## Battle
According to personal accounts of the battle, after dismounting Dodge offered his men a chance to back out of the operation. No one opted out, and 21 men advanced with Dodge in an extended firing line, unsure of the enemy's location. The remaining eight soldiers were posted as guards on high grounds and near the horses. Unlike the disorganized and undisciplined troops at Stillman's Run, the volunteers at Horseshoe Bend adhered to military discipline; they waited for Dodge to give the order before they entered the thicket and swampland in search of their enemy, and once searching they awaited their commander's order to attack.
After the militia advanced about 200 yards (200 m), the Kickapoo suddenly let loose a loud yell from their hidden position on the bank of an oxbow lake along the river. The warriors fired a volley toward the advancing militia and three men, Samuel Black, Samuel Wells and Montaville Morris, were hit and went down. Dodge did not hesitate and ordered his men to charge; they obeyed and waited until they were within six feet of the Kickapoo before discharging their weapons. The fight, after the initial charge and volley, descended into a hand-to-hand struggle with tomahawks, bayonets, muskets and spears the weapons of choice. The fighting only lasted a few minutes: nine Kickapoo were killed on the spot and the other two were felled while fleeing across the lake. During the hand-to-hand combat a fourth member of the militia, Thomas Jenkins, was wounded. Though short, the Battle of Horseshoe Bend had a lasting impact and influence on the rest of the war.
## Aftermath
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, though of little military significance, was a major turning point in the war for the volunteer militia forces and many white settlers. This minor militia victory was the first step in the process of redeeming the militia's own morale and its standing in the eyes of the settlers on the frontier. Individual accounts claim that the battle at Horseshoe Bend "turn(ed) the tide of the war." It was also notable for the proportion of killed in action to the number of combatants. All eleven Kickapoo that Dodge had pursued into the swamp were killed and scalped by his troops, while the final militia casualties were confined to three dead and one wounded. About an hour after the battle, Colonel William S. Hamilton arrived with friendly Menominee, Sioux and Ho-Chunk warriors. According to Dodge, the friendly warriors were given some of the scalps his men had taken, with which they were "delighted". Dodge also reported that the Native Americans then proceeded on to the battlefield and mutilated the corpses of the fallen Kickapoo.
Of Dodge's casualties, Thomas Jenkins was only slightly wounded. However, the three Militia men who had been shot as they advanced towards the Kickapoo position all later died. Samuel Wells, Montaville Morris and Samuel Black were transported to Fort Hamilton; Morris died at the fort, as did Wells, with his head in a comrade's lap. When informed by the surgeon of his imminent death, Wells requested to speak with Dodge. Wells asked Dodge "if he had behaved like a soldier." Dodge responded, "Yes, Wells, like a brave one." Wells then said to the commander, "Send that word to my old father," and died a short time later. Samuel Black was moved to Fort Defiance, where he lingered for nine days before dying.
This was the first battle in which a volunteer force defeated the Native Americans. Dodge became the first of the militia leaders to prove his ability to stand up to the enemy. He quickly became the "rising star" of the conflict, having helped negotiate the release of the Hall sisters after the Indian Creek massacre and proved himself at Horseshoe Bend.
The battlefield at Horseshoe Bend is now a campground located within a county park in Lafayette County, Wisconsin. The Black Hawk Memorial Park is maintained by the Lafayette County Sportsmen Alliance, Yellowstone Flint and Cap club, and the Friends of Woodford Park. In 1922, a marker was erected by the Shullsburg chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution and the residents of Wiota to commemorate the Battle of Horseshoe Bend; it is still visible today. The battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places by the National Park Service on July 28, 2011. |
6,714,656 | Tempest (Smallville) | 1,163,380,714 | null | [
"2002 American television episodes",
"Smallville episodes",
"Television episodes about tornadoes"
]
| "Tempest" is the twenty-first episode and season finale of the first season of the WB original series Smallville. The episode originally aired on May 21, 2002; Alfred Gough and Miles Millar wrote the script, and Greg Beeman directed. In the episode's narrative, Lex attempts to forge his own destiny away from LuthorCorp; Whitney leaves Smallville for the Marines; Roger Nixon discovers Clark's secret and attempts to expose him to the world; and Lana is pulled into a tornado.
Director Greg Beeman attempted to create a visual theme among the characters that would parallel the approaching storm. The episode would mark the departure of Eric Johnson as Whitney Fordman, though he would return as a special guest in seasons two and four. Although the Smallville finale pulled in just over half of the viewership attained by the pilot episode, it was still favorably received by critics. It was also nominated for two awards.
## Plot
Lionel Luthor (John Glover) shows up at the Smallville LuthorCorp plant, and announces that "management failure" has forced him to shut the plant down. Effectively blaming the problem on Lex (Michael Rosenbaum), Lionel informs his son he wants him to return to Metropolis. Clark (Tom Welling), Pete (Sam Jones III), Chloe (Allison Mack), and Lana (Kristin Kreuk) make plans for the spring formal. Whitney (Eric Johnson) informs Lana that he is enlisting in the Marine Corps, and he leaves for basic training the day of the dance.
Lex tries to initiate an employee buyout, and convinces the employees to mortgage their homes to help provide the financial resources to complete the buyout. Lionel learns of Lex's plans and buys the Smallville Savings & Loan, so that he may immediately foreclose on all the property when Lex's employees miss their payments. Roger Nixon (Tom O'Brien) tests Clark's abilities by setting off a bomb in his truck, while he is inside. Nixon confronts Clark in the Talon coffee shop, but Lex intervenes on Clark's behalf. Nixon follows Clark home and overhears a conversation about Clark's ship being in the storm cellar, and that Lex has the missing piece from the ship. Nixon goes to the Luthor mansion and steals the octagonal key, and immediately returns to the storm cellar with a video camera.
Clark, Chloe, and Pete arrive at the dance, and say their goodbyes to Whitney before he leaves for training. The weather begins to deteriorate, and a storm picks up, as Lana takes Whitney to the bus stop. Jonathan (John Schneider) and Martha (Annette O'Toole) decide to head to the storm cellar to seek cover from the storm, and they discover Nixon just as the octagonal disk activates the ship. Nixon attempts to escape with the videotape, and Jonathan chases out into the storm after him. The ship levitates off the ground and flies out of the storm cellar. Lana says goodbye to Whitney and drives home. On her way, storm winds force her off the road, right next to three tornadoes that have touched down. The students at the dance are alerted to the tornados that have been sighted, and Clark races off to make sure Lana is all right. The three tornadoes merge into one large tornado and move in Lana's direction. Clark arrives just as Lana, in the truck, is sucked into the tornado's vortex; Clark speeds into the tornado to rescue her.
## Production
When thinking of how to end the first season, two things were clear to Alfred Gough and Miles Millar: the final episode would have the school prom, and there would be tornadoes. Although Jeph Loeb's Superman For All Seasons, which inspired Gough and Millar when they created the show, contains an event where a tornado hits Smallville, the pair insist that the tornado idea came from a story they overheard on the radio about a tornado that hit a high school during their prom night. The episode would mark the departure of Eric Johnson as series star Whitney Fordman, though he would return as a special guest in seasons two and four.
### Filming
Director Greg Beeman filmed the episode with a tone that was thematically similar to a "rising storm". According to Beeman, the episode would start very calm and then begin to build upon itself. As he explains:
> "I began with Lex being blasted by the wind from the helicopter landing as Lionel arrives to shut the plant down. I wanted to set the mood for the storm which was coming. Then everything settles down, and the show starts calmly, but then as it builds the camera starts to move more and circle more, until the storm arrives and it builds to this fever pitch. The whole episode had this steady, graceful arc to chaos, which I really tried to control".
The hard part of filming was controlling the buildup; Beeman wanted to build the drama, visuals, and the wind from the storm up together. Mike Walls brought in "jet-powered wind machines", which had been used for the film Twister, to simulate the high velocity winds for the storm that was going to blow through Smallville. The "wind" is first introduced when Chloe arrives to pick Clark up for the prom. What begins as a "gentle" introduction is built upon, little by little, with each progressing scene. By the time Lana drops Whitney off at the bus station, the wind has become very strong.
Another dilemma Beeman faced was keeping the performances realistic, and not "over-the-top". Beeman believes that "Tempest" proves exactly what he thought about Smallville, that the show is "seen and experienced from the point of view of a teenager". Beeman explains: "If you're in love, you're head over heels in love. If you're scared, you're terrified. If you're sad, you're in grief. The emotions are strong, but it doesn't mean that the performances are over-the-top".
For "Tempest", this boils down to: the departure of Whitney, which causes distress in Lana; the experimental relationship between Clark and Chloe, who are trying to figure out whether or not "they’ll be in love"; the evilness of Roger Nixon, and how Jonathan fights to protect his family; and the battle between father and son (Lionel and Lex). Beeman saw these events as if they were part of an opera, and that the performances needed to match that tone without going over-the-top.
Rob Maier, construction coordinator and production designer for "Tempest" was very busy for this episode, as scenes were filmed at the Andalinis farm, and Zero Avenue (which is the name of the road that runs along the Canada–US border) for the scene where the three tornadoes touch down beside Lana. He also had to work on shattering the windows at the Luthor Mansion for Lex and Lionel's final confrontation. The band Remy Zero, whose single "Save Me" is the opening theme for the show, was asked to perform for the episode. The band quickly learned that filming a live performance for a television show is not as straight forward as its sounds. In order to be able to film everything, Beeman could not have the band playing full volume throughout the scene. There were times when everyone had to be quiet and pretend to play, or dance, while the actors exchanged their dialogue. There were other times when they had to be as loud as they could.
### Effects
Mike Walsh was worried about filming the moment when a beam breaks inside the Luthor mansion, from the wind generated by the storm, and lands on top of Lionel. His crew already knew which beam was going to fall, but they did not know where to cut the beam because they were not sure how Beeman intended to shoot the scene. When the day of shooting came around everything worked out well. They used a stunt double for the initial impact of the beam, and then John Glover stepped back into the scene and fell down with the beam on top of him. The wind effects also created potential danger for the cast and crew. As Eric Johnson recalls, even the smallest piece of debris flying around at such high speeds can cause damage. Annette O'Toole had a similar experience for her scenes in the storm cellar. When Jonathan races into the storm after Nixon, the special effects crew used one of their jet fans and some dry leaves to simulate the winds that were coming from outside; the dry leaves were smacking O'Toole in the face, smothering her.
## Character development
This episode featured a lot of character development that many of the actors had been waiting for. Lana's jealousy over Clark and Chloe going to the prom begins to come out; Kristin Kreuk believes that Lana does not want to be jealous, and wants to be able to support Clark with his newfound feelings for Chloe. According to Eric Johnson, Whitney finally gets to show a side of himself that Johnson wishes the audience would have been able to see sooner, as Whitney gives Lana a private dance before the prom knowing that she will not be able to go because he is leaving town. To add further depth to his character not previously seen, Millar and Gough decided to send Whitney off to war, instead of killing the character outright. The idea of sending Whitney off to war was something that came to Millar and Gough midway through the season. They knew they did not want to kill him, because they wanted the ability to bring him back at some point in the future, so they came up with this "noble, heroic, send-off" for the character. For Lex, this episode featured the moment when he finally began to contemplate what his life would be like if his father was no longer a part of it. As Rosenbaum sees it, the moment that Lex hesitates to free his father from the support beam that collapses on him is the moment that the audience gets to see a hint of the evil man they know Lex will one day become. This is a brief moment where Lex forgets who he is, and if he had let his father die he would have certainly made his "turn to the dark side".
## Reception
"Tempest" premiered on The WB on May 21, 2002. "Tempest" achieved a Nielsen rating of 3.8, meaning that approximately 3.8 percent of all television-equipped households were tuned in to the episode, putting the episode 68th in viewership for the week of May 20–26. The episode went on to be nominated for two awards, although it did not win either. The first was a 2003 Golden Reel Award for "Best Sound Editing in Television Episodic". Attila Szalay also received a nomination by the Canadian Society of Cinematographers for his work.
Reviews for "Tempest" were mostly positive. The Futon Critic's Brian Ford Sullivan felt that the season finale gave every element the "four-star treatment", and that the cliffhanger ending was "riveting" enough to leave the reviewer in anticipation all summer long of the season two premiere. Sullivan would go on to rank "Tempest" as the fifteenth best television episode of 2002. Jonathan Boudreaux, a reviewer for TVDVDReviews.com, felt the episode was one of the season's strongest, thanks to the focus on characters, with "kryptonite taking a backseat"; he referred to "Tempest" as the "slam bang season ending cliffhanger". Eric Moro of Mania.com believed that "Tempest" proved Smallville could "utilize the supernatural as a metaphor for teenage life", and that the finale managed to "recap the theme of the entire season, brought every dangling plot point to a head and closed with an ending sure to bring viewers back for a second season of super-entertainment". Author Neal Bailey was little more mixed in his opinion. He felt that for all the episode accomplished, it was not better than any previous episode that had aired that season; the episode lacked anticipation, based on the predictability of each character's actions. |
9,605,313 | Washington State Route 161 | 1,168,282,623 | Washington state highway in Pierce and King counties | [
"State highways in Washington (state)",
"Transportation in King County, Washington",
"Transportation in Pierce County, Washington"
]
| State Route 161 (SR 161) is a 36.25-mile-long (58.34 km) state highway serving Pierce and King counties in the U.S. state of Washington. The highway begins at SR 7 southwest of Eatonville and travels north as Meridian Avenue to Puyallup, becoming concurrent with SR 512 and SR 167. SR 161 continues northwest as the Enchanted Parkway to end at an intersection with SR 18 in Federal Way, west of Interstate 5 (I-5). The highway serves the communities of Graham and South Hill before reaching Puyallup and the communities of Edgewood, Milton, and Lakeland South before reaching Federal Way.
SR 161 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering, replacing three Secondary State Highways (SSHs): Secondary State Highway 5D (SSH 5D) and SSH 5G, both established in 1937, and SSH 5N, established in 1955. SSH 5D served as a connector between Federal Way and Puyallup and SSH 5G served as a connector between Puyallup and South Hill. SSH 5N connected Eatonville to South Hill and was extended south towards La Grande in 1967. SR 161 was moved onto a bypass of Puyallup in the 1980s and formed concurrencies with SR 167 and SR 512 as a result. As of 2013, projects to expand the highway in Edgewood and Milton and adding new offramps at the I-5 and SR 18 interchange are in progress.
## Route description
SR 161 begins southwest of Eatonville and north of La Grande in rural Pierce County at an intersection with SR 7. The highway travels northeast to pass the Charles Lathrop Pack Experimental and Demonstration Forest and cross the Little Mashel River into Eatonville. The roadway crosses the Mashel River into Downtown Eatonville, turning north onto Mashell Avenue and later Washington Avenue. SR 161 turns west onto Meridian Avenue north of Eatonville High School and leaves the city on a two-lane highway. Meridian Avenue, named for a meridian parallel to the Willamette Meridian, continues north through rural Pierce County, passing Clear Lake and Tanwax Lake, before entering the community of Graham and crossing a Tacoma Rail line near Graham-Kapowsin High School. SR 161 travels north and passes South Hill and Pierce County Airport (Thun Field) before entering Puyallup. The highway turns northwest at the South Hill Mall onto 31st Avenue and intersects the SR 512 freeway in a partial cloverleaf interchange, beginning a 3.41-mile-long (5.49 km) concurrency.
SR 161 and SR 512 travel north on a freeway in Puyallup, intersecting Meridian Street at the Puyallup Fairgrounds and Pioneer Avenue at a partial cloverleaf interchange. After the intersection with Pioneer Avenue, the freeway travels over a BNSF rail line that serves Puyallup station and crosses the Puyallup River before a trumpet interchange with SR 167. At the interchange, SR 512 ends and SR 161 northbound turns west on a 1.83-mile-long (2.95 km) wrong-way concurrency with SR 167, designated as traveling southbound. SR 161 turns north onto Meridian Avenue at Fort Malone as SR 167 travels south into Downtown Puyallup, and the highway continues north and crosses a Union Pacific rail line. Meridian Avenue continues north to form the boundary between Edgewood and Milton, where the highway intersects Milton Way, the former route of SR 514. SR 161 turns northwest into King County as the Enchanted Parkway, passing through Lakeland South and Wild Waves Theme Park before crossing over I-5. The Enchanted Parkway turns north into Federal Way and ends at an intersection with SR 18, located between SR 99 and I-5.
Every year, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic (AADT), which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2011, WSDOT calculated that between 340 and 99,000 vehicles per day used the highway, mostly in the Puyallup area.
## History
SR 161 was formed during the 1964 highway renumbering as the successor to SSH 5N from Primary State Highway 5 (PSH 5) north of La Grande to South Hill, SSH 5G from South Hill to U.S. Route 410 (US 410) in Puyallup, and SSH 5D from US 410 north of Puyallup to US 99 Federal Way. The highway was also concurrent with US 410, signed in 1926, between the eastern end of SSH 5G in Downtown Puyallup and the southern end of SSH 5D. SSH 5D and SSH 5G were established during the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937, and SSH 5N was established in 1955 to Eatonville and extended south to PSH 5 near La Grande in 1967 after SR 161 was created. The state government completed paving of the Graham–Puyallup section of Meridian in 1960.
SR 161, including the concurrency with US 410, was signed into law in 1970 as a highway extending from SR 7 near Eatonville to US 99. US 410 was replaced with an extension of SR 167 in the Tacoma area and US 12 east of the Cascade Mountains in 1967 and the highway was shortened from US 99 to SR 18 in 1971. SR 161 was moved east onto a bypass of Puyallup, creating concurrences with SR 512 and SR 167, in the late 1980s, and designated, within King County, as the Enchanted Parkway in 1987 as the last major revision to the highway. The Pierce County government and City of Eatonville proposed moving SR 161 to the Alder Cutoff Road south of the city, but it was not forwarded to the state legislature by the Washington State Transportation Improvement Board.
An extension of the Valley Freeway between Tacoma and Puyallup has been proposed since the 1990s and would create a new interchange with SR 161 north of the Puyallup River, but as of 2013 the freeway has not been built. The eastbound ramps at end of the concurrency between SR 161 and SR 167 was realigned in late 2008 to reduce congestion and started recent improvements to the highway. WSDOT is widening the Enchanted Parkway through the Edgewood and Milton area from 2 lanes to 4 lanes with wider shoulders and sidewalks to be completed by 2027. The interchange between I-5 and SR 18 was reconstructed with a new flyover ramp from westbound SR 18 to SR 161 that was completed in July 2012. Another ramp, from southbound I-5 to SR 161, was opened months later and is planned to be replaced with a ramp to South 356th Street that feeds into a roundabout with SR 161. The ramp had been proposed since the 1990s.
## Major intersections |
1,869,534 | M-88 (Michigan highway) | 1,167,121,762 | State highway in Antrim County, Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Antrim County, Michigan"
]
| M-88 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan. It runs between US Highway 31 (US 31) and US 131/M-66 in the Lower Peninsula. Running from Mancelona to Eastport, M-88 also goes through the communities of Bellaire and Central Lake. The highway is completely within Antrim County and is known by the street name of "Scenic Highway" outside of the various communities along its routing.
M-88 is an original trunkline dating back to the 1919 signing of the state system. An extension in the 1920s and paving in the late 1930s created the highway as it exists today. The highway was not listed on the National Highway System, nor is it included in the Lake Michigan Circle Tour.
## Route description
M-88 starts in the community of Eastport at an intersection four blocks east of the Grand Traverse Bay of Lake Michigan next to Barnes County Park. From its start, it runs east along the northern end of Torch Lake. M-88 zig-zags south and east along Scenic Highway to the community of Central Lake. In Central Lake it runs south along Main Street, following the western shore of Intermediate Lake. South of Intermediate Lake, M-88 crosses the Intermediate River on a historic designation-eligible Depression-era bridge along Bridge Street in Bellaire. This section of M-88 is just west of the Antrim County Airport before the highway turns east on Cayuga Street in downtown and south on Division Street. The Bellaire section of the trunkline is the location of the highest traffic levels along the highway. The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) measures the annual average daily traffic (AADT) in traffic surveys. The 2007 survey showed that 5,200 vehicles used the section of roadway on the average day in Bellaire.
South of Bellaire, M-88 passes the Chief Golf Course and the Legend, Summit and Bellaire golf clubs. M-88 crosses the Shanty Creek, which is the namesake of a resort in the area. South of the Bellaire Golf Club, M-88 turns eastward again, passing south of Schuss Mountain, another resort. This section of trunkline is used by 3,300 vehicles in the 2007 AADT survey. Past Schuss Mountain, M-88 turns east at Alden highway and enters the community of Mancelona, passing the Fairview Cemetery. The highway runs along on State Street into downtown. M-88 ends at an intersection with US 131/M-66 running along Williams Street, and State Street continues eastward as C-38.
## History
M-88 was first designated by July 1, 1919 along its current routing between Mancelona and Bellaire. It was extended in 1927 through Central Lake to end in Eastport. It was used as a temporary routing of US 31 between Eastport and Bellaire while the Elk Rapids to Eastport section of US 31 was reconstructed. The first sections of roadway were paved near Bellaire in late 1936. Paving was completed on the entire highway by late 1940 No changes have been made to the highway since. None of the highway was added to the National Highway System, a system of strategically important highways.
## Major intersections
## See also |
32,348,580 | Thirteen (Megadeth album) | 1,166,128,741 | null | [
"2011 albums",
"Albums produced by Johnny K",
"Megadeth albums",
"Roadrunner Records albums"
]
| Thirteen (stylized as Th1rt3en) is the thirteenth studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth. It was first released in Japan on October 27, 2011, and worldwide on November 1, 2011. It is the first Megadeth studio album since The World Needs a Hero (2001) to feature bassist and founding member David Ellefson, who returned to the band in 2010. Thirteen debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 42,000 copies in its first week. The album broke into the top 20 in several other markets as well. It has sold about 120,000 copies in the United States as of December 2012. The album has received positive reviews from critics.
The album followed the successful Endgame, released two years previously, and was recorded in late spring 2011. In addition to new material that was written for the album, the band decided to rework and release several older songs, some of which had previously seen release as demos or bonus tracks. Additionally, several of the songs on the album were intended to appear on video game soundtracks, notably "Sudden Death", which appeared as a playable song in the 2010 video game Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.
The lead single from Thirteen was the Al Capone-inspired "Public Enemy No. 1". This was followed by "Whose Life (Is It Anyways?)" about a month later. "Sudden Death" was released as a single prior to the announcement of Thirteen to promote Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock, but was later included on the album. All three songs received Grammy Award nominations, in the "Best Metal Performance" or "Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance" categories.
## Writing, recording and album artwork
In July 2010, while being asked about the success of Megadeth's release Endgame (2009), drummer Shawn Drover revealed that the band had begun discussing a follow-up album and said that there were a "couple of ideas" the band was starting to work on. In a later interview, frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine stated that the album would contain a mix of songs he had written earlier in his career and new compositions written for the album.
Mustaine confirmed that Megadeth would record at the band's own Vic's Garage studio in California. Johnny K was chosen to produce the record because Andy Sneap, the producer of Megadeth's previous two albums, was unavailable due to schedule conflicts. Mustaine subsequently revealed that the album would be titled Thirteen and would feature previously released tracks such as "Sudden Death" and "Never Dead".
In an interview before a show in Auckland, New Zealand, Mustaine noted that the then-upcoming record was the last one on the band's contract with Roadrunner Records and mentioned that Roadrunner was trying to give the band a "huge new deal". However, Mustaine expressed frustration with the label, saying "The treatment's been terrible over the years, and I just don't want it." He stated that he would prefer to retire than "continue to play like that". Nevertheless, Mustaine exclaimed the band's new record would be "great" and the songs were "really good".
In a December 2010 interview, bassist David Ellefson (who was welcomed back into the band earlier that year) commented "There's some ideas that we're now starting to individually compose", but clarified the band would not be hitting the studio until 2011. Ellefson also speculated that the album would be influenced by the band's (then) recent live performances of the entire Rust in Peace album (1990).
Mustaine initially suggested that the album was turning out to be "more like Endgame". However, he later declared the album was instead "Different, a hundred percent different, unlike anything we've ever done before because the guitar sounds are different, it sounds really super-modern." He went on to compare the sound to "really old classic Sabbath and with a little bit of a modern edge of Queens of the Stone Age kind of thing."
Ellefson stated the album was ready to be mixed as of July 2011. When asked if it could be compared to any previous Megadeth album, he said the album "kind of fits in around the Countdown to Extinction album" but noted it would depend on how the album was to be mixed. Ellefson also announced the band has been considering album titles, but no release date was yet planned.
Chris Broderick compared some parts of the album specifically to Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? (1986), Rust in Peace, or Countdown to Extinction (1992), but also stated "I've been likening it to a very diverse CD. It's not one of those ones that you'll put it on and every song sounds like the last one. It's got everything from anthems to more radio friendly stuff to hard-hitting thrash and some cool, dark-sounding stuff." In a later interview, Broderick again touted the sonic diversity of the album, noting that it is "like a cut in time from each CD of the past Megadeth discography".
It was announced that a new song, "Never Dead", would be included in a promotional trailer for Konami's upcoming video game NeverDead, marking the third time in five years that the band contributed a new song towards promoting a video game ("Gears of War" in 2006 to promote Gears of War and "Sudden Death" in 2010 for inclusion in Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock being the other two). "Sudden Death" though originally recorded for the Guitar Hero franchise, was also later confirmed to be included on Thirteen.
The album artwork was designed by John Lorenzi, who contributed to the covers on Megadeth's two previous albums, Endgame and United Abominations (2007). The title was revealed as 13, with Mustaine commenting "I started playing guitar at 13 and this is our 13th record and I was born on the 13th. As soon as I said I was going to call it '13', I started noticing 13 everywhere. They never used to have 13th floors in hotels but now they have them again." One day later, the band revealed that the title would be rendered as "Th1rt3en" instead of 13. Drover stated in a subsequent interview that "Thirteen" had originally been the working title for the album. The cover artwork and track list for the album were revealed on September 7, 2011.
According to Dave Mustaine, the band have encountered numerous mishaps and odd occurrences. In an interview with Terrorizer magazine, Mustaine, taking note of the connection to the unlucky number 13, explained "This is our 13th studio record, and we've already had a bunch of weird things happen. Car problems, stuff disappearing, a guy who worked for me that was the most white-laced guy you could imagine falling out on drugs and disappearing... but this one's got me excited!" In addition, Mustaine announced on Twitter that producer Johnny K was "suddenly struck ill", and the band had ceased recording for the time being. However, the band resumed recording a few days later, with K having apparently recovered. In an interview, Drover had said nothing weird occurred until after he finished recording drum tracks for the album.
However, Mustaine later contradicted his previous statements "It's been very good luck. We did this record in... in record time". Furthermore, instead of the superstitions surrounding the number 13, Mustaine said he was actually more concerned with the album's release date of November 1 being a bad omen; referring to the release of Youthanasia (which was released on the same date in 1994), when the band was "banned" from MTV, for playing the then-new track "A Tout le Monde" on a televised promotional show, because MTV believed the song to be about suicide.
## Release and promotion
Mustaine revealed the album's North American release date as November 1, 2011. Mustaine previously said the label was "looking at November 1st. I don't know if it's supposed to be the 1st or the 31st for the release date, cuz [sic] they're trying to get us to do a live performance some place, for this release." This live performance Mustaine mentioned would ultimately turn out to be an appearance on the October 31, 2011 edition of Jimmy Kimmel Live!. The band, performing in Halloween costumes, played "Public Enemy No. 1" and "Symphony of Destruction", the former of which was televised. The album was released in Japan on October 26, 2011.
To help draw publicity for the then-upcoming release, Mustaine had scheduled an appearance on the October 14–16 edition of the Full Metal Jackie radio show and premiered a new track from Th1rt3en, "Whose Life (Is This Anyways?)", on the broadcast. For a 24-hour period from October 17 to October 18, 2011, "Whose Life (Is It Anyway?)" was released as a free download through the band's Facebook page. Samples of all the album's songs were available for streaming on Amazon.com from October 17. Mustaine also made an appearance on the November 7 edition of Rockline.
## Songs
Mustaine had said that thirteen songs had been written in the sessions for the album, though only twelve were originally contracted for the album (one of which being a bonus track intended only for the Japanese market). However, it was later revealed that the album was to feature a total of 13 tracks. Several of the songs on the album were previously recorded by the band in one form or another, although most of the songs are completely new material.
### Reworked older material
"Sudden Death", "New World Order", "Black Swan" and "Millennium of the Blind" were released previously in different or incomplete versions, and were included as bonus tracks on previous albums or used for other projects. "Sudden Death" was originally written for the 2010 music video game Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock. The song was released as a digital single via iTunes in September 2010.
"New World Order" was originally written during the Clash of the Titans Tour in 1991, however, early versions of the song were not released until years later. The original finished version was released on the Duke Nukem soundtrack in 1999, and a demo had been included as a bonus track on the 2004 remix/remaster of Youthanasia. Ellefson stated the song was re-recorded at the insistence of Shawn Drover, and (compared to previous versions of the song) Mustaine had "updated some parts and made them more violent." Drover, for his part, stated re-recording "New World Order" was initially Mustaine's idea, though he strongly supported re-recording the song.
"Black Swan" was originally intended as a special edition bonus track for United Abominations. According to Ellefson, finishing and including "Black Swan" on Thirteen was Johnny K's idea. Ellefson also noted that, having been written several years beforehand, it has nothing to do with the 2010 film of the same name; the lyrics were inspired by the C.S. Lewis novel The Great Divorce. In part of the effort to promote the album, the song was released for streaming via Hot Topic's official YouTube page on October 24, 2011.
According to Ellefson, "Millennium of the Blind" was originally written in 1991 and a demo was recorded, and a version of the song would later be included as a bonus track on the 2004 remix/remaster of Youthanasia. In the liner notes for the 2004 re-release of Youthanasia, Mustaine stated that he came up with the lyrics after watching Highlander, and claimed that the song reminded him too much of another song he was working on at the time, "Absolution" (which would later form part of "Trust" from Cryptic Writings). Ellefson explained Johnny K and Mustaine were able to finish the song for Thirteen.
### New compositions
On July 4, 2011 Megadeth debuted a new song entitled "Public Enemy No. 1" at a show in Hamburg, Germany. According to Mustaine, "Public Enemy No. 1" was written about 1920s gangster Al Capone. Ellefson revealed in an interview that "Public Enemy No. 1" was to be released as a single A Western-themed music video, which featured the band and live animals, was made to support the single. The video was released on November 4, 2011.
"Whose Life (Is It Anyways?)" saw its radio debut during an appearance by Dave Mustaine on the October 14–16, 2011 edition of the Full Metal Jackie radio show. On October 17, the song was released as a limited-time free download via Megadeth's Facebook page. In May 2012, a lyric video for the song was released.
"Never Dead", was written for inclusion on NeverDead, a third-person action/fantasy video game. To help promote the album, Roadrunner Records posted the song on their YouTube channel for streaming on September 21, 2011.
Being interviewed about the album in September 2011, Ellefson commented on several of the album's other songs. He also described the title track as "theatrical" and compared it to "In My Darkest Hour" from So Far, So Good...So What! (1988). Ellefson said "13" is a song that "summed up the arc of Megadeth as a band". While referring to another song, "Deadly Nightshade", Ellefson stated the song's main riff "was written during the sessions for Youthanasia, or maybe Cryptic Writings [from 1997]. It's been around for a while."
## Reception
### Critical response
Reaction from critics towards Th1rt3en has been mostly positive, with the average rating for the album being around a 7/10. Reviewing the album for Allmusic, James Christopher Monger stated: "Darker, heavier, and more immediate than 2009's Endgame", and noted that although Mustaine's vocals are higher in the mix on this album, "his fleet fingers are still possessed with the power to conjure the dead." Sputnikmusic's Mike Stagno wrote that except for the lyrical content, Th1rt3en doesn't have major flaws.
According to Kevin Stewart-Panko of Rock Sound, the album's musical style "gravitates between classy thrashers and hokey anthemic rock". He praised the "scorching guitar work and Mustaine's snarling voice". Carla Gillis from Now described the record as "thrashy, angry and melody-packed, like Megadeth's best Peace Sells-era songs". She said that the album was not "perfect", but noted that Mustaine's vocals and guitar playing "never get old". Dom Lawson, writing in The Guardian, stated that Megadeth's "music has lost none of its intensity, passion or rage" over the years. He finished his review by saying that Th1rt3en is "an all-killer, no-filler feast of state-of-the-art metal". Similarly, Chris Colgan of PopMatters named Th1rt3en "the latest in a series of well-composed and well-executed albums" by Megadeth. Colgan went on to say that "Mustaine and his cohorts are still making great music and keeping classic thrash relevant in the metal community". Heather McDaid from This Is Fake DIY described the record as "good old fashioned, classic heavy metal in its rough and ready glory".
However, not all critical reaction to the album was positive. Neil Arnold from Metal Forces was disappointed by the album's musical direction, because he felt that Mustaine "has reverted back to a more simple, less furious sound". In a brief review for Spin, Jon Young commented on several of the album's tracks, saying "Public Enemy No. 1" and "Guns, Drugs & Money" were "deceptively melodic hard rock not far from Alice Cooper's early classics" but also said they lack the same sense of humor. However, Young stated that "We the People" should be on "the apocalypse's official soundtrack". BBC Music's Ian Winwood said the album "is something of an unremarkable affair. Not a bad album, but not one for the ages." However, Winwood also called "Sudden Death" "quite brilliant".
### Commercial performance
Th1rt3en debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200, selling 42,000 copies in the United States in its first week. This was a slight fall from the first-week sales (about 45,000 copies) and chart position (number 9) of its predecessor, Endgame. Another 10,780 copies were sold in the second week, and the album's position on the Billboard 200 fell to number 53. The album charted similarly in Australia, New Zealand (number 13) and on the Japanese chart (number 11). Elsewhere, the album failed to enter into the top 20. As of December 2012, Th1rt3en had sold 120,000 copies in the United States.
### Accolades
### Grammy nominations
Three of the album's songs received Grammy nominations. "Sudden Death" was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the 2011 Grammys, but lost to Iron Maiden's "El Dorado". "Public Enemy No. 1" received a nomination in the "Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance" category the next year, but lost to the Foo Fighters' "White Limo". "Whose Life (Is This Anyways?)" received a nomination in the same category at the 2013 Grammys, but lost to Halestorm's "Love Bites (So Do I)".
## Track listing
## Personnel
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes.
## Chart performance |
12,783,943 | Metroid Prime: Trilogy | 1,159,052,173 | 2009 video game compilation | [
"2009 video games",
"Metroid Prime",
"Metroid games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"New Play Control! games",
"Nintendo video game compilations",
"Retro Studios games",
"Trilogies",
"Video games developed in the United States",
"Video games produced by Kensuke Tanabe",
"Video games set on fictional planets",
"Wii games",
"Wii games re-released on the Nintendo eShop"
]
| Metroid Prime: Trilogy is a compilation of action-adventure games from the Metroid franchise developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the Wii. It features three games from the Metroid franchise: Metroid Prime (2002), Metroid Prime 2: Echoes (2004) and Metroid Prime 3: Corruption (2007).
Prime and Echoes, originally developed for the GameCube, were updated with many features first implemented in Corruption, such as a control scheme based on the Wii Remote and Nunchuk and a credits system supported by the WiiConnect24 internet service.
Metroid Prime: Trilogy was released in North America in August 2009, followed by Europe and Australia in September and October. It was not released in Japan, where ports of Prime and Echoes were released separately as part of the New Play Control! series. In January 2010, Nintendo discontinued the compilation in both North America and Australia.
Metroid Prime: Trilogy was acclaimed, with praise for the new controls, updated presentation, credits system, and value for money. It was re-released on the Wii U's Nintendo eShop in January 2015.
## Content
Metroid Prime: Trilogy is a video game compilation which includes Metroid Prime, Metroid Prime 2: Echoes and Metroid Prime 3: Corruption. The first two games were originally released for the GameCube and did not feature motion controls. The updated Wii versions of Prime and Echoes, which were released separately in Japan as part of the New Play Control! series, utilize the same Wii Remote control scheme introduced in Corruption. The Spring Ball ability featured in Corruption is also implemented in the first two games. Other changes include faster load times, updated textures, bloom lighting, and 16:9 widescreen support. However, the heads-up display is always shown at the original aspect ratio, causing it to be stretched horizontally when in widescreen mode.
The credits system from Corruption was incorporated into the first two games. Players can earn credits by accomplishing certain tasks, allowing them to unlock in-game items such as artwork, music, a screenshot feature, decorative items for Samus's gunship in Corruption, and the Fusion Suit in Prime, in which the latter was previously unlocked by connecting the Game Boy Advance game Metroid Fusion. Credits could also be shared with registered Wii friends, who also have a copy of Trilogy, via WiiConnect24 which used the Wii's own 16-digit number as opposed to a separate Friend Code. The save data for the original release of Corruption cannot be carried over to its Trilogy version. The compilation also features the multiplayer mode from Echoes, which is limited to four-player local multiplayer and does not feature online play. In response to complaints from players and critics about Echoes's high difficulty during some of the boss battles, the difficulty of those encounters was lowered. The games are accessible through a new, unified start menu, which also allows independent access to the Echoes multiplayer mode, the extras menu, and other settings.
## Development
In 2004, while Retro Studios was finishing Echoes, senior producer Bryan Walker suggested to studio president Michael Kelbaugh to "do something for the fans by putting all the games together on a single disc in a collector[']s 'trilogy' edition". Kelbaugh sent the proposal to Nintendo. Development started shortly before the release of Corruption, and employed a team of four staff members, as most of the crew was busy with Donkey Kong Country Returns. Prime series producer Kensuke Tanabe asked the staff to resolve most of the glitches for the Trilogy release to prevent sequence breaking.
Walker considered the compilation to be "an almost unheard of opportunity to take something you had already released and make it better". Senior designer Mike Wikan said most of the content additions were subtle changes, such as streamlining the engines for steady framerates and shorter loading times, and higher resolution textures. Prime had the addition of light bloom, and Echoes had difficulty tweaks to make it "more accessible to those who were really intimidated early on". For Corruption, the code was examined to find ways to make it run faster and better than in the original Wii release. The particle and water ripple effects found in the original versions of Prime were reduced, while the word "damn" uttered by the character Admiral Dane in Corruption's original release was also replaced with "no".
## Release
In October 2008, Nintendo presented the New Play Control! series of GameCube ports, with Prime and Echoes among the initial games in Japan. For international version, Metroid Prime: Trilogy was released in North America on August 24, 2009, packaged in a steelbook case, along with an art booklet. The European release in the following month maintained the booklet, while the Australian release in October only had a metallic cardboard slip cover. In January 2010, Nintendo of America was no longer producing or shipping copies of the game and recommended to players to find second hand copies of Trilogy via video game stores. Nintendo Australia also discontinued the game at the same time. Following Nintendo of America's announcement, Nintendo of Europe assured that the game was not discontinued in their region.
In April 2011, a copy of Trilogy—signed by Retro Studios staff and Tanabe—was auctioned, with 100 percent of proceeds to be donated to the relief efforts for the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In August 2013, a gaming retailer GameStop acquired a significant stock of pre-owned copies of Metroid Prime: Trilogy, alongside Xenoblade Chronicles, without shrink wrap. The Trilogy was available for purchase from their website as a "vintage" game for US\$84.99, a higher price based on a market value driven by supply and demand. Kelbaugh said at the 2011 Game Developers Conference that the studio had no plans for Metroid Prime: Trilogy to be re-released. Despite this, the compilation would see a re-release alongside Super Mario Galaxy 2 on the Wii U's Nintendo eShop. It was made available in North America and Europe on January 29, 2015, and in Australia and New Zealand one day later.
### Technical issues
Metroid Prime: Trilogy uses a dual-layer disc to allow all three games to fit on a single disc. Nintendo of America stated that some Wii consoles may have difficulty reading the high-density software due to a contaminated laser lens. At one point, Nintendo offered a free repair for owners who experienced this problem.
## Reception
Metroid Prime: Trilogy was released to critical acclaim. GameSpy's Phil Theobald praised it for being the compilation of three great games for the price of one. Matt Casamassina of IGN cited the "fantastic gameplay" and "brilliant presentation values", while Martin Kitts of NGamer UK praised the achievements system and value for money. Eurogamer's Kristan Reed thought the new implementations made it attractive to newcomers and old-time fans, and declared that "not since Super Mario All Stars in the SNES era has Nintendo taken an opportunity to unite one of its great series in such an irresistible way". 1UP.com's Jeremy Parish liked the implementation of the new control scheme, stating that "the smooth precision of the Wii Remote makes the older games well worth revisiting".
GamePro's Ashley Schoeller said that graphically "the games do look a bit dated" and complained that the HUD was "out of aspect" to fit the widescreen. Official Nintendo Magazine's Fred Dutton said that some aspects of Prime and Echoes had aged, saying the backtracking "feels like more of a chore than it did seven years ago" and that it is "not until [Echoes] enters its final third that things really start to pick up". GamesRadar considered the achievements too expensive, and that the similarity between the three games gives "an inescapable sense of déjà vu". Edge noted that the control scheme was not innovative, and that Echoes and Corruption "favoured graphical flourishes over design innovation". While Ben Reeves of Game Informer praised the game, the "second opinion" reviewer, Adam Biessener, considered the compilation "subpar", saying it lacked innovation, and that the Wii control scheme, particularly aiming and panning, is inferior to the traditional scheme from the GameCube games.
In IGN's Top 25 Wii Games list, Metroid Prime: Trilogy ranked third (2011), and fourth (2012). In a feature article regarding games collections, Bob Mackey of 1UP.com listed Trilogy as the "Hardest-to-find Work of Greatness", noting that it "had a conspicuously low print run; finding a copy in the wild proves difficult, and eBay prices often reach 100 dollars". |
1,338,282 | Interstate 195 (New Jersey) | 1,171,420,662 | Highway in New Jersey | [
"Auxiliary Interstate Highways",
"Interstate 95",
"Interstate Highways in New Jersey",
"Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey",
"Transportation in Monmouth County, New Jersey",
"Transportation in Ocean County, New Jersey"
]
| Interstate 195 (I-195) is an auxiliary route of the Interstate Highway System located in the US state of New Jersey. Its western end is at I-295 and Route 29 just south of Trenton in Hamilton Township, Mercer County, while its eastern end is at the Garden State Parkway, Route 138, and Route 34 in Wall Township, Monmouth County. I-195 is 34.17 miles (54.99 km) in length. The route is mostly a four-lane highway that mainly runs through agrarian and wooded areas in Central Jersey. It has an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95) in Robbinsville Township and serves as a main access road to New Jersey's state capital of Trenton, the Horse Park of New Jersey, the Six Flags Great Adventure amusement park, and the Jersey Shore. I-195 is occasionally referred to as the Central Jersey Expressway. On April 6, 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4263 naming I-195 in New Jersey the James J. Howard Interstate Highway, in honor of the late James J. Howard.
The current I-195 was initially planned as a toll road called the Trenton–Asbury Park Expressway in the 1950s. In the 1960s, it became two proposed freeways Route 37 and Route 38 that were to cross the central part of the state. A compromise was reached for a single freeway between Trenton and Belmar which would get Interstate Highway funding as I-195. It was built in several stages during the 1970s and 1980s. There once existed a plan to extend the I-195 designation west to the interchange between the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-276) and I-95 in Bristol Township, Pennsylvania, but it was decided to extend the I-295 designation west and south, along existing I-95 instead.
The highway, along with the Route 138 extension, was built to also be an evacuation route in times of emergency, such as before Hurricane Sandy, when the eastbound lanes were reversed all the way from the coast to the Turnpike/ I-95 to accommodate for mass evacuations.
## Route description
I-195's western terminus is at a modified cloverleaf interchange with I-295 in Hamilton Township, Mercer County, located southeast of the city of Trenton. From this end, the freeway continues north into Trenton as Route 29. I-195 serves as the southern continuation of Route 29, continuing east from I-295 as a six-lane expressway, passing between suburban neighborhoods to the north and Crosswicks Creek to the south. After the exit for U.S. Route 206 (US 206), the highway narrows to four lanes and turns northeast as it interchanges with County Route 524 (CR 524) and CR 620. Following this, I-195 passes near more neighborhoods and runs to the northwest of Gropp Lake before turning more to the east. The route has a cloverleaf interchange with Yardville-Hamilton Square Road before passing near business parks and reaching a cloverleaf junction with US 130. After US 130, the road enters Robbinsville Township as the settings start to become more rural, with a few areas of suburban development. In Robbinsville Township, there is a ramp that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95). Shortly after passing over the New Jersey Turnpike, I-195 reaches the exit for CR 526. The highway runs to the north of Allentown before briefly forming the border between Robbinsville Township to the north and Upper Freehold Township, Monmouth County, to the south as it reaches the interchange with CR 524/CR 539.
Upon passing under CR 524/CR 539, I-195 fully enters Upper Freehold Township in Monmouth County and continues east through a mix of woodland and farmland. The next interchange the highway reaches is with CR 43. Past this exit, the highway passes through more rural areas and crosses into Millstone Township. In this area, I-195 turns to the southeast and enters more forested areas as it comes to a cloverleaf interchange with CR 537. This exit off I-195 provides access to the Six Flags Great Adventure amusement park and the Jackson Premium Outlets. Due to the presence of Six Flags, this exit off I-195 can become busy during the summer months since it provides access to the park from both the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway, which lies just east of I-195's eastern terminus. Upon crossing CR 537, the highway enters Jackson Township in Ocean County and continues east through heavy woods. The road comes to an exit with CR 527, where there is a park-and-ride lot for motorists. The median of I-195 widens past the CR 527 junction before narrowing as it comes to the CR 638 interchange. The road runs through more woodland, with nearby residential development increasing.
After crossing the North Branch Metedeconk River, I-195 continues into Howell Township, Monmouth County, and turns northeast, reaching a cloverleaf interchange with US 9. At this point, the road turns east again and soon heads back into dense woods, passing over the Southern Secondary railroad line operated by the Delaware and Raritan River Railroad. After crossing the Manasquan River, the expressway interchanges with CR 547, which provides access to CR 524 and CR 549. Shortly after CR 547, I-195 enters Wall Township and passes through Allaire State Park. The eastern end of I-195 is located at exit 35, its junction with Route 34 that has access to the southbound Garden State Parkway from the eastbound direction. At the exit for Route 34, I-195 ends and Route 138 begins, but the highway and exit numbering continue onto Route 138, marking the interchange with the Garden State Parkway as exit 36. Past this interchange, Route 138 continues east to Belmar on the Jersey Shore as an arterial boulevard, making connections with Route 18 and Route 35.
## History
What would become I-195 was first proposed in the late 1950s as a toll road called the Trenton–Asbury Park Expressway that was to be operated by the New Jersey Highway Authority, the owner of the Garden State Parkway at the time. In 1965, this road would be incorporated into a planned Central Jersey Expressway System. The western portion would become a part of the Route 37 freeway that was to run from Trenton to Seaside Heights while the eastern portion would become a part of the Route 38 freeway that was to run from Camden to Belmar. The two freeways were to meet near Fort Dix. By 1967, plans for the Route 38 freeway were canceled, leaving Route 37 as the only planned east–west freeway through central New Jersey. The routing of this freeway, which was to be called the Central Jersey Expressway, was changed to run from the Trenton area east to Wall Township In addition, officials pushed for Interstate Highway funding for the freeway, with funds to be diverted from the canceled I-278 in Union County. The proposed freeway would cost \$60 million (equivalent to \$ in ).
By 1970, construction took place on the route between CR 539 near Allentown and CR 527 in Jackson Township. The portion of I-195 between the New Jersey Turnpike and CR 527 was opened by 1973 and construction on the section between White Horse and the New Jersey Turnpike began. In 1979, I-195 was completed east to Squankum. By 1983, the length of I-195 was completed.
When it was planned, I-195 did not intersect I-95 at all; it instead connected to I-295 at its west end. When I-95 was rerouted to the New Jersey Turnpike after the cancelation of the Somerset Freeway, I-195 was connected to I-95. Previously, I-95 abruptly ended at I-295 and US 1 in Lawrence Township and motorists had to take I-295 southbound to I-195 east in order to access I-95/New Jersey Turnpike. This is no longer necessary as a result of the Pennsylvania Turnpike/Interstate 95 Interchange Project which opened to traffic on September 22, 2018 completing the full length of I-95 from Miami, Florida, to Houlton, Maine.
On April 6, 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4263 naming I-195 in New Jersey the James J. Howard Interstate Highway, in honor of the late James J. Howard, a US Representative from New Jersey who advocated improving the highways of the US. In the late 1990s, the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) considered the possibility of widening I-195 to six lanes between the New Jersey Turnpike and CR 537 in order to accommodate traffic going to Six Flags Great Adventure. In 1997, separate ramps were added from I-195 to westbound and eastbound CR 537, and the westbound ramp was expanded to two lanes for Six Flags traffic.
I-195, like many other highways in New Jersey, once had solar-powered emergency callboxes every one mile (1.6 km). With the advent of cellphones, the callboxes saw limited use. To save on maintenance costs, NJDOT removed the callboxes in 2005.
On April 30, 2010, NJDOT started a project to repave the expressway both eastbound and westbound from just east of the turnpike overpasses near exit 7 in Robbinsville Township to exit 11 in Upper Freehold Township. This was completed in late 2010.
From July 2009 until November 2014, the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95) was widened with the construction of new outer roadways ("truck lanes") that extended the "dual-dual" roadways south to Interchange 6 in Mansfield Township from its former end at Interchange 8A in Monroe Township. As part of this project, the overpasses carrying I-195 over the turnpike were reconstructed, the Interchange 7A toll gate was widened, and all the ramps connecting directly to the mainline of the turnpike were rebuilt which included building a new high-speed ramp over I-195 to enter the northbound lanes of the turnpike.
For about a decade, there was a plan to extend the designation of I-195 to the west in concurrence with the rerouting of I-95 planned as part of the Pennsylvania Turnpike/Interstate 95 Interchange Project. Beginning in 2005, plans were made to extend I-195 west from its present-day western terminus along I-295 and I-95, continuing counterclockwise to the north, west, and south around Trenton to the new interchange. I-295 would have been truncated to the current interchange with I-195. Officials from New Jersey and Pennsylvania had agreed to submit the I-195 request to American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), as no route designation is official until approved by them. Had it been approved, approximately 27.1 miles (43.6 km) would have been added to I-195. Interchange renumbering would have also taken place in concert with the future I-195 designation in Pennsylvania and both the planned and current I-195 designation in New Jersey. This proposal had received conditional approval from AASHTO. However, on May 20, 2015, the original plan of extending I-295 west and south into Pennsylvania to the new interchange was approved instead, leaving the western terminus of I-195 at its current location.
In 2018, the exit numbers at the interchanges for I-295 (exits 60A–B) and US 206 (exits 1A–B) were renumbered to exits 1A–B and exits 1C–D, respectively. This change was done as part of the I-95/I-295 redesignation project to match the milemarkers along I-195.
## Future
NJDOT has studied proposals to widen I-195 between CR 537 and the New Jersey Turnpike from four to six total lanes, eliminating the grass median in the process.
## Exit list
## See also |
345,619 | A82 road | 1,172,184,416 | Major road in Scotland from Glasgow to Inverness | [
"Clydebank",
"Drumchapel",
"Dumbarton",
"Fort William, Highland",
"Highlands and Islands of Scotland",
"Hillhead",
"Inverness",
"Loch Lomond",
"Loch Ness",
"Roads in Scotland",
"Scenic routes in the United Kingdom",
"Transport in Argyll and Bute",
"Transport in Glasgow",
"Transport in Highland (council area)",
"Transport in Stirling (council area)",
"Transport in West Dunbartonshire",
"Vale of Leven"
]
| The A82 is a major road in Scotland that runs from Glasgow to Inverness via Fort William. It is one of the principal north-south routes in Scotland and is mostly a trunk road managed by Transport Scotland, who view it as an important link from the Central Belt to the Scottish Highlands and beyond. The road passes close to numerous landmarks, including Loch Lomond, Rannoch Moor, Glen Coe, the Ballachulish Bridge, Ben Nevis, the Commando Memorial, Loch Ness, and Urquhart Castle. Along with the A9 and the A90 it is one of the three major north–south trunk roads connecting the Central Belt to the North.
The route is derived in several places from the military roads constructed through the Highlands by General George Wade and Major William Caulfeild in the 18th century, along with later roads constructed by Thomas Telford in the 19th. The modern route is based on that designed by Telford, but with a number of improvements primarily dating from the 1920s and 30s. These include a diversion across Rannoch Moor, and another around Loch Leven which was subsequently replaced by the Ballachulish Bridge.
Several travel guides have praised individual parts of the road, such as the section from Tyndrum to Glencoe across Rannoch Moor, as providing memorable driving experiences. Tourists find the A82 a popular route because of its scenery, and it serves as a main artery for commercial and heavy goods traffic. Transport Scotland have publicly declared a commitment to improve congestion and safety along the road. Some sections are occasionally closed for maintenance, which has resulted in strong protest from the local community, and the road has been criticised for its poor accident record.
## Route
At 167 miles (269 km), the A82 is the second longest A-road in Scotland, after the A9, and has been described as the "slower but more scenic route" of the two. Initial sections of the road were built by General George Wade from 1724 onwards, though much of the current route was constructed by Thomas Telford in the 19th century.
The A82 was one of the first trunk roads, which were created in 1936, and has historically been described in official government documentation as part of the "London – Carlisle – Glasgow – Inverness Trunk Road" in which the A6 and A74 made up the rest of the route. On 1 April 1996, however, the section from Glasgow to the Dalnottar Interchange with the A898 was detrunked. The main length of the A82, as managed by Transport Scotland, is now described in statutory instruments and orders as the "Dalnottar – Inverness Trunk Road". From Glasgow to Dalnottar, the route is now the responsibility of Glasgow City Council and West Dunbartonshire Council in their respective areas.
The A82 runs through some of the Gaelic-speaking areas in Scotland, known as the Gàidhealtachd. In 2003, the Scottish Government announced that it would install bilingual signs on a number of trunk roads, including the A82 from Tarbet to Inverness. Transport Minister Lewis Macdonald hoped that the signs would improve the tourism experience in the Highlands, as well as improve awareness of Scottish Gaelic.
### St George's Cross – Alexandria
The A82 begins in the St George's Cross area of central Glasgow, at a junction with the M8 and the A804. From here, it heads in a northwest direction along the Great Western Road for 3 miles (4.8 km) towards Anniesland Cross and passes a number of the city's terraces, including Alexander "Greek" Thomson's Great Western Terrace, constructed in 1867, and Devonshire Terrace before widening to dual carriageway at Kelvinside. The road here was originally built as a turnpike road in 1816 and widened to its current state in the early 1970s. All the trees along the route were preserved owing to environmental concerns. The Great Western Road has been described by Tam Galbraith as "the most noble entry to any city in Europe."
The road continues beyond Anniesland Cross as an extension of the Great Western Road, which was constructed between 1922 and 1924, making it easier to widen to dual carriageway in the 1970s than the earlier 19th century section. It approaches a freeflow junction with the A898 from Erskine Bridge and becomes a high quality dual carriageway route through Dumbarton before running to the west of Alexandria and Bonhill on a bypass constructed in the late 1960s. This dual carriageway ends at the Balloch Roundabout near the western shore of Loch Lomond, where the road enters the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.
### Alexandria – Crianlarich
The A82 follows the Luss Road along the western shores of the loch, through Arden to Luss. Toward Crianlarich, it follows the general route of the Old Military Road that runs along the shoreline in several places, but it generally keeps some distance to the west. Much of this section of the road was widened to a high quality single carriageway standard over the 1980s, at an estimated cost of £24 million (£ million as of ), while Luss itself is now bypassed to the west of the village along a single carriageway bypass constructed between 1990 and 1992.
At Tarbet, the A83 branches west to Campbeltown while the A82 continues to the north end of the loch. This part of the road is currently of a lower standard than the sections further south. It is sandwiched between the shoreline of the loch and the mountains to the west, and it runs generally alongside the West Highland Line. The road narrows to less than 7.3 metres (24 ft) in places and causes significant problems for heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), which have to negotiate tight bends and the narrow carriageway width. At Pulpit rock, the road was single-track, with traffic flow controlled by traffic lights for over 30 years. The road was widened in 2015 as part of a £9 million improvement programme, including a new viaduct bringing the carriageway width to modern standards.
The north end of the loch is at Ardlui, after which the A82 continues to follow the Highland Line along Glen Falloch, a typical glacial valley, towards Crianlarich. The road runs to the west of Crianlarich village itself on a 0.81-mile (1.3 km) bypass completed in 2015.
### Crianlarich – Glencoe
The A82 and A85 share the same route for 5 miles (8.0 km) between Crianlarich and Tyndrum. Although Crianlarich has a larger community, Tyndrum is equally well catered for motorists, particularly HGV drivers, and contains the Real Food Cafe, a transport cafe that stays open until 10 p.m. The cafe caters not only to motorists but also to walkers along the West Highland Way.
The A82 enters bleak moorland at the western fringes of Rannoch Moor, to the north of Tyndrum. The road climbs across the moor and reaches a peak height of 348 metres (1,142 ft) near Beinn Chaorach, the highest overall point on the A82. It meets the old Military Road near the Kingshouse Hotel next to the River Etive, and the road turns westward past Buachaille Etive Mòr down Glen Coe towards Glencoe village. This section of the A82 has been said to contain some of the most spectacular scenery in Scotland. The Guardian's Simon Warren described it as "the most beautiful and spectacular location in the whole of Britain", though recent concern has been raised over the proliferation of tourist traffic. Coaches and HGVs in particular have caused significant problems with congestion. The road descends the Pass of Glen Coe and crosses the scenic waterfalls at the Meeting of the Three Waters. This section was the location for several outdoor shots in Monty Python and the Holy Grail, including the "Gorge of Eternal Peril" scene. Near the waterfalls is a footpath up to Coire Gabhall, the "lost valley" of Glencoe, where the Clan Donald hid stolen cattle.
The modern A82 splits from Telford's route just before the Clachaig Inn, a popular location for tourists due to its proximity to the site of the Massacre of Glencoe, as noted by a sign in the reception that reads, "No hawkers or Campbells". The A82 runs to the west of the River Coe and passes the modern visitors' centre before Glencoe village itself.
### Glencoe – Fort William
The A82 continues along the south shore of Loch Leven beyond Glencoe and bypasses Ballachulish to cross the mouth of the loch via the Ballachulish Bridge. This bridge had been proposed since the mid-1960s, and construction began in late 1972 at an estimated cost of £2m (£ million as of ). An arch bridge had been the suggested design, but an asymmetrical N-truss bridge was built instead. A bearing failure on one of the supports caused delays while the rest of the structure was examined to confirm its safety, and it eventually opened in December 1975. It contains individual spans of 29 metres (95 ft), 180 metres (600 ft) and 82 metres (269 ft) from south to north.
At a roundabout, prior to the rise towards the bridge, the A828 continues south around the coast towards Connel and Oban. Just behind and to the left of the A82, as it commences to cross the bridge, is a monument to the Appin Murder that reads, "Erected in 1911 to the memory of James Stewart of Acharn, or James of the Glen, executed on this spot Nov. 8, 1752, for a crime of which he was not guilty."
After passing through North Ballachulish and Onich the A82 turns to run northward along the Great Glen, which it continues to do for the remainder of the route up to Inverness. It passes the A861 to the Corran Ferry over to Ardnamurchan in the west. The road here, as it was previously along Loch Lomond, is tightly situated between Loch Linnhe and the mountains up to Fort William, which is located about 7 miles (11 km) from the Corran narrows. Various hotels and bed and breakfasts are situated along the road approaching Fort William, indicating the area's esteem of tourism.
The route of the old military road (from King's House/Altnafeadh on Rannoch Moor via Kinlochleven) rejoins the route of the modern A82, at the West End roundabout, just before the High Street in the town centre. The road follows a brief dual carriageway bypass along the shoreline of the loch before passing the modern station. A branch road runs east through Glen Nevis to Ben Nevis, while the A82 turns to cross the River Nevis. To the north of town the A830 "Road to the Isles" runs west to Glenfinnan and Mallaig.
### Fort William – Inverness
North of Fort Willam, the A82 runs alongside the West Highland Railway through Leanachan Forest towards Spean Bridge. It crosses the River Spean at a bridge constructed by Telford in 1819, but the village is named for the earlier "High Bridge"' constructed in 1735–36 by George Wade about 0.5 miles (0.80 km) to the west. There is a junction with the A86, which runs eastwards towards Newtonmore and the Cairngorms. The Commando Memorial, a 5.2-metre (17 ft) high structure dedicated to the original Commandos in World War II, who used the local area as a training ground, is located just north of the village at a junction with the B8004 to Gairlochy. This memorial provides one of the best viewpoints of the Highlands that is close to the A82.
The A82 then follows the eastern shore of Loch Lochy up to Laggan. The village has no clearly defined centre but broadly follows the course of the A82 over 1.2 miles (2 km), from the Laggan Locks on the Caledonian Canal to the swing bridge that separates the canal from Loch Oich. This bridge is close to the "Well of the Seven Heads" monument, which allegedly contains the heads of seven men involved in the murder of Alexander MacDonald, Chief of Keppoch, and his brother, on 25 September 1663.
The A82 runs towards the centre of Loch Oich, passes Invergarry Castle, and crosses the River Garry. Just after the bridge, the A87 heads west towards Skye, while the A82 continues along the western shore of the loch up to the Bridge of Oich at its northern end. This bridge was constructed in 1932, bypassing the 1850s Bridge of Oich, a Taper Suspension Bridge built by James Dredge. The A82 continues along the general line of Wade's Military Road up to Fort Augustus, crossing the canal at a swing bridge next to the locks in the village.
The final 36 miles (58 km) from Fort Augustus to Inverness is mostly on the alignment of Telford's Road, running along the western shore of Loch Ness. This is on the opposite side of the loch to Wade's Military Road, because Telford wanted to connect the various communities along the western shore. Construction of the road started in 1805 but was delayed in 1807, when the building contractors abandoned the work with seven bridges yet to be completed. It was mostly complete by 1809 at an estimated cost of £5,800 (£ as of ).
Because the A82 is a main through route, tourists are suggested to use the older Military Road instead, so as to avoid the coach and HGV traffic. Cyclists and walkers can use the Great Glen Way between Fort Wiilam and Inverness. This is part of National Cycle Route 78 (The Caledonia Way) from Campbeltown to Inverness.
There is a short diversion from the loch at Invermoriston, where the A82 crosses the River Moriston and the A887 provides another route back to the A87 and Skye. Telford's original stone bridge over the river, constructed in 1813, was replaced by a more modern structure as part of an overall improvement to the A82 undertaken in the 1930s. Between Invermoriston and Drumnadrochit, there is a roadside memorial to John Cobb, who was killed on the loch attempting to beat the water speed record. As the A82 approaches Drumnadrochit, it passes Urquhart Castle before turning inland, away from the loch shore, to approach the village.
The A82 continues at the north end of the loch, along the western edge of the River Ness, which runs parallel alongside the canal towards Inverness city centre. Immediately after entering the urban area, the road crosses the canal at the Tomnahurich Swing Bridge. Now inside Inverness, the road passes Queen's Park stadium and heads towards the city centre. It crosses the Ness at the Friar's Bridge, bypassing the city centre to pass through the docklands and associated industrial estates as an urban dual carriageway. The road ends at a roundabout with the A9 just south of Kessock Bridge.
## History
The original route of the A82 as classified in 1923 was described as "Glasgow – Clydebank – Dumbarton – Alexandria – Crianlarich – Ballachulish – Fort William – Fort Augustus – Inverness" and closely follows the route as designed by Telford. With only a few exceptions, the basic route has remained unchanged. The renovations of the early 20th century were part of a wider road building programme (an economic stimulus) after the Great Depression.
### Glasgow
The original starting point of the A82 in Glasgow was at Trongate. It proceeded to run westwards along Argyle Street and Dumbarton Road to Dumbarton via Clydebank. On 16 May 1934, the road was rerouted to run along Buchanan Street, New City Road and Great Western Road, whose westward extension from Anniesland Cross had been recently completed. The route between Glasgow and Dumbarton (bypassing Clydebank via Duntocher), has since broadly remained the same, aside from the declassification of the route to the south of the M8 when that motorway was constructed.
### Rannoch Moor
The A82 between Crianlarich and Glencoe over Rannoch Moor has an extensive history. A route through the moor was followed by Major William Caulfeild, and a later route was constructed by Telford. The current alignment was constructed because Telford's road had continual problems with the loch flooding. Telford himself had proposed a completely alternative route, running to Spean Bridge via Loch Treig and Glen Spean. His plans were never implemented, though that route eventually formed part of the West Highland Railway.
The current alignment began construction in 1927, and included a general widening of the carriageway from Tyndrum to Glencoe to 18 feet (5.5 m). Work was delayed following a disagreement with the Scottish Ministry of Transport and local councils over funding. It was eventually completed in 1933 and cost £500,000 (£ in ).
The 1930s road follows Telford's road as far as Bridge of Orchy, then runs to the east of Loch Tulla, while the old road runs to the other side. The project was criticised over spoiling the natural beauty of Glen Coe, but was defended by the Ministry of Transport who thought it would provide better transport links to Argyllshire and Inverness-shire.
### Kinlochleven
The original route of the A82 crossed Loch Leven at the Ballachulish Ferry, in a similar location to today's bridge, but there was then no through route around the loch. However, the development of the aluminium works at Kinlochleven and the construction of the Blackwater Dam in 1907 resulted in the construction of a new road around the full extent of the loch, from Glencoe to North Ballachulish, by the 1930s. On 16 May 1934, the Ministry of Transport announced they would divert the A82 along this road, principally because it was an all-day route while the ferry at that time closed daily between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m. and cost up to five shillings to use. It continued to follow the route via Kinlochleven until the opening of the Ballachulish Bridge. The Kinlochleven road is now the B863, but still remains an important local road since the town reinvented itself as a tourist destination following the close of the smelter works in 2000. The Ballachulish bridge saves a 16-mile (26 km) round trip.
### Inverness
The A82 originally ended on the A9 to the west of the Ness Bridge near Inverness city centre. The current diversion over the Friars Bridge towards the modern A9 opened in 1986, in co-ordination with the redevelopment and extension of Inverness docks in the early 1980s and the rerouting of the A9 onto the Kessock Bridge.
## Economic importance
The Scottish Government have said that the A82 is "a vital artery for communities in the western Highlands and links Fort William, the Highlands and the Western Isles with Glasgow and the Central Belt." The Highlands and Islands Transport Partnership (HITRANS) believe the economic benefits of the A82 extend far beyond its basic route, as it connects with several other trunk roads to the Western Highlands and related islands, including all of the Western Isles and the Isle of Skye. The population of the area served around the A82 corridor is expected to decline from 78,900 in 2001 to 72,300 by 2018, with the vast majority of depopulation to occur in the Western Isles.
HITRANS believe investment in the A82 is therefore vitally important to improve the accessibility of these areas and stop the continuing population decline. They have said that improvements to the A9 in the 1970s stimulated the economy of Inverness: "Without the improved access as a result of the A9 improvement, this would almost certainly not have been possible." The partnership believe that with comparable improvements to the A82, an additional income of £76 million could be generated in the area. Former Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond stated whilst in office that the government is "committed to improving the A82", and he allocated £500,000 in June 2011 to study key areas where the route could be improved. Scottish Transport Minister Keith Brown called the A82 a "vital economic and social lifeline".
## Maintenance and improvements
The A82, along with the A9, has been frequently regarded as one of the most dangerous roads in Scotland. HITRANS have said that "of the 147 miles (237 km) between Balloch and Inverness, only 42 miles (68 km) can be considered to be of a functional standard." A campaign group, the A82 Partnership, has been set up to encourage the Scottish Government to continue to make improvements to the route. In 2002, the A82 between Tarbet and Tyndrum was listed as the third most dangerous Scottish road in an AA study. The Scottish executive debunked the report as "misleading". A further study listed in the 2012 Collins Big Road Atlas did not list the A82 as one of the most at risk to safety. In 2017, Member of the Scottish Parliament David Stewart criticised the A82's safety record in Inverness after a man was killed after being hit by a car on the road.
The A82 around Loch Lomond has become increasingly congested as the loch has become more popular with tourists for boating, particularly since restrictions were put in place in the Lake District, coincident with improvements to routes leading to the Loch from the south. On regular occasions, the road is completely congested from Luss to the Balloch roundabout. The section from Tarbet to Crianlarich, north of the section improved in the 1980s and 90s, was frequently closed overnight during September 2012, because the carriageway had become worn out and needed urgent repair, including failed surfacing and potholes. Because of the narrow width of the road, it was not possible to simply close the road in one direction at a time with temporary traffic signals, as is the general procedure elsewhere on Britain's road network. Transport Scotland justified these works by saying that only 5% of traffic used the road between 10 pm and 6 am, when the works were planned. The official diversion route from Tarbet to Crianlarich is via the A83, A819 and A85, a detour of approximately 30 miles (48 km).
Because most of the A82 is single carriageway, and the local geography means a detour can be a significant distance, there is a history of strong protest about closing the road. In August 2011, John Grieve, owner of Lochleven Shellfish Company, attempted to challenge Transport Scotland's plans to close the A82 overnight five days a week, for a period of up to three weeks, around the village of Onich, between Glencoe and Fort William. The Scottish Herald reported that, if the road closed, a journey from Oban to Fort William, normally 44 miles (71 km), would require diverting via Loch Tay and Ballinluig, a journey of 166 miles (267 km). In April 2013, Transport Scotland announced further plans to close the A82 at Onich for resurfacing, but they postponed the work due to an adverse reaction from local business owners. In 2015, a section of the A82 between Invermoriston and Drumnadrochit closed following a rockfall, requiring an official detour of 120 miles (190 km).
Along with several other roads in the Highlands, the A82 between Tyndrum and Glencoe has been installed with permanent gates that are closed in the event of severe weather. These gates are now fitted with fibre-optic illuminated signs. The road has been identified as one of several trunk roads in the Highlands that suffers from problems with deer-vehicle collisions. In 1996, Transport Scotland set up a number of vehicle activated warning signs alerting drivers attention to nearby deer. Four of these signs are on the A82 between Tyndrum and Glencoe.
## Junctions and landmarks
The A82 has a wide variety of junctions along its length, ranging from high-quality grade-separated interchanges near Glasgow, to simple T-junctions in the Scottish Highlands.
## See also
- Old military roads of Scotland |
66,944,994 | Henry W. Maxwell Memorial | 1,164,235,499 | Memorial in Brooklyn, New York, U.S. | [
"1903 establishments in New York City",
"1903 sculptures",
"Bronze sculptures in Brooklyn",
"Grand Army Plaza",
"Monuments and memorials in Brooklyn",
"Outdoor sculptures in Brooklyn",
"Reliefs in the United States",
"Sculptures by Augustus Saint-Gaudens",
"Sculptures of men in New York City",
"Vandalized works of art in New York City"
]
| The Henry W. Maxwell Memorial is a public memorial located in Brooklyn's Grand Army Plaza in New York City. The memorial, designed by sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens, consists of a bronze tablet featuring a relief of Maxwell, a local philanthropist and park commissioner, affixed to a boulder. The memorial was dedicated in 1903 at the intersection of Eastern Parkway and Flatbush Avenue. In 1912, the memorial was moved to its present location at Grand Army Plaza. In the 1970s, due to vandalism, the plaque was removed and placed in storage, with a replacement plaque affixed to the boulder in 1996. The original plaque is located in the Brooklyn Museum.
## History
### Biography
Henry W. Maxwell was born on December 17, 1850. Raised in Brooklyn, New York, he was a successful businessman, serving as a business partner in the Maxwell and Graves Bank and as a director of several other corporations, including the Brooklyn Trust Company. Maxwell was also a prolific philanthropist, donating to numerous educational endeavors in the city, including the Long Island College Hospital and the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Science. He was also involved in local politics, serving as a member of the Brooklyn board of education for several years and as Brooklyn's parks commissioner in 1884. He died in 1902 at the age of 52, with some estimates claiming that he donated over \$300,000 a year during his life. On the day of his funeral, flags at all of Brooklyn's public schools flew at half-staff as a show of respect.
### Memorial
Shortly after his death, several friends and acquaintances began planning a public memorial in his honor. A committee was formed to raise money for this purpose, with Charles A. Schieren as its chairman, and they commissioned noted American sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to create a memorial plaque. Saint-Gaudens worked on the plaque at his studio in Cornish, New Hampshire, where he was assisted by another sculptor, Albert Jaegers. In total, the sculpture cost \$7,000. The finished plaque was then affixed to a large boulder that had been excavated from Brooklyn's Sunset Park. The finished memorial, located at the intersection of Eastern Parkway and Flatbush Avenue, was dedicated on December 26, 1903. Schieren presented the memorial, which was accepted on the behalf of the city of New York by New York City Mayor Seth Low. The memorial, which had been draped with an American flag, was then unveiled by Maxwell's niece.
Initially located next to a reservoir near Mount Prospect Park, in 1912 the memorial was moved to accommodate for the construction of Brooklyn Central Library at the location. The memorial was moved to its current location, Grand Army Plaza, near the intersection of Plaza Street East and St. John's Place, with reports claiming that the move took a week and involved ten horses due to the boulder's weight. Due to persistent vandalism of the monument, the plaque was removed by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in the early 1970s. It remained in storage until 1997 when, thanks to support from the David Schwartz Foundation, the plaque was repaired and loaned to the Brooklyn Museum of Art. Two replicas of the original plaque were made, with one re-affixed to the boulder and the other on display at the Saint-Gaudens National Historical Park in Cornish, New Hampshire. The new plaque was cast at the Modern Art Foundry, with a rededication of the memorial held on June 25, 1996.
## Design
The bronze relief depicts Maxwell in a three-quarter view facing to the left. Maxwell's head and shoulders are depicted inside a roundel, which is surrounded by a wreath made of oak leaves and acorns. A stylized ribbon is present both above and below the roundel. Around the top edge of the roundel, the following is inscribed: "MDCCCL HENRY W. MAXWELL MCMII". Near the bottom of the plaque, the following is inscribed: "THIS MEMORIAL ERECTED BY HIS / FRIENDS IS THEIR TRIBUTE TO HIS / DEVOTION TO PUBLIC EDUCATION AND / CHARITY IN THE CITY OF BROOKLYN". Additionally, Saint-Gaudens signed the relief with his monogram, "A ST G". The plaque measures approximately 4.25 feet (1.30 m) tall, 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, and 1.25 inches (3.2 cm) deep. The pink granite boulder to which the plaque is affixed measures 8 feet (2.4 m) tall and 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and weighs approximately 20 tons.
## See also
- List of public art in Brooklyn |
1,839,545 | Virtual Theatre | 1,117,375,760 | Game engine by Revolution Software | [
"1992 software",
"Adventure game engines",
"Proprietary software",
"Virtual Theatre engine games"
]
| The Virtual Theatre is a computer game engine designed by Revolution Software to produce adventure games for computer platforms. The engine allowed their team to script events, and move animated sprites against a drawn background with moving elements using a point-and-click style interface. Upon its first release, it rivaled competing engines like LucasArts' SCUMM and Sierra's Creative Interpreter, due to its then high level of artificial intelligence. The engine was first proposed in 1989, while the first game to use it, Lure of the Temptress, was released in 1992, followed by Beneath a Steel Sky (1994), Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars (1996) and Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror (1997).
It allowed in-game characters to wander around the gameworld independently of each other, performing "everyday life" actions, which was not previously possible, and all characters and objects occupied space; consequently, non-player characters had to side-step the player's protagonist and any other object they came across, as well as the player having to side-step them, achieving a more realistic game world that previous engines were unable to provide, though non-player characters could unwittingly block a path as the player was traversing the game scene. Non-player characters performed much simpler tasks with each release due to size constraints.
Two games (Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars and Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror) that use a Virtual Theatre variant engine can now be played on modern hardware using ScummVM, which as a result allows the engine to run on platforms where the titles were not officially released. In 2012, it was confirmed that the engine would be revived as "Virtual Theatre 7" for the fifth Broken Sword titled Broken Sword: The Serpent's Curse (2013).
## Development
Charles Cecil and Tony Warriner had worked together at Artic Computing, an English video game development company. In 1990 they decided to set up their own video-game development company, together with David Sykes and Noirin Carmody. For their debut adventure game, Lure of the Temptress, released in 1992 for Amiga, Atari ST and PC, Cecil, Warriner, Sykes and Dan Marchant created the concept of the game engine titled "Virtual Theatre", which Warriner wrote.
For Beneath a Steel Sky, released in 1994 for Amiga, and PC, Revolution used an updated version of Virtual Theatre, Virtual Theatre 2.0, written by Warriner and Sykes. However, because the game was six times the size of Lure of the Temptress, non-player characters had to perform much simpler tasks than in its predecessor. Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars, released in 1996 for PC, Mac and PlayStation, and its sequel, Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror, released in 1997 for PC and PlayStation, also used modified versions of the Virtual Theatre engine. The engine subsequently underwent various updates. For Broken Sword: The Serpent's Curse a brand-new engine (VT7) was developed in order to deal with multiple platforms and, in particular, with screen resolution (the system is built on C++ and OpenGL, and a custom scripting-language to implement the game itself).
## Features
Traditionally in adventure game engines, non-player characters were static awaiting the player to interact with them to trigger an event. However, Virtual Theatre allowed non-player characters to traverse the world in seemingly random patterns, interacting with their environment. Upon the engine's first release, it rivaled competing engines such as LucasArts' SCUMM engine, and Sierra's Creative Interpreter, due to its then high level of artificial intelligence.
Another advantage of the engine is that it is a cross-platform engine. It was also faster on the Amiga than the C code that was used by many USA programmers at that time. Compared to the Sierra titles, the engine became in this respect more sophisticated, a reason why Revolution did the conversion of King's Quest VI to the Amiga.
All of the in-game objects (including non-player characters) in Virtual Theatre occupied space, which was a unique feature for an engine at the time. Consequently, non-player characters had to side-step the player's protagonist and any other object they came across, as well as the player had to side step them. When a non-player character bypassed the protagonist, he or she uttered a comment (like "Excuse me, Sir"). As the result, the engine achieved a more realistic game world than previous engines were able to provide, though non-player characters could unwittingly block a path as the player was traversing the game scene. This was remedied with the release of Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars, where the protagonist, if found his way blocked by another character, could simply walk through them.
Two games (Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars and Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror) that use a Virtual Theatre variant engine can now be played on modern hardware using ScummVM. |
3,232,443 | Pat Pattle | 1,148,224,284 | South African born World War II Flying ace for the RAF | [
"1914 births",
"1941 deaths",
"Alumni of Graeme College",
"Aviators killed by being shot down",
"Non-British Royal Air Force personnel of World War II",
"People from Mnquma Local Municipality",
"Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)",
"Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II",
"Royal Air Force squadron leaders",
"South African World War II flying aces",
"South African military personnel killed in World War II",
"South African people of English descent",
"White South African people"
]
| Marmaduke Thomas St John Pattle, DFC & Bar (3 July 1914 – 20 April 1941), usually known as Pat Pattle, was a South African-born English Second World War fighter pilot and flying ace (an aviator credited with the destruction of five or more enemy aircraft in aerial combat) of the Royal Air Force (RAF).
Pattle applied to join the South African Air Force at 18, but was rejected. He travelled to the United Kingdom and joined the RAF in 1936 on a Short Service Commission. Pattle was a pilot by 1937 and was posted to No. 80 Squadron based in Egypt upon the outbreak of war in September 1939. In June 1940, Italy entered the war on the side of the Axis Powers and he began combat operations against the Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force), gaining his first successes during the Italian invasion of Egypt.
After the Italian invasion, his squadron was sent to Greece in November 1940, where Pattle achieved most of his victories. Pattle claimed around 20 aircraft shot down and in March 1941 was promoted to squadron leader. After the German intervention, and in fourteen days of operations, Pattle claimed victories 24–50. Pattle claimed five or more aircraft destroyed in one day on three occasions, which qualified him for ace in a day status. Pattle achieved his greatest success on 19 April 1941, claiming six victories. The following day, having claimed more aerial victories than any other Western Allied pilot, he took off against orders, while suffering from a high temperature, to engage German aircraft near Athens. He was last seen battling Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters. His Hurricane crashed into the sea during this dogfight and Pattle was killed.
Pattle is sometimes noted as being the highest-scoring British Commonwealth pilot of the war. If all claims made for him are correct, his total could have been more than 51. It can be stated that his final total was at least 40 and could exceed this number. Log-books and semi-official records suggest this figure, while personnel attached to his squadron suspect the figure to be closer to 60. A total of 26 of Pattle's victims were Italian; 15 were downed with Gloster Gladiators, the rest with Hawker Hurricanes. He is considered to be the highest-scoring ace on both Gladiator and Hurricane (35 victories) fighters.
## Early years
### Childhood and education
Pattle was born in Butterworth, Cape Province, on 3 July 1914, the son of South African-born parents of English descent, Sergeant-Major Cecil William John "Jack" Pattle (b. 5 September 1884) and Edith Brailsford (1881–1962). Marmaduke was named after his paternal grandfather, Captain Thomas Marmaduke Pattle, who resigned his commission in the Royal Horse Artillery and emigrated to South Africa from England in 1875. Thomas became the first military magistrate of Butterworth. Jack Pattle followed his father into the British Army at the age of 15. He fought in the Second Boer War and the Natal Rebellion. Afterwards, he studied law and became a civilian attorney. Jack Pattle met Edith Brailsford in 1909. Brailsford was an English nurse who had lived in South Africa since the age of five. Jack Pattle and Edith Brailsford married in 1912. Within two years, two sons had been born, Cecil and Marmaduke.
As a child, Marmaduke was academically gifted and also a keen boxer and long-distance swimmer. He also took a keen interest in mechanical things, particularly combustion engines, and was building Meccano models of aircraft and other vehicles by the age of 12. In his early teens, he became an avid amateur mechanic, fixing the family motor car and learning to drive. Marmaduke was never a hard worker and did not embark upon an academic career, but was considered to possess above average intelligence. In 1929, he passed the Junior Certificate Exam with first class honours. The certificate qualified him for Victoria Boy's High School from which he graduated in 1931.
Although he had considered a career as a mining engineer, Pattle sent in an application to join the South African Air Force in 1932 and was employed in menial jobs while waiting for a response. For several months, he worked at a petrol station owned by an uncle.
### Military service
On 22 March 1933 he was invited for an interview for a commission in the Air Force in Pretoria. One of 30 applicants vying for three places, he was rejected for lack of flying experience. Determined to rectify this weakness, he went to Johannesburg and began taking flying lessons. To fund his new ambition, he worked for a mining company, Sheba Gold Mine. He enjoyed the work so much he considered studying for a degree in mining engineering. His passion for flying subsided, but an impromptu visit by a transport aircraft gave Pattle a close glimpse of it, which rekindled his interest. At around the same time, the Ministry of Defence created the Special Service Battalion to employ South African youth who were struggling to find work because of the Great Depression. He joined up in 1936 hoping it would lead to a career in the Air Force. He undertook basic training and national service on the understanding that he would be given an opportunity to enter the Air Force as an instructor at the end of his four-year service.
Pattle worked toward this goal for some time until, in late 1935, by chance, he picked up a copy of the Johannesburg Star newspaper. The paper contained an advertisement by the Royal Air Force (RAF) which was offering five-year short service commissions for cadets throughout the British Empire. The RAF expansion schemes required a great influx of capable personnel into the organisation as rearmament and the need for fighting men heightened. Pattle decided that a career in the RAF offered better prospects than as an instructor in South Africa and applied. Early in 1936, he was invited to Britain as an applicant. He flew to London at his own expense to attend the selection processes and was offered a commission by the selection board. He immediately returned to South Africa to arrange his migration to Britain and left aboard SS Llandovery Castle on 30 April 1936.
## RAF career
Pattle was assigned to a civil flying school at RAF Prestwick which was run by Scottish Aviation Limited. He formally began his training on 29 June 1936. He progressed well in his theory examinations, gaining 99 percent for gunnery and 91 percent for airmanship. He flew a single-engined De Havilland Tiger Moth training biplane and gained his A Licence at the end of July, partly because he was a capable pilot and also because the Air Ministry was anxious to produce trained pilots. He completed his training within two months and was classified as above average after passing his examination with ease. Pattle was give the service number 39029.
Pattle was sent to No. 10 Elementary Flying School at RAF Ternhill in Shropshire. He spent three months with the Initial Training Squadron and three further months with the Advanced Training Squadron. On 24 August 1936, he became an acting pilot officer. In November, he passed his technical exams, achieving 98 percent in aero engine mechanics and 96 percent in meteorology while scoring 95 percent in applied mechanics. The basic flight training came to an end and Pattle scored 88.5 percent. His advanced training began in November 1936 on the Gloster Gauntlet. He completed his training somewhat later than planned, in March 1937, owing to bad weather which curtailed flying. He was rated as "exceptional" in his final report.
Pattle joined No. 80 Squadron RAF. The squadron was in the midst of re-forming at RAF Kenley and he was able to fly the Gloster Gladiator fighter for the first time in May 1937. In June, the unit moved to RAF Debden. Here, they practised aerial combat against RAF Bomber Command squadrons which staged mock raids against London. During these exercises, he mastered deflection shooting. Pattle developed his own air tactics. He preferred attacking at higher altitudes than his quarry, meeting head-on, then waiting for the enemy to fly by before rolling over and diving to attack from the side and rear of the enemy. He usually held his fire until very close to the target to make sure of hitting his opponent. His qualities as an officer led to him being promoted to squadron adjutant. A gifted flyer and natural marksman, he took pains to improve both talents, doing exercises to improve his distance vision and sharpen his reflexes. He progressed in rank with the squadron and was duly promoted to pilot officer on 27 July 1937.
On 29 April 1938, Pattle accompanied the unit to Egypt having been tasked with the defence of the Suez Canal. While in Egypt, Pattle carried out ground attack duties against Arab rebels. He fired on the enemy several times as local rebellions against British rule took shape and then died away.
## Second World War
### North African campaign
Following the outbreak of war, the unit, flying the Gloster Gladiator, moved up to the Libyan border, where in August 1940, Pattle first saw action. 80 Squadron received the order to deploy one of its flights to Sidi Barrani in anticipation of Italian air attacks. "B" Flight, commanded by Pattle, moved to the forward airfield. On 4 August 1940, Pattle claimed his first victories. While escorting a Westland Lysander, Pattle and his flight engaged first a force of six Breda Ba.65/A80s of the 159<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia ("squadron") and six Fiat CR.42 quarters of the 160<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia. Pattle claimed a Breda, but was then attacked by the escorting Fiat CR.42s. He managed to hit one, that he saw falling spinning, but later was himself attacked by another formation of Bredas and CR.42s. The Bredas dived and delivered attacks from the quarter and beam. Pattle avoided them by turning away and opening fire on the nearest target as they dived past to gain speed, climbed, and then engaged Pattle again. The Gladiator's guns jammed one by one, leaving him without any form of defence, other than bluff attacks. After 15 minutes of battle, while avoiding one enemy fighter, he flew into the line of sight of another and was hit. Pattle's rudder controls were shot away, so he climbed to 400 ft and bailed out.
He was shot down most probably by Italian Spanish Civil War ace Tenente (Lieutenant) Franco Lucchini of 90<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia, 10° Gruppo ("group"), 4° Stormo ("wing"). He landed, winded, and played dead to avoid being strafed. He started to walk towards the Allied lines and crossed the border at around midday the following day. After two days, he was rescued by a detachment from the 11th Hussars, who returned him to Sidi Barrani. Pattle was annoyed. He considered being shot down by the Italians as an embarrassment and regarded the episode as a slur on his reputation. After his forced march to friendly lines, he was also determined not to get lost in the desert again so he flew to Alexandria and bought a compass which he never flew without.
On 8 August, Pattle claimed two more victories (nos 3–4). While leading 14 Gladiators of 80 Squadron in a surprise attack against 16 Fiat CR.42s from 9° and 10° Gruppi of 4° Stormo, over Gabr Saleh inside the Italian territory. Sergente (Sergeant) Rosa, Dallari and Valla bailed out and Sotto Tenente Querci, Sergente Gino and Poli force landed. One pilot, Norino Renzi, a Regia Aeronautica pilot since 25 December 1930 and a pre-war member of 4° Stormo's aerobatics group, was killed. "Shorty" Graham, Pattle's wingman that day, confirmed he saw two fall to Pattle. On 3 September 1940, Pattle was promoted to flight lieutenant.
Three days later, the Italian invasion of Egypt began. Much to Pattle's distaste, the squadron was heavily involved in close air support operations and ordered specifically to avoid air-to-air combat unless attacked. On occasion, he chanced upon Italian aircraft, but the Gladiator's limited speed denied Pattle further success. Pattle succeeded in damaging a Savoia-Marchetti S.79 bomber which emitted black smoke but dived away and Pattle could not catch it. The speed of the Savoia-Marchetti S.79 enabled it to escape the RAF fighters on a consistent basis. The unit withdrew to Habbaniyah to re-equip with Mark II machines, but was then ordered to Greece after the Italian attack.
### Greco-Italian War
In November, the squadron was transferred to the Balkans to help the Greek Air Force oppose the Italian invasion. On 8 November, the squadron and its new Gladiator IIs moved from their base at Sidi Haneish to Abu Suweir. There the pilots were granted two days leave. On 16 November 1940, the squadron arrived in Athens and moved to airfields north of the capital. Pattle's aerodrome was situated at Eleusis. They stayed to organise the squadron into flights but moved to the Albanian–Greek border town of Trikkala hours later.
Here Pattle was to enjoy significant success. On 19 November 1940, Pattle with eight other pilots from 80 Squadron, attacked Fiat CR.42s and Fiat G.50bis near the Italian airfield at Korçë. In this combat, the RAF claimed nine and two probably destroyed while 160<sup>o</sup> Gruppo Autonomo (Independent Group) lost three Fiat CR.42s and one damaged while 355<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia, 24<sup>o</sup> Gruppo Autonomo, lost one G.50. Four Italian pilots were killed, while the RAF lost a Gladiator. Pattle claimed two CR.42s in the battle — his wingman Heimar Stucky (himself wounded in action later on) witnessed both catch fire and crash in the vicinity of Korçë with the pilots killed. Pattle's guns jammed during the battle and he was forced to break off combat. Pattle also noted the inferior speed of the Gladiator against the Fiat G.50 Freccia. The Italian pilots could easily outrun the Gladiators if outnumbered. His combat reports also noted the ineffective fire of the Italians who fired and broke away from too far away. Having regained pressure in his guns, he encountered a lone G.50. Though respectful of its advantages, he was convinced of his own flying ability. He placed the Gladiator below and in front of the Italian fighter to tempt the enemy pilot, but could not persuade it to accept battle. Between 27 and 29 November, Pattle made four claims. Flying as escort for Bristol Blenheims, Pattle engaged three SM.79s and shared two destroyed with 11 other pilots. On 29 November, he shared with William Vale with both claiming two shared damaged.
On 2 December, he claimed two victories (nos 7–8). In the Gjirokastër area, Pattle shot down an IMAM Ro.37bis from 42<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia, 72<sup>o</sup> Gruppo, and Sergente Luigi Del Manno and his observer, Tenente Michele Milano, were both killed. In the afternoon, Pattle shot down another Ro.37bis from 72<sup>o</sup>Gruppo near Përmet, killing Capitano Fuchs and Sergente Vescia. On 4 December 1940, the RAF claimed nine Fiat CR.42s destroyed and two probables. Pattle — whose own aircraft was hit in the main fuel tank and a wing strut — claimed three CR.42s plus another and a Fiat CR.42 as probable victories — he had seen two of his victims bail out. According to Italian combat records, 150° Gruppo, involved in that combat, lost just two CR.42s. Tenente Alberto Triolo and Sottotenente Paolo Penna were killed in action.
Pattle achieved further success on 20 December 1940. On this day he achieved 12 or 13 air victories. Covering the withdrawal of Blenheims from 211 Squadron over the Kelcyre sector, he missed the rendezvous. Instead, Pattle opted to fly a patrol between Tepelene and Kelcyre. He intercepted a flight of escorted SM.79s and attacked them before the escort could react. He downed one via a head-on attack. The crew bailed out and the bomber crashed near Tepelene. Two Gladiators had been damaged and withdrew after being hit by withering return fire. Soon he spotted another formation of much slower Savoia-Marchetti SM.81. He expended all his ammunition and watched the Italian pilot attempt a crash-landing, only for the bomber to hit a tree and disintegrate 15 miles north of Kelcyre. His victims were from 104° Gruppo and drawn from 252<sup>a</sup> and 253<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia. His first victim was piloted by Tenente Andrea Berlingieri. Berlingieri and his crew were killed. On 21 December, he downed a CR.42, but his unit suffered the loss of Squadron Leader Hickey. Hickey bailed out and was subsequently shot in his parachute. Pilot Officer Ripley was killed also — Pattle witnessed his death. The squadron claimed a number of victories in return. Pattle's 15th and last victory in the Gladiator was claimed on 9 February 1941. In between these dates, on 28 January 1941, he took a third share in the destruction of a CANT Z.1007 and a half-share in a Fiat BR.20. In view of his actions, Pattle was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) on 11 February 1941.
No. 80 Squadron was re-equipped with newer model Hawker Hurricane Mk Is on 20 February 1941. That day, Pattle, flying Hurricane Mk I V7724, was leading a group of six Hurricanes escorting 16 Blenheim light bombers — eight from No. 84 Squadron RAF, six from No. 211 Squadron and three from No. 30 Squadron RAF—to Berat. Fiat G.50bis from the 361<sup>a</sup> and 395<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia, 154° Autonomo Gruppo were scrambled from Berat airfield, but they were attacked by the higher altitude Hurricanes. Pattle led his section straight towards four Fiat G.50s and selected the leading aircraft as his own target. It was the first time he had fired the eight guns of the Hurricane, and the G.50 exploded. The Fiat G.50 was from 154° Gruppo and it was the first Hurricane victory that Pattle claimed. Tenente Livio Bassi was killed in this battle. Another CR.42 fell to Pattle on 27 February 1941 — his 17th victory. His Hurricane sustained a bullet hole in the fuel tank.
On 28 February, British pilots in Greece celebrated their biggest success in combat. No. 80 Squadron claimed 27 Italian aircraft without loss in 90 minutes of air combat. Pattle himself claimed three Fiat CR.42s shot down in less than three minutes. The Regia Aeronautica claimed that day it lost just one CR.42 (as confirmed by Italian pilot Corrado Ricci, a participant in those battles), plus four Fiat BR.20s and two G.50bis. The Italians claimed six Gladiators and one Supermarine Spitfire — none would be in the Mediterranean Theatre until March 1942 — while in fact only one Gladiator of No. 112 Squadron was lost, while two Blenheims, attacked by CR.42s had to crash-land returning to base. In a previous fight south of Vlorë, Pattle had to return to base with the windscreen covered by oil from a shot down enemy bomber. His tally was now 21 air victories. Later sources suggested two of Pattle's claim were from the 37° Stormo.
On 4 March 1941, Pattle claimed three enemy Fiat G.50bis fighters (nos 22–24) belonging to 24<sup>o</sup>Gruppo. He claimed the first, while Nigel Cullen — another leading fighter ace — flew as his wingman. Escorting Blenheims to attack Italian warships, the pair were engaged by a lone G.50. Pattle engaged the Fiat and shot it down — its landing gear dropped down and it rolled over and into a mountainside just north of Himare. Pattle searched for Cullen, expecting him to be behind him but saw no sign of the Australian. He assumed Cullen had gone off to scout for more enemy aircraft after missing out on Pattle's victory. Now alone, he was attacked by another lone G.50bis while flying towards Vlorë. After a brief combat, he shot down the Fiat. It crashed into the sea southwest of Vlorë harbour. He then became involved with a third such fighter over Valona harbour and claimed to have shot this down into the sea in flames on the west side of the promontory. After his return to base, he was informed Cullen had been posted missing in action. Pattle and the squadron considered he had most likely been shot down and killed.
### Squadron leader
On 12 March 1941, Pattle was promoted to squadron leader. The following day, the squadron returned to Eleusis north of Athens. There, Pattle was reassigned to No. 33 Squadron. Pattle received a Bar to his DFC on 18 March 1941, for which the citation read: "In March 1941, during an engagement over Himara Flight Lieutenant Pattle shot down three enemy fighters. This courageous and skilful fighter pilot has now destroyed at least 23 enemy aircraft".
Pattle arrived in Athens and was immediately unimpressed by No. 33 Squadron. The group was already indignant and many of the veterans believed one of their number should have been promoted instead. He gathered the pilots together and made a statement of his intent:
> This is my first command. I intend to make it a successful one. You have done well in the desert, but you are not a good Squadron. A good Squadron looks smart. You are a scruffy looking lot! Your flying, by my standards, is ragged. Flying discipline starts when you start to taxi and doesn't end until you switch off your engine. In future you will taxi in formation, take off in formation, and land in formation at all times unless your aircraft has been damaged, or in an emergency.
After the lecture, Pattle took another pilot, Pilot Officer Ping Newton, up for dogfight practice. The squadron watched. They climbed to 10,000 feet, separated and then began a head-on attack so neither would have an advantage. Soon, Pattle had moved onto his tail and Ping could not shake his leader off. He criticised the pilot for being too smooth on the controls and urged his men to be rough with them in combat. Within a week, constant practice had moulded the squadron into an effective team. He impressed on his pilots one critical point about his own approach to combat:
> You must be aggressive in the air but not to the extent of recklessness. Always be ready to take the initiative, but only when you have the enemy aircraft at a disadvantage. You must be ready to react instinctively in any situation and you can only do this if you are alert both physically and mentally. Good eyes and perfect co-ordination of hands and feet are essential. Flying an aeroplane in combat should be automatic. The mind must be free to think what to do; it must never be clouded with any thought on how it should be done.
On 23 March, Pattle flew his first missions with No. 33 Squadron, now based at Larissa. They flew as escort for Blenheims from No. 84 Squadron over the Pindus Mountains and Paramythia. Supported by No. 112 Squadron Gladiators, they flew to raid Berat. The cloud base was low and thick and they descended below it at 1,900 feet. The bombers attacked and two Hurricanes were badly damaged by ground fire. One of the squadron was shot down by a Fiat G.50 and bailed out — the Italians disappeared before they could retaliate. In the afternoon, he was briefed to strafe the heavily defended Fieri airfield. It was an unpopular sort of mission. At 25,000 feet, they were intercepted and a dogfight began with G.50s and Macchi C.200s. Only Pattle and one other Hurricane attacked the airfield. Furious, Pattle berated the pilots for not carrying out their primary assignment. He had claimed one enemy fighter as a probable and proceeded to the airfield to claim another victory — his 25th — and claimed another three on the ground.
### Battle for Greece
On 6 April 1941, Adolf Hitler resolved to end the conflict in the Balkans and subjugate Allied-sympathetic states. The Invasion of Yugoslavia began in the morning. The German Wehrmacht also intervened in Greece thus beginning the Battle of Greece. Italian failures had allowed another British foothold on the continent too close to the Romanian oilfields — Germany's ally.
No. 33 Squadron was immediately put on alert. At noon, Pattle was ordered to fly a fighter patrol over the Rupel Pass, Bulgaria, another Axis partner. Here he had his first encounter with the Luftwaffe. No. 33 Squadron attacked 20 Bf 109s and claimed five without loss. Pattle claimed two victories over Bf 109Es over the Rupel Pass —Oberleutnant Arno Becker was killed and Leutnant Klaus Faber was captured. These successes represented his 26th and 27th aerial victories. Thereafter, details vary as to his score as all records were destroyed.
The following day, he acted as escort for No. 11 Squadron RAF. Only one enemy aircraft was sighted by Pattle, though none of the squadron could see it. He left them in order to deal with the intruder. Thirty seconds later, they witnessed an explosion and a CR.42 fall to the ground while Pattle rejoined them. It is believed he attacked a reconnaissance Dornier Do 17 from Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ("dive bomber wing 2") which he claimed destroyed, though it appears it made it back to German lines damaged. On 8 April, despite bad weather, Pattle led an attack on Petrich in Bulgaria and left a number of enemy aircraft destroyed on the ground.
The air war intensified after a period of bad weather and the Luftwaffe began exerting severe pressure on communications and Allied ground forces. On 9 April, Pattle claimed a Junkers Ju 88 (actually a Do 17) damaged. He left the burning machine as it disappeared into cloud. Pattle received confirmation that the aircraft crashed and he drove out with a member of the squadron to bring back souvenirs. On 10 April, he flew as fighter escort for No. 11 Squadron Blenheims on a mission over Betjol, Yugoslavia. They were attacked by flights of Messerschmitt Bf 110s and Bf 109s. Pattle shot down a Bf 110 which was seen to crash in flames and a Bf 109 whose pilot bailed out. On Good Friday, Pattle led his squadron into battle against German bombers minelaying over Volos harbour. He dispatched a Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 into the sea. The successes represented his 33rd and 34th aerial victories.
Pattle's success in the air was overshadowed by events on the ground. The Allied forces were routed at Vevi and the Battle of the Metaxas Line had ended in total defeat for the Greek Army on 9 April. Covering the Greek forces from Larissa, Pattle claimed another Do 17 and SM.79 along with a Bf 109 damaged for his 35th and 36th aerial victories. Interceptions would now be more difficult for the port of Salonika fell. Observers at the port had been able to telephone his operations hut to warn him of approaching enemy aircraft over Mount Olympus. Pattle had to send pairs of fighters to patrol the area, which helped act as a rudimentary warning system. The effect was that there was little warning of impending attacks. The Germans, now operating from forward airfields, slipped through unnoticed. On 13 April, Pattle witnessed 15 Bf 109s strafe the airfield as three Hurricanes took off. Two veteran pilots were killed in the very brief battle in exchange for two Bf 109s. Pattle searched for the Hurricane pilots and found one fighter with a parachute beside it but no pilot. Pattle was to be further disheartened. One of the German pilots bailed out and Pattle watched in horror as the Greek soldiers guarding the airfield shot him dead as he floated down in his parachute. One of the Bf 109s crash-landed perfectly. He ordered that no-one should approach the Bf 109 in case it was rigged with explosives. The pilot was likely Hans-Jakob Arnoldy.
Pattle claimed four victories during five sorties on 14 April. One Bf 109, one Ju 88 and a Bf 110 were claimed as destroyed. His final victory was an Italian SM.79 in the afternoon. The day took his tally to 40 enemy aircraft. As the wreckage of some old Greek aircraft and a captured SM.79 was being cleared up after the attack on 13 April, John D'Albiac, Air Officer Commanding British Forces in Greece, arrived to warn him of the Allied collapse in the north. After seeing the AOC off in a Lysander aircraft escorted by five squadron Hurricanes, Pattle evacuated his squadron to Eleusis.
During the journey, Pattle developed a fever and high temperature. Nevertheless, on 19 April he took to the skies in several missions. By this date, Pattle's fever had metamorphosed into influenza and his condition had worsened. He did not want his squadron to know he was unwell. Pattle feared the effect it would have on morale and vowed to continue flying. The officer commanding No. 80 Squadron, Tap Jones, visited Pattle the day before and noticed he was very gaunt, drawn and that he had lost weight. Jones helped the weakened Pattle change into his flying gear. Jones was acting wing commander, but did not ban Pattle from operations. Pattle claimed six victories this day — three Ju 88s and three Bf 109s — plus one Henschel Hs 126 shared and two probables (a Ju 88 and a Bf 109). The battle with the Bf 109s took place over Eleusis and Tanagra airfields. He engaged III./Jagdgeschwader 77 (Fighter Wing 77 or JG 77) in a head-on position and executed an Immelmann turn which took him behind and above the Messerschmitts and allowed him to claim three of them shot down. No. 33 Squadron claimed four Bf 109s (three were lost). Among the victims was the German ace, Kurt Ubben. Ubben landed in Allied territory and was picked up by a Fieseler Fi 156, escaping to his own lines.
#### Death over Piraeus Harbour
By dawn on 20 April 1941, the Germans were well aware that British and Allied forces had begun preliminary withdrawal operations from ports in southern Greece. The Luftwaffe made substantial attacks against these departure points in a bid to prevent or forestall an evacuation. On Sunday 20 April, the Luftwaffe mounted mass attacks against Allied shipping in Piraeus Harbour. On this very morning, at roughly 05:00, large formations appeared over the capital, Athens. The remaining Allied fighter units in the area committed themselves to defending the Allied ships in what became known as "the Battle of Athens". Barely 15 Hawker Hurricanes, the entire Allied air presence in Greece at the time, participated in a series of defensive missions over Athens.
Pattle had flown several patrols that morning and was suffering from a high temperature and fever. He had downed a Ju 88 and two Bf 109s on a morning interception to interdict German air operations. One of his victims, a Bf 109 from III./JG 77 crash-landed at Larissa. His success took Pattle's total from 47 to 49. At 17:00 in the afternoon, another raid approached. He was seen, just before an air raid alarm, in the mess, lying on a couch, shivering under the blankets. He was detailed to take a patrol over the lines but during the mission briefing, around 100 German bombers with fighter escort attacked the capital, seeking to attack Allied shipping in the harbour. He ran for the door towards a Hurricane. His adjutant, George Rumsey, tried to stop him, but Pattle was determined to fly. On the way to his fighter, he narrowly avoided being killed in a strafing attack by a low-flying Bf 110. He took to the skies minutes later. Pattle climbed to gain altitude and headed for Piraeus Harbour at 20,000 feet.
At this time, other Hurricanes were already in action with Bf 110s from Zerstörergeschwader 26 (ZG 26). The Irish ace Timber Woods attacked a formation of Bf 110s positioned above him. One of the Bf 110s detached itself and dived on the RAF pilot. Pattle, instinctively knowing that the German had the advantage and the Hurricane pilot had acted foolishly, dived toward the Bf 110. He engaged the Bf 110, knowing he too would likely be followed and attacked from behind. He succeeded in shooting it down in flames, but not before it had fired at point-blank range into the Hurricane, with the same effect. Woods died when his fighter crashed into the harbour. Pattle avoided a German counter-attack and climbed instead of attempting a dive, since the Bf 110s could out-dive the Hurricane. He fired into another Bf 110 and avoided a collision with a third. No RAF pilot saw Pattle die for certain. Jimmy 'Kettle' Kettlewell, one of Pattle's unit, arrived on the scene moments after Pattle had scored his victory. He saw a lone Hurricane diving towards the sea, its pilot slumped forward over the controls and flames engulfing the engine compartment. Two Bf 110s were still firing at it. Seizing the opportunity, he engaged and shot one of them down watching it and the Hurricane hit the sea simultaneously. Kettle did not specify the fate of the German crew — the victory was his fifth, making him an ace. It is possible Kettlewell's victim was one of two 5./ZG 26 Bf 110s that were lost: Bf 110E (Werknummer 4272—factory number), Oberfeldwebel Georg Leinfelder and Unteroffizier Franz Beckel who were killed in action or Bf 110E (Werknummer 4299), Oberleutnant Kurt Specka and Günther Frank. A third Bf 110 crash-landed with severe damage. Kettlewell was shot down and wounded in the same battle.
Surviving records show that the German claimants included Staffelkapitän Hauptmann Theodor Rossiwall and Oberleutnant Sophus Baagoe who were credited with kills against Hurricanes, taking their scores to 12 and 14 respectively. Baagoe would be killed in action within a month, on 14 May 1941. It cannot be known for certain which one shot down Pattle since three other German pilots made claims in the air battle. One of the 80 Squadron pilots involved in the battle, Roald Dahl, records five Hurricanes were downed in several air battles that day, with four pilots dying. One of those was Pattle.
## List of victories
While most of Pattle's victories were claimed while flying Hurricanes, at least 15 were downed in Gladiators. His claims included 26 Italian aircraft.
Pattle was provisionally credited with 50 air victories (and two shared), seven (and one shared) probable victories, and four (and two shared) damaged. It is likely that his total was at least 40 enemy aircraft destroyed a figure which biographer Edgar Baker has compiled through a list of semi-official records and log-books. Baker asserts that the true figure could be higher, owing to the inability of post-war researchers to identify an exact figure, due to the loss or destruction of British records in the retreat from Greece or during the subsequent occupation. Recent research into Pattle's claims has shown that 23 claims can be directly linked to records by March 1941. The Air Historical Branch contains information collated through memory. Baker's work suggests another 17 were claimed in April 1941. Other research dedicated to the history of German bomber units, some of which took part in the air battles against Pattle's unit, have drawn attention to the fact that 97–98 percent of all German primary records belonging to the Luftwaffe have been lost either through Allied bombing or through Hermann Göring's order to destroy all records in the first week of May 1945. This makes any research into German bomber losses difficult.
## Memorials
Pattle is commemorated on the Alamein Memorial at El Alamein together with 3,000 other Commonwealth airmen who lost their lives in the Middle Eastern Theatre during the Second World War, and who have no known grave.
Air Marshal Sir Peter Wykeham, recalled: "Pat Pattle was a natural. Some fighter pilots did not last long because they were too kind to their aircraft; others were successful because they caned it half to death. And their victories were accompanied by burst engines, popping rivets, stretched wire, wrinkled wings. But Pat was a sensitive pilot, who considered his machine, but, somehow he got more from it than anyone else, and possibly more than it had to give."
Pattle is mentioned in Roald Dahl's second autobiography, Going Solo. He flew with Pattle in Greece and called him "the Second World War's greatest flying ace."
The novel Signed with their Honour (1942), by war correspondent James Aldridge, is a fictionalized but realistic account of 80 Squadron's activities in Greece. It is dedicated to Pattle and 80 Squadron's CO, Hickey, who was also killed in action in Greece. |
488,474 | King George V-class battleship (1911) | 1,142,754,288 | 1911 class of battleships of the Royal Navy | [
"Battleship classes",
"King George V-class battleships (1911)",
"Ship classes of the Royal Navy",
"World War I battleships of the United Kingdom"
]
| The King George V-class battleships were a group of four dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy (RN) in the early 1910s that were sometimes termed super-dreadnoughts. The sister ships spent most of their careers assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Home and Grand Fleets, sometimes serving as flagships. In October 1914, Audacious struck a mine and sank. Aside from participating in the failed attempt to intercept the German ships that had bombarded Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby in late 1914, the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 and the inconclusive action of 19 August, the surviving ships' service during the First World War generally consisted of routine patrols and training in the North Sea.
The three surviving ships were briefly reduced to reserve in 1919 before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1920–1921 where they played minor roles in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War and the Chanak Crisis of 1922. The first ship to return to Britain, King George V, became a training ship in 1923 but the other two were placed into reserve again upon their return the following year. The imminent completion of the two Nelson-class battleships in 1927 forced the sale of King George V and Ajax for scrap at the end of 1926 while Centurion was converted into a target ship to comply with the tonnage limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty.
During the Second World War, Centurion was rearmed with light weapons and was converted into a blockship and was then modified into a decoy with dummy gun turrets. Centurion was sent to the Mediterranean in 1942 to escort a convoy to Malta, although the Italians quickly figured out the deception. The ship was deliberately sunk during the Invasion of Normandy in 1944 to form a breakwater.
## Design and description
Ordered as part of the 1910–1911 Naval Programme, the King George V class was an enlarged version of the preceding Orion class with additional armour, a revised layout of the secondary armament and improved fire-control arrangements. The ships had an overall length of 597 feet 9 inches (182.2 m), a beam of 90 feet 1 inch (27.5 m) and a draught of 28 feet 8 inches (8.7 m). They displaced 25,420 long tons (25,830 t) at normal load and 27,120 long tons (27,560 t) at deep load. Their crew numbered around 869 officers and ratings upon completion and 1,114 in 1916.
Sea trials with the battlecruiser Lion showed that the placement of the fore funnel between the forward superstructure and the foremast meant that hot clinkers and flue gases from the boilers made the spotting top on the foremast completely unworkable when the forward boilers were alight and that the upper bridge could easily be rendered uninhabitable, depending on the wind. The King George V class also used the same arrangement and they were altered while under construction to remedy the problem at a cost of approximately £20,000 per ship. The fore funnel was moved aft and a makeshift foremast was built from one of the struts of the original tripod mast. The spotting tower at the rear of the conning tower was removed, the conning tower enlarged, and the coincidence rangefinder was moved from the foremast spotting top to the roof of the conning tower.
The ships of the King George V class were powered by two sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines. The outer propeller shafts were coupled to the high-pressure turbines in the outer engine rooms and these exhausted into low-pressure turbines in the centre engine room which drove the inner shafts. The turbines used steam provided by 18 water-tube boilers. They were rated at 27,000 shaft horsepower (20,000 kW) and were intended to give the battleships a maximum speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). During their sea trials, the ships exceeded their designed speed and horsepower, reaching a maximum of 22.9 knots (42.4 km/h; 26.4 mph). They carried a maximum of 3,100 long tons (3,150 t) of coal and an additional 840 long tons (853 t) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate. This gave them a range of 5,910–6,310 nautical miles (10,950–11,690 km; 6,800–7,260 mi) at a cruising speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
### Armament
The King George V class was equipped with ten 45-calibre breech-loading (BL) 13.5-inch Mark V gun in five hydraulically powered, centreline, twin-gun turrets, designated 'A', 'B', 'Q', 'X' and 'Y' from front to rear. The guns had a maximum elevation of +20° which gave them a range of 23,830 yards (21,790 m). Their gunsights, however, were limited to +15° until super-elevating prisms were installed by 1916 to allow full elevation. In contrast to the Orions, the loading machinery of these turrets was modified to accommodate longer and heavier 1,400-pound (635 kg) projectiles, some 150 pounds (68 kg) more than those of the Orions, at a muzzle velocity of about 2,500 ft/s (760 m/s) at a rate of two rounds per minute. The ships carried 100 shells per gun.
Training exercises had shown that destroyer and torpedo boats attacked more frequently from the frontal arc, so the sixteen 50-calibre BL four-inch (102 mm) Mark VII guns of the secondary armament was re-arranged to improve fire distribution ahead. Eight of these were mounted in the forward superstructure, four in the aft superstructure, and four in casemates in the side of the hull abreast of the forward main gun turrets, all in single mounts. The guns in the hull casemates were frequently unusable in heavy seas and were later removed during the war. The Mark VII guns had a maximum elevation of +15° which gave them a range of 11,400 yards (10,424 m). They fired 31-pound (14.1 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,821 ft/s (860 m/s). They were provided with 150 rounds per gun. Four 3-pounder (1.9 in (47 mm)) saluting guns were also carried. The ships were equipped with three 21-inch submerged torpedo tubes, one on each broadside and another in the stern, for which 14 torpedoes were provided.
### Fire-control
The ships of the King George V class were some of the first battleships in the RN to receive the full suite of fire-control equipment used during the First World War. The control position for the main armament was located in the conning tower. Data from a 9-foot (2.7 m) coincidence rangefinder (an unstabilized Barr and Stroud instrument in King George V and stabilized Argo units in the other ships) on the roof of the conning tower, together with the target's speed and course information, was input into a Dumaresq mechanical computer and electrically transmitted to a Dreyer Fire-control Table (a Mark III system in King George V and Mark II Tables in the others with an Argo range clock replacing the Dreyer-Elphinstone model in the Mark III) located in the transmitting station located on the main deck. Wind speed and direction was called down to the transmitting station by either voicepipe or sound-powered telephone. The fire-control table integrated all the data and converted it into elevation and deflection data for use by the guns. The target's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target. As a backup, two turrets in each ship could take over if necessary.
Fire-control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding World War I, and the development of the director firing system was a major advance. This consisted of a fire-control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided elevation and training angles to the turrets via pointer on a dial, which the turret crewmen only had to follow. The guns were fired simultaneously, which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimised the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells. The weight of the director and the enlarged spotting top proved to be more than the unsupported foremast could bear, and it had to be reinforced when the directors were installed in 1913–1914 on the roof of the spotting top. The mast of King George V used flanges, but the other three ships received half-height tripod legs. The former ship's mast was rebuilt into a full-height tripod in 1918. Available sources do not acknowledge that Audacious was fitted with a director before her loss, but photographic evidence clearly shows one visible as she was sinking.
### Armour
The King George Vs had a waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour that was 12 inches (305 mm) thick between the fore and rear barbettes. It reduced to 2.5–6 inches (64–152 mm) outside the central armoured citadel, but did not reach the bow or stern. The belt covered the side of the hull from 16 feet 10.5 inches (5.1 m) above the waterline to 3 feet 4 inches (1.0 m) below it. Above this was a strake of 9-inch (229 mm) armour. The fore and aft oblique 10-inch (254 mm) bulkheads connected the waterline and upper armour belts to the 'A' and 'Y' barbettes. The exposed faces of the barbettes were protected by armour 9 to 10 inches thick above the main deck that thinned to 3–7 inches (76–178 mm) below it. The gun turrets had 11-inch (279 mm) faces sides with 3- to 4-inch roofs. The guns in the forward superstructure were protected by armour 3–3.5 inches (76–89 mm) thick.
The four armoured decks ranged in thickness from 1 to 4 inches (25 to 102 mm) with the greater thicknesses outside the central armoured citadel. The front and sides of the conning tower were protected by 11-inch plates, although the roof was 3 inches thick. The gunnery control tower behind and above the conning tower had 4-inch sides and the torpedo-control tower aft had 6-inch sides and a 3-inch roof. Unlike the Orions, the anti-torpedo bulkheads were extended to cover the engine rooms, as well as the magazines with thicknesses ranging from 1 to 1.75 inches (25 to 44 mm). The boiler uptakes were protected by 1–1.5-inch (25–38 mm) armour plates.
### Modifications
By October 1914, a pair of QF 3-inch (76 mm) anti-aircraft (AA) guns were installed aboard each ship. About 80 long tons (81 t) of additional deck armour was added after the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 and King George V was fitted to tow kite balloons around the same time. By April 1917, the ships had exchanged a 4-inch AA gun for one of the 3-inch guns and the four 4-inch guns in the hull casemates had been removed. The stern torpedo tube was removed during 1917–1918 and one or two flying-off platforms were fitted aboard each ship in 1918; these were mounted on turret roofs and extended onto the gun barrels. King George V had them on 'B' and 'Q' turrets, Centurion on 'B' and 'X' turrets and Ajax had one on 'B'.
## Ships
## Careers
While conducting her sea trials on the night of 9/10 December, Centurion accidentally rammed and sank the Italian steamer SS Derna and she was under repair until March 1913. All four ships of the King George V class were assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron upon commissioning, commanded by Vice-Admiral Sir George Warrender, and King George V was the squadron flagship by 18 February 1913. Centurion was present to receive the President of France, Raymond Poincaré, at Spithead on 24 June 1913. The sisters represented the Royal Navy during the celebrations of the re-opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal in Kiel, Germany, 23–30 June 1914, held in conjunction with Kiel Week.
Between 17 and 20 July 1914, the King George Vs took part in a test mobilisation and fleet review as part of the British response to the July Crisis. Afterwards, they were ordered to proceed with the rest of the Home Fleet to Scapa Flow to safeguard the fleet from a possible surprise attack by the Imperial German Navy. After the British declaration of war on Germany on 4 August, the Home Fleet was reorganised as the Grand Fleet, and placed under the command of Admiral Jellicoe. According to pre-war doctrine, the role of the Grand Fleet was to fight a decisive battle against the German High Seas Fleet. This grand battle was slow to happen, however, because of the Germans' reluctance to commit their battleships against the superior British force. As a result, the Grand Fleet spent its time training in the North Sea, punctuated by the occasional mission to intercept a German raid or major fleet sortie. While the 2nd Battle Squadron was conducting gunnery training off the northern coast of Ireland on 27 October, Audacious struck a mine and sank; all of her crew was successfully rescued before she capsized. King George V developed problems with her condensers in November. This forced the ship to be intermittently withdrawn from operations over the next several months while the condensers had their tubes replaced.
### Bombardment of Scarborough, Hartlepool, and Whitby
The Royal Navy's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans for a German attack on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby in mid-December using the four battlecruisers of Konteradmiral (Rear-Admiral) Franz von Hipper's I Scouting Group. The radio messages did not mention that the High Seas Fleet with fourteen dreadnoughts and eight predreadnoughts would reinforce Hipper. The ships of both sides departed their bases on 15 December, with the British intending to ambush the German ships on their return voyage. They mustered the six dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron, including the three surviving King George Vs, and the four battlecruisers of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty.
The screening forces of each side blundered into each other during the early morning darkness and heavy weather of 16 December. The Germans got the better of the initial exchange of fire, severely damaging several British destroyers, but Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl, commander of the High Seas Fleet, ordered his ships to turn away, concerned about the possibility of a massed attack by British destroyers in the dawn's light. A series of miscommunications and mistakes by the British allowed Hipper's ships to avoid an engagement with Beatty's forces.
### Battle of Jutland
In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, the German High Seas Fleet departed the Jade Bight early on the morning of 31 May 1916 in support of Hipper's battlecruisers which were to act as bait. Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation, so the Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet.
Once Jellicoe's ships had rendezvoused with the 2nd Battle Squadron, coming from Cromarty, Scotland, on the morning of 31 May, he organised the main body of the Grand Fleet in parallel columns of divisions of four dreadnoughts each. The two divisions of the 2nd Battle Squadron were on his left (east), the 4th Battle Squadron was in the centre and the 1st Battle Squadron on the right. When Jellicoe ordered the Grand Fleet to deploy to the left and form line astern in anticipation of encountering the High Seas Fleet, this naturally placed the 2nd Battle Squadron at the head of the line of battle. The sisters were able to fire a few volleys at the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group without effect early in the battle, but the manoeuvers of their escorting light cruisers frequently blocked their views of the German ships. Coupled with the visibility problems from the smoke and mist, none of the King George Vs were able to fire more than 19 rounds from their main guns.
### Subsequent activity
The Grand Fleet sortied on 18 August 1916 to ambush the High Seas Fleet while it advanced into the southern North Sea, but a series of miscommunications and mistakes prevented Jellicoe from intercepting the German fleet before it returned to port. Two light cruisers were sunk by German U-boats during the operation, prompting Jellicoe to decide to not risk the major units of the fleet south of 55° 30' North due to the prevalence of German submarines and mines. The Admiralty concurred and stipulated that the Grand Fleet would not sortie unless the German fleet was attempting an invasion of Britain or there was a strong possibility it could be forced into an engagement under suitable conditions. Along with the rest of the Grand Fleet, they sortied on the afternoon of 23 April 1918 after radio transmissions revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway. The Germans were too far ahead of the British to be caught, and no shots were fired. The sisters were present at Rosyth, Scotland, when the German fleet surrendered there on 21 November.
### Postwar activities
The sisters remained with the 2nd Battle Squadron into early 1919, after which King George V became the flagship of the 3rd Battle Squadron until that unit was disbanded later that year. The ship then became flagship of the Reserve Fleet and served until late 1920. In the meantime, Ajax had been transferred to 4th Battle Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet by mid-1919 and sometimes served as the Fleet's flagship. Centurion followed in early 1920, although she spent a lot of time in reserve in Malta. The sisters played minor roles in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919–1920. King George V joined them in the 4th Battle Squadron in early 1921. After striking a rock in early September 1922, she was in Smyrna, Turkey, receiving temporary repairs when the Great Fire of Smyrna occurred later that month and evacuated some refugees when she sailed for permanent repairs at Malta. Her sisters were in Turkish waters during the Chanak Crisis around the same time. King George V was the first of the trio to return home in early 1923 and she served a training ship until she was sold for scrap at the end of 1926. Ajax and Centurion followed in April 1924, although they were placed in reserve, with the latter serving as the flagship of the Reserve Fleet. Like King George V, Ajax was sold for scrap at the end of 1926.
The British tonnage allowance granted by the Washington Naval Treaty permitted them to keep the three sisters in service until the two Nelson-class battleships were completed in 1927. While King George V and Ajax were scrapped, Centurion was demilitarized by the removal of her armament and was converted into a radio-controlled target ship. In addition to being used as a target for surface ships, Centurion was used to evaluate the effectiveness of various types of aerial bombing. During the Second World War, she was rearmed with light weapons and was converted into a blockship in 1941. In preparation for that operation (subsequently cancelled), she was modified into a decoy with dummy gun turrets in an attempt to fool the Axis powers. Centurion was sent to the Mediterranean in 1942 to escort a convoy to Malta, although the Italians may have figured out the deception. The ship was scuttled off Omaha Beach in June 1944 to form a breakwater to protect a mulberry harbour built to supply the forces ashore. |
35,258,497 | Telephone number (mathematics) | 1,170,374,486 | Number of ways to pair up n objects | [
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| In mathematics, the telephone numbers or the involution numbers form a sequence of integers that count the ways n people can be connected by person-to-person telephone calls. These numbers also describe the number of matchings (the Hosoya index) of a complete graph on n vertices, the number of permutations on n elements that are involutions, the sum of absolute values of coefficients of the Hermite polynomials, the number of standard Young tableaux with n cells, and the sum of the degrees of the irreducible representations of the symmetric group. Involution numbers were first studied in 1800 by Heinrich August Rothe, who gave a recurrence equation by which they may be calculated, giving the values (starting from n = 0)
## Applications
John Riordan provides the following explanation for these numbers: suppose that n people subscribe to a telephone service that can connect any two of them by a call, but cannot make a single call connecting more than two people. How many different patterns of connection are possible? For instance, with three subscribers, there are three ways of forming a single telephone call, and one additional pattern in which no calls are being made, for a total of four patterns. For this reason, the numbers counting how many patterns are possible are sometimes called the telephone numbers.
Every pattern of pairwise connections between n people defines an involution, a permutation of the people that is its own inverse. In this permutation, each two people who call each other are swapped, and the people not involved in calls remain fixed in place. Conversely, every possible involution has the form of a set of pairwise swaps of this type. Therefore, the telephone numbers also count involutions. The problem of counting involutions was the original combinatorial enumeration problem studied by Rothe in 1800 and these numbers have also been called involution numbers.
In graph theory, a subset of the edges of a graph that touches each vertex at most once is called a matching. Counting the matchings of a given graph is important in chemical graph theory, where the graphs model molecules and the number of matchings is the Hosoya index. The largest possible Hosoya index of an n-vertex graph is given by the complete graphs, for which any pattern of pairwise connections is possible; thus, the Hosoya index of a complete graph on n vertices is the same as the nth telephone number.
A Ferrers diagram is a geometric shape formed by a collection of n squares in the plane, grouped into a polyomino with a horizontal top edge, a vertical left edge, and a single monotonic chain of edges from top right to bottom left. A standard Young tableau is formed by placing the numbers from 1 to n into these squares in such a way that the numbers increase from left to right and from top to bottom throughout the tableau. According to the Robinson–Schensted correspondence, permutations correspond one-for-one with ordered pairs of standard Young tableaux. Inverting a permutation corresponds to swapping the two tableaux, and so the self-inverse permutations correspond to single tableaux, paired with themselves. Thus, the telephone numbers also count the number of Young tableaux with n squares. In representation theory, the Ferrers diagrams correspond to the irreducible representations of the symmetric group of permutations, and the Young tableaux with a given shape form a basis of the irreducible representation with that shape. Therefore, the telephone numbers give the sum of the degrees of the irreducible representations.
In the mathematics of chess, the telephone numbers count the number of ways to place n rooks on an n × n chessboard in such a way that no two rooks attack each other (the so-called eight rooks puzzle), and in such a way that the configuration of the rooks is symmetric under a diagonal reflection of the board. Via the Pólya enumeration theorem, these numbers form one of the key components of a formula for the overall number of "essentially different" configurations of n mutually non-attacking rooks, where two configurations are counted as essentially different if there is no symmetry of the board that takes one into the other.
## Mathematical properties
### Recurrence
The telephone numbers satisfy the recurrence relation $T(n) = T(n-1) + (n-1)T(n-2),$ first published in 1800 by Heinrich August Rothe, by which they may easily be calculated. One way to explain this recurrence is to partition the T(n) connection patterns of the n subscribers to a telephone system into the patterns in which the first person is not calling anyone else, and the patterns in which the first person is making a call. There are T(n − 1) connection patterns in which the first person is disconnected, explaining the first term of the recurrence. If the first person is connected to someone, there are n − 1 choices for that person, and T(n − 2) patterns of connection for the remaining n − 2 people, explaining the second term of the recurrence.
### Summation formula and approximation
The telephone numbers may be expressed exactly as a summation $T(n) = \sum_{k=0}^{\lfloor n/2\rfloor}\binom{n}{2k}(2k-1)!! = \sum_{k=0}^{\lfloor n/2\rfloor}\frac{n!}{2^k (n-2k)! k!}.$ In each term of the first sum, $k$ gives the number of matched pairs, the binomial coefficient $\tbinom{n}{2k}$ counts the number of ways of choosing the $2k$ elements to be matched, and the double factorial $(2k-1)!!=\frac{(2k)!}{2^k\,k!}$ is the product of the odd integers up to its argument and counts the number of ways of completely matching the 2k selected elements. It follows from the summation formula and Stirling's approximation that, asymptotically, $T(n) \sim \left(\frac{n}{e}\right)^{n/2} \frac{e^{\sqrt{n}}}{(4e)^{1/4}}\,.$
### Generating function
The exponential generating function of the telephone numbers is $\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{T(n)x^n}{n!}=\exp\left(\frac{x^2}{2}+x\right).$ In other words, the telephone numbers may be read off as the coefficients of the Taylor series of exp(x<sup>2</sup>/2 + x), and the nth telephone number is the value at zero of the nth derivative of this function. This function is closely related to the exponential generating function of the Hermite polynomials, which are the matching polynomials of the complete graphs. The sum of absolute values of the coefficients of the nth (probabilist's) Hermite polynomial is the nth telephone number, and the telephone numbers can also be realized as certain special values of the Hermite polynomials: $T(n)=\frac{\mathit{He}_n(i)}{i^n}.$
### Prime factors
For large values of n, the nth telephone number is divisible by a large power of two, 2<sup>n/4 + O(1)</sup>. More precisely, the 2-adic order (the number of factors of two in the prime factorization) of T(4k) and of T(4k + 1) is k; for T(4k + 2) it is k + 1, and for T(4k + 3) it is k + 2.
For any prime number p, one can test whether there exists a telephone number divisible by p by computing the recurrence for the sequence of telephone numbers, modulo p, until either reaching zero or detecting a cycle. The primes that divide at least one telephone number are
The odd primes in this sequence have been called inefficient. Each of them divides infinitely many telephone numbers. |
1,225,199 | Henry DeWolf Smyth | 1,170,973,408 | American physicist and diplomat (1898–1986) | [
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| Henry DeWolf "Harry" Smyth (/ˈhɛnri dəˈwʊlf ˈsmaɪθ/; May 1, 1898 – September 11, 1986) was an American physicist, diplomat, and bureaucrat. He played a number of key roles in the early development of nuclear energy, as a participant in the Manhattan Project, a member of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), and U.S. ambassador to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
Educated at Princeton University and the University of Cambridge, he was a faculty member in Princeton's Department of Physics from 1924 to 1966. He chaired the department from 1935 to 1949. His early research was on the ionization of gases, but his interests shifted toward nuclear physics beginning in the mid-1930s.
During World War II he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee's Uranium Committee and a consultant on the Manhattan Project. He wrote the Manhattan Project's first public official history, which came to be known as the Smyth Report.
On the AEC from 1949 to 1954, Smyth initially argued unsuccessfully against a crash course to develop the hydrogen bomb and in favor of international control of nuclear weapons, before switching to support of the weapon. Following the 1954 Oppenheimer security hearing, Smyth was the sole member of the commission to vote against stripping J. Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance. As IAEA ambassador from 1961 to 1970 he played an important role in the realization of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
He received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 and the U.S. State Department's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970. The American Nuclear Society's award for "nuclear statesmanship", of which he was the first recipient, is named in his honor.
## Personal life
Smyth was born May 1, 1898, in Clinton, New York, to Ruth Anne Phelps and Charles Henry Smyth, Jr., a professor of geology at Hamilton College. Woodrow Wilson, then President of Princeton University, convinced Smyth père to join the faculty at Princeton, and in 1905 the family moved to Princeton, New Jersey.
Henry DeWolf Smyth's elder brother, Charles Phelps Smyth, attended the same primary and secondary schools as Henry. The elder brother also received undergraduate and master's degrees from Princeton, but in chemistry. He earned his PhD at Harvard University but like Henry and their father became a faculty member at Princeton. Both brothers served in the Chemical Warfare Service in World War I and on the Manhattan Project.
Henry DeWolf Smyth married Mary de Coningh on June 30, 1936.He was a member of the Democratic Party.
## Education
In Princeton, Smyth attended Miss Fine's School, which later became the Princeton Day School, and the Lawrenceville School. After graduating from Lawrenceville in 1914, he entered Princeton University, where he received a classical education and graduated first in his class in 1918. He was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.
Smyth remained at Princeton to do graduate work; he and Allen Shenstone were the only graduate students in the Department of Physics. Smyth earned a master's degree and PhD in physics from Princeton in 1920 and 1921, respectively, studying under Karl Taylor Compton. The U.S. National Research Council awarded Smyth a fellowship, and he joined the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge. There he studied under Ernest Rutherford and earned a second PhD in 1923. At Cambridge he was affiliated with Caius College and formed a friendship with Pyotr Kapitsa, a Soviet physicist who would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics and work briefly on the Soviet atomic bomb project.
## Early career
During World War I, Smyth worked in the Chemical Warfare Service, and at the Aberdeen Proving Ground. After earning his second PhD, he returned to Princeton for the last year of his NRC fellowship. During his early years on the Princeton faculty he lived in the Graduate College west of the main campus. He was appointed an instructor in 1924, an assistant professor in 1925, an associate professor in 1929, and a full professor in 1936. In 1935 he became chairman of the Department of Physics, a position he held until 1949. During 1931–32 he was a Guggenheim Fellow at the University of Göttingen, where he studied the spectra of triatomic molecules, particularly carbon dioxide, with James Franck.
Smyth's early research was in spectroscopy, focusing on ionization of gases by impact with electrons as a means to study the gases' critical energy levels. He published his first research article, on the radiating potentials of nitrogen gas, in 1919; this became the basis of his first dissertation. In a 1922 article, he described a method for determining the ionization energy of a molecule using anode rays and demonstrated the method on mercury vapor. In the following year he used this same method to study nitrogen. He also published on the ionization of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, nitrogen dioxide, water vapor, sulfur dioxide, and carbon disulfide. As Robert H. Dicke, Val Logsdon Fitch, and Rubby Sherr wrote in 1989, "By 1935 his 30 published papers established him as a leading experimentalist" in the field. In 1929 Kenneth Bainbridge completed his PhD dissertation at Princeton working under Smyth, using anode rays to search for element 87.
In the mid-1930s, Smyth began to shift his interest to nuclear physics, inspired by James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton splitting the atom, and Ernest Lawrence's invention of the cyclotron. Three of his last research articles concerned detection of triatomic hydrogen and helium-3. His appointment as department chair forced him to devote more time to administrative work, at the expense of research. Richard Feynman had achieved an unprecedented perfect score on the Princeton University entrance exams, and applied for admission. While department chair, Smyth questioned his admission, writing to Philip M. Morse to ask: "Is Feynman Jewish? We have no definite rule against Jews but like to keep their proportion in our department reasonably small". Morse conceded that Feynman was indeed Jewish, but reassured Smyth that Feynman's "physiognomy and manner, however, show no trace of this characteristic". As department chair, he had two cyclotrons built at Princeton, one in 1935 and the other in 1946.
He was a member of the subcommittee on physics of the National Research Council from 1928 to 1935. In 1936 Smyth responded to media criticism of basic science research as "useless" by suggesting that seemingly useless research could turn out to be very useful later.
## World War II
During World War II, Smyth was involved in helping the United States build the atomic bomb. From 1941 to 1943 he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC)'s Uranium Committee charged with producing fissile material for the bomb. Smyth proposed the electromagnetic methods that were used to enrich the first large U-235 samples for the project. He also oversaw a nuclear fission-related project for the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD). During 1943–45 he was a consultant to the Manhattan Project, which built and tested the weapon, and associate director of the University of Chicago's Metallurgical Laboratory, which contributed to the Manhattan Project. At the Metallurgical Laboratory he headed research on heavy water. He remained chairman of Princeton's physics department throughout the war, and the attendant obligations forced him to participate less actively in the project's later stages.
In August 1944 General Leslie Groves, director of the Manhattan Project, appointed Smyth to the Postwar Policy Committee, which was charged with proposing government policy for research and development of atomic energy after the war was over. The committee recommended that a national commission modeled on the OSRD fund and oversee continued production and fundamental research in government laboratories, universities, and the private sector.
### Smyth Report
Smyth advocated within the NDRC for a comprehensive report to be released to the public following the weapon's first use. Vannevar Bush, who as civilian director of the OSRD oversaw the NDRC, agreed, and selected Smyth to write the report following the recommendation of NDRC chairman James Bryant Conant. Groves granted Smyth unlimited access, waiving his usual security-minded insistence on compartmentalization. Smyth wrote what became known as the Smyth Report in his office in Princeton's Palmer Laboratory, which later became the Frist Campus Center.
The report was first released to the press on August 12, 1945, days after the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Government Printing Office could not print enough copies to meet demand, so Smyth persuaded the director of the Princeton University Press to print more. By the end of the Press's 1946 fiscal year it had printed 103,000 copies. Smyth held the copyright to the work to prevent others from claiming it, but he permitted widespread reproduction, essentially releasing it into the public domain. He later reported that "my financial balance from the Smyth Report is minus two dollars, the copyright fee."
In the report, Smyth called it "a semi-technical report which it is hoped men of science in this country can use to help their fellow citizens in reaching wise decisions" in the new Atomic Age. At the urging of his superiors, he removed several discussions of the bomb's moral implications and its creators' unease. Rebecca Schwartz argued that Smyth's academic background and his report's security-driven focus on physics at the expense of engineering caused the Smyth Report to promote a public perception of the Manhattan Project as primarily an achievement of physicists.
## Postwar
Following the war, Smyth returned full-time to his duties at Princeton. He continued to chair the Physics Department and was named the Joseph Henry Professor of Physics in 1946. During this time he spoke and wrote regularly about nuclear energy and science policy and worked to expand the physics department.
In early 1949, physicist Robert Bacher stepped down from the Atomic Energy Commission. He and AEC Chairman David Lilienthal wanted a physicist to replace Bacher, and they ultimately recommended Smyth for the position. President Harry Truman nominated Smyth to the AEC later that year, prompting Smyth to resign as Physics Department chairman. (His old colleague Allen Shenstone took up the post.) Smyth was the commission's only scientist. He spent his first weeks in the position attending hearings of the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. Led by Senator Bourke Hickenlooper, the hearings inquired into a small amount of uranium that was alleged to be unaccounted for in AEC labs. Smyth later condemned the hearings as grounded in misconceptions about the work of nuclear scientists.
Following the Soviet Union's successful atomic bomb test in August 1949, the United States was considering a crash course to develop a hydrogen bomb. The AEC's nine-member General Advisory Committee, chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer, recommended unanimously in October 1949 against such a course. Although Smyth did not think that committee's report was well-constructed, he also initially opposed an H-bomb program. In early November he became one of three of the five AEC commissioners to take a stance in opposition. After looking at how the proposed weapon might be used and at what the domestic and international reaction would be to any use, Smyth felt that the H-bomb would be of little utility, and instead favored reopening discussions towards the international control of nuclear weapons.
But by late January 1950, Smyth's position on the question was wavering towards being in favor of moving forward with development. In any case, on January 31, 1950, Truman decided to authorize a hydrogen bomb program. Smyth became a supporter of the weapon, and in February 1950, endorsed a specific program for the future production of H-bombs. In his autobiography, Smyth's Princeton colleague John Archibald Wheeler recalled that Smyth recruited him to the hydrogen bomb project and expressed support for the project in response to the Soviet test. Indeed, by the time of that test Smyth was looking for ways to use a successful thermonuclear explosion's psychological impact to benefit American foreign policy aims. Urged by a journal editor to publish his recollections of the H-bomb decision, Smyth drafted several attempts at an article but eventually abandoned it. Nonetheless, in subsequent years Smyth became defensive about his shift in position on the hydrogen bomb, saying that he had maintained a consistent thought process regarding it and that once his questions about the utility of the weapon had been resolved, his conclusion about the question changed accordingly.
In 1953 Smyth and John A. Hall served as principal advisors to President Dwight Eisenhower in preparing his Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations. The IAEA traces its origins to this speech.
The 1954 Oppenheimer security hearing consisted of a panel considering whether to rescind Oppenheimer's security clearance on suspicion that he was disloyal or a security risk, with the result that the panel decided to do so. Smyth was still the only scientist on the commission. Despite his personal dislike of Oppenheimer and pressure from the commission's new chairman, Lewis Strauss, in confirmation of the panel's decision Smyth was the sole commissioner to vote against stripping Oppenheimer's clearance on June 29, 1954. Smyth's rationale for what McGeorge Bundy has called his "lonely but powerful dissent" was that the evidence against Oppenheimer was weak and even contrived and was easily outweighed by Oppenheimer's contributions to U.S. nuclear weapons efforts. Smyth resigned from the AEC on September 30 of that year out of frustration with Strauss. Eulogizing Oppenheimer in 1967, Smyth said of Oppenheimer's treatment, "Such a wrong can never be righted; such a blot on our history never erased.... We regret that his great work for his country was repaid so shabbily".
Smyth returned to Princeton and served on several high-level administrative committees. This work included advising on the construction of a particle accelerator built jointly with the University of Pennsylvania and overseeing Project Matterhorn, which became the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. He chaired the committee that chose Robert F. Goheen to succeed Harold W. Dodds as President of Princeton. He also served as a consultant on nuclear power to Congress, the AEC, and private industry. He retired from Princeton in 1966.
Smyth was a fellow of the American Physical Society and served as its vice president in 1956 and its president in 1957. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1947 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956. He was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.
## IAEA representative
President John F. Kennedy appointed Smyth as the representative of the United States to the IAEA, a position with the rank of Ambassador. Smyth assumed the position on June 13, 1961, following confirmation by the U.S. Senate. Smyth shared the organization's stated goal of developing nuclear technology for peaceful purposes. He helped develop what Glenn Seaborg later called "an unprecedented atmosphere of rapport" at the IAEA and played a crucial role in the adoption of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1970. He retired from the IAEA on August 31, 1970.
In September 1961, Harlan Cleveland, then Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs, appointed Smyth to chair a committee to review U.S. policy toward the IAEA. The committee's report affirmed the importance of civilian uses of nuclear energy. In 1962 Cleveland again tapped Smyth, this time as an adviser to the State Department on the IAEA. In this position Smyth advocated for a transfer of national nuclear safeguards to the IAEA.
In December 1965, Smyth was elected Chairman of the Board of the Universities Research Association. During Smyth's tenure, the URA signed a contract with the U.S. government to construct and operate the National Accelerator Laboratory, which later became known as Fermilab. Construction began, and research programs were planned. Smyth stepped down as chairman in 1970 but remained on the board. He also served on the board of Associated Universities, Inc., which operated the Brookhaven National Laboratory and National Radio Astronomy Observatory.
Smyth received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 (with Sigvard Eklund and Abdus Salam) and the State Department's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970. In 1972 he became the first recipient of an award for nuclear statesmanship given jointly by the American Nuclear Society and the Nuclear Energy Institute. By 1974, when the award was next given, it had been named the Henry DeWolf Smyth Nuclear Statesman Award.
## Later life and legacy
After retiring from the IAEA, Smyth remained active. On the 40th anniversary of the Trinity test in 1985, he denounced President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative and called for joint arms reductions between the United States and the Soviet Union.
He died September 11, 1986, in Princeton. The immediate cause was cardiac arrest, though he had long battled cancer.
Smyth endowed a chair in the Physics Department in his will. The sitting Henry DeWolf Smyth Professor of Physics is Suzanne Staggs.
The Smyth Report has remained the most significant release of technical details regarding atomic weapons ever made. Smyth was known for having a careful, judicious manner, and viewed less favorably people who he said became too "emotional" during a decision-making process. At Smyth's memorial service, physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi spoke in praise of Smyth's dissent in the Oppenheimer security hearings, saying that "one thinks of a supreme moment in a person's life when he stood against odds and did the right thing. That was Harry Smyth's fortune and Harry Smyth's greatness". |
14,035,261 | Syrgiannes Palaiologos | 1,162,862,848 | Cuman origin Byzantine general and governor | [
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| Syrgiannes Palaiologos Philanthropenos (Greek: Συργιάννης Παλαιολόγος Φιλανθρωπηνός; c. 1290 – 1334) was a Byzantine aristocrat and general of mixed Cuman and Greek descent, who was involved in the civil war between Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) and his grandson Andronikos III (r. 1328–1341). Loyal only to himself and his own ambitions, he switched sides several times, and ended up conquering much of Macedonia for the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan (r. 1331–1346) before being assassinated by the Byzantines.
## Biography
### Family origins and early career
Syrgiannes was born about 1290. He was named after whose name was Syrgiannes, the Cuman leader (who has the same baptismal name) his father or possibly grandfather, a Cuman leader who became megas domestikos (commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army) under Emperor Andronikos II. At that time, against the Macedonia, Thrace regions and the Turkmens and Mongols invasions in Anatolia, During the reign of John III Doukas Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254) a large number of Cumans settled in Western Anatolia, Macedonia and Thrace. Son of one of the Cuman chieftains, The elder Syrgiannes's original name was Sytzigan (from Cuman-Turkic Sïčğan, "mouse"); it was name changed to Syrgiannes ("master John") when he was baptized, The existence of his descendants in the Byzantine Empire continued for about 100 years. The younger Syrgiannes's mother was Eugenia Palaiologina, a member of the ruling Palaiologos family and niece of Emperor Michael VIII (r. 1259–1282). Conscious of the prestige of his mother's family name, young Syrgiannes chose to use that in order to advance himself in the imperial hierarchy. Syrgiannes also had a sister, Theodora, who married Guy de Lusignan, later King of Armenian Cilicia as Constantine II. Syrgiannes makes his appearance in history in 1315, when he was placed as military governor of a Macedonian province near the Serbian border. Despite the existing treaties, and against his instructions, he resolved to attack both Serbia and Epirus. Relieved of his post, he rebelled, was captured and imprisoned. Sometime before 1320, however, he was eventually pardoned and appointed to a command in Thrace.
### Support of Andronikos III
In 1320, following the death of Michael IX Palaiologos (eldest son of Andronikos II and co-emperor from 1295 on), his son Andronikos III was crowned as co-emperor by Andronikos II. Although initially popular with his grandfather, the younger Andronikos and his entourage of young nobles, to which Syrgiannes belonged, had by that time caused the elder emperor's displeasure by their extravagance. Their excesses culminated in the mistaken-identity murder of the young emperor's younger brother, Manuel; enraged, the elder Andronikos annulled his grandson's titles, and a deep personal rift was opened between the two.
At that time, Syrgiannes and John Kantakouzenos bought for themselves governorships in Thrace, where discontent with the old emperor was rife, and they quickly mobilized support for the younger Andronikos. Together with Alexios Apokaukos and Theodore Synadenos, they prepared to overthrow the aged Andronikos II in favour of his grandson. In Easter 1321, the younger Andronikos came to Adrianople, and the uprising broke out. Syrgiannes led a large army towards the capital, forcing the old emperor to negotiate. Consequently, on 6 June 1321, an agreement was reached which partitioned the empire. Young Andronikos III was recognized as co-emperor and given Thrace to govern as a quasi-appanage, setting up his court at Adrianople, while Andronikos II continued to rule from the capital, Constantinople, as senior emperor.
Syrgiannes was dissatisfied with the new arrangements, feeling that he had not been sufficiently rewarded for his support of Andronikos III. He also resented the greater favour shown by the young emperor to Kantakouzenos, and developed a fierce rivalry with the latter. Furthermore, chroniclers also report a story whereby Andronikos III attempted to seduce Syrgiannes's wife. In December 1321, Syrgiannes switched sides, fleeing to Constantinople. Rewarded with the lofty title of megas doux, he convinced Andronikos II to resume the war against his grandson. In July 1322, however, another agreement was reached between the two Andronikoi, which left Syrgiannes in an awkward position. His own schemes having failed, he began plotting to murder the aged Andronikos II and seize the throne for himself. The plot was foiled, however, and Syrgiannes was sentenced to life imprisonment.
### Governorship in Macedonia, defection to the Serbs and death
In 1328, Andronikos III finally overthrew his grandfather and established himself as sole emperor. Syrgiannes was freed, and was able to restore himself to Andronikos's favour, to the extent that in late 1329 he was entrusted with the important governorship of Thessalonica, the Empire's second-largest city, and of western Macedonia and Albania. There, he was again suspected of plotting against Kantakouzenos, this time with the emperor's mother, Empress Maria. She lived in Thessalonica, and was supposed to keep an eye on Syrgiannes; instead, she became so infatuated with him that she had him adopted. Following the death of the Empress in late 1333, the plot was uncovered and Syrgiannes was arrested and brought to Constantinople to face charges of treason. Syrgiannes, however, managed to escape and flee to the court of the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan.
Dušan put Syrgiannes at the head of a large Serbian force, with which he invaded Byzantine Macedonia in 1334. Syrgiannes's abilities as a general, his knowledge of the Byzantine army's dispositions and the friendships he had maintained with several local Byzantine officers resulted in the swift capture of many important Byzantine cities, including Ohrid, Prilep, Strumica, and Kastoria. The road was open for an advance towards Thessalonica, and Syrgiannes's army encamped before the walls of the city, facing a Byzantine relief force. Both sides remained encamped confronting each other for several days, but on 23 August 1334, Syrgiannes was lured away from his camp with only a few retainers and murdered by Sphrantzes Palaiologos, a Byzantine general who had defected on purpose to the Serbian camp a few days earlier. With the loss of their principal military leader, the Serbs settled for a negotiated peace with the Byzantines, which was very advantageous for them as they were left in possession of most of the cities won by Syrgiannes in northern Macedonia.
## Appraisal
Syrgiannes's ambition, inveterate plotting, and multiple betrayals made him one of the darkest figures of the era in the eyes of both contemporary and later historians: the 14th-century historian Nikephoros Gregoras compared his flight to Serbia with Themistocles's flight to the Persians, while Donald Nicol likened him to Alcibiades and Angeliki Laiou called him "the most evil presence" of the civil war. |
47,527,048 | Lion Heart (album) | 1,157,246,790 | null | [
"2015 albums",
"Girls' Generation albums",
"Korean-language albums",
"SM Entertainment albums"
]
| Lion Heart is the fifth Korean studio album and the eighth overall by South Korean girl group Girls' Generation. Produced by Lee Soo-man, Lion Heart musically encompasses styles of electropop and bubblegum pop. It was released in two parts throughout August 18 and August 19, 2015, by S.M. Entertainment; another version with a different cover titled You Think was distributed on August 26, 2015. This is the group's first Korean studio album without former member Jessica who was removed from the group on September 30, 2014.
The album spawned three singles. Its lead single, "Party", was released on July 7, 2015, and peaked atop the Gaon Digital Chart, further reaching number ten on the Japan Hot 100. It was followed up by "Lion Heart" and "You Think" in August 2015, charting at number four and thirty on the Gaon Digital Chart, respectively. In order to promote the record, Girls' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs, such as Music Bank, Show! Music Core, and Inkigayo, where they performed material from the album. The group additionally embarked on a concert tour named Girls' Generation's Phantasia, which commenced on November 21, 2015, in Seoul and visited East and Southeast Asia.
## Background and composition
According to Slant Magazine's Anzhe Zhang, Lion Heart consists of primarily bubblegum pop songs. Echoing Zhang's viewpoint, Chester Chin from Malaysian newspaper The Star wrote that the album was a collection of bubblegum pop tracks. The record's opening track, "Lion Heart", is a soul pop-influenced bubblegum pop song which embraces a retro-styled sound while being instrumented by basslines and brass. "Party" was detailed as an electropop song that is backed up by guitars, synthesizers and Auto-Tune. Aside from the signature sound, Lion Heart also encompasses several other genres; "You Think" was characterized as an electropop and hip hop recording featuring trap beats and horns in its composition. "One Afternoon" draws influence from bossa nova and incorporates Spanish guitars, while "Show Girls" portrays an electropop song originally recorded in Japanese for the group's 2014 greatest hits album, The Best. "Check" is a mild R&B track, and "Sign" was described as a dark synthpop song. "Bump It" is a hybrid of various genres that incorporates hi-hat beats.
## Release and promotion
On June 30, 2015, the group released music video previews of three then-forthcoming singles "Party", "Lion Heart" and "You Think", serving as a promotional tool for their first Korean language studio album as an eight-member group. Details on album, including its title, release date, cover artwork and track list, were announced on August 12, 2015. The group's label, S.M. Entertainment, revealed that the record would be released in the span of two days. The first six songs—including the single "Lion Heart"—would be made available on August 18, while the remaining tracks—including the single "You Think"—would be distributed on the following day; Billboard described the release strategy as "atypical." An alternative edition of the album featuring a different artwork was additionally released on August 26, 2015, under the title You Think.
Following the release of the record, Girls' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs, including KBS's Music Bank, MBC's Show! Music Core, and SBS' Inkigayo, in order to promote the record, with them performing "Lion Heart" and "You Think". Throughout August 18–25, the group also participated and interacted with viewers through a series of mobile video live stream on Naver's mobile application "V". Subsequently, the group additionally embarked on a concert tour titled Girls' Generation's Phantasia, which kicked off on November 21, 2015, at the Olympic Gymnastics Arena in Seoul, and continued in visiting Japan, Thailand, Indonesia and Taiwan.
"Party" was made available as the lead single from Lion Heart for digital purchase by S.M. Entertainment on July 7, 2015. The physical CD single was made available for purchase on July 8, 2015. An accompanying music video for the recording was released in conjunction with the release of the single. Commercially, "Party" debuted atop the Gaon Digital Chart on the chart issue dated July 11, 2015, selling 256,390 digital units within its first week of availability, bringing total sales to over 843,843 digital units in South Korea as of December 2015, thus becoming the 58th best-selling single of 2015. "Party" additionally peaked at number ten on the Japan Hot 100 and number four on the Billboard World Digital Songs. The title track was serviced as the album's second single, and its music video premiered on August 18, 2015. Subsequently, "You Think" served as the third and final single, being accompanied by a visual which was released the day following "Lion Heart"'s availability. The title track was added to Korean Broadcasting System's "K-Pop Connection" radio playlist on August 21, while "You Think" impacted KBS radio on August 23. Both songs charted on the Gaon Digital Chart, peaking at numbers four and 30, respectively.
## Critical reception
Upon its release, Lion Heart garnered mixed reviews from music critics. Slant Magazine's Anzhe Zhang wrote that the album was released to "quash" the suspicions that Girls' Generation was declining after the departure of member Jessica in September 2014. However, she added, "while [the album]'s great for omnivorous die-hard fans, it ultimately feels a little more than scatter-brained." Chester Chin, penning for Malaysian newspaper The Star, praised the release of singles "Party", "Lion Heart" and "You Think" as "a promising start." Nevertheless, he disapproved of the rest of the album, dubbing it a "relatively tame offering" for "[traversing] way too quickly into filler territory" and criticizing the songs "Green Light" and "Paradise" for being too "generic." Kim Do-heon from South Korean online magazine IZM was slightly more positive towards the album, calling it "elegant", and appreciating the record's musical styles even though he felt that it was a decline compared to the group's previous albums as a nine-piece group.
Lion Heart experienced commercial acclaim in South Korea. It debuted atop the Gaon Album Chart on the chart issue dated August 22, 2015, and remained on the top spot for a further week. Two weeks after its debut chart appearance, it dropped 35 positions, charting at number 36. Lion Heart was the best-selling album of August 2015 in South Korea, selling 131,228 physical copies, while overall being the 13th most-sold album of 2015 in that country with total sales of 145,044 units. Lion Heart additionally charted at number 11 on the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart on the chart issue dated August 31, 2015, while peaking atop the Billboard World Albums chart and becoming the group's second number one following their 2013 album, I Got a Boy.
## Track listing
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lion Heart.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lion Heart.
- S.M. Entertainment Co., Ltd. – executive producer
- Lee Soo-man – producer
- Nam So-young – director of management
- Jeong Chang-hwan – director of media planning
- Lee Seong-soo – A&R director and coordinator
- Yoo Je-ni – A&R director and coordinator
- Park Hae-in – A&R director and coordinator
- Jo Min-kyeong – international A&R
- Lee Seo-kyeong – international A&R
- Jeong Hyo-won – publishing and copyright clearance
- Kim Min-kyeong – publishing and copyright clearance
- Oh Jeong-eun – publishing and copyright clearance
- Park Mi-ji – publishing and copyright clearance
- Kim Cheol-soon – recording engineer
- Jeong Ui-seok – recording engineer
- Jeong Eun-kyeong – recording engineer
- Kim Eun-cheol – recording engineer
- Lee Ji-hong – recording engineer
- Oh Seong-keun – recording engineer
- Baek Kyeong-hoon – recording engineer assistant
- Nam Koong-jin (SM Concert Hall Studio) – mixing engineer
- Koo Jong-pil (Beat Burger) (SM Yellow Tail Studio) – mixing engineer
- Kim Cheol-soon (SM Blue Ocean Studio) – mixing engineer
- Jeong Ui-seok (SM Blue Cup Studio) – mixing engineer
- Miles Walker (Silent Sound Studios, Atlanta) – mixing engineer
- Tom Coyne (Sterling Sound) – master engineer
- Tak Young-joon – artist management and promotions
- Choi Seong-woo – artist management and promotions
- Kim Ho-jin – artist management and promotions
- Kim Yong-deok – artist management and promotions
- Park Seong-joon – artist management and promotions
- Park Ki-mok – artist management and promotions
- Son Seung-woo – artist management and promotions
- Kim Yong-ha – artist management and promotions
- Kang Mi-joo – artist management and promotions
- Lee Seong-soo – artist planning and development
- Yoon Hee-joon – artist planning and development
- Jo Yoo-eun – artist planning and development
- Kim Eun-a – public relations and publicity
- Jeong Sang-hee – public relations and publicity
- Lee Ji-seon – public relations and publicity
- Kwon Jeong-hwa – public relations and publicity
- Lee Ji-hyeon – public relations and publicity
- Kim Min-seong – media planner
- Bok Min-kwon – media planner
- Jeong Kyeong-shik – media planner
- Tak Young-joon – choreography director
- Hong Seong-yong – choreography director
- Jae Sim (Beat Burger) – choreography director
- Greg Hwang (Beat Burger) – choreography director
- Tony Testa – choreographer
- Kyle Hanagami – choreographer
- Jae Sim (Beat Burger) – choreographer
- Kevin Maher – choreographer
- J.eun – choreographer
- Jeong Jin-seok (Nana School) – choreographer
- Choi Jeong-min – international marketing
- Eom Hye-young – customer relationship management
- Park Joon-young – music video direction
- Son Young – music video direction
- Jeon Seong-jin – music video direction
- Hong Won-ki – music video director
- Ian Henry – music video director
- Lee Gi-baek – music video director
- Jo Woo-cheol – art direction and design
- Ji-young – hair stylist
- Woo-joo – hair stylist
- Seo Soo-kyeong – stylist
- Seo Soo-myeong – stylist
- Lee Bo-ra – stylist
- Park Soo-kyeong – stylist
- Ryu Ji-hye – stylist
- Kim Soo-bin – stylist
- Seo Ok – make-up artist
- Jo Joo-young – make-up artist
- Han Jong-cheol – photographer
- Lee Young-hak – photographer
- Kim Yong-min – executive supervisor
- Girls' Generation – vocals
- Taeyeon – vocals
- Sunny – vocals
- Tiffany – vocals
- Hyoyeon – vocals
- Yuri – vocals
- Sooyoung – vocals
- Yoona – vocals
- Seohyun – vocals
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Monthly chart
### Year-end chart
## Release history |
1,498,864 | Clark Street station | 1,169,674,660 | New York City Subway station in Brooklyn | [
"Brooklyn Heights",
"IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line stations",
"New York City Subway stations in Brooklyn",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1919"
]
| The Clark Street station (originally the Brooklyn Heights station) is a station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. It is located at Clark Street and Henry Street in Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn. It is served by the 2 train at all times and the 3 train at all times except late nights. At approximately 80 feet (24 m) deep, the Clark Street station contains one island platform and two tracks. Its only exit is via a set of three elevators, which lead from a passageway above the platform to the ground story of the Hotel St. George. Despite being one of three New York City Subway stations that can only be accessed by elevators, the Clark Street station is not wheelchair-accessible with only stairs leading to the platforms.
The Clark Street station was built for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) as part of the Clark Street Tunnel, which in turn was built as part of the Dual Contracts. It opened on April 15, 1919, and initially had two elevators; a third elevator was installed in 1931. Two of the elevators were replaced in 1962, and the station received a major renovation in the 1980s. Due to repeated breakdowns of the elevators, further replacements took place in 2000 and between 2021 and 2022, requiring the full closure of the Clark Street station.
## History
### Construction and opening
The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) opened its first subway line in 1904; the line was extended from Manhattan to Downtown Brooklyn in 1908 with the opening of the Joralemon Street Tunnel. Residents of Brooklyn Heights, a largely residential neighborhood near Downtown Brooklyn, expressed concerns in 1909 that there was no subway station within Brooklyn Heights, even though the line had an emergency exit at Joralemon and Hicks Streets in the center of the neighborhood. After the first line opened, the city began planning new lines. In April 1912, the New York Public Service Commission gave the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT) the right to operate the proposed Clark Street Tunnel under the East River, between Old Slip in Lower Manhattan and Clark Street in Downtown Brooklyn, with a stop along Clark Street. The next month, the Old Slip–Clark Street route was assigned to the IRT instead; the plans called for a station at Clark Street. As part of the Dual Contracts between the government of New York City, the BRT, and the IRT, which were signed in 1913, the Clark Street Tunnel was assigned to the IRT, becoming the Brooklyn branch of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, which diverged from the original subway south of Times Square.
The Clark Street Tunnel consisted of a pair of 5,900-foot-long (1,800 m) tubes, with a station at the eastern end of the tubes. This station, the line's first stop in Brooklyn, was to be at Clark and Henry Streets. As early as November 1913, the Public Service Commission had determined that the Brooklyn Heights station would be a deep-level station that would be solely or primarily accessed by elevators. Booth & Flinn Ltd. and the O'Rourke Engineering Construction Company received a \$6.47 million contract in July 1914 to build a tunnel between Old Slip in Manhattan and Clark Street in Brooklyn. Construction of the tunnel began on October 12, 1914, and both tubes were holed through in December 1916. The station was named the Brooklyn Heights station in 1917. By January 1919, the tracks had been completed, but signals and station finishes were still being installed. Because the station was 80 feet (24 m) deep, it could only be accessed by elevators from the lobby of the Hotel St. George. The tube was largely finished by March, and the IRT decided to push forward the tunnel's opening after learning that BRT workers might go on strike.
On April 15, 1919, the Clark Street Tunnel opened, and this station opened with it, extending West Side Line express trains from Wall Street on the other side of the East River to Atlantic Avenue via a new connection at Borough Hall. The connection doubled the number of IRT trains that could travel between Manhattan and Brooklyn, and it eased congestion in the Joralemon Street Tunnel, the only other tunnel carrying IRT trains between the two boroughs. Direct express service to Times Square was provided to the inhabitants of Brooklyn for the first time as a result (trains through the Joralemon Street Tunnel made express stops in Manhattan, skipping Times Square). Soon after the station opened, the Public Service Commission began planning to install an escalator there, as passengers had to climb 71 steps to exit the station; the escalator was not built.
### Post-opening
#### 1920s to 1960s
After Brooklyn Heights residents complained that sailors were using the Clark Street station at night to travel to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, Rear Admiral Charles Peshall Plunkett of the United States Navy stationed guards outside the station in 1924 to prevent sailors from using it from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. to reduce overcrowding. The station's existing elevators had reached capacity by 1930. This prompted the New York State Transit Commission to mandate on April 30, 1930, that the IRT install a third elevator at the station, using an existing elevator shaft. The commission approved a \$41,300 contract for the installation of an elevator in December 1930. This elevator went into service on November 25, 1931. Additionally, the IRT had installed silencing devices on the station's turnstiles by early 1931. The city government took over the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940.
As part of a modernization program for the New York City Subway system, the New York City Board of Transportation provided funding for the lengthening of the Clark Street station's platform during the 1950 fiscal year. The New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) announced plans in 1956 to add fluorescent lights above the edges of the station's platforms, which were installed the next year.
The station's first automatic elevator was installed in April 1962; it ran automatically during middays and evenings and was staffed by an operator at other times. Afterward, the NYCTA converted a second manual elevator to automatic operation. This prompted concerns from riders who said the automatic elevators might attract muggers. During the 1964–1965 fiscal year, the platforms at Clark Street, along with those at four other stations on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, were lengthened to 525 feet (160 m) to accommodate a ten-car train of 51-foot (16 m) IRT cars. The work at Clark Street was performed by the Arthur A. Johnson Corporation.
#### 1970s to 1990s
Local residents began raising concerns about the unreliability of the station's elevators in the early 1970s. The subway system's operator, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), allocated funding for the replacement of the station's only remaining manual elevator in 1975 as part of the MTA's six-year capital plan. Developer Martin J. Raynes began converting part of the Hotel St. George, above the station, to an apartment building in 1978. As part of the project, mayor Ed Koch announced that the developer had agreed to renovate the hotel's subway entrance. On January 3, 1980, work began on a \$225,000 project to renovate the arcade entrance to the station through the St. George Hotel. As part of the project, storefront repairs would be made, and new flooring and doors would be installed.
The station was selected for a renovation in 1979, and design work was completed in early 1982, after the Municipal Arts Society had taken over management of the design work in 1980. The MTA had listed the station among the 69 most deteriorated stations in the subway system in 1981. A renovation of the station, conducted as part of the MTA's Adopt-A-Station Program, was unveiled on February 9, 1983. The \$260,000 cost was roughly evenly split between public and private agencies, with \$120,000 coming from St. George Tower Developers. Neighborhood maps were added to the station as part of the project. Further renovations of the Clark Street station were funded as part of the MTA's 1980–1984 capital plan. The MTA received a \$106 million grant from the Urban Mass Transit Administration in October 1983; most of the grant would fund the renovation of eleven stations, including Clark Street.
A further renovation during the mid-1980s involved refinishing the platform, installing new lights and new signs, repainting the station, and adding artwork. The project was budgeted at \$1.25 million and was to begin in January 1984, but it quickly experienced delays and budget overruns, in part due to issues with the contractor. The MTA fired the original construction contractor, Standard Construction Services, in October 1985. At the time, the project was only 25 percent complete; tiles on the floors and walls had been removed, and part of the passageway connecting the platform to the elevators had been closed off, causing severe congestion during rush hours. The MTA hired a new contractor. The passageway was partitioned off for over two years while new tiles were installed on the walls; work was complicated by the fact that some of the tiles had been stolen. The renovation was also delayed because of poor communication: in one case, contractors installed a public-address system on a beam that was intended to contain new lighting. The project was completed in May 1987, and an artwork by Ray Ring was dedicated at the station in April 1988.
The Clark Street station's elevators had deteriorated by the 1990s, and residents described the station as dirty, unmaintained, and technologically obsolete. In 1990, Newsday reported that the emergency bell for the elevators were installed outside the token booth, meaning that token booth clerks could not hear when there was an issue. The same year, snowfall on a third rail caused an electrical fire in a tunnel near the Clark Street station, killing two people and injuring 149 others; it was the subway's worst-ever fire at the time. The severity of the fire was exacerbated by the fact that ventilation fans near the station were not working. The MTA had ordered four replacement fans in 1977 but did not install them until after the fire. The new fans had to be modified, as they required too much electricity and could not turn on. Another electrical fire occurred in an elevator room in 1992, although no one was injured in that incident. Newsday, in 1992, reported that one of the station's elevators had recorded 24 outages in six months and was non-functional for nearly a quarter of that time.
#### 2000s to present
By early 2000, one of the station's elevators was so unreliable that it only operated during the morning peak. The other two elevators were supposed to run 24 hours a day, but one of the elevators was only operational 82 percent of the time, while the other was operational 94 percent of the time. That January, the MTA announced that it would close the Clark Street station for four months to repair the elevators, which dated from 1962. The project was estimated to cost \$2 million. Although many merchants and residents opposed a full shutdown, the MTA estimated that it would be able to accelerate the work by closing the station completely. The agency estimated that, if the elevators were repaired one at a time, the work could take up to two years. The station closed temporarily in April 2000; although the storefronts near the fare-control area remained open, their operators reported steep declines in business. To encourage the contractor to complete the renovation on time, the MTA charged the contractor \$15,000 for every day that the project was delayed. The project cost \$3.5 million and was completed in August 2000, but riders reported that the elevators still sometimes broke down after the renovation.
The elevators were repaired again in 2007. Transit Wireless installed Wi-Fi and cellular equipment at the Clark Street station in January 2017, making it the last underground station in the New York City Subway system to receive Wi-Fi and cell service. From June 16, 2017, to June 24, 2018, there was no weekend service at the Clark Street and Hoyt Street stations while the Clark Street Tunnel was out of service to repair damage from Hurricane Sandy and to fortify it for future storms.
After several passengers were trapped in an elevator in late 2018, residents and officials, including Brooklyn borough president Eric Adams, asked the MTA to replace the station's elevators again. The MTA announced in 2019 that the elevators would need to be replaced again the next year. At the time, one of the station's three elevators was the fourth-least-reliable subway elevator in Brooklyn, out of 54 total. The MTA estimated that repairs might take eight months to three years depending on whether the station is fully closed or remains open. In September 2021, the MTA announced that the station would be closed for several months for elevator replacement and structural repairs. The station was closed on November 3, 2021, and reopened on May 5, 2022. In spite of the renovation, local news website The City found that the elevators broke down dozens of times from May to December 2022, trapping passengers on several occasions.
## Station layout
Clark Street is geographically the westernmost station in Brooklyn on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. It has one island platform and two tracks. The 2 stops here at all times, while the 3 train stops at all times except late nights. The station is between Wall Street in Manhattan to the north and Borough Hall to the south.
On the walls adjacent to the tracks are mosaics of sailing ships and docks, a reference to the maritime activity of New York Harbor. The walls also contain large name panels reading Clark Street–Brooklyn Heights. Due to the deep-bore tunneling used to construct this part of the line, the station's walls are rounded.
The center of the platform has two staircases, which ascend to a passageway on a lower mezzanine level immediately above the platform. This passageway is about 69 feet (21 m) below street level. The floor of the passageway contains a 1987 artwork titled Clark Street Passage by Ray Ring. The artwork consists of red circles, yellow triangles, and gray-white squares in various configurations, placed on a background of black tiles. According to MTA Arts & Design, the differing placements of the shapes were intended to "create a flowing sense of movement" for passengers who looked at the shapes while walking along the corridor.
### Exit
The Clark Street station is one of only three stations in the subway system that can be accessed solely by elevators; the other two—168th Street and 181st Street—are also on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, albeit in Upper Manhattan. Three elevators ascend from the lower-mezzanine passageway to a fare control area on the ground floor of the Hotel St. George. Each elevator fits approximately 48 people. The fare control area contains a small arcade with businesses and two doorways to the street. A rarely-used emergency stairwell, between elevators 1 and 2, ascends 80 feet (24 m) from the passageway to fare control. This stairway is about 3 feet (0.91 m) wide. Nearby points of interest include Cadman Plaza Park two blocks east, the New York State Supreme Court, Appellate Division, Second Department two blocks south, and the Brooklyn Heights Promenade three blocks west.
The station is not fully ADA-accessible, since no elevators or ramps lead from the passageway to the platform. A study by Stantec found that it was infeasible to make the station ADA-accessible by extending the lower mezzanine passageway, replacing one of the staircases between the passageway and the platform, and adding another staircase elsewhere. The passageway could not be extended because the tracks would need to be closed, and excavations for the passageway could compromise the structural integrity of the cavern. Additionally, the side walls of the passageway could not be modified because it was a truss bridge.
The developers of Brooklyn Bridge Park, along the East River shoreline, proposed constructing an entrance from the park to the station in 2000. The plan was scrapped in 2007 after a study of traffic patterns found that it would cost between \$30 million and \$50 million to build a four-block passageway to the park. In 2008, Brooklyn Community Board 6 studied the possibility of creating an exit to the park. The exit would have consisted of a tunnel connection measuring 1,135 feet (346 m) from the east side of Furman Street to the center of the existing mezzanine passageway. Construction of this passageway would have required expensive major structural support for the Brooklyn Queens Expressway cantilever overhead. With an overall estimated cost of \$226 million, excluding the cost of acquiring the right-of-way for the tunnel, it was deemed economically infeasible. |
10,470,819 | Bill Roe (cricketer) | 1,156,701,257 | English cricketer (1861–1937) | [
"1861 births",
"1937 deaths",
"Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge",
"Cambridge University cricketers",
"Cricketers from Somerset",
"English cricketers",
"Oxford and Cambridge Universities cricketers",
"People from South Somerset (district)",
"Somerset cricketers"
]
| William Nichols Roe (21 March 1861 – 11 October 1937) was an English first-class cricketer who played for Somerset County Cricket Club and Cambridge University in the late 19th century. A right-handed batsman who could play aggressively, but with a sound defensive method, Roe was considered one of Somerset's leading batsmen of the era. He played without merit for Cambridge, and only achieved his Blue during his final year at the university.
Roe gained cricketing fame in the summer of 1881, when he was drafted into the Emmanuel College Long Vacation Club cricket team for their match against a similar team from Gonville and Caius. After Caius had scored 100 runs, Roe batted for the rest of the game to reach 415 runs, the highest score in cricket at the time, just passing the previous total of 404 by Edward Tylecote. The match was reported across the contemporary press, though it was stressed that the quality of the opposition bowling was weak. Roe's first-class career never reached the heights it might have done; he was generally an inconsistent scorer, and scored just four hundreds in first-class cricket. His struggles were mirrored by his county side, Somerset, who flitted between first- and second-class cricket during his career. He played for the county from 1879 until 1899, and scored 2,690 runs in all first-class matches.
## Life and education career
William Nichols Roe was born on 21 March 1861 in Closworth, near Yeovil, in south Somerset. He attended the Clergy Orphan School in Canterbury before being admitted to Magdalene College, Cambridge in 1879. He graduated from Cambridge with a BA in 1883, and took a position as an schoolmaster at Elstree School, in Hertfordshire, from 1883 to 1900. He left Elstree in 1901 to set up Stanmore Park preparatory school with former England Test cricketer Vernon Royle. In 1892 he married Zoe Susanna Charlotte Jennings Crew Crew, and the pair had a son, also named William Nichols Roe, in 1898. Roe (senior) died on 11 October 1937, aged 76, in a nursing home in Marylebone, London following an operation.
## Cricket career
### Early cricket
Roe had been a dominant cricketer during his time at school; in three years at the Clergy Orphan School, he took 292 wickets at a bowling average of eight, scored over 1,000 runs in 1878, and took all ten wickets in an innings against Chartham Asylum during his final year. In 1879, before going up to Cambridge University, Roe played four times for Somerset County Cricket Club. By his own recollections, he recounts his first experience of county cricket as being bowled by W. G. Grace "neck and crop".
In two trial matches for the Cambridge University Cricket Club, Roe impressed a little; in the freshman's match he was dismissed twice for single figure scores, and was little used as a bowler. In the trial match between the first team and the "next fifteen", he once again struggled in the first innings, but improved in the second, scoring 44 runs. He made his first-class cricket debut a few days after the second of those matches, appearing for the university side against an England XI. The university fared badly in the match, with no batsman reaching double figures in the first innings, and only four managing it in the second. Roe was dismissed for four and two, and did not play for the university again that year.
### Highest score in cricket
In the second half of the 19th century, high scores in cricket matches were becoming more common as pitches improved, and in the summer of 1880, Roe gave a prelude to his record breaking of the following year when he hit 223 in a one-day match against his former school. In competitive, albeit second-class, county cricket, his scores remained significantly lower. Nor did he impress in the trial matches at Cambridge in his second year, resulting in him not appearing for the university that season.
In 1868, Edward Tylecote had become the first batsman to score a quadruple century (400 runs) in cricket, when he accumulated 404 not out in an internal match at Clifton College. W. G. Grace had got close to the total in 1876, but ran out of batting partners to finish on 400 not out. In the summer of 1881, Roe achieved his fame, by surpassing them both. In an intercollegiate match between the "long vacation clubs" of Gonville and Caius and Emmanuel, Roe was called upon as a guest player for Emmanuel, who had only managed to find nine players. Caius batted first, and were dismissed for 100 runs exactly, Roe taking half of their wickets and Charles Allcock the other half. Roe and Allcock then proceeded to open the batting for Emmanuel, finishing the day on 157 without the loss of either batsman. The next afternoon Roe reached his century early, and then after scoring 200 runs he could have been out three times, but each chance was missed. Against bowling described in the contemporary press as weak, he batted through the rest of the day to finish on 415 not out. The game was played on a ground with no boundaries, so he had to run each of his team's 708 runs, a distance of nearly eight miles. In all, he scored 1 six, 6 fives, 16 fours, 48 threes, 52 twos and 67 ones, but so fastidious was Roe, that when he came off the field at the close of play, he challenged the scorer for crediting him one run short; Roe had counted 416 runs. Roe's record was beaten by James Stewart Carrick in 1885, when the latter scored 419 not out for the West of Scotland against Priory Park, Chichester.
### University and county cricketer
In Haygarth's Cricket Scores and Biographies, Roe is described as a "fine, free hitter with excellent defence", who could also "bowl a very useful medium-paced ball". He got more of a go at Cambridge during his third year, playing five matches for the university side in 1882. Roe, who was known for his cricket tales, related a tale from one match that season in which the weather was so cold that catches were difficult to take. George Nash, the Lancashire professional, was missed off every ball of an over from Robert Ramsay. "C. T. Studd bowled the next ball, and a catch came to me at mid-off, the crowd began to boo, and I felt certain I should not make the catch, but by great good fortune the ball stuck!" Roe did not excel with bat or ball in any of his five university matches, and was not selected for the match against Oxford University at the end of the season. In his final year at Cambridge, Roe played seven times for the university, and achieved his Blue—the awarding of the Cambridge "colours" to sportsmen—by appearing in the University match against Oxford. He was out without scoring any runs in his only innings of the match, which Cambridge won by seven wickets. In all, during his time at Cambridge, Roe played 13 first-class matches for the university, scoring 246 runs at an average of 11.18, with just one score greater than 50. He also took ten wickets at 15.60.
Roe was rated as being one of Somerset better batsmen in their early years of first-class cricket, but his form in club cricket did not translate into good performances for the county. Between 1881 and 1882, Roe scored thirteen centuries, but none of those came in county cricket. In fact, it was not until 1884 that he made his first hundred in first-class cricket, scoring 132 against Hampshire. His work as a schoolmaster limited his availability for Somerset, and he only played three first-class matches for them in each of 1884 and 1885. After the 1885 season, Somerset were stripped of their first-class status for three reasons: they had not organised and played enough first-class fixtures during the season, their performances were not what was expected from a first-class county, and they had not succeeded in fielding a full side of eleven players in all their matches.
In 1886, Roe was only available for two of Somerset's matches, but the following year, he was one of the team's leading batsmen. He scored three fifties, and accumulated 272 runs in all for the county, second only to the club captain, Ted Sainsbury. He was less effective in 1888, averaging just 13 runs with a top-score of 27. Despite this, he was elected captain at the club's annual general meeting. Sainsbury, though a good cricketer, was unpopular with the club's committee as he did not live near to Taunton. Herbie Hewett was first proposed, but he declined to take the position. Roe was then elected unanimously to the position, with Hewett as his vice-captain. The club chairman noting that "considering what Mr Roe had done for the club his appointment would be a well-deserved compliment." Despite this, the 1889 season summaries refer to Hewett as being the captain, and at the annual meeting that year, it was noted that Hewett was re-elected as captain. Whether he was captain or not, Roe had a poor season. He played four of Somerset's eight matches, averaging 6.1 runs. Indeed, half his 43 runs that season came in one innings, when he scored 27. After the close of Somerset's formal county fixtures, Roe found some form, hitting 83 runs against the Gentlemen of Wiltshire, and 104 against the Gentlemen of Devon.
Somerset had an extraordinary season in 1890, going unbeaten in their thirteen fixtures; winning twelve and tying the other. Though he was described in the Taunton Courier's summary of the season as "one of Somerset's best bats", Roe was no longer relied upon so much by the team, which could now look to the batting of Hewett and Lionel Palairet. Roe finished the season sixth on the counties batting averages, having managed to play in eight of the county's fixtures. Due to their record in 1890, the county were admitted to the County Championship for 1891 after a unanimous vote, regaining their first-class status. He played infrequently, and without excelling himself, for Somerset over the subsequent few years. One of his highlights during this period was an innings against Gloucestershire in which he scored 75 runs to help Somerset set up a large victory. The Gloucestershire Chronicle praised him for the pace of his innings; he took an hour to patiently accrue his first 28 runs while the Somerset innings was in trouble, then added another 47 in just over half an hour.
During the 1896 season, Roe enjoyed his best run of scores for Somerset. Against Kent, he batted for most of Somerset's innings to score 93 runs without being dismissed, almost half of his team's total, to help Somerset recover from 12 for 5 to post 194. He added a further 45 runs in the second innings, but despite his efforts, Somerset lost by 145 runs. In his next match, Roe posted a low score in the first innings, but recorded his second century in first-class cricket in the second innings to help Somerset secure a draw. He scored 106 runs, including six boundaries. Against Sussex in the next game, Roe scored an unbeaten 85, but was overshadowed by scores of 154 and 156 by Richard and Lionel Palairet, and 191 by Sussex's Ernest Killick. Roe finished the season fourth in the national batting averages, the highest of any Somerset player, his 434 runs coming at an average of 43.4.
Each of Somerset's principal batsmen struggled in 1897; both Palairet brothers, Sammy Woods and Roe himself. Roe only passed 50 once that season, and accumulated less than half as many runs as in the previous year, scoring 192 at an average of 21.33. As a result of their batsmen's poor form, Somerset finished the season 11th (of 14) in the County Championship. The next year, Somerset finished bottom of the table, though their batting had mostly improved. Roe was fourth in the team's averages, having scored 265 runs at an average of 33.12. In fact, of his total, 212 of those runs came in two innings. He scored a cautious century against Sussex at the start of August, and then a more attacking one at the end of the month against Surrey. Roe's performances led the Bath Chronicle to note in their season review that "there was plenty of cricket still left in him." Despite this assertion, Roe played only once more for Somerset, as one of four Somerset batsmen to be dismissed without scoring in both innings of Somerset's 1899 contest against Middlesex.
In all, Roe played 83 first-class matches, alongside a significant number of second-class county matches for Somerset. In first-class cricket he scored 2,690 runs, including four centuries, at an average of 20.22. He also took 32 wickets with his medium pace and spin bowling, and was well-regarded as a fielder, having taken 35 catches. |
2,519,191 | Sîn-šumu-līšir | 1,133,946,550 | null | [
"626 BC deaths",
"7th-century BC Assyrian kings",
"7th-century BC Babylonian kings",
"Year of birth unknown"
]
| Sîn-šumu-līšir or Sîn-šumu-lēšir'''' (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: [] Error: : no text (help) Sîn-šumu-līšir or Sîn-šumu-lēšir, meaning "Sîn, make the name prosper!"), also spelled Sin-shum-lishir,' was a usurper king in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, ruling some cities in northern Babylonia for three months in 626 BC during a revolt against the rule of the king Sîn-šar-iškun. He was the only eunuch to ever claim the throne of Assyria.
Nothing is known of Sîn-šumu-līšir's background or family and he first appears as a prominent courtier and general in the reign of Aššur-etil-ilāni (r. 631–627 BC). After the death of Aššur-etil-ilāni's father and predecessor Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC), Sîn-šumu-līšir was instrumental in securing Aššur-etil-ilāni's rise to the throne and consolidating his position as king by defeating attempted revolts against his rule. It is possible that Sîn-šumu-līšir, as a prominent general close to the king, was the de facto ruler of Assyria throughout Aššur-etil-ilāni's reign.
Aššur-etil-ilāni died in 627 BC after a very short reign and in the following year, Sîn-šumu-līšir rebelled against Aššur-etil-ilāni's brother and successor Sîn-šar-iškun, possibly due to feeling that his prominent position was threatened by the rise of the new king. Sîn-šumu-līšir successfully seized cities such as Nippur and Babylon but was defeated by Sîn-šar-iškun after just three months.
## Biography
Nothing is known of Sîn-šumu-līšir's background or family.' He was a eunuch and probably already a prominent courtier during the reign of Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC).' Eunuchs had often been appointed to prominent government positions in the Assyrian Empire because they could have no dynastic aspirations and thus in the mind of the Assyrians could not represent potential threats.' After Ashurbanipal's death, Sîn-šumu-līšir played a key role in securing the rise of his son Aššur-etil-ilāni to the throne, probably with the aid of his own private soldiers.' Sîn-šumu-līšir is then first mentioned in Assyrian sources as the rab ša rēši (great/chief eunuch)' of Aššur-etil-ilāni.' He is likely to have been the head of Aššur-etil-ilāni's household' and was probably a prominent general who had served the new king since his youth.'
As in many other successions in Assyrian history, Aššur-etil-ilāni's rise to the Assyrian throne in 631 BC was initially met with opposition and unrest.' An official named Nabu-riḫtu-uṣur attempted to seize the Assyrian throne with the help of another official called Sîn-šar-ibni. As the king's rab ša rēši, it is likely that Sîn-šumu-līšir played a role in suppressing the conspiracy, which appears to have been crushed relatively quickly.' In addition to suppressing the revolt, there is also a preserved tablet which records a treaty imposed by Sîn-šumu-līšir on three private individuals, guaranteeing Aššur-etil-ilāni's sovereignty.' The text of this treaty is highly similar to the succession treaties created by Aššur-etil-ilāni's grandfather Esarhaddon in the 670s BC to ensure the succession of Ashurbanipal.' Sîn-šumu-līšir is also recorded as receiving land from Aššur-etil-ilāni, possibly as a rewards for his service to the king.'
It is possible that Sîn-šumu-līšir, as a prominent general closely tied to the king, was the de facto ruler of Assyria during Aššur-etil-ilāni's reign. Aššur-etil-ilāni died under obscure circumstances in 627 BC, after just four years as king. Aššur-etil-ilāni's Babylonian vassal king Kandalanu also died at roughly the same time and Aššur-etil-ilāni's brother Sîn-šar-iškun assumed rulership of the entire Neo-Assyrian Empire. Immediately after Sîn-šar-iškun became king, Sîn-šumu-līšir rebelled against him, possibly due to feeling that his prominent position was threatened by the rise of a new king.' Though a military leader attempting to claim the throne during a time of crisis and succession wasn't necessarily unusual, the possibility that a eunuch would do so had never been entertained prior to Sîn-šumu-līšir's attempt.' He was the only eunuch to ever claim the throne of Assyria.' It is possible that a set of undated seal impressions from Nineveh containing the image of a beardless king could depict Sîn-šumu-līšir, as Assyrian kings were always depicted with beards but eunuchs were always depicted beardless.'
Seeking to seize power for himself, Sîn-šumu-līšir quickly took some key cities in northern Babylonia, including Nippur and Babylon itself. Though his area of control was limited to parts of Babylonia, it is unclear if Sîn-šumu-līšir claimed the title "king of Babylon" in addition to "king of Assyria". Modern historians typically include him in lists of Babylonian kings, as did some ancient Babylonian king lists. Sîn-šumu-līšir never successfully took control of the Assyrian Empire and his tenure as "king" in Nippur and Babylon lasted only three months before Sîn-šar-iškun successfully defeated him. In a later Babylonian epic, the killing of Sîn-šumu-līšir, in the story called the "almighty commander of the eunuchs", is attributed to Nabopolassar (the first king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire), rather than Sîn-šar-iškun.'
Despite being a usurper and not successfully taking control of the Assyrian heartland, Sîn-šumu-līšir is routinely listed in modern historiography as one of the final Assyrian kings, together with the legitimate rulers Aššur-etil-ilāni and Sîn-šar-iškun.'
## See also
- List of Assyrian kings
- Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire |
71,747,641 | Talking to Yourself | 1,160,866,572 | null | [
"2022 singles",
"2022 songs",
"Canadian dance-pop songs",
"Canadian synth-pop songs",
"Carly Rae Jepsen songs",
"Interscope Records singles",
"Schoolboy Records singles",
"Song recordings produced by Captain Cuts",
"Songs written by Ben Berger",
"Songs written by Carly Rae Jepsen",
"Songs written by Ryan Rabin",
"Songs written by Simon Wilcox"
]
| "Talking to Yourself" is a song by Canadian singer Carly Rae Jepsen from her sixth studio album, The Loneliest Time (2022). Jepsen wrote it with songwriter Simon Wilcox, and Benjamin Berger and Ryan Rabin from Captain Cuts, the production team that produced the song. The record labels School Boy and Interscope Records released it as the album's third single on September 16, 2022. "Talking to Yourself" is a dance-pop and synth-pop song, on which Jepsen recalls a previous relationship with an ex-lover and wonders if he still has feelings for her.
"Talking to Yourself" received generally positive reviews for its production, which was described as infectious and danceable. Critics praised the song's chorus, and some others commented on its lyrics. It charted at number eight on the Billboard Japan Hot Overseas Songs chart. An accompanying music video for "Talking to Yourself" was released alongside it.
## Background and release
Embarked on The Dedicated Tour, Carly Rae Jepsen began collecting ideas for her sixth studio album in February 2020. Her creativity was stimulated by the COVID-19 pandemic, and she transformed an old office space that was a part of her Los Angeles residence into a home studio. On August 1, 2022, Jepsen announced that the album, titled The Loneliest Time, would be released on October 21, 2022. It was preceded by the singles "Western Wind" and "Beach House" (both 2022).
Jepsen wrote "Talking to Yourself" alongside songwriter Simon Wilcox, and Benjamin Berger and Ryan Rabin from Captain Cuts, the production team that produced the song. On September 13, 2022, she shared a 17-second snippet of the song on social media and wrote: "with the So Nice Tour almost a week away, I couldn't help myself... Talking To Yourself is coming this Friday so you can learn the words before we see each other!". The record labels School Boy and Interscope Records released it along with a music video as the album's third single three days later.
## Composition and lyrics
"Talking to Yourself" is two minutes and 53 seconds long. Captain Cuts produced the song and engineered it with Rob Kinelski and Eli Heisler; Berger and Wilcox programmed it. Trevor Rabin plays the guitar. Emily Lazar and Chris Allgood mastered it and Kinelski mixed it.
"Talking to Yourself" is a throbbing dance-pop and synth-pop song, with a strong beat and influences of the 1980s. The song includes a guitar solo, which "battles synth" according to Clash's Gem Stokes. According to Entertainment Weekly's Maura Johnston, "distorted '80s guitar threads through Jepsen's insistent vocals", followed by "a razor-sharp bass line and resolute beat". Chris DeVille of Stereogum thought it recalled the "'80s pastiche" of Jepsen's albums Emotion (2015) and Dedicated (2019), and Popmatters's Jeffrey Davies said it continued the "glittery, carefree pop" of her previous music. Peter Piatkowski from the same website described the style of "Talking to Yourself" as new wave.
In the lyrics of "Talking to Yourself", Jepsen recalls a previous relationship with an ex-lover and wonders if he still has feelings for her. She obsesses over him and thinks about the possibility that he is unable to sleep at night without her; the song does not specify if it was a serious relationship, friends-with-benefits, or just a crush. According to Consequence's Ben Kaye, it is "for those who come out on the winning side of a breakup".
## Critical reception
The song's production received generally positive reviews. Rolling Stone's Emily Zemler described "Talking to Yourself" as a sanguine track and "dance-pop anthem". Consequence picked the track as "Song of the Week", and Mary Siroky thought it is "wildly infectious" and has "a characteristically addictive bass line and an earworm chorus". Kaye believed "Talking to Yourself" reaches the "sweet spot between sultry and dance-floor-ready". Ben Devlin of MusicOMH named the song the "first big hit" on The Loneliest Time's tracklist and compared its topline to the work of Divinyls. The Line of Best Fit's Sam Franzini cited it among the "pop gems" on the album and honed it as "one of Jepsen's best bangers". Writing for The A.V. Club, Gabrielle Sanchez described "Talking to Yourself" as an "enchanting single [...] with an infectious chorus". Pitchfork's Olivia Horn wrote that the song sounds like "two different Dua Lipa outtakes cut-and-pasted together", using some diverting production brandishes.
Some critics commented on the lyrics of "Talking to Yourself". Siroky called the song "unabashedly obsessive", and she opined it "speaks for those of us who are delightfully unhinged" and gives listeners a "taste of what's to come" while demonstrating Jepsen's pop sensibilities. Todd Dedman of Beats Per Minute thought it recalls the "ideas of invisibility in a relationship" expressed on the Emotion track "When I Needed You". Writing for AllMusic, Heather Phares believed "Talking to Yourself" demonstrated "feeling at once separate and connected", a running motif on The Loneliest Time, and he called it "an '80s pop fantasia with massive choruses".
## Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of The Loneliest Time.
- Captain Cuts – producer, engineering
- Carly Rae Jepsen – songwriter
- Simon Wilcox – songwriter, programming
- Benjamin Berger – songwriter, programming
- Ryan Rabin – songwriter
- Eli Heisler – engineering
- Trevor Rabin – guitar
- Emily Lazar – mastering
- Chris Allgood – mastering
- Rob Kinelski – mixing, engineering
## Charts |
245,791 | Ankh | 1,173,550,613 | Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol | [
"Ancient Egyptian symbols",
"Christian crosses",
"Cross symbols",
"Crosses in heraldry",
"Egyptian amulets",
"Egyptian artefact types",
"Egyptian hieroglyphs: crowns-dress-staves",
"Egyptian mythology",
"Egyptian words and phrases",
"Magic symbols",
"Religious symbols"
]
| The ankh or key of life is an ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol used to represent the word for "life" and, by extension, as a symbol of life itself.
The ankh has a T-shape topped by a droplet-shaped loop. It was used in writing as a triliteral sign, representing a sequence of three consonants, Ꜥ-n-ḫ. This sequence was found in several Egyptian words, including the terms for "mirror", "floral bouquet", and "life". The symbol often appeared in Egyptian art as a physical object representing either life or related substances such as air or water. Commonly depicted in the hands of ancient Egyptian deities, sometimes being given by them to the pharaoh, it represents their power to sustain life and to revive human souls in the afterlife.
The ankh was a widespread decorative motif in ancient Egypt, also used decoratively by neighbouring cultures. Copts adapted it into the crux ansata, a shape with a circular rather than droplet loop, and used it as a variant of the Christian cross. The ankh came into widespread use in Western culture in the 1960s, appearing as a symbol of African cultural identity, Neopagan belief systems, and the goth subculture.
## Use in writing
In ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, the ankh was a triliteral sign: one that represented a sequence of three consonant sounds. The ankh stood for the sequence Ꜥ-n-ḫ, where n is pronounced like the English letter n, Ꜥ is a voiced pharyngeal fricative, and ḫ is a voiceless or voiced velar fricative (sounds not found in English). In the Egyptian language, these consonants were found in the verb meaning "live", the noun meaning "life", and words derived from them, such as sꜤnḫ, which means "cause to live" or "nourish"; Ꜥnḫ evolved into ⲱⲛϩ (onh) in the Coptic stage of the language. The sign is known in English as the "ankh", based on the hypothetical pronunciation of the Egyptian word, or as the "key of life", based on its meaning.
One of the common uses of the word Ꜥnḫ was to express a wish that a particular person live. For example, a phrase meaning something like "may you be healthy and alive" was used in polite contexts, similar to the English phrase "if you please", and the phrase Ꜥnḫ wḏꜣ snb, meaning "alive, sound, and healthy", was used as an honorific for the pharaoh when he was mentioned in writing. The Egyptian word for "oath" was also Ꜥnḫ, because oaths in ancient Egypt began with a form of the word "live".
The same consonants were found in the word for "mirror" and the word for a floral bouquet, so the sign was also used in writing these words. The three consonants also compose the word for a looped rope-like object found in illustrations on many coffins from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1650 BC). The Egyptologists Battiscombe Gunn and Alan Gardiner, in the early 20th century, believed these objects to be sandal straps, given that they appear in pairs at the foot of the coffin and the accompanying texts say the objects are "on the ground under his feet".
## Origins
Early examples of the ankh sign date to the First Dynasty (c. 30th to 29th century BC). There is little agreement on what physical object the sign originally represented.
Many scholars believe the sign is a knot formed of a flexible material such as cloth or reeds, as early versions of the sign show the lower bar of the ankh as two separate lengths of flexible material that seem to correspond to the two ends of the knot. These early versions bear a resemblance to the tyet symbol, a sign that represented the concept of "protection". For these reasons, the Egyptologists Heinrich Schäfer and Henry Fischer thought the two signs had a common origin, and they regarded the ankh as a knot that was used as an amulet rather than for any practical purpose.
Hieroglyphic writing used pictorial signs to represent sounds, so that, for example, the hieroglyph for a house could represent the sounds p-r, which were found in the Egyptian word for "house". This practice, known as the rebus principle, allowed the Egyptians to write the words for things that could not be pictured, such as abstract concepts. Gardiner believed the ankh originated in this way. He pointed out that the sandal-strap illustrations on Middle Kingdom coffins resemble the hieroglyph, and he argued that the sign originally represented knots like these and came to be used in writing all other words that contained the consonants Ꜥ-n-ḫ. Gardiner's list of hieroglyphic signs labels the ankh as S34, placing it within the category for items of clothing and just after S33, the hieroglyph for a sandal. Gardiner's hypothesis is still current; James P. Allen, in an introductory book on the Egyptian language published in 2014, assumes that the sign originally meant "sandal strap" and uses it as an example of the rebus principle in hieroglyphic writing.
Various authors have argued that the sign originally represented something other than a knot. Some have suggested that it had a sexual meaning. For instance, Thomas Inman, an amateur mythologist in the nineteenth century, thought the sign represented the male and female reproductive organs, joined into a single sign. Victor Loret, a nineteenth-century Egyptologist, argued that "mirror" was the sign's original meaning. A problem with this argument, which Loret acknowledged, is that deities are frequently shown holding the ankh by its loop, and their hands pass through it where the solid reflecting surface of an ankh-shaped mirror would be. Andrew Gordon, an Egyptologist, and Calvin Schwabe, a veterinarian, argue that the origin of the ankh is related to two other signs of uncertain origin that often appear alongside it: the was-sceptre, representing "power" or "dominion", and the djed pillar, representing "stability". According to this hypothesis, the form of each sign is drawn from a part of the anatomy of a bull, like some other hieroglyphic signs that are known to be based on body parts of animals. In Egyptian belief semen was connected with life and, to some extent, with "power" or "dominion", and some texts indicate the Egyptians believed semen originated in the bones. Therefore, Gordon and Schwabe suggest the signs are based on parts of the bull's anatomy through which semen was thought to pass: the ankh is a thoracic vertebra, the djed is the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae, and the was is the dried penis of the bull.
## Use in religion and art
In Egyptian belief, life was a force that circulated throughout the world. Individual living things, including humans, were manifestations of this force and fundamentally tied to it. Life came into existence at the creation of the world, and cyclical events like the rising and setting of the sun were thought of as reenactments of the original events of creation that maintained and renewed life in the cosmos. Sustaining life was thus the central function of the deities who governed these natural cycles. Therefore, the ankh was frequently depicted being held in gods' hands, representing their life-giving power. The Egyptians also believed that when they died, their individual lives could be renewed in the same manner as life in general. For this reason, the gods were often depicted in tombs giving ankh signs to humans, usually the pharaoh. As the sign represented the power to bestow life, humans other than the pharaoh were rarely shown receiving or holding the ankh before the end of the Middle Kingdom, although this convention weakened thereafter. The pharaoh to some extent represented Egypt as a whole, so by giving the sign to him, the gods granted life to the entire nation.
By extension of the concept of "life", the ankh could signify air or water. In artwork, gods hold the ankh up to the nose of the king: offering him the breath of life. Hand fans were another symbol of air in Egyptian iconography, and the human servants who normally carried fans behind the king were sometimes replaced in artwork by personified ankh signs with arms. In scenes of ritual purification, in which water was poured over the king or a deceased commoner, the zigzag lines that normally represented water could be replaced by chains of ankh signs.
The ankh may have been used decoratively more than any other hieroglyphic sign. Mirrors, mirror cases, and floral bouquets were made in its shape, given that the sign was used in writing the name of each of these objects. Some other objects, such as libation vessels and sistra, were also shaped like the sign. The sign appeared very commonly in the decoration of architectural forms such as the walls and shrines within temples. In contexts such as these, the sign often appeared together with the was and djed signs, which together signified "life, dominion, and stability". In some decorative friezes in temples, all three signs, or the ankh and was alone, were positioned above the hieroglyph for a basket that represented the word "all": "all life and power" or "all life, power, and stability". Some deities, such as Ptah and Osiris, could be depicted holding a was scepter that incorporated elements of the ankh and djed.
Amulets made in the shape of hieroglyphic signs were meant to impart to the wearer the qualities represented by the sign. The Egyptians wore amulets in daily life as well as placing them in tombs to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife. Ankh-shaped amulets first appeared late in the Old Kingdom (c. 2700 to 2200 BC) and continued to be used into the late first millennium BC, yet they were rare, despite the importance of the symbol. Amulets shaped like a composite sign that incorporated the ankh, was, and djed were more widespread.
Ankh signs in two-dimensional art were typically painted blue or black. The earliest ankh amulets were often made of gold or electrum, a gold and silver alloy. Egyptian faience, a ceramic that was usually blue or green, was the most common material for ankh amulets in later times, perhaps because its color represented life and regeneration.
## Other ancient cultures
The people of Syria and Canaan adopted many Egyptian artistic motifs during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1950–1500 BC), including hieroglyphs, of which the ankh was by far the most common. It was often placed next to various figures in artwork or shown being held by Egyptian deities who had come to be worshipped in the ancient Near East. It was sometimes used to represent water or fertility. Elsewhere in the Near East, the sign was incorporated into Anatolian hieroglyphs to represent the word for "life", and the sign was used in the artwork of the Minoan civilization centered on Crete. Minoan artwork sometimes combined the ankh, or the related tyet sign, with the Minoan double axe emblem.
Artwork in the Meroitic Kingdom, which lay south of Egypt and was heavily influenced by its religion, features the ankh prominently. It appears in temples and funerary art in many of the same contexts as in Egypt, and it is also one of the most common motifs in the decoration of Meroitic pottery.
## Christianity
The ankh was one of the few ancient Egyptian artistic motifs that continued to be used after the Christianization of Egypt during the 4th and 5th centuries AD. The sign resembles the staurogram, a sign that resembles a Christian cross with a loop to the right of the upper bar and was used by early Christians as a monogram for Jesus, as well as the crux ansata, or "handled cross", which is shaped like an ankh with a circular rather than oval or teardrop-shaped loop. The staurogram has been suggested to be influenced by the ankh, but the earliest Christian uses of the sign date to around AD 200, well before the earliest Christian adoption of the ankh. The earliest known example of a crux ansata comes from a copy of the Gospel of Judas from the 3rd or early 4th century AD. The adoption of this sign may have been influenced by the staurogram, the ankh, or both.
According to Socrates of Constantinople, when Christians were dismantling Alexandria's greatest temple, the Serapeum, in 391 AD, they noticed cross-like signs inscribed on the stone blocks. Pagans who were present said the sign meant "life to come", an indication that the sign Socrates referred to was the ankh; Christians claimed the sign was their own, indicating that they could easily regard the ankh as a crux ansata.
There is little evidence for the use of the crux ansata in the western half of the Roman Empire, but Egyptian Coptic Christians used it in many media, particularly in the decoration of textiles.
## Modern use
Much more recently, the ankh has become a popular symbol in modern Western culture, particularly as a design for jewelry and tattoos. Its resurgence began when the counterculture of the 1960s stirred a greater interest in ancient religions. In the 21st century it is the most widely recognized symbol of African origin in the Western world, and it is sometimes used by people of African descent in the United States and Europe as a symbol of African cultural identity. The ankh also symbolizes Kemetism, a group of religious movements based on the religion of ancient Egypt. The sign is also popular in the goth subculture, being particularly associated with vampires, because an ankh pendant appears prominently in the 1983 vampire film The Hunger.
The sign is incorporated twice in the Unicode standard for encoding text and symbols in computing. It appears as U+2625 (☥) in the Miscellaneous Symbols block, and as U+132F9 (𓋹) in the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block. |
68,255,347 | Donald Sutherland (explorer) | 1,172,155,593 | New Zealand soldier, explorer, accommodation-house keeper. | [
"1843 births",
"1844 births",
"1919 deaths",
"New Zealand explorers",
"New Zealand military personnel",
"People from Wick, Caithness"
]
| Donald Sutherland (c. 1843/1844 – 24 October 1919) was a Scottish-born New Zealand explorer, active in the late 19th century. Born in Wick, he served as a soldier in the Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, in the Italian unification wars. Soon afterwards he travelled to New Zealand where he prospected for gold in Otago. He later joined the New Zealand military and fought in a number of engagements of the New Zealand Wars. In 1877, he settled in Milford Sound and lived as a hermit for a number of years, exploring the region. He later married and, with his wife, ran an accommodation facility for the increasing number of tourists visiting Milford Sound until his death in October 1919. The Sutherland Falls, located near Milford Sound and the highest waterfall in New Zealand, is named for him.
## Early life
Donald Sutherland was born in Wick, a coastal town in Scotland, around 1843 or 1844. He was the son of Donald Sutherland, a ropemaker, and Isabella Strachan. As a boy he worked in the fishing industry but desired a more exciting life, and when he was 16, he joined a militia unit stationed at Fort George in nearby Ardersier. He subsequently volunteered to join the forces of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who, supported by the British, was engaged in the Expedition of the Thousand, part of the Italian unification wars. The campaign ended in Naples in September 1860, after which Sutherland returned to the United Kingdom.
## New Zealand
After finding employment as a mariner on coastal shipping, Sutherland sailed to New Zealand as part of the crew of the Prince Alfred, deserting the company when the ship arrived at Dunedin. At the time, Otago was experiencing a gold rush after the valuable metal was discovered at Gabriel's Gully. Sutherland made his way to the area and began prospecting for gold. In December 1863, and having not had any success on the gold fields, he went to the North Island and enlisted in the Waikato Militia, then engaged in the New Zealand Wars. He was assigned to the water transport corps, and after hostilities ended in the region, Sutherland was granted a parcel of land at Pukerimu. He abandoned his land allotment in 1866 when he absconded from his unit to join a sealing party heading to Fiordland, in the South Island. Not achieving any success, he returned to gold prospecting, this time on the West Coast.
### Armed Constabulary service
In 1868, having failed again as a gold prospector, Sutherland joined the Armed Constabulary, the colonial regular army. He was involved in the fighting in the South Taranaki during the campaign against the Māori war chief Riwha Tītokowaru. He was also present at the siege of Ngatapa from December 1868 to January 1869, during the East Cape wars. He acted as a scout after fighting at Tauranga-ika and was involved in the pursuit of Tītokowaru's men following their abandonment of the pā (hillfort) there. In the mistaken belief that a bounty was offered for the head of any captives, he decapitated those he caught. He ended the conflict as a corporal and was later a recipient of the New Zealand War Medal.
### Milford Sound
Sutherland returned to the sea as a mariner for the New Zealand Government Service Steamer (NZGSS) shipping line. After several years of this work, in 1877 he decided to settle in Fiordland. He had visited the area a number of times while working NZGSS vessels. Sailing from Dunedin with only a dog for company, he reached the Milford Sound on 3 December. Basing himself at Freshwater Basin, a site close to Bowen Falls, he constructed a three-room hut. Further dwellings were built later and he drew up plans for a settlement for what he called the city of Milford. He looked for gold, asbestos and bowenite.
In 1878, Sutherland invited James McKay to join him in his hunt for gold. Finding none, the two used funds and provisions afforded by the Lake County to scout for a route between Milford Sound and Queenstown. He was unsuccessful in finding a pass through the mountains but did locate the track used by Māori to travel between Milford and Bligh Sounds. In doing so, he was the first European to sight the waterfall that is now named for him. Originally it was claimed to be well over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in height and the highest in the world, but Sutherland Falls is actually only 580 metres (1,900 ft) high. It is still New Zealand's highest waterfall.
By the early 1880s, McKay had left Milford, believing there was no gold to be had in the area. This left Sutherland as the only permanent resident in Milford Sound. In 1883, while sailing down the coast in his vessel Porpoise, he discovered another feature that is named for him, Sutherland Sound. The same year, he attempted to climb Mitre Peak. His failure to reach the summit was galling and he later attempted to discredit the first ascent made in 1911 by Jim Dennistoun. His observations from his exploration of Milford Sound and the surrounding area were communicated to Alexander McKay, a geologist, who in August 1884 reported these to the Wellington Philosophical Society.
For much of the next several years, Sutherland lived alone in Milford Sound, only receiving visits every six months or so when the NZGSS steamers Hinemoa or Stella called in. In 1888, he was contracted to make a track from Milford through to Sutherland Falls. This took six months, and now forms part of the Milford Track. He made occasional visits to Dunedin, and on one of these, in 1890, he married Elizabeth née Samuels, a widower originally from England. The couple, using Elizabeth's money, purchased land on which the Chalet, an accommodation facility, was built. This catered to the increasing number of tourists visiting the area in the summer months via the Milford Track or by ship. Among them was the historian James Cowan, with whom Sutherland scouted in the area for diamonds.
## Later life
In his later years, Sutherland was joined at Milford Sound by his nephew, William Sutherland, who with his wife helped in the running of the Chalet. By the 1900s, the tourism trade in the area was becoming well developed, encouraged by the government's Tourism Board. In response, Sutherland began raising livestock at Milford for fresh meat. He died at his home on 24 October 1919; he had been in poor health for some time. When he died, his wife was the only individual present at Milford Sound. Unable to bury her large-framed husband, she had to wait five weeks for the next visit of the Hinemoa before his body could be interred. His wife remained at Milford, running the Chalet until she sold it to the New Zealand government in 1922. She stayed on in Milford Sound and died on 10 December 1923. She is buried alongside her husband in a grave behind the Chalet. |
24,214,208 | Carletonomys | 1,107,929,884 | Extinct genus of rodents | [
"Ensenadan",
"Fossil taxa described in 2008",
"Fossils of Argentina",
"Oryzomyini",
"Pleistocene Argentina",
"Pleistocene genus extinctions",
"Pleistocene mammals of South America",
"Pleistocene rodents",
"Prehistoric rodent genera"
]
| Carletonomys cailoi is an extinct rodent from the Pleistocene (Ensenadan) of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Although known only from a single maxilla (upper jaw) with the first molar, its features are so distinctive that it is placed in its own genus, Carletonomys. Discovered in 1998 and formally described in 2008, it is part of a well-defined group of oryzomyine rodents that also includes Holochilus, Noronhomys, Lundomys, and Pseudoryzomys. This group is characterized by progressive semiaquatic specializations and a reduction in the complexity of molar morphology.
The single known molar is high-crowned (hypsodont) and flat-crowned (planar) and is distinctive in lacking the ridge that connects the front to the middle part of the molar, the anterior mure, and in the configuration of another ridge, the mesoloph. Carletonomys was probably herbivorous and lived in a wet habitat.
## Taxonomy
Carletonomys cailoi was discovered in 1998 in a silt deposit in San Cayetano Partido, southeastern Buenos Aires Province. The stratigraphic context suggests this locality is slightly over 1 million years old (Ensenadan South American Land Mammal Age), making Carletonomys the oldest known oryzomyine. The single known specimen is now in the collections of the Museo de La Plata. It was initially referred to the genus Noronhomys, which is currently known only from the island of Fernando de Noronha off northeastern Brazil, but in 2008 Argentinean mammalogist Ulyses Pardiñas established it as the holotype of a new genus and species of rodent in a publication in the Journal of Mammalogy. The generic name, Carletonomys, combines the name of American mammalogist Michael Carleton with the Ancient Greek μυς mys "mouse" and the specific name, cailoi, honors Argentinean biologist Carlos "Cailo" Galliari.
The fossil has a number of features that suggest a relation to a group of oryzomyine rodents that includes the South American marsh rat Holochilus, its living relatives Lundomys and Pseudoryzomys, and the extinct Noronhomys and Holochilus primigenus. They share high-crowned (hypsodont) molars and several simplifications of molar morphology, as well as other features that cannot be assessed in Carletonomys, which indicate specializations towards a semiaquatic lifestyle. It shows the most similarity to Noronhomys and Holochilus, so much so that Pardiñas considered placing it in either of these two genera, but its distinctive morphological features justify placement in a separate genus.
This group of genera encompasses only a small part of the diversity of the tribe Oryzomyini, a group of over a hundred species distributed mainly in South America, including nearby islands such as the Galápagos Islands and some of the Antilles. Oryzomyini is one of several tribes recognized within the subfamily Sigmodontinae, which encompasses hundreds of species found across South America and into southern North America. Sigmodontinae itself is the largest subfamily of the family Cricetidae, other members of which include voles, lemmings, hamsters, and deermice, all mainly from Eurasia and North America.
## Description
The holotype is a right maxilla (upper jaw) with the upper first molar (M1) in it. It is broken off behind the M1, but much of the front part is preserved, including the zygomatic plate, the flattened front portion of the zygomatic arch (cheekbone). The M1 is moderately worn, indicating that it is from an adult individual. With an M1 length of 3.59 mm and width of 2.53 mm, C. cailoi was one of the largest oryzomyines known, rivaled only by Lundomys and the extinct Antillean Megalomys and "Ekbletomys". The height of the M1 is 1.37 mm and it has four roots, including a large one in front, another large one on the inner (lingual) side, and two smaller ones on the outer (labial) side. The presence of a second labial root is a variable character among oryzomyines, occurring among others in Holochilus and Pseudoryzomys but not in Lundomys. The maxilla itself shows few significant characters. The back margin of the incisive foramen, which perforates the palate between the upper incisors and the molars, is not visible, suggesting that the foramen was short, as in Holochilus. The configuration of the zygomatic plate shows features that distinguish C. cailoi from some of its relatives.
The molar is plane and hypsodont: the crowns are relatively high and the main cusps are about as high as the other parts of the crown, as they are in Holochilus. Most other oryzomyines have bunodont and brachydont molars, in which the crowns are lower and the cusps are higher than the rest of the crown. As in closely related species, the front part of the molar is relatively simple, lacking an anteroloph, an additional ridge that is well-developed in most oryzomyines. A shallow anteromedian flexus is present, superficially dividing the front cusp (anterocone). Uniquely, the anterior mure, which connects the anterocone to the rest of the crown, is absent; although this structure is sometimes missing in young individuals of other oryzomyines, it usually develops as a result of wear in adults. The two cusps on the middle part of the molar, the paracone and the protocone, are broadly connected. The median mure, which connects the middle to the back pair of cusps, is attached to the back of the paracone. A complete mesoloph is present, descending from the median mure slightly behind the paracone. The configuration of the paracone–median mure–mesoloph complex is unique to Carletonomys. The two posterior cusps, the hypocone and the metacone, are connected at the back margin of the molar. Unlike in most oryzomyines, no posteroflexus is present, so that the metacone is situated directly at the back margin.
## Ecology
Carletonomys was found in association with remains of several other animals, including fishes, chelid turtles, frogs, birds, armadillos, and several rodents, including Reithrodon auritus, the coypu (Myocastor), both of which still live in the area, the extinct echimyid Dicolpomys, and unidentified caviids and octodontids. C. cailoi probably lived in a wetland habitat under relatively warm and moist climatic conditions. Although the limited material known permits few inferences as to the animal's natural history, it likely fed on hard plant material, as do related, morphologically similar extant species. |
904,701 | U.S. Route 195 | 1,166,365,211 | U.S. Highway in Washington (state) and Idaho in the United States | [
"Transportation in Nez Perce County, Idaho",
"Transportation in Spokane County, Washington",
"Transportation in Whitman County, Washington",
"U.S. Highways in Idaho",
"U.S. Highways in Washington (state)",
"U.S. Route 95",
"United States Numbered Highway System",
"Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways"
]
| U.S. Route 195 (US 195) is a north–south United States Highway, of which all but 0.65 miles of its 94.02 miles (1.05 of 151.95 km) are within the state of Washington. The highway starts in rural Idaho north of the city of Lewiston as a state highway in an interchange with US 95. As the road crosses into Washington it becomes a state highway that connects communities in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington. US 195 travels north, serving the cities of Pullman, Colfax and Rosalia in Whitman County before continuing into Spokane County to its terminus in the city of Spokane at an interchange with Interstate 90 (I-90).
The first section of US 195 designated as part of Washington's state highway system was codified in 1913 from Colfax to Spokane as the Inland Empire Highway and from the Idaho state line to Pullman as the Second Division of the Eastern Route of the Inland Empire Highway. The two highways were included as part of State Road 3 in 1923 and US 195 during the creation of the US Highway System on November 11, 1926. Originally, the northern terminus of the highway was at US 95 in Sandpoint, but was truncated to Spokane after US 2 was extended west from Bonners Ferry in 1946.
US 195 was cosigned with Primary State Highway 3 (PSH 3) from US 95 to Spokane and PSH 6 from Spokane to Newport from the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 until the 1964 highway renumbering. US 195 was extended south into Idaho after the relocation of US 95, designated as the North and South Highway in 1916, onto its present freeway in 1975. Bypasses of Pullman, Rosalia, and Plaza were completed during the early 1970s, converting portions of US 195 into a divided highway.
## Route description
US 195 runs 94.02 miles (151.31 km) in Idaho and Washington and is listed in its entirety as part of the National Highway System, a system of roads crucial to the nation's economy, defense and mobility. As a state highway in both states, the roadway is maintained by the Idaho Transportation Department (ITD) and Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT).
### Idaho
US 195 travels within Idaho for 0.577 miles (0.929 km) from an interchange with US 95 to the Washington state line, entirely north of Lewiston atop the Lewiston Hill in unincorporated Nez Perce County. ITD surveys the roads under its control on a regular basis to measure the amount of traffic using the state's highways. These traffic counts are expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT), a calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. A July 2011 survey reported average daily traffic of 6,761 vehicles being served the US 95 interchange.
Administratively, US 195 does not exist in Idaho. According to ITD's milepoint log, both carriageways are officially US 95 ramps into Washington state.
### Washington
US 195 travels 93.37 miles (150.26 km) north through the Palouse region of Eastern Washington, from the Idaho state line north to Spokane. The highway serves as an important link between Pullman and Spokane as well as part of the Palouse Scenic Byway and a main north–south route in the region alongside State Route 27 (SR 27). US 195 enters Washington north of Clarkston in unincorporated Whitman County and travels west to an intersection with its 0.61-mile-long (0.98 km) spur route, providing a connection to US 95 northbound towards Moscow. The highway continues northwest through farmland and the towns of Uniontown and Colton along Union Flat Creek towards Pullman. US 195 intersects SR 27, also part of the Palouse Scenic Byway, and travels west of Pullman on a highway bypass of the city. The bypass travels through the termini of SR 194 and SR 270 as it leaves the Pullman area heading north towards Colfax along the South Fork Palouse River. US 195 becomes Main Street within Colfax and travels through the town along a WSDOT rail line to the eastern terminus of SR 272 and SR 26. The highway continues north along Pine Creek and the WSDOT rail line past the northern terminus of SR 271, a diamond interchange south of Rosalia, before leaving the Palouse Scenic Byway at the Spokane County border. The roadway heads north through a diamond interchange in Plaza and along Spangle Creek past the community of Spangle. US 195 enters the city of Spokane as a four-lane highway along Hangman Creek and ends at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-90, cosigned with US 2 and US 395.
US 195 is defined by the Washington State Legislature as SR 195. Every year, WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of AADT, which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2012, WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of US 195 within Washington was in Hangman Valley before the I-90 interchange in Spokane, serving 19,000 vehicles, while the least busiest section was between Pullman and Colfax, serving 3,100 vehicles. The entire route of US 195 is designated as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT, which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington.
## History
The Inland Empire Highway was originally a collection of gravel county roads that have existed since 1898 in the Spokane area and 1905 in the Pullman area. These roads roughly followed an early territorial highway built in the 1870s between Colfax and Spokane. The highway was added to the state highway system in 1913, traveling within the Palouse region between Colfax and Spokane. The Second Division of the Eastern Route of the Inland Empire Highway was also established in 1913, traveling northwest from Sampson Trail Y at the Idaho–Washington state line to Pullman. The Idaho portion of US 195 became part of the North and South Highway in 1916 and was not numbered under Idaho's state highway system in 1953. The gap in the Second Division between Pullman and Colfax was named by Whitman County as a highway of importance the following year and was not built until 1925 as part of State Road 3. State Road 23, connecting Spokane to Newport, was designated in 1915 before it was renamed to the Pend O'Reille Highway and renumbered to State Road 6 in 1923. The Inland Empire Highway was numbered as State Road 3 in 1923 and retained the designation as PSH 3 in 1937, while State Road 6 became PSH 6.
The United States Highway System was established on November 11, 1926, during its adoption by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) and included US 195, traveling north from US 95 within Washington through Pullman and Spokane before ending at US 95 in Sandpoint, Idaho. The present four-lane divided highway along Hangman Creek in Spokane was constructed in 1939 as part of general improvements to Eastern Washington highways, relocating the route of the creek and a nearby Northern Pacific Railway line. The section of US 195 between Spokane and Sandpoint became co-signed with an extension of US 2 from Bonners Ferry, Idaho to Everett, Washington in 1946, and the highway was truncated to US 10 and US 395 in 1969. During the 1964 highway renumbering, Washington converted its highways to the present state route system, to take effect in 1970. US 195 replaced PSH 3 and its branches along its present route, with its southern terminus at US 95 atop Lewiston Hill in Idaho and its northern terminus at I-90 in Spokane at an interchange that was opened in December 1965, along with a new 7.2-mile (11.6 km) segment between Thornton and Rosalia.
Between 1973 and 1975, State Department of Highways completed construction of three highway bypasses around Pullman, Rosalia, and Plaza. Funds that were originally intended for the canceled Bay Freeway project in Seattle were instead redirected to the bypasses earlier in the decade. A four-lane bypass of Colfax was approved for construction in 1971, but deferred indefinitely due to a lack of funding. The western bypass of Pullman was completed in 1974 at a cost of \$1.04 million.
US 95 was relocated onto its present freeway, bypassing Washington state, in 1977 and US 195 was extended south into Idaho to the new interchange with a spur route traveling towards northbound US 95. The highway between Uniontown and Rosalia was designated as part of the Palouse Scenic Byway on December 19, 2002, as part of the Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways program. In 2002, WSDOT adopted a long range plan to upgrade US 195 within the Hangman Valley in Spokane to limited-access standards by constructing new interchanges at four intersections. One of the interchanges, at Cheney–Spokane Road, was completed in 2014 at a cost of \$9.4 million. Funding for the remaining interchange projects, estimated to cost \$106 million in 2002 dollars, was not allocated and WSDOT is instead considering lower-cost improvements to the intersections. Increased traffic congestion on US 195 in Spokane lead to a development moratorium in place until capacity improvements are made to the highway. The first ramp meter in the Spokane area was installed at US 195's interchange with I-90 in 2019.
## Major junctions
## Spur route
US 195 has a 0.54-mile-long (870 m) spur route near its southern terminus on the Washington–Idaho state line that travels east from US 195 to serve US 95 northbound atop Lewiston Hill. The unsigned highway, also known as the Genesee Spur, was established in 1979 on the former alignment of US 95 as it passed briefly through Washington before it was moved onto its present alignment. WSDOT included the road in its annual AADT survey in 2012 and calculated that 100 vehicles per day used the spur route. ITD designates the spur route as US-95 Spur in their milepoint log.
### Major intersections |
21,187,434 | Ki (album) | 1,166,126,478 | null | [
"2009 albums",
"Albums produced by Devin Townsend",
"Devin Townsend albums"
]
| Ki (/ˈkiː/ KEE) is the eleventh studio album by Canadian musician Devin Townsend, and the first album in the Devin Townsend Project series. The album was released on May 25, 2009, on Townsend's independent record label HevyDevy Records.
Townsend, the founder, songwriter, and frontman of extreme metal band Strapping Young Lad and progressive metal group The Devin Townsend Band, dissolved both bands in 2006 to spend time with his family and avoid the burnout of touring and interviewing. After a period of self-discovery and a year-long break from songwriting, Townsend began work on a four-album series to clarify his identity as a musician. Ki includes themes of self-control and sobriety, and is musically subtler than much of the artist's previous work, consisting of ambient rock music interlaced with tentative bursts of heavy metal.
The album was written, produced, mixed, and co-engineered by Townsend, who also performed guitar and vocals. Townsend assembled a supporting group of Vancouver musicians including blues drummer Duris Maxwell, rock bassist Jean Savoie, keyboardist Dave Young, and guest vocalist Ché Aimee Dorval to play on the album. While some critics found the album uneven, Ki received generally positive reviews for its unexpected musical direction, along with its production, vocal dynamics, and mix of influences.
## Background
After disbanding his extreme metal band Strapping Young Lad and his progressive metal project The Devin Townsend Band in 2006, Townsend shaved off his trademark "skullet" hairstyle and gave up alcohol and marijuana. Townsend found it "disconcerting" that he had difficulty writing music without drugs, and that he had trouble identifying his purpose as a musician. He spent a year producing albums in absence of writing, but found it unrewarding and decided to "pick up the guitar and just write." This began a period of self-discovery where he learned "how to create without drugs".
Over two years, Townsend wrote over 60 songs, and found that they fit into "four distinct styles". In March 2009, Townsend announced his plans for a four-album series called the Devin Townsend Project, with the goal of clarifying his musical identity and being "accountable" for the persona he projects to the public. Ki, the first album of the Devin Townsend Project, is written to "set the stage" for the subsequent albums. The word "ki" represents the Japanese concept of "life force" (氣, "ki"). Townsend chose the name as an homage to the 1981 Kitarō album of the same name, which he "loved as a kid".
The project's concept includes a different group of musicians for each album. For Ki, Townsend chose a group of musicians with whom he had not previously worked. He discovered Duris Maxwell, a blues drummer who has played with such acts as Heart, Jefferson Airplane, and Tommy Chong, in a blues club in northern Canada. Townsend was impressed by his energy and recruited him for Ki. Townsend also chose Jean Savoie, a music store employee who plays in a Beatles cover band, to play bass on the album. Maxwell and Savoie were ideal for the album, Townsend explained, because they had little experience playing heavy music, and had a fresh perspective that fit with Ki'''s subtler sound. Townsend also brought back Dave Young, an ambient keyboardist who had played in The Devin Townsend Band, and recruited Vancouver artist Ché Aimee Dorval as a vocalist on several tracks. The album was primarily recorded, produced, and mixed from late 2008 to early 2009 at Devestate and Studio D; the drums were recorded at Factory Studios in Vancouver.
## Music and lyrical themes
Townsend channelled his new-found self-control and sobriety into Ki, a "restrained, melodic, and tranquil" album that is "a sharp contrast" to the heavy metal he is known for, while maintaining his "signature sound". The album features undistorted guitar tones, live takes, no drum triggering, and relatively quiet mastering, with a musical style combining ambient, progressive rock, jazz rock, and psychedelic blues. The album's recurring musical theme is "tension and release", a gradual build in intensity which suddenly stops and gives way to "something relaxing". The album's musical style has been compared to Porcupine Tree, Chroma Key, and Pink Floyd, with Townsend's vocals drawing comparisons to Steven Wilson and Steve Hackett.
Ki was mixed by Townsend, and features very little compression, in contrast with his usual wall-of-sound production style. Townsend explained that he originally "tried doing the wall-of-sound with it and it just kind of ruined it...it turned it into a not-so-good Strapping record." The album deliberately eschews the loudness wars, the recent music industry practice of competitively mastering audio to seem as loud as possible. "I officially pull my hat out of the loudness wars", Townsend told his mastering engineer. The album's songs were primarily written in open C tuning, except for "A Monday", "Trainfire", and "Disruptr" in open B, "Heaven's End" and "Winter" in open B, and "Quiet Riot" in standard tuning. Townsend has cited Second Nature by The Young Gods, Paul Horn, Chants of India by Ravi Shankar, and Ween as influences on the album.
Townsend described Ki as both the introduction and the moral to the "larger concept" of the Devin Townsend Project. The album's lyrical themes explore Townsend's inner demons, past addictions, self-acceptance, and his "newfound ability to say no." The album opens with a brief instrumental that leads into "Coast", a quiet, bass-driven track that sets the stage for the album as a "metaphor for Devin's newfound restraint." Townsend described it as "the intro to the story, quiet, dark, haunted and unsure". The track builds in intensity toward the end with layers of vocals, but rather than exploding into Strapping Young Lad–style metal, fades into "loose, bluesy guitar work". "Disruptr" has been described as "a coffee-house metal track", contrasting light instrumentation with heavy metal–style songwriting and vocals in a way that one critic compared to Talking Heads. "Gato" proceeds in a similar vein, but is set apart with backing vocals by Dorval. "Disruptr" and "Gato" continue the musical theme; each song builds in intensity toward the end but "stops and takes a deep breath" before proceeding. The album then fades into "Terminal", an atmospheric track with quiet vocals that was co-written by keyboardist Dave Young.
Townsend's restraint reaches a breaking point on "Heaven's End", which Jon Wiederhorn of Revolver described as "a groovy pop song that morphs into a violent, acid-drenched nightmare." It is followed by "Ain't Never Gonna Win", a live studio jam by the album's four musicians which was described by David E. Gehlke of the online magazine Blistering as "trippy". "Trainfire", a classic country–style song inspired by Elvis Presley's cover of "Mystery Train", addresses Townsend's former addiction to pornography, which he described as "this crazy, crack cocaine on the internet that nobody wants to talk about." The song continues the album's theme of honesty and self-acceptance, both about pornography and musical tastes. Townsend explained the song's musical style, saying "yes, I like heavy music and am good at making it, but that is not all that I listen to, and that is not all that I want to play."
The album's climax is found in the title track, described by the artist as "a personal breakthrough" and is initially born out of a Grey Skies demo, "Soft," previously released on Ass-Sordid Demos II. "Ki" builds into a cyclical progression of arpeggios which Martin Popoff of Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles described as the album's "proggiest" moment. It leads into "Quiet Riot", an acoustic version of "Cum On Feel the Noize" with new lyrics. "Quiet Riot", Townsend explained, "basically sums up the idea that, although I am 'damaged,' I'm fine, and have chosen to make my life better."
## Release and artwork
Ki was released on Townsend's independent record label HevyDevy Records on May 25, 2009, in Canada. It was released May 22, 2009, in Germany, May 25, 2009, in the rest of Europe, and June 16, 2009, in the United States by distributor InsideOut Music. A Japanese release on Marquee/Avalon was released on August 26, 2009. When all four albums in the series were completed, Townsend released an eight-disc special edition box set, including a DVD and various bonus material. This box set, named Contain Us, was released on December 9, 2011.
The album art was created by artist Konrad Palkiewicz, who created the art for Townsend's ambient album The Hummer (2006) and directed the video for Strapping Young Lad's "Almost Again". The album art was designed to be viewed with a pair of 3-D glasses. The album cover is an image of "two faces in one". Though "not authentic", it is based on Native American and Chinese art. Palkiewicz directed a music video for the song "Coast", which was released on Townsend's website on July 28, 2009. The InsideOut releases come with an extra lyrics sheet and feature a green slipcase bearing the Devin Townsend Project logo, designed by Travis Smith.
## Sales and critical reception
Ki reached number 26 on the Finnish Top 40 and number 179 on the French Top 200, and appeared on the UK Indie and UK Rock charts. It sold 800 copies in its first week of release in the United States, and debuted at number 69 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart. Critical reception of the album was generally positive. Jon Wiederhorn of Revolver said the album is "well worth a listen" and praised the heavier tracks such as "Disruptr" and "Heaven Send", saying, "Townsend mostly contains his rage, but he's at his best when he loses it." Martin Popoff of Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles found the album to have an "odd identity", with "all sorts of things going on just under the surface" that rewarded multiple listens. David E. Gehlke of Blistering was less impressed, and found the album inconsistent. Gehlke described "Winter" as "lush and gorgeous", but felt that the album "fails to hit the mark" at other points, such as "Ain't Never Gonna Win" and "Trainfire". Tyler Munro of Sputnikmusic said Ki showed Townsend "at his loosest and most dynamic", and praised Townsend's and Dorval's vocals, but felt the album was held back by musical repetition and its extended guitar jams. Greg Prato of Allmusic gave the album a moderate review, admiring Townsend's unpredictability but feeling the album was not "the most gripping or groundbreaking album" in Townsend's collection. Daniel Cairns of Chronicles of Chaos praised Ki'' as "a difficult, unusual collection of music" that "also might just be Townsend's best yet."
## Track listing
## Personnel
### Musicians
- Devin Townsend – vocals, guitar, fretless bass guitar, ambience, programming, production, mixing, engineering
- Duris Maxwell – drums
- Jean Savoie – bass guitar
- Dave Young – keys, piano, ambience
### Additional musicians
- Ché Aimee Dorval – additional vocals
- Ryan Dahle – additional vocals ("Gato")
- Bjorn Strid, Peter, Christopher, Grant, Corey, Jeremy, Ryan – additional vocals
### Production
- Adrian Mottrim – recording assistance
- Mike St. Jean – preproduction assistance
- Brennan Chambers – mixing assistance
- Sheldon Zaharko – recording
- Ryan Dahle – production, mixing ("Quiet Riot")
- T-Roy – mastering
### Release
- Konrad J. Palkiewicz – visual consulting, layout, artwork
- Erich Saide – photography
- Omer Cordell – photography
- Jeff Cohen – legal, management
- Mike Mowery – legal, management
## Charts |
10,235,513 | Østhorn (station) | 1,134,942,858 | Oslo metro station | [
"1934 establishments in Norway",
"Oslo Metro stations in Oslo",
"Railway stations opened in 1934"
]
| Østhorn (until 1939 Korsvoll) is a station on the Sognsvann Line (line 5) of the Oslo Metro in Norway. It is located 7.1 kilometres (4.4 mi) from Stortinget station between Tåsen and Holstein stations. As one of the original stations on the line, Østhorn was opened on 10 October 1934. Nordberg was formerly the next northbound station, but it was closed in 1992, when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded to metro standard (power supply via third rail). Østhorn is located near a hill named Havnabakken, where local residents toboggan during winter time.
## History
Korsvoll station opened on 10 October 1934, when Akersbanerne had finished the Songsvann Line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann station. The line was double-tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll, and single-tracked from there to Sognsvann. In 1939, the section Korsvoll–Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks, and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn. The name "Østhorn" (lit. 'East Horn') owes its origins to a crag by the same name that was demolished during the construction of the Sognsvann Line. The station is now positioned inside the remains of the crag, with a metal nest put up to prevent any crumbling of the surrounding crag.
Østhorn was part of Holmenkolbanen's operating network until 1975, when the municipality of Oslo bought all the company's stock. In 1993, the stations on the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard, which involved a heightening and lengthening of the platforms, and installation of third rail power supply and a new signaling system. During the upgrade, Tåsen station was moved 150 metres (490 ft) further north, and Nordberg station was closed. Many local residents opposed the new station upgrades, arguing that Nordberg had served the area well with its close connection to the elderly center Nordberghjemmet. Many wanted to rather close Østhorn or Holstein than Nordberg, since the latter was the most used station in the area. Oslo Sporveier stated that the access roads to Nordberg were very steep and dangerous, and referred to an incident in the 1950s where some local youth had been tobogganing over the rail intersection at Nordberg, and hit a truck near the station. They also argued that the 200 metres (660 ft) distance between Nordberg and Holstein was too short for having two separate stations, and promised to build a walkway from Nordberg to Holstein.
## Service
Østhorn is served by the line 5 on the Sognsvann Line, operated by Oslo T-banedrift on contract with Ruter. The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes, except in the late evening and on weekend mornings, when there is a 30-minute headway. Travel time along the 7.1-kilometre (4.4 mi) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 13 minutes.
The station provides correspondence to the bus lines 22 and 25 on the top of Havnabakken, a five-minute walk away.
## Facilities
Østhorn has two platforms, with a wooden shed on the southbound platform. The sheds are designed by Arne Henriksen in a minimalist and standardised style with constructions of wood and steel. Østhorn serves the residential areas Korsvoll and Nordberg. The station is located at the bottom of a small hill named Havnabakken, where local residents toboggan at winter's time. |
55,329,808 | Score (Carol Lloyd album) | 1,156,788,120 | null | [
"1979 debut albums"
]
| Score is the debut album by American recording artist Carol Lloyd, released on December 31, 1979, through Casablanca Records and Earmarc Records. Following Lloyd's signing with Earmarc, a new label division of Casablanca, she began recording material for the record throughout the latter half of 1979. A disco album, Score was one of the first projects to be released from the label, which specialized solely in disco music. All six of the tracks on the record were produced by Michael Forte and Bruce Weeden, with the former individual also contributing lyrics to four of the aforementioned songs.
Lloyd released "Score" and "Shake Me, Wake Me" as singles to promote the album, with the latter receiving heavy airplay from disc jockeys, entering Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart at number 89, and being noted as a standout track from Score; the album was similarly well received by music critics. In the 2010s, Score was reissued by the Essential Media Group in two different formats, with the most recent one in 2016 featuring three bonus tracks.
## Background
American recording artist Carol Lloyd was first signed to Earmarc Records in August 1979, the new division of Casablanca Records headed by vice president of special projects, Marc Paul Simon. Earmarc Records would consist solely of artists releasing music in the disco genre, with Lloyd, the Duncan Sisters, Van Hinton, and Ricardo DeCampos to be among the first four artists signed to the newly founded company. The entire album was recorded and mixed at Alpha International Studios in Philadelphia throughout the latter half of 1979. Various collaborators helped out in creating Score, including saxophonist Mark Adler, design agency Gribbitt!, and drummer Robert Sonsini; also, mastering of the album's track took place at Sterling Sound Studios.
Several decades later, the Essential Media Group record label reissued Score in a digital format on May 11, 2010. It was distributed through the iTunes Store in the United States and features "remastered" versions of all six songs to appear on the album. The same label reissued "Score" with B-side "Shake Me, Wake Me" on May 27, 2014. One more reissued version of Score occurred on October 21, 2016; the previously unreleased "Expanded Edition" of Score included three bonus tracks that were exclusive to the digital release of the album. It included the 7" and 12" versions of "Shake Me, Wake Me" plus the 12" version of "Score", extending the number of the tracks on the record from six to nine.
## Singles
Lloyd's first commercial release with the label would be her single "Score", which would take place in September 1979. Serving as the album's lead single and the singer's debut single, "Score" was distributed in both 7" and 12" gramophone vinyl formats. It featured album track "Dream Dancer" as the B-side track, except on initial promotional printings where "Shake Me, Wake Me" was used instead. Michael Forte wrote and produced the track with Bruce Weeden serving as an additional producer; both Forte and Weeden also produced all of the album as well. The staff at Billboard would later include it in their "Top Single Picks" column on September 29 of the same year and listed it as a recommended track for readers of the magazine.
A cover of Four Tops's "Shake Me, Wake Me (When It' Over)", although "When It's Over" was omitted from the title, followed as the album's second and final single and was distributed in December 1979. It also was released in various versions alongside album and B-side track "Sundown to Sunrise", which was written by Bob Alan and Debra Barsha. It received heavy airplay by disc jockeys and was similarly featured in the "Top Single Picks" column by Billboard. The success of "Shake Me, Wake Me" allowed it to enter the Dance Club Songs chart, compiled by Billboard, where it peaked at number 89 on January 5, 1980.
## Reception
Score received generally favorable reviews from music critics. James Arena, who wrote Legends of Disco: Forty Stars Discuss Their Careers, compiled a list of various "somewhat noteworthy disco tracks" released in between the 1970s and 1980s; ultimately, he recommended the readers to listen to "Score", "Showdown", and "Shake Me, Wake Me" from the album as they were all "significant products of the disco era by important artists and worthy of a spin". Barry Lederer, a columnist for Billboard, referred to "Shake Me, Wake Me" as the "one exceptional cut" on Score. Referring to American vocalist Barbra Streisand's cover of the song in 1975, he claimed that Lloyd's version made the "already popular Streisand classic even better".
## Track listing
All tracks on Score produced by Michael Forte and Bruce Weeden.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the vinyl edition of Score.
- Carol Lloyd – vocals
- Mark Adler – alto saxophone
- Mike Bonghi – assistant engineer
- Ron Caesar – bass
- John Demartino – keyboards
- Danny Diangio – keyboards
- Michael Forte – arranging, guitar, production
- Geoff Genovese – creative director and consultant
- Gribbitt! – design and graphics
- Leza Holmes – backing vocals
- Renee Johnson – backing vocals
- Larrey Labes – bass
- Kenny Lipman – tenor saxophone, clarinet
- Howard Menken – photography
- Derick Murdock – bass
- Marc Paul Simon – art direction, design
- Jack Skinner – mastering
- Robert Sonsini – drums
- The Ultimate Players – strings, horns
- Ron Vitola – assistant engineer
- Larry Washington – percussion
- Bruce Weeden – guitar, recording, mixing
- Garfield Williams – drums
- Sharon Williams – backing vocals
- Jerry Williamson – assistant engineer
## Release history |
66,599,122 | The Diving Pool | 1,161,854,392 | Novella collection by Yōko Ogawa | [
"2008 short story collections",
"Japanese horror fiction",
"Japanese novellas",
"Japanese short story collections"
]
| The Diving Pool: Three Novellas is a novella collection by Japanese author Yōko Ogawa, first published in English in 2008. It was Ogawa's first book-length work to be translated.
The Diving Pool is a triptych of psychological horror stories with a loosely connected theme about Japanese femininity, loneliness, and societal alienation. All three novellas have young female protagonists, a schoolgirl in "The Diving Pool" and young adult women in "Pregnancy Diary" and "Dormitory", who feel isolated and alienated by Japanese society and lash out at their surroundings. The novellas focus on the domestic world, reinterpreting it as a prison for its characters which they try gainlessly to escape; the protagonists are at times uncaring, schizoid, or monstrous in their behaviour towards themselves and the world around them.
The Diving Pool received a positive reception in translation, becoming an object of critical praise and academic study. In the original Japanese, the novellas had been published in separate collections up to a year apart, where they were each individually well received.
## Plot
"The Diving Pool", "Pregnancy Diary", and "Dormitory" have similar but unrelated plots.
### The Diving Pool
The protagonist of "The Diving Pool" is Aya, a schoolgirl in her early teens. Aya's parents run a Christian orphanage at which she is "the only child who is not an orphan, a fact that has disfigured my family"; she develops an infatuation with Jun, one of the orphans and a talented diver. Aya obsessively watches Jun practice, sneaking into the orphanage's pool room to watch without him noticing.
As her infatuation builds, Aya also develops a sadistic obsession with Rie, the youngest resident of the orphanage. Rie's suffering and trauma enrapture Aya and encourage her to torment the child until she eventually traps her in an urn, in an emotionally and sexually charged sequence. Jun eventually discovers Aya's sadism, revealing his knowledge of it to her after a diving session and destroying her dreams of a relationship.
### Pregnancy Diary
The unnamed narrator of "Pregnancy Diary" is a young woman who lives with her sister, newly pregnant, and her sister's husband. "Pregnancy Diary" is told in an epistolary format, with the narrator keeping a meticulous journal of her sister's pregnancy and reactions to it. The narrator's sister grows obsessed with scents and food, particularly sweet food, and entrusts the narrator to cook for her to sate her cravings.
The narrator of "Pregnancy Diary" is unemotional, with little reaction to or concern for her sister, while the sister is portrayed in the diary as "nervous and hysterical", dependent on a psychiatrist who makes regular house visits. As the sister's pregnancy grows, she first becomes repulsed by food and later obsessed with it; the narrator remarks on her sister's pronounced weight gain late in the pregnancy, noting the disapproval of her doctors. The narrator purchases ingredients to make a homemade jam for her sister, specifically grapefruits imported from America, which she is warned are treated with a pesticide that "destroys the chromosomes" of growing fetuses. As she makes batches of the jam, the tether of the sisters to reality weakens, and it becomes unclear what is real and what is delusion in their folie à deux.
### Dormitory
The also-unnamed narrator of "Dormitory" is isolated in Tokyo; her husband is working overseas in Sweden, and while she quit her job, she hasn't yet travelled to join him. Her younger cousin is starting university, and she assists him to stay in the same dormitory hall she herself lived in as a student. She strikes up a friendship with the manager, a triple amputee who nonetheless lives independently and can perform complex manual tasks such as sewing buttons with his only remaining limb. Not long after moving in, the narrator's cousin disappears; however, she is uninterested in trying to find him.
"Dormitory" is the most surreal novella in the collection, being told primarily on the metaphorical rather than the literal level. Few of the questions it raises are answered, and the ending is symbolic rather than literal.
## Themes
The Diving Pool is a psychological horror collection with subversive and metaphorical themes. The novellas are dream-like, using loosely connected imagery to evoke feelings and questions without providing answers. The collection relates to a subverted form of femininity and domesticity, with Ogawa's work as a whole being described as about "the horrific femininities of daily life".
A recurring theme of the collection is food, particularly the subversion of feeding other people from an act of caring into one of sadistically undermining the other's wellbeing. In "The Diving Pool", one of the ways Aya torments Rie is to feed her spoiled and rotten food, hoping to sicken the girl under the guise of rewarding her; in "Pregnancy Diary", the focus of the story is the narrator's subverted caregiving for her pregnant sister, feeding her food made with tainted ingredients with the hopes of disfiguring her child. Grace En-Yi Ting, assistant professor of gender and literature at the University of Hong Kong, analyzes this as an element of Ogawa's broader body of literature, where femininity and caregiving being subverted by sadism and schizoid detachment is a wide-ranging theme. Ting understands Ogawa's work as a reflection of Japanese society more broadly, where traditional gender roles and modern capitalist workforce norms combine into unreachable expectations. Furuya Takanori concurs with Ting, describing "Pregnancy Diary" in its original Japanese publication as "妊娠カレンダー (Ninshin karendā)" as part of a greater body of work by Japanese female authors on the human body as an object of discomfort.
The protagonists of each story in The Diving Pool are in different landmark developmental stages; "The Diving Pool" relates to first love, "Pregnancy Diary" to pregnancy, and "Dormitory" to married life. The coming-of-age concept is subverted, as in each case the characters fail to attain developmental milestones and recuse themselves from society. The obstacles between the protagonists and their passions are insurmountable, and their ability to enter mainstream society hampered.
The prose style of The Diving Pool is detailed and intricate regarding locations and inanimate objects, but sparse as to people, furthering the sense of detachment. Despite being told from a first-person perspective, the narration in each story is opaque and reveals little about the thoughts and feelings of the narrators; however, the settings around them are described in detail, with vivid descriptions given of places such as shopping strips and maternity clinics.
## Reception
The Diving Pool received a positive reception upon translation. Writing for The Guardian, Joanna Briscoe described Ogawa as a "conspicuously gifted" writer who needed to be discovered in the Anglosphere. Publishers Weekly described The Diving Pool as "crafty" and "suspenseful" with a "gnawing, erotic edge", while Kirkus Reviews praised it as "a masterfully twisted triptych" that demonstrated the power of short fiction. Victoria James for The Independent called it a "welcome introduction" to Ogawa's work, though criticized the stories for having overly similar structures and premises.
In the original Japanese publication, "Pregnancy Diary" and "Dormitory" won the Akutagawa Prize, one of Japan's most prestigious and sought-after literary prizes. The works were praised for their sense of aesthetics. "The Diving Pool", which was originally published in a separate collection from the other two novellas, was shortlisted for the Akutagawa Prize. In translation, The Diving Pool was awarded the 2008 Shirley Jackson Award for Best Collection and longlisted for the 2009 Independent Foreign Fiction Prize. |
63,657,523 | Earth-return telegraph | 1,144,432,663 | Telegraphy transmission method | [
"History of telecommunications",
"Telegraphy"
]
| Earth-return telegraph is the system whereby the return path for the electric current of a telegraph circuit is provided by connection to the earth through an earth electrode. Using earth return saves a great deal of money on installation costs since it halves the amount of wire that is required, with a corresponding saving on the labour required to string it. The benefits of doing this were not immediately noticed by telegraph pioneers, but it rapidly became the norm after the first earth-return telegraph was put into service by Carl August von Steinheil in 1838.
Earth-return telegraph began to have problems towards the end of the 19th century due to the introduction of electric trams. These seriously disturbed earth-return operation and some circuits were returned to the old metal-conductor return system. At the same time, the rise of telephony, which was even more intolerant to the interference on earth-return systems, started to displace electrical telegraphy altogether, bringing to an end the earth-return technique in telecommunications.
## Description
A telegraph line between two telegraph offices, like all electrical circuits, requires two conductors to form a complete circuit. This usually means two distinct metal wires in the circuit, but in the earth-return circuit one of these is replaced by connections to earth (also called ground) to complete the circuit. Connection to earth is made by means of metal plates with a large surface area buried deeply in the ground. These plates could be made of copper or galvanised iron. Other methods include connecting to metal gas or water pipes where these are available, or laying a long wire rope on damp ground. The latter method is not very reliable, but was common in India up to 1868.
Soil has poor resistivity compared to copper wires, but the Earth is such a large body that it effectively forms a conductor with an enormous cross-sectional area and high conductance. It is only necessary to ensure that there is good contact with the Earth at the two stations. To do this, the earth plates must be buried deep enough to always be in contact with moist soil. In arid areas this can be problematic. Operators were sometimes instructed to pour water on the earth plates to maintain connection. The plates must also be large enough to pass sufficient current. For the ground circuit to have a conductance as good as the conductor it replaces, the surface area of the plate is made larger than the cross-sectional area of the conductor by the same factor as the resistivity of the ground exceeds the resistivity of copper, or whatever other metal is being used for the wire.
## Reason for use
The advantage of the earth-return system is that it reduces the amount of metal wire that would otherwise be required, a substantial saving on long telegraph lines that may run for hundreds, or even thousands, of miles. This advantage was not so apparent in early telegraph systems which often required multiple signal wires. All of the circuits in such a system could use the same single return conductor (unbalanced lines), so the cost saving would have been minimal. Examples of multiwire systems included Pavel Schilling's experimental system in 1832, which had six signal wires so that the Cyrillic alphabet could be binary coded, and the Cooke and Wheatstone five-needle telegraph in 1837. The latter did not require a return conductor at all because the five signal wires were always used in pairs with opposite polarity currents until code points for numerals were added.
The expense of multiwire systems rapidly led to single-signal-wire systems becoming the norm for long-distance telegraph. Around the time earth return was introduced, the two most widely used systems were the Morse system of Samuel Morse (from 1844) and the Cooke and Wheatstone one-needle telegraph (from 1843). A few two-signal-wire systems lingered on; the Cooke and Wheatstone two-needle system used on British railways, and the Foy-Breguet telegraph used in France. With the reduction in the number of signal wires, the cost of the return wire was much more significant, leading to earth return becoming the standard.
Sömmerring's telegraph was an electrochemical, rather than an electromagnetic telegraph and is placed out of chronological order. It is shown here for comparison because it directly inspired Schilling's electromagnetic telegraph, but Schilling used a greatly reduced number of wires.
## History
### Early experiments
The first use of an earth return to complete an electric circuit was by William Watson in 1747 excluding experiments using a water return path. Watson, in a demonstration on Shooter's Hill, London, sent an electric current through 2,800 feet of iron wire, insulated with baked wood, with an earth-return path. Later that year he increased that distance to two miles. One of the first demonstrations of a water-return path was by John Henry Winkler, a professor in Leipzig, who used the River Pleisse in this way in an experiment on 28 July 1746. The first experimenter to test an earth-return circuit with a low-voltage battery rather than a high-voltage friction machine was Basse of Hameln in 1803. These early experiments were not aimed at producing a telegraph, but rather, were designed to determine the speed of electricity. In the event, the transmission of electrical signals proved to be faster than the experimenters were able to measure – indistinguishable from instantaneous.
Watson's result seems to have been unknown, or forgotten, by early telegraph experimenters who used a return conductor to complete the circuit. One early exception was a telegraph invented by Harrison Gray Dyar in 1826 using friction machines. Dyar demonstrated this telegraph around a race course on Long Island, New York, in 1828 using an earth-return circuit. The demonstration was an attempt to get backing for construction of a New York to Philadelphia line, but the project was unsuccessful (and is unlikely to have worked over a long distance), Dyar was quickly forgotten, and earth return had to be reinvented yet again.
### First earth-return telegraph
The first telegraph put into service with an earth return is due to Carl August von Steinheil in 1838. Steinheil's discovery was independent of earlier work and he is often, inaccurately, cited as the inventor of the principle. Steinheil was working on providing a telegraph along the Nuremberg–Fürth railway line, a distance of five miles. Steinheil first attempted, at the suggestion of Carl Friedrich Gauss, to use the two rails of the track as the telegraph conductors. This failed because the rails were not well insulated from earth and there was consequently a conducting path between them. However, this initial failure made Steinheil realise that the earth could be used as a conductor and he then succeeded with only one wire and an earth return.
Steinheil realised that the "galvanic excitation" in the earth was not confined to the direct route between the two ends of the telegraph wire, but extended outwards indefinitely. He speculated that this might mean that telegraphy without any wires at all was possible; he may have been the first to consider wireless telegraphy as a real possibility. He succeeded in transmitting a signal 50 feet by electromagnetic induction, but this distance was not of practical use.
The use of earth-return circuits rapidly became the norm, helped along by Steinheil declining to patent the idea – he wished to make it freely available as a public service on his part. However, Samuel Morse was not immediately aware of Steinheil's discovery when he installed the first telegraph line in the United States in 1844 using two copper wires. Earth return became so ubiquitous that some telegraph engineers appear not to have realised that early telegraphs all used return wires. In 1856, a couple of decades after the introduction of earth return, Samuel Statham of the Gutta Percha Company and Wildman Whitehouse tried to patent a return wire and got as far as provisional protection.
### Problems with electric power
The introduction of electric power, especially electric tram lines in the 1880s, seriously disturbed earth-return telegraph lines. The starting and stopping of the trams generated large electromagnetic spikes which overwhelmed code pulses on telegraph lines. This was particularly a problem on lines where high-speed automatic working was in use, and most especially on submarine telegraph cables. The latter type could be thousands of miles long and the arriving signal was consequently small. On land, repeaters in the line would be used to regenerate the signal, but these were not available for submarine cables until the middle of the 20th century. Sensitive instruments like the syphon recorder were used to detect such weak signals on long submarine cables, and these were easily disrupted by trams.
The problem with trams was so severe in some places that it led to the reintroduction of return conductors. A return conductor following the same path as the main conductor will have the same interference induced in it. Such common-mode interference can be entirely removed if both parts of the circuit are identical (a balanced line). One such case of interference occurred in 1897 in Cape Town, South Africa. The disruption was so great that not only was the buried cable through the city replaced with a balanced line, but a balanced submarine cable was laid for five or six nautical miles out to sea and spliced on to the original cable there. The advent of telephony, which initially used the same earth-return lines used by telegraphy, made it essential to use balanced circuits as telephone lines were even more susceptible to interference. One of the first to realise that all-metal circuits would solve the severe noise problems encountered on earth-return telephone circuits was John J. Carty, the future chief engineer of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Carty began installing metallic returns on lines under his control and reported that the noises had immediately disappeared almost entirely.
## See also
- Single-wire earth return, used for electric power distribution. |
9,317,846 | Gail Godwin | 1,170,641,176 | Novelist, short story writer (born 1937) | [
"1937 births",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American women writers",
"21st-century American novelists",
"21st-century American women writers",
"American women novelists",
"Iowa Writers' Workshop alumni",
"Living people",
"Novelists from Alabama",
"People from Woodstock, New York",
"UNC Hussman School of Journalism and Media alumni",
"William Peace University alumni",
"Writers from Birmingham, Alabama"
]
| Gail Godwin (born June 18, 1937) is an American novelist and short story writer. Godwin has written 14 novels, two short story collections, three non-fiction books, and ten libretti. Her primary literary accomplishments are her novels, which have included five best-sellers and three finalists for the National Book Award. Most of her books are realistic fiction novels that follow a character's psychological and intellectual development, often based on themes taken from Godwin's own life.
Godwin was born in Birmingham, Alabama, but raised mostly in Asheville, North Carolina by her mother and grandmother. She adopted her mother's interest in writing at an early age and obtained a Bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC). After graduating, she worked briefly as a reporter for The Miami Herald, then traveled to Europe and worked for the U.S. Travel Service run by the U.S. Embassy in London. She returned to the U.S. after six years. Godwin taught English at the University of Iowa, while earning her M.A. (1968) and Ph.D. (1971) in English Literature.
While at the University of Iowa, Godwin's dissertation became her first novel, The Perfectionists. By 1976 she had become a successful writer and author of three books. In particular, two books written by her in the 1980s, A Mother and Two Daughters (1982) and A Southern Family (1987), resulted in further acclaim and expanded the readership of her books. Following The Finishing School (1984), readership of her books dramatically declined until 2006, when Queen of the Underworld was published. Flora (2013) became one of her more commercially successful novels.
## Early life and family
Gail Godwin was born on June 18, 1937, in Birmingham, Alabama. Her parents, Kathleen Krahenbuhl and Mose Winston Godwin, were both from North Carolina, but visiting cousins in Alabama when Godwin was born. Godwin's parents divorced two years later. After the breakup, Gail and her mother moved in with her grandparents in Durham, North Carolina. They moved again to Weaverville, NC and then to Asheville, NC. Her grandfather died in 1939, so Godwin was raised by her mother and grandmother in Asheville, where they lived until 1948.
Godwin's grandmother filled the traditional role of a mother, cleaning, cooking and sewing, while her mother was the breadwinner. Godwin's mother had a Bachelor's and master's degree from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She taught college-level English in the mornings, and worked as a reporter for a local paper, Asheville Citizen-Times, in the evenings. On the weekends she wrote love stories for magazines in New York. According to Godwin, growing up with two female guardians had an influence on her writing and her decision to become a writer. By age five she had started identifying with her mother's occupation as a writer more so than her grandmother's work. At nine years old Godwin wrote her first story, titled "Ollie McGonnigle".
In 1948 Kathleen married Frank Cole, a World War II veteran, and moved the family to Virginia. Godwin was further inspired by her mother's determination to continue writing after having a second child. According to Godwin, much of her time growing up was spent in the newsroom, where her mother worked. She also witnessed her mother's plays and novels being rejected. Godwin's autobiography creates the impression that much of her own writing was intended to accomplish the things her mother could not. As Cole's salary increased and he was able to support the family, Godwin's mother focused on being a wife and homemaker, eventually not writing at all.
In Godwin's late teens, her stepfather was working as a salesman and the family moved often. Godwin attended several different high schools, including an all-girls Catholic school, St. Genevieve-of-the-Pines. It was Godwin's favorite teacher at St. Genevieve-of-the-Pines who persuaded her to start keeping a personal diary. According to Godwin, she had a "church upbringing or convent school training." She attended church at St. Mary's and All Souls. She also wrote a short novel as a teenager.
Godwin had no relationship with her father, until the two re-connected at her high school graduation. Godwin's father then offered to pay for her college education. During her junior year in college, Godwin moved in with her father, who committed suicide later that year. Godwin's uncle and a half brother later committed suicide as well. Her mother died in a car accident in 1989.
Godwin attended Peace College in Raleigh, North Carolina from 1955 to 1957. She then transferred to University of North Carolina (UNC), where she attended from 1957 to 1959, graduating with a bachelor's degree in journalism. While in college she worked on The Otherwise Virgins, a novel her mother had written, but was unable to find a publisher for. In 1959 Knopf sent an agent to UNC to scout young writers. Godwin submitted a portion of her novel Windy Peaks for their consideration. The story was about the staff and guests at a resort hotel in the mountains. Her manuscript was rejected. Godwin also worked as a waitress at Mayview Manor at Blowing Rock, North Carolina during her sophomore and junior years.
## Early work
Godwin's first job out of college was at The Miami Herald, where she worked as a journalist for one year. There she met and briefly married photographer and co-worker, Douglas Kennedy. They were married in 1960 and divorced several months later in 1961. According to Godwin, she "worked very hard", but her stories were too "flamboyant" for the publication and she was fired. According to Contemporary Literary Criticism, she was incorporating too much human interest into the paper's stories, which were supposed to be factual. After briefly living with her mother again, Godwin moved to London to distance herself from a failed marriage and job.
In London Godwin worked for the U.S. Travel Service run by the American embassy from 1961 to 1965. Godwin said she was a "glorified receptionist," who was able to read books in secret while at work. Her cousin, who was the mayor of Weaverville, North Carolina, helped to get her the job. While she was employed by the embassy, Godwin completed a novel entitled Gull Key. Like many of her early works, the book focuses on a female character figuring out if marriage and being a parent is the life she wants for herself. Several publishers rejected the novel and the manuscript was lost when Godwin sent the only copy to a publisher that went out of business without returning it.
While in England, Godwin took a course in creative writing at the City Literature Institute, where she met her second husband, psychiatrist Ian Marshall. They were married two months later. The marriage was brief and they were divorced in 1966. After their breakup, Godwin returned to the United States. At age 29, she took a job as fact-checker in New York City for The Saturday Evening Post. She said the job was embarrassing, because she wanted to be a writer, as opposed to fact-checking the work of others.
At this point, a distant uncle of Godwin's died, leaving her an inheritance of \$5,000. She used the money to apply to the Iowa Writers Workshop and, after being accepted, to move from New York to Iowa City in 1967. There Godwin met her teacher and future mentor Kurt Vonnegut. At Iowa, Godwin worked as an instructor while earning an M.A. and Ph.D. from the same university in 1968 and 1971 respectively. She began teaching Greek Drama, before earning a position teaching literature. By age 30, Godwin had written three novels, but was unable to get any of them published.
## Author
### Early published work
According to The Asheville Citizen-Times, Godwin's first successful work was a 1969 short story in Cosmopolitan. Her first published novel was her dissertation written as graduate work at University of Iowa. It was published in 1970 and called The Perfectionists. The story was based loosely on Godwin's second marriage. It was accepted by Harper & Row in December 1968, while Godwin completing her graduate work. From 1971 on, Godwin earned a living through her work as a writer and augmented her income by means of intermittent teaching positions.
After completing her graduate work in 1971, Godwin spent two months at the Yaddo artist's colony in Upstate New York in 1972. There she wrote 100 pages of a novel called The Villain, which was never published. The work was scrapped, but ended up being part of the basis for The Odd Woman. According to author Jane Hill, it was while working on The Odd Women that Godwin transitioned from linear narratives to more complex structures where the plot interweaves past and present events.
It was at Yaddo that Godwin met composer Robert Starer and began a life partnership with him that lasted until his death in 2001. They moved to Stone Ridge, New York in 1973 and later built a house in Woodstock, New York, where Godwin continued her work from home. In addition to her books and short stories, Godwin wrote libretti for ten of Starer's musical compositions.
### Height of Godwin's career
By 1976 Godwin was a successful writer and novelist who had published three books: The Perfectionists, Glass People, and The Odd Woman. The Odd Woman was the longest and most widely recognized of the three. Several short stories by Godwin were published in prominent magazines like Harper's Esquire, Ms. and the Paris Review, where she was often featured on the cover. Godwin was awarded grants from the National Endowment for the Arts (1975–76) and the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1975–76).
Throughout her career, Godwin worked consistently with her agent, John Hawkins, but worked with several different publishing houses. Godwin's early books were published by Knopf. After the editor for The Perfectionists, David Segal, died suddenly of a heart attack, Robert Gottlieb from Knopf became her editor for her next four books. Godwin credits Gottlieb for much of the success of her early works. Later on, when Godwin's then-recent books were less widely read, USA Today commented that this could be in part because she was no longer working with Gottlieb. After Knopf, Godwin contracted with Viking, who offered larger advances and more publicity for her books.
During the years 1982 to 1991, Godwin produced another collection of short fiction and four more novels. According to Publishers Weekly, it was A Mother and Two Daughters (1982) and A Southern Family (1987) that substantially expanded her readership. These novels remained on bestseller lists for an extended period of time. Godwin's earlier works had sold an average of less than 8,000 copies, while A Mother and Two Daughters sold more than 1.5 million. It was the most popular of Godwin's early works and the first time she had written a narrative from the point-of-view of multiple characters. In 1987, Godwin was awarded the Janet Heidinger Kafka Prize for her work on The Southern Family.
By the early 2000s, five of Godwin's books had made the New York Times Bestsellers List and three were finalists for the National Book Award.
### Recent works
By 1999 Godwin had published ten novels. In 2001, Godwin's partner, Robert Starer, died and she began writing a fictional story based on their life called Evenings at Five that was published two years later. In November 2004 Godwin signed a contract with the publisher Ballantine Books for her next four books.
According to Publishers Weekly, Godwin had "achieved a huge degree of success" and still had many devoted readers, but by 1999 she was "no longer the draw she once was." By 2006 The Finishing School (1984) was her last major, commercially successful book, which was followed by a drop in readership. According to Godwin, she was "one of the many authors to be caught in the tumult while [the publishing industry] thrashed about in search of a new business model." The Los Angeles Times said her characters that were progressive working women in the 1970s and 1980s, were now considered "tame" in a modern context.
Kirkus Reviews said Godwin had "a couple of subpar efforts," until publishing Queen of the Underworld in 2006. Flora (2013) became one of her better selling books. Godwin also authored an autobiography, Publishing that appeared in 2015. The Los Angeles Times said her auto-biography was a "preemptive strike" after she was approached by an independent biographer. As of 2015, Godwin's published works have included 14 novels, two collections of short stories, three non-fiction works, and ten libretti.
### Academia and other work
According to The Intellectual in Twentieth-Century Southern Literature, Godwin was unusual in that she was a popular novelist that was also working in academia. Godwin taught at the University of Illinois Center for Advanced Studies from 1971 to 1972. During her time as an author, she was also a lecturer at the Iowa Writers' Workshop (1972 to 1973), Vassar College (1977), and Columbia University (1978/1981). She acted as chair of the fiction panel for the National Book Awards in 1986 and 2008. In 1989, Godwin also founded a small publishing house called St. Hilda's Press. It published religious texts not printed by more commercialized publishers. She later became a Distinguished Alumna of the University of North Carolina and the University of Iowa.
## Themes
Most of Godwin's works are based on themes or events taken from her own life. The characters, settings and narratives vary from novel-to-novel, but common topics have included family, the position of women in society and relationships, a woman's artistic and career pursuits, and the role of religious faith. According to The Intellectual in Twentieth-Century Southern Literature, Godwin's characters "struggle intellectually to navigate the mazes of race, class, gender, family, faith and religion." According to Contemporary Literary Criticism, "she writes about issues pertaining to women - male-female roles, marriage, family, personal freedom, self-concept, and self-actualization." Author Jane Hill said Godwin's books are about co-existing with authorities, the role of decision-making in life, careers as an artist, and the consequences of thwarted ambition. Much of her emphasis is on the concept of the self and one's struggles with society.
Most of the academic analysis of Godwin's work focuses on challenges her characters have as women. According to Contemporary Fiction Writers of the South, a typical protagonist in Godwin's novels is a young woman that "in search of herself, confronts obstacles caused by her family, her lovers, her husband, or her own inanition as she struggles to establish her independence and secure her identity through her work." The main character may be personally flawed, then achieve self-reflection or personal growth thanks to the support of their community or a mentor. Main characters often make poor choices, but become a better person, learn to make better decisions and build stronger bonds often as a result of intellectual pursuits. According to critic Anne Cheney, the protagonist may be "searching for happiness, academic or artistic achievement, love, respect, or, more generally, meaning in life."
According to Warren French from the University of Wales, Godwin's works are most often seen as having two primary themes: gender roles and southern settings. French said Godwin herself disapproves of being categorized, which she feels creates "externally imposed limitations" on the themes she covers. However scholars continue to attempt to put her work into a distinctive literary category. In her early works Godwin was seen as a "woman" writer, because her books appealed to a mostly female audience and because she is a woman. After publishing A Southern Family she began being identified as a southern writer. According to The Times (London), Godwin has a "pesky resistance to categorisation" and she often changes themes even after being commercially successful with one. Academic Lihong Xie said Godwin could be identified with the literary tradition of the Bildungsroman, which focuses on the moral and psychological development of a character. Many other critics posit that a quest for meaning and self-identification are Godwin's primary themes.
Other themes in Godwin's work have included escaping the cultural expectations of becoming a "southern lady," childhood abandonment, depression and suicide, racial discrimination, social class and succeeding without a male companion. Her work has spanned different literary categories, such as realism, fantasy and allegory.
### Early works
All of Godwin's books written from 1970 to 1990 are fictional stories based on themes taken from Godwin's life. Her early works focus on women hoping for a relationship with a male companion, but at the same time wanting independence and freedom. The main protagonist is often restricted by family, tradition and patriarchy. Most of Godwin's early works include a prominent mother-daughter relationship as well.
Her first three books, The Perfectionists (1970), Glass People (1972) and The Odd Woman (1974), have protagonists who find that their relationship with a male companion restricts their personal and professional development. The first two books are each about a female character who feels trapped in an unhappy marriage. According to Contemporary Southern Writers, "unlike fairy tale romances, these novels present a realistic depiction of feminist concerns and struggles." Lihong Xie comments that Godwin's protagonists are southern women that "caught between the ideal of southern womanhood and contemporary feminism, struggle to form a personal identity ..."
Violet Clay (1978) and A Mother and Two Daughters (1982) are each about an unmarried protagonist's career in a creative profession. In A Mother and Two Daughters the main character resists the temptation to get married and chooses instead to focus on her work. A Mother and Two Daughters and A Southern Family (1987) each depend heavily on a southern setting and employ themes traditionally associated with social problems in the South. Some of their themes include racial discrimination, social-economic class and the cultural differences between generations. Many characters struggle to reduce the gap between the rich and poor or try to break free from a dominant cultural tradition, with mixed success.
In Godwin's early books, the female protagonists tend to be fearful, passive and repeating of their mistakes. The protagonist is often depicted as a victim who has failed to achieve independence and is struggling to form a personal identity that could exist beyond that of their relationship with a male companion. In her next books, Godwin begins to introduce stronger and more independent central characters. Violet Clay (1978) for example, features a more assertive character than those in prior novels. According to Susan S. Kissel Adams from Northern Kentucky University, Godwin's later characters:
> come to value inclusion and connection over exclusion and isolation in their lives. They seek ways to combine their private and their public selves, open and extend family structures, take political action, and fulfill their social responsibilities ... In their struggle against southern codes and family structures that retain a powerful hold even in the late twentieth century. Godwin's daughters of the South grow from a state of dependency and arrested development: they begin to embark on mature, adult lives of their own.
### Later works
As in her earlier novels, Godwin's work in the 1970s and 1980s still centers mostly on difficulties female characters experienced as women. However, she departs from this theme in The Finishing School (1984), which is about two women of different generations and the student-mentor relationship between them, rather than their relationship with men. According to Lihong Xie, Godwin's work during this period continues to be about "the female self" and a woman's intimate relationships with husbands, fathers and God.
Godwin's books begin to incorporate religious themes starting with Father Melancholy's Daughter (1991). The novel is told from the perspective of multiple characters, each of whom has a different perspective on religion. Father Melancholy's Daughter was followed by several books that centered on the Episcopal church and Christian practices. In these novels female and male characters have a more equal influence on the events and plot than in prior novels. Godwin's books neither evangelize nor mock the practices of the Episcopal Church, but rather treat it as a routine aspect of life, or as a subject of intellectual interest. During these years Godwin's books continued to show father figures who have died or are absent. By 1996 two of her books had fathers that died and five had stepfathers that are depicted as intruding on the mother-daughter relationship.
According to Narrative Magazine, Godwin transitions from female protagonists who are "looking for ways to get out of traps and confinements" to those who make "interesting or dangerous life choices." Some of Godwin's later works depict successful, but unconventional marriages. In The Good Husband (1994) both partners accept the wife's career as having a priority over the husband's. The Good Husband is also a return to the theme of marriage that is typical of some of Godwin's earlier works. According to Contemporary Southern Writers, The Good Husband "explores the dying experience." Godwin also published several non-fiction works based on her own life during this period.
Godwin's short story collections Dream Children and Mr. Bedford and the Muses focus on themes similar to those in her novels, but also incorporate dreams and myth. They tend to be less auto-biographical than her novels. According to philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Godwin's approach to dream-worlds is radical, because the dream is incorporated into the characters' real-world experiences. Her characters compare their real and dream worlds to each other in order to "negotiate their sense of destiny." She said Dream Children challenges the distinction between reality and dream experiences, where the dream does not "violate one's theory of reality."
USA Today said that the subjects covered in Unfinished Desires (2010) include "Mean girls. Lesbian kisses. Learning disabilities. Domestic violence. Alcoholism. [and] Roman Catholic nuns." According to The Times (London), Flora (2013) "encompasses most of the themes that have preoccupied [Godwin] throughout her career." It takes place in the South in the mid-1940s in the mountains, where a widowed schoolmaster raises his ten-year-old daughter. In a 2015 interview, Godwin says that her work has become less "angry". She said her early works showed a frustration with not being heard, and that her later books focuses on her enemies. Now she's working to understand "the villains' villains."
## Reception
By 1980 Godwin's writing had become the subject of essays, book chapters and other literary analysis from academic critics. According to The Washington Post, "Gail Godwin has been accused of not being able to decide whether she's a popular or a literary writer, but she's certainly accrued enough bestsellers and literary honors to claim both identities." Much of the scholarly attention on her works comes from those critics with an interest in southern or feminist authors. According to Contemporary Fiction Writers of the South, Godwin's books have been "widely and favorably reviewed". Contemporary American Women Fiction Writers states that "although some reviews of her work have been mixed ... her books are accomplished works of fiction, if not masterpieces."
Contemporary Literary Criticism said "most of her books are characterized as well-written, well executed, readable, witty, and having vivid, believable characters. Godwin is typically praised for having convincing plots, witty, intelligent characters and that she has strong narrative skill. She has been criticized, in particular in response to The Good Husband, for excessive symbolism. According to the Dictionary of Literary Biography, Godwin is "thoughtful and philosophical", but she is often critiqued for authoring fiction that is so closely representative of her own life.
The Odd Woman, The Finishing School and Southern Family received overall positive reviews, while Violet Clay and The Good Husband received more negative reviews. According to The Boston Globe, Flora was one of Godwin's best books.
## List of works
This list of works has been taken mostly from Gail Godwin's entry in the Dictionary of Literary Biography.
## Personal life
Gail Godwin lives in a large house in the mountains in Woodstock, New York. She does most of her writing in her study at home. As of 1999, she was swimming every day. She has a southern accent. Godwin is an Episcopalian. |
5,502,443 | Fender Contempo Organ | 1,082,648,656 | Combo organ | [
"Electronic organs"
]
| The Fender Contempo Organ is a combo organ made by Fender during the late 1960s. It was designed to compete with similar instruments such as the Vox Continental and Farfisa Compact, and had additional stops, features and controllers not found on the other models. However, it was only in production for a few years as it struggled to compete with the more popular Hammond organ and Rhodes piano.
## History
In the early to mid-1960s, there was an influx of inexpensive portable combo organs introduced by companies such as Vox, Gibson and Farfisa. Fender wanted to diversify from their established guitar and amplifier market and create a wider product range, and noticed this demand for keyboard instruments. The Fender Rhodes was already entering production, so a combo organ seemed the next logical step. The Contempo Organ was announced in 1967; the Fender Vibratone, a copy of the Leslie speaker, was introduced at the same time. The instrument's list price in 1968 was \$795 (\$ in ).
By the time the instrument was introduced on the market, combo organs were on the wane and the Hammond organ and electric pianos were becoming more popular. There was a limited amount of trade interest, and consequently production ended in 1969. Bill Carson, who designed the Fender Stratocaster, was particularly scathing about the instrument, calling it "the Contemptuous" and "a pile of junk". He attributed the problems to CBS' acquisition of Fender in 1965, which reduced the quality of the company's product range.
## Features
The Contempo featured a keyboard built by Pratt-Read, who also helped construction with the Rhodes, and was enclosed in a similarly styled black vinyl cabinet. It was single-manual instrument with 61 keys. The bottom octave's keys were reverse-colored as on a Harpsichord which could be used as a separate bass section or act as an additional octave to the main tones. A series of rocker switches allowed selection of 16', 8', 51⁄3' and 4' tones, and vibrato and tremolo options. The 51⁄3' stop was designed to allow the Contempo to sound closer to a Hammond than similar combo organs. The vibrato and tremolo options are driven off the same circuitry, and consequently are in sync with each other. Each voice had an additional "boost" switch that changed its volume.
Sonically, the instrument lay somewhere between the thick weedy "buzz" of a Farfisa Combo Compact, and the breathy, piercing flutey tones of the Vox Continental. The Contempo had a unique 5-11⁄3' stop tab (often not included on combo organs, though seen on a Hammond), a tremolo effect and a triple axis volume pedal, which controlled both volume on the up and down motion, and tone on the left to right motion. This pedal was adapted from the triple axis tone and volume pedals sold with Fender Pedal Steel guitars at the time.
Two different cases were available for the Contempo. The more common version had handles on both the case lid and bottom, while the other had tapered edges and both handles on the lid.
### Controls
The Contempo has a number of different voices. Each one has different switches to select volume (f/ff/fff)) by activating certain resistors. This is conceptually similar to the drawbars on a Hammond organ.
- Bass Voices: Diaphone 16', Boost 16' f/ff/fff, String Bass 8', Boost 8' f/ff/fff, Horn 4', Boost 4' f/ff/fff
- Normal/Solo Switch: Switches the bass section between Bass and Solo voices
- Treble Voices: Cello 16, Diaphone 16, Boost 16 f/ff/fff, Diaphone 8, String 8, Clarinet 8', Boost 8' f/ff/fff, Quint 5-11⁄3', Boost 5-11⁄3' f/ff/fff, String 4', Principal 4', Boost 4' f/ff/fff,
- Effects: Solo Timbre, Vibrato Slow/Fast, Vibrato On, Solo Tremolo
## Users
The Contempo was commercially unsuccessful and few models were manufactured, and was not used by many professional musicians. Keith Jarrett played a Contempo in Miles Davis' group, after Fender had given Davis the instrument. It can be heard together with the Rhodes piano on the album Live-Evil and by itself on some live recordings with Davis, when Chick Corea took over the Rhodes and Jarrett only played the Contempo. |
11,348,659 | Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children | 1,170,363,859 | Video game series | [
"2000 Japanese television series debuts",
"2000 anime television series debuts",
"2001 Japanese television series endings",
"2002 Japanese television series debuts",
"2002 anime television series debuts",
"2003 Japanese television series endings",
"Atlus games",
"Game Boy Advance games",
"Game Boy Color games",
"Japan-exclusive video games",
"Megami Tensei anime",
"Megami Tensei spin-off games",
"Mobile games",
"PlayStation (console) games",
"Sega Games franchises",
"TV Tokyo original programming",
"Tactical role-playing video games",
"Video game franchises",
"Video game franchises introduced in 2000",
"Video games about demons",
"Video games developed in Japan",
"Video games with alternative versions"
]
| Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children, also known as DemiKids, is a series of role-playing video games primarily developed by Multimedia Intelligence Transfer and published by Atlus. It is a spin-off from Atlus' Megami Tensei franchise, and began in 2000 with the Game Boy Color games Black Book and Red Book. Five more role-playing games and three games in other genres were released until 2004, followed by no new releases until the 2011 social game Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children. In addition to the games, the series has been adapted into manga, anime, and a trading card game, and two soundtrack albums have been released by First Smile Entertainment.
The series follows demon-human hybrids called devil children, who journey from Japan to the demon world, and are joined by talking companion monsters who give them guidance. The player takes the role of one such devil child, and battles against demons; the devil children do not fight directly themselves, however, but have allied demons in their party fight for them. The player can choose to talk to demons instead of fighting them, to try to make them join the player's party, and can increase their allied demons' power by fusing multiple demons with each other.
While Multimedia Intelligence Transfer developed most of the games in the series, Enterbrain and Index Corporation also developed one game each. The music for the first two games was composed by Tomoyuki Hamada, who made use of both orchestral music and rock. Yuji Himukai, known for his work on the Etrian Odyssey series, worked as character designer and illustrator on the 2011 game, creating new art for returning characters. The series received a wide range of reviews, from negative to positive. Reviewers enjoyed the demon fusion, while the music and visuals were criticized.
## Titles
### Role-playing games
- Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children – Black Book and Red Book were released for the Game Boy Color on November 17, 2000 in Japan, and re-released digitally through the Virtual Console service on the Nintendo 3DS on November 13, 2013. A PlayStation remake of both games was released on March 28, 2002, and re-released digitally on the PlayStation Store on October 13, 2010. Black Book follows Setsuna, whose little brother has been kidnapped by an army of Jack Frosts and taken to the demon world, and who is accompanied by the Cerberus Cool. Red Book follows Mirai, whose father has disappeared in the demon world, and who is accompanied by the pink griffon Veil.
- Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children – White Book was released for the Game Boy Color on July 27, 2001 in Japan. A sequel to the first two games, it follows Masaki, who has a connection to a quiet boy named Takaharu, and who is accompanied by the green chimera Cray.
- were released for the Game Boy Advance on November 15, 2002 in Japan under the titles Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children – Light Book and Dark Book, and on October 7, 2003 in North America. Light Version follows Jin, who is sucked into Valhalla and fights against the Imperium forces together with the rebels; he is accompanied by the Sun Lion Rand. Dark Version follows Akira, who is summoned by Lucifer to a land called Dem, and is tasked with erasing portals; he is accompanied by the dragon Gale.
- Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children – Book of Fire and Book of Ice were released for the Game Boy Advance on September 12, 2003 in Japan. They are sequels to Light Version and Dark Version, again following Jin and Akira.
### Others
- ''''' was released for the Game Boy Advance on July 25, 2003 in Japan. It is a puzzle game starring Jin and Akira from Light Version and Dark Version.
- Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children – Messiah Riser was released for the Game Boy Advance on November 4, 2004 in Japan. It is a real-time strategy game starring Jin and Akira from Light Version and Dark Version.
- Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children''' was released for mobile phones through the social networking service GREE on July 13, 2011 in Japan. It is a free-to-play social game, and the first entry in the series since 2004. Mirai and Setsuna from Black Book and Red Book appear as navigator characters, assisting the player.
## Common elements
While the Devil Children games are released in pairs, similarly to the Pokémon series, each release is its own separate game, with its own story and protagonist, although the stories in each pair's two releases sometimes intertwine. The series' protagonists are the titular "devil children", or "demikids" – children who are demon-human hybrids, and wield superpowers. They all live in modern-day Japan, but end up traveling to the demon world as part of their adventures. The devil children are given weaponry, such as guns, and are joined by guiding companion monsters who can speak human language.
The Devil Children titles are role-playing games in which the player battles against demons. While the player controls a devil child, that character does not directly fight themselves; instead, they send in their allied demons to fight against the opponents. This was changed in Book of Fire and Book of Ice, where the devil children are able to fight by using cards. If one of the player's demons falls in battle, another is automatically sent in to take the first one's place. To recruit new demons to their party, the player needs to choose to talk to the demon instead of fighting it, with the demon's response mostly being based on chance. The player can trade demons with other players, which is required to be able to collect all demon types. While the player's character gains experience points, their allied demons do not; to increase their power, the player needs to fuse their demons with each other.
The non-role-playing games all have different gameplay: Puzzle de Call! is a puzzle game in which the player pushes around boxes to make their way to the pentagram at the end of each screen. Additionally, there is an egg placed in each screen, which disappears if the player does not reach it in a certain number of turns; if they reach it in time, it hatches, giving the player a new demon that can be used when solving the puzzles. Each level, which consists of a number of screens, ends with a boss battle in which the player needs to collect icons while avoiding the bosses' attacks. Messiah Riser is a real-time strategy game in which the player battles by giving their demons commands. It focuses entirely on combat, with no exploration segments between battles. The 2011 Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children is a social game in which the player collects demons, referred to as "devils", and complete quests to become the strongest Devil King; the player can test themselves in daily tournaments. Like in the earlier games, collected demons can be fused with each other; there is also an added "social fusion" feature, where the player can fuse one of their demons with another player's demon. Players can also help one another by giving them demons and money.
## Development
Devil Children was created presumably as a response to the popularity of the Pokémon series of games, and as an alternative take on the game Shin Megami Tensei for younger players, featuring child characters and cute monsters. Most of the games were developed by Multimedia Intelligence Transfer and published by Atlus, and the 2011 Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children, which was developed by Index Corporation. The only games in the series to have been released in English are Dark Version and Light Version. The soundtracks for Black Book and Red Book were composed by Tomoyuki Hamada from the group T's Music, using orchestral music blended with elements of rock. For the 2011 game, Yuji Himukai, known for his work on Atlus' Etrian Odyssey series, was tasked with creating new designs and illustrations of Mirai and Setsuna; they were designed to look older than in their original appearances in Black Book and Red Book.
The popularity of the series in Japan led to the creation of two anime series and two manga series, as well as a trading card game. The first anime, Shin Megami Tensei: DeviChil, was produced by CBC, Dentsu, and TMS Entertainment, with additional animation provided by Actas. It aired for 50 episodes from October 7, 2000 to September 29, 2001; the second, Shin Megami Tensei: D-Children – Light & Dark, aired for 52 episodes from October 5, 2002 to September 27, 2003, and was produced by TV Tokyo and NAS. Actas animated the first half of the series, and Studio Comet animated the second half. Two Devil Children music albums were released by First Smile Entertainment on December 20, 2000 and February 21, 2001: Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children Perfect Soundtracks, which features the soundtracks of Black Book and Red Book, as well as one vocal theme composed by Hiro Takahashi and one by Nao Ito; and Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children Arrange Tracks, which features new arrangements by Hamada and Motoi Sakuraba of Black Book and Red Book music. There were plans for individual soundtrack albums for Black Book and Red Book, but they were cancelled due to low demand.
## Reception
Devil Children has received a wide range of reviews, ranging from negative to positive. Writers at Famitsu commented that the series did not change much between installments, although one said they enjoyed the stability and reliability in that. Kurt Kalata and Christopher J. Snelgrove of Hardcore Gaming 101 described the games as "relatively decent for being fairly conventional RPGs".
Several writers at Famitsu praised the demon fusion mechanic, with one of them calling it the best aspect of the game. Kalata and Snelgrove noted that the series was unusually simplistic for the Megami Tensei series, but still found its gameplay to have more depth than Pokémon's, and that it was able to challenge the player. On the other hand, GameSpot's Frank Provo said that it was not "nearly as fun or diverse", in his review of Light Version and Dark Version. Reviewing White Book, one writer at Famitsu said that the tempo of the game was good, allowing for a stress-free experience playing the game, while another thought that the enemies were too strong at the beginning, forcing the player to repeatedly fuse their demons to make any progress at all.
Kalata and Snelgrove were critical of the Game Boy Color titles' visuals, and were disappointed in the updated music and graphics in the PlayStation remake, saying that it looked like "a subpar Super Famicom RPG". Famitsu was also critical of the updates, calling them insignificant. Kalata and Snelgrove did however find the Game Boy Advance games' graphics to be a large improvement over the previous games'. Patrick Gann at RPGFan was underwhelmed by the music in Black Book and Red Book, calling it "far from noteworthy" and saying that it had failed to leave a lasting impression on him. Chris Greening at VGMO said that the music fulfilled its purpose within the game, but that it was otherwise poor and "samey", with a few catchy compositions as exceptions.
Kalata and Snelgrove thought that Puzzle de Call featured interesting ideas, but that there was not anything special about it. They enjoyed how Messiah Riser was different from other Japanese role-playing games, but found the user interface hard to use and that the artificial intelligence felt erratic; they also commented on how demons only have one magic attack each made the game feel limiting. Famitsu's writers thought that Card Summoner'''s rules were very complex, but noted that the tutorial made it easy to learn. |
67,078,379 | Squatting in Namibia | 1,153,240,677 | Occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner | [
"Squatting in Namibia"
]
| Squatting in Namibia is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. European settlers arrived in the nineteenth century and acquired land, leaving only 38 per cent of land in indigenous hands by 1902. This led to squatting and the Herero Wars, which ended with the Herero and Namaqua genocide. After Namibian independence in 1990, squatting increased as people migrated to the cities and land reform became a goal for those who had participated in the liberation struggle. By 2020, 401,748 people were living in 113 informal settlements across the country. Squatting continues to be regulated by the Squatters Proclamation of 1985; a challenge to this law was dismissed by the High Court in 2023.
## History
### Colonial times
In pre-colonial times there was no notion of formal land ownership in South West Africa, and thus the concept of squatting did not apply. The dispossession of land from Africans by European settlers began in the nineteenth century with the coming of the German Empire and the area was incorporated as German South West Africa. The colonialists made deals with indigenous peoples for land ownership so that by 1902, only 38 per cent of the total land still belonged to the indigenous community. Tensions over land caused the Herero Wars, which ended with the Herero and Namaqua genocide. In 1915, South Africa occupied the colony (ruling it until 1990 as South West Africa) and imposed the apartheid system, which gave land to white farmers and dispossessed black Namibians of their ancestral lands. The Native Administrations Proclamation of 1922, set repressive measures for workers and also criminalised the squatting of privately owned land and by 1926, 7.5 million hectares had been allotted to 1,106 white farmers. The 1962 Commission of Enquiry into South West Africa Affairs continuing to enforce apartheid. Namibia was divided along ethnic lines: ten bantustans were established, the remaining territory, including much of the agriculturally viable land, was reserved for Whites.
### Post-independence
When Namibia gained independence in March 1990, the country inherited a division of land in which 3,500 farmers, who were almost entirely Whites, owned approximately 50 per cent of the country's agricultural land. These farmers constituted 0.2 per cent of the total national population. Land reform became one of the largest goals for many who participated in Namibia's liberation struggle. At the same time the informal settlements began to grow; in the twenty-first century, squatting in Namibia most often occurs when poor migrants from the rural north move to the capital Windhoek and live in such settlements. Squatters in the Vergenoeg shanty town on the edge of Okahandja were told in 2019 they had to make way for a new highway between Okahandja and Windhoek; five thousand people were affected.
Government plans to upgrade settlements have been criticised by squatters who either have been moved to a temporary site then not resettled or have not received promised improvements. In Havana in Windhoek, there were many cases of Hepatitis E in 2018. During the COVID-19 pandemic, squatters in Outjo voiced concern about finding food and firewood during lockdown.
In 2020, the Harambee Prosperity Plan 2 was released. It declared that 401,748 people were living in 113 informal settlements across the country. Almost 100,000 of these people lived in Windhoek, 76,068 in Rundu, 52,870 in Otjiwarongo, 35,452 in Oshakati, over 24,000 in Swakopmund and Walvis Bay, over 13,000 in Rehoboth, 11,400 in Tsumeb, 8,670 in Nkurenkuru and 8,090 in Gobabis.
## Legality
Squatting is regulated by the Squatters Proclamation, AG 21 of 1985, although certain sections were struck out as unconstitutional following Shaanika and Others v Windhoek City Police and Others in 2013. Dimbulukeni Nauyoma, a land activist, launched a challenge to the proclamation in 2020, claiming it was entirely unconstitutional. Nauyoma had been arrested the previous year for resisting an eviction in Windhoek. In 2023, the High Court dismissed the challenge, saying it had not specified which parts of the proclamation were violating human rights. Nauyoma's lawyers said they would appeal to the Supreme Court.
## See also
- Flexible Land Tenure System (Namibia)
- Poverty in Namibia |
5,378,013 | Russian cruiser Gromoboi | 1,139,664,802 | Russian armoured cruiser | [
"1899 ships",
"Cruisers of the Imperial Russian Navy",
"Maritime incidents in 1899",
"Maritime incidents in 1904",
"Maritime incidents in 1920",
"Maritime incidents in 1922",
"Naval ships of Russia",
"Russo-Japanese War cruisers of Russia",
"Ships built at the Baltic Shipyard",
"World War I cruisers of Russia"
]
| Gromoboi (Russian: Громобой, meaning: "Thunderer") was an armoured cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1890s. She was designed as a long-range commerce raider and served as such during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. When the war broke out, she was based in Vladivostok and made several sorties in search of Japanese shipping in the conflict's early months without much success.
Gromoboi, with the other armoured cruisers of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron, attempted to rendezvous in the Strait of Tsushima with the main portion of the Russian Pacific Fleet sailing from Port Arthur in August 1904. The Fleet was delayed, and the squadron returned to port alone. On the return, the squadron encountered a Japanese squadron of four armoured cruisers blocking their passage to base. The Japanese sank the oldest Russian ship, Rurik, and damaged Gromoboi and Rossia during the subsequent Battle off Ulsan. Both Russian ships were repaired within two months. Gromoboi ran aground immediately after completing her repairs and was out of action for four months. Three months after the damage from the grounding incident was repaired, she struck a mine, but successfully returned to port. Her armament was reinforced while under repair, but she saw no further action during the war.
Gromoboi was transferred to the Russian Baltic Fleet after the end of the war and began a lengthy refit that was completed in 1911. She was mostly inactive during World War I, but had her armament and protection upgraded during the war. She was placed into reserve in 1918 and sold to a German company in 1922 for scrapping. She was forced aground near Liepāja during a storm en route to Germany and was scrapped in place.
## Design and description
Gromoboi was originally intended to be a repeat of Rossia, but a design modification for thicker armour and improved engines made that unfeasible. The use of Rossia's hull design meant that the ships looked alike.
Gromoboi was 481 feet (146.6 m) long overall. She had a maximum beam of 68.6 feet (20.9 m) and a draught of 26 feet (7.9 m). The ship displaced 12,455 long tons (12,655 t), only 95 long tons (97 t) more than designed. She was sheathed in wood and copper to reduce biofouling. As completed Gromoboi trimmed badly by the bow, which reduced her speed and made her very wet forward. Loads had to be shifted aft and ballast added to the rear of the ship to correct her trim, but she was regarded as a good sea boat afterward with an easy, although rapid, roll.
### Propulsion
Gromoboi dispensed with Rossia's cruising engine on the centre shaft. Three equally powerful vertical triple expansion steam engines were used with a designed total of 14,500 indicated horsepower (10,813 kW), but they developed 15,496 ihp (11,555 kW) on trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 20.1 knots (37.2 km/h; 23.1 mph). Thirty-two Belleville water-tube boilers provided steam for the engines. She could carry a maximum of 2,400 long tons (2,439 t) of coal. This gave her a radius of action of 8,100 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,320 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
### Armament
Gromoboi's main armament consisted of four 8-inch (203 mm) 45-calibre Pattern 1892 guns; the forward pair was mounted in casemates above the forward main-deck 6-inch (152 mm) gun's casemate. The two rear guns were situated in sponsons abreast the mizzenmast, protected by gun shields. The guns could be depressed to −5° and elevated to 18°. They fired 193.5-pound (87.8 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,950 feet per second (900 m/s) which gave a range of 12,000 yd (11,000 m) at 13° elevation.
Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 6-inch (152 mm)/45 Pattern 1892 guns. One gun was mounted under the forecastle and another in the stern; neither gun could fire to the side. Most of the remaining guns were mounted in casemates, the forward pair in front of the eight-inch guns on the upper deck and the rest on the main deck. One pair was mounted on the upper deck protected by gun shields. In their pivot mounts the guns could depress to -6° and elevate to +20°. They fired 91.4-pound (41.5 kg) Pattern 1907 high explosive projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,600 feet per second (790 m/s). This gave a range of 12,600 yd (11,500 m) at maximum elevation. 240 rounds per gun were carried by Gromoboi.
Defence against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light-calibre weapons. Gromoboi had 24 75-millimetre (3.0 in) Canet Pattern 1892 50-caliber guns mounted in sponsons on the upper deck, protected by gun shields. The gun fired 10.8-pound (4.9 kg) shells to a range of about 8,600 yards (7,864 m) at its maximum elevation of 21° with a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s (820 m/s). The rate of fire was between twelve and fifteen rounds per minute.
The ship carried twelve 47-millimetre (1.9 in) Hotchkiss guns. They fired a 3.3-pound (1.5 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,476 ft/s (450 m/s) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2,020 yards (1,850 m). The ship also carried 18 37-millimetre (1.5 in) Hotchkiss guns. These fired a 1.1-pound (0.50 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,450 ft/s (440 m/s) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3,038 yards (2,778 m).
Gromoboi also had four submerged 15-inch (381 mm) torpedo tubes, with two mounted on each broadside.
### Armour
The Naval Ministry had hoped to increase the Gromoboi's armour thickness and increase the armour protection of the armament, but still use Rossia's hull design. The Ministry also hoped to use the new, more resistant Krupp armour, but Russian plants had proven unable to manufacture it when it was ordered and Harvey armour was used instead. In fact, for Gromoboi, the waterline belt was reduced in thickness by 2 inches (51 mm) from the older ship to six inches to better protect her guns. The belt was shortened by 100 feet (30.5 m) in length to only 300 feet (91.4 m). It was reduced in height by 9 inches (229 mm) as well to a total of 7 feet 9 inches (2.4 m); it extended 2 feet 9 inches (0.8 m) above the waterline and 5 feet (1.5 m) below the waterline. The belt was closed off by six-inch bulkheads fore and aft.
Gromoboi's casemates were 4.7 inches (119 mm) thick, with two-inch backs and 1-inch (25 mm) roofs. The two-inch thick transverse bulkhead fore and aft protected them from raking fire. The armour deck was 1.5 inches thick on the flat and 2.5 inches (64 mm) thick where it sloped down to meet the belt. The protective deck extended fore and aft of the armour deck and ranged from 2.5–3 inches (64–76 mm) in thickness. The change in the machinery allowed Gromoboi to dispense with Rossia's glacis armour that had been necessary to protect the tops of the engine cylinders. The conning tower had walls 12 inches (305 mm) thick, made of Krupp armour. The funnel uptakes and ammunition hoists were protected by 1.5 inches of armour between the lower and middle decks.
## Service
Gromoboi was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg. Construction began on 14 June 1897, although she was not formally laid down until 7 May 1898, and the ship was launched on 8 May 1899. She was transferred to Kronstadt on 24 November 1899 to finish fitting out, but was forced aground by sea ice. She was freed three days later, but needed repairs to her sheathing. She left Liepāja on 10 December 1900 en route to the Far East and stopped briefly at Kiel, where she was inspected by Prince Henry of Prussia, and at Plymouth where the officers visited the Devonport naval base. She represented Russia at the granting of the constitution to Australia, visiting Sydney and Melbourne in April–May 1901, before visiting Nagasaki in July. Gromoboi finally reached Port Arthur on 29 July 1901. She remained in the Pacific until the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. During this voyage she was commanded by Karl Petrovich Jessen.
### Russo-Japanese War
By this time, Gromoboi was assigned of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen. The other ships were the armoured cruisers Rossia and Rurik as well as the protected cruiser Bogatyr. The squadron made a number of sorties against Japanese shipping early in the war. Only one was reasonably successful: on June 15, 1904 the squadron sank Hitachi Maru, which was carrying eighteen 28-centimetre (11 in) siege howitzers and over 1000 troops intended for the siege of Port Arthur.
#### Battle off Ulsan
During the war the bulk of the Russian Pacific Fleet was located in Port Arthur where it was blockaded by the Japanese. On 10 August, the ships at Port Arthur attempted breakout to Vladivostok, but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Admiral Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them, but the order was delayed. His ships had to raise steam, so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August. Bogatyr had been damaged earlier when she grounded and did not sail with the squadron. By dawn he had reached the island of Tsushima in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan. He turned back for Vladivostok when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron. 36 miles (58 km) north of the island he encountered the Japanese squadron commanded by Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō tasked to patrol the Tsushima Strait. The Japanese force had four modern armoured cruisers, Iwate, Izumo, Tokiwa, and Azuma. The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light. This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok.
Jessen turned to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05:00 and they followed suit, albeit on a slightly converging course. Both sides opened fire around 05:23 at a range of 8,500 metres (9,300 yd). The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik, the rear ship of the Russian formation. She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships. Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range, but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese. About 06:00, Jessen turned 180° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron. Kamimura followed suit around 06:10, but turned to port, which opened the range between the squadrons. Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed. Firing recommenced at 06:24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern, flooding her steering compartment; she had to be steered with her engines. Her speed continued to decrease, further exposing her to Japanese fire, and her steering jammed to port around 06:40.
Jessen made another 180° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik, but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen's ships and the Japanese. Kamimura turned 180° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses, but Jessen quickly made another 180° turn so that they headed on opposing courses. Iwate was hit around this time, which knocked out three 6-inch and one 12-pounder guns, killing 32 and wounding 43. The Japanese squadron opened the range again when it made a 180° another turn to port. The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07:45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later. Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08:00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok. Despite this, Jessen turned back once more at 08:15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed, about 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph).
About this time Kamimura's two elderly protected cruisers, Naniwa and Takachiho, were approaching from the south. Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armoured cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik. They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Azuma's engines again broke down during this chase and she was replaced in the line by Tokiwa. The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5,000 metres (5,500 yd), but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6,500 metres (7,100 yd).
About 10:00, Kamimura's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three-quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five-minute rapid-fire barrage. He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik. By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho which had closed to 3,000 metres (3,300 yd) of Rurik in order to finish her off. They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk, but he did not receive the message. Shortly after the Japanese turned back, Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave-to to make repairs.
Gromoboi suffered 87 dead and 170 wounded; far more than Rossia's 44 dead and 156 wounded. This was attributable to Rossia's captain's policy of ordering the gun crews for his quick-firing guns on the engaged side to lie down and those on the unengaged side to go below, in contrast to the Gromoboi keeping her light guns manned at all times. Gromoboi was hit fifteen times on the starboard side of her hull and seven times on her port side, plus other hits in her funnels, boats and decks. She also suffered a fire caused by the ignition of excess propellant charges. Despite this number of hits, she was not badly damaged because her waterline belt was not penetrated. She was repaired within two months by the rudimentary facilities available at Vladivostok.
Immediately following her repairs she ran aground outside Vladivostok on 13 October and was not ready for sea until February 1905. The Russians took this opportunity to reinforce her armament with six more 6-inch guns mounted on her upper deck, protected by lightly armoured casemates. Her armament was rearranged as well with her foremost six-inch guns moved from their casemates to the forecastle and the rearmost six-inch guns moved forward. Room for these changes was made by removing many of her lighter guns; she retained only nineteen 75 mm and two 37 mm guns. She also received several Barr and Stroud rangefinders at this time. While testing her new Telefunken radio equipment on 24 May she struck a mine near her forward boiler room. She was able to return to Vladivostok for repairs, but took no further part in the war.
### Interwar period
Gromoboi returned to the Baltic Fleet after the war. There she was given a lengthy refit that was finished in 1911. Her engines and boilers were reconditioned, and her rear torpedo tubes were removed. The forward 15-inch torpedo tubes were replaced by 18-inch (460 mm) tubes. Her foremast was removed and replaced by her mizzenmast; her mainmast was moved aft in place of the mizzenmast and searchlights were installed on a platform on each mast. A casemate with 3-inch sides and a 1-inch roof was built around the rear eight-inch guns and the rear six-inch guns were moved aft and protected by a casemate with two-inch sides and a .75-inch (19 mm) roof. The thickness of the upper-deck casemates was increased to two inches. Armoured towers fore and aft were built for her rangefinders. Her light armament was reduced to four 75 mm and four 47 mm guns. Engine trials were conducted in late 1910 and were unsatisfactory as they were overheating while delivering only 9,979 indicated horsepower (7,441 kW). The trials were run again on 27 July 1911 and were more satisfactory as they developed 13,337 indicated horsepower (9,945 kW) while Gromoboi reached 18.5 knots (34.3 km/h; 21.3 mph).
### World War I
Gromoboi served in the 2nd Cruiser Brigade of the Baltic Fleet during World War I. She was modified to serve as a fast minelayer with a capacity of two hundred mines.
She engaged the German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann at the entrance to the Gulf of Finland on August 10, 1915.
Her armament was changed in 1916–1917 as well; she exchanged the six-inch guns on the bow and stern for eight-inch guns. These additions increased her broadside to four eight-inch and eleven six-inch guns. All of her remaining light guns were removed and she received two 2.5-inch and two 47 mm anti-aircraft guns. All of these additions raised her displacement to about 13,200 long tons (13,412 t).
Gromoboi came under control of the Soviet Red Fleet in September 1917. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over. Gromoboi sailed to Kronstadt in what became known as the 'Ice Voyage' and was placed into reserve shortly after her arrival.
## Post-World War I
In late October 1920, Gromoboi's crew mutinied and took control of the ship off Kronstadt. They killed Gromoboi's commisars and officers and scuttled the ship. Gromoboi was refloated and was sold to a German company for scrapping on 1 July 1922; she ran aground in a storm near Liepāja while under tow to Germany on 30 October and was scrapped in place. |
46,372,898 | Liu Geping | 1,111,664,046 | Chinese politician | [
"1904 births",
"1992 deaths",
"Chairpersons of the National People's Congress Ethnic Affairs Committee",
"Chinese Communist Party politicians from Hebei",
"Delegates to the 1st National People's Congress",
"Delegates to the 3rd National People's Congress",
"Hui people",
"People of the Cultural Revolution",
"People's Republic of China politicians from Hebei",
"Political office-holders in Ningxia",
"Political office-holders in Shanxi",
"Politicians from Cangzhou"
]
| Liu Geping (Chinese: 刘格平; 8 August 1904 – 11 March 1992) was a Chinese communist revolutionary and politician of Hui Muslim heritage. He is best known as the founding Chairman of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and later for seizing power in Shanxi during the Cultural Revolution, where he made himself the top leader of the province.
Liu spent his early days as a communist agitator, leading peasant uprisings and building the party organization in rural areas. A political survivor, he was arrested several times during the Warlord Era and served two prison terms. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, he held important roles in the party and government but was branded a traitor in 1960. He later returned to work, only to be purged again several years later during the Cultural Revolution. He was rehabilitated after the Cultural Revolution and spent the rest of his life in ceremonial positions.
## Republic of China
### Warlord Era
Liu Geping was born on 8 August 1904 into a large landowning family of Muslim Hui ethnicity in Dadi East Village (大堤东村), Mengcun County, Hebei Province. He also used the names Liu Zimin (刘子敏) and Liu Xiangnong (刘襄侬). In 1918 he joined the army of Li Chun, a warlord of the Zhili Clique, and entered its military school in Nanjing. The next year he participated in the May Fourth Movement as an activist. He joined the Chinese Socialist Youth League in 1922, and returned home to spread revolutionary values. Instrumental in the founding of the first socialist youth cell in the area, in December 1925 he co-led an armed peasant uprising against the Beiyang government, the first of its kind in northern China.
In July 1926, Liu joined the Chinese Communist Party and then spearheaded a series of educational initiatives aimed at increasing the influence of the party in the Tianjin-Hebei region. After founding schools and party organizations in dozens of counties, he took part in the founding of a 300-strong "Southern Tianjin Revolutionary Army", which aimed to topple warlords and incite armed uprisings. In June 1928 he led a peasant uprising in Qingyun County, occupying the county seat and taking guns from the local police. He was arrested that year for his agitation and spent the next three years in prison. After he was released, the Communist Party sent him to Shaanxi to work for Yang Hucheng's army.
### Japanese invasion and Civil War
After the Mukden incident and subsequent Japanese incursions into China, Liu became a founding member of the "Hui People Against Japanese Invasion" organization. In 1932 he returned home to work on military operations and to coordinate underground party activities. He was again arrested on April 20, 1934, after organizing the Majia River (马颊河) uprising in Qingyun. He was held in Caolanzi Prison (草岚子监狱) in Beijing, along with 61 other Communist Party leaders including Bo Yibo, An Ziwen, and Liu Lantao (no relation). To secure their release, the Communist Party Central Committee advised them to sign an announcement denouncing communism. Most complied and were released by the Kuomintang government, but Liu Geping was among the few who refused and served his full sentence.
After his release in 1944, Liu took on more leadership roles within the Tianjin branch of the Communist Party. He then went to Shandong to found an organization for ethnic Hui to aid soldiers on the front lines of the Chinese Civil War. In March 1949, he went south with the People's Liberation Army to East China and served as vice-principal of the newly established East China People's Revolution University.
## People's Republic of China
### Early PRC
In September 1949, Liu Geping was selected as an ethnic minority representative to attend the first meeting of the Communist-led Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference; he was ranked first among minority delegates. At the founding ceremony of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949, he was selected to speak in Tiananmen Square as the official representative of China's minority peoples.
Liu joined the government and became deputy director of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission. In this capacity Liu frequently visited western areas with high minority populations. He was a delegate to the 1st National People's Congress in 1954. After the congress, Liu and the Tibetan communist Phünwang were assigned to accompany the 14th Dalai Lama, also a delegate, on his tour of Chinese cities, which had a great impact on the Dalai Lama.
In 1956, Liu was elected a member of the 8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. In 1958, Liu began heading up the party organization of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region on an interim basis. He became the first Chairman of the autonomous region government in October 1958. Because he took a moderate approach to policies toward ethnic minorities, he was branded an "ethnic splittist" in 1960. In September he was dismissed from all of his positions and sent back to Beijing to take part in "rehabilitation" at the Central Party School.
### Cultural Revolution
In December 1965, Liu regained favour and was named Vice-Governor of Shanxi province. At the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, having gained the support of leftist radicals in Beijing, Liu successfully overthrew his superior Wei Heng and became Chairman of the Shanxi Revolutionary Committee, the de facto top leader. Wei was imprisoned and committed suicide. Meanwhile, the Central Cultural Revolution Group, led by Kang Sheng and Jiang Qing, began to investigate the case of the 61 communist leaders who were instructed to denounce communism at Caolanzi Prison in the 1930s. The officials, notably Bo Yibo and An Ziwen, were branded as the "61 Renegades Clique" and persecuted. In contrast, Liu Geping was heralded as a hero for his refusal to sign the denunciation. He was invited to make speeches all over the country and was re-elected to the 9th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in April 1969. However, Liu had also become involved in major disputes with the military leaders in Shanxi and was engaged in factional violence in the province. He was dismissed from office in July 1969, just three months after his re-election to the Central Committee. In 1970, he was sent to perform manual labour at a pottery factory in Tangshan. He was allowed to return to Beijing in 1975.
### Later life
After the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 and the pivotal 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, the post-Mao Communist Party cleared Liu's name and declared that he "did not have any political problems." In 1983, he was named a member of the National Committee of the 6th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, a ceremonial position.
Liu died in Beijing on 11 March 1992. He was given full funeral rites at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery. His body was taken back to his native village and buried according to Muslim Hui rituals. |
14,941,632 | Founding of Wallachia | 1,163,983,228 | Aspect of Romanian history | [
"History of Wallachia",
"Medieval Wallachia",
"Romanian principalities"
]
| The founding of Wallachia (Romanian: descălecatul Țării Românești), that is the establishment of the first independent Romanian principality, was achieved at the beginning of the 14th century, through the unification of smaller political units that had existed between the Carpathian Mountains, and the Rivers Danube, Siret and Milcov.
Prior to the consolidation of Wallachia, waves of nomadic peoples – the last of them being the Cumans and the Mongols – rode across the territory. The territory became a frontier area between the Golden Horde (the westernmost part of the Mongol Empire) and the Kingdom of Hungary after 1242. The Romanians in Muntenia, east of the Olt River, had to pay tribute to the Mongols; and west of the river, in Oltenia, they were oppressed by the Bans of Severin, appointed by the Kings of Hungary. The Golden Horde's domination decreased in the region at the end of the 13th century, and at that time the Kingdom of Hungary also underwent a strong political crisis. These events enabled the incipient states of the territory to consolidate their autonomy.
One Romanian tradition records that Wallachia was founded when a certain Radu Negru (‘Radu the Black’) arrived from the Făgăraș region in the 1290s after crossing the Transylvanian Alps with "a great many following him". Jean W. Sedlar wrote that "more credible" is the report that some Romanian lords in the Olt and Argeș valleys chose as leader one of their number, a certain Basarab.
It was Voivode Basarab I (c. 1310–1352) who broke off with the Kingdom of Hungary and refused to accept the king's suzerainty. Basarab I received international support and the recognition of the autonomy of Wallachia due to his great military victory over King Charles I of Hungary (1301–1342) at Posada on November 12, 1330. The Metropolitan See of Wallachia, directly subordinated to the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, was set up during the reign of Basarab I's son, Nicolae Alexandru (1352–1364). The first silver and bronze coins were minted in Wallachia in 1365.
## Last centuries of the Early Middle Ages
Among the oldest attestations of the countries of the Vlachs (early Romanians) on the left side of the Danube, there is a quotation of a passage from an Armenian book of geography. The passage represents an interpolation, probably from the first centuries of the second millennium, which refers to an "unknown country called Balak", situated in the neighborhood of the "Sarmatians’ country" and of "Zagura" (Bulgaria). Another 11th-century reference to the Vlachs’ country appears to be the section of the ancient Turkic chronicle Oghuzname ('Oghuz Khan's Tale'), preserved in a 17th-century text, which narrates the battles of the Cumans against several peoples, including the Vlachs (Ulak).
The Cumans, a Turkic tribe approached the Danube Delta shortly after 1064–1065, and from 1068 the entire territory between the Aral Sea and the lower Danube were controlled by them. But this vast territory was never politically united by a strong central power. The different Cuman groups were under independent rulers or khans who meddled in the political life of the surrounding areas, such as the Rus’ principalities and the Byzantine Empire. In attacking the Byzantine Empire, the Cumans were also assisted by the Vlachs living in the Balkan Mountains (now in Bulgaria) who showed them the mountain paths where no imperial guard was set up.
In 1185, the Balkan Vlachs, together with the Bulgarians, rose up in arms against the Byzantine Empire. They created, with the help of the Cumans and the Vlachs living on the left bank of the Danube, a new state, the Second Bulgarian Empire between the Balkan Mountains and the Danube (to the south of the future Wallachia). The new state was called "Bulgaria and Vlachia" in Western sources. For example, in 1204 the pope elevated the head of the Bulgarian church to the rank of "primas" (primate) "of all Bulgaria and Vlachia". Vlachia as an exonym for northern Bulgaria only disappeared from the sources after the middle of the 13th century.
In 1211, King Andrew II of Hungary (1205–1235) settled the Teutonic Knights in the region of Brașov in order to put an end to the frequent incursions of the Cumans into Transylvania. The knights were given all the territory they could conquer beyond the Carpathian Mountains as a fief to be held from the king of Hungary. According to a royal charter of 1222, the knights’ military power stretched across the Carpathians all the way to the Danube. That the Teutonic Knights won several victories "beyond the snowy mountains" (ultra montes nivium), that is to the south and to the east of the Carpathians, is also confirmed by papal letters. However, the Teutonic Knights were forced out of the territory in 1225 by King Andrew II, who claimed that they had ignored his authority.
The Mongols entered Europe in 1223 when they defeated a joint Rus’-Cuman army at the river Kalka (now in Ukraine). Some Cuman groups, after their defeat of the Mongols, became willing to adopt Christianity. As early as 1227, one of the Cuman chieftains, Boricius subjected himself and his people to the future King Béla IV of Hungary, converted to Christianity and agreed to pay an annual tax and the tithe. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania, located in northeastern Wallachia and southwestern Moldavia, was established in 1228. A significant presence of the Vlachs within the newly established bishopric is documented in the correspondence between the Hungarian crown prince and Pope Gregory IX (1227–1241), as the pope complained about Orthodox prelates active among the local Vlachs.
The Diocese of Cumania was de jure a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and King Andrew II adopted the title of "king of Cumania" in 1233. There can be no doubt that the king also placed garrisons at key points on the southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains in northeastern Wallachia. But the military outposts in the region of the bishopric are only first mentioned in relation to the Mongol invasion of 1241 by Roger of Torre Maggiore.
In parallel with the emergence of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary also persuaded an active expansionist policy in the Balkan Peninsula from the end of the 12th century. To that end, Oltenia was put under the control of a Hungarian governor, who received the title of ban. The centre of the new province (the Banate of Severin) was Fort Severin (now Drobeta-Turnu Severin, Romania), on the Danube, in the vicinity of the Iron Gates. Its first ban, Luke, was mentioned in 1233.
In 1236 a large Mongol army was collected under the supreme leadership of Batu Khan and set forth to the west, in one of the greatest invasions in world's history. The Mongols’ most devastating attacks against the western territories of the Desht-i Quipchaq (‘the steppe of the Cumans’) took place in 1237–1238. The development of the battles was not recorded in the sources, but the Cuman's subsequent migration to Hungary, Bulgaria and other neighboring territories is eloquent enough. Although some Cuman groups survived the Mongol invasion, the Cuman aristocracy was slain. The steppes of eastern Europe were conquered by Batu Khan's army and became parts of the Golden Horde.
But the Mongols left no garrisons or military detachments in the lower Danube region and did not take direct political control of it. Although theoretically part of the Golden Horde, the steppe corridor between the Dnieper River and the lower Danube was only a "region of hegemony", not of direct control.
## Earliest voivodates in medieval documents
After the Mongol invasion, a great many (if not most) of the Cuman population left the Wallachian Plain, but the Vlach (Romanian) population remained there under the leadership of their local chiefs, called knezes and voivodes. In 1247, King Béla IV tried to bring the Knights Hospitallers to the region and granted to them a number of territories in the "land of Severin". The knights’ mission, however, proved to be a total failure (there is even no report whether they occupied their posts), but the royal charter for the knights, dated June 2, 1247, lists four autonomous territorial-administrative units (kenezates) in Oltenia and western Muntenia.
Two of them, the kenezates of Johannes and Farcaş were given to the Knights Hospitallers. But the kenezates under Litovoi and Seneslau were exempted from the grant, and the royal charter expressly stipulated that they were to be left "to the Vlachs as they had owned it until now". On the other hand, the royal charter also describes that Voivode Litovoi's rule had extended on the northern side of the Transylvanian Alps into the Hunedoara region, but the king removed this territory from Litovoi's authority in 1247; thenceforward Litovoi's kenezate was restricted to the Oltenian part of the Jiu valley. Voivode Seneslau held the territories of central and southern Muntenia on the banks of the rivers Argeș and Dâmbovița.
After the failure and disappearance of the Hospitallers, the history of the region is shrouded in obscurity for decades. But the trend toward the unification of the Romanian polities seems to begin with Voivode Litovoi. He (or his namesake son) was at war with the Hungarians and killed in battle sometime between 1270 and 1280. In the battle, his brother, Bărbat was captured. Bărbat was forced not only to pay ransom but also to recognize Hungarian rule.
## 'Dismounting' by Radu Negru
Romanian chronicles written in the 17th century narrate that a herțeg or duke of Făgăraș and Almaș, named Radu Negru (‘Radu the Black’) or Negru Vodă (‘The Black Voivode’) was the first voivode of Wallachia. These texts state that Radu Negru, together with some colonists ("Romanians, Catholics and Saxons") arrived from the region of Făgăraş in Transylvania. The first documentary evidence for a terra Blacorum (‘land of the Vlachs’) on the territory later called Făgăraș is an early 13th-century property register which mentions the order of King Andrew II of Hungary that estates previously in Vlach hands be transferred to the Cistercian abbey at Cârța. Radu Negru and his followers crossed the Carpathians to Muntenia and founded Wallachia with its capitals in Câmpulung and Curtea de Argeș. The chronicles narrate these events under the year 1290 or 1292.
The Romanian term for the "founding" (descălecat, literally ‘dismounting’) refers to this alleged settling in Wallachia. But the word's exact meaning is debated, since there had been Romanians living in Wallachia before Radu Negru's arrival; thus the term likely refers simply to the unification of the lands under one ruler. Moreover, this account of Radu Negru's ‘dismounting’ may merely be a legend subsequently invented to parallel the circumstances by which Moldavia, the other Romanian principality was founded according to the earliest chronicles.
The origin of Oltenia is given by some of the chronicles differently: according to these chronicles Oltenia was colonized by Romanians from Turnu Severin, who founded two other capitals, at Strehaia and Craiova. After the arrival of Radu Negru and his descălecat, these Romanians swore allegiance to him.
Radu Negru's personality is surrounded by legend; no details about him can be proved by other historical sources. Some chronicles identify him with the founder of various churches, such as the monastery at Curtea de Argeș, but they mistake him for later voivodes of Wallachia, such as Radu I (c. 1377–c. 1383) and Neagoe Basarab (1512–1521).
Due to lack of any actual contemporary evidence, the Roman historian Nicolae Iorga doubted the existence of such a voivode, considering that 'Negru Vodă' is simply a nickname that could have been given to Basarab I, the real founder of Wallachia. Other view is represented by Neagu Djuvara who identifies Negru Vodă with Thocomerius, Basarab's father, explaining his nickname by his alleged Cuman descent: he appeared to have a dark skin color for the Romanians. In an interview, historian Ioan-Aurel Pop stated, Djuvara "is not a specialist in the field of medieval history" and his "Cumanian theory" is questionable.
The legendary traditions may also be in connection with the establishment of a trans-Carpathian frontier mark by the Hungarian monarchy, with its capital at Câmpulung, probably in the last decade of the 13th century. A tomb stone belonging to one of the leaders of this formation, Count Lawrence of Câmpulung (comes Laurentius de Longo Campo), dating from the year 1300, may provide a solid chronological reference point. On the other hand, comes Laurentius may have been a one-time leader of the Saxon community in Câmpulung.
> History of Wallachia from the time when the Orthodox Christians dismounted there
>
> But earlier the Romanians arrived who had separated from the Romans and wandered to the north. Having crossed the waters of the Danube, they dismounted at Turnu Severin, others in Hungary, by the waters of the Olt, by the waters of the Mureș and by the waters of the Tisa, reaching as far as Maramureș. Those who had dismounted at Turnu Severin spread all along the foot of the mountains towards the waters of the Olt; others went downward all along the Danube. Having this way all the places been filled with them, they arrived as far as the outskirts of Nicopolis. Then the boyars, who are of noble families, gathered. In order to have their own leaders (that is great bans), a family, named Basarab, was appointed to the banship. The first seat was decided to be at Turnu Severin, the second seat to be set up farther, at Strehaia, and the third seat to be set up even farther, at Craiova; and it happened like that. Much time went by and they were governing that region.
>
> In 6798 AM, there was a voievode in Hungary, called Voievod Radu the Black, great duke of Almaș and Făgăraș. He set out from there, together with his whole household and with many other people, Romanians, papists, Saxons, and all kind of men. They descended towards the waters of Dâmbovița, starting this way to establish a new country. First they founded the town called Câmpulung where a large, beautiful and lofty church was built. Afterwards, they settled at Argeş where another large town was founded. By building stone castles, princely houses and a large and beautiful church, the prince's seat was also established there. Some of the people, who had come down together with him, went farther along the foothills as far as the waters of the Siret and towards Brăila. Others went downward establishing towns and villages, and they reached all the places as far as the banks of the Danube and all along the Olt.
> In 6798 AM, there was a voievode called Voievod Radu the Black, who had his seat at Făgăraș from the fathers and forefathers of the Romanians who had come from Rome, in the days of Emperor Trajan decided to move his seat on the other side [of the Carpathians] – Chronicle of Radu Popescu (Cronica Balenilor)
## Basarab I the Founder
Basarab was the son of Thocomerius whose status cannot be specified. There is no direct clue in the sources to the date when Basarab took the office of voivode. But Ioannes Kantakouzenos in his History narrates that in 1323 Basarab's armies joined in the fighting between Bulgaria and Byzantium and supported Tzar Michael Šišman of Bulgaria (1323–1330) against the Byzantines. In a diploma, dated July 26, 1324, King Charles I of Hungary refers to Basarab as "our voivode of Wallachia" (woiuodam nostrum Transalpinum) which indicates that at that time Basarab was a vassal of the king of Hungary.
In short time, however, Basarab refused to accept the suzerainty of the king, for neither Basarab's growing power nor the active foreign policy he was conducting on his own account to the south could be acceptable in Hungary. In a new diploma, dated June 18, 1325, King Charles I mentions him as "Basarab of Wallachia, unfaithful to the king's Holy Crown" (Bazarab Transalpinum regie corone infidelem).
Hoping to punish Basarab, King Charles I mounted a military campaign against him in 1330. The king marched to Severin and took it from Basarab. The voivode asked for a truce, offering to refund 7,000 silver marks for the costs of the army, and showed himself ready to continue paying tribute to the king and send his son as a hostage to the royal court. But the king refused and advanced with his host into Wallachia where everything seemed to have been laid waste.
Unable to subdue Basarab, the king ordered the retreat through the mountains. But in a long and narrow valley, the Hungarian army was attacked by the Romanians, who had taken up positions on the heights. The battle, called the Battle of Posada, lasted for four days (November 9–12, 1330) and was a disaster for the Hungarians whose defeat was devastating. The king was only able to escape with his life by exchanging his royal coat of arms with one of his retainers.
The Battle of Posada was a turning point in Hungarian-Wallachian relations: though in the course of the 14th century, the kings of Hungary still tried to regulate the voivodes of Wallachia more than one time, but they could only succeed temporarily. Thus Basarab's victory irretrievably opened the way to independence for the Principality of Wallachia.
## Aftermath of the Battle of Posada
The international prestige of Wallachia increased considerably after Basarab's victory over King Charles I. Only a few months after his great victory, in February 1331, Basarab contributed to the establishment of his son-in-law, Ivan Alexander (1331–1371) on the throne of the tzars of Bulgaria in Tarnovo.
As a way of solemnizing his secession from the Kingdom of Hungary, Basarab's son, Nicolae Alexandru also sought Byzantine approval for the creation of an Orthodox see for his territories. In 1359 Byzantium acceded to his request that the displaced metropolitan of Vicina, Hyakinthos – whom Nicolae Alexander had been hosting at his court for some time – should become the "legitimate pastor of all Oungrovlachia for the blessing and spiritual direction of himself, his children and all his lordship". At the same time, Byzantium also agreed to the creation of a metropolitan see, after Hyakinthos’ death, for "all Oungrovlachia".
The new state was denoted as Oungrovlachia (Οὐγγροβλαχία) in Byzantine sources which reflects that it bordered on the Kingdom of Hungary. This name is first encountered in a Greek diploma issued by the synod of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1370. In the diploma, the ruler of Wallachia, Nicolae Alexandru is styled "great voivode and master of all Oungrovlachia".
Latin documents used the term Wallachia or Wallachia maior (‘Greater Wallachia’) for Muntenia (which first appeared in 1373), and Wallachia minor (‘Lesser Wallachia’) for Oltenia (first recorded in 1377). The new country was identified as terra transalpina (‘land beyond the mountains’) or partes transalpinae (‘parts beyond the mountains’) in documents issued by the Royal Chancellery of Hungary in the entire 14th century. The terminology of the Hungarian chancellery was also used in the Latin documents of the Wallachian voivodes.
The Romanian rulers chose the Byzantine model of government, and Wallachia was from the start an absolute monarchy. The princes' absolute power was held to be divinely ordained. Their correspondence and records used the expression "By the Grace of God" from the 14th century. Wallachian sovereigns were host commanders and supreme judges, they patronized the church and made decisions that became laws. In theory, the voivodes were considered proprietors of all the lands in the country, but in fact they were devoid of extensive personal land holdings.
The monarchy was also dynastic: the princes were to be elected by boyars from among the members of the ruling family, the Basarabs. The boyars were the members of the privileged landed aristocracy. However, the origin of the Romanian boyar class is problematic: it may have evolved naturally from the heads of the Vlach villages and communities, but it is also possible that the princes created it by granting privileges to certain favored persons.
Multiple vassalage became an important aspect of Romanian diplomacy after the Christian Balkan states (Bulgaria, Serbia) one by one fell to the Ottoman Empire in the course the second half of the 14th century. For example, Mircea the Elder (1386–1418) accepted the suzerainty of Poland in 1387 and that of Hungary in 1395, and Wallachia was paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire from 1417. When accepting Hungarian suzerainty, the princes of Wallachia usually also received the district of Făgăraş in Transylvania from the Hungarian monarchs, for example in 1366 King Louis I of Hungary (1342–1382) granted the region to Prince Vladislav I of Wallachia (1364–1377), with the title of duke, and Prince Mircea the Elder received it from King Sigismund (1387–1437).
During the reign of Mircea the Elder, Dobruja also became part of Wallachia before it was annexed to the Ottoman Empire.
## See also
- Founding of Moldavia
- Balkan–Danubian culture
- Bulgarian lands across the Danube |
1,107,589 | Robert and Thomas Wintour | 1,107,237,217 | Members of the Gunpowder plot | [
"1570s births",
"1606 deaths",
"16th-century English people",
"16th-century Roman Catholics",
"17th-century English criminals",
"17th-century Roman Catholics",
"English Roman Catholics",
"Executed English people",
"Executed Gunpowder Plotters",
"People executed by Stuart England by hanging, drawing and quartering",
"People from Wychavon (district)",
"Sibling duos",
"Wintour family"
]
| Robert Wintour (1568 – 30 January 1606) and Thomas Wintour (1571 or 1572 – 31 January 1606), also spelt Winter, were members of the Gunpowder Plot, a failed conspiracy to assassinate King James I. Brothers, they were related to other conspirators, such as their cousin, Robert Catesby, and a half-brother, John Wintour, also joined them following the plot's failure. Thomas was an intelligent and educated man, fluent in several languages and trained as a lawyer, but chose instead to become a soldier, fighting for England in the Low Countries, France, and possibly in Central Europe. By 1600, however, he changed his mind and became a fervent Catholic. On several occasions he travelled to the continent and entreated Spain on behalf of England's oppressed Catholics, and suggested that with Spanish support a Catholic rebellion was likely.
As momentum was building behind a peace settlement between the two countries, Thomas's pleas fell on deaf ears. Instead, in 1604 he decided to join with Catesby, who planned to restore England to Catholicism by killing the king and inciting a popular revolt in the Midlands, during which James's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, would be installed as titular queen. Thomas returned to the continent and again failed to elicit Spanish support, but instead met Guy Fawkes, with whom he returned to England. Robert, a devout Catholic who inherited Huddington Court near Worcester, joined the conspiracy the following year.
The plot began to unravel following the delivery of an anonymous letter to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, warning him to stay away from Parliament. Thomas and Catesby confronted Monteagle's brother-in-law, the recently recruited Francis Tresham, threatening to kill him, but Tresham managed to convince them of his innocence. At that stage Thomas reportedly asked Catesby to abandon the scheme, to no avail. When Fawkes was captured at about midnight on 4 November 1605, Thomas fled to Robert's house at Huddington. Catesby and most of the others spent two days travelling across the Midlands attempting to incite a rebellion, but with an ever-diminishing group of supporters they eventually settled at Holbeche House in Staffordshire, and waited for government forces to arrive. Thomas, by then reintegrated into the group, chose to remain with them, and in the ensuing firefight was shot in the shoulder, and captured. Robert, who had left before the battle, evaded capture until January 1606.
Much of what is written about the plot is based on Thomas's confessions, given in the Tower of London in November 1605. The brothers were tried on 27 January 1606, and hanged, drawn and quartered several days later in London.
## Family and life before 1604
Robert (b. 1568) and Thomas Wintour (b. 1571–72) were sons of George Wintour of Huddington Court in Worcestershire, and his wife Jane (née Ingleby), daughter of Sir William Ingleby of Ripley Castle near Knaresborough. A sister, Dorothy, married another conspirator, John Grant. Two agnate half-siblings, John and Elizabeth, resulted from their father's marriage to Elizabeth Bourn, following Jane's death. Their paternal grandparents were Robert Wintour of Cavewell in Gloucestershire, and his wife Catherine, daughter of Sir George Throckmorton of Coughton in Warwickshire. As scions of the Throckmortons, they could therefore claim a kinship with plotters like Robert Catesby and Francis Tresham. Their maternal uncle Francis Ingleby, a Catholic priest, was hanged, drawn and quartered at York in 1586, a fact which in the opinion of historian and author Antonia Fraser, "could hardly have failed to leave a stark impression upon the Wintour family." The Wintours took their name from the Welsh Gwyn Tour (White Tower). 'Wyntour' was sometimes used in signatures, but not 'Winter' (as the brothers are commonly named).
A faithful Catholic, Robert was married to Gertrude Talbot, daughter of the recusant John Talbot of Grafton. He inherited the Tudor Huddington Court near Worcester, along with a significant fortune with which he was known to be generous. Under Robert, Huddington Court became a known refuge for priests. The proclamation for his capture, issued following the plot's failure, described him as "a man of mean stature, and rather low than otherwise; square made, somewhat stooping; near 40 years of age; his hair and beard brown; his beard not much, and his hair short." The Jesuit John Gerard wrote that he was "esteemed in his life to be one of the wisest and most resolute and sufficient gentlemen in Worcestershire". Gerard's appraisal of Thomas was just as complimentary. He was apparently an intelligent, witty and educated man, who could speak Latin, Italian, Spanish and French. "He was of mean stature, but strong and comely and very valient, about 33 years old or somewhat more." Thomas worked as a servant to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle. He was educated as a lawyer, but following several years of dissipation travelled to Flanders and enrolled in the English army. He fought against Catholic Spain in the Low Countries, France and possibly against the Turks in Central Europe. However, by 1600 his views had changed; citing his belief in the injustice of fighting against the power of Catholic Spain, like his elder brother he became a passionate Catholic. Travelling as 'Mr Winter of Worcestershire', from 24 February 1601 he spent 13 days in Rome for the jubilee, and later that year and into 1602 travelled to Spain, to petition the Council on behalf of the Catholic rebels left leaderless by the execution of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. Father Henry Garnet, perhaps thinking that the purpose behind Thomas's visit was to gain financial support for impoverished English Catholics, sent him to Superior Father Joseph Creswell, who made the introductions to the Spanish. This trip to Spain later became the first of two visits to be dubbed by the English government as the Spanish Treason, but Thomas's timing was unfortunate, coming as it did so soon after Spain's failed attack in Ireland, and he received only vague assurances of their support. In England he met with the Spanish embassy Don Juan de Tassis, who in August 1603 landed at Dover to help negotiate an Anglo-Spanish treaty. Tassis quickly realised that any chance of a successful Catholic rebellion was unlikely, and discounted Thomas's claim that, with funding, "3,000 Catholics" would be available for the cause. After meeting with King James he wrote to Spain emphasising the need to prioritise peace with England over the freedom of her Catholics.
## Thomas meets with Robert Catesby and John Wright
According to contemporary accounts late in February 1604 Thomas's cousin, Robert Catesby, invited him to his house in Lambeth, but Thomas was indisposed and could not attend. Catesby sent a second letter that Thomas did respond to, and when he arrived he found his cousin with John Wright, a devout Catholic and a renowned swordsman. Catesby planned to re-establish Catholicism in England by blowing up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, killing the king. Thomas did not immediately recoil from the idea. As a former soldier he was a practical man, and he agreed with Catesby that should the plot succeed, it would "breed a confusion fit to beget new alterations". He also offered a warning of the price of failure: "the scandal would be so great which the Catholic religion might hereby sustain, as not only our enemies, but our friends also would with good reason condemn us." He nevertheless agreed to join the conspiracy, and as Catesby had not entirely given up hope of foreign support—"because we will leave no peaceable and quiet way untried"—Thomas returned to the continent.
In Flanders he met Juan Fernández de Velasco, 5th Duke of Frías and Constable of Castile, who was holding court there before his journey to England to conclude the Treaty of London. Thomas again stressed the plight of English Catholics, hoping to influence the forthcoming treaty negotiations due to take place at Somerset House in London. The Constable was "friendly rather than forthcoming". Thomas also met the Welsh spy Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley, who were both disparaging of Catesby's hopes of Spanish assistance. Owen did, however, introduce Thomas to Guy Fawkes, a committed Catholic who had served under Stanley as a soldier in the Southern Netherlands. Although at that time the plotters had no detailed plans, Thomas told Fawkes of their ambition to "do somewhat in England", should Spanish support be lacking. In late April therefore the two men returned together to Catesby's lodgings at Lambeth, and told him that despite positive noises from the Spanish, "the deeds would nott answere".
## Robert joins
With the addition to the conspiracy of Thomas Percy (John Wright's brother-in-law), the five plotters met at the Duck and Drake inn, in the fashionable Strand district of London, on 20 May 1604. From hereon Thomas Wintour remained at the heart of the conspiracy. The group leased properties in London, one in Lambeth for storing the gunpowder that was rowed across the Thames to its destination. His confession has the plotters digging a tunnel toward their target during one of the several prorogations of Parliament, abandoned when the chamber directly beneath the House of Lords became available.
Following the meeting in May Catesby enlisted the aid of several more Catholic men, including Robert Wintour. On the same day he was admitted to the plot, 25 March 1605, the conspirators also purchased the lease to the undercroft they had supposedly tunnelled near. It was into this room that 36 barrels of gunpowder were brought, but when in late August Thomas and Fawkes made an inspection of the gunpowder, they found that it had decayed (separated). Thus, more gunpowder was brought in.
Shortly after this, Catesby recruited the last three conspirators, Sir Ambrose Rookwood, Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham. The latter's involvement in the plot has long been the subject of controversy, as on 26 October his brother-in-law William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, received an anonymous letter while at home, warning him to stay away from Parliament. Thomas went with Catesby to confront Tresham on the matter, threatening to "hang him" if he did not exonerate himself. Tresham managed to convince the pair that he was innocent, but Thomas then tried unsuccessfully to persuade Catesby to abandon the plot. His pleas were in vain; Catesby's position was echoed by Percy, who at a meeting of the three in London on Sunday 3 November, said that he was ready to "abide the uttermost trial". On the same day, Robert and three others stayed at the home of John Talbot of Grafton, his father-in-law. His friends were Robert Acton and his two sons, plus servants. The group left the following morning with extra horses supplied by Everard Digby, and travelled to Coventry.
## Failure and capture
Monteagle had delivered the letter to the English Secretary of State, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, and on Saturday 2 November (about a week later) the Privy Council decided to undertake a search of Parliament. The following Monday, during the first search, Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk, noticed the huge pile of faggots in the corner of the cellar beneath the House of Lords. The king insisted that another search be made, and about midnight another party, this time led by Thomas Knyvet, 1st Baron Knyvet, discovered Fawkes and arrested him.
News of Fawkes's capture soon spread throughout London, including the Strand, where Christopher Wright, John Wright's brother, overheard the commotion. He immediately went to Thomas, who was staying at the Duck and Drake inn. As Fawkes had given his name as "John Johnson", servant of Percy, it was for the latter that the government's first arrest warrant was issued. Thomas guessed as much, and told Wright to go to Percy and "bid him begone". As the rest of those conspirators still in London fled the city, undaunted, he went over to Westminster to try and discern what he could. In author Alan Haynes's opinion, this demonstrated an impressive degree of trust in Fawkes's ability to confound his interrogators, but when Thomas heard for himself that the treason had been uncovered, he left for Huddington, stopping at his sister's house in Norbrook along the way.
The fugitives reached Catesby's family home of Ashby St Ledgers at about 6:00 pm. Not wanting to implicate his mother, Catesby sent a message to Robert, who had just recently arrived there, asking to meet just outside the town. There he told him that Fawkes had been captured. At Dunchurch they collected Everard Digby and his 'hunting party', which included Robert and Thomas's half-brother, John Wintour. He had been invited to join them on 4 November. The next day the group raided Warwick Castle for supplies, something that Robert strongly objected to as it would create "a great uproar" in the country, and later arrived at Huddington Court, where they met Thomas. Early the next morning Huddington's occupants went to confession and took the Sacrament at Mass—in Fraser's opinion, a sign that none of them thought they had long to live. They collected further arms and munitions from Hewell Grange, but trying to recruit more people to their cause they were met with disdain; while the conspirators considered themselves to stand for "God and country", the men of Hewell Grange replied that they were for "King James as well as God and Country". Late that night, pulling a sodden cart full of weapons and armour behind them, they arrived at Holbeche House, near Kingswinford in Staffordshire. Robert was asked if he would go and see if he could elicit any help from his father-in-law, John Talbot at his mansion at 'Pepperhill' in Boningale, Shropshire. He refused, and Thomas went instead, with Stephen Littleton. Talbot was, however, loyal to James, and sent them away, claiming that their visit was "as much as his life was worth". While returning to Holbeche, they received a message that Catesby, Rookwood, John Grant and another man were dead, and the rest apparently fled. Tired and desperate, the plotters had attempted to dry their soaked gunpowder in front of the fire, only for a stray spark to ignite it. While Littleton chose to leave, begging his companion to follow his example, Thomas continued on to Holbeche, where he found the remaining plotters alive, but injured.
While several including Robert and his half-brother John chose to vanish into the night, Catesby, Percy, the Wright brothers, Grant, Rookwood and Thomas remained. Thomas asked them what they intended to do – "We mean here to die". Thomas replied "I will take such part as you do". Richard Walsh, Sheriff of Worcester, arrived with a vigilante force of about 200 men early on 8 November. Thomas was the first to be hit, in the shoulder, while crossing the courtyard. The Wright brothers were next, followed by Rookwood, still injured from the explosion the night before. Catesby and Percy were dropped by a single lucky shot. The sheriff's men then proceeded to strip the defenders of their valuables, but Thomas was saved by the sheriff's assistant. His fine sword, ordered and paid for four months previously, apparently proved too great a temptation for the Sheriff's men, as it was never seen again. He and the others were taken first to Worcester, and then to the Tower of London. Despite a proclamation of 18 November naming them as wanted men, Robert Wintour and Stephen Litteton managed to evade capture until 9 January 1606. They spent about two months hiding out in barns and houses; at one point they were forced to restrain a drunken poacher who happened upon their hiding place. They were eventually discovered at the house of Humphrey Littleton in Hagley, after a cook, John Finwood, informed on them. Humphrey managed to escape, but was captured at Prestwood, in Staffordshire.
## Thomas's confession
Historically, much of what is written about the Gunpowder Plot is derived from Thomas's confession, signed on 23 November 1605; details of the so-called Spanish Treason were added three days later. One of only two confessions printed in the King's Book (a highly partial contemporary account of the affair), Thomas Wintour's was the only account the government had of a plotter who had been involved from the beginning; Guy Fawkes, weakened by days of torture, may have been at the heart of the group, but he was not at its first meetings. However, Antonia Fraser views the document with suspicion, not least because Thomas's signature, 'Thomas Winter', differs from his normal signature, 'Thomas Wintour' (it was the former that was invariably used by the government). The signature, possibly forged by lieutenant of the Tower of London William Waad, was made only weeks after Thomas had been shot in the shoulder during the siege at Holbeche House. Biographer Mark Nicholls views the difference in signatures as a significant and puzzling lapse, if a "master forger" is presumed to be responsible for the document. He views the handwriting on the confession as "convincingly that of Winter [Wintour]", pointing out that it appears to be the work of an author, not an editor, and written as a draft for the King's Book. This is a view that generally, Alan Haynes agrees with: "no one has ever made a solid and sensible suggestion about why a government-employed forger (say Thomas Phelippes) would deliberately make such an error in a crucial state document".
Another of Fraser's concerns is Waad's report to Salisbury on 21 November: "Thomas Winter doth find his hand so strong as after dinner he will settle himself to write that he hath verbally declared to your Lordship adding what he shall remember"—or rather, what he was told to remember. A draft of Thomas's confession, in Coke's handwriting, places extra weight on the involvement of the Jesuits. Thomas's confession also details his account of the mine supposedly dug toward Parliament, not mentioned in Fawkes's first confession.
## Trial and death
The trial of the eight surviving conspirators began on Monday 27 January. The two brothers were brought with the other plotters by barge from the Tower (Catebsy's servant, Thomas Bates, arrived from the Gatehouse Prison), to Whitehall. They were kept in Star Chamber, before being led into Westminster Hall. Charged with high treason, and with no defence counsel, the outcome was never in doubt. The Spanish Treason was a feature of Attorney General Edward Coke's rhetoric, although the Spanish king was "reverently and respectfully spoken of". The Jesuits, such as Henry Garnet, were condemned. Each of the brothers' confessions were also read aloud. While in the Tower, Robert and Fawkes had shared adjacent cells, and were able to speak to each other. However, their private conversation was secretly recorded, and read aloud during the trial.
When asked if he had anything to say, "wherefore judgement of death should not be pronounced", Thomas spoke of his regret at having introduced Robert to the plot, and asked to be hanged on his behalf as well as his own. Robert merely begged for mercy. At the end of the trial, the jury pronounced them all guilty of high treason.
Everard Digby, Robert Wintour, John Grant and Thomas Bates were executed on Thursday 30 January 1606. Dragged by horse to Old St Paul's Cathedral, Robert was the second to be executed, praying quietly to himself before he was hanged, drawn and quartered. The following morning, the remaining four were dragged to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, opposite the building they had planned to destroy. Thomas was the first to mount the scaffold. It was customary to grant the condemned a speech, but Thomas, "a very pale and dead colour", said it was "no time to discourse: he was come to die". He absolved the Jesuits of any involvement in the plot, asked for Catholics to pray for him, and declared his adherence to the Roman religion. He was hanged for only a few seconds, and then taken to the block for the remainder of his grim sentence. Their half-brother John was executed at Red Hill near Worcester, on 7 April. |
52,868,360 | I Won't Be the One to Let Go | 1,121,665,957 | null | [
"2000s ballads",
"2002 singles",
"2002 songs",
"Barbra Streisand songs",
"Barry Manilow songs",
"Columbia Records singles",
"Male–female vocal duets",
"Pop ballads",
"Songs written by Barry Manilow",
"Songs written by Richard Marx"
]
| "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" is a song recorded by American singers Barbra Streisand and Barry Manilow for the former's sixth compilation album, Duets (2002). It was released as the album's only single on November 4, 2002, by Columbia Records. The track was written and produced by Richard Marx with additional songwriting coming from Manilow and additional production handled by Walter Afanasieff. Initially an airplay and streaming-only single in the United States, a promotional CD single of "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" was released and includes the radio edit and album version of the song.
An adult contemporary pop ballad, the single contains lyrics discussing mutual love in a relationship and dismissing fears of abandonment. The song divided music critics, with some calling it sweet and "feel-good", but others describing it as mediocre and unmemorable. In 2014, Streisand featured "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of her 34th studio album, Partners.
## Background and release
"I Won't Be the One to Let Go" is taken from Barbra Streisand's compilation album Duets (2002), a collection of 19 duets spanning from her career. Her duet with Barry Manilow is one of the record's two new tracks, the other being "All I Know of Love" with Josh Groban. "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" was written and produced by Richard Marx with additional songwriting coming from Manilow and additional production handled by Walter Afanasieff. It serves as Streisand's first single release since 1999's "If You Ever Leave Me", which was a duet with Vince Gill and is also featured as one of the nineteen songs on the parent album.
The single was first available for digital streaming on AOL Music on November 4, 2002, as an exclusive privilege to website members. Although the track was not released commercially, "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" was distributed as a promotional CD single on January 6, 2003. With the release handled by Columbia Records, the CD was sent exclusively to United States radio stations and includes the "Radio Version Edit" and "Radio Version" releases of the song. In 2014, Streisand featured her duet as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of her 34th studio album, Partners.
## Recording and composition
With a duration of four minutes and 41 seconds, "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" is an adult contemporary pop ballad, which, according to William Ruhlmann from AllMusic, is similar to the entirety of the songs featured on Duets. In an interview for Barry Gram magazine, Manilow expressed pleasure in having one of his songs sung by Streisand and called her voice "amazing". He elaborated:
> I've just recorded it with the brilliant Barbra Streisand ... we sound like we like each other and mean what we're singing because we worked on it together, in the same room, for days and days before we went into the studio. I think that there's an obvious connection between the two of us (we actually come from the same neighborhood in Brooklyn) and I think you will be able to feel that when you hear the song. It's a wonderful duet and I'm very proud of the song.
Lyrically, Streisand and Manilow talk about mutual love in a relationship and, at times, they dismiss fears that they have, such as abandonment. During the second verse, they alternate: "Who knows what awaits us 'round the bend / Count on me, faithfully / Though everything we have could never end / It could never end." In the chorus, they sing: "This I swear, this I swear / I won't be the one to let go, to let go..."
## Critical reception
A staff member at Billboard acknowledged both "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" and album track "All I Know of Love" as the "two fine new efforts" on Duets, calling the former single a "sweet" collaboration. BBC Music's Morag Reavley enjoyed the single, calling it a "soaring, feel-good" track. However, William Ruhlmann from AllMusic was more critical of the song, describing it as just "mediocre". Tom Santopietro, author of The Importance of Being Barbra: The Brilliant, Tumultuous Career of Barbra Streisand, called "I Won't Be the One to Let Go" a "paltry [...] new song" and ultimately found it to be unmemorable.
## Track listing
## Release history |
3,182,102 | Hurricane Fico | 1,170,418,753 | Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 1978 | [
"1978 Pacific hurricane season",
"1978 in Alaska",
"1978 in Hawaii",
"Category 4 Pacific hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Hawaii",
"Tropical cyclones in Alaska"
]
| Hurricane Fico was the longest-lived hurricane of the 1978 Pacific hurricane season and became the longest-lasting Pacific hurricane on record, a record broken by Hurricane Tina fourteen years later. The sixth tropical storm, fourth hurricane, and third major hurricane, Fico developed from a tropical disturbance off the Pacific coast of Mexico on July 9. It moved northwestward and then westward, quickly reaching peak winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) on July 12. Moving nearly due westward, the intensity of Fico fluctuated from Category 1 to Category 4 status on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale for the following days, and it passed about 170 miles (270 km) south of Hawaii on July 20 with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Fico slowly weakened as it turned to the northwest over cooler waters, and became an extratropical cyclone on July 28 to the northeast of Midway Island.
Swells from Fico, combined with swells from a storm in the Southern Hemisphere, produced rough surf throughout the Hawaiian islands. The surf destroyed one house and resulted in considerable damage along the southern coast of the island of Hawaii. No deaths were reported, and damage totaled \$200,000 (1978 USD, \$619,000 2006 USD).
## Meteorological history
A tropical disturbance persisted 520 miles (840 km) south of Acapulco on July 3. It moved steadily westward and organized over warm water temperatures of 81 °F (27 °C). A circulation developed within the system, and on July 9 it organized into Tropical Depression Seven while located about 580 miles (930 km) southwest of Acapulco. The depression turned to the west-northwest, and after briefly weakening it organized more to attain tropical storm status on July 10 while located about 745 miles (1,199 km) south of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula.
Tropical Storm Fico turned to the northwest after reaching tropical storm status, and entered an area of increasingly warm water temperatures. It quickly strengthened, and 18 hours after becoming a tropical storm Fico strengthened into a hurricane. As the hurricane turned to the west-northwest, a well-defined eye developed in the center of the hurricane, and Fico continued to quickly intensify. Fico attained Category 4 strength about 24 hours after it first became a hurricane, and on July 12 it reached peak winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) while located 640 miles (1,030 km) southwest of Cabo San Lucas. Throughout its duration, the eye of the hurricane was around 35 miles (56 km) in diameter.
While moving nearly due westward, Fico maintained peak winds for about 12 hours before weakening over cooler water temperatures. On July 14, passing over an area of 79 °F (26 °C) waters, the hurricane became disorganized while its winds dropped to 90 mph (140 km/h). Shortly thereafter, it again moved into an area of 83 °F (28 °C) waters, and again reached winds of 135 mph (217 km/h) on July 15. For 48 hours, Fico's winds fluctuated slightly, briefly dropping to 120 mph (190 km/h) before strengthening again to 135 mph (217 km/h). On July 17 the hurricane again began to weaken, and its winds dropped to 90 mph (140 km/h) as Fico entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center area of responsibility. Fico slowly restrengthened and reached Category 3 status late on July 20 while passing about 170 miles (270 km) south of the island of Hawaii. The hurricane turned to the northwest toward an upper-level trough of low pressure, and after maintaining 115 mph (185 km/h) winds for about 36 hours it slowly weakened. On July 27 after entering an area of progressively cooler waters, Fico weakened to a tropical storm while located about 35 miles (56 km) east-northeast of Midway Island. It weakened to a tropical depression the next day, and late on July 28, after turning to the north, Fico became an extratropical depression. An approaching cold front absorbed the remnants of Fico and passed near southern Alaska on July 31. Ships to the southeast of Cold Bay reported heavy rainfall and strong winds in association with the remnants of Fico.
## Impact
Hurricane Fico never made landfall, though a strong east-northeasterly swell from the hurricane along with a strong southerly swell from a southern hemisphere storm produced high surf along the coastline of Hawaii. Civil Defense officials reported 30-foot (9.1 m) waves well offshore. The island of Hawaii received breaking waves of 20 feet (6.1 m) in height, and eastern Maui reported up to 12-foot (3.7 m) waves. Southern Oahu and Kauai also reported slightly above normal waves. Several ships in and around the periphery of the hurricane received moderate winds and rough surf, one of which reported swell waves of 41 feet (12 m). The high seas washed a 65-foot (20 m) tugboat ashore on a reef at Kukuiula. Six people aboard a sloop off Hanalei were rescued by a Navy torpedo boat after it lost its auxiliary power and was unable to progress in the strong winds of Fico. A strong trade wind gradient, increased due to the presence of the hurricane, produced winds of over 60 mph (97 km/h) throughout the island chain. Hurricane Fico also dropped 6 inches (150 mm) of rainfall in Oahu.
Days before the hurricane passed to the south of the state, high surf from Fico caused some beach flooding in the eastern portion of the island of Hawaii. High surf later resulted in considerable damage to roads and beachfront houses along the Big Island shores. The waves destroyed a home in Puna and wrecked a beach pavilion in Kau. The mayors of three Hawaiian cities issued a disaster declaration for their cities following the damage from Fico. In Maui, moderate waves led to road flooding near the water, though no damage occurred on the island. 60 mph (97 km/h) winds throughout Hawaii downed trees, resulting in some power outages. Damage from the hurricane totaled \$200,000 (1978 USD, \$619,000 2006 USD).
## Records and naming
Fico was a northeast Pacific tropical cyclone for 20 days or 468 hours, breaking the previous record since the beginning of reliable satellite monitoring set by Hurricane Celeste of 1972 with 16 days. Fico was also a hurricane for 17 days, which also broke the record set by Celeste of 1972 with 10 days. Both records were later broken by Hurricane Tina. Fico also tracked about 6,000 miles (9,700 km), among the longest tracks on record for a Pacific hurricane.
This hurricane was the only usage of the name Fico. The name Fico was removed after this storm and replaced with Fabio in the 1982 season. It was the first male tropical cyclone name to be retired in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. It is unknown whether it was retired due to its damage or for another reason. Other possible reasons listed for the removal of a name are pronunciation ambiguity, a socially unacceptable meaning in another language, or because the storm name represented a significant human disaster.
## See also
- Hurricane John (1994)
- Hurricane Dora (1999)
- List of Pacific hurricanes
- List of retired Pacific hurricane names
- List of Hawaii hurricanes
- List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes |
11,887,571 | HMS Stratagem | 1,119,484,096 | S-class submarine of the Royal Navy | [
"1943 ships",
"British S-class submarines (1931)",
"Lost submarines of the United Kingdom",
"Maritime incidents in November 1944",
"Royal Navy ship names",
"Ships built on the River Mersey",
"Submarines sunk by Japanese warships",
"World War II shipwrecks in the Strait of Malacca",
"World War II submarines of the United Kingdom"
]
| HMS Stratagem was a third-batch S-class submarine built for the Royal Navy during World War II. Completed in 1943, she made her first war patrol off Norway before she was sent to the Far East, where she conducted three war patrols. On her second, she shelled installations on a Japanese-held island. Her only success came on her last patrol, when she torpedoed and sank a Japanese oil tanker. Soon after, she was spotted by aircraft and depth charged by a destroyer. She was forced to surface, and was scuttled to prevent her capture. Ten crew members escaped the sinking submarine and were taken prisoner, of whom only three survived the war.
## Design and description
The S-class submarines were designed to patrol the restricted waters of the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The third batch was slightly enlarged and improved over the preceding second batch of the S class. The submarines had a length of 217 feet (66.1 m) overall, a beam of 23 feet 9 inches (7.2 m) and a draught of 14 feet 8 inches (4.5 m). They displaced 865 long tons (879 t) on the surface and 990 long tons (1,010 t) submerged. The S-class submarines had a crew of 48 officers and ratings. They had a diving depth of 300 feet (91 m).
For surface running, the boats were powered by two 950-brake-horsepower (708 kW) diesel engines, each driving one propeller shaft. When submerged each propeller was driven by a 650-horsepower (485 kW) electric motor. They could reach 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph) on the surface and 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) underwater. On the surface, the third batch boats had a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km; 6,900 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) and 120 nmi (220 km; 140 mi) at 3 knots (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph) submerged.
The boats were armed with seven 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. A half-dozen of these were in the bow, and one external tube was mounted in the stern. They carried six reload torpedoes for the bow tubes for a grand total of thirteen torpedoes. Twelve mines could be carried in lieu of the internally stowed torpedoes. They were also armed with a 3-inch (76 mm) deck gun. It is uncertain if Stratagem was completed with a 20-millimetre (0.8 in) Oerlikon light AA gun or had one added later. The third-batch S-class boats were fitted with either a Type 129AR or 138 ASDIC system and a Type 291 or 291W early-warning radar.
## Construction and career
HMS Stratagem was a third-group S-class submarine and was ordered as part of the 1941 Naval Programme on 3 August 1941. She was laid down in the Cammell Laird shipyard in Birkenhead on 15 April 1942 and launched on 21 June 1943. On 24 September 1943, Stratagem sailed to Holy Loch, where she was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 9 October. Stratagem has so far been the only Royal Navy ship with this name.
After training in several port areas, the boat departed Lerwick for a work-up patrol off Norway on 3 January 1944. She returned less than two weeks later without having sighted any enemy ships.
Stratagem then had her battery changed at Sheerness on 23 January. The boat conducted additional training exercises until 3 March, when she was sent south to Gibraltar, and arrived on 14 April. The submarine was now commanded by Lt. C. R. Pelly. Along with HMS Sickle and HMS Spirit, Stratagem sailed to Malta in convoy USG 38 and then continued independently to Port Said before transiting the Suez Canal with a stop at Aden and finally arriving at Trincomalee, Ceylon, on 27 May.
### Far East
Stratagem's first war patrol in the Far East started on 27 June 1944, when she departed Trincomalee to operate off the Andaman Islands. On 1 July, she fired four torpedoes at a Japanese merchant ship off Port Blair, but missed. On 2 July, she again unsuccessfully attacked another Japanese ship, as none of her six torpedoes hit their target. Two days later, the boat attacked the same merchant with her two remaining torpedoes and claimed a hit, but Japanese records do not mention a loss on this date. Having expended all her torpedoes, the submarine returned to port on 7 July.
On 31 July, Stratagem departed Trincomalee for another patrol west of Siam. She returned to port on 22 August without having sighted any potential targets. From 16 September to 5 October, the boat conducted another patrol in the same area but only shelled warehouses and buildings on Great Coco Island and did not attack enemy ships.
### Loss
Stratagem departed Trincomalee for the last time on 10 November 1944, with orders to patrol in the Strait of Malacca. Nine days later, she torpedoed and sank the Japanese tanker Nichinan Maru in the Strait, the only victory in her career. On 22 November 1944, the submarine was detected by aircraft and attacked with depth charges by the Japanese submarine chaser CH 35. The first depth charge caused Stratagem's bow to hit the sea bottom and caused flooding. The forward watertight bulkhead could not be closed, and she was forced to surface. The submarine was scuttled, and ten of her crew were taken prisoner, of whom only three survived the war.
## Summary of raiding history
During her service with the Royal Navy, Stratagem sank one Japanese ship of 1,945 GRT. |
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