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7,684,360 | M-106 (Michigan highway) | 1,167,283,172 | State highway in Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Ingham County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Jackson County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Livingston County, Michigan"
]
| M-106 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan in and near the city of Jackson. M-106 travels in a southwest-to-northeast direction from Jackson to Gregory at a junction with M-36 just a few miles northwest of Hell. The highway was first designated in 1928 running north out of downtown Jackson. It connected U.S. Highway 12 (US 12) to the state prison and Bunkerhill Road. A pair of changes in the early 1930s resulted in the extension eastward to Gregory. From the 1960s until the early years of the 21st century, a section of M-106 in downtown Jackson was routed along one-way streets.
## Route description
M-106 starts in downtown Jackson at the corner of Cooper Street and Michigan Avenue. Michigan Avenue runs east–west carrying Business Loop Interstate 94 (BL I-94), Business US 127 (Bus. US 127) and M-50, and Cooper Street runs northwesterly from here carrying M-106. The highway passes through residential neighborhoods immediately north of downtown, and turns due north near Jackson Catholic Middle School and the historic Michigan State Prison. Continuing a few miles north through an interchange with I-94 and US 127, M-106 runs north out of town. Cooper Street continues out of town, and the trunkline runs by the State Prison of Southern Michigan.
North of the current prison, the highway curves to the northwest following Bunkerhill Road. Through this area, M-106 runs through farm fields and forests. The highway turns onto Plum Orchard Road near Batteese Lake and runs east into the community of Munith. M-106 merges onto Territorial Road east of the town before crossing the county line into Ingham County. South of Stockbridge, M-106 merges with M-52 and the two run concurrently into that community. M-106 turns east in the downtown area and continues along Morton Road into Livingston County. The highway ends at a junction with M-36 in Gregory.
M-106 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan. As a part of these maintenance responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction. These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic, which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. MDOT's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M-106 were the 15,474 vehicles daily south of I-94; the lowest counts were the 1,550 vehicles per day in near the M-36 junction. The only section of M-106 has been listed on the National Highway System (NHS) is between M-50 and I-94 in Jackson. The NHS is a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
## History
M-106 was first designated in 1928 on a route that ran from US 12 (Michigan Avenue) along Cooper Street to Bunkerhill Road, a total of 4+1⁄2 miles (7.2 km). This highway was extended north to Stockbridge in late 1930 or early 1931. A further realignment of M-36 resulted in the extension of M-106 to Gregory. Cooper Street in Jackson was converted to one-way, southbound traffic in 1967. A northbound routing along Milwaukee Street was established. The south end of southbound M-106 was trimmed back to end at BL I-94/Bus. US 127/M-50. Two-way traffic was restored in 2004. M-106 was shifted to run only along Cooper Street (formerly Milwaukee Street), and Francis Street (formerly Cooper Street) is left as an unsigned trunkline.
## Major intersections
## See also |
65,972,580 | Republic Cafe and Ming Lounge | 1,108,353,290 | Chinese restaurant and bar in Portland, Oregon, U.S. | [
"1922 establishments in Oregon",
"Chinese restaurants in Portland, Oregon",
"Drinking establishments in Oregon",
"Northwest Portland, Oregon",
"Old Town Chinatown",
"Restaurants established in 1922"
]
| The Republic Cafe and Ming Lounge are a Chinese restaurant and bar in Portland, Oregon's Old Town Chinatown, in the United States. The restaurant is one of Portland's oldest, established in 1922, and continues to operate under the Mui family's ownership. Serving Chinese cuisine such as Mongolian beef, General Tso's chicken, chop suey, and egg foo young, the Republic Cafe has been described as a "staple" of the neighborhood and the city's Chinese American history. Celebrities have visited the restaurant which has also seen several longtime employees. Ming Lounge is among the city's oldest bars and has been characterized as "seedy".
## Description
The Republic Cafe and Ming Lounge are a Chinese restaurant and bar near the intersection of Northwest 4th Avenue and Everett Street in downtown Portland's Old Town Chinatown. Writing for The Oregonian, S.J. Sebellin-Ross described Republic Cafe in 2010 as "warren of a restaurant, with multiple rooms and nooks, culminating in a tight bar". Furthermore, they said of the interior, "A symphony of mood lighting and wall murals, brown vinyl banquettes and oversized wicker chairs, it wouldn't be a surprise to see Frank Sinatra nuzzling Ava Gardner over a dry martini in a dim corner booth." Matthew Korfhage of Willamette Week said the restaurant has a "cramped" dining room with floral tapestries on the walls and a mural "that looks like it was unearthed from an ancient tomb". He described Ming Lounge as a "red-lit palace of baroque Orientalism dominated by a pagoda on one wall".
Portland Monthly said of the clientele: "On the weekends, the Republic Cafe's 1950's-esque neon sign lures drunken clubbers into its midst, providing for them a cure for the drunk munchies that really hits the spot." In 2016, Eater Portland's Heather Arndt Anderson described the restaurant as the city's "reigning old timer of Old Town" with a menu "[harkening] back to the time when chop suey was the trendiest food in town". The Chinese menu has Mongolian beef, General Tso's chicken, chop suey, egg foo young, and hot and sour soup. The spring rolls, made with cabbage and celery, are served with sweet plum sauce, as are the meatless fried wontons. The shrimp and vegetables entree came with button mushrooms, cauliflower, snow peas, and water chestnuts, and the vegetable mushroom noodles came with mushrooms, onions, and snow peas.
## History
### 1920s–1950s
The restaurant, owned by the Mui family, was established in 1922. Republic Cafe and Huber's (both Chinese-owned) are the two oldest restaurants in Portland, as of 2017. Sam Soohoo and Victor Wong were both owners of the Republic Cafe until 1979. Before selling and retiring, Soohoo had been an owner for approximately 40 years; he died in 1993. One of the Republic's cooks, Wong Hai, had his head crushed by a cleaver in the restaurant's doorway in 1942. Suspected of the "brutal" murder, Lock Poy reportedly died by suicide by hanging in a jail cell days later. Steve Woodward of The Oregonian wrote in 2004:
> In the 1950s, the Republic Cafe was a magical place. The restaurant stayed open until 4 a.m. on weekends. When the nightclubs and other restaurants closed at 2:30 a.m. Friday and Saturday nights, their customers poured into the Republic. On Sundays, customers from the Jewish community would line up for a table or carryout. On Mother's Day, people would stand outside in the rain, waiting for a table. The bar used to be filled with big-name lawyers, commissioners, visiting celebrities.
### 1960s–present
Woodward also opined, "Today's Republic Cafe and Ming Lounge is far different from the Republic of the 1950s. A customer no longer can leave a purse on the bar and later expect to find it still there." According to Portland Monthly, during the 1970s the bar occupied the whole banquet room and "the party often lasted until 4am. Today, however, The Republic is merely a testament to its former self." Many celebrities have visited the restaurant, including Louis Armstrong, Harry Belafonte, Victor Borge, Tommy Dorsey, Marcel Marceau, and Shaquille O'Neal. Bud Clark, a former Portland mayor, proposed to his wife at the Republic Cafe.
In 1991, the Republic Cafe agreed to hire the Chinatown Ambassadors, a group of three professional bouncers who helped "patrons of eight Chinatown restaurants get from their cars to the front doors, and vice versa, safely, without the hustle of drug dealers or panhandlers". The Oregonian's Vivien Lou Chen called the initiative "one of the most recent and innovative ways that residents and merchants have found to police themselves", but one of the men who hired the bouncers acknowledged, "the presence of the Chinatown Ambassadors has only pushed drug dealers onto other blocks, where there is less resistance". In 1992, the restaurant hosted the first joint appearance of then mayoral candidates Earl Blumenauer and Vera Katz; the forum was sponsored by the Chinese American Citizens Alliance and the Chinese Chamber of Commerce, and attended by approximately 50 people.
The Republic Cafe has had several longtime staff members. Mary Sasaki worked as a cashier, waitress, and bartender for 51 years, starting on June 5, 1953. Mary Haley was a waitress for 35 years before moving out of Portland in the early 1990s. Merridy Joy Ann Johnson served as a bartender for 25 years.
In 2010, Oregon State University described a low-cost internet surveillance system being developed by Alan Mui and partners. The concept was conceived after Mui helped his father install a low-cost security system at the restaurant. A fire started in the Republic Cafe on August 22, 2017 at 5:00 pm; there were no words regarding casualties or fatalities. In 2018, a photograph of Ivan Mui outside the restaurant was exhibited at the Portland Chinatown Museum's inaugural opening exhibit, Dean Wong's Made in Chinatown USA: Portland.
## Building
The building occupied by the Republic Cafe was designated on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 as part of the Portland New Chinatown–Japantown Historic District, although significant alterations to the building have limited its historical value. The architecture firm Houghtaling & Dougan designed the single-story rectangular concrete building for O.B. Stubbs. The Zanella Brothers completed the structure in 1922 for \$15,000. The Stubbs family owned the building until Sally Friedman bought it in 1945. Chinese and Japanese businesses such as barbershops and restaurants operated in the storefronts. The building has a concrete foundation, stucco exterior, and a flat roof with green tile covers. The entrance and exterior were remodeled in 1960 and 1974, respectively. According to the historic district's registration form, Republic Cafe opened in the building in 1930.
## Reception
Portland Monthly has called the restaurant "a Chinatown staple" with "cheap and greasy" food and said the lounge "provides little in the way of the wild 70s, and the seedy atmosphere and red & gold orientalia decor recalls those halcyon days when Chinatown actually housed a significant Chinese population". In 2010, The Oregonian's Sebellin-Ross called the meatless fried wontons "embarrassingly addictive", recommended the shrimp with vegetables, and wrote, "while the vegetable mushroom noodles are not overwhelmingly tasty, the sheer quantity" of food is "perfect for a big appetite with a small budget". In Linh Dinh's Postcards from the End of America (2017), which sees the author travel by bus and train "to document what life is like in the parts of America that don't always make the headlines", Dinh visit the Plaza Blocks and Ming Lounge. His conclusion for the chapter "Squirrelly Portland" is "It's not all roses here." In 2017, Willamette Week's Matthew Korfhage called Ming Lounge "the most beautiful seedy bar" in the city and said the Republic is "perhaps, the only place in Portland where chop suey and egg foo young are still considered delicacies". He reckoned:
> Sure, the place has seen better days (on our visit, the door had been smashed in, and covered with particle board) but almost nowhere in Portland is the distant past so present. The egg foo young is like an old man's heart—full of egg and gravy. You couldn't call it good, but it is a profound comfort. The hot-and-sour soup and General Tso's chicken can be safely ignored, but the Republic serves the most classic rendition of Mongolian beef in Portland, a massive platter that is all green onion bittersweetness and cellophane crunch, under strips of beef.
Additionally, in his 2017 Old Town pub crawl "for people who rarely use the word 'bro'", Korfhage wrote:
> One of the oldest bars in Portland, the red-walled Ming Lounge is also perhaps one of its most obscure—tucked alongside an equally old Chinatown eatery. But aside from the occasional shouting tweaker, Ming Lounge is amazing: deco walls, the stiffest \$4 well drinks anywhere in town, and surprisingly good Chinese that includes a multi-item egg foo young menu that seems to be directly transported from the 1940s. Turns out, it's delicious when you're drunk late at night—which is when you're here.
## See also
- History of Chinese Americans in Portland, Oregon
- List of Chinese restaurants |
48,847,707 | 2016 Paris–Nice | 1,163,675,539 | null | [
"2016 UCI World Tour",
"2016 in French sport",
"March 2016 sports events in France",
"Paris–Nice"
]
| The 2016 Paris–Nice was a road cycling stage race that took place in France between 6 and 13 March 2016. It was the 74th edition of the Paris–Nice and was the second event of the 2016 UCI World Tour.
The race took place over eight stages, travelling south from Conflans-Sainte-Honorine to finish on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice, although one stage was cancelled due to weather conditions. After a prologue individual time trial, the first few stages were suited to sprinters. The decisive stages came on the final two days, with routes taking the riders through the Alps. The favourites for victory were therefore the climbers, including the defending champion Richie Porte (), Alberto Contador () and Geraint Thomas ().
Michael Matthews () won the prologue and took the leader's yellow jersey. He kept the jersey through the next five days, winning one more of the stages in a sprint. He lost the jersey on the summit finish on Stage 6 to Thomas, who in turn came close to losing it on the final day. After he was dropped by Contador on the final climb of the race, the Col d'Èze, he had to chase back on. At the end of the race, Thomas beat Contador by four seconds, with Richie Porte third a further eight seconds back. Matthews won the points classification and Antoine Duchesne () the mountains classification; Movistar won the team classification.
## Route
The route of the 2016 Paris–Nice was announced on 17 December 2015. The race began with a 6.1-kilometre (3.8 mi) prologue individual time trial in Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, near Paris, on Sunday 6 March and continued for the following seven days. The remaining stages were all road stages, with no other time trials. Stage 1 included two dirt tracks in the final part of the stage, with exposed roads made a possibility. Stage 3 was scheduled to finish on Mont Brouilly, a 3-kilometre (1.9 mi) climb at a 7.7% gradient. Stage 5 included part of the climb of Mont Ventoux, but this came towards the beginning of the stage and was followed by more than 120 kilometres (75 mi) of roads to the finish. The crucial stages were expected to be the final two: Stage 6 finished on the Madone d'Utelle, a 15.3 kilometres (9.5 mi) climb at 5.7%. The final stage included six categorised climbs, with the Col d'Èze the final climb before the descent into Nice for the finish on the Promenade des Anglais.
While Stage 3 was underway, the weather conditions became very poor, with snow on the final climb. After attempting to restart the race, the race organisers cancelled the stage, with Amaury Sport Organisation's Christian Prudhomme saying "The road was very slippery and safe conditions could not be assured."
## Participating teams
The race organisers invited 22 teams to participate. The 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to send a squad. The race organisers also invited four UCI Professional Continental teams as wildcards. These were all French teams: , , and .
Each team could include up to eight riders. All the teams except filled all eight slots; Lotto–Soudal's team of seven meant that the peloton at the start of the race included 167 riders. Lotto–Soudal also chose to compete under a different name from the rest of the season: they became Lotto Fix ALL, taking the name of one of a product made by Soudal, their normal sponsor. They also wore grey and white jerseys in place of their normal red and white.
## Pre-race favourites
Stages 1, 2 and 4 were expected to favour the sprinters, with the other stages likely to be decisive for the general classification. There were a large number of climbers present for Paris–Nice, but the overwhelming favourite was Alberto Contador (), racing in what was possibly his final season in the peloton. Contador had won the race on two previous occasions, but this was his first participation since 2010. Contador had shown some form with a stage win in the Volta ao Algarve. Contador was the only one of the top four Grand Tour contenders to start Paris–Nice: Vincenzo Nibali () was riding Tirreno–Adriatico, while Chris Froome () and Nairo Quintana () opted to wait until the Volta a Catalunya to begin their European seasons.
The defending champion was Richie Porte () who had won the 2015 Paris–Nice after winning the individual time trial on the final day; he had also won the 2013 edition. Since his 2015 victory, Porte had moved from Team Sky to BMC. In the absence of the traditional Col d'Èze time trial, the route was expected to favour him less than previous editions, but his strength in the mountains meant that he was still one of the major favourites. After a strong beginning to the season at the Tour Down Under, Porte had struggled in the Tour of Oman. Porte was replaced as Team Sky's leader for the race by Geraint Thomas, who had finished fifth the previous year. Thomas had won the Volta ao Algarve and was expected to perform strongly in the prologue time trial.
The other major general classification riders included Tom Dumoulin (), Jon Izagirre (), Andrew Talansky and Pierre Rolland (both ) and Romain Bardet ().
Among the sprinters, the biggest name was Marcel Kittel (), who had won four stages so far in the season as well as the overall title in the Dubai Tour. Other prominent sprinters included André Greipel (Lotto–Soudal), Alexander Kristoff (), Arnaud Démare () and Nacer Bouhanni ().
## Stages
### Prologue
6 March 2016 — Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, 6.1 km (3.8 mi) individual time trial (ITT)
The prologue was a 6.1-kilometre (3.8 mi) individual time trial in Conflans-Sainte-Honorine. It began on the bank of the Seine with a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) straight road. There was then a sharp left-hand turn as the road turned away from the river; there were then several more corners and two roundabouts before the end of the stage. The riders set off at one-minute intervals with Porte, the defending champion, the last to set off.
The riders who started earlier in the day were affected by rain. As the final riders set off, Cannondale's Patrick Bevin was in the lead, with a time of 7' 41". Tom Dumoulin beat this by one second, but was in turn beaten by one second by Michael Matthews, the seventh-last rider to take to the course. The final riders, including Porte and Geraint Thomas, were unable to beat Matthews's time. Thomas finished seventh, losing seven seconds to Matthews, with Porte eleventh, a further three seconds back. Contador finished 27th, sixteen seconds behind Matthews, with Talansky and Bardet finishing even further behind. Matthews described it as "very special" to beat Dumoulin, one of the best time-triallists in the world, and said that he hoped to stay in the yellow jersey of the race leader "as long as possible".
### Stage 1
7 March 2016 — Condé-sur-Vesgre to Vendôme, 198 km (123.0 mi)
Stage 1 was a broadly flat stage that covered a 198-kilometre (123 mi) route from Condé-sur-Vesgre to Vendôme. There were no classified climbs in the first 173 kilometres (107 mi). The final 25 kilometres (16 mi), however, followed a circuit around Vendôme that included both climbs and gravel roads. The riders entered the circuit half-way round. They crossed the first gravel sector, the Chemin de Tourteline, then the Chemin du Tertre de la Motte. The second sector included a third-category climb. There were just over 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to the finish line at the end of the second sector. The riders then rode a complete lap of the circuit, crossing both gravel roads and the climb a second time, before reaching the stage finish. The stage took place in difficult conditions, with snow, rain, wind and cold temperatures.
The stage began with a four-man breakaway, formed by Thomas De Gendt (Lotto–Soudal), Steven Tronet (), Thierry Hupond () and Perrig Quéméneur (). With the peloton not trying hard to chase them, they built a ten-minute lead by the middle of the stage. In the second half of the stage, there was some sunshine, but also strong crosswinds: with Sky, Tinkoff and Etixx–Quick-Step working hard at the front of the peloton, there were splits in the group. Alexander Kristoff was in the second group on the road, but he was able to get back to the front as the groups came together.
On the first gravel section, the breakaway's lead had been reduced to ten seconds and they were soon caught with Sky's Luke Rowe working at the front of the peloton. Pierre-Luc Périchon (Fortuneo–Vital Concept) attacked on the first time over the climb; he was caught by work from Orica–GreenEDGE as the riders rode through Vendôme. On the second lap, Marcel Kittel was dropped on the final climb and, despite an attack from Tony Gallopin (Lotto–Soudal) that was followed by Geraint Thomas, a large group crossed the final climb together. Around 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the finish, Edward Theuns () attacked and went under the flamme rouge alone. He was caught, however, by Sky. Sky's Ben Swift was the first to sprint and came close to taking the victory, but he was passed by Démare in the final metres, with Bouhanni finishing third.
Michael Matthews increased his lead by winning two bonus seconds at an intermediate sprint. After finishing fifth at the end of the stage, he retained the yellow jersey; there were no significant changes to the general classification. Démare said that the stage victory was "an immense relief" after he had failed to win any races in 2015.
### Stage 2
8 March 2016 — Contres to Commentry, 213.5 km (132.7 mi)
The second road stage was held on a 213.5-kilometre (132.7 mi) route from Contres in Loir-et-Cher to Commentry in Allier. The route was flat for almost the entire stage, with only one third-category climb that came 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the finish line. After the peloton reached Commentry, there was a lap of a 17-kilometre (11 mi) circuit with a small, uncategorised climb. The final kilometres were slightly uphill, with a 90-degree turn at a roundabout 500 metres (550 yd) from the finish line.
There was again a four-main breakaway at the beginning of the stage, with Evaldas Šiškevičius (Delko–Marseille Provence KTM), Anthony Delaplace (Fortuneo–Vital Concept), Matthias Brändle (IAM Cycling) and Tsgabu Grmay (Lampre–Merida) earning a 10-minute lead by the time they had raced 20 kilometres (12 mi). This was quickly reduced to under four minutes, however, by Etixx–Quick-Step and Orica–GreenEDGE. On the climb, Delaplace won the maximum points. Grmay dropped out of the break with 30 kilometres (19 mi) remaining and as the riders reached Commentry the breakaway had just a 40-second lead.
Šiškevičius and Brändle attacked at the start of the final lap, with Delaplace unable to follow, but with 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) remaining they were caught by the peloton. In the final 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), Cofidis came to the front on behalf of Bouhanni and gave him a good lead-out. Bouhanni followed the wheel of Christophe Laporte and opened his sprint with 200 metres (220 yd) remaining. He was on the right-hand side of the road, with Michael Matthews coming up on his left. In the final 100 metres (330 ft), Bouhanni drifted to the left and leaned into Matthews; the two riders nearly crashed. Bouhanni crossed the line first, with Matthews just beating Niccolò Bonifazio (Trek–Segafredo) for second place, but the result was changed shortly after the stage. Bouhanni was relegated to third place after the jury decided that he had driven the sprint dangerously, giving Matthews the stage victory and putting Bonifazio into second. Alexander Kristoff led the rest of the field home, one second behind. Marcel Kittel, one of the favourites for the stage victory, finished 65th.
### Stage 3
9 March 2016 — Cusset to , 168 km (104.4 mi)
The third stage was scheduled to follow a 168-kilometre (104 mi) route that took the riders east from Cusset in Allier to the climb of Mont Brouilly in Rhône. The route crossed five categorised climbs in the first 120 kilometres (75 mi), then entered a circuit that took the riders on two climbs of Mont Brouilly, a 3-kilometre (1.9 mi) climb at 7.7% with the final 1,000 metres (1,100 yd) at 9.3%.
A group of sixteen riders escaped early in the stage. Alexis Gougeard () attacked along with Laurent Didier (Trek–Segafredo) and Alexey Lutsenko (Astana). They were joined by Jesús Herrada () and Thomas De Gendt (Lotto–Soudal) as the rest of the group was caught by the peloton. The stage took place in cold, wintry conditions, with increasing quantities of snow falling and temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F) recorded. At the top of the third climb of the day was the feedzone and the racing was suspended there. It was initially intended to restart some way down the road, but several minutes later the decision was taken to neutralise the stage. The results did not count for the general classification, but points were awarded for the intermediate sprints and mountains that had already been contested.
### Stage 4
10 March 2016 — Juliénas to Romans-sur-Isère, 195.5 km (121.5 mi)
Stage 4 took the peloton 195.5 kilometres (121.5 mi) south from Juliénas in Rhône to Romans-sur-Isère in the Drôme department. There were three categorised climbs in the stage: two third-category and one second-category. The final climb came 22.5 kilometres (14.0 mi) from the finish.
The early breakaway included four riders. These were Thomas Voeckler (Direct Énergie), Matthew Brammeier (Dimension Data), Florian Vachon (Fortuneo–Vital Concept) and Evaldas Šiškevičius (Delko–Marseille Provence KTM). They were not allowed to build a large advantage, with the peloton keeping them just a few minutes ahead. The main action of the day came on the second-category final climb. In the breakaway, now just a minute ahead, Voeckler attacked and dropped the other breakaway riders. Nathan Haas (Dimension Data) attacked the peloton at the top of the climb, but made a mistake on a corner and ended up in a field. On the climb, Marcel Kittel and Arnaud Démare were dropped, with Démare then pulling out of the race. Geraint Thomas was one of several riders to crash on the climb, but he was able to return to the peloton.
After the climb, with Voeckler being caught, Sylvain Chavanel (Direct Énergie), Sep Vanmarcke () and Delio Fernández (Delko–Marseille Provence KTM) attacked and built a lead; with 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) remaining they had a 15-second lead. Katusha and Cofidis rode very hard in the peloton to bring them back, but the breakaway was finally caught with less than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) remaining. Cofidis again gave Bouhanni a strong lead-out and he comfortably won the sprint. Edward Theuns (Trek–Segafredo) finished second, with Greipel third. Matthews finished fifth to retain his lead of both the general and points classifications. Bouhanni said after the stage that his victory made up for his disqualification on stage 3.
### Stage 5
11 March 2016 — Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux to Salon-de-Provence, 198 km (123.0 mi)
The fifth road stage followed a 198-kilometre (123 mi) route from Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux to Salon-de-Provence in Bouches-du-Rhône. The stage included five climbs, the most significant of which was the partial climb of Mont Ventoux. This was a first-category climb, taking the riders 9.5 kilometres (5.9 mi) at an average gradient of 9.3%. Rather than riding all the way to the summit, the riders descended after Chalet Reynard. This climb came with more than 125 kilometres (78 mi) remaining in the stage. Before Mont Ventoux was a third-category climb; afterwards there were three second-category climbs. The last of these came with 38.5 kilometres (23.9 mi) to the finish line; this last section was mostly flat, although there were two sharp left-hand turns in the final 1,000 metres (1,100 yd).
The early breakaway included Stijn Vandenbergh (Etixx–Quick-Step), Arnaud Courteille (FDJ), Lars Boom (Astana), Wouter Wippert (Cannondale), Edward Theuns (Trek–Segafredo), Matthias Brändle (IAM), Antoine Duchesne () and Jesús Herrada (Movistar). In the first 30 kilometres (19 mi), their lead extended to over eleven minutes. On the climb of Mont Ventoux, Brändle was dropped from the breakaway, while Bouhanni, Kittel and Greipel were among those dropped from the peloton. Greipel was among seven riders to drop out during the stage. Wippert and Theuns were next to be dropped from the breakaway; Boom and Vandenbergh were also temporarily dropped but were able to rejoin the front group, although the group's lead was reduced to just over three minutes by the third climb of the day. Herrada won the first two climbs of the day and came second on the following two to take the lead in the mountains classification, then dropped back to the peloton.
Duchesne attacked on the penultimate climb, the Côte de la Roque-d'Anthéron, and had a 33-second lead over the peloton. On the descent from the final climb, Alexey Lutsenko (Astana) attacked from the peloton and came across to Duchesne. Lutsenko quickly dropped him and, with 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) remaining, had built a 39-second lead, putting him into the virtual lead of the race. The chase only began in earnest in the final 3 kilometres (1.9 mi), with Katusha chasing on behalf of Alexander Kristoff, but the peloton were unable to catch Lutsenko and he crossed the line for a solo victory, 21 seconds ahead of the chasing group. Kristoff won the sprint for second, with Matthews finishing third. Lutsenko moved into second place overall, six seconds behind Matthews.
After the stage, Matthews said that he felt he could win the overall general classification. He said, "I think if I can survive Saturday [Stage 5], I can win. With the way I’ve been climbing, I think it's possible." Contador, meanwhile, said that the final climb of Stage 6 was not very steep and that it might be difficult to put significant time into Matthews.
### Stage 6
12 March 2016 — Nice to Madone d'Utelle, 177 km (110.0 mi)
The penultimate stage of the race took the riders 177 kilometres (110 mi) through the Alpes-Maritimes. The route started on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice, then left the city to the north for a course that included seven categorised climbs. The first 50 kilometres (31 mi) of racing crossed two second-category climbs, which were followed by a 35-kilometre (22 mi) section of flat roads and descents. This was followed by another second-category climb and a first-category climb, the 8.5-kilometre (5.3 mi) Côte d'Ascros with its average gradient of 5.4%. After a long descent came two more second-category climbs, bringing the riders to Utelle. They had a summit finish at the shrine of the Madone d'Utelle above the city, with a 15.3-kilometre (9.5 mi) climb at an average gradient of 5.7%. The climb was fairly regular, but had two sections above 9%, including the final 300 metres (330 yd).
The day's breakaway included nine riders. These were Antoine Duchesne (Direct Énergie), Florian Vachon (Fortuneo–Vital Concept), Niki Terpstra (Etixx–Quick-Step), Cyril Gautier (AG2R La Mondiale), Grégory Rast (Trek–Segafredo), Evaldas Šiškevičius (Delko–Marseille Provence KTM), Tsgabu Grmay (Lampre–Merida), Andrew Talansky (Cannondale) and Thomas De Gendt (Lotto–Soudal). The gap never exceeded two and a half minutes, with Tinkoff chasing hard on behalf of Contador and, with 55 kilometres (34 mi) remaining, was just one minute. De Gendt won the first four climbs to move into second in the mountains classification, while Rast and Šiškevičius were dropped. Talansky crashed on one of the descents and abandoned the race with a wrist injury. Vachon and Duchesne dropped the rest of the breakaway and continued alone, but with 35 kilometres (22 mi) Duchesne was left alone, just over a minute ahead of the peloton. He won the fifth and sixth climbs of the day and moved into the lead of the mountains classification.
As the riders approached the final climb of the day, Sky came to the front of the peloton. With 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) remaining, Duchesne was caught, and the peloton was reduced to 30 riders. Matthews, the race leader, was among those dropped from the leading group. With 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) remaining, Rafał Majka (Tinkoff) attacked, with Contador following; this caused the group to halve in size and Sky were reduced to two riders, Thomas and Sergio Henao. Porte, Dumoulin, Izagirre, Bardet and Katusha's Ilnur Zakarin were among those left in the group. With 5.5 kilometres (3.4 mi) remaining, Majka pulled off and a group of five leaders formed: Contador, Thomas, Henao, Porte and Zakarin. Contador and Porte attempted attacks but were unable to escape the group, with Henao supporting Thomas. In the final kilometre, Porte was dropped and Zakarin accelerated. Thomas and Contador followed, but Zakarin took the stage victory. Thomas finished second, on the same time as Zakarin, and Contador was a second back in third. Thomas therefore moved into the race lead, fifteen seconds ahead of Contador.
### Stage 7
13 March 2016 — Nice to Nice, 134 km (83.3 mi)
The final stage was a 134-kilometre (83 mi) loop that started and ended on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice. The route took the riders out of Nice to the north. They crossed two third-category climbs, then came back south for two second-category climbs. The final 64 kilometres (40 mi) included two first-category climbs. The first was the Côte de Peille, a 6.5-kilometre (4.0 mi) climb at 6.9%. The riders then descended into the outskirts of Nice. Here they turned back inland for a final climb, the 7.7 kilometres (4.8 mi) of the Col d'Èze at an average gradient of 5.7%. They then descended back into Nice, where the final 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) were fairly flat, before ended on the Promenade des Anglais at the .
The stage began with an 18-rider breakaway within the first five minutes of racing. This included Contador's teammate Robert Kišerlovski and this group was joined shortly afterwards by several more riders, including Yuri Trofimov, another Tinkoff rider, while others were dropped and returned to the peloton. Thomas De Gendt and Antoine Duchesne were again in the breakaway; Duchesne won the first four climbs of the day, with De Gendt second on each occasion. Duchesne won enough points to secure victory in the mountains classification.
On the Côte de Peille, Contador attacked in the peloton. He quickly built an advantage, with Kiserlovski and Trofimov dropping back from the breakaway to assist him. They built a lead of around a minute, but Team Sky pulled the lead back and Contador's group was caught by the foot of the Col d'Èze, with only Tim Wellens (Lotto–Soudal) ahead. Romain Bardet attacked, but Contador chased him down. Contador himself attacked several times, with Sky's Sergio Henao and the Orica–GreenEDGE team chasing him down; Thomas appeared to be struggling. In the final part of the climb, Contador got away, initially with Majka and then with Richie Porte. At the top of the climb, they caught Wellens and had a 30-second advantage over the chasing group.
Thomas had been dropped not only by Contador but also by the first chasing group, which included Ilnur Zakarin. Thomas was joined, however, by Sergio Henao. The two Sky riders then joined up with Tony Gallopin (Lotto–Soudal) and chased hard throughout the 15-kilometre (9.3 mi) descent. They caught the first chasing group on the descent, forming a ten-man group behind Contador, Porte and Wellens. The gap was gradually reduced and was just five seconds by the finish. Wellens won the three-man sprint, with Contador second and Porte third. Gallopin won the sprint for fourth place. Thomas therefore won the overall general classification, beating Contador by four seconds.
## Post-race analysis
Thomas said after the race that his victory demonstrated that he could compete with the top stage racers in the world. He said that Henao's presence had been crucial to his victory and that, before the stage, he had chosen a 54-tooth chainring to help him chase back on if he was dropped on the final climb. He also said that he owed Gallopin "a few beers" for his assistance in chasing back to the leading groups on the final stage. Gallopin, meanwhile said that he had been happy to contribute to the chase of the second group on the final stage in order to have both a man in the leading group and in the chasing group. He added that he was also glad to help Thomas as the two men were friends and exchanged text messages whenever Thomas's Wales played Gallopin's France at rugby.
Contador's approach to Stage 7 was described by Cycling Weekly as a "tactical masterpiece". Contador himself said that the team had executed their strategy perfectly. His directeur sportif, Sean Yates, said that the team were "nearly there" in their attempt to take the overall victory and suggested that the cancellation of Stage 3 may have prevented Contador from winning the race. Richie Porte said that his performance, especially in the final stage, had given him confidence going into the rest of the season. He said that he had not been sure of his form going into the stage and that it was a good sign for the future, as Paris–Nice had been very difficult.
### UCI World Tour standings
Porte's third-place finish was his second consecutive podium place in the season-long UCI World Tour competition, following his second-place finish at the Tour Down Under. He moved up into first place overall, while Henao moved up from third to second, with the previous leader, Simon Gerrans (Orica–GreenEDGE) dropping to third. Thomas moved into fourth and Contador into fifth, with Zakarin and Izagirre also moving into the top ten. Australia remained top of the nations' ranking, while Sky moved to the top of the teams' ranking.
## Classification leadership table
In the 2016 Paris–Nice, three jerseys were awarded. The general classification was calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. Time bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages (Stages 1–7): the stage winner won a ten-second bonus, with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively. Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints (three seconds for the winner of the sprint, two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third). The leader of the general classification received a yellow jersey.
The second classification was the points classification. Riders were awarded points for finishing in the top ten in a stage. Unlike in the points classification in the Tour de France, the winners of all stages were awarded the same number of points. Points were also won in intermediate sprints; three points for crossing the sprint line first, two points for second place, and one for third. The leader of the points classification was awarded a green jersey.
There was also a mountains classification, in which points were awarded for reaching the top of a climb before other riders. Each climb was categorised as either first, second, or third-category, with more points available for the more difficult, higher-categorised climbs. For first-category climbs, the top seven riders earned points; on second-category climbs, five riders won points; on third-category climbs, only the top three riders earned points. The leadership of the mountains classification was marked by a white jersey with red polka-dots.
There was also a classification for teams, in which the times of the best three cyclists in a team on each stage were added together; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest cumulative time. |
72,037,790 | Rancho Bravo Tacos | 1,161,170,765 | Mexican restaurant in Seattle, Washington, U.S. | [
"2002 establishments in Washington (state)",
"Capitol Hill, Seattle",
"Food trucks",
"Kent, Washington",
"Mexican restaurants in Seattle",
"Restaurants established in 2022",
"University District, Seattle",
"Wallingford, Seattle"
]
| Rancho Bravo Tacos is a small chain of Mexican restaurants in Seattle, in the U.S. state of Washington. Owner Freddy Rivas started the business as a food truck in Kent in 2002, before relocating to Wallingford in 2007. The business also has a restaurant in Capitol Hill and previously operated in the University District. Serving cuisine such as tacos, nachos, burritos, tamales, and tortas, the business has garnered a generally positive reception as an inexpensive and late night option for diners, with the tacos and burritos receiving the most praise.
## Description
Rancho Bravo Tacos is a Latino-owned taqueria with two locations in Seattle, on Capitol Hill and in the Wallingford neighborhood. The Mexican restaurant has served tacos (including al pastor and beef tongue varieties), nachos, burritos, bowls, tamales, and chorizo tortas. Tacos come with avocado, cilantro, lime salsa, and tomatillo.
The Capitol Hill restaurant, previously occupied by KFC, offers drive-through service. The Wallingford location, housed in a building which previously operated as a Winchell's Donuts shop, has a smaller menu.
## History
Owner Freddy Rivas initially operated the business as a food truck, starting in Kent in 2002. He relocated to a Wallingford parking lot in May 2007. Rivas was an "outspoken opponent" to a 2011 proposal that would permit on-street food trucks in Seattle. A brick-and-mortar location, at a former KFC on Pine Street on Capitol Hill, opened in March 2009. A location opened in the University District on The Ave in 2017.
A food truck by breakfast restaurant chain Patty's Eggiest operated in the Walingford location's parking lot as of 2017. An assault on a trans woman at the Capitol Hill location in 2017 prompted the business to change its surveillance policy. A post on social media said, "out of respect for personal privacy we have had a policy of not monitoring the dining area. In light of recent events we will now change that policy." King County Public Health investigators investigated the Capitol Hill restaurant in 2017, after multiple people got sick with gastroenteritis.
The restaurant cooperated with organizers of the Capitol Hill Occupied Protest (2020), also known as the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone (CHAZ). In his 2021 book Unmasked: Inside Antifa's Radical Plan to Destroy Democracy, Andy Ngo wrote, "The security team's operating base was in the open-air eating section of the Rancho Bravo Tacos restaurant, where they had set up a large tent. The business seemingly allowed or tolerated CHAZ security to set up camp there in exchange for peace."
## Reception
The business has garnered a generally positive reception. However, in 2008, Jonah Spangenthal-Lee wrote in The Stranger:
> After writing a few nasty things about Wallingford's Rancho Bravo taco truck on The Stranger's blog, I caught plenty of flack from alleged taco connoisseurs in the area, who are insanely protective of their neighborhood taco truck... Because of Pasadita's recent slump, Rancho Bravo is no longer my least favorite taco truck in Seattle. I'd visited Rancho Bravo several times over the last year and never been very impressed. On more than one visit, my burrito was cold and limp, filled with mealy, overcooked pork; the tacos were unappealingly greasy and completely underwhelming. Much to my surprise, Rancho Bravo's food has improved of late, but it's still far from perfect.
Contrastingly, Ana Sofia Knauf recommended Rancho Bravo Tacos in a 2016 "Guide to Cheap Eats on a College Student's Budget" in The Stranger; in which she said the Capitol Hill restaurant is "more suited for a quick bite". The Not for Tourists Guide to Seattle has said, "Locals are fanatical for the tacos." Fodor's said in 2017, "Pork tacos are the favorite at this humble taco truck." Thrillist says, "Tried and true, the Cap Hill Rancho Bravos never fail to satisfy after a late night of weekend drinking. Open until 3am on Friday and Saturday, Rancho's Bravo Burrito is the perfect thing to combat the closing time spins." Thrillist's Chona Kasinger included the Bravo Burrito in a 2014 list of "the 8 best burritos in Seattle".
In her 2014 list of "5 delicious and cheap tacos in Seattle", Jenny Kuglin of Seattle Refined wrote, "This is a food truck that you should definitely stop at if you're driving through Wallingford." In 2017, Megan Hill of Eater Seattle described Rancho Bravo Tacos as a "late-night drunk food favorite". Bree Coven included the business in The Seattle Times' 2019 recommendations for inexpensive date nights, or "where to go in Seattle for \$20 or less per person". Allecia Vermillion included the restaurant in Seattle Metropolitan's 2022 overview of recommended eateries in Wallingford.
## See also
- List of food trucks
- List of Mexican restaurants |
29,566,559 | Dual Spires | 1,170,067,806 | null | [
"2010 American television episodes",
"Psych episodes",
"Television episodes directed by Matt Shakman",
"Twin Peaks"
]
| "Dual Spires" is the 12th episode of the fifth season of the American comedy-drama television series Psych, and the 75th episode overall. The episode was directed by Matt Shakman and written by Bill Callahan and series star James Roday Rodriguez. It originally aired December 1, 2010.
The episode is a homage to the television series Twin Peaks and features seven cast members of the series: Sherilyn Fenn, Sheryl Lee, Dana Ashbrook, Robyn Lively, Lenny Von Dohlen, Catherine E. Coulson, and Ray Wise. After receiving an e-mail inviting them to a cinnamon festival, Shawn Spencer (Roday Rodriguez) and Burton "Gus" Guster (Dulé Hill) travel to the quirky small town of Dual Spires. Once there, they are caught up in the mysterious drowning death of teenager Paula Merral.
"Dual Spires" received generally positive reviews from critics. According to the Nielsen ratings system, it drew 3.543 million viewers, with a 2.2/4 share among all households and a 1.3/4 share among those aged 18–49.
## Plot
After receiving a flier by email inviting them to a cinnamon festival, private detectives Shawn Spencer (James Roday Rodriguez) and Burton "Gus" Guster (Dulé Hill) travel to the quirky small town of Dual Spires. Shawn and Gus eat cinnamon pie at the Sawmill Diner, an establishment owned by Robert "Bob" Barker (Dana Ashbrook) and his wife Michelle (Robyn Lively) and built on a sawmill that burned down in 1958, killing eight people. Soon, the body of Bob and Michelle's niece, Paula Merral (an anagram of Laura Palmer, the Twin Peaks murder victim), is found by a lake.
Sheriff Andrew Jackson (Lenny Von Dohlen) rules the death an accident, but Shawn receives the Dewey Decimal Classification number of a book, Reincarnation and Rebirth, the title of which parallels the revelation that Paula had supposedly drowned in Santa Barbara, California seven years earlier, though her body was never found. Bob reveals that Michelle's unstable sister Lucy left Dual Spires, taking with her Paula, whom Michelle and Bob had all but raised. When Paula sent them a letter detailing the drug use and child abuse, they helped Paula fake her death so she could leave Lucy. Detectives Juliet O'Hara (Maggie Lawson) and Carlton Lassiter (Timothy Omundson) reopen the case and leave to issue a warrant for Bob's arrest.
Shawn and Gus continue the investigation and, finding an entry in Paula's diary about meetings with "J", are led to partially blind photographer Jack Smith (Ryan McDonald). Jack reveals a photograph of Sheriff Jackson's son Randy (Scott Lyster), taken just before Jack was attacked during a walk with Paula. Randy reveals that after he attacked Jack, Paula confronted him about his ex-girlfriend, who Shawn deduces is librarian Maudette Hornsby (Sherilyn Fenn). However, Hornsby is found hanged at the library, and Sheriff Jackson and Dr. Donna "Doc" Gooden (Sheryl Lee) rule that Maudette killed Paula out of jealousy and committed suicide to keep the town from knowing about the affair. Shawn, however, deduces that Maudette was the one that led them to the festival and left clues for them to decode.
Suddenly, Shawn and Gus are locked in the library and it is lit on fire, but they are rescued by Father Peter Westley (Ray Wise). Bob, who is revealed to be Paula's biological father, explains that after World War I, his great-grandfather established the town with two other soldiers, intending to create a secluded utopia. After the sawmill fire in 1958, the town began to look at all outsiders as a threat. When Doc Gooden and Sheriff Jackson enter and hold him at gunpoint, Shawn deduces that they are the leaders of the other two founding families. Due to Gooden's infertility and Jackson's terminal cancer, Randy was the only known direct descendant and therefore the sole future leader. To stop Randy from leaving town with a paranoid Paula, the sheriff and doctor drowned her. After Lassiter and O'Hara arrive and arrest Gooden and Jackson, the group celebrates at the diner, only to be repulsed by a number of oddities referencing Twin Peaks.
## Production
"Dual Spires" was the fourth episode directed by Matt Shakman, the sixth to be written by producer Bill Callahan, and sixth to be written by series star James Roday Rodriguez. It originally aired in the United States on December 1, 2010, on USA Network as the 12th episode of Psych's fifth season and the 75th episode overall. It was an extended episode, at 67 minutes including commercials or 50 without.
According to trivia on the "Dual Spires enhanced" video at the Psych website, a Twin Peaks tribute episode had been in the works since season one. Maggie Lawson was the one who suggested the episode's title, a play on that of the original series. The episode aired 20 years to the day after the 16th episode of Twin Peaks, which answered the question of who killed Laura Palmer, after which, Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote, "there was really no reason to keep watching." The episode features seven Twin Peaks cast members as guest stars. Sherilyn Fenn, who is best known for portraying Audrey Horne, guest stars as Maudette Hornsby. Sheryl Lee, who played Laura Palmer and Maddy Ferguson, guest stars as Dr. Donna "Doc" Gooden, Dual Spires' psychiatrist, pediatrician, optometrist, gastrologist, podiatrist, dermatologist, orthodontist, forensic scientist, veterinarian, lawyer, and accountant. Dana Ashbrook, who played Bobby Briggs, guest stars as Robert "Bob" Barker. Robyn Lively, who played Lana Budding Milford, guest stars as Michelle Barker. Lenny Von Dohlen, who played Harold Smith, guest stars as Sheriff Andrew Jackson. Catherine E. Coulson, who played the Log Lady, Margaret Lanterman, cameos as a woman carrying wood. Finally, Ray Wise, who played Leland Palmer, reprises his Psych role as Father Peter Westley. Michael Ontkean, who played Sheriff Harry S. Truman, and Mädchen Amick, who played diner waitress Shelly Johnson, were also approached to appear in the episode. Twin Peaks co-creator David Lynch was originally going to guest star in a speaking role as Mayor Douglas Fir, but Lynch was not asked due to Roday Rodriguez's concern over what Lynch would think of the episode. Other guest stars include Scott Lyster as Randy Jackson and Ryan McDonald as Jack Smith.
Additionally, Julee Cruise, who recorded the theme for Twin Peaks, recorded a slower, extended version of the Psych theme song, "I Know You Know" by series creator Steve Franks's band The Friendly Indians. The imagery that accompanies it is an almost shot-for-shot recreation of the Twin Peaks opening sequence, with a white horse that resembles the one in Sarah Palmer's vision before the attack on Maddy Ferguson. Later, during a bicycle chase scene, "Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing" by Chris Isaak is heard. Isaak portrayed Special Agent Chester Desmond in Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me.
## Cultural references
### Allusions to Twin Peaks
"Dual Spires" is presented as an homage to Twin Peaks, and CNN writer Katie McLaughlin noted several allusions the episode makes to the series. In the beginning of the episode, there is a chocolate bunny on Shawn's desk. In Twin Peaks, Special Agent Dale Cooper (Kyle MacLachlan) delivered the famous line "Diane, I'm holding in my hands a small box of chocolate bunnies." Gus then asks, "Since when is the sound of opening and closing shades so disruptive that it needs to be alleviated?" The character Nadine Hurley in Twin Peaks attempted to patent her silent drape runner invention. Someone from a website by the name of UnderTheNail.com sends Shawn and Gus an e-mail that says, "Who killed Paula Merral?" Twin Peaks famed the catchphrase "Who Killed Laura Palmer?" (Paula Merral is an anagram for Laura Palmer.) The killer also purposely placed clues in his victims' fingernail beds.. Ray Wise, who played Leland Palmer, also reprises his role as Father Westley, but when he arrives to rescue Shawn and Gus, his hair has gone white (which he attributes to a nun having failed to do his hair properly, and is a reference to Leland's hair going white from grief after Laura's death).
The "enhanced" video states that there are 724 references to Twin Peaks in the episode's closing scene. Among them, Jack Smith wears an eye patch and a red suit and dances funny, referencing not only "One Eyes Jacks" brothel and the aforementioned Nadine Hurley, but a dream sequence in Peaks, where a character known as the Man from Another Place wore a similar suit and danced in a bizarre fashion. In the final scene Carlton is seen holding his hand up and stating "that is a damn fine cup of cider". In the Twin Peaks pilot Agent Cooper holds his hand the same way and states "that is a damn fine cup of coffee." Additionally, Carlton is later holding a cup of coffee on its side, displaying that the coffee is now solid in a fashion mimicking the same action by Agent Cooper in the final episode. A seven-foot tall man (John DeSantis) wearing a bow tie looks much like the giant from Agent Cooper's dream. Randy is seen at the end barking out the window like Bobby Briggs did to James Hurley in the holding cells. Bob Barker is seen dancing with a picture just as Leland Palmer did in Twin Peaks. The episode's end credits are accompanied by soap opera-type music and a shot of Paula's prom picture; Twin Peaks's credits did exactly the same thing with Laura's photo. The music is also very similar to the theme.
### Other references
There are several other references in the episode. Upon seeing an African American for the first time, a child asks Gus if he is Frederick Douglass. When Shawn makes the observation that Dual Spires has "Bob Barker, Doc Gooden, and Randy Jackson, all living in the same inlet town with no cars, cell phones, or internet", Gus replies that they should pitch the concept to Mark Burnett. Shawn and Gus later ride a tandem bicycle in what Shawn likens to a racially reversed Driving Miss Daisy. Randy reveals that the town gathers every week to watch Everwood. Shawn tells Maudette that they are having a Betty Boop Night at the Roadhouse.
## Reception
According to the Nielsen ratings system, "Dual Spires" drew 3.543 million viewers, with a 2.2/4 share among all households, meaning that in the United States the episode was tuned into by roughly 2.2 percent of all television-equipped households and 4 percent of households watching television. The episode had a 1.3/4 share among those aged 18–49.
The episode received positive reviews from critics familiar with Twin Peaks. Jonah Krakow of IGN gave the episode a score of 9 out of 10, writing that it was "enjoyable enough on its own merits that I don't have to apologize for gushing over every single subtle nod to Twin Peaks." Although CNN's Katie McLaughlin was initially worried, her fears were quickly alleviated. McLaughlin stated that Psych did a "damn fine" tribute episode, and that she had fun finding all of the Twin Peaks references. Simon Abrams of The A.V. Club gave the episode a rating of C− on a scale of A+ to F. Commenting on reports that the episode has been in the works since the series' first season, Abrams wrote, "[it] speaks to how patently unnecessary "Dual Spires" is conceptually but also how potentially endearing it could be, too." JT Vaughn of Zap2it, however, gave the episode an A+ rating, writing, "It was just an absolutely brilliant episode, one which paid a loving homage to a classic television show while also being a damn fine episode in itself. Psych has been in great form since it returned, and long may it continue." In contrast, Starpulse writer Brittany Frederick, who was unfamiliar with Twin Peaks, enjoyed "Dual Spires" less than other episodes. |
30,357,591 | 1872 North Cascades earthquake | 1,127,493,370 | Earthquake in Washington state, United States | [
"1872 earthquakes",
"1872 in North America",
"December 1872 events",
"Earthquakes in Washington (state)",
"North Cascades of Washington (state)",
"Pre-statehood history of Washington (state)"
]
| The 1872 North Cascades earthquake occurred at in central Washington Territory (now Washington state). A maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe) was assessed for several locations, though less intense shaking was observed at many other locations in Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. Some of these intermediate outlying areas reported V (Moderate) to VII (Very strong) shaking, but intensities as high as IV (Light) were reported as far distant as Idaho and Montana. Due to the remote location of the mainshock and a series of strong aftershocks, damage to structures was limited to a few cabins close to the areas of the highest intensity.
Because the earthquake occurred before seismometers were operating in the region, the magnitude of the shock and its location were never precisely determined, but the intensity reports that are available for the event were studied, and various epicenters for the event were proposed based on these limited data. One study presented an estimated of 6.5–7.0, with a proposed location on the east side of the Cascade Range near Lake Chelan. The results of a separate study indicated that it may have been a larger event, placing the shock in the North Cascades, just south of the Canada–United States border at Ross Lake.
## Preface
The Cascadia subduction zone rarely influences the western portion of Washington state, but the November 1873 M7.3 shock near the California–Oregon border may have been associated with it. Although activity in the Pacific Northwest (especially west of the Cascades in Washington) has occasionally been located near the subduction zone, earthquakes there (1949 Olympia, 1965 Puget Sound, 2001 Nisqually) have mostly been intraslab events. A large M7 earthquake on the Seattle Fault in 900 C.E. may have generated a tsunami in Puget Sound. The 1872 event east of the Cascades is not understood well due to the lack of instrumental records and reliable felt intensity reports.
## Earthquake
As there were only six seismometers operating in Washington state and western British Columbia even as late as 1969, there are insufficient instrumental records for older events in the region. Focal depths are unknown for shocks that occurred before that time, but seismologists Bakun et al. concluded that the event occurred on a shallow fault on the east side of the Cascade Range. They employed a method that was developed by W. H. Bakun and C. M. Wentworth for using earthquake intensity information that could be mapped to a corresponding moment magnitude. The intensities for twelve 20th-century Pacific Northwest earthquakes were used for calibration before analyzing the known intensities for the 1872 event in an attempt to resolve the location and magnitude. The reports were interpreted in a way that placed the epicenter near the south end of Lake Chelan, but other considerations left other plausible focal points both north and northeast of the lake. The magnitude was estimated to be 6.5–7.0 with 95% confidence.
Using a similar strategy, S. D. Malone and S. Bor analyzed the known intensities for the 1872 shock, then compared intensity patterns for a number of instrumentally recorded earthquakes that also occurred in the Pacific Northwest. A factor that was taken into consideration was that for earthquakes that have either circular or slightly elliptical isoseismal maps, the epicenter is usually close to the center of the pattern, but that for shocks where instrumental information are also available, the epicenter is sometimes not where it would have been assumed to be, had only the intensity information (and no instrumental information) been available. An isoseismal map of the 1949 Olympia earthquake was presented as an example of a distorted or convoluted pattern that was attributed to local geological conditions that either attenuated or amplified the seismic waves, and it was emphasized that not taking into account these local features could lead to a misinterpretation of the felt intensities and to a misplaced epicenter.
Malone and Bor ran three simulations, with a projected M7.4 event occurring at a depth of 37 miles (60 km), but took into consideration the differences in attenuation both east and west of the Cascades. Three exploratory locations were investigated, including the setting at the south end of Lake Chelan that reportedly had significant ground disturbances, their preferred location near Ross Lake, and a third location north of the Canada–United States border that had been proposed much earlier by W. G. Milne. The Ross Lake site was chosen because it most closely matched their isoseismal pattern, but it was not strongly preferred over the Milne site, and the Lake Chelan location was excluded as being the epicenter, due to the regional attenuation characteristics that required a location further to the west. Several depths were investigated, but each had little impact on the isoseismal patterns below intensity VI, and since most northwest earthquakes occur between 25–37 miles (40–60 km) deep, they believe the shock was also near that depth, but did not dismiss the possibility that it was a shallower event.
More recently, Sherrod, using LiDAR, identified a fault scarp in Spencer Canyon. Subsequent field work determined that this fault scarp most likely is the ground rupture for the 1872 earthquake. LiDAR imaging indicate the fault scarp has a length of 6 km (3.7 mi). Trenching studies revealed a northwest-dipping thrust fault measuring at least 75 km (47 mi) long which last moved between 1856 and 1873 during a single earthquake. The findings estimated the shock at 6.7–7.3.
### Damage
Though the earthquake was felt over a very wide area (from the Pacific Ocean to Montana, and British Columbia to Oregon) the area that was most affected was largely unpopulated, and very few homes existed. A log building that was built on unconsolidated river sediment close to the mouth of the Wenatchee River had dislodged roof logs, and the kitchen became detached from the rest of the structure. Another log cabin between Entiat and Winesap also had roof damage. Mercalli intensities as high as VI (Strong) reached the western portion of the state, near the highly populated Puget Sound region, and to the southeast beyond where the Hanford nuclear reactor site later stood.
### Aftershocks
A relationship exists between the depth of the mainshock and the occurrence of aftershocks, and several Pacific Northwest earthquakes illustrate this link, like the February 1981 M5.5 Elk Lake event in southwest Washington that was followed by more than 1,000 in the first two years. The M7.3 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake in Montana had a significant sequence of aftershocks, and the shallow M7 1983 Borah Peak event was followed by four aftershocks. In opposition, the intraslab events (and crustal shocks above the subduction zone) on the west side of the Cascades have had insignificant aftershock sequences, usually amounting to a minimal number of small aftershocks. For example, the 2001 Nisqually shock occurred nearly 18.6 miles (30 km) deep and was followed by only four small aftershocks, and there was a similar procession for the 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake, a M7.6 crustal shock that also had a focal depth near 18.6 miles (30 km).
Aftershocks did follow the 1872 event, and during the initial 24 hours they were strong enough to be felt over a broad area, from Idaho and into southern British Columbia. The intensity of the shocks waned as time passed, and after a year they were still occurring, but were only being felt at Wenatchee, Lake Chelan, and Entiat. Bakun et al. listed the considerable aftershock sequence as a strong indication that the initial event was shallow.
The Entiat area remained seismically active well into the 20th century, leading to speculation that earthquakes were long-lived aftershocks from the 1872 event.
## See also
- List of earthquakes in Canada
- List of earthquakes in the United States
- List of earthquakes in Washington (state)
- List of historical earthquakes
- Omak Rock
- Ross Lake Fault |
2,011,953 | Natural Born Kissers | 1,169,736,693 | null | [
"1998 American television episodes",
"Cultural depictions of Humphrey Bogart",
"The Simpsons (season 9) episodes"
]
| "Natural Born Kissers" is the twenty-fifth and final episode of the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 17, 1998. Homer and Marge discover that the fear of getting caught while making love is a turn on and start making love in public places. It was the first episode written by Matt Selman and was the only episode to be directed by Klay Hall. Some networks list the episode by the title, "Margie, May I Sleep with Danger?".
Matt Groening listed the episode as being his eighth favorite, and the aroused cow is one of his all-time favorite act break jokes. Andy Dougan of the Evening Times characterized the episode along with "Large Marge", "Three Gays of the Condo", and "The Way We Weren't", as "four of the funniest episodes of recent series". The DVD release was also reviewed favorably by Louis R. Carlozo in the Chicago Tribune, where the episode was seen as "more ridiculous" than "Large Marge".
## Plot
It is Homer and Marge's eleventh wedding anniversary and Grampa does not arrive at the Simpson house to babysit the children, spoiling Homer and Marge's evening together. Later that evening, Homer and Marge attempt to have sexual intercourse, but lack enthusiasm.
The following day, the refrigerator's motor burns out so Homer and Marge make their way to a hardware store to buy another one. On the way, the car gets stuck in the muddy driveway in the middle of farm country. Homer and Marge rush into the nearest barn to avoid a sudden storm. A farmer discovers the barn door is open and suspects trespassers. He enters the barn, nearly catching Homer and Marge, who are hiding in the hay loft, but leaves after failing to locate them. When the coast is clear, Homer and Marge have inspired sexual intercourse in the hay loft.
Homer and Marge think their marriage has been recharged and go for a romantic weekend at a bed and breakfast, but soon fall into their old patterns. However, a maid walks in on them and they conclude they are both aroused when they risk being caught during intimate moments, so they have sex behind window curtains in a room full of people.
Their love life is recharged and one day they begin to have sex on the same miniature golf course windmill where Bart was conceived. This time they come too close to being caught having public sex, and while they manage to escape, they have to flee through Springfield naked. After trying to seek help from Gil at his car lot, they steal his hot air balloon and fly throughout the city in it. As Marge tries to pilot the balloon after Homer falls and is left hanging on the rope, the balloon lands in a football stadium, and a naked photograph of Homer and Marge appears in the local newspaper. The next day, Bart and Lisa see the picture and their parents begin to explain sex to them. Before they go into detail, however, they decide to go back to the miniature golf course.
In a subplot, Bart and Lisa stay at the Springfield Retirement Castle with Grampa, and they discover a metal detector in his closet. While Bart uses it to look for pirate treasure, they uncover a film reel of an alternate ending to Casablanca. They watch the scene, which turns out to be a very sanitized and typical Hollywood happy ending, where Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman's characters marry in the end. Bart, Lisa and Grampa all like it but the Old Jewish Man reveals that he was once a studio executive and tried to include this happy ending on the film. Disgruntled, he pays Bart and Lisa to dispose of the reel, along with another reel of a killing spree ending to It's A Wonderful Life.
## Production
"Natural Born Kissers" was the first episode written by Matt Selman, who partly based it on his parents' marriage. The episode was the only time that show runner Mike Scully ever got a call from Fox where they suggested not doing the episode. They were worried about the sexual content, the nudity, and how it was going to be handled. They disliked several of the phrases used in the episode, such as the term "ass forkin'".
In an interview, Matt Groening said: "The network censors couldn't believe it, and neither could I: the cow at the peephole while Homer and Marge make love in a hayloft; neighbors groping Homer when he and Marge are caught nude inside the windmill at the Sir Putts-A-Lot mini golf course; Homer dangling naked from a hot-air balloon, his ass dragging against the glass of a Crystal Cathedral-like church."
The producers fought the censors and in the end, very little of the script was modified. This episode is the first time that Marge's buttocks are shown on television. Marge and Homer in the golf course is a reference to the season three episode "I Married Marge", although in that episode they are in a castle, rather than a windmill.
## Cultural references
The title of the episode is a play on film Natural Born Killers. The airplane restaurant "Up, Up and Buffet!" (a play on the song Up, Up and Away) is based on a submarine-shaped restaurant that was near the Fox studio named "Dive!". A supposed alternate ending to the 1942 film Casablanca is shown in the episode, and the Old Jewish Man gives Bart and Lisa a copy of It's A Wonderful Life with a "killing-spree ending". The song "Spanish Flea" plays during the radio commercial for Divorce Specialists. During the episode, Bart asks his parents if they "rocked the casbah", and consequently the song "Rock the Casbah" by The Clash plays over the end credits.
## Reception
In its original broadcast, "Natural Born Kissers" finished 29th in ratings for the week of May 11–18, 1998, with a Nielsen rating of 8.8, equivalent to approximately 8.6 million viewing households. It was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, King of the Hill, and Ally McBeal.
Matt Groening listed the episode as being his eighth favorite episode, and the aroused cow is one of his all-time favorite act break jokes. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote, "a superb episode which actually makes Marge and Homer's love life seem very real; everyone needs a bit of spice now and again, and they find theirs. The balloon trip is hysterical, and the attempts to explain their behaviour to a very worldly-wise Bart and Lisa are magnificent."
The episode was part of a DVD boxed set release called The Simpsons Kiss and Tell: The Story of Their Love, and in his review of the release, Andy Dougan of the Evening Times characterized the episode along with "Large Marge", "Three Gays of the Condo", and "The Way We Weren't", as "four of the funniest episodes of recent series". The DVD release was also reviewed favorably by Louis R. Carlozo in the Chicago Tribune, where the episode was seen as "more ridiculous" than "Large Marge".
In the last of The A.V. Club's "Classic Simpsons" recaps, Les Chappell writes that the episode is a fitting conclusion to the show's ninth season: "It’s a great encapsulation of how this family works: Homer and Marge have to try to explain things to children who are too worldly to fall for most excuses, the explanation trails off, and what could be a pleasant family outing to solve it all turns out to be yet another excuse for self-involvement when one public humiliation doesn’t outweigh the joys of getting busy in a windmill. The Simpsons are a weird, dysfunctional, and ultimately loving family, and this is an ending—and an episode—that reminds us how wonderful that can be." |
52,051,663 | Rebel Heart Tour (album) | 1,171,433,716 | null | [
"2017 live albums",
"2017 video albums",
"Eagle Rock Entertainment live albums",
"Eagle Rock Entertainment video albums",
"Live video albums",
"Madonna live albums",
"Madonna video albums"
]
| Rebel Heart Tour is the fifth live album by American singer and songwriter Madonna, chronicling her tenth worldwide concert tour of the same name, recorded at Sydney's Allphones Arena. It was released on September 15, 2017 by Eagle Vision on DVD and Blu-ray formats and by Eagle Records for audio versions. Rebel Heart Tour also contains bonus content like excerpts from the Tears of a Clown show (2016) at Melbourne's Forum Theatre, as well as a 22-song double CD. Danny Tull and Nathan Rissman, who had worked on Madonna's previous concert films, directed Rebel Heart Tour.
The album received generally positive feedback from critics, who picked Madonna's live singing, dancing and the production as highlights. Rebel Heart Tour reached the top of the DVD and video charts in most of the countries it charted in, and top ten of the album charts in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal and Spain. At the 32nd Japan Gold Disc Award, Rebel Heart Tour won in the category of Best Music Video for Western Artists.
## Background
Madonna had embarked on the Rebel Heart Tour (2015–2016) to promote her thirteenth studio album, Rebel Heart. Performed in 82 shows across 55 cities, the tour was a commercial success earning US\$169.8 million; it was attended by an audience of over 1.045 million. The performances at the Allphones Arena in Sydney, Australia were recorded for the video release.
In September 2016, Madonna announced on her Instagram that she had finished watching a "rough assembly" of the tour's film, and it would be out in the next two months. Entertainment Weekly subsequently announced that the concert film would premiere on December 9, 2016 on American cable channel Showtime. Titled Madonna: Rebel Heart Tour, it featured behind-the-scenes footage from the Australian performances of the tour, which had been exclusively previewed by Billboard on December 2, 2016. Danny Tull and Nathan Rissman, who had worked on Madonna's previous concert films, directed Rebel Heart Tour. Madonna explained in an interview with BBC News:
> I was there every step of the way, every day for months and months. It's really hard to capture the true feeling of the excitement and the passion and the heat and the blood, sweat and tears. I'm pleased with the way it came out... [W]hen I look back at the DVD it almost brings a tear to my eye because everyone seems so in love.
The film was released on September 15, 2017 on DVD, Blu-ray, and digital formats, containing bonus content like the Tears of a Clown show at Melbourne's Forum Theatre in 2016, as well as a 22-song double CD. The cover image was shot by fashion photographer Joshua Brandão. British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) listed the total running time of the album at over 138 minutes, with almost two hours for the main tour film and the rest for Tears of a Clown and a bonus performance of "Like a Prayer" (1989) during one of the shows. The release of Rebel Heart Tour was distributed by Eagle Rock Entertainment. It was made available for pre-order on August 16, 2017, Madonna's birthday, in all physical and digital-file-based stores. Along with the pre-order, a live version of "Material Girl" was purchasable from the digital outlets. The Japanese edition of the DVD/ Blu-ray included a performance of "Take a Bow" (1994) as a bonus track. Five years after its original release, the album was reissued on vinyl format by Mercury Records on September 9, 2022, featuring the same 14 tracks as the single-CD format.
## Critical response
Markos Papadatos from the Digital Journal gave the album a rating of A describing the release as a "must for any die-hard fan of Madonna". Jeffrey Kaufman from Blu-ray.com gave a rating of four stars out of five for the release, saying that Madonna knows "how to provide amazing visuals for a Blu-ray concert release to accompany an interesting if kind of random assortment of tunes from her by now pretty long career." He further complimented the production, the video and the audio quality of the album, recommending it for being "constantly over the top and often quite breathtaking". Writing for Decider, Benjamin H. Smith opined that "the 2017 concert film, Madonna: Rebel Heart Tour, shows the Material Girl hasn't lost any steps now that she's more a grande dame [...] what she debatably lacks as a vocalist, she has always made up for with her ability to craft her persona, like David Bowie, altering it to keep up with the latest trends, but always maintaining her singular identity", but pointed out that "it was her ‘80s songbook that got the biggest response".
Daryl Deino from Inquisitr gave a positive review for the live album of the release, but criticized its DVD and Blu-ray versions for poor editing. He named Rebel Heart Tour Madonna's best live album to date and found it superior to the DVD and Blu-ray. He also complimented Madonna's live, unprocessed vocals on the album, praising in particular her cover of "La Vie en rose", calling it "the best vocal performance of her career so far [...] this is a song nobody could imagine [Madonna] covering at the beginning of her career. Now, it sounds natural". Although the singer's voice sounded "strained" to Deino during the dance sequences, it was not noticeable in the video versions since "Madonna's dancing is the key element in these performances". He ended his review saying that the "whole album makes you want to run to a Madonna concert, and that's exactly what a live album is supposed to do."
Simon Button from Attitude commended the release, describing it as "a work of theatrical genius", complimenting the dancers, Madonna's camaraderie onstage and the "smoke-and-mirrors element" in the product. However, he criticized the inclusion of the Tears of a Clown show, finding it to be "as much a car crash as the two hours of the Rebel Heart Tour are a triumph". Writing for DVD Movie Guide, Colin Jacobson felt that "as a concert, Madonna's Rebel Heart Tour falls into the 'good but not great' category. As a video, it disappoints because it fails to effectively recapture the live experience". Roger Wink, from music portal Vintage Vinyl News, was critical of the CD release; "much of the allure of a Madonna show is the visual aspect which doesn't come across on CD, so the DVD/Blu-Ray is probably a much better experience but that doesn't excuse the low points, and there are many of them, in the listening experience".
## Commercial reception
In the United Kingdom, Rebel Heart Tour sold 1,993 copies in its first week of release, and debuted at number 42 on the UK Albums Chart. In the United States, Rebel Heart Tour failed to chart on the Billboard 200, but reached numbers 20 and 45 on the Digital Album and Top Album Sales charts for one week each, respectively. The album also reached number two on the Top Music Video chart, being kept from the pole position by Alan Jackson's Precious Memories: Live at the Ryman (2009). Rebel Heart Tour had sold 3,848 copies in the US as of September 24, 2017.
Rebel Heart Tour reached number one in Mexico, and placed at number 69 on the year-end chart. In France, the live album peaked at number 20 on the French Albums Chart selling 1,921 copies, while the video versions topped the French DVD Charts selling 5,044 units in its first-week. The Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) certified the video Platinum for selling over 15,000 units. Across the rest of Europe, the album reached the top ten of the charts in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal and Spain. At the 32nd Japan Gold Disc Award, Rebel Heart Tour won in the category of Best Music Video for Western Artists.
## Track listing
Additional notes
- "S.E.X." contains elements of "Justify My Love" written by Lenny Kravitz, Ingrid Chavez and Madonna, and performed by Madonna.
- DVD / Blu-ray version also includes the a cappella performance of "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend, written by Jule Styne and Leo Robin, performed between "La Vie en rose" and "Unapologetic Bitch".
- "Holiday" contains elements of "Take Me to the Mardi Gras" written by Paul Simon and performed by Bob James.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rebel Heart Tour.
- Madonna – creator, vocals, guitar, ukulele
- Kiley Dean – backing vocals
- Nicki Richards – backing vocals
- Nathan Rissman – director
- Danny B. Tull – director, lead editor
- Jamie King – stage director
- Al Gurdon – director of photography
- Ric Lipson – stage designer
- Arianne Phillips – costume designer
- Alexander Hammer – lead editor
- Sean Spuehler – vocal mixing engineer
- Arthur Fogel – executive producer
- Guy Oseary – executive producer
- Sara Zambreno – executive producer
- Geoff Kempin – executive producer for Eagle Rock Entertainment
- Terry Shand – executive producer for Eagle Rock Entertainment
- Brian Frasier Moore – drums
- Monte Pittman – guitar, ukulele
- Ric'key Pageot – keyboards, accordion
- Kevin Antunes – music director, keyboards
- Kevin Mazur – photography
- Jonathan Lia – producer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Monthly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certification and sales
!colspan="3"\|Album \|-
!colspan="3"\|Video \|-
## Release history
## See also
- List of number-one albums of 2017 (Mexico) |
46,652,996 | Albany Free School | 1,128,346,399 | null | [
"1969 establishments in New York (state)",
"Alternative schools in the United States",
"Democratic free schools",
"Education in Albany, New York",
"Educational institutions established in 1969",
"Organizations based in Albany, New York",
"Private schools in Capital District (New York)"
]
| The Free School is the oldest independent, inner-city alternative school in the United States. Founded by Mary Leue in 1969 based on the English Summerhill School philosophy, the free school lets students learn at their own pace. It has no grades, tests, or firm schedule: students design their own daily plans for learning. The school is self-governed through a weekly, democratic all-school meeting run by students in Robert's Rules. Students and staff alike receive one equal vote apiece. Unlike Summerhill-style schools, the Free School is a day school that serves predominantly working-class children. Nearly 80 percent of the school is eligible for reduced-price meals in the public schools. About 60 students between the ages of three and fourteen attend, and are staffed by six full-time teachers and a number of volunteers.
The school runs on a shoestring budget as a tradeoff for its financial independence and accessibility to low-income students. Tuition is billed on a sliding scale based on what parents can afford. Revenue from rental properties and fundraising supplements tuition income. The Free School started a high school program in 2006 that later spun off as the Harriet Tubman Democratic High School before closing in 2017. Journalists have likened the school's approach to unschooling and homeschooling, and its work to that of prefigurative politics. The Albany Free School is one of the few schools remaining from the 1960s and 1970s free school movement. It inspired the program of the Brooklyn Free School.
## History
The Free School is the oldest independent, inner-city alternative school in the United States. It was founded in 1969 by Mary Leue, who wanted to start a school that was free both by "democratic principles and accessibility to poor children". Leue approached A. S. Neill of Summerhill, the democratic school's progenitor, for advice on how to make a similar school for working-class children, he replied that "she would be mad to try". The school's first pupils withdrew from the public school. Chris Mercogliano came to the school in 1973 and became "its co-director and figurehead". The school is located in a socioeconomically and racially diverse downtown Albany in a building that once housed a parochial school. They purchased a number of buildings in the early 1970s for "next to nothing" in the impoverished neighborhood. The Albany Free School is one of the few free schools to persist from the hundreds once open in the free school movement of the 1960s and 1970s.
Over time, the Albany Free School became a "safety net" for children with special needs who were not fully accommodated in the public schools. The school's waiting list grew accordingly, and its program was also impacted by the difficult home situations that these students would often bring to school. The school's "unofficial adage" is, "Never a dull moment, always a dull roar."
## Program
The school's philosophy is that students learn best at their own pace. The original curriculum was a cross between "instruction and home life". The Free School has no firm schedule and does not grade students. The day begins between 8 and 9am, and students are asked what they want to do each day. Students are grouped by age and present their own plan for each day. They pursue various projects including writing, filmmaking, art, and studying language or history. The school also conducts daily structured math and ELA classes for all students. Classes tend to have five to seven students per teacher and the school's teacher–student relationships are close. Teachers report a relative ease in holding students accountable to their stated plans. In 2006, the school had ten teachers, four interns, and a number of parent volunteers for 58 students between the ages of three and fourteen (pre-K to eighth grade). The school has a "Living and Learning" program between 10 a.m. and noon, followed by lunch, which the students make themselves as part of the program. The school ends at 3 p.m.
The Free School self-governs through a weekly "all-school meeting" where students and teachers each receive single votes of equal weight in deciding school policy. Teachers recommend that children resolve their disputes themselves or through small group mediations. If a conflict is irreconcilable, any member of the community can call a school-wide meeting. The group chooses three students to run the meeting in Robert's Rules. Adults facilitate more than lead, and rarely intervene in the meetings, which are intended to teach "mediation and compromise". The school prioritizes self-expression, "honesty, and emotions". One teacher explained the "free" in "free school" to represent the freedom to be oneself without coercion, which comes with the responsibility to listen to others and respect their feelings voices. In the late 2000s, the school expelled a student for the first time by vote at the community meeting.
The school privileges its financial independence and accessibility over sufficient budgeting, a result of Leue's governance choices. The Free School does not receive government funding and instead subsists on student tuition and supplemental income from rental properties and "extensive fundraising". Student tuition is billed on a sliding scale: parents give what they can afford. In 2012, about 80 percent of the school's families were eligible for free or reduced-price public school meals, and Free School parents paid an average monthly tuition of (substantially below the cost per child). In 2012, one half the school's students lived in Albany's inner-city South End (mostly black and Latino, with a burgeoning immigrant population), one fourth lived in uptown neighborhoods, and one fourth lived in the suburbs. Leue initially struggled to recruit children of upwardly mobile families, who thought the school would limit their children's chances to join a suitable income bracket. She found that low-income, black families were the most skeptical about the school's usefulness. The school also provides inexpensive (or free) preschool and daycare for young children, operates a car collective (wherein a dozen people share a minivan), and provides low-interest loans through a community credit system.
The school operates on a shoestring budget of , or when including the kitchen program. The Free School intentionally foregoes government funding to avoid external control and needless bureaucracy. A volunteer staff performs the school's administrative duties, and as of 2012, six teachers are employed full-time at forty-hour weeks for a yearly stipend. Many take second jobs. Their school's website notes that it has become harder to keep teachers, who are qualified for salaries at least three times this amount plus fringe benefits at public schools. In 2012, co-director Chris Mercogliano, who arrived in 1973, continued to receive the same pay as a new teacher. Teachers report high interest in their work and less interest in the low pay. Younger teachers have expressed more of an interest in racial and social justice, and have tried to increase the school's diversity. Within the school community, some have "half-jokingly" expressed a mix of philosophies between the school's "young anarchists and ... old liberals".
### High school program
The Free School began a high school program in late 2006. It later became the separate Harriet Tubman Democratic High School, and was accredited by the Department of Education. In 2011, the school enrolled 17 students, and employed one full-time teacher, though part-time workers, volunteers, interns, and graduate students kept the ratio of one staff to five students. The school offered both interest-based and "traditional" classes: the former lets students play musical instruments and teach music theory, while the latter prepares students for the state Regents exams. None of the traditional classes enrolled more than 11 students. Students were not turned away based on inability to pay tuition, and 80 percent of the school received tuition aid. As such, the school included students from the city as well as the suburbs. The pupils also participated in staff hiring and school maintenance chores. The director said that the school is best suited for independent students. The high school program closed in 2017 and sold its building the following year.
Free School graduates apply to college with essays and interviews rather than standardized test scores. Tubman High School graduates have attended Clarkson University and Hudson Valley Community College. Albany Free School alumni have continued into occupations including development director at an alternative education organization, and an undersecretary for the Governor of New York.
## Reception
Matthew Appleton wrote that the day school's existence proved that the Summerhill method could work in non-boarding school environments, and Ron Miller noted the Free School as an "anomaly" and model for American free schools, which tend to serve upper-middle class children. The Free School inspired the program of the Brooklyn Free School.
In contemplating the role of democratic schools in addressing race-based inequities, Astra Taylor saw the Free School "as a microcosm of an American society that had failed to come into existence". She thought that the school sounded "like unschooling, but in a group setting", where children are free to cross age lines, learn from older idealists, and manage their own affairs. Children are trusted to "learn responsibility, problem solving, and self-governance in the process". Taylor added that the practical needs of tending the chicken coop and vegetables turned "necessity into virtue" as lack of money became "self-reliance and simple living". She compared the school's work to Rebecca Solnit's prefigurative politics: one small group models a different way to pursue a principle, such that the group can live by its ideals while affecting a change they seek.
In comparison to The Free School, the City School District of Albany felt that it was better prepared to fit the needs of all students by offering more social services and learning opportunities, such as an elementary school "dual language enrichment program" and the International Baccalaureate. In contrast, a Free School teacher said that the school's graduates were better able to empathize and emotionally interact, and thus were better equipped to address the fear and mistrust of authority that leads to "laws, judges, courts, prisons".
The Times Union reported the Tubman High School as an "educational island ... outside the public, charter, and private school sphere" that served as a "refuge" for students who disliked traditional public schools. The newspaper wrote that the school, "perhaps the most unique educational experience in the region", was closer to homeschooling than traditional schooling, like a college dorm where small roundtable discussions prevailed. |
32,909,396 | Hurricane Katia (2011) | 1,173,501,103 | Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 2011 | [
"2011 Atlantic hurricane season",
"2011 disasters in the United Kingdom",
"Cape Verde hurricanes",
"Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Europe"
]
| Hurricane Katia was a fairly intense Cape Verde hurricane that had substantial impact across Europe as a post-tropical cyclone. The eleventh named storm, second hurricane, and second major hurricane of the active 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, Katia originated as a tropical depression from a tropical wave over the eastern Atlantic on August 29. It intensified into a tropical storm the following day and further developed into a hurricane by September 1, although unfavorable atmospheric conditions hindered strengthening thereafter. As the storm began to recurve over the western Atlantic, a more hospitable regime allowed Katia to become a major hurricane by September 5 and peak as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) that afternoon. Internal core processes, increased wind shear, an impinging cold front, and increasingly cool ocean temperatures all prompted the cyclone to weaken almost immediately after peak, and Katia ultimately transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 10.
Although Katia passed well north of the Lesser Antilles, a yellow alert was hoisted for Guadeloupe to notify residents of dangerous seas. Strong rip currents along the East Coast of the United States led to the deaths of two swimmers. After losing its tropical characteristics, Katia prompted the issuance of numerous warnings across Europe. Hurricane-force winds impacted numerous locations, downing trees, toppling power poles, and leaving thousands without electricity. The storm was responsible for two deaths in the United Kingdom: one when a tree fell on a vehicle in County Durham, and another during a multi-car accident on the M54 motorway resulting from adverse weather conditions. The post-tropical cyclone caused approximately £100m (\$157 million, 2011 USD) in damage in the United Kingdom alone.
## Meteorological history
On August 27, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a large mass of convection associated with a tropical wave just off the western coast of Africa. An area of low pressure formed in association with the disturbance the following day, gaining sufficient organization to be declared a tropical depression by 06:00 UTC on August 29 approximately 430 miles (690 km) southwest of the southernmost Cabo Verde Islands. The depression initially struggled upon designation, with its well-defined center displaced near the northeastern edge of the storm's convection as a result of strong east-northeasterly wind shear. By 00:00 UTC on August 30, however, an increase in the cyclone's convective organization marked its intensification into Tropical Storm Katia.
Katia tracked west-northwestward for several days, steered by an expansive mid-level ridge to the cyclone's north. The strong upper-level winds that were affecting the cyclone gradually slackened, allowing for the expansion of a central dense overcast, the formation of a large curved band in the southern semicircle, and development of a banding eye on microwave imagery. Satellite intensity estimates increased accordingly, prompting the NHC to upgrade Katia to hurricane intensity at 00:00 UTC on September 1, while the storm was situated about 1,350 miles (2,170 km) east of the Leeward Islands. Although conditions were forecast to remain conducive for further intensification, water vapor satellite and microwave imagery indicated that mid-level dry air began eroding eyewall convection immediately after the storm's upgrade, and upper-level winds eventually became less favorable as Katia approached a sharp upper-level trough. As a result, the storm maintained its status as a minimal hurricane for almost three days, with only a partial eyewall or banding-eye feature appearing on satellite.
Early on September 4, the hurricane moved beneath a large upper-level anticyclone which provided a reprieve from the strong southwesterly wind shear. Although its convective organization had yet to become fully symmetrical, an eye became increasingly apparent on infrared imagery. The center moved very near the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's buoy 41044—which registered a maximum sustained wind of 90 mph (140 km/h) and a maximum wind gust of 108 mph (174 km/h)—around 12:00 UTC, indicating that Katia had intensified into a Category 2 hurricane. Although an eyewall replacement cycle briefly caused the storm's convective pattern to deteriorate, Katia attained major hurricane status—a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale—by 12:00 UTC on September 5. Twelve hours later, the cyclone further intensified into a Category 4 hurricane and attained peak winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 942 mbar (942 hPa; 27.8 inHg) as its eye warmed, deep convection became much more symmetric about the center, and upper-level outflow expanded.
Almost immediately after attaining peak intensity, Katia began to rapidly weaken as a second eyewall replacement cycle began; it was quickly stunted as dry air wrapped into the western portion of the circulation and northwesterly wind shear increased. The inner core process was completed by early on September 7, allowing Katia to level off in intensity as a Category 1 hurricane for several days. Increasing southwesterly flow resultant from an upper-level trough pushing eastward across the United States caused Katia to slow in forward motion and recurve northeast or east-northeast through September 9. The hurricane re-accelerated late that day, eventually bringing Katia over ocean temperatures near 22 °C (72 °F). Deep convection in association with the storm decreased and its circulation merged with a frontal system, indicating that Katia had completed transition into an extratropical cyclone by 12:00 UTC on September 10 while located about 290 miles (470 km) south-southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. Increasing baroclinic energy fueled the powerful extratropical low, which skirted the northern coast of Scotland on September 12, before being absorbed by a larger extratropical system over the North Sea on the following day.
## Preparations and impact
### Lesser Antilles and United States
Although Katia passed well northeast of the Lesser Antilles, a yellow alert was hoisted in Guadeloupe for the potential of 3–5 meters (9.8–16.4 ft) swells. Antigua and Barbuda recorded 21.59 millimeters (0.850 in) of rainfall between September 6 and September 7 from an outer band.
On September 4, the NHC noted that large swells likely to cause life-threatening rip current conditions were expected to impact the East Coast of the United States over subsequent days. The increased surf resulted in the death of a swimmer in Ormond Beach, Florida the following day, and a second death off Monhegan, Maine on September 11.
### Europe
After transitioning into a post-tropical cyclone, Katia moved quickly across the North Atlantic and toward Europe, prompting the Met Office to begin warnings citizens for potential impacts over subsequent days on September 9. Three days later, the organization raised a yellow severe weather alert for all of Ireland and most of the United Kingdom, with a more severe amber alert hoisted across Northern Ireland, northern England, and southern Scotland; both alerts warned of the potential for gale-force winds. Concurrently, Met Éireann outlined an extreme weather warning across Ireland, alerting residents to the potential for 130 km/h (81 mph) winds, downed trees, damaged buildings, and flooding. Irish ferries cancelled a number of its sails between Dublin and Holyhead. The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute warned of gale-force winds along the coastline of Sweden, although a brunt of the rainfall was expected in neighboring Norway.
A maximum wind gust of 158 km/h (98 mph) was recorded on Cairn Gorm, Scotland as Katia impacted the region, with a peak gust of 130 km/h (81 mph) observed at a non-mountain station in Capel Curig, Wales; these observations marked the strongest impact from a tropical cyclone since Hurricane Lili in 1996. Waves up to 15 meters (49 feet) battered the western coastline of Ireland, and fallen power lines temporarily disrupted DART services. Approximately 4,000 households were left without power across the country. A catering marquee was blown into the air on a set for the television series Game of Thrones, causing one injury. In County Durham, United Kingdom, a man was killed after a tree fell on the minivan he was driving; the passenger sustained non-life-threatening injuries. A second driver was indirectly killed on the M54 motorway after hazardous weather caused a multi-car accident. Farther south in Bradford, an 11-year-old boy was injured after he was hit by a portion of a roof blown off a garage. Downed power poles set several fields on fire. The second stage of the Tour of Britain was forcefully canceled after strong winds littered the cycle route with debris. The remnants of Katia produced damage as far east as Russia. In St. Petersburg, wind gusts up to 45 mph (72 km/h) damaged buildings and left roughly 1,500 residents without power. In Estonia, the storm cut off power to approximately 940 households, particularly affecting the island of Hiiumaa and Harju County, with strong winds in coastal areas gusting up to 90 km/h (56 mph).
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones of the same name
- Tropical cyclone effects in Europe
- List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
- Hurricane Faith (1966)
- Hurricane Charley (1986) |
4,899,084 | Ezra Johnson | 1,169,952,855 | American football player (born 1955) | [
"1955 births",
"American football defensive ends",
"Green Bay Packers players",
"Houston Oilers players",
"Indianapolis Colts players",
"Living people",
"Morris Brown Wolverines football players",
"National Conference Pro Bowl players",
"Players of American football from Shreveport, Louisiana"
]
| Ezra Ray Johnson (born October 2, 1955) is an American former professional football player who was a defensive end for 15 seasons with the Green Bay Packers, Indianapolis Colts and Houston Oilers in the National Football League (NFL) from 1977 to 1991.
A first-round pick from Morris Brown College by the Green Bay Packers in 1977, Johnson was known as one of the best defensive linemen in his first few years in the league. Johnson earned a spot in the 1979 Pro Bowl after unofficially finishing second, to Detroit Lions Al "Bubba" Baker, with 20.5 sacks in 1978. (Quarterback sacks were not an official NFL statistic until 1982.) However, by 1981, Johnson's career was marred by a series of back injuries and allegations of his lack of discipline on the field, including one incident in which he ate a hot dog while sitting on the bench during a preseason game, and being inconsistent at times. He lost and regained his starting job multiple times during that period.
Johnson was exclusively used as the third-down pass rush specialist after 1986, and took a leadership role with the team. He was released by the Packers in 1988 and played with two seasons with the Colts, and one with the Oilers before retiring in 1991. Despite his adverse relationship with the team at times, Johnson was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1997.
## College career
Johnson played college football at Morris Brown College in Atlanta. In his last year at Morris Brown he had 112 tackles and 28 sacks. However his size and the small school he played for helped lower his draft stock. He was projected to go anywhere from the first to fourth rounds prior to the NFL Draft.
## Professional career
### Green Bay Packers
Johnson was drafted as the 28th pick of the first round in the 1977 NFL Draft by the Green Bay Packers. Johnson was considered a "gamble pick" for the Packers because of lack of major college experience and his relatively small size for a defensive end. In his rookie season, Johnson appeared in 14 games as the backup for Alden Roche at defensive end. Johnson significantly improved in his second year, becoming one of the top defensive ends in the league with his explosivness off the snap and his speed, a 4.5 in the 40-yard dash, being the main factors for his success. He thrived on the Packers 4–3 defense, and recorded 14 sacks by the eighth game of the season. Johnson had two sacks and forced two fumbles in a 45–28 win against the Seattle Seahawks on October 16, 1978. At that time, the Packers had the best record in the NFC Central at 6–1. By the end of the year, Johnson recorded an unofficial 20.5 sacks, a statistic used, but not kept, by the NFL until 1982. However, the Packers offense were among the worst in the league, and the team lost a chance for a playoff berth in the final game of the season against the Los Angeles Rams. Johnson was rewarded for his efforts by being selected to play in the Pro Bowl and was rewarded with the Packers Defensive Player of the Year award.
In 1979, Johnson missed seven games early in the season because of a sprained left ankle. On his return against the Minnesota Vikings on November 11, he sacked quarterback Tommy Kramer four times in a 19–7 win. During that period, Johnson teamed up with fellow first-round pick Mike Butler to form one of the league's most potent defensive lineups. Nicknamed the "Gang Green", they became known for their ability to pressure the quarterback to force a sack.
Johnson was notoriously fined \$1,000 and required by then-general manager–head coach Bart Starr to apologize for eating a hot dog on the sidelines during the fourth quarter of a 38–0 Packers' home preseason loss to the Denver Broncos on August 30, 1980. Starr gave Johnson back the \$1,000 at the end of the year. However, defensive line coach Fred von Appen resigned five days after the incident because Starr refused to suspend Johnson. He started in all 15 games that season, as the Packers finished with a 5–10–1 record. After the season, Johnson and Butler were both criticized for not playing up to the Packers expectations when they drafted them. One journalist stated that their development was halted because of a lack of stability in the Green Bay coaching situation, who went through four defensive line coaches in three years.
In 1981, Johnson lost his starting role to Casey Merrill as the Packers had changed to a 3–4 defensive scheme, and decided instead to use Johnson exclusively for pass rushing situations. It was a decision which confused the local media as Johnson had been the starter since 1978. Merrill, who was released by the Cincinnati Bengals and claimed off waivers by the Packers, was considered by the team as the better, more consistent interior lineman against the run. The Packers claimed Johnson lost his job because of his lack of "size" and low upside. However, during the preseason, many people within the Packers organization "questioned" Johnson's desire to play and his attitude, an allegation Johnson quickly denied. He also was fined by Starr an unknown amount of money for almost missing a team flight to New York after celebrating his birthday the previous night, misplacing his car keys. He only started three games that season.
By 1982, Johnson regained his starting job over Merrill. Defensive coordinator John Meyer stated that Johnson was "playing his best football" since his breakout 1978 season. Johnson stated that "eating his mother's cooking" and being "healthy" were the main reasons for his improvement. He signed a three-year contract with the Packers at \$450,000 a year. It led to a lawsuit against his former agency Bradcor Sports Servicing, who claimed that he never gave the agency their commission. He had an official career best of 14.5 quarterback sacks in 1983 along with 107 tackles, a team record by a defensive lineman in a single season.
The success didn't last long, as Johnson started to get hampered with back injuries, which reduced his effectiveness. In 1984, Johnson had surgery for a herniated disk, an injury he suffered during training camp, and was known as a potential career-ending injury. He missed the first game of the regular season against the St. Louis Cardinals and could not fully recover from the injury. Again he lost his starting job, becoming a third-down pass-rushing specialist, and was credited with seven sacks for the year; the injury forced Johnson to mull retirement.
Prior to the start of training camp for the 1985 season, Johnson had a second surgery to repair his herniated disk. At the same time, Johnson took on a leadership role for the Green Bay defense, and started to accept his role as a backup and started to mentor the younger players. After injuries befell the Packers' defensive line, Johnson regained his starting position at defensive end. He started all 16 games that year, achieving 9.5 sacks. His career started to diminish after that season. In 1986, Johnson was credited with three and a half sacks as he was used as the designated third-down pass rushing specialist. He injured his right knee in 1987, missing 10 of the first 11 games of the season. He was released by the Packers on January 8, 1988. At the time of his release, Johnson was the Packers' all-time leader in sacks with 84.
### Indianapolis and Houston
Johnson signed with the Indianapolis Colts in 1988 in order to provide experience to a young and inexperienced Colts squad. During his time with the Colts, Johnson was used as a part-time starter in a role similar to his final few years with the Packers. He played in ten games that year, recording three sacks and played in all 16 games the following year, recording 8.5 sacks. He joined the Houston Oilers in 1990, where he played in all 16 games, starting three, and was credited with 2.5 sacks. After playing two games for the Oilers in 1991, Johnson retired.
He played in 192 games in his career, having officially 55.5 quarterback sacks (99 when his unofficial totals are added).
## Life after football
After retirement Johnson coached at Morris Brown and at Morehouse College. He was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1997. He currently lives in the Atlanta area and has four children. |
16,619 | Kilogram | 1,171,524,040 | Metric unit of mass | [
"1000 (number)",
"SI base units",
"Units of mass"
]
| The kilogram (also kilogramme) is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol kg. It is a widely used measure in science, engineering and commerce worldwide, and is often simply called a kilo colloquially. It means 'one thousand grams'.
The kilogram is defined in terms of the second and the metre, both of which are based on fundamental physical constants. This allows a properly equipped metrology laboratory to calibrate a mass measurement instrument such as a Kibble balance as the primary standard to determine an exact kilogram mass.
The kilogram was originally defined in 1795 during the French Revolution as the mass of one litre of water. The current definition of a kilogram agrees with this original definition to within 30 parts per million. In 1799, the platinum Kilogramme des Archives replaced it as the standard of mass. In 1889, a cylinder of platinum-iridium, the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK), became the standard of the unit of mass for the metric system and remained so for 130 years, before the current standard was adopted in 2019.
## Definition
The kilogram is defined in terms of three fundamental physical constants:
- a specific atomic transition frequency Δν<sub>Cs</sub>, which defines the duration of the second,
- the speed of light c, which when combined with the second, defines the length of the metre,
- and the Planck constant h, which when combined with the metre and second, defines the mass of the kilogram.
The formal definition according to the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) is:
> The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10<sup>−34</sup> when expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m<sup>2</sup>⋅s<sup>−1</sup>, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and Δν<sub>Cs</sub>.
Defined in term of those units, the kg is formulated as:
kg = (299792458)<sup>2</sup>/(6.62607015×10<sup>−34</sup>)(9192631770)/c<sup>2</sup> = 917097121160018/6215410507259047510<sup>42</sup>/c<sup>2</sup> ≈ (1.475521399735270×10<sup>40</sup>)/c<sup>2</sup> .
This definition is generally consistent with previous definitions: the mass remains within 30 ppm of the mass of one litre of water.
### Timeline of previous definitions
- 1793: The grave (the precursor of the kilogram) was defined as the mass of 1 litre (dm<sup>3</sup>) of water, which was determined to be 18841 grains.
- 1795: the gram (<sup>1</sup>/<sub>1000</sub> of a kilogram) was provisionally defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice.
- 1799: The Kilogramme des Archives was manufactured as a prototype. It had a mass equal to the mass of 1 dm<sup>3</sup> of water at the temperature of its maximum density, which is approximately 4 °C.
- 1875–1889: The Metre Convention was signed in 1875, leading to the production of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) in 1879 and its adoption in 1889.
- 2019: The kilogram was defined in terms of the Planck constant, the speed of light and hyperfine transition frequency of <sup>133</sup>Cs as approved by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) on November 16, 2018.
## Name and terminology
The kilogram is the only base SI unit with an SI prefix (kilo) as part of its name. The word kilogramme or kilogram is derived from the French kilogramme, which itself was a learned coinage, prefixing the Greek stem of χίλιοι khilioi "a thousand" to gramma, a Late Latin term for "a small weight", itself from Greek γράμμα. The word kilogramme was written into French law in 1795, in the Decree of 18 Germinal, which revised the provisional system of units introduced by the French National Convention two years earlier, where the gravet had been defined as weight (poids) of a cubic centimetre of water, equal to 1/1000 of a grave. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, and kilogramme replaced grave.
The French spelling was adopted in Great Britain when the word was used for the first time in English in 1795, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with "kilogram" having become by far the more common. UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling.
In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has been used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. While kilo as an alternative is acceptable, to The Economist for example, the Canadian government's Termium Plus system states that "SI (International System of Units) usage, followed in scientific and technical writing" does not allow its usage and it is described as "a common informal name" on Russ Rowlett's Dictionary of Units of Measurement. When the United States Congress gave the metric system legal status in 1866, it permitted the use of the word kilo as an alternative to the word kilogram, but in 1990 revoked the status of the word kilo.
The SI system was introduced in 1960 and in 1970 the BIPM started publishing the SI Brochure, which contains all relevant decisions and recommendations by the CGPM concerning units. The SI Brochure states that "It is not permissible to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names ...".
## Redefinition based on fundamental constants
The replacement of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) as the primary standard was motivated by evidence accumulated over a long period of time that the mass of the IPK and its replicas had been changing; the IPK had diverged from its replicas by approximately 50 micrograms since their manufacture late in the 19th century. This led to several competing efforts to develop measurement technology precise enough to warrant replacing the kilogram artefact with a definition based directly on physical fundamental constants.
The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved a redefinition of the SI base units in November 2018 that defines the kilogram by defining the Planck constant to be exactly 6.62607015×10<sup>−34</sup> kg⋅m<sup>2</sup>⋅s<sup>−1</sup>, effectively defining the kilogram in terms of the second and the metre. The new definition took effect on May 20, 2019.
Prior to the redefinition, the kilogram and several other SI units based on the kilogram were defined by a man-made metal artifact: the Kilogramme des Archives from 1799 to 1889, and the IPK from 1889 to 2019.
In 1960, the metre, previously similarly having been defined with reference to a single platinum-iridium bar with two marks on it, was redefined in terms of an invariant physical constant (the wavelength of a particular emission of light emitted by krypton, and later the speed of light) so that the standard can be independently reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification.
At the 94th Meeting of the CIPM in 2005, it was recommended that the same be done with the kilogram.
In October 2010, the CIPM voted to submit a resolution for consideration at the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), to "take note of an intention" that the kilogram be defined in terms of the Planck constant, h (which has dimensions of energy times time, thus mass × length<sup>2</sup> / time) together with other physical constants. This resolution was accepted by the 24th conference of the CGPM in October 2011 and further discussed at the 25th conference in 2014. Although the Committee recognised that significant progress had been made, they concluded that the data did not yet appear sufficiently robust to adopt the revised definition, and that work should continue to enable the adoption at the 26th meeting, scheduled for 2018. Such a definition would theoretically permit any apparatus that was capable of delineating the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant to be used as long as it possessed sufficient precision, accuracy and stability. The Kibble balance is one way to do this.
As part of this project, a variety of very different technologies and approaches were considered and explored over many years. Some of these approaches were based on equipment and procedures that would enable the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort) using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, physical constants. Others were based on devices that measured either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned kilogram test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to physical constants. All approaches depend on converting a weight measurement to a mass and therefore require precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories (gravimetry). All approaches would have precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a defined value.
## SI multiples
Because an SI unit may not have multiple prefixes (see SI prefix), prefixes are added to gram, rather than the base unit kilogram, which already has a prefix as part of its name. For instance, one-millionth of a kilogram is 1 mg (one milligram), not 1 μkg (one microkilogram).
- The microgram is typically abbreviated "mcg" in pharmaceutical and nutritional supplement labelling, to avoid confusion, since the "μ" prefix is not always well recognised outside of technical disciplines. (The expression "mcg" is also the symbol for an obsolete CGS unit of measure known as the "millicentigram", which is equal to 10 μg.)
- In the United Kingdom, because serious medication errors have been made from the confusion between milligrams and micrograms when micrograms has been abbreviated, the recommendation given in the Scottish Palliative Care Guidelines is that doses of less than one milligram must be expressed in micrograms and that the word microgram must be written in full, and that it is never acceptable to use "mcg" or "μg".
- The hectogram (100 g) (Italian: ettogrammo or etto) is a very commonly used unit in the retail food trade in Italy.
- The former standard spelling and abbreviation "deka-" and "dk" produced abbreviations such as "dkm" (dekametre) and "dkg" (dekagram). As of 2020, the abbreviation "dkg" (10 g) is still used in parts of central Europe in retail for some foods such as cheese and meat.
- The unit name megagram is rarely used, and even then typically only in technical fields in contexts where especially rigorous consistency with the SI standard is desired. For most purposes, the name tonne is instead used. The tonne and its symbol, "t", were adopted by the CIPM in 1879. It is a non-SI unit accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI. According to the BIPM, "This unit is sometimes referred to as 'metric ton' in some English-speaking countries." The unit name megatonne or megaton (Mt) is often used in general-interest literature on greenhouse gas emissions and nuclear weapons yields, whereas the equivalent unit in scientific papers on the subject is often the teragram (Tg).
## See also
- 1795 in science
- 1799 in science
- Inertia
- Kibble balance
- Kilogram-force
- Mass versus weight
- Metric system
- Milligram per cent
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
- Newton
- Standard gravity
- Weight |
4,028,337 | Macedonia at the 2006 Winter Olympics | 1,137,511,472 | null | [
"2006 in Republic of Macedonia sport",
"Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics",
"North Macedonia at the Winter Olympics by year"
]
| The Republic of Macedonia sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy from 10–26 February 2006. This was Macedonia's third appearance at a Winter Olympic Games. The delegation consisted of three athletes; Ivana Ivčevska and Gjorgi Markovski in alpine skiing, and Darko Damjanovski in cross-country skiing. Their best performance in any event was 40th, by Ivčevska in the women's giant slalom.
## Background
The Olympic Committee of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1993. The nation made its Summer Olympics debut at the 1996 Atlanta Games, and its first appearance in the Winter Olympic Games at the 1998 Nagano Olympics. Macedonia has participated in every Olympics since their respective debuts. No athlete competing for Macedonia has ever won a medal at the Winter Olympics. The Macedonian delegation to Turin consisted of three athletes; Ivana Ivčevska and Gjorgi Markovski in alpine skiing, and Darko Damjanovski in cross-country skiing. Markovski was the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony.
## Alpine skiing
Ivana Ivčevska was 17 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics, and was making her Olympic debut. She was entered into two events, the giant slalom and the slalom. The slalom was held on 22 February, and consisted of two runs, with the total time determining the final standings. Ivčevska finished her first run in a time of 52.40 seconds and her second in a slower 57.73 seconds. Her total time was 1 minute and 50.13 seconds, which put her in 48th place out of 51 competitors who were able to finish both runs. On 24 February, she took part in the giant slalom, completing the first run in a time of 1 minute and 13.89 seconds, and the second in 1 minute and 23.47 seconds. Her total time was 2 minutes and 37.36 seconds, good for 40th place.
Gjorgi Markovski was 20 years old at the time of the 2006 Olympics, and was also making his Olympic debut. In the men's giant slalom on 20 February, he failed to finish the first run, and was eliminated from the competition. In the slalom, held on 25 February, he finished the first run in a time of 1 minute and 4.03 seconds, but failed to finish the second run, and went unranked for the competition.
## Cross-country skiing
Darko Damjanovski was 24 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics, and was making his Olympic debut. In the men's 15 kilometre classical held on 17 February, he finished with a time of 48 minutes and 33.7 seconds, putting him 84th out of 96 classified finishers. He would go on to represent Macedonia again at the 2010 Winter Olympics, and a third time at the 2014 Winter Olympics. |
2,682,221 | Sotra Bridge | 1,160,839,436 | Bridge in Vestland, Norway | [
"1971 establishments in Norway",
"Bridges completed in 1971",
"Former toll bridges in Norway",
"Norwegian National Road 555",
"Road bridges in Bergen",
"Road bridges in Vestland",
"Suspension bridges in Norway",
"Øygarden"
]
| The Sotra Bridge (Norwegian: Sotrabrua) is a suspension bridge which crosses Knarreviksundet between Knarrevik in Øygarden Municipality and Drotningsvik on the mainland of Bergen Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. It carries two road lanes and two narrow pedestrian paths of National Road 555, providing a fixed link for the archipelago of Sotra. The bridge is 1,236 metres (4,055 ft) long, has a main span of 468 metres (1,535 ft) and a clearance of 50 metres (160 ft). In 2007, it had an average 25,494 vehicles per day.
The bridge was brought into use on 11 December 1971, although not officially opened until 1972. It cost 40 million Norwegian krone (NOK) to build, of which NOK 23.5 million was paid for with tolls, which were collected until 1983. When it opened, it was the longest suspension bridge in Norway, but is now the seventh longest. There exist plans to build a second bridge to either expand the road to four lanes, or carry a proposed extension of the Bergen Light Rail. Alternatively, a subsea tunnel could be built to carry a motorway.
## Specifications
The concrete bridge crosses Knarreviksundet, which separates the island of Litlesotra, part of the Sotra archipelago, from the mainland and Bergen. The western part of the bridge, on Sotra, lies in Knarrevik in Fjell, while the eastern part lies in Drotningsvik in Bergen. The bridge is 1,236 metres (4,055 ft) long with a main span of 468 metres (1,535 ft). It carries two lanes of National Road 555, with a combined width of 7.5 metres (25 ft). In addition, it has a 0.8-meter (2 ft 7 in) wide sidewalk on each side. In 2009, it had an annual average daily traffic of 25,494 vehicles. Because it is located across the sound, the bridge is vulnerable to winds from the north and south. It is closed whenever the wind speed exceeds 30 metres per second (98 ft/s).
## History
### Planning
The first discussion of a bridge in a public forum was in 1954, when Anton P. Torsvik proposed a bridge to the major and municipal engineer of Fjell. Torsvik lived in Oslo and had worked with public relations for various other bridge projects. The issue was discussed in the municipal councils of Fjell and Sund, but they both concluded that there were more pressing needs on the islands' road network, so they did not want to prioritize a bridge. National Road 555 was completed in 1957, and the following years various road projects were completed.
Another person who took up the initiative in the late 1950s was Rangvald Iversen, who was plant manager at Norwegian Talc at Knarrevik. The plant had large costs freighting their products across the sound on the Alvøy–Brattholmen Ferry. In 1958, he took the initiative to conduct a traffic count, which along with estimates of increased traffic from other places that had replaced a ferry with a bridge, would give estimates for the revenue from tolls. Norwegian Talc also paid for a draft plan for a bridge. In 1959, Iversen presented an estimate that a bridge would cost NOK 15.5 million, and on 19 December 1959, the council voted unanimously to recommend that a committee be established to continue work on the bridge plans. In 1960, the bridge was included in the road plan for Hordaland.
There were also some plans for the future which would remove the last ferries within the Sotra and Øygarden archipelagos, meaning that the entire twin archipelago would have ferry-free access to the mainland, should the Sotra Bridge be built. The plans had been spurred by a large decrease in fishing during the late 1950s, and the need for increased tax revenue from new industries. The framework for the plan started in 1961 with the creation of an inter-municipal cooperation, which in 1964 resulted in the merger of the municipalities of Hjelme and Herdla to create Øygarden. On 8 May 1962, an inter-municipal road committee was established, which recommended that a limited company be established to finance the bridge. In Bergen, Bro og Tunnelselskapet had similarly built the Puddefjord Bridge and Eidsvåg Tunnel, and the inter-municipal council recommended a similar model. However, they wanted a separate company for Sotra and Øygarden, so extra tolls could be used to help finance road projects on the archipelago.
On 29 June 1962, Fjell Municipality sent an official application to the County Governor to start planning, and this was sent onwards to the Directorate for Public Roads. They concluded that it would be possible to finance the bridge with tolls collected over 13 to 14 years, with the state paying for one-third of the bridge. The plans called for the bridge to run south of Norwegian Talc, but it was later routed slightly north, so that the span could be reduced from 520 to 500 meters (1,710 to 1,640 ft). The optimal location would be within the Norwegian Talc plant, and by placing the western pylon on a skerry, it was possible to reduce the span to 468 metres (1,535 ft).
The plans from 1959 called for a height of 60 meters (200 ft), but the Public Roads Administration stated that a height of 50 metres (160 ft) would be sufficient, and also help to reduce the construction costs. In 1962, the extra costs for the higher height were estimated at NOK 4 million. Bergen Port Authority stated in 1963 that they required a height of 66 metres (217 ft), while the local newspapers felt that 50 metres (160 ft) was sufficient. Bergen City Council voted in favor of the shortest proposal. The Royal Norwegian Navy supported a taller bridge, but were more willing to reduce the height than the port authority. The port authority reduced its preferred height to 62 metres (203 ft), with the road authority responding that such a clearance only existed in a very few places in the world, and that the extra costs could result in the whole project being abandoned.
It was the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs who had the final word in the matter. A national committee was established in 1963 to make guidelines for clearances, and it recommended that 60 meters (200 ft) be used in fjords and sounds where very large ships, in particular cruise ships, would pass, while 50 meters (160 ft) would permissible for minor and inner parts of fjords, as well as passages where alternatives were available. The clearance of the Sotra Bridge would only be applicable for ships coming from the south, and even these had the option of sailing around Øygarden, an increased distance of 83 kilometres (52 mi). For ships from the east, the distance would be the same, while from the north they would not pass through the sound. The port authority stated on 11 November 1963 that they were willing to allow a smaller clearance, which was back up by Bergen City Council on 27 November. The ministry finalized the decision on 16 December, supporting a height of 50 metres (160 ft).
### Financing and construction
On 2 January 1965, the bridge committee recommended that a limited company be established to finance the bridge. The three archipelago municipalities, Fjell, Sund and Øygarden, would purchase shares for NOK 500,000, while another NOK 200,000 would be purchased from the mainland municipalities and Hordaland County Municipality. The company was established as A/S Sotrabrua on 16 October 1965, with the head office located in Fjell. The company was given authority by its owners to apply for a 20-year concession to collect tolls on a new bridge; if the tolls gave a profit beyond covering the debt of the bridge, it was to be used for further construction of roads on Sotra and Øygarden. The company was formally registered on 12 January 1966.
To get satisfactory conditions for the loan, the company was recommended by banks to increase the ownership equity to 10% of the loan. The share capital was insufficient, so the company started issuing preferred shares to individuals and the companies, and managed to secure NOK 1.7 million. An exception to the rules was made, and the company was allowed to start detailed planning before the loans had been finalized. An estimate from 1966 showed that the bridge itself would cost NOK 27 million, while the auxiliary roads would cost NOK 4 million, excluding inflation and interest during construction. On 23 November 1966, the county council supported a proposal that one third of the construction costs be covered by national road funds. On 10 August 1967, the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Norway gave permission that the company could borrow up to NOK 25 million. The loan was a bond sold by Bergens Privatbank and Samvirke Forsikring, consisting of one series valued at NOK 15 million issued in 1968, and one valued at NOK 10 million issued in 1970, with an interest of 5.5% and 6.0%, respectively. There was a five years interest-only period, followed by ten years of repayment. The mortgage deed was secured in the right to collect tolls, supported by guarantees from the municipalities of Bergen, Fjell, Sund and Øygarden, and the county municipality. In addition, the company was granted loans from Bergens Privatbank, Bergens Sparebank and Vestlandsbanken for NOK 3 million, although these were never used. The state's part of the financing was through a loan from the Regional Development Fund.
The bridge was approved by the Parliament of Norway on 5 June 1968. An agreement regarding financing was made between A/S Sotrabrua and the Ministry of Transport and Communications on 1 July 1968. The construction of the road would be done by Hordaland Public Road Administration, who would receive two-thirds of the financing of costs up to NOK 34 million from the company. The company would also advance the state's part of the costs, which would be repaid to the company as NOK 1 million per year, for an estimated advance of NOK 8.3 million. The company would be responsible for any interest, including that which would be accumulated during construction, and would have the right to collect tolls on all traffic on the bridge.
The optimal crossing point ran over Norwegian Talc's plant, and would involve placing the western pylon in the middle of their area. The company offered the authorities free land on the condition that they received a satisfactory intersection with the bridge. A formal agreement was reached in mid-1970. On the eastern side, an area development plan had to be made, which was approved on 19 May 1967. The necessary land not already owned by the municipalities was expropriated.
Initial plans had called for the bridge to be completed by October 1972. On 28 December 1968, the company asked the road administration if construction could be quickened. They estimated that the bridge could be completed by December 1971 for a price increase of NOK 750,000. This gave the company NOK 2 million more in profits, as it could more quickly start collecting toll revenue. The company chose to accept this extra cost. The start of construction was delayed, first by the parliamentary decision coming right before the holidays, followed immediately by a national strike by engineers. The contract for the foundation and concrete work was won by Selmer, who started work in March 1969. The steel-work contracts were issued to Høsveis, Bofa and Alfred Andersen; despite them not having the lowest bid, the road administration chose to use the largest companies.
On 11 December 1971, the bridge opened for traffic, and on the same day, the Alvøy–Brattholmen Ferry was terminated. In February 1972, there were twice as many cars as there had been on the ferry in February 1971. The official opening by King Olav V took place on 25 May 1972. The bridge cost NOK 39.8 million to construct. This included NOK 650,000 for the county road between Knarrevik and Brattholmen, which had been paid for by the state. The cost the company had to pay was NOK 23.45 million. The final estimates for the project were for NOK 34 million, and the whole cost above this was covered by the state. When it opened, the bridge was the longest in Norway.
### Tolls and auxiliary projects
Since the bridge would be the only road from the mainland to the archipelago, tolls could be collected in only one direction. The tolls were set to NOK 40 for semitrailers, NOK 30 for buses, NOK 20 for trucks, NOK 12 for cars, NOK 5 for motorcycles, NOK 4 for bicycles, NOK 2 for adults and 1 for children. Discounts were available at the same rates as for ferries. The four people who had worked the longest on the ferry were offered the job as toll plaza employees. From 1972, the bookkeeping of the company was transferred from the company's secretary to Bergens Privatbank's branch in Sotra, while the auditing was placed at Hordaland County Auditing.
In 1972, the company collected NOK 3.07 million in tolls, 21% more than estimated. By 1977, the annual income had reached NOK 5.03 million, which was up 28% from the estimates. From 1978, the tolls for people were removed, resulting in about NOK 1 million less revenue per year. One of the reasons for the removal of passenger tolls was the extra time used to count passengers, which increased the queues at the toll plaza, and that the company's debt would be covered anyway, even without the extra revenue. From 1 January 1981, scheduled buses were also exempt from tolls, under the condition that the funds saved were used by the bus companies to strengthen public transport on Sotra. From 1980, there was disagreement within the company as to whether the toll period should be extended to increase the subsidies to projects on Sotra and Øygarden, or if an as short as possible collection period was desirable. The board decided to terminate toll collections from 31 December 1983. A minority of the owners wanted to extend the period for another two years, which would have given an estimated additional NOK 20 million.
The company collected NOK 73.5 million in tolls, in addition to accumulating NOK 16.3 million in interest. Costs, mostly for running of the toll plaza, were NOK 7.6 million, in addition to financial costs of NOK 20.0 million. This gave a profit of NOK 62.4 million, including the necessary repayments of the initial loan. Because the debt had been financed with bonds, the company chose to place revenue in the bank with a higher interest instead of paying off the bonds faster. The preferred shares were repaid in 1980, while all bonds had been repaid by 1985. A/S Sotrabrua was formally liquidated on 9 February 1989.
Among the company's other goals was that of helping finance road projects on Øygarden. The most pressing issue was the section from Kolltveit on Store Sotra to the bridge, part of National Road 555. In 1976, the company issued NOK 5 million in an interest-free loan to the project, which was repaid in 1982 and 1983. Similar conditions were imposed for NOK 2 million for National Road 561 to Nordra Straumsundet and NOK 1.2 million for the establishment of the Solsvik–Rong Ferry in 1974. The rest of the subsidies were given as grants. The main project was National Road 561, which ran from Kollveit northwards through Øygarden, for which the company paid NOK 28.6 million. It paid a further NOK 9.3 million for other projects in Sotra and Øygarden, including connections to Turøy and Misje.
## Future
In 2005, 8,000 people commuted between Sotra and Bergen, and the bridge had an average daily traffic of 22,000 vehicles. On National Road 555 between Straume, the municipal center of Fjell, and Storavatnet, where National Road 555 becomes a motorway, there are long queues during rush hour. The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has proposed a four-lane motorway along National Road 555 from Stoavatnet to Straume. This will require a new crossing across Knarreviksundet. Such a motorway extension is estimated to cost between NOK 3 and 4 billion, and the government has allocated NOK 400 million in National Transport Plan 2010–2019 for the project. It is presumed that most of the project will be financed as a toll road.
Four main proposals were suggested for the new fixed link. One involved a four-lane subsea tunnel, one involved building a second, two-lane bridge immediately adjacent to the current one, which would give the impression of a single bridge, another involved a new four-lane bridge slightly to the south, and the last involved a new bridge considerably further to the south, which would connect to County Road 557.
A tunnel would consist of two sections, one from Kolltveit to Arefjord, where there would be an intersection, and one from Arefjord to Storavatnet. Both would be subsea tunnels, where the westernmost would be 4.7 kilometers (2.9 mi) long and reach 80 meters (260 ft) below mean sea level (BMSL), while the eastern tunnel would be 7.0 kilometers (4.3 mi) long and reach 140 meters (460 ft) BMSL. This would involve the current National Road 555 being reclassified as a local road. A tunnel would be 1.5 kilometers (0.93 mi) longer than a bridge, which would give higher costs of roughly NOK 1000 per year for an average commuter. The tunnel would catch long-distance travel (Straume and westwards), while the bridge would be used for local traffic. An alternate tunnel proposal was to build it roughly 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) south of the current bridge, between Brattholmen and Håkonshella. This would connect to County Road 557 about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) south of Liavatnet.
The company Sotrasambandet AS has been established to lobby for and potentially debt-finance the construction, which potentially could include other parts of National Roads 555 and 561. In 2008, the company estimated that it might be possible to start construction in 2013, and complete the project by 2016. On 21 April 2009, State Secretary Geir Pollestad stated that the government would support a bridge, but did not indicate if a two-lane or four-lane solution would be chosen. The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has recommended a four-lane bridge, while the Institute of Transport Economics has recommended the two-lane bridge. It is largely up to the city councils of Bergen and Fjell to determine which of the bridge alternatives will be chosen.
A four-lane bridge is estimated to cost NOK 2 billion. It could either be located immediately north of the current bridge, or south of Norwegian Talc. The traffic from Askøy, along County Road 562, connects with National Road 555 at Storavatnet. Without a bypass, the increased capacity from Sotra would not be achieved without expanding the motorway from Storavatnet to the city center. In 2010, an alternative was launched whereby a four-lane bridge would be built south of Norwegian Talc, and would immediately run into a tunnel and connect to the current motorway at Liavatnet. This is the planned intersection between National Road 555 and County Road 557 (Ring Road West), which would result in traffic from Sotra towards southern Bergen would not take up capacity on the current 555 motorway until after traffic from both Sotra and Askøy heading towards southern Bergen have had a possibility to head onto County Road 557.
In June 2010, Hordaland County Council decided that an extension of the Bergen Light Rail to Sotra was to be made part of the extension plans in the period until 2040. For the light rail to use existing infrastructure, a bridge would have to be chosen. The road project has been criticized by environmentalists because it uniformly bases growth in transport to the archipelago based on cars, and lacks any plans for inclusion of public transport, whether by light rail or as bus lanes. Criticism has also been raised against the Norwegian Public Roads Administration being responsible for planning the public transport, as they have failed to produce efficient public transport systems in Bergen. |
8,373,800 | Walter Zinn | 1,166,968,458 | Nuclear physicist (1906–2000) | [
"1906 births",
"2000 deaths",
"American nuclear physicists",
"Atoms for Peace Award recipients",
"Canadian nuclear physicists",
"City College of New York faculty",
"Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni",
"Columbia University faculty",
"Manhattan Project people",
"Queen's University at Kingston alumni",
"Scientists from Kitchener, Ontario"
]
| Walter Henry Zinn (December 10, 1906 – February 14, 2000) was a Canadian-born American nuclear physicist who was the first director of the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1956. He worked at the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory during World War II, and supervised the construction of Chicago Pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor, which went critical on December 2, 1942, at the University of Chicago. At Argonne he designed and built several new reactors, including Experimental Breeder Reactor I, the first nuclear reactor to produce electric power, which went live on December 20, 1951.
## Early life
Walter Henry Zinn was born in Berlin (now Kitchener), Ontario, on December 10, 1906, the son of John Zinn, who worked in a tire factory, and Maria Anna Stoskopf. He had an older brother, Albert, who also became a factory worker.
Zinn entered Queen's University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics in 1927 and a Master of Arts degree in 1930. He then entered Columbia University in 1930, where he studied physics, writing his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on "Two-crystal study of the structure and width of K X-ray absorption limits". This was subsequently published in the Physical Review.
To support himself, Zinn taught at Queen's University from 1927 to 1928, and at Columbia from 1931 to 1932. He became an instructor at the City College of New York in 1932. While at Queen's he met Jennie A. (Jean) Smith, a fellow student. They were married in 1933 and had two sons, John Eric and Robert James. In 1938, Zinn became a naturalised United States citizen.
## Manhattan Project
In 1939, the Pupin Physics Laboratories at Columbia where Zinn worked were the center of intensive research into the properties of uranium and nuclear fission, which had recently been discovered by Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann. At Columbia, Zinn, Enrico Fermi, Herbert L. Anderson, John R. Dunning and Leo Szilard investigated whether uranium-238 fissioned with slow neutrons, as Fermi believed, or only the uranium-235 isotope, as Niels Bohr contended. Since pure uranium-235 was not available, Fermi and Szilard chose to work with natural uranium. They were particularly interested in whether a nuclear chain reaction could be initiated. This would require more than one neutron to be emitted per fission on average in order to keep the chain reaction going. By March 1939, they established that about two were being emitted per fission on average. The delay between an atom absorbing a neutron and fission occurring would be the key to controlling a chain reaction.
At this point Zinn began working for Fermi, constructing experimental uranium lattices. To slow neutrons down requires a neutron moderator. Water was Fermi's first choice, but it tended to absorb neutrons as well as slow them. In July, Szilard suggested using carbon, in the form of graphite. The critical radius of a spherical reactor was calculated to be:
$R_{crit} = - \frac{\pi M}{\sqrt{k - 1}}$
In order for a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction to occur, they needed k \> 1. For a practical reactor configuration, it needed to be at least 3 or 4 percent more; but in August 1941 Zinn's initial experiments indicated a disappointing value of 0.87. Fermi pinned his hopes of a better result on an improved configuration, and purer uranium and graphite.
In early 1942, with the United States now embroiled World War II, Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project's various teams working on plutonium at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. Zinn used athletes to build Fermi's increasingly large experimental configurations under the stands of the disused Stagg Field. In July 1942, Fermi measured a k = 1.007 from a uranium oxide lattice. This raised hopes that pure uranium would yield a suitable value of k.
By December 1942, Zinn and Anderson had the new configuration ready at Stagg Field. Some 24 feet (7.3 m) long, 24 feet (7.3 m) wide and 19 feet (5.8 m) high, it contained 385.5 long tons (391.7 t) of graphite and 46.5 long tons (47.2 t) of uranium metal and uranium oxide. When the experiment was carried out on the afternoon of December 2, 1942, the reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, reached criticality without incident. Since the reactor had no radiation shield, it was run at a maximum power of only 200 W, enough to power a light bulb, and ran for only three months. It was shut down on February 28, 1943, because the US Army did not want to risk an accident near densely populated downtown Chicago.
The Army leased a 1,000 acres (400 ha) of the Cook County Forest Preserves known as "Site A" to the Manhattan Project, and "the Country Club" to the hundred or so scientists, guards and others who worked there. Zinn was placed in charge of Site A, under Fermi. Chicago Pile-1 was disassembled and rebuilt, this time with a radiation shield, at Site A. The reactor, now known as Chicago Pile-2, was operational again on March 20, 1943. Within a few months, Fermi began designing a new reactor, which became known as Chicago Pile-3. This was a very different type of reactor. It was much smaller, being only 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter and 9 feet (2.7 m) high. It was power by 120 uranium metal rods, and moderated by 1,200 US gallons (4,500 L; 1,000 imp gal) of heavy water. Once again Zinn was in charge of construction, which commenced on New Year's Day in 1944. Chicago Pile-3 went critical on May 15, 1944, and commenced operation on June 23 at its full power of 300 KW. When Fermi departed for the Hanford Site, Zinn became the sole authority at Site A.
On September 29, 1944, Zinn received an urgent call from Samuel Allison, the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory. The B Reactor at Hanford had shut down shortly after reaching full power, only to come back to life again some hours later. Norman Hilberry suspected a neutron poison was responsible. If so, it had a half life of around 9.7 hours. Xenon-135 had a half life close to that, but had not been detected in Argonne or by the X-10 Graphite Reactor in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Zinn quickly brought Chicago Pile-3 up to full power, and within twelve hours, had made a series of measurements that confirmed the Hanford results.
Over the following months, some 175 technical personnel were transferred from the Metallurgical Laboratory to Hanford and Los Alamos. Zinn's Argonne Laboratory was reduced to a skeleton staff, but Compton would not countenance its closure.
## Argonne National Laboratory
On July 11, 1946, the Argonne laboratory officially became the Argonne National Laboratory, with Zinn as its first director. Alvin Weinberg characterized Zinn as "a model of what a director of the then-emerging national laboratories should be: sensitive to the aspirations of both contractor and fund provider, but confident enough to prevail when this was necessary."
One of the first problems confronting Zinn was that of accommodation. The Federal government had promised to restore Site A to the Cook County Forest Preserves after the war, and despite intervention from the Secretary of War, Robert P. Patterson, the most the Cook County Forest Preserves Commission would agree to was that the Argonne National Laboratory could continue to occupy a portion of the lease until a new site was found. Zinn rejected alternate sites outside the Chicago area, and the Army found a new site for the laboratory's permanent home about 5 miles (8.0 km) away in DuPage County, Illinois, which became known as Site D.
Under Zinn, the Argonne National Laboratory adopted slightly more progressive hiring practices than other contemporary institutions. Three African American women and seven men, six of whom had worked on the Manhattan Project, were employed in research at Argonne at a time when the Los Alamos National Laboratory had no African American scientists. Argonne also appointed women to positions of authority, with Maria Goeppert-Mayer as a section leader in the theoretical physics division, and Hoylande Young as director of the technical information division.
The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) replaced the Manhattan Project on January 1, 1947, and on January 1, 1948 it announced that the Argonne National Laboratory would be "focused chiefly on problems of reactor development." Zinn did not seek the additional responsibility, which he realised would divert the Laboratory away from research, and divert him from other responsibilities, such as designing a fast breeder reactor. He even obtained a written assurance from Carroll L. Wilson, the AEC's general manager, that it would not. He was therefore willing to collaborate with Alvin Weinberg to allow the Oak Ridge National Laboratory to remain involved in reactor design. Nonetheless, reactor research accounted for almost half the laboratory's budget in 1949, and 84 percent of its research was classified.
Zinn did not get along well with Captain Hyman G. Rickover, the US Navy's Director of Naval Reactors, but nonetheless Argonne assisted in the development of nuclear marine propulsion, eventually producing two reactors, a land-based prototype Mark I and a propulsion reactor, the Mark II. The STR (Submarine Thermal Reactor) pressurized water reactor designed at Argonne powered the first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus, and became the basis of nearly all the reactors installed in warships.
The other branch of reactor development at the Argonne National Laboratory, and the one closer to Zinn's heart, was the fast breeder reactor. At the time it was believed that uranium was a scarce resource, so it would be wise to make the best use of it. The breeders were designed to create more fissile material than they consumed. By 1948, he had become convinced that it would be unwise to build large experimental reactors near Chicago, and the AEC acquired land around Arco, Idaho, which became an outpost of Argonne. The Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I, but known at Argonne as "ZIP" — Zinn's Infernal Pile) was the first reactor to be cooled by liquid metal, and the first to produce electricity. It proved the breeder concept. AEC Chairman Gordon Dean described it as a major milestone in nuclear history.
The BORAX Experiments were a series of destructive tests of boiling water reactors conducted by Argonne National Laboratory in Idaho. The BORAX-1 test was conducted under Zinn's supervision in 1954. He had the control rods removed to demonstrate that the reactor would shut down without trouble, and it immediately blew up with a loud bang and a tall column of dark smoke, a turn of events that he had not anticipated. He shouted to Harold Lichtenberg to put the control rods back in again, but Lichtenberg pointed out that one was already flying through the air. Zinn later had to testify on the experiment before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy.
## Later life
After leaving the Argonne National Laboratory in 1956, Zinn moved to Florida, where he founded his own consulting firm, General Nuclear Engineering, with its headquarters in Dunedin, Florida. The company was involved in the design and construction of pressurized water reactors. It was acquired by Combustion Engineering in 1964, and he became a vice president and head of its nuclear division. He stepped down from this position in 1970, but remained a board member until 1986. He served as a member of the President's Science Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1962, and a member of the General Advisory Committee of the AEC and its successor, the Energy Research and Development Administration, from 1972 to 1975.
Over the years Zinn received multiple awards for his work, including a special commendation from the AEC in 1956, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1960, the Enrico Fermi Award in 1969, and the Elliott Cresson Medal from The Franklin Institute in 1970. In 1955 he was elected as the first president of the American Nuclear Society (ANS).
Zinn's wife Jean died in 1964. He married Mary Teresa Pratt in 1966, and thereby acquired two stepsons, Warren and Robert Johnson. He died in Mease Countryside Hospital in Safety Harbor, Florida, on February 14, 2000, after suffering a stroke. He was survived by his wife Mary, sons John and Robert and stepson Warren. Robert had become a professor of astronomy at Yale University.
## Walter H. Zinn Award
Since 1976, the American Nuclear Society's Operations and Power Division, has annually presented the Walter H. Zinn Award to recognize an individual "for a notable and sustained contribution to the nuclear power industry that has not been widely recognized." |
940,049 | The X-Files (season 3) | 1,121,796,437 | Season of television series The X-Files | [
"1995 American television seasons",
"1996 American television seasons",
"The X-Files seasons"
]
| The third season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files commenced airing on Fox in the United States on September 22, 1995, concluded on the same channel on May 17, 1996, and contained 24 episodes. The season continues to follow the cases of FBI special agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively, who investigate paranormal or supernatural cases, known as X-Files by the FBI.
The season features the conclusion of several plot-lines introduced in season two, while also introducing several new plot elements. Major plot arcs include an elaborate conspiracy being discovered when an alien autopsy video is acquired by Mulder, Scully's search for the killer of her sister, and the mystery surrounding X (Steven Williams). Pivotal characters such as the First Elder (Don S. Williams) and the alien virus black oil were first introduced in this season. In addition, the season features a wide variety of "Monster-of-the-Week" episodes, stand-alone stories not of influence to the wider mythology of the series.
The season attained higher ratings than season two, the highest viewing audience the series had yet achieved. Season premiere "The Blessing Way" debuted with a Nielsen household rating of 19.94, which more than doubled the premiere of the last season. The ratings consistently stayed above 15.0, making it one of the most watched series of the 1995–96 television line-up. The season received generally positive reviews from television critics, winning five Primetime Emmy Awards. Many of the episodes written by writer Darin Morgan received critical acclaim, including the episodes "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" and "Jose Chung's From Outer Space" which are often cited as some of the best of the series. Morgan left the series following this season, due to an inability to keep up with the fast-paced nature of the show.
## Plot overview
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. Mulder is later found in the desert following the events of the second season finale and nursed back to health by Albert Hosteen (Floyd Red Crow Westerman). Meanwhile, Scully investigates the possible involvement of the smallpox eradication program in human genetic experimentation, discovering that a Nazi scientist who defected during Operation Paperclip has been conducting human experimentation to create alien-human hybrids. Her sister Melissa (Melinda McGraw), however, is shot by assassins who mistake her for Dana, and dies in hospital that night.
Investigating evidence of an alien autopsy, Mulder infiltrates a secretive government train carriage carrying an alien-human hybrid. Mulder is almost killed by a Syndicate operative guarding the hybrid, but is saved by his informant X (Steven Williams). X had been tipped off about Mulder's activities by the agent's partner Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson). Scully, meanwhile, meets a group of women with abduction experiences similar to her own, and meets another member of the Syndicate known as the First Elder (Don S. Williams), who claims during her abduction she was placed on a similar train car and experimented upon by the Japanese scientists.
The crew of a French salvage ship trying to raise a World War II-era submarine from the sea floor are stricken with massive radiation burns—except for one, who has been infected with a parasitic black oil discovered on the submarine. The oil is controlling the crewman's body, and after passing through several hosts, has overtaken Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea), whom Mulder has been pursuing. Scully finds that the submarine had been involved in discovering the oil on the sea floor during World War II, under the guise of finding a sunken fighter plane. The infected Krycek makes his way to a missile silo used to hide a UFO, and the oil escapes his body to board the craft. Meanwhile, Scully has tracked down Luis Cardinal, the man responsible for killing her sister.
## Writing
Development of the first episode of the season, "The Blessing Way", began with the second-season finale "Anasazi". Both of those episodes, along with "Paper Clip", form a trilogy of episodes that began the third season. "Anasazi" was directed by R. W. Goodwin, who later directed the season finale "Talitha Cumi", and "Paper Clip" was directed by Rob Bowman. Bowman directed a total of eight episodes for the season, followed by Kim Manners who directed seven. Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote eight episodes, directing one.
Darin Morgan had a small involvement in the second season, and was asked to contribute more content for the third. He first appeared in "The Host" as the Flukeman, and was brought on by his brother Glen Morgan to help write the episode "Blood". Morgan's first sole credit as a writer came in the episode "Humbug", which received a positive reception by the staff. David Duchovny expressed an enjoyment for working with Morgan, commenting "what I loved about his scripts was that he seemed to be trying to destroy the show." Morgan wrote a total of three episodes, but later left the series because he could not keep up with the fast-paced nature of network television. He also expressed a negative opinion of the way his teleplays were handled, despite a positive reception by both critics and the crew of his work. He also contributed to the script for the episode "Quagmire". After writing one episode the previous season, Vince Gilligan returned to write another solo episode for the season, now credited as a creative consultant. Cast member David Duchovny collaborated with Howard Gordon and Chris Carter for two episodes receiving story credit.
New writers in the third season included story editor Jeffrey Vlaming who wrote two episodes, supervising producer Charles Grant Craig who wrote a single episode, Kim Newtown who wrote two episodes, and staff writer John Shiban who wrote two episodes. All new writers except Shiban did not return after this season. Series visual effects producer Mat Beck also wrote an episode. Other producers included production manager and producer Joseph Patrick Finn and co-producer Paul Rabwin.
## Themes
"Nisei" and "731", show a darker side to the series, exploring the public's distrust in the government. Other episodes dealing with the wider mythology of the series—"Talitha Cumi", "Piper Maru" and "Apocrypha"—explore similar concepts, showcasing the shadow government plot line of the series. Episodes like "2Shy" and "Pusher" feature sadistic villains, containing human beings capable of highly immoral acts despite their seemingly mundane appearances. Another episode with a serial killer antagonist, "Grotesque", revolves around the way that evil can change and influence people. "Oubliette" offers a sentimental and emotional plot driven by the kidnapping of a young girl. The episode features parallels to the real life Polly Klaas case and provides commentary on both stockholm syndrome and trauma.
Aliens and serial killers are not the only antagonists in the season; several episodes revolve around more traditional, B-movie inspired monsters, taking influence from horror films. These episodes include "War of the Coprophages" and "Quagmire", about killer cockroaches and a lake monster. Several episodes have satirical elements, including "D.P.O.", "Syzygy" and "War of the Coprophages", with the latter two showcasing how the public can create panic out of need. Both "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" and "Jose Chung's From Outer Space" play against tropes and the established formula of the series, subverting themes the series usually followed.
## Cast
### Main cast
#### Starring
- David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder
- Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully
#### Also starring
- Mitch Pileggi as Deputy Director Walter Skinner
### Recurring cast
### Guest cast
## Episodes
Episodes marked with a double dagger () are episodes in the series' Alien Mythology arc.
## Reception
### Ratings
The third season of The X-Files debuted with "The Blessing Way" on September 22, 1995. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12.3, with a 22 share, meaning that roughly 12.3 percent of all television-equipped households, and 22 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. The episode was viewed by 19.94 million viewers. "The Blessing Way" was, at the time, the highest-rated episode of The X-Files to air; the previous record belonged to the season two entry "Fresh Bones", which only scored an 11.3 rating with a 19 share. As the season continued, however, ratings dropped slightly and stabilized. After the season premiere, the highest-rated episode of the season was the finale, "Talitha Cumi", which was viewed by 17.86 million viewers. The season hit a low with the twenty-third and penultimate episode of the season, "Wetwired", which was viewed by only 14.48 million viewers.
The series was ranked as number 55 during the 1995–96 television season, and was viewed by an average of 15.40 million viewers, an increase in almost seven percent when compared to the second season, which was viewed by 14.50. In its third season, The X-Files became Fox's top-rated program in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic. The third season of the show was the last to be aired on Friday nights; for its fourth season, the show was moved to Sunday.
### Reviews
Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the third season The X-Files' "best season and maybe one of the greatest TV seasons of all time", noting it was consistent and "[swung] from strength to strength" between mythology and stand-alone episodes. However, she thought it "starts out kind of terribly" with "The Blessing Way". Zack Handlen, VanDerWerff's colleague, wrote that the third season was "one of the show's strongest, with the conspiracy arc still keeping tension high instead of just vamping for time. By this point, the sometimes awkward effects work of the early years is gone, and the overall direction is highly polished, giving even the season's weakest entries a cinematic feel". He also stated that Morgan's "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" and "Jose Chung's From Outer Space" were "The X-Files's two greatest hours". The writing credits provided by Morgan was widely cited as a highlight of the season. "War of the Coprophages" written by him received positive reviews, and Entertainment Weekly gave "War of the Coprophages" an A–, who praised the absurdity and entertainment value of the episode. Another episode, "Quagmire" containing some writing credits by Morgan received positive reviews, with the 10-minute dialogue sequence featuring Mulder and Scully receiving highly positive reviews.
Gilligan's episode "Pusher" was also cited as one of the best episodes of the series by both IGN and Den of Geek, and Tom Kessenich, in his book Examination: An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6–9 of the X-Files, named the episode the third best episode of The X-Files and called it the "best MOTW ["monster-of-the-week"] in the series history" Duchovny considers his performance in "Oubliette" as his favorite of the season, an episode that also received mostly positive reviews. Writing for DVD Talk, Earl Cressey rated the season overall four-and-a-half stars out of five, finding that the series' increased budget meant that its production values and the quality of its guest appearances were better than previous seasons.
### Accolades
The third season earned the series eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations. It received its second consecutive nomination for Outstanding Drama Series, Gillian Anderson received her first nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, and the episode "Jose Chung's From Outer Space" was nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Art Direction for a Series. The series won five awards, including Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing for a Drama Series, for the episode "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" written by Darin Morgan; Peter Boyle won for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for his performance in that same episode. The episode "Nisei" won for both Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Drama Series. John S. Bartley won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series due to the episode "Grotesque". Duchovny and Anderson were each nominated for a Golden Globe Award for their performances.
## DVD release |
20,205,059 | Tropical Storm Dorothy | 1,171,829,852 | Atlantic tropical storm in 1970 | [
"1970 Atlantic hurricane season",
"Atlantic tropical storms",
"Hurricanes in Dominica",
"Hurricanes in Martinique",
"Hurricanes in the Windward Islands"
]
| Tropical Storm Dorothy was the deadliest tropical cyclone of the 1970 Atlantic hurricane season. The fourth named storm and fifth tropical storm or hurricane of the season, Dorothy developed on August 17 from a tropical wave to the east of the Lesser Antilles. It tracked west-northwestward throughout its entire duration, and despite forecasts of attaining hurricane status, Dorothy reached peak winds of 70 mph (110 km/) – slightly below hurricane status. The storm struck Martinique on August 20, and subsequently began a gradual weakening trend in the Caribbean Sea. On August 23, Dorothy dissipated south of Hispaniola.
Most significantly affected by the storm was Martinique, which received 26.8 in (680 mm) of rainfall in a 24‐hour period. The rainfall caused flooding and mudslides, resulting in about \$34 million in damage (1970 USD); 186 homes were destroyed, and 700 people were left homeless. The flooding killed up to 50 people on the island. Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles, the storm killed one person on Dominica from heavy rainfall, and in Guadeloupe heavy damage to the banana crop was reported.
## Meteorological history
The origins of Tropical Storm Dorothy were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on August 13. It tracked generally westward, developing into a tropical depression on August 17 about 1,375 miles (2,215 km) east of Tobago in the Lesser Antilles. Two days later, it strengthened into Tropical Storm Dorothy, while located about 500 mi (800 km) east of the Lesser Antilles, with its intensity confirmed by the hurricane hunters.
With light vertical wind shear and warm water temperatures, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) remarked on August 19 that "hurricane status would probably be attained this afternoon or tonight." Its track was expected to continue generally west-northwestward, influenced by a ridge near the Bahamas, and within 60 hours Dorothy was forecast to be north or over Puerto Rico. However, a subsequent hurricane hunters flight reported a more westerly motion, which would bring its track through the central Lesser Antilles. Tropical Storm Dorothy gradually intensified, reaching peak winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) on August 20 just east-northeast of Barbados. hurricane hunters confirmed the intensity, though the flight also reported a weakness of low-level inflow. Despite maintaining winds of just below hurricane-force, there was no evidence of an eyewall on radars as the storm approached the Lesser Antilles. Late on August 20, the storm moved across Martinique into the Caribbean Sea, during which its low-level circulation became disorganized.
As Tropical Storm Dorothy moved further into the Caribbean Sea, it began a gradual weakening trend initiated by a persistent tropical upper tropospheric trough, as well as the presence of strong wind shear and a lack of inflow. Hurricane Hunter flights late on August 21 and early on August 22 failed to locate a closed low-level circulation, and as a result the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression. After another flight into the system could not detect a circulation, the NHC discontinued advisories on Dorothy to the south of Hispaniola late on August 22. Around the same time, thunderstorms increased in association with the cyclone, and forecasters remarked the potential for re-intensification over the western Caribbean Sea. However, the storm became more disorganized, and on August 23 Dorothy degenerated into a tropical wave.
## Preparations and impact
After the first tropical cyclone advisory was issued on Tropical Storm Dorothy, a hurricane watch and storm warning were issued for the Leeward Islands from Dominica northward. As its westward track became more apparent, the watches and warnings were extended southward to include Martinique and Saint Lucia. On Martinique, authorities released a statement that warned the public for the potential for strong winds, heavy rainfall, and rough waves. Also on the island, officials converted schools and government buildings into shelters for people in low-lying areas. As a result of the storm, the Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport in Le Lamentin was closed.
The storm dropped heavy rainfall while crossing the Lesser Antilles. In Martinique, the highest 24-hour total was 26.8 inches (680 mm) in Fourniols, which was twice the average rainfall for August. Additionally, the capital city of Fort-de-France reported 13.4 in (341 mm). There, the rainfall broke all records for durations up to 24 hours; about 1 inch (25 mm) fell in 5 minutes, and in one hour a station reported 6.02 inches (153 mm). The rainfall caused flooding and mudslides, as well as rivers exceeding their banks; several bridges collapsed during the storm, and many homes were washed away. During the passage of the storm, sustained winds on the island reached 67 miles per hour (108 km/h), with gusts reaching 99 miles per hour (159 km/h) in the Caravelle peninsula. Throughout the country, the storm destroyed 186 homes and left 700 people homeless. The passage of Dorothy left heavy crop damage on the island, totaling 32 million francs (1970 FRF, \$5.8 million 1970 USD); a total of 3.75 sq mi (9.7 km<sup>2</sup>) of banana crop was destroyed, and 2.16 sq mi (5.6 km<sup>2</sup>) of sugar cane was destroyed. Damage on the island totaled 190 million francs (1970 FRF, \$34 million 1970 USD).
Tropical Storm Dorothy caused several deaths on Martinique, although the exact death toll is unknown. The National Hurricane Center reported 50 deaths, although the post event report provided by the French meteorological agency reported 44 people dead or missing. Most of the deaths were in Saint-Joseph, where 20 people drowned in the Rivière l'Or. Floodwater rescues had been made difficult due to washed out roads and poor communications after the storm. In addition to the deaths, several people were injured. After the passage of the storm, Martinique was temporarily left isolated, when communications were downed with other nearby islands. The French Red Cross distributed 500 blankets and one ton of condensed milk; the agency also sought international assistance.
Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles, the storm caused flooding and mudslides in Dominica. There, the storm caused one death, when flooding heavy rainfall washed out a bridge. Also, all of the capital city of Roseau lost power and water service due to the storm. In neighboring Guadeloupe, the storm left much of the banana crop destroyed. Later, after it entered the Caribbean Sea, small craft warnings were issued for the Leeward Islands, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. In its review of the storm, the National Hurricane Center did not mention any damage in the Greater Antilles.
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones named Dorothy
- Tropical Storm Erika |
18,862,523 | 1996–97 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season | 1,170,983,971 | Cyclone season in the Southwest Indian Ocean | [
"1996–97 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season",
"South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons"
]
| The 1996–97 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the longest on record, with both an unusually early start and unusually late ending. Most activity was from November through February. According to the Météo-France office (MFR) at Réunion, there were 21 tropical disturbances, 14 of which intensified into tropical depressions. There were 12 named storms, beginning with Antoinette and proceeding sequentially until Lisette. In addition, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center also warned on storms in the region, which identified five other tropical storms. Five of the storms attained tropical cyclone status, or with 10–minute maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph); of these, three strengthened further into intense tropical cyclones, with Daniella and Helinda tied for strongest storm of the season.
In August, a tropical depression developed in the south-west Indian Ocean for the first time 27 years, and a month later, a rare September tropical disturbance formed. The first named storm, Antoinette, was the first of several to originate in the neighboring Australian basin, or east of 90° E; the subsequent two named storms also formed in the Australian region. In early December, Cyclone Daniella likely developed out of the remnants of previous Tropical Storm Chantelle. After reaching peak 10–minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph), Daniella weakened and passed just southwest of Mauritius; there, the storm left heavy crop damage and indirectly caused three deaths. In early January, Tropical Storm Fabriola was the first in a succession of three storms to move over Madagascar. The next – Cyclone Gretelle – killed 152 people when it struck southeastern Madagascar. Between January and February, Cyclone Pancho-Helinda lasted about 20 days between both the Australian and south-west Indian basins. Also in February, Tropical Storm Josie killed 36 people in western Madagascar after causing severe flooding. The final named storm was Tropical Storm Lisette, which dissipated on March 3 after striking Mozambique, killing three people. Despite the early end to the named storms, there were two additional disturbances, one of which became the first July tropical depression in 25 years.
## Season summary
During the season, the Météo-France office (MFR) based on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin, as part of its role as a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center. The agency estimated intensities via the Dvorak technique, which uses images from two satellites by the American National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. On certain days, the satellites had limited coverage in the eastern portion of the region, which limited warning capability. At the time, the MFR issued warnings on tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean from the coast of Africa to 90° E, south of the equator. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center – a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force – also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the region. Wind estimates from Météo-France and most other basins throughout the world are sustained over 10 minutes, while estimates from the United States-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center are sustained over 1 minute. 10 minute winds are about 1.14 times the amount of 1 minute winds.
The MFR named storms from a sequential list provided by the nation of Seychelles, beginning with Antoinette. In addition to the named storms in the year, the list included Maryse, Nelda, Ocline, Phyllis, Rolina, Sheryl, Thelma, Venyda, Wiltina, and Yolette.
The season was active, about 50% above normal, and was the fourth consecutive above-normal season. There was a total of 100 days on which disturbances, depressions, storms, or cyclones were active, compared to the average of 68. There were 12 named storms, above the normal of 9. Five intensified into tropical cyclones, also above the normal of 4. The season was the longest on record, with the first depression in August 1996 and the final depression in July 1997. Despite the long season, there was minimal activity from March to May, which usually represents about 25% of total activity. In addition, February was relatively quiet despite being the climatological peak. Majority of the storms developed in the northeast portion of the basin, and the storms took a variety of tracks during their durations.
## Systems
### Severe Tropical Storm Antoinette
In the middle of October, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was active over the northeast portion of the basin and into the adjacent Australian region, spawning a low-pressure area on October 15 northwest of the Cocos Islands. With a large ridge to the south, the system tracked southwestward, crossing into the south-west Indian Ocean as a tropical depression on October 17. Also on that day, the JTWC began issuing warnings on the system as Tropical Cyclone 4S. On October 18, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Antoinette after developing a well-defined central dense overcast, and began turning more to the west-southwest. That day, Antoinette strengthened to a peak intensity of just below tropical cyclone status, or with 10–minute winds just below 120 km/h (75 mph). Around that time, the storm developed an eye feature, but that quickly dissipated. Antoinette began weakening steadily on October 20 due to increasing wind shear, and by that time it was moving quickly westward. After the circulation became largely devoid of deep convection, the storm weakened into a tropical depression on October 21. The next day, Antoinette passed about 200 km (120 mi) north of the northern tip of Madagascar, and dissipated on October 24 in the Mozambique Channel.
### Intense Tropical Cyclone Melanie–Bellamine
In late October, the ITCZ developed a persistent area of convection west of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. A tropical low formed on October 28 within the Australian region, which initially failed to develop much due to persistent wind shear. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) named the system Melanie on October 31 to the north of the Cocos Islands. The newly upgraded storm tracked generally westward due to a ridge to the south, and entered the south-west Indian Ocean on November 1 as a strong tropical storm. At that time, Melanie was renamed Bellamine. After the ridged moved farther away, the storm turned more to the southwest and began quickly intensifying. Early on November 3, Bellamine attained tropical cyclone status, and the next day reached peak 10–minute winds of 175 km/h (110 mph); this made it an intense tropical cyclone.
After reaching peak winds, Bellamine slowed its motion on November 4 while moving between two high-pressure areas, and weakened slightly. After another ridge built, the cyclone resumed a steady west-southwest track, although its 10–minute winds decreased to 140 km/h (85 mph) by November 6. That day, Bellamine began restrengthening as the eye became increasingly well-defined, 70 km (43 mi) in diameter. On November 7, the storm re-attained intense tropical cyclone status, as well as its previous peak intensity according to MFR. This was a rare occurrence of an early November storm becoming an intense tropical cyclone on two occasions. Meanwhile, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 230 km/h (145 mph). A strong approaching trough turned Bellamine to the southeast on November 8 and incurred rapid weakening due to wind shear. After the trough passed the cyclone, Bellamine turned back to the southwest on November 10 as a weakening tropical depression. Two days later, the circulation dissipated without having affected land.
### Severe Tropical Storm Chantelle
Similar to previous storms Antoinette and Bellamine, Tropical Storm Chantelle originated from the ITCZ in the Australian region. On November 23, the MFR began tracking the system as a tropical disturbance off the west coast of Sumatra. The system fluctuated in intensity while moving westward, entering the south-west Indian as a tropical depression on November 24. Around that time, the JTWC had begun classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 7S. On November 26, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chantelle, and the convection continued to organize despite the presence of wind shear. That day, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 120 km/h (75 mph). On November 27, the MFR estimated peak 10–minute winds of 95 km/h (60 mph). An approaching trough imparted significant weakening, and Chantelle weakened to tropical depression status 18 hours after it was at peak intensity. A ridge behind the trough steered the weakening system to the northwest, causing Chantelle to reach the low latitude of 5° S. Widespread cloudiness made it difficult for MFR to continue tracking the circulation, and the agency issued the final advisory on November 30 northwest of Diego Garcia. The JTWC continued tracking the storm for several more days, and the remnants of Chantelle likely contributed to the formation of the subsequent Tropical Cyclone Daniella.
### Intense Tropical Cyclone Daniella
After the previous Tropical Storm Chantelle lost its circulation near Diego Garcia on November 30, residual convection persisted and moved to the southwest due to a large ridge. A new tropical disturbance developed on December 2 after wind shear diminished. Because the remnants took longer than 48 hours to redevelop, the MFR policy at the time was to treat the disturbance as a new system. On December 3, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Daniella, and an eye began to form the next day, indicative of further strengthening. The MFR upgraded Daniella to tropical cyclone status on December 5. At 1800 UTC that day, both the MFR and JTWC estimated peak winds; the former agency estimated 10–minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph), making Daniella the most intense tropical cyclone worldwide in 1996, with JTWC estimated 1–minute winds of 220 km/h (135 mph). Around that time, the cyclone turned to the south due to an approaching trough. The eye, previously well-defined and 40 km (25 mi) in diameter at its peak, gradually became less organized due to decreasing water temperatures. Daniella turned more to the southeast on December 8, bringing it between the islands of Réunion and Mauritius after weakening into a strong tropical storm. A sharp increase in wind shear removed the convection from the circulation on December 9, weakening Daniella to tropical depression status. Two days later, the circulation dissipated.
Late in its duration, Daniella passed within 55 km (34 mi) of Mauritius, producing wind gusts of 154 km/h (96 mph) and about 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall. Port Louis recorded a storm surge of 229 mm (9.0 in) during the passage. About half of the island lost power and many lost water service. Daniella also left heavy crop damage, due to the heavy rainfall. All flights were canceled during the storm's passage. Three were three indirect deaths on Mauritius, including one from a road accident and another due to electrocution. After threatening to directly strike Réunion, the cyclone passed about 110 km (68 mi) northeast of the island. As a result, winds were not as strong as on Mauritius.
### Moderate Tropical Storm Elvina
In early December, the ITCZ spawned an area of convection near the boundary between the south-west Indian and Australian regions. On December 8, the MFR estimated that a disturbance formed just within the Australian region, which entered this basin on December 9. After the convection developed into a central dense overcast, the system intensified into Tropical Storm Elvina on December 10. Later that day, the MFR estimated peak 10–minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph). On December 11, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). By that time, Elvina had been moving steadily west-southwestward, although the storm slowed on December 12. A polar trough caused the storm to accelerate to the southwest on December 14 while simultaneously increasing wind shear, causing weakening. On December 16, Elvina dissipated well to the south of Diego Garcia.
### Severe Tropical Storm Fabriola
Toward the end of December, the ITCZ produced a widespread area of convection to the northeast of Madagascar. A circulation developed on January 2 about 150 km (93 mi) of Tromelin Island, becoming a tropical disturbance. After the convection organized more, the system intensified into Tropical Storm Fabriola on January 3. Moving southwestward, the storm strengthened somewhat, reaching 10–minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph) before making landfall on the Masoala Peninsula in eastern Madagascar. Around that time, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 1–winds of 110 km/h (70 mph). Fabriola quickly weakened into a tropical depression over land and emerged into the Mozambique Channel on January 5. Due to proximity to land, the system failed to re-intensify initially despite warm waters. On January 6, while turning to the south around western Madagascar, Fabriola again attained tropical storm status. The next day, the MFR estimated peak 10–minute winds of 100 km/h (60 mph), and after turning to the southeast, Fabriola struck southwestern Madagascar near Morombe late on January 7. The storm again quickly weakened over land, emerging back into the Indian Ocean on January 8 as a tropical disturbance. After turning more to the south, Fabriola dissipated on January 10 when it was absorbed by a nearby trough. Fabriola spread rainfall across Madagascar, which proved beneficial for crops.
### Tropical Cyclone Gretelle
The ITCZ spawned a tropical disturbance on January 19 just west of St. Brandon, and within a day intensified into Tropical Storm Gretelle. With a large ridge to the southeast, the storm moved southwestward and gradually intensified, becoming a tropical cyclone on January 22. Around that time, the storm passed about 300 km (190 mi) northwest of Réunion. Early on January 23, the MFR estimated peak 10–minute winds of 140 km/h (85 mph), while JTWC estimated 1–minute winds of 215 km/h (135 mph) the next day. While near peak intensity, Gretelle made landfall on southeastern Madagascar near Farafangana, the first cyclone to hit the region in 41 years. Gretelle rapidly weakened into a tropical depression over land, but gradually re-intensified into a moderate tropical storm in the Mozambique Channel. A trough turned the storm to the southeast on January 28, and three days later the storm dissipated south-southwest of Madagascar.
In Réunion, Gretelle dropped nearly 1 m (3.3 ft) of rainfall in the mountainous center of the island. The cyclone produced wind gusts of over 220 km/h (140 mph) at Farafangana, Madagascar, along with heavy rainfall that washed away the local meteorological station. Flooding up to 16 m (52 ft) was reported in some areas, which washed away several boats and forced residents to hold onto trees to survive. Many houses were damaged or destroyed, leaving 80,000 people homeless. The World Food Programme estimated that Gretelle destroyed 7,000 tons of rice, 123,500 tons of cassava, and 8,000 tons of cash crops, mostly to coffee. Overall, about 200 people were killed or left missing in Madagascar, with 152 confirmed fatalities by two weeks after the storm, and damage was estimated at \$50 million (1997 USD). Later, the storm caused power outages and knocked over trees in southeastern Mozambique.
### Intense Tropical Cyclone Pancho–Helinda
The long-lived Cyclone Pancho-Helinda formed on January 18 in the Australian region from the monsoon trough to the north of the Cocos Islands. For several days, the system meandered in several directions before maintaining a southwest trajectory on January 21. Around that time, the system had intensified into Tropical Cyclone Pancho, reaching 10–minute winds of 205 km/h (125 mph) before weakening occurred. On January 23, the cyclone entered the south-west Indian Ocean, at which time Pancho was renamed Helinda. Around that time, the storm was located between two ridges, causing the motion to become nearly stationary, and by January 24 Helinda had re-entered the Australian region. Around that time, the storm began undergoing a large loop to the east of 90° E, during which the winds decreased below tropical storm status. The influence of the monsoon trough turned the storm back to the south on January 29, and a day later a building ridge turned the storm back to the west. On January 31, Helinda again crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean as an intensifying tropical storm.
With warm waters and favorable upper-level conditions, Helinda attained cyclone status on February 1, and the MFR estimated peak 10–minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph). Around the same time, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 215 km/h (135 mph), slightly below its estimate for the cyclone's peak winds in the Australian region. Due to a powerful ridge near Île Amsterdam, Helinda turned to the southeast on February 2, where cooler water temperatures induced weakening. Two days later, strong wind shear contributed to further weakening, and the storm deteriorated to tropical depression status. Turning back to the west, the circulation was declared dissipated by the MFR on February 7, although the JTWC continued tracking Helinda until February 14 when the system was off the northeast coast of Madagascar.
### Severe Tropical Storm Iletta
On January 23, the ITCZ spawned an area of convection to the southwest of Diego Garcia, west of Helinda and east of Gretelle. The system quickly developed an organized central dense overcast, but failed to become a tropical cyclone due to the lack of a circulation in the region. Late on January 24, the system developed into a tropical depression, by which time the Mauritius Meteorological Services had named it Iletta. The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm, but further development halted on January 25. Due to a nearby trough, the storm tracked to the southeast. Iletta resumed intensification on January 26, quickly reaching peak 10–winds of 100 km/h (60 mph); the JTWC meanwhile estimated peak 1–minute winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). Subsequently, increased wind shear weakened Iletta, and within 24 hours the storm had decreased from peak intensity to tropical depression status. After the trough passed the storm, Iletta turned to the north under the influence of a ridge to the south, dissipating on January 30 about 305 km (190 mi) east-southeast of where it initially formed.
### Tropical Cyclone Josie
In late January into early February, the ITCZ produced areas of convection around the northern tip of Madagascar. One such convective system spawned a low-pressure area between Tromelin island and Agaléga, which initially was still located within the ITCZ. On February 5, the system developed into a tropical depression, and failed to intensify further while executing a clockwise loop off northeastern Madagascar. After the convection increased, the depression intensified into a tropical storm on February 8 and was named Josie by the Meteorological Services of Madagascar. Subsequently, the storm moved across northern Madagascar and emerged into the Mozambique Channel on February 9 as a tropical depression, its structure deteriorated. Josie turned to the southwest around western Madagascar, and despite warm waters it initially failed to re-intensify much. On February 11, Josie re-attained tropical storm status, and subsequently turned to the south due to a broad area of low pressure in the region. The storm quickly intensified once moving far enough away from Madagascar, becoming a tropical cyclone on February 13 and soon after reaching peak 10–winds of 140 km/h (85 mph); in contrast, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 165 km/h (105 mph). While near peak intensity, the eyewall of Josie passed over Europa Island. An approaching cold front turned the cyclone to the southeast, bringing the storm over cooler waters and causing weakening due to increased wind shear. On February 16, Josie became extratropical well to the south of Madagascar, and dissipated the next day.
In northwestern Madagascar, Josie dropped heavy rainfall and caused widespread flooding. Several towns were isolated, forcing residents to travel by boat. The storm heavily damaged crops in the region, particularly to vanilla. The rains caused rivers to exceed their banks, resulting in flooding up to 3.6 m (12 ft) deep. Nationwide, at least 36 people were killed due to Josie, although there were initial reports of 500 people missing. On Europa Island, Josie produced maximum sustained winds of 130 km/h (80 mph), with gusts to 222 km/h (138 mph), before blowing the anemometer away.
### Severe Tropical Storm Karlette
An area of convection formed in the northeast portion of the basin, developing into a tropical disturbance on February 14. Despite the presence of easterly wind shear, the system slowly organized into Tropical Storm Karlette on February 16. By that time, the storm had a large and disorganized area of convection, which quickly weakened due to an increase in wind shear. Early on February 17, Karlette weakened to tropical depression status, although later that day re-attained tropical storm status after the shear diminished. The storm had been moving generally to the west-southwest due to a large ridge to the southeast. The storm's restrengthening was short-lived, as Karlette again weakened to tropical depression status on February 20, only to re-intensify into a tropical storm for the third time just six hours later. With the convection reorganizing, the storm developed an eye feature, indicative of the restrengthening. Late on February 21, Karlette passed about 70 km (45 mi) south of Rodrigues, where wind gusts remained below 110 km/h (68 mph); also on the island, the storm dropped beneficial rainfall totaling around 100 mm (3.9 in). Subsequently, Karlette attained peak 10–minute winds of 110 km/h (70 mph) on February 22, while the JTWC estimated 1–minute winds of 120 km/h (75 km/h). Passing well to the southeast of Mauritius, the storm curved more to the south due to an approaching trough, dissipating on February 25.
### Severe Tropical Storm Lisette
Toward the end of February, the ITCZ spawned a system along the Mozambique coast. With a circulation and warm water temperatures, the system developed into a tropical disturbance on February 24 just offshore northeastern Mozambique. The system slowly organized while drifting southward between two ridges. After an increase in convection, the system intensified into Tropical Storm Lisette on February 28 according to the MFR, although by that time the JTWC had upgraded the storm to the equivalent of tropical cyclone status. A building ridge turned the storm sharply westward. On March 1, the MFR estimated peak 10–minute winds of 95 km/h (60 mph), making Lisette a severe tropical storm with an eye feature in the center. By comparison, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 130 km/h (80 mph). The storm failed to intensify further, making landfall at peak intensity just north of Beira, Mozambique early on March 2. Lisette turned to the west-northwest, dissipating over Zimbabwe on March 3.
Lisette dropped heavy rainfall across the region it traversed, causing severe flooding in central and northern Mozambique. Most of the south-central Mozambique was drenched with rainfall totals ranging from 60 mm (2.4 in) to 200 mm (7.9 in), setting numerous records. Due to the precursor disturbance of Lisette, the Nampula Province in Mozambique was severely flooded by the storm, severely damaging several roads. Along the coast, the storm produced a wave height of about 4 m (13 ft) near Beira. Lisette and its resultant flooding destroyed 17,000 houses in Mozambique, affecting 300,000 people. Throughout the country, the cyclone killed 87 people.
### Other storms
In addition to the named storms, the MFR tracked seven tropical disturbances and two tropical depressions throughout the year. Most were short lived, often receiving few warnings. The first two systems developed before Tropical Storm Antoinette in October.
For several weeks in early August – the middle of winter in the southern hemisphere – an area of warm water temperatures of over 26 °C (79 °F) persisted in the northeast portion of the basin. The region was unaffected by the progression of troughs that would usually decrease the water temperatures. On August 13, an area of convection persisted east of the Chagos, in association with the near-equatorial trough, later developing a low-pressure area and well-defined circulation. On August 16, the system organized into a tropical disturbance, becoming Tropical Depression A1 the next day; this made it the first such storm in the month of August since Tropical Depression Aline in August 1969. Also on August 17, the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 2S. The depression moved southward, developing a well-defined central dense overcast, despite the presence of northerly wind shear. On August 18, an anticyclone turned the depression eastward; that day, the JTWC estimated peak 1–minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph), and the MFR estimated a peak 10–minute intensity of 55 km/h (35 mph). The depression later began to weaken under the influence of an approaching trough, and was dissipating as it crossed into the Australian region on August 19. The JTWC tracked the circulation for another two days, estimating that the system turned sharply to the west, and the circulation dissipated on August 23.
Less than a month later, another area of convection developed within the near-equatorial trough near the Chagos archipelago, due to persistent warm water temperatures. On September 6, the MFR classified it as Tropical Disturbance A2, and the next day, the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 3S while the storm was over the northeastern portion of the basin. This was a fairly unusual event, as there is only an average of 0.4 storms in the month of September across the southern hemisphere. Located along the northern side of a ridge, the storm tracked westward, but failed to intensity beyond 1–minute winds of 75 km/h (45 mph) due to wind shear. On September 10, the storm dissipated to the west-southwest of Diego Garcia.
On January 3, the BoM and the JTWC ceased issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone Phil in the Australian region, which previously moved over Western Australia. The system continued to the west, entering the south-west Indian Ocean on January 5. On January 8, the remnants of Phil slowed and turned to the southeast. The next day, the JTWC began reissuing advisories on Phil. The storm meandered and executed a small loop, and in the process reached peak 1–minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph). Phil turned back to the southwest, and the JTWC ceased issuing advisories on January 12. Four days later, the circulation dissipated. Also in January, the JTWC briefly tracked Tropical Cyclone 18S from the Australian region, which entered the south-west Indian Ocean on January 12. At that time, the storm had peak 1–minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph), although it quickly weakened and dissipated on January 13.
A tropical disturbance developed in late November, and two disturbances formed in the first few weeks of January. In the duration between when Iletta developed on January 23 and when Tropical Cyclone Josie formed on February 9, another two tropical disturbances formed, and the final two developed after Lisette originated in late February. The first, Tropical Disturbance M1, formed on May 11 in the northeastern portion of the basin, and later crossed into the Australian region to intensify into Tropical Cyclone Rhonda. The final disturbance of the season originated from a persistent area of convection near the equator on July 19, northeast of Diego Garcia. With warm enough water temperatures, the system developed further, becoming Tropical Depression M2 on July 20, the first July depression since 1971. That day, the JTWC classified the storm as Tropical Cyclone 01S. As the JTWC considers the tropical cyclone year to begin on July 1, and the MFR considered it beginning on August 1 at the time, the storm was in different cyclone years in different agencies. Estimates from the Dvorak technique suggested that the system approached tropical storm status on July 21 after a central dense overcast formed, although the MFR only estimated peak 10–minute winds of 55 km/h (35 mph). Moving southwestward and later to the west, the depression began weakening due to wind shear on July 23, and dissipated two days later. At the time, July was within the annual tropical cyclone year, although a change in policy shifted the end of the tropical cyclone year to June 30, beginning in 2002.
## See also
- Atlantic hurricane seasons: 1996, 1997
- Pacific hurricane seasons: 1996, 1997
- Pacific typhoon seasons: 1996, 1997
- North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1996, 1997 |
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| Far Cry 4 is a 2014 first-person shooter game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is the successor to the 2012 video game Far Cry 3, and the fourth main installment in the Far Cry series. Set in the fictional Himalayan country of Kyrat, the game follows Ajay Ghale, a young Kyrati-American, who becomes caught in a civil war between Kyrat's Royal Army, controlled by the tyrannical king Pagan Min, and a rebel movement called the Golden Path. The gameplay focuses on combat and exploration; players battle enemy soldiers and dangerous wildlife using a wide array of weapons. The game features many elements found in role-playing games, such as a branching storyline and side quests. The game also features a map editor and both cooperative and competitive multiplayer modes.
Announced in May 2014, development on Far Cry 4 began immediately after the shipment of Assassin's Creed III in late 2012. The team originally intended to develop a direct sequel to Far Cry 3 that continues the narrative, but the idea was later scrapped and the team decided to develop a new setting and story for the game. Certain aspects of Far Cry 4 were inspired by the Nepalese Civil War, and the design of the game's antagonist Pagan Min was inspired by Japanese films Ichi the Killer and Brother. Troy Baker was hired to portray Pagan Min. The game's competitive multiplayer was created by Red Storm Entertainment while the Shangri-La segments in the campaign were handled by Ubisoft Toronto.
Far Cry 4 was released worldwide for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360, and Xbox One in November 2014. It received mostly positive reviews, with critics praising the open-world design, visuals, soundtrack, and characters as well as new gameplay additions and the wealth of content. However, some reviewers disliked the story and found the game too similar to its predecessor. The game sold over 10 million units by March 2020. Several releases of downloadable content were subsequently published. A spin-off title, Far Cry Primal, was released in February 2016. A successor, Far Cry 5, was released in March 2018.
## Gameplay
Far Cry 4 is a first-person action-adventure game. Players assume control of Ajay Ghale, a Kyrati-American who is on a quest to spread his deceased mother's ashes in the fictional country of Kyrat. Ajay may utilize various short and long-range firearms, including pistols, revolvers, shotguns, assault rifles, submachine guns, bows, a flamethrower, rocket launchers, grenade launchers, and sniper rifles. More powerful versions of these weapons become available after considerable progress through the game. Throwable weapons include fragmentation grenades, Molotov cocktails, and throwing knives. The game allows players to take cover to avoid gunfights and to perform melee takedowns from above or up-close. Unlike previous installments in the series, Far Cry 4 gives players the ability to kick objects and the ability to hide the corpses of enemies.
Players can use a variety of methods to approach missions. For instance, players can utilize stealth to evade enemies and complete objectives without being noticed, or they also have the option to assault enemies with firearms and vehicles. The player character is equipped with a digital camera, which allows him to mark and highlight all visible enemies, animals, and loot. Players are also able to ride on elephants, which serve as tank-like offensive weapons. Players can throw bait towards enemies, which attracts nearby wildlife that is hostile to both the player and enemies. Players can also hunt and skin animals.
The game features an open world environment that is free for players to explore. It features several environments, including forests, rivers, and mountains. To allow players to travel between places faster, the game features various vehicles, including buggies, trucks, and water vehicles like speedboats. Players can drive and shoot at the same time and can enable auto-drive, in which the game's artificial intelligence takes over the role of controlling the vehicle and guides players to their objectives. Players can also hijack other vehicles while driving. The Buzzer, an aerial, gyrocopter-like vehicle, is introduced in the game, allowing players to gain a tactical advantage from the air. Parachutes, wingsuits, and grappling hooks are also featured in the game; these items help players swing across cliffs and quickly navigate the environment. Parts of the game take place in Shangri-La, a mystical dreamland where players battle demons as the Kyrati warrior Kalinag. While in Shangri-La, players are accompanied by an injured tiger which serves as their companion. Players can issue commands to the tiger, which assists them in battle.
The game world is divided into two halves: North and South Kyrat. Players start in South Kyrat and are free to explore it almost immediately, but can only unlock North Kyrat over the course of the story. The map is progressively opened by liberating bell towers, freeing them from Pagan Min's influence and allowing the Golden Path to expand. These towers help players reveal new areas and mark new locations of interest on the map. The world is scattered with outposts controlled by Pagan Min, which can be infiltrated by players. Four larger outposts, or fortresses, can also be found, and feature stronger defenses and more difficult combinations of enemies. If players successfully liberate these outposts, they will serve as fast-travel points, allowing quick navigation through the game's world. Additional missions and quests also become available. There are many side-missions that can be completed, including hostage rescues, bomb disposal quests, and hunting missions. The collected animals' parts can then be used for crafting new pouches and belts.
Like its predecessors, the game features some role-playing elements. Players can earn experience points by completing missions and defeating enemies, and these experience points can then be spent on performance boosts and upgrades. There are two sets of abilities for players to choose from, called The Tiger and The Elephant. The Tiger upgrades mainly improve players' offensive abilities, while The Elephant upgrades improve players' defensive skills. A variety of random events and hostile encounters take place throughout the game; for example, the player may unexpectedly be attacked by an eagle, be hit by a car, or witness an animal attack. Players can accumulate karma by performing kind actions towards the rebels, such as by assisting them in battles when they are attacked by wildlife or enemies. Doing so will give players discounts when purchasing new items at trading posts, and will allow players to call in support and back-up from members of the Golden Path. Players can also gain experience by collecting items like masks, propaganda posters, and prayer wheels. There is also an Arena mode, in which players battle human enemies and animals for additional experience points and rewards.
### Multiplayer
Far Cry 4 features a co-operative multiplayer mode known as "Guns for Hire", which supports up to two players. The mode is separated from the game's campaign, and players are free to explore the game's world, defeat enemies, and infiltrate outposts with their companion. In addition to the co-operative mode, players can gain access to several competitive multiplayer modes which have an asymmetrical structure. Players play as either a Rakshasa or a Golden Path member. The Rakshasa are equipped with bows and arrows and have the ability to teleport and summon wildlife to assist them and gain transparency, while Golden Path members are equipped with guns and explosives, and have access to armored vehicles. Known as "Battles of Kyrat", players fight against each other in three modes, called Outpost, Propaganda, and Demon Mask. Far Cry 4 also contains a Map Editor that allows users to create and share custom content. Similar to that of Far Cry 3, players can create their maps by customizing landscapes, and by placing buildings, trees, wildlife, and vehicles. However, the Map Editor did not support competitive multiplayer levels at launch. Multiplayer support was added to the game on February 3, 2015.
## Synopsis
### Premise
The game follows Ajay Ghale, a young Kyrati-American who returns to his native country of Kyrat (a fictional Himalayan country derived from the Kirat ethnicities of Nepal and northern India) to spread his deceased mother's ashes. Kyrat was once an autonomous state in the Himalayas ruled by a royal family before being engulfed in a series of civil wars. Ajay finds the country in a state of conflict between Kyrat's Royal Army, led by the country's eccentric and tyrannical King Pagan Min, and the Golden Path, a rebel movement fighting to free Kyrat from Min's oppressive rule. The choices Ajay makes will determine the fate of Kyrat.
### Plot
After the death of his mother Ishwari, Ajay Ghale (James A. Woods) returns to his home country of Kyrat to carry out Ishwari's final wish by returning her ashes to Lakshmana. However, his mission is interrupted when the bus he is traveling on is attacked by the Royal Army and he is greeted by Pagan Min (Troy Baker), the country's eccentric and violent king. Min apologizes, brutally kills a soldier for shooting the bus, and acts warmly toward Ajay before kidnapping him and his tour guide and taking them to a dinner party at Lieutenant Paul De Pleur's mansion. After his guide is taken to be interrogated, Ajay flees with the aid of Sabal (Naveen Andrews), a commander in the Golden Path, a rebel movement established by Ajay's father, Mohan Ghale. Ajay is not able to leave the country as the Royal Army has taken control of Kyrat's only airport and sealed the borders.
In the twenty-odd years since Ishwari and Ajay fled Kyrat, the rebellion has stagnated, with the Golden Path now fighting for their very existence. As the son of Mohan Ghale, Ajay becomes a symbol for the Golden Path to rally around. After freeing a group of hostages and liberating territory held by Pagan, the Golden Path plan on breaking Pagan's stranglehold on power by targeting his three regional governors: Paul "De Pleur" Harmon (Travis Willingham), who oversees opium production and runs Pagan's torture chambers; Noore Najjar (Mylène Dinh-Robic), who runs poaching and prostitution rings and who became a victim of Pagan's cruelty herself after he kidnapped her family; and Yuma Lau (Gwendoline Yeo), Min's adopted sister and trusted general who is obsessed with uncovering the secrets of the mystical realm of Shangri-La.
However, the Golden Path's newfound momentum is threatened by deep divisions between its commanders, Sabal, who favors traditional values, and Amita (Janina Gavankar), who argues for progress, which includes relying heavily on producing drugs for export. Ajay is forced to intervene on several occasions, with his decisions influencing the direction the Golden Path takes. The first governor to fall is De Pleur, after Noore helps Ajay find a way to infiltrate De Pleur's stronghold, allowing the rebellion to capture him. Amita and Sabal later task Ajay with confronting and killing Noore. She dies in her fighting arena, either with Ajay killing her, or with Noore committing suicide upon learning Pagan had her family executed years beforehand.
As the Golden Path secures Kyrat's southern provinces, Ajay is contacted by Willis Huntley (Alain Goulem), a CIA agent who offers intelligence for the rebels and pages from his father's diary in exchange for killing Yuma's lieutenants. After Ajay kills several of them, Huntley admits they were in fact CIA assets, and that he was sent to clean up after the CIA as the agency did not see Pagan as a threat anymore. Huntley betrays Ajay to Pagan just as the Golden Path prepares to push into Northern Kyrat.
Ajay ends up in Yuma's mountain prison, where he is drugged and suffers terrifying hallucinations, but manages to escape. In the process, he finds out that Yuma has started despising Pagan, primarily because of his affection toward Ajay's late mother. The Golden Path pushes into the north, and while Ajay attempts to reconnect with another faction of the rebels, Pagan, aware of Yuma's plotting against him, betrays Yuma to the Golden Path. Ajay is drawn into a confrontation with her and prevails, but tensions between Amita and Sabal reach new heights, and Ajay is forced to make a final decision as to who will lead the Golden Path. Whichever leader he chooses then sends Ajay to kill the other to prevent them from starting another civil war, and Ajay can choose to either kill them as ordered or let them go. With the Golden Path now united under a single leader, Ajay joins them for an attack on Pagan's fortress and pushes on alone to Pagan's palace while the Golden Path holds off the military.
### Endings
Ajay encounters Pagan, who chastises him for fleeing at the start of the game, claiming that he only ever intended to help Ajay. Pagan offers Ajay a final decision: shoot him now or listen to him. If Ajay shoots Pagan, the game ends immediately and the credits roll. If Ajay instead chooses to listen, Pagan reveals that Mohan sent Ishwari to spy on Pagan in the early days of the Golden Path, but they fell in love and had a daughter together: Lakshmana, Ajay's half-sister. Mohan killed Lakshmana for Ishwari's betrayal, and Ishwari killed him in turn before leaving the country with the infant Ajay. Pagan shows Ajay to a shrine containing Lakshmana's ashes, and Ajay places Ishwari's ashes inside. Pagan then boards a helicopter and departs peacefully, leaving the country in Ajay's hands. The player can choose to shoot down Pagan's helicopter as it flies away, killing Pagan in the process.
In the aftermath, the Golden Path seizes control of Kyrat. The final ending depends on which leader Ajay ultimately sided with. If Amita is placed in charge, she turns Kyrat into an authoritarian drug state, forcing villagers into work in factories and drug fields, and conscripting children into the group as soldiers to bolster their ranks against the remnants of the Royal Army; Ajay also learns that she has had her sister, Bhadra, taken away, "never to come again". If Sabal is placed in charge, Kyrat becomes a patriarchal fundamentalist theocracy where all of Amita's supporters are executed, women are denied fundamental political rights, and Bhadra is anointed as a religious symbol for the country to rally around. The player has the choice to kill the Golden Path's leader or leave them alive.
An Easter egg ending can be found at the beginning of the game. To trigger it, Ajay must simply wait at the dinner table in Pagan's mansion; when Pagan returns, he thanks Ajay for being a "gentleman" and leads him to Lakshmana's shrine, telling Ajay of his family history. After Ajay plants his mother's ashes at the shrine, Pagan invites Ajay to join him to "finally shoot some goddamn guns".
## Development
The game's development was led by Ubisoft Montreal, which took over the development of the Far Cry franchise after the release of Far Cry: Instincts in 2005. Additional development was handled by four other in-house Ubisoft studios, Ubisoft Toronto, Red Storm Entertainment, Ubisoft Shanghai, and Ubisoft Kyiv. The Montreal studio worked on the game's campaign, the Toronto studio worked on the Shangri-La segments of the campaign, Red Storm handled the development of the competitive multiplayer, the Shanghai studio worked on the hunting missions, and the Kyiv studio developed the game's PC version. Development of the game began in late 2012, after the shipment of Assassin's Creed III. The game's creative director is Alex Hutchinson, who had previously worked on Maxis's Spore as well as Assassin's Creed III. The game runs on an upgraded version of the Dunia 2 engine that was used in Far Cry 3.
### Gameplay design
When brainstorming ideas for the new Far Cry game, the development team originally planned on developing a direct sequel to Far Cry 3. The sequel would be set on the same tropical island, would expand upon the protagonist's story, and would bring back characters, such as Far Cry 3's secondary antagonist, Vaas Montenegro. However, after four days, the team found that a sequel was not what they wanted to achieve. As a result, they decided to scrap the idea and build a brand new game with a new setting and a new set of characters. The team adapted a "we want it all" approach, in which they hoped to experiment with all kinds of ideas. Some team members hoped that the game would allow players to fly, which led to the game's verticality. The game's director also hoped that players would be able to ride a rampaging elephant, in a place with "exotic mountainsides" and "unique culture". This led to the concept of a mountainous setting and the introduction of elephants in the game. The developers aimed for players to consider Far Cry 4 a standalone experience, and therefore they avoided bringing back any characters from Far Cry 3 except for Willis and Hurk. The decision to bring the two back was made because the team thought that they should provide some references to previous games in the series, as all of the games are set in the same universe even though they are not directly related.
Some of the gameplay elements were directly taken from Far Cry 3. Exotic locations, hunting, and the freedom for players to complete missions through different approaches were maintained in Far Cry 4. The team hoped that by incorporating and expanding upon these ideas, while introducing new features, they could make Far Cry 4 an evolution for the series. As a result, the size of the game's outposts became larger and players were given more options to customize their weapons. The team also realized that players spent a lot of time interacting with the open world of Far Cry 3, and decided to put more effort and resources into the world's design and add more quests to the game.
### Setting and characters
The game's setting, Kyrat, is a fictional country in the Himalayas region. When building Kyrat, the developers merged elements from real-world regions including India, Nepal and Tibet, but exaggerated those elements. The map's size is similar to that of Far Cry 3, but is more dense, diverse, and features more varied environments. The developers hoped that players could experience a sense of exploration when traveling between different terrains. The team also hoped that the new location could be believable while remaining interesting for players. As a result, they created an identity for Kyrat by doing such things as adding different signboards to the game and creating a fictional mythology and religion for Kyrat. The game's world was also designed to accommodate new features such as the helicopter and the grappling hook. In an effort to make the world feel real, the team added improvements to the design of side-quests. Instead of simply being activities for players to complete, the quests are narrative-driven, which was done to increase the connection between them and the world. In order to increase the credibility of the game's world, the studio sent a team to Nepal to experience and record the local culture, so that they could bring those ideas back to the studio. According to the developer, the trip changed the game's design; the focus shifted from the game's civil war, which is inspired by the real-world Nepalese Civil War, to developing unique and interesting characters.
One of the game's most critically acclaimed characters is its major antagonist Pagan Min, a foreign interloper who usurps the rule of Kyrat by its royal family and names himself after the historical Burmese king within series lore. The team hoped that players would be "shocked, amazed and intrigued" by him in every encounter. Min has a complex relationship with the playable character, Ghale, as the team wanted players to guess Min's intentions and add a layer of mystery to him. The team originally hoped to have a villain that had a "punk-rock mentality", but the idea was abandoned as the team thought that the concept was not original. The pink costume Min wears throughout the game was inspired by Beat Takeshi, a character from Brother, and Kakihara, a character from Ichi the Killer. Min is designed to be sadistic yet confident, and the team hired Troy Baker to provide the voice for Min, as they thought that Baker's voice is charismatic enough to suit Min. According to Baker, Ubisoft gave him a script for the audition but he chose not to follow it, and instead decided to threaten to cut off the face of an assistant using Min's tone. The interviewer was very pleased with Baker's performance and decided to sign him for the job. As for Ghale, he was designed to be "thin", and his backstory was designed to be revealed as players progressed through the game's story. According to the game's narrative director, Mark Thompson, Ghale learns the history and culture of Kyrat along with players. The developers also hoped that Ghale could be an accessible character for players.
In hindsight, the team considered the story of Far Cry 3 "great", even though they thought that it was separated from the game's world. In order to increase players' agency and make the story feel more connected to the world for players, the team introduced a branching storyline that required players to make choices that would lead to different results and alter the game's ending. The team hoped that by adding choices, they could add additional depth and meaning to the game's campaign. Thompson added that they twisted the story of Far Cry 3 for Far Cry 4, and made outsiders the villains instead of the heroes. The team considered it a "risk", but they wanted to try something different.
For the Shangri-La mission, the team wanted to have a structure similar to Far Cry 3'''s mushroom missions; a game within a game. The Shangri-La missions are not related to Kyrat, but play an important role in the game's narrative. When creating these segments, the team put a lot of emphasis on the use of colors. They hoped that the artistic vision for Far Cry 4 would not feature any resemblance to other typical shooter games. It was originally designed to be a small open world but was later converted into a linear experience due to time constraints and huge creative differences between developers. The team later decided to simplify it, and re-imagined it into an "ancient, natural world". It is made up of five different colors. The main color of Shangri-La is gold; the developers thought that using gold as the foundation added "warmth" to the dreamland. Meanwhile, red was used heavily to add a sense of strangeness, as well as for establishing a tie to the game's narrative and story. Orange was used as a color of interaction, while white was used to add purity to the world. Blue is the last of Shangri-La's main colors and represents danger and honor.
### Multiplayer
Ubisoft promised that Far Cry 4 would have much more of a multiplayer element than Far Cry 3. Some elements that were scrapped for Far Cry 3 due to time constraints were featured in Far Cry 4, such as the "Guns for Hire" co-operative multiplayer mode. Building a cooperative experience was the team's goal starting from the beginning of the game's development. Originally intended to be a separate mode, it was later made to be seamlessly integrated into the main campaign. The game's competitive multiplayer was designed to give players freedom, allowing players to progress and defeat enemies in a variety of different ways. Red Storm Entertainment also considered players' feedback from the multiplayer aspect of Far Cry 3, and decided to include vehicles in the game. The company chose an asymmetrical structure for this mode so that players could have different experiences in different matches, as well as to make matches feel more chaotic. The developers originally planned to feature female playable characters, but the plan was scrapped due to animation problems. Ubisoft announced a 'Keys to Kyrat' offer for players that owned a copy of the game for the PlayStation 3 or PlayStation 4. It allows those owners to send out game keys to up to ten other people who do not own a copy of the game. Players who are offered a key can join the person that sent them the key and play the cooperative mode for two hours.
### Music
Cliff Martinez was hired to work on the game's soundtrack. A two-disc edition was released that contained 30 tracks heard in the game, and a deluxe edition was released that contained 15 extra tracks. The album was released just before the release of the game and received positive reviews. Particular praise was directed towards the usage of traditional Nepalese instruments which, combined with electronic samples, suggested high octane action and mystical wondering.
## Release
With Far Cry 3 being a commercial success, Ubisoft considered the Far Cry series one of their most important brands, and they hinted that a sequel was in development in June 2013. On October 3, 2013, Martinez mentioned that he was working on the soundtrack for the game. In March 2014 the game's setting and features were leaked. The game was officially announced on May 15, 2014, and the first gameplay footage was revealed during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014. The game's cover art, which shows the light-skinned Pagan Min resting his hand on a dark-skinned person, caused controversy and accusation of racism. Hutchinson later responded and clarified by saying that Pagan Min is not a white person and that the other person depicted is not the game's protagonist. Hutchinson added that the reaction of the community regarding the cover art was "uncomfortable".
In addition to the standard version, a Limited Edition of the game is able to be purchased. This edition features additional in-game missions and an Impaler Harpoon Gun. The Limited Edition was a free upgrade for players who pre-ordered the game. A Kyrat Edition was also announced and it contains a collector's box, a poster, a journal, a map of Kyrat, a figurine of Pagan Min, and the missions from the Limited Edition. Players can also purchase a season pass for the game, which grants them access to additional content, including a new competitive multiplayer mode, a mission called "the Syringe", the missions from the Limited Edition, and the two other pieces of downloadable content. Far Cry 4: Arena Master, developed by Ludomade, was released alongside the game itself, as a companion app for the iOS and Android.
Far Cry 4 was released worldwide on November 18, 2014, for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360 and Xbox One. The PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One versions feature higher visual fidelity, such as having a higher texture resolution and more animal fur. The game was supported by downloadable content upon launch. The first DLC, Escape From Durgesh Prison, featuring a new mission set during the main campaign, was released on January 13, 2015. It can be played solo or with another player. The Overrun DLC, which added new maps, a new vehicle, and a new mode to the game's competitive multiplayer, was released on February 10, 2015 for the consoles, and February 12, 2015 for PC. The Hurk Deluxe Pack was released on January 28, 2015 and added several story missions and weapons. The last downloadable content, Valley of the Yetis, features a new region and new story missions which can be played solo or co-operatively with another player. Valley of the Yetis was released on March 10, 2015, in North America and March 11, 2015, in Europe. The game was released for Amazon Luna on November 23, 2020.
## Reception
Far Cry 4 received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
The game's story received mixed responses. Chris Carter from Destructoid praised the personality of Ajay Ghale, which is "less in-your-face" than that of Far Cry 3's protagonist Jason Brody. He also praised the villain, Pagan Min, who he considered took the spotlight every time he appeared in the game. Nick Tan, from Game Revolution, also praised Min's personality, but he complained that the character appeared too seldom in the game. Shacknews reviewer, however, thinks most characters are multilayered and interesting. As the examples he gives Pagan Min's chief interrogator, Pagan Min himself, and the main character's mother. Josh Harmon from Electronic Gaming Monthly thought that the characters in this game had more depth and that the choices made by players throughout the game were meaningful. Aoife Wilson from Eurogamer thought that the game's characters were memorable, but was disappointed by the story. Jeux Video reviewer liked neither plot nor the characters, as they wrote: "If the main plot left us a little hungry [...], it is quite sad to note that our Nemesis Pagan also disappointed us" and "The key characters of this episode are unfortunately a little too caricatured and predictable". Edwin Evans-Thirlwell, writing for GamesRadar, thought that the story grew tiresome as players progressed, even though some of its characters were interesting. He further criticized the game's writing, which he thought was lackluster. Mike Splechta from GameZone praised the game's voice acting and applauded its storyline, calling it "much more satisfying".
The game's setting received positive responses. Carter thought that the vertical nature of the game's map created obstacles for players when they were traveling between places. However, he praised the interesting lore and wildlife found within the world, as well as the game's long draw distance. Harmon had similar comments, praising the game's graphics and Kyrat's culture. Harmon thought that the hilly landscape of the game's world gave players a sense of exploration, and hence made traversal enjoyable. Wilson thought, however, that the game's setting was not as compelling as the tropical setting of Far Cry 3. Furthermore, she thought that most of the time vast territories in Far Cry 4 are similar everywhere. Nevertheless, she praised the Shangri-la section, which, according to her, was one of the exceptions. She also notes that what the game "may lack in looks", "it makes up for by being positively stuffed with things to do". Matt Bertz from Game Informer praised the game's setting, which he thought was vibrant, varied and rich. Ludwig Kietzmann from Joystiq praised the content found within the world, and thought that the world itself was absorbing and interesting. ShackNews reviewer liked that as the player travels from southern to northern territories, the music and soldiers change from Indian to Chinese.
The game's design also received acclaim. Carter from Destructoid thought that the fortress and the outpost system provided players with a sense of accomplishment and success, and he considered having the freedom to use different ways to approach and complete missions one of the greatest parts of the game. In addition, Carter applauded the game's driving mechanics and the auto-drive feature, which he considered a significant improvement for the series. However he criticized the upgrade system, which he thought was directly converted from Far Cry 3 and was uninspiring. Electronic Gaming Monthly's Harmon thought that the introduction of the helicopter was dull. Mitch Dyer, from IGN, praised the game's economy system, which he thought was satisfying. He added that it gives players motivation to complete side-quests. GameSpot's reviewer calls the game's economy "excellent" and enjoys the fact that it forces you to upgrade your wallet, so it can hold more money, and to craft a bigger backpack. Justin McElroy of Polygon praised the introduction of the grappling hook and the vertical map design, which he thought had allowed players to develop a strategy before taking action. He also praised the game for allowing players to use multiple approaches toward a single objective. GameSpot's reviewer writes that after liberating an outpost and leaving it, the game may inform the player that it is already under another attack, when the player comes back to defend it and leaves again, he meets the same message that the outpost is under attack.
The game's multiplayer mode received a mixed response. Carter compared the competitive multiplayer to that of Tomb Raider, and called it "skippable". He considered the cooperative multiplayer a fun addition to the game but was disappointed by its limitations. He also added that the game would still be a strong title without these multiplayer elements. Bertz from Game Informer also found the multiplayer shallow and poorly-executed. He also criticized the lack of a large player pool and dedicated servers. Evans-Thirlwell of GamesRadar thought that the cooperative multiplayer was fun to play, but the asymmetrical competitive multiplayer was easy to forget. In contrast, GameZone's Splechta thought that the competitive multiplayer mode was "a surprise" for him. Dyer echoed a similar statement, and he thought that it had successfully captured the scale and freedom offered by both the game's co-op and campaign. JeuxVideo wrote about multiplayer in the game: "You will understand that exploring Kyrat is honestly funny for two, assuming we are not likely to get tired in the long run".
Harmon thought that Far Cry 4 was an improvement over Far Cry 3, but he thought that the game felt and played too similarly to Far Cry 3, and he added that the game was unambitious. Bertz thought that Ubisoft Montreal's vision for Far Cry 4 is not as bold as its predecessors, and also thought that the experience delivered by Far Cry 4 did not stray far away from Far Cry 3. Tan also noted that the game's open world design felt not only similar to Far Cry 3, but also other Ubisoft franchises like Assassin's Creed and Watch Dogs. Evans-Thirlwell thought that the experience offered by Far Cry 4 was hollow as it had failed to innovate or reinvent its wheel. Dyer thought that the game was not ambitious, but the experience delivered was still gratifying and rewarding.
### Sales
Ubisoft expected the game to sell at least six million copies in its first year of release. Far Cry 4 became the fastest-selling game and the most successful launch in the series in the first week of release. Far Cry 4 was the second best selling game in the United Kingdom for all-formats during the week of its release, only behind Grand Theft Auto V''. It was also the sixth best selling game in the US according to The NPD Group. As of December 31, 2014, the game has shipped seven million copies. The game sold more than 10 million copies during the eighth generation of video game consoles.
### Awards |
61,641,137 | SMS Nix | 1,171,656,720 | Aviso of the Prussian and later British Royal Navy | [
"1850 ships",
"Nix-class avisos",
"Ships built in Millwall"
]
| SMS Nix was the lead ship of the two-vessel Nix class of avisos built for the Prussian Navy in the early 1850s. After commissioning in 1851, Nix saw little activity, apart from short training exercises and cruises in the Baltic Sea, which were frequently punctuated with boiler fires. A dissatisfied Prussian Navy decided to sell both Nix-class ships. In 1855, the Prussians sold Nix to the British Royal Navy in exchange for the sail frigate Thetis, and was commissioned as HMS Weser. She saw action during the Crimean War at the Battle of Kinburn in October 1855, and thereafter saw little activity, being based in Malta. She was ultimately decommissioned in 1865, used as a harbor ship, and then sold to ship breakers in 1873.
## Design
The Nix-class avisos were paddle steamers designed by the British naval architect John Scott Russell and Prince Adalbert of Prussia in 1849. They were authorized in 1850 as part of a program to strengthen the small Prussian Navy during the First Schleswig War; they were ordered from Russell's firm, Robinson & Russell, along with the larger paddle steamer Danzig, which was to be built under British supervision in Prussia.
Nix was 53.85 m (176 ft 8 in) long overall, with a beam of 7.2 m (23 ft 7 in) over the hull and 12.4 m (40 ft 8 in) over the paddle wheels. With a design displacement of 389 t (383 long tons) and a full-load displacement of 430 t (420 long tons), she had a draft of 2 m (6 ft 7 in). She was propelled by a pair of single-expansion marine steam engines that turned a pair of paddle wheels, one on either side of the hull amidships. Steam for the engines was provided by four boilers, which were ducted into two funnels. Her propulsion system was rated at 600 PS (592 ihp) for a top speed of 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph). At a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), she could steam for 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi). Her crew consisted of approximately four officers and seventy enlisted men. She carried an armament of four 25-pound mortars.
## Service history
Nix was laid down in 1850 and was launched later that year. The builders had originally planned to have the ship finished before Prussia's harbors on its Baltic coast froze over for the winter of 1850–1851, but delays prevented this, so the builders slowed work on Nix to allocate workers to her sister ship Salamander. In March 1851, the ship's first commander, Kapitänleutnant Schirmacher, and crew traveled to London to be trained during the vessel's sea trials. Since the Prussian Navy lacked experienced engineers, a British machinist was hired to supervise the ship's engine room crew. Nix left London to travel to Prussia in mid-April, but the inexperienced crew caused one of the boilers to catch fire, while another sprang a leak. As she entered the Oder river, the ship ran aground owing to a mistake by the pilot. Salamander arrived thereafter and pulled her free. Nix then steamed to the naval depot in Stettin, where she was withdrawn from service for repairs. During this period, the crew conducted further training and the ship's guns were installed. Nix was formally commissioned on 29 July. She was named after the nix of German folklore.
After entering service, the ship embarked on training exercises, the first one of which saw Adalbert come aboard for a cruise to Danzig. By the end of August, she had been joined in Danzig Bay by the frigate Mercur. She thereafter carried Prince Karl of Prussia to Kronstadt, Russia. These early operations were marked by a number of accidents, frequently boiler fires related to the wooden stokeholds. By September, she had arrived in Stralsund, where she was decommissioned. The ship saw little activity in 1852, apart from carrying King Friedrich Wilhelm IV between Stralsund, Putbus and Danzig. She also went to Karlskrona, Sweden for an overhaul that year. She remained out of service for the duration of 1853. In May 1854, she was recommissioned and on 26 June she embarked the 1st Company, Seebataillon (naval battalion) from Stettin and carried them to Danzig. Friedrich Wilhelm IV and Prince Karl boarded the ship once again in July for a visit to Kronstadt that ended in September. Nix thereafter underwent repairs in Danzig.
The poor reputation of the vessels, in large part a result of the repeated fires, led the naval command to decide to sell the two Nix-class ships. The Prussian Navy initially sought to trade them for a pair of small corvettes from the British Royal Navy, one of which was to have been HMS Terpsichore. After negotiations, an agreement was reached to transfer the ships to the British in exchange for the sail frigate Thetis in late 1854, as the British were in need of small, fast steamers for use during the Crimean War. In early November, Nix and Salamander left Danzig and on the 23rd, they stopped in Jade Bay to take part in celebrations marking the founding of the naval base at Wilhelmshaven. Two days later, they resumed their voyage to Britain, but the Hannoverian government initially refused to grant permission for the vessels to enter Bremen on the Weser to take on coal for the trip across the North Sea and shelter in the port to avoid bad weather. After the Prussian representative in Hannover pressured the government, they were finally allowed entry on 1 December. They remained there until 11 December, but a severe storm prevented them from leaving the Weser estuary for three days. While en route, further storms caused the two ships to become separated, and Nix arrived in Devonport on 19 December. On 12 January 1855, the ship was formally transferred to British control.
### British service
The Royal Navy renamed the ship Weser and sent her to the Devonport shipyard for an overhaul, after which she was sent to the Mediterranean Sea in March. Her commander at that time was John Edmund Commerell; while operating in the Black Sea, Weser once again caught fire while steaming off Constantinople and Commerell ran the ship aground. After the fire was suppressed, the ship was towed off and later joined the siege of Sevastopol in June. On the night of 16 June, she joined several other vessels—HMS Tribune, Highflyer, Terrible, Miranda, Niger, Arrow, Viper, and Snake—for a night bombardment of the Russian positions defending the city. Weser later entered the Sea of Azov and on 11 October, Commerell, William Thomas Rickard (the ship's quartermaster), and a seaman went ashore to burn Russian stores. Commerell and Rickard were both awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions. She joined the fleet that attacked Kinburn on 17 October that resulted in the Battle of Kinburn.
After the war, Weser was stationed in Malta, and in early 1859, she returned to Britain for a major overhaul at the Woolwich Arsenal, carried out between 1 May 1859 and May 1861. She thereafter returned to the Mediterranean before being decommissioned at Malta in 1865. She was employed there as a harbor ship until 1873, when she was sold for scrap on 29 October and subsequently broken up. |
70,137,560 | Pelé! | 1,167,607,579 | null | [
"1993 video games",
"Accolade (company) games",
"Association football video games",
"Cancelled Super Nintendo Entertainment System games",
"Cultural depictions of Pelé",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Radical Entertainment games",
"Sega Genesis games",
"Sega Genesis-only games",
"Video games based on real people",
"Video games developed in Canada",
"Video games scored by Marc Baril"
]
| Pelé! is a 1993 sports video game developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Accolade for the Sega Genesis. The game is based on the sport of association football and puts the player in control of a football team in modes of play such as exhibitions, tournaments, and seasons. It is named after and endorsed by former Brazilian footballer Pelé, who also provided input on the game's design.
Pelé! received mixed reviews from critics, who commended the graphics and amount of options, but criticized the controls and difficulty. A sequel, Pelé II: World Tournament Soccer, was released in 1994.
## Gameplay
Pelé! is a simulation of association football in which the player can control one of 40 national teams. Gameplay takes place from an isometric perspective, and during a match, the player controls the selected player's movement with the D-pad, while the button commands vary depending on whether the player is on offense, defense, or whether the ball is in the air. On offense, the player can chip, shoot, or pass, while on defense, the player can check, tackle, or switch control to the player closest to the ball. If the ball is in the air, a player within its vicinity may perform a header or a bicycle kick.
The usual rules of the sport apply, including fouls and the penalty box, corners, and offside; fouls can be triggered on or off in the options menu. The player can change formations at any time, with Pelé himself appearing to give advice on what formation to use. The game features four modes of play. In "Exhibition", players can play a match against a computer-controlled or human opponent. The player can also play through a 16-game "Tournament" or a 40-game "Season". The "Practice" mode allows players to perfect on-field moves without having to engage in a match. The player is capable of saving season and tournament progress, as well as compiling statistics for their team.
## Development and release
In the years preceding the 1994 FIFA World Cup, which would be hosted in the United States, interest in the sport within the country had increased. In April 1993, Accolade announced that it had signed exclusive licensing agreements with former Brazilian footballer Pelé and American ice hockey player Brett Hull to endorse and help design sports games for the SNES, Sega Genesis, and MS-DOS. To this end, Pelé worked alongside Canadian game developer Radical Entertainment and Accolade project manager Robert Daly. Many of Pelé's playing strategies were incorporated by Radical into the gameplay's logic. Alan Price programmed the game, while Philip Bat Tse and Edgar Bridwell served as lead artists. The sound effects and music were respectively created by Paul Wilkinson and Marc Baril. As none of the teams featured in the game provided endorsement, generic names were given to the game's teams, and only the players' surnames are included.
Pelé! was demonstrated at the 1993 Summer Consumer Electronics Show. It was released in North America in December 1993, and in Europe in January 1994. A version for the SNES was slated for a March 1994 release and reviewed by Diehard GameFan, but was not released. The game's Australian release was slated for the same date, but Sega Ozisoft was reportedly unimpressed by the game's quality and elected not to publish it in the region.
## Reception
Pelé! received mixed reviews upon release. Arnie Katz of Electronic Games praised the large and detailed players, realistic artificial intelligence, and intuitive controls. Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that the game offered everything expected from the sports genre, but warned that the mechanic of switching players during play was confusing. Athletic Supporter of GamePro appreciated the amount of options and deemed the graphics and audio to be above average (singling out the large player sprites and crowd noises respectively), but was frustrated by the penalty-filled gameplay, and he faulted the lack of an in-game clock.
Deniz Ahmet of Computer and Video Games felt that the focus on options came at the expense of the gameplay, which he said was marred by sluggish controls and lack of character between teams. Paul Glancey and Angus Swan of Mean Machines Sega condemned Pelé! as "an affront to the good name of soccer and the good name of Pelé"; while they acknowledged the large sprite size and fair amount of options, they derided the ropey controls and difficult goalkeepers, dismissed the music as "nauseating Hammond organ", and described the crowd sounds as "the spectators at a St Trinian's hockey match". Katz remarked that the full-motion video clips, while attractive on their own, did not blend well with the aesthetic presentation of the gameplay. Additionally, Swan considered the use of digitized video sequences to be "frankly irresponsible" due to the cartridge's size. Both Ahmet and the Mean Machines Sega reviewers noted the ball's habit of flickering during more frantic action.
## Sequel
A sequel, Pelé II: World Tournament Soccer, was developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Accolade in June 1994. It features four-player gameplay with the use of the Team Player or 4 Way Play multitap peripherals, and includes 24 playable national teams and nine settings within the United States. The game received a middling response from Electronic Gaming Monthly's reviewers, who regarded the game as typical of the soccer genre with no significant innovations apart from customizable weather conditions. |
58,950,483 | Ashe (Overwatch) | 1,171,947,239 | Fictional character in the 2016 video game Overwatch | [
"Blizzard Entertainment antagonists",
"Female characters in animated films",
"Female characters in literature",
"Female characters in video games",
"Fictional American people in video games",
"Fictional arms dealers",
"Fictional characters from Texas",
"Fictional cowboys and cowgirls",
"Fictional crime bosses",
"Fictional criminals in video games",
"Fictional female gunfighters",
"Fictional gang members",
"Fictional marksmen and snipers",
"Fictional professional thieves",
"Overwatch characters",
"Race-related controversies in video games",
"Video game characters introduced in 2018"
]
| Elizabeth Caledonia "Calamity" Ashe, known mononymously as Ashe, is a character in the Overwatch franchise. She first appeared in the 2018 animated short Reunion, and was soon thereafter added as a playable character in the franchise's first game. Ashe is an American gunslinger and leader of the Deadlock Gang, a band of arms-trafficking outlaws. She does this alongside her sidekick B.O.B., a large mustachioed robot whose name stands for Big Omnic Butler. In all appearances Ashe is voiced by Jennifer Hale, while B.O.B. communicates strictly through body language and eye movement.
Ashe's development was different from other playable characters for the game, conceived originally for the animated short by Jason Hill as a foil for the character Cassidy. However after artwork was drawn by Mio del Rosario and JungAh Lee, the team took a liking to the character, as well as her sidekick B.O.B. Around the same time, project lead Geoff Goodman was interested in introducing a new playable character into the game, and seeing her level action rifle took a liking the to the idea. As a result when the short was released, they announced her as a character for the game shortly afterward.
Ashe received mixed reception. While she was popular with many fans upon release, some drew issue with the lack of black female characters in the game, and saw Ashe as a disregard for those concerns. This was compounded when concept art revealed at one point in development it was considered to have her be a woman of color. Additional criticisms were raised about her body type being too standard for female video game characters, and the clash of her cowboy character against the game's science fiction background. However some sources noted her contrast to Cassidy as a positive, and praised her portrayal in literature related to the game's universe. B.O.B. himself was more warmly received, with some inquiring if he could be made into a playable character himself.
## Conception and development
When developing Reunion, an animated short for the Overwatch franchise, project director Jason Hill wanted to explore the "Deadlock" gang the character Cassidy had previously belonged to. He approached storyboard artist Mio del Rosario with the concept of the leader being "female with this big brim hat, and this long duster, and a lever-action rifle". In addition, her bodyguard would be an omnic, a type of robot within the Overwatch universe, but Hill wanted it to look different from those normally shown to illustrate that they came in "should be able to come in all shapes and sizes" and make him appear large. Del Rosario presented a basic sketch of Ashe, B.O.B. and other members of her gang, drawing Ashe in the center as an older woman with sunken cheeks and sharp features. Hill upon seeing it recalls commenting "Yes, that's it, that's it. This invoked the feeling that I wanted", praising the emphasis on her commanding presence being drawn front and center, while her large mustached bodyguard loomed in the background. He found her particularly striking, and as storyboarding progressed she became more and more the focus of the short.
Concept artist JungAh Lee sketched several basic concepts, taking inspiration from biker gangs, vampire hunters, and cowboys, as well as the anime Trigun. While Hill felt it hit the mark he was going for, it didn't quite work as a character for Overwatch, describing it as "more of a gothic look and you would expect her to be hunting vampires or werewolves, or something like that", and upon stepping back realized that she resembled another character in the series, Reaper, in terms of silhouette and color palette. Hill suggested she try more freeform ideas with the design, and several others followed, including a woman of color in a brown duster Hill felt was too similar to Cassidy, a woman with a long red ponytail and spiked attire he felt was too punk, and a woman clad in white with a long flowing poncho he liked, but felt it made her resemble a superhero. At this time art director Arnold Tsang also weighed in, feeling that the combination of pale skin with white hair made her seem vampiric, and that the cowboy aesthetic overall belonged more to Cassidy, suggesting instead to emphasize her biker aesthetic. They started instead taking elements from her previous designs and working them into her finalized appearance, with a focus on giving her class with a menacing edge to set her apart from Cassidy. Artist Ben Zhang also helped develop tech concepts for her character, which the team felt solidified her better into Overwatch's setting. In addition, her hair was shortened, to help reduce workload and complications from animating long flowing hair. B.O.B.'s design on the other hand changed very little during development, with the team loving the idea of a "burly, mustached omnic in a bowler hat".
At this time, project lead Geoff Goodman was considering another playable character to add to the game, wanting to implement a weapon focused character, in contrast to the previously released Sombra and Doomfist who he stated were ability focused. Upon seeing the early storyboards for Reunion they were impressed with Ashe's design, and felt her weapon, a lever-action rifle, would be fun to make for the game. Hill was receptive to the idea, stating he had originally only intended to include Ashe in possibly future comic books related to the game. The team immediately went to work on the character, with several designers submitting concepts for her implementation into the game. The development team was also adamant on implementing B.O.B. in some fashion alongside her, with both Goodman and former Overwatch designer Adrian Finol comparing notes on the best means to do so. B.O.B.'s implementation however, caused some difficulties for the development team, to the point they almost considered not implementing B.O.B. or Ashe herself.
### Design
Ashe stands 5'6" tall, and is a woman with red eyes and white hair cut into an asymmetrical bob cut, covered by a black wide-brim cowboy hat. She wears a white long sleeve shirt with the sleeves rolled up, a red tie, and a black long tailed vest with her gang's logo on the back. Her gray pants are covered by leather armor from the upper thighs to the knees, with metal knee guards linking them to her black boots. Her right arm is covered by armor to the wrist, while her left forearm has a visible gray tattoo of her gang's logo along its length, with fingerless gloves covering both hands. In addition, a pouch is strapped to her right thigh, while an angled belt holds grenades at her right hip. Her weapons consist of a gold engraved lever action rifle with a notched stock, and a sawed-off double barrel shotgun. Her design was changed slightly for Overwatch 2, giving her a full opened jacket with red accents and an armored vest underneath.
While B.O.B.'s height has never been stated by the developers, he stands significantly taller than Ashe. He appears as a large humanoid robot with a muscular physique, two small green eyes on his face, and an additional smaller pair of green lights further up his head. He also has a black handlebar mustache that goes around the sides of his head. His outfit consists of an open sleeveless biker jacket with a fur collar, a small bowler hat atop his head, grey pants with leather chaps, black boots, metal pads covering his knees, and the gang's logo drawn on his left bicep. B.O.B. has three double barrel guns hidden in each arm, which deploy outward to the side when needed.
Like other Overwatch characters, Ashe received skins, unlockable cosmetic items to change her in-game appearance. However, B.O.B.'s implementation forced the team to develop outfits for him that worked alongside Ashe's. Arnold Tsang particularly enjoyed this aspect, noting that while some concepts would not work for Ashe, they were able to work those onto B.O.B. instead. Two notable skins for the duo include the "Mobster" and "Safari" sets, which were meant to tie into their thematic elements, emphasizing Ashe's imagery of her as the leader with B.O.B. as her lackey, while also sticking to themes that would suit the vigilante aspect of her character. In contrast, her "Socialite" skin was designed to emphasize her rich upbringing. B.O.B. is dressed as a butler, and her weapons are given an art deco appearance.
## In video games and film
Elizabeth Caledonia "Calamity" Ashe, typically referred to by her last name, is a woman from Texas introduced in November 2018 to the first-person shooter Overwatch. Born into a wealthy family, she was largely neglected by her parents and left in the care of their large butler, B.O.B., a type of robot called an "omnic" whose name stands for "Big Omnic Butler". After meeting Cole Cassidy and doing a string of petty crimes together, she decides to form the arms-trafficking Deadlock Gang with him and B.O.B., though at one point Cassidy was forced to leave. As they grow in prominence, she convinces other gangs in the American Southwest to either collaborate or not interfere with each other, and becomes a legendary outlaw through her increasingly elaborate crimes. She and B.O.B. both appear in Overwatch 2.
Prior to her in-game appearance, Ashe was showcased in the animated short Reunion, part of a series of Overwatch animated shorts. In it, Ashe and her gang cause a train crash, and begin looting the contents which include multiple grenades and a large white egg-shaped crate. Cassidy shows up, and demands just the white crate. After looking inside Ashe decides to keep it and a conflict ensues, with Cassidy using the discarded grenades to incapacitate Ashe and her gang and dismantle B.O.B. He ties them up and sends them off, with Ashe promising revenge once she repairs B.O.B.
In all appearances, Ashe is voiced by Jennifer Hale, who Hill had originally wanted for the role and was pleased with her potrayal after auditioning several voice actresses. Hill encouraged her to ad-lib and improvise dialogue for the original short. as B.O.B. does not speak, the character communicates via his body language and eye movement.
### Gameplay
In Overwatch, Ashe is classified as a "Damage" class character, designed to provide a more offensive role in team compositions. Her main weapon is a lever-action repeating rifle that can be used for short-ranged quick fire, or the player can aim down the weapon's sights for long shots. Unlike other weapons in the game, her rifle is not loaded by a magazine but instead with each individual bullet until full. This reload process can be interrupted to quickly fire the weapon again with the reduced ammo quantity, and was intended to help offset the rapid fire nature of the weapon when not aiming down its sights. When developing her gameplay, Call of Duty series development studios Treyarch and Infinity Ward both offered insight on refining Ashe's behavior when aiming down the sights of her gun. In Overwatch 2, Ashe gains a short-term boost to her reload and movement speed after killing an enemy, due to a new passive ability given to all "Damage" class characters.
Ashe also has several abilities that require activation, though the first two have a "cooldown" period after use and are unable to be used again during that duration. "Coach Gun" fires a shotgun in front of her, pushing enemies away and herself backward for added mobility. "Dynamite" throws a bomb that explodes after a short duration but can also be shot to make it explode instantly, causing splash damage to anyone within the blast radius. Lastly her 'ultimate' ability, called "B.O.B.", requires to be charged either over time or through damage dealt to the enemy team. Once the charge is full it can be spent to activate the ability and summon B.O.B. to help, who will use melee attacks and his arm cannon while controlled by the game's AI, and remains until his health is depleted. B.O.B. is treated as a player character by the game in terms of interactions, and as a result can be healed, receive boosts from allies, and take and contest capture points in certain game modes by himself.
## In literature
Her story is expanded upon in the novel Deadlock Rebels by Lyndsay Ely, detailing the events prior to the founding of her gang. Ashe's family is established as owning a weapons manufacturing company, and made a fortune selling arms during the "Omnic Crisis", an event in Overwatch's lore where the omnic robots rebelled. During this time B.O.B. vanished, returning after the war with newfound sentience to care for Ashe. However the war's end also slowed demand for weapons and the company closed local plants, causing tension with the community. On her way to her school's graduation, Ashe is attacked by two boys, who later claim she attacked them. The town sheriff, who also hates her parents, arrests her. While in jail she meets Cassidy, who had been arrested for assisting a friend, and bonds with him. Her parents pay her bail and, furious about how the altercation made them look, plan to disown her in three months on her eighteenth birthday. Angered, she decides to sell the company's assets on the black market, enlisting Cassidy to this end. However, the initial attempt is botched, and they are saved by B.O.B. Realizing they'll need a hacker and someone that can build explosives they recruit two more people, Frankie and Julian, accordingly.
When the three do their second heist together, it goes smoother and they make a handsome profit. They perform several heists over the next few months, with Ashe hiding her face and using the moniker "Calamity" to keep her identity secret. However, a rival gang called the Diamondbacks and their leader Marco threaten her to stop acting in their territory. Ashe agrees, but secretly tells her gang they were going to plan a big heist. However, bad information causes them to turn up empty handed. On her 18th birthday, while the gang is resting at her mansion, the Diamondbacks attacked with molotov cocktails and kidnapped Cassidy. Her parents also return, claiming that they had not actually planned to disown her, but also aware that the heists were her doing, revealing the failed heist was bait. Her mother orders her arrest.
While in jail, she convinces the sheriff to let her pay her bail as a means to strike back at her parents. He agreed with the idea, and it took almost all the gang's shared money to pay, with B.O.B. waiting for her. Retrieving her family's rifle from her former home, she returns to the gang and asks them to help rescue Cassidy, though Frankie and Julian are wary about taking on the Diamondbacks. Ashe proceeds on her own, but they offer some assistance. However, Julian betrays her and joins the Diamondbacks before she is captured by Marco. Frankie helps Ashe escape, and she arrives with B.O.B. to help. Marco's second in command, feeling Marco is bad for the gang, helps Ashe and company find Cassidy. They capture Marco after she convinces the rest of the Diamondbacks to join with her, and she sends him and Julian in a shipping container to the sheriff. In the epilogue she and Cassidy finally name their gang the Deadlock Rebels before heading off to start another heist.
## Promotion and reception
Ashe was unveiled at Blizzcon 2018 through several short videos, and to further promote the character, Blizzard Entertainment commissioned Henchmen Studios to have a cosplayer portraying the character present at the convention to take photos with guests. Various merchandise featuring the character's likeness was also released, including a bandana and a messenger bag. Two figures were also released: a funko pop figure and a Good Smile Company nendoroid figure that featured B.O.B.'s head as an accessory.
Described by Elijah Beahm of The Escapist as "basically a gun-toting Lorelai Gilmore", the character has received mixed reception. Sites such as Polygon noted she was immediately popular with fan artists. Additionally, searches for Overwatch pornography on Pornhub doubled after the character was released in the game, with Dustin Bailey of PCGamesN noting that fanmade porn of the character had been released on the website less than an hour after her debut. Once she was made available, her gameplay was well received by players, and has been compared to that of the Scout from Team Fortress 2. B.O.B. was also warmly received, described as an incredible addition to the game that "stole the show" during Ashe's reveal at Blizzcon 2018, with fans quickly wanting him playable as a standalone character according to Kyle LeClair of Hardcore Gamer.
However, some fans and critics voiced concerns regarding the character, notably in the context of character diversity, with Jay Castello of The Guardian in particular stating he got a sense that "while inclusivity is one thing to consider when creating a new hero, it’s not always a priority." Nathan Grayson of Kotaku noted that while fan reaction to Ashe's original reveal was positive, once excitement died down fans lamented in particular that she was a "another skinny white woman" at a point in Overwatch's development where it lacked any playable black female characters. This was further compounded when concept art revealed she was originally a woman of color. Some fans drawing Ashe as a black woman as a form of protest, and Grayson himself also questioned why Ashe could not have been black. Nico Deyo of Fanbyte further criticized the "pristineness" of her character that seemed to permeate most female characters in Overwatch, which she felt clashed with her cowboy/outlaw aesthetic against the game's science fiction setting. She also felt that a "rich white girl playing criminal dress-up" was too common trope in media and "not any more progressive just because she is a woman". She lamented that while the character should have been a celebrated addition to the game, instead she felt like a possible decline in the quality of Blizzard's creative process.
In contrast, Cass Marshall of Polygon argued that her appearance was meant to be a counter to Cassidy's, and while her original design featured heavy amounts of red and brown, he felt it shifted over to "sharp, distinct whites" to this end. In addition, unlike other characters, she was made by the cinematics team for Overwatch, and not planned to be a playable character until the development team took a liking to her, which also affected decisions regarding her character development. Marshall further called Ashe a "victim of the game's success", and noted that while some were happy to have a character that returned to a classic Overwatch feel, others upset about her release were not necessarily wrong, adding "there are cases where [Blizzard] can't please everyone, and Ashe is the perfect case study of where that divide can deepen." Beahm stated that while he felt her debut for the game itself was bland, her portrayal in Deadlock Rebels added considerable nuance to her. Describing her as an "imposing, charismatic leader" in the characterization, he enjoyed her empathy towards her gang and found it made her endearing despite her portrayal as an antagonist, and ultimately called it "an inspired evolution of Ashe". |
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| Black Mirror is a British anthology television series created by Charlie Brooker. Individual episodes explore a diversity of genres, but most are set in near-future dystopias with sci-fi technology—a type of speculative fiction. The series is inspired by The Twilight Zone and uses the themes of technology and media to comment on contemporary social issues. Most episodes are written by Brooker with heavy involvement by the executive producer Annabel Jones.
There are 27 episodes across six series and one special, in addition to the interactive film Black Mirror: Bandersnatch (2018). The first two series aired on the British network Channel 4 in 2011 and 2013, as did the 2014 special "White Christmas". The programme then moved to Netflix, where four further series aired in 2016, 2017, 2019, and 2023. Two related webisode series were produced by Netflix, and a companion book to the first four series, Inside Black Mirror, was published in 2018. Soundtracks to many episodes have been released as albums.
The series has received critical acclaim and is considered by many reviewers to be one of the best television series of the 2010s. The programme won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie three times consecutively for "San Junipero", "USS Callister" and Bandersnatch. However, some critics consider the morality of the series obvious or cite declining quality over time. Black Mirror, along with American Horror Story and Inside No. 9, has been credited with repopularising the anthology television format, and a number of episodes have been seen by reviewers as prescient.
## Episodes
The series was originally commissioned by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom and premiered in December 2011. A second series ran during February 2013. In September 2015, Netflix purchased the programme, commissioning a series of 12 episodes later divided into two series of six episodes. The first six episodes were released simultaneously on Netflix worldwide as the overall third series on 21 October 2016. The fourth series of six episodes was released on 29 December 2017. A fifth series consisting of three episodes was released on 5 June 2019. The first four series, as well as the special "White Christmas", have been released on DVD. A sixth series was commissioned in 2022 and was released on 15 June 2023.
## Premise
### Genre and themes
As Black Mirror is an anthology series, each episode is standalone and can be watched in any order. The programme is an instance of speculative fiction within science fiction: the majority of episodes are set in dystopian near-futures with novel technologies that exaggerate a trait from contemporary culture, often the internet. An example is "Crocodile", where the Recaller device used to view a person's memories is the main difference from the modern world. Many such technologies involve altering the human body or consciousness, with little in-universe concern for the morality of these actions. They provide convenience or freedom to the user, but exacerbate problematic personality traits. Adrian Martin of Screen wrote that many episodes depict "basic human emotions and desires" that "intersect with, and get twisted by, a technological system that invariably spins out of control and into catastrophe". The settings are generally patriarchal and capitalist. Recurring themes throughout Black Mirror include data privacy and surveillance, virtual reality, individualism and consumerism. Many episodes have plot twists.
However, individual episodes explore varying genres. Crime fiction episodes include the police procedurals "Hated in the Nation" and "Smithereens" and the Nordic noir "Crocodile". Horror and psychological horror are features of "Black Museum" and "Playtest", respectively. The first episode, "The National Anthem", contains black comedy and political satire. Some episodes employ features of lighter-hearted genres, such as romance in "San Junipero" and "Striking Vipers", romantic comedy in "Hang the DJ", or space opera in "USS Callister". Other genres include drama ("Fifteen Million Merits"), psychological thriller (Black Mirror: Bandersnatch), post-apocalyptic fiction ("Metalhead"), and war film ("Men Against Fire").
Black Mirror can be seen to demonstrate a negative view of unending pursuit of scientific and technological advancement. The majority of episodes end unhappily. However, characters who carefully consider the risks of technology with which they engage are met with happy endings, as in "San Junipero". Juliana Lopes of Via Panorâmica argued that the dystopian settings resemble the French Marxist Guy Debord's concept of the spectacle, wherein mass media create alienation and an unattainable utopia for individuals to pursue. For instance, in "Nosedive", the protagonist Lacie strives for a utopian life through superficiality and performativity, in a society where social media success contributes to high socioeconomic status. Academics writing in Quarterly Review of Film and Video found that Black Mirror episodes fall into a genre of "mind-game films", wherein protagonists are disoriented and narratives are non-linear or fragmented. Films in this genre include Inception (2010) and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), and these works often show the unreliability of the state, technology or family.
Some critics believed that episodes produced under Channel 4 had a more British tone or shared aesthetic qualities not found in later series. In contrast, Netflix episodes including "Nosedive", "San Junipero", "USS Callister" and "Hang the DJ" evidence pastel aesthetics, use of 1980s or 1990s nostalgia and lighter-hearted tones than Channel 4 episodes. The frequency of happy endings and positive uses of technology increase in later series. With the use of a werewolf in "Mazey Day" and a demon in "Demon 79", the sixth series introduced supernatural horror elements to Black Mirror, and reduced the role of technology.
### Connections between episodes
Later episodes include Easter egg allusions—small references to other instalments. For example, the fictional news channel UKN recurs between episodes, and the company Fence's Pizza appears in both "USS Callister" and "Crocodile". A large number of Easter eggs are found in news tickers and social media feeds shown in various episodes. The main set of the final episode of the fourth series, "Black Museum", included references to every prior episode of the series. The song "Anyone Who Knows What Love Is (Will Understand)" (1964) by Irma Thomas appears in six episodes: "Fifteen Million Merits", "White Christmas", "Men Against Fire", "Crocodile", "Rachel, Jack and Ashley Too", and "Joan Is Awful". A symbol designed by Brooker and first used in "White Bear" is a symbol of branching paths in Bandersnatch and marked on a talisman in "Demon 79", among other uses.
Actors rarely appear in more than one episode; those who do have unrelated roles. Aaron Paul starred in "Beyond the Sea", a space-themed episode, after agreeing to a cameo in "USS Callister" if it did not bar him from appearing in other episodes. Hannah John-Kamen played the singer Selma ("Fifteen Million Merits") and the journalist Sonja ("Playtest"); Michaela Coel was an airline check-in worker ("Nosedive") and the space crew member Shania ("USS Callister"); Monica Dolan acted as a police officer ("Smithereens") and a protagonist's mother ("Loch Henry"); Daniel Lapaine played the minor character Max ("The Entire History of You") and the doctor Daniel ("Black Museum").
Some writers believe that Black Mirror episodes are set in a shared universe, due to the abundance of Easter eggs, or tonal and thematic connections across the programme as a whole. Fans and journalists have attempted to establish concrete chronologies between episodes. The series creator Charlie Brooker's comments on this topic changed over time. He initially described the programme's setting as an "artistic universe" or "psychologically shared universe". After the release of the third series, he said that a line in "Hated in the Nation" that references the central crime in "White Bear" established a "canonical" connection between them. Brooker said of "Black Museum" that it "does actually now seem to imply that it is all a shared universe". However, he described the Easter eggs in 2018 as "an extra bit of texture for fans" and not a consideration that limits the design of new episodes. After the sixth series, Brooker commented that the viewer could consider each episode to be a Streamberry show—the Netflix parody featured in "Joan Is Awful" whose titles reference previous instalments.
## Production
### Conception
The series was created by Brooker, who was previously known as a comedy writer. He wrote video game reviews for PC Zone in the late 1990s and began writing television reviews for The Guardian and making television in the 2000s. Brooker had completed production of Dead Set (2008), a zombie-based drama series, and while working on Newswipe (2009–2010) and other programmes, decided to make an anthology drama series. It was modelled in the style of The Twilight Zone (1959–1964), Tales of the Unexpected (1979–1988) and Hammer House of Horror (1980).
Brooker recognised that Rod Serling had based The Twilight Zone on contemporary issues, often controversial ones such as racism, but placed them in fictional settings to get around television censors at the time. Brooker realised he could comment similarly on modern issues, specifically focusing on technology, a topic he explored in producing the series How TV Ruined Your Life (2011). He aimed to explore "the way we might be living in 10 minutes' time".
Brooker wanted to keep the anthology approach, using new stories, settings, characters, and actors for each episode, as he felt this was a key element of enjoying series like The Twilight Zone. This approach would allow Black Mirror to contrast with current dramas and serials that had a standard recurring cast. According to Brooker, the production team considered giving the series a linking theme or presenter, but ultimately decided not to.
### Writing process
Most episodes are credited solely to Brooker. Many originate with him talking to the executive producer Annabel Jones or others about a "what-if idea", and considering if it could be the consequence of some new technology. Brooker said that like his previous comedy writing, the premise is a "worst case scenario compounded"; the ideas often make him laugh. Episodes generally have only one aspect at a time that requires suspension of disbelief, and characters' actions are designed to feel authentic even if their predicaments are unusual. Brooker avoided reacting to news events or topical subjects, as there was no guarantee of their continued relevance by the release date.
In the first two series, Brooker would plan less and write the script as he went along, which led to more dropped subplots and several iterations of rewriting "White Bear" in particular. He would write with advertisement breaks in mind, as motivation to reach the next break, and so that he could insert some cliffhanger to make the audience return. After the first two series, Brooker wrote a full outline preceding each first draft, finding that picturing an ending made the process easier even if the ending later changed. The outline could vary substantially in length, from two to twenty-five pages.
"San Junipero" was the first episode written for Netflix and came from a conscious decision to experiment with the tone of a Black Mirror episode. Following this, episodes became more tonally diverse. Brooker would send a brief treatment to Netflix and receive feedback before beginning the first draft. He wrote some material while standing up, as the slight discomfort discouraged time-wasting; he said that the first draft, the "vomit draft", was always terrible, but had to be written. He tried to picture the finished episode while writing and sometimes ran while listening to music as a source of inspiration. Brooker said that emotional speeches were easier to write, while sequences with many parts were harder. Feedback came from Jones and a director or cast member could have a large influence on the script. Additionally, Brooker and Jones were involved in all aspects of production process, observing the filming and participating in the editing room where possible. They pointed out logical inconsistencies and worked on the details of technological user interfaces. Brooker said that the final edit could allow aspects that were not working to be fixed, or for introduction of overlooked ideas.
The episode "The Entire History of You" was written by Jesse Armstrong. William Bridges is co-credited on both "Shut Up and Dance" and "USS Callister" and Brooker's wife Konnie Huq received a co-credit on "Fifteen Million Merits". For these episodes, Brooker did not write in the same room as his colleagues. One person would write the first draft and they would then iterate between feedback and re-writing. On "Nosedive", Michael Schur wrote the first half of the script and Rashida Jones wrote the second half, based on ideas and a story outline from Brooker. "Demon 79" was co-written by Brooker and Bisha K. Ali.
### Series 1
The series' inception was in 2010. Brooker and Jones had begun to work together on Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe, a television review programme which aired from 2006 to 2008. The first pitch for Black Mirror, to the head of comedy at Channel 4, was for eight half-hour episodes by different authors. Technology was a lesser focus, and the worlds were larger and more detailed, which Jones said was not possible to execute properly in the short runtime. The series was then commissioned for three-hour-long episodes. The first script was "Fifteen Million Merits". The second was "Inbound", an episode that was never produced: it was a science fiction adaptation of what was revealed at the end to be a true story about a boy in the Iraq War. Concepts from it were later repurposed for "Men Against Fire". The following script pitched became "The National Anthem", the first episode to air. The third episode is "The Entire History of You".
The programme was produced by Brooker's production company Zeppotron, for the Dutch media company Endemol. Joel Collins served as production designer, with his company Painting Practice working on visual effects. In the early stages of Black Mirror, Jones was keen to avoid casting comedy actors, as Brooker was previously a comedy writer, and they wanted to distance the series from the genre. The production occurred concurrent to that of A Touch of Cloth, a satirical police procedural series that Brooker wrote for. The series aired weekly from 4 December 2011. "The National Anthem" features Rory Kinnear as a British prime minister who must have sex with a pig for a kidnapped Princess to be released. In "Fifteen Million Merits", Daniel Kaluuya plays Bing and Jessica Brown Findlay plays Abi, two characters in a society where most people must cycle each day to earn currency. "The Entire History of You" follows the married couple Liam and Ffion, played by Toby Kebbell and Jodie Whittaker, respectively, as Liam becomes suspicious of Ffion's relationship to a friend.
### Series 2
The first series was expensive for Channel 4, as the anthology format meant there were no economies of scale, but Black Mirror was commissioned for a second series of three episodes. Brooker described it as "more epic in scale, but more intimate in scope": the episodes have more understated technologies. Brooker commented that the second series mirrors the first: the former has topics of (in order) "warped political satire", "dystopian hellscape", and "relationship torn apart by technology", while the latter presents episodes of these forms in reverse. Each episode in the first series had a male protagonist, so Brooker deliberately wrote female protagonists for the first two episodes, "Be Right Back" and "White Bear".
A trailer for the second series was made by Moving Picture Company and featured a dream sequence, a factory and a large dust cloud, but no extracts of series two episodes. The series aired weekly from 11 February 2013. "Be Right Back" follows Martha (Hayley Atwell) turning to artificial intelligence for emotional support while grieving over the death of her partner Ash (Domhnall Gleeson). Lenora Crichlow stars as Victoria Skillane, a woman in an apocalypse who has lost her memory, in "White Bear". "The Waldo Moment" is a political satire starring Daniel Rigby as Jamie Salter, a man who contests a by-election as an animated bear. Black Mirror was first made available in the US from November 2013 via DirecTV, where episodes aired on Audience and were available online.
### "White Christmas"
According to Brooker, the series was still taking its budget from the comedy department of Channel 4, and there was discussion of whether it should fall under the drama department instead. Shane Allen, head of comedy for Channel 4 at the time, stated in 2018 that someone had been taken aback by the budget for Black Mirror, which was well above the standard for a comedy. The new head of comedy did not have an existing relationship with Brooker and Jones.
Brooker reported in 2018 that Channel 4 agreed on a third series of four episodes, but requested detailed synopses of the episodes in advance. Brooker came up with an episode "Angel of the Morning", which would later become a story in "White Christmas". He also conceived of an episode based on the earlier script "Inbound" which would have been similar to the later "Men Against Fire". Another episode was named "Crocodile", which overlapped in parts with the series four episode of the same name. After a lengthy wait, Brooker and Jones were told that the ideas "weren't very Black Mirror". Though Channel 4 may have suggested making a one-off special, Jones said that she felt a lack of clarity from them.
Jones and Brooker worked on other projects for the next year, such as A Touch of Cloth. They set up House of Tomorrow, a division of Endemol under which later Black Mirror content would be produced. After bumping into a Channel 4 staff member, Brooker emailed the channel to ask how to continue with Black Mirror. Channel 4 had the budget for an hour-long Christmas special, but Jones and Brooker pushed for a 90-minute episode. "White Christmas" was a portmanteau of three stories, inspired by works such as the 1983 science fiction film Twilight Zone: The Movie. It starred Jon Hamm as Matt and Rafe Spall as Joe throughout. Actors in the individual stories include: Rasmus Hardiker as Harry, Natalia Tena as Jennifer, Oona Chaplin as Greta, Janet Montgomery as Beth, and Ken Drury as Beth's father. The episode aired on 16 December 2014.
### Move to Netflix
On the day of the press screening for "White Christmas", Brooker and Jones had a meeting with Channel 4 executives, who told them that they wanted to continue the series but due to budget constraints, it would need to be a co-production. The pair had travelled to Los Angeles a few months prior to try to secure co-production funding but were unsuccessful. The channel also suggested that Brooker could write an episode of Electric Dreams (2017–2018), an adaptation of short stories by Philip K. Dick. They also considered a five-episode series with an overarching storyline, at the suggestion of a US network, nicknaming the plan Game of Drones.
On 1 December 2014, the first two series of the programme were released on Netflix in the United States after they bought exclusive streaming rights, leading to increased audience attention for the programme. In a bidding war between channels, which included the American companies AMC, Syfy and HBO, Netflix led with a commitment of two series of ten episodes each. Brooker and Jones reported in 2018 that although they and Netflix were both keen to have Channel 4 as equal partners, Channel 4 were evasive. They eventually got a meeting without discussion of a co-production with Netflix, where the channel suggested a renewal for three episodes. The channel later offered six episodes if full treatments could be given in advance, but Brooker and Jones were concerned due to past rejection of ideas. They had a limited time to reply to US offers and chose to make a deal with Netflix.
In September 2015, Netflix commissioned 12 episodes of Black Mirror. By this point, the series was available in around 80 territories. In March 2016, it outbid Channel 4 for the rights to distributing the third series in the UK, with a bid of US\$40 million. Endemol released a statement saying that Channel 4 had "had the opportunity to recommission [Black Mirror] since 2013 and passed on this and subsequent co-production offers put to them. [...] Further efforts were made to try to reach a settlement regarding a UK window for Channel 4, but these were also sadly to no avail". In a press release, Channel 4 stated that they "offered to recommission Black Mirror". This marked the first time that an online streaming service had gained the rights to a series when the original network had wished to renew it.
### Series 3
In developing the third series' stories, Brooker had looked at previous episodes and recognised that all of the stories were about characters becoming trapped in a situation from which they could not escape. With the third series, Brooker wanted to explore different formats, adding more conventional stories like a romance and a police procedural. The producer Lucy Dyke commented that Netflix expected the series to become "bigger and better" and "more international", while production designer Joel Collins said that Netflix was happy to support ideas on the same scale or on a larger scale than previous episodes. The first episode that Brooker wrote for the series was "San Junipero", and it was an intentional departure from previous episodes as well as a "deliberate raspberry-blow" at fans who were concerned at the series' potential Americanisation.
The titles of the six episodes that make up series three were announced in July 2016, along with the release date. A trailer was released in October 2016. The series was released on Netflix worldwide on 21 October 2016. "Nosedive" is an episode starring Bryce Dallas Howard as Lacie, a woman pursuing social media popularity in a world where individuals assign ratings to every interaction with each other. "Playtest" is a horror story starring Wyatt Russell as Cooper, a playtester for a new virtual reality game. "Shut Up and Dance" is about a teenager blackmailed anonymously over the internet, starring Alex Lawther as Kenny and Jerome Flynn as Hector, and written by Brooker and William Bridges. "San Junipero" is a science fiction love story starring Gugu Mbatha-Raw as Kelly and Mackenzie Davis as Yorkie. "Men Against Fire" is a war story starring Malachi Kirby as Stripe. "Hated in the Nation" is a police procedural, with Kelly Macdonald as Karin Parke and Faye Marsay as Blue Coulson exploring the role of robot bees in a series of deaths.
### Series 4
Brooker said that the fourth series of six episodes has more variety than the third. He began writing in July 2016 and continued throughout the 2016 United States presidential election, telling Digital Spy that he did not know what demand there would be for "nothing but bleak nihilism" and thus included "more hope" than in previous series. The first episode made was "Arkangel", which was filmed in Canada in November 2016. The Netflix budget allowed them to set and film "Crocodile" in Iceland and make the special effects-intensive episode "Metalhead". Filming concluded in June 2017.
In May 2017, a Reddit post unofficially announced the names and directors of the six episodes in series 4 of Black Mirror. The first trailer debuted on 25 August 2017 and two promotional photos were released in September. Beginning on 24 November, Netflix published a series of posters and trailers for each episode in the fourth series of the programme, referred to as the "13 Days of Black Mirror", concluding on 6 December with the announcement of the release date, 29 December 2017.
"USS Callister" is a space epic based around a video game company, starring Jesse Plemons as CTO Robert Daly and Cristin Milioti as the new programmer Nanette Cole. "Arkangel" is an episode about a mother implanting an invasive technology in her daughter, starring Rosemarie DeWitt as Marie and Brenna Harding as Sara, and directed by Jodie Foster. "Crocodile" is about the consequences of a hit-and-run, starring Andrea Riseborough as Mia. "Hang the DJ" is a love story between Amy, played by Georgina Campbell, and Frank, played by Joe Cole, centred around an artificial intelligence that selects people's partners for them. "Metalhead" is a black-and-white apocalypse episode starring Maxine Peake as Bella, a woman trying to escape a robotic "dog", and directed by David Slade. "Black Museum" is an anthology of three stories, one of which was written by the magician Penn Jillette. Focused around a crime museum, the episode stars Douglas Hodge as Rolo Haynes and Letitia Wright as Nish.
According to Engadget and Gizmodo, as a means of viral marketing Netflix sent private messages to users of the Turkish website Ekşi Sözlük. The messages were sent from the account "iamwaldo" and read, "We know what you're up to. Watch and see what we will do." Although the advertising was met with positive reception from some users, others were concerned by distress that the messages may have caused.
### Bandersnatch
After much media speculation sparked by social media reports of filming, a quickly-deleted Twitter announcement by Netflix and foreign film board certifications, Netflix announced on 27 December 2018 that the film Black Mirror: Bandersnatch would be released the following day. Set in 1984, the film follows Stefan, portrayed by Fionn Whitehead, a young programmer who begins to question reality and experience deteriorating mental health as he adapts a sprawling fantasy novel into a video game. Bandersnatch is an interactive film, regularly prompting the viewer to select one of two choices on screen that affect how the storyline continues; there are over one trillion potential paths to view the work and five distinct endings. Other main cast include Will Poulter, Craig Parkinson, Alice Lowe, and Asim Chaudhry.
### Series 5
Netflix announced the fifth series on 5 March 2018. The complexity of Bandersnatch, which was originally part of the fifth series, delayed production, although Netflix still committed to its release in 2019. The first episode, "Striking Vipers", had been filmed prior to Bandersnatch. On 15 May 2019, a trailer for the fifth series was released, indicating it would comprise three episodes.
On 5 June 2019, the series was released. "Striking Vipers" sees Danny (Anthony Mackie) and Karl (Yahya Abdul-Mateen II) exploring a virtual relationship despite Danny's marriage to Theo (Nicole Beharie). "Smithereens" follows Andrew Scott as Chris through his kidnapping of a social media company intern. "Rachel, Jack and Ashley Too" stars the two titular sisters (Angourie Rice and Madison Davenport) co-operating with a doll cloned from the pop star Ashley O (Miley Cyrus).
### Series 6
Around January 2020, Brooker and Jones announced their departure from House of Tomorrow. Variety reported that intellectual property issues were at the centre of this change, with the series' rights held by Endemol. By February 2020, Brooker and Jones had established Broke and Bones, a new production company. Netflix had arranged a long-term contract for series and other production rights with the Broke and Bones company by July 2020, although rights for Black Mirror still remained with Endemol. According to Variety, this left Brooker and Jones unable to produce additional series unless new agreements were put in place. In a May 2020 interview with Radio Times, Brooker questioned whether the public mood would suit a sixth series of Black Mirror and said that he had been working on more comedic projects. A sixth series was announced by Netflix in May 2022, to consist of more than three episodes. The series was produced by Broke and Bones, rather than House of Tomorrow. However, House of Tomorrow's new owners Banijay retained ownership of the programme.
Brooker started writing the sixth series with the idea to "refresh" or "reset" what Black Mirror was about, saying that since its 2011 debut many new dystopian sci-fi programmes had emerged. Instead, he wished to focus on horror and settings in the past. He said that Black Mirror should continually reinvent itself and display standalone stories; he began the series by "deliberately upending" his "core assumptions" about the programme. Some episodes contain elements he had "previously sworn blind" he would avoid. The idea was to prevent Black Mirror being "the show about consciousness being uploaded into a little disc". He began with "Demon 79", a horror story set in the past without technology as a theme.
Filming took place in mid-2022. The first teaser trailer was released on 26 April 2023, announcing a June release date; the five episode titles followed in May. The series was released on 15 June 2023. "Joan Is Awful" follows Annie Murphy's character Joan as a Streamberry programme is made about her life using computer-generated imagery (CGI); "Loch Henry" explores true crime, as Samuel Blenkin's Davis and Myha'la Herrold's Pia make a documentary about a serial killer in Scotland. Set in 1969, "Beyond the Sea" is about the isolation of the astronauts Cliff (Aaron Paul) and David (Josh Hartnett), despite their ability to inhabit artificial replicas on Earth. "Mazey Day" follows a paparazza (Zazie Beetz) in 2006; the title character Mazey (Clara Rugaard) transforms into a werewolf. "Demon 79" sees Nida (Anjana Vasan) unleashing a demon, Gaap (Paapa Essiedu), who encourages her to kill three humans.
### Suggested spin-offs
Several sequel episodes or spin-offs have been suggested, though none have been produced. In 2013, Robert Downey Jr. optioned the episode "The Entire History of You" to potentially be made into a film by Warner Bros. and his production company Team Downey; in 2018, the episode's writer Jesse Armstrong said that the project was in "development hell". In 2016, Brooker said that he had ideas for sequels to both "White Bear" and "Be Right Back" that were unlikely to be made. He said in 2017 that there were no plans for a sequel episode to "San Junipero". Brooker has suggested that some characters in "Hated in the Nation" could potentially recur, as could Colin Ritman (Will Poulter), a Bandersnatch character with awareness of alternate timelines and realities. The director of "USS Callister", Toby Haynes, expressed interest in 2018 in a spin-off to the episode as a television series. Additionally, the sixth series episode "Demon 79" is introduced as a Red Mirror film; Brooker said that, if successful, there could be further episodes under this label.
## Reception
### Critical response
Black Mirror has been met with critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the six series received ratings of 98%, 87%, 86%, 85%, 68% and 78%. "White Christmas" received an 89% rating and Bandersnatch received a 73% rating. Metacritic, assigning scores from series three onwards, gave ratings of 82, 72, 65 and 68. Bandersnatch holds a 61 rating on Metacritic. According to Víctor Cerdán Martínez of Vivat Academia in 2018, Black Mirror was one of China's five most-watched Western television series.
Series one garnered praise. David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the first episode—"The National Anthem"—an A rating, viewing each character decision and plot revelation as natural. Jim Goodwin of Bleeding Cool complimented the acting. Also, the episode received 145 complaints to the television regulatory body Ofcom, the eighth-largest figure for the year. Reviewing "Fifteen Million Merits", Ryan Lambie of Den of Geek extolled the romance between Bing and Abi, as well as the production quality, music and acting. Sam Richards of The Telegraph rated it four stars, praising the "acerbic humour". Critical reaction to "The Entire History of You" was more mixed. Sims believed that Liam's actions escalated too quickly, but found the central premise of memory recording plausible. Richards thought that the memory technology was not necessary to the story, but James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly said that the episode's execution was "sophisticated and flawless".
The series two opener, "Be Right Back", received critical acclaim. Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy rated it four stars, praising the characters and emotionality, but criticising the ending. Flickering Myth's Luke Owen lauded the acting of Hayley Atwell as Martha and Domhnall Gleeson as Ash, as well as the directing. "White Bear" was well-received, with Simon Cocks of Screen Anarchy and Sims praising the plot twist and Tuppence Middleton's role as Jem. However, Lambie criticised the passiveness of the main character, Victoria. "The Waldo Moment" was considered the worst Black Mirror episode of the series by a number of reviewers, and criticised for poor writing and characterisation. "White Christmas" garnered positive reception, including praise of the acting and the connections between narrative threads by The A.V. Club's Zack Handlen and The Independent's Ellen Jones.
The third series received positive reception. Benjamin Lee of The Guardian and Emily St. James of Vox rated it four stars. Writing in Vulture, Jen Chaney analysed that it had an increased variety in setting and tone, as well as longer episodes. Chaney found that four episodes are "very good to great", while the other two are "merely decent". Lee praised "Nosedive" and "San Junipero" for their cinematography, acting, increased budget and narrative ambition. Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair reviewed the episodes as "all engrossing in their way", but thought "Men Against Fire" had the weakest premise and production quality. St. James wrote that the series was, as with previous series, equal parts "brilliant, ... pretty good, and ... kinda stupid", praising "San Junipero" but finding that other episodes should have been shorter and were "constrained" in their shared social media theme.
The production and acting in series four were praised, as were some episodes. Writing in Variety, Sonia Saraiya commented that four of the six episodes explore human consciousness inside technology. She viewed "Black Museum" as a demonstration of the series' flaws, with its artificial consciousness technologies, use of violence and storylines that require characters to "be stupid and/or evil". However, Saraiya said that the production and acting was "beautiful" and praised "USS Callister" and "Metalhead" for diverging from Black Mirror's "typical austere futurism". Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic identified the same theme and praised "USS Callister" and "Hang the DJ", but saw the writing as the biggest weakness of the series. Similarly, The Sydney Morning Herald's Brad Newsome praised the series' casting, and highlighted "USS Callister" as well-directed and well-acted.
Reception to Bandersnatch and series five was more ambivalent. Linda Holmes of NPR praised Bandersnatch's technical design but criticised the narrative and the repetition of scenes. Holmes said that the audience are not given a reason to care about the main character, Stefan. In The Guardian, Lucy Mangan rated the fifth series four stars, finding that the episodes are disparate in content but share "a new air of calm authority" that could reflect "an increasing confidence" of the producers. Lucy Pavia of the Evening Standard said that the episodes "still pack a punch", with "Rachel, Jack and Ashley Too" as the highlight. However, Hugh Montgomery of the BBC said that the programme's "variable quality is more starkly evident than ever" with "one good episode to two middling-to-bad ones". Montgomery praised "Striking Vipers" as "among the finest and most soulful" episodes. Additionally, Vulture's Kathryn VanArendonk reviewed that though they are well-produced and well-acted, the instalments lack suitable premises.
The sixth series' historical settings and supernatural elements received mixed reactions. Time's Judy Berman saw mixed success in the series' experimentation, but improvement over the fifth series. The Guardian's Stuart Heritage lauded the humour of "Joan Is Awful", the "successful experiment" of "Demon 79" and the social commentary of "Loch Henry". However, Leila Jordan of Paste criticised that it lacked "visions for the future". Vanity Fair's Richard Lawson saw it as "hurried and undercooked", repeating ideas from earlier series and lacking timely messages.
Critics of Black Mirror often view the show as self-righteous, with obvious morals in each story. Norman Wilner of Now commented that the first three series are "rigidly formulaic" in its presentation of a worst-case scenario and a "sardonic twist" in each episode, with "San Junipero" as the only exception. Chris Taylor argued for Mashable that the show should be viewed as more comedic and non-serious than prophetic, as it employs "nightmare logic" and concepts that require suspension of disbelief. In a satirical article for The Toast, Daniel M. Lavery used the phrase "what if phones, but too much" to describe a parody episode plot. This became a common refrain for criticism, encapsulating the paranoia, pessimism or predictability of the programme.
Some reviewers found that Black Mirror decreased in quality over time. Vulture critics categorised the show as hit-and-miss, and worsening over time. LaToya Ferguson wrote in Paste that later series saw a "creative downfall" and increasing Americanisation, with their lengthier episodes, higher-profile actors and more "polished" style not compensating for a decline in quality. Overuse of simulated reality and consciousness being transferred into different objects is a subject of reviewer criticism.
### End-of-decade lists
A number of publications named Black Mirror on their lists of the best television programmes of the 2010s:
- 5th – NME
- 6th – Esquire
- 7th – The Independent
- 15th – Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly
- 25th – Consequence of Sound
- 57th – The A.V. Club
- 80th – Paste
- Top 100 (unranked) – IGN
Den of Geek included it as one of the 13 "Best Sci-Fi, Fantasy, and Horror Shows of the 2010s" and though Vanity Fair did not include it in their top 10, it listed the episode "White Bear" as one of 15 "honourable mentions". At the end of 2019 and 2020, a number of publications also created lists of the best television shows of the 21st century to date: readers of Digital Spy voted that Black Mirror was 13th-best, The Guardian included it in 23rd place and Deadline Hollywood reported that it was one of the 21 "most influential" programmes.
### Accolades
In November 2012, Black Mirror won Best TV Movie/Miniseries at the International Emmy Awards. Bryce Dallas Howard received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for her performance in the episode "Nosedive". At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, Black Mirror received three nominations with two wins, including Outstanding Television Movie for "San Junipero". "USS Callister" received three Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Television Movie, and four Emmy nominations in 2018. Bandersnatch won two Emmys in 2019, including Outstanding Television Movie, making it the third consecutive win for Black Mirror in that category.
## Cultural impact
### In fiction
Along with American Horror Story (2011–), Black Mirror has been credited with repopularising the anthology format, which was rarely used in the 1990s and 2000s. This success has been attributed to changing profit incentives from increased streaming television consumption. A 2019 reboot of The Twilight Zone, the primary show to inspire Black Mirror, can be seen as an example of this. It was described by the creator Jordan Peele as broader than Black Mirror in that its themes do not have to be technological, and Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic suggested that it may have avoided darker themes or explorations into human nature to avoid overlap. Other anthology series that were part of this phenomenon include Room 104 (2017–2020) and Solos (2021). Additionally, Adam White of The Independent stated that Black Mirror and Brooker's other works spawned an era of horror and fantasy that explores modern technology. Science-fiction television that critics have compared to Black Mirror includes Humans (2015–2018) and Upload (2020–).
The anthology Electric Dreams was widely compared to Black Mirror. Reviewers found Electric Dreams to be less violent and more understated than Black Mirror, but contain some similar plots. For instance, the episode "Real Life" is a story about virtual reality. The settings are further in the future and more allegorical. Another example is Inside No. 9 (2014–), a British anthology series that critics saw as more comedic than Black Mirror, and known for intricate plot twists. The creators Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton have a larger role in the show than Brooker does in Black Mirror, as they star in most episodes and direct some in addition to writing them. The serialised British dystopia Years and Years (2019) follows a family from 2019 to 2034, and drew many comparisons to Black Mirror in themes and its near-future technology. The Verge's Liz Shannon Miller called it "Black Mirror, but with a full and beating heart". Simon Cellan Jones, who directed the first four of six episodes, saw it as less dystopian than Black Mirror, and with less emphasis on technology. The science fiction film Friend of the World (2020) was arranged like a Black Mirror episode. The creator Brian Patrick Butler said he wanted a sequence of stories with escalating tension, to create a "creepy and thought-provoking experience".
There was critical consensus that the anthology series Soulmates (2020–) is inferior to Black Mirror. Its central conceit—that a company can determine its customers' perfect partner—is similar to the series four episode "Hang the DJ". Soulmates was created by William Bridges, a writer for two Black Mirror episodes, and Georgina Campbell—who has a starring role in "Hang the DJ"—is a main character in one episode. The One, a science-fiction programme with the same premise, was also seen as lesser than Black Mirror by critics. The romantic comedy Made for Love (2021) stars Cristin Milioti of series four episode "USS Callister" and its technological premise of a woman whose ex-husband implanted a monitoring device in her body was compared to Black Mirror. Milioti saw both stories as about "a woman trying to find herself".
### Comparisons to reality
Brooker has often been described by commentators as prescient in his scripts for Black Mirror. In 2015, G. Clay Whitaker of The Daily Beast called the show a Magic 8-Ball. The first episode, "The National Anthem", features the UK prime minister blackmailed into having sexual intercourse with a pig. Four years later, the Daily Mail published allegations that the then-prime minister David Cameron had placed a "private part of his anatomy" into the mouth of a dead pig as an initiation rite at university. Brooker later said that after hearing the news, he "did genuinely for a moment wonder if reality was a simulation, whether it exists only to trick me". In "The Waldo Moment", a 2013 episode, the animated cartoon Waldo places second in a UK by-election. The US presidency of the media personality Donald Trump (2017–2021) and the Ukrainian presidency of the comedian Volodymyr Zelenskyy (2019–) were compared by journalists to the platform of Waldo. Brooker described Trump as "an anti-politics candidate who's raucous and defensive" and "offers nothing", like Waldo. Adrian Karatnycky of Politico stated that as with Waldo, Zelenskyy had few clear policy positions prior to his election.
The 2016 episode "Nosedive" presents a society in which citizens rate interactions with each other from one to five stars and receive an overall rating that largely determines their socioeconomic status. This has been compared to China's Social Credit System, where local governments collect data on citizens to assign them an overall score. Example data points include publicly criticising the government, defaulting on a loan or having high-rated friends. Like the system in "Nosedive", a low score can limit a person's access to transport. "Be Right Back" shows an artificial intelligence technology designed to mimic a deceased loved one. Chatbots with similar functionality and personalisation have been compared to this premise, as has a 2022 announcement that a future Amazon Alexa feature will imitate voices of dead loved ones. "Shut Up and Dance" is about a man who is blackmailed after footage of him masturbating is recorded through his webcam. Computer viruses can allow for covert recording through an unsuspecting person's webcam, and similar real-life blackmail has been reported.
More minor facets of episodes have also been seen as prescient. Ten days after "Crocodile" depicted a self-driving pizza delivery truck, Toyota and Pizza Hut presented plans for a driverless pizza delivery vehicle at the 2018 Consumer Electronics Show. "Fifteen Million Merits" features a talent show with a virtual animated audience based on Britain's Got Talent. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Britain's Got Talent had a virtual audience, which had an aesthetic resembling that of "Fifteen Million Merits". Other real-life technologies have been described as progress towards those seen in Black Mirror, such as the motion capture animation of Waldo in "The Waldo Moment", the augmented reality military system from "Men Against Fire" and the artificial bees in "Hated in the Nation".
## Spin-off media
A number of Black Mirror tie-in products have been released. A Nosedive board game based on the episode of the same name was produced by Asmodee. Released on 25 November 2018, the game requires between three and six players and is designed to last for roughly 45 minutes. The fictional game Nohzdyve, which is featured in Bandersnatch and named after the episode "Nosedive", was created by Netflix for a ZX Spectrum emulator and released on a Bandersnatch tie-in website. A 2017 museum exhibit at the Barbican Centre, entitled Into the Unknown: A Journey Through Science Fiction, included an installation based on "Fifteen Million Merits". A number of mock "Tucker's Newsagent and Games" storefronts, designed after the fictional Bandersnatch shop of the same name, were erected in Birmingham and London shortly after the film's release in 2018.
### Soundtracks
Soundtracks to 12 of the 23 instalments have been released on online streaming services: "Be Right Back", "White Bear", "White Christmas", "Nosedive", "San Junipero", "Men Against Fire", "Hated in the Nation", "USS Callister", "Arkangel", "Hang the DJ", "Black Museum" and "Smithereens". Brooker also released a 42-track Spotify playlist of songs that were either featured in "San Junipero" or planned for inclusion at some stage. The "Hang the DJ" soundtrack, credited to Alex Somers and featuring Sigur Rós, was additionally released on vinyl. The song "On a Roll" from "Rachel, Jack and Ashley Too" is based on the Nine Inch Nails song "Head Like a Hole". It was released by the performer, Miley Cyrus, under her character's name Ashley O and went on to chart in multiple countries. The B-side "Right Where I Belong" was another Nine Inch Nails adaptation featured in the episode.
### Webisodes
A series of webisodes, titled Little Black Mirror (Polish: Czarne Lusterko), was produced for Netflix Polska by Jacek Ambrosiewicz, in collaboration with Polish YouTubers. Released on 19 January 2018, the four shorts vary between eight and twenty-one minutes in length. 69.90 explores "loneliness and gaming", according to the creators Huyen Pham and Marcin Nguyen; they discussed 20 different ideas before deciding on a computer simulation which is indistinguishable from real life. The Breakup features Krzysztof Gonciarz and Kasia Mecinski: it used realism and ordinary technology, such as a Panasonic Lumix DC-GH5 that emulates vlog aesthetics. The Sum of Happiness was posted on Martin Stankiewicz's YouTube channel and focuses on a neurological implant and a relationship app, previously explored Black Mirror topics. 1%, filmed by Groupa Filmowa Darwin, and is about a violent piece of obstetrics technology.
A second series of webisodes, initially announced as Little Black Mirror but eventually renamed Stories From Our Future, was directed for Netflix América Latina by American YouTuber Rudy Mancuso. Initially planned for release on Netflix América Latina's YouTube channel, as part of promotion for the programme's fifth series, the original trailer for the project was removed by Netflix. The shorts were released on 10 June 2019 on YouTube channels of those involved. Cure for Loneliness was released on Mancuso's channel; Getting to Know You was released on Lele Pons' channel; The Healthy Alternative was released on Juanpa Zurita's channel. Also featured in the series is Australian actor Maia Mitchell.
### Literature
In June 2018, the oral history companion book Inside Black Mirror was announced. Brooker, Jones and Jason Arnopp are the credited writers. The book features sections on the 19 episodes in the first four series, each consisting of conversational interviews from cast and crew along with stills and behind-the-scenes images. The book was released in the UK on 1 November 2018 and in the US on 20 November 2018 from Penguin Random House. Starburst rated the book ten out of ten stars, praising its "wonderfully-comprehensive format" and summarising it as "blunt, brittle, often killingly funny and lavishly-illustrated".
In June 2017, Brooker announced a series of prose stories based on Black Mirror. The first volume was to be published on 20 February 2018 and scheduled to be edited by Brooker; two further volumes were planned for later in 2018 and in 2019. Planned writers included the science fiction authors Cory Doctorow, Sylvain Neuvel and Catherine Webb, under the pseudonym Claire North. The project was postponed indefinitely in 2018 as Brooker and Jones could not dedicate enough time to it, with Brooker saying "I'm not sure when or if [the series] will appear. Probably not".
### Black Mirror Labyrinth
In mid-2019, Thorpe Park Resort in Chertsey, United Kingdom, announced that it was to open a walkthrough maze, the "Black Mirror Labyrinth". The maze was scheduled to open in March 2020, but this was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. It opened on 21 May 2021 and is themed around artificial intelligence. The subject's name and a photo taken of them are used to personalise the maze. |
3,180,484 | Battle of Bathys Ryax | 1,138,931,196 | Battle between the Byzantine Empire and the Paulicians | [
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| The Battle of Bathys Ryax was fought in 872 or 878 between the Byzantine Empire and the Paulicians. The Paulicians were a Christian sect which—persecuted by the Byzantine state—had established a separate principality at Tephrike on Byzantium's eastern border and collaborated with the Muslim emirates of the Thughur, the Abbasid Caliphate's borderlands, against the Empire. The battle was a decisive Byzantine victory, resulting in the rout of the Paulician army and the death of its leader, Chrysocheir. This event destroyed the power of the Paulician state and removed a major threat to Byzantium, heralding the fall of Tephrike itself and the annexation of the Paulician principality shortly after.
## Background
The Paulicians were a Christian sect whose precise origins and beliefs are somewhat obscure: Byzantine sources portray them as dualists, while Armenian sources maintain that they were an adoptionist sect. The Paulicians were fiercely iconoclastic, adhered to a very distinct Christology, and rejected the authority and practices of the official Byzantine Church, following their own leaders. Consequently, they were persecuted by the Byzantine state as early as 813, despite the emperors' official support for iconoclasm. After the definitive end of Byzantine Iconoclasm in 843, that persecution was intensified: in an attempt, unique in Byzantine history, to eradicate an entire "heretical" sect, orders were sent out to kill anyone who would not recant. According to the chroniclers, up to 100,000 Paulicians were massacred, while the remnants fled from their strongholds in east-central Anatolia, and found refuge among the Empire's Muslim enemies, the Arab emirates of the Thughur, the Arab–Byzantine frontier zone along the Taurus–Antitaurus mountain ranges. With support from the emir of Melitene, Umar al-Aqta, the Paulician leader Karbeas founded a separate principality at Tephrike, and for the next decades, the Paulicians campaigned alongside the Arabs against Byzantium.
The Arabs and Paulicians suffered a critical blow in 863 with the defeat and death of Umar at the Battle of Lalakaon and the death of Karbeas in the same year, but under their new leader, Chrysocheir, the Paulicians resumed their raids deep into Byzantine Anatolia, raiding as far as Nicaea and sacking Ephesus in 869/970. The new Byzantine emperor, Basil I the Macedonian (r. 867–886), sent an embassy for negotiations to Tephrike. After the talks failed, Basil led a campaign against the Paulician state in the spring of 871, but was defeated and only narrowly managed to escape himself.
## Battle
Encouraged by this success, Chrysocheir then staged another deep raid into Anatolia, reaching Ancyra and ravaging southern Galatia. Basil reacted by sending his relative, the Domestic of the Schools Christopher, against them. The Paulicians managed to avoid a clash, and as the campaigning season drew to a close, they began retiring towards their own territory. They encamped at Agranai (modern Muşali Kalesı) in the theme of Charsianon, with the shadowing Byzantine army making their camp at nearby Siboron (Σίβορον, modern Karamağara) to the west. From there, the Paulicians marched northeast to the pass of Bathys Ryax or Bathyryax (Βαθυρύαξ, "Deep Stream", modern Kalınırmak pass west of Sivas in Turkey), a location of strategic importance, as indicated by the fact that it served as a fortified assembly point (aplekton) for Byzantine expeditions to the East. Christopher sent the strategoi of the themes of Armeniakon and Charsianon ahead with some four to five thousand men, to make contact with the Paulician army, shadow it as far as the pass, and report on its intentions, i.e. whether it intended to double back westwards to resume raiding Byzantine territory or whether it headed back to Tephrike, in which case they would have to rejoin the Domestic's forces.
When the two generals with their men reached the pass, night had fallen, and the Paulicians, apparently unaware that they were being followed, had made camp in the valley of the pass. The Byzantines took up position in a wooded hill called Zogoloenos that overlooked the Paulician encampment, which further concealed them from their enemy. At this point, the sources record that a dispute broke out between the men of the two thematic corps as to who was the bravest; the two generals decided to take advantage of their troops' high morale and impetuousness to attack, despite their orders. A picked detachment of 600 men from both divisions launched a surprise attack at dawn, while the rest of the army remained behind and made loud clamour with trumpets and drums, so as to suggest the imminent arrival of the entire Byzantine field army under Christopher. The ruse worked perfectly: the Paulicians, taken by surprise, panicked and dispersed without offering any serious resistance. The Paulician rout was completed as they fell upon the main Byzantine army while fleeing. Their remnants were pursued by the victorious Byzantines up to a distance of 50 km. Chrysocheir himself managed to escape with a small detachment of bodyguards, but he was brought at bay at Konstantinou Bounos (probably modern Yildiz Dagı). In the ensuing engagement, he was wounded by Poulades, a Byzantine soldier who had been formerly a captive of the Paulicians, and fell from his horse. He was then captured and beheaded by the advancing Byzantines, and his head was sent to Emperor Basil in Constantinople.
## Aftermath
The defeat at Bathys Ryax signalled the end of the Paulicians as a military power and a threat to Byzantium. Basil followed this success by a series of campaigns in the East against the Paulician strongholds and the Arab emirates. Tephrike itself was taken in 878 and razed to the ground. The remaining Paulicians were resettled in the Balkans, while a large contingent was shipped off to Southern Italy to fight for the Empire under Nikephoros Phokas the Elder.
## Questions of chronology
The chronology and sequence of events regarding the battle and the fall of the Paulician state is unclear, since the Byzantine sources are contradictory: a number of scholars place the battle in 872, others in 878, in both cases either before or after the capture and razing of Tephrike itself by the Byzantines. Thus Alexander Vasiliev proposed a first victorious battle for the Byzantines, followed by the sack of Tephrike and the final Paulician defeat at Bathys Ryax, all in 872. Most recent historians place the battle before the sack of the city, but disagree in the dates of the two events. Some, like Nina Garsoïan or John Haldon, place both events in 878; the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle, followed by other scholars like Mark Whittow and Warren Treadgold, placed the battle in 872 and the final subjugation of Tephrike years later, in 878 (Treadgold in 879). |
6,641,931 | I Am Legend (film) | 1,170,040,547 | 2007 film by Francis Lawrence | [
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| I Am Legend is a 2007 American post-apocalyptic action thriller film directed by Francis Lawrence from a screenplay by Akiva Goldsman and Mark Protosevich and starring Will Smith as US Army virologist Robert Neville. Loosely based on the 1954 novel of the same name by Richard Matheson, the film is set in New York City after a virus, which was originally created to cure cancer, has wiped out most of mankind, leaving Neville as the last human in New York, other than nocturnal mutants. Neville is immune to the virus, and he works to develop a cure while defending himself against the hostile mutants. It is the third feature-film adaptation of Matheson's novel following 1964's The Last Man on Earth and 1971's The Omega Man.
Warner Bros. began developing I Am Legend in 1994 and various actors and directors were attached to the project, though production was delayed due to budgetary concerns related to the script. Production began in 2006 in New York City, filming mainly on location in the city, including a \$5 million scene at the Brooklyn Bridge.
I Am Legend was released on December 14, 2007, in the United States and Canada. It opened to the largest-ever box office (not adjusted for inflation) for a non-Christmas film released in the U.S. in December and was the seventh-highest-grossing film of 2007, earning \$256 million domestically and \$329 million internationally for a total of \$585 million. The film received generally positive reviews, with Smith's performance being singled out for praise, while criticism focused on its divergences from the novel, particularly the ending. In 2022, a sequel was revealed to be in development, with Smith set to reprise his role as Neville and co-produce the film with Michael B. Jordan, who will also have a starring role.
## Plot
An attempt to genetically re-engineer the measles virus to cure cancer becomes lethal, infecting 99% of the world's population, turning those it does not kill into vampiric, albino, cannibalistic mutants called Darkseekers, who are extremely vulnerable to sunlight and prey on the few who are left unaffected.
Three years after the outbreak, in 2012, U.S. Army virologist LTC Robert Neville lives an isolated life in deserted Manhattan, unsure if any other uninfected humans are left. Neville's daily routine includes experimenting on infected rats to find a cure for the virus, searching for food and supplies, and waiting each day for any survivors who might respond to his continuous recorded radio broadcasts, which instruct them to meet him at midday at the South Street Seaport. Flashbacks reveal his wife, Zoe, and daughter, Marley, died in a helicopter accident during the chaotic evacuation of Manhattan as the military was enforcing a quarantine of the island. Neville himself stayed behind with other military personnel. Neville's only companion is his German Shepherd Samantha (Sam) and to cope with his loneliness, he regularly "talks" to some mannequins and the characters on film recordings from video stores. At night, he barricades himself with Sam inside his heavily fortified Washington Square Park home to hide from the Darkseekers.
One day as Neville hunts a deer, Sam pursues it into a dark building. Neville cautiously goes in after her and locates the deer's corpse along with Sam, but discovers the building is infested with Darkseekers. Both escape unharmed and the attacking Darkseekers are killed by the sunlight. Neville finds a promising treatment derived from his own blood, so he sets a snare trap and captures a female Darkseeker. A male Darkseeker attempts to pursue them but is halted by the sunlight and returns to the shadows. Back in his laboratory in the basement of his house, Neville treats the female seemingly without success.
The next day, Neville notices "Fred", a mannequin usually at the local video store, positioned outside Grand Central Terminal and shoots him in confusion. However, Neville realizes he is being watched by the Darkseekers from within nearby buildings. As he approaches Fred's body, he is ensnared in a trap similar to the one he used to capture the female (set by the Darkseekers) and is rendered unconscious after hitting his head. By the time he wakes up the sun is setting and he is attacked by infected dogs. Neville and Sam eliminate them, but Sam is bitten during the fight. Neville injects her with a strand of his serum, but when she shows signs of infection, Neville is forced to strangle her to death as she begins to turn. Heartbroken and driven by rage, Neville ventures out and deliberately attacks a group of Darkseekers the following night, before he is rescued by a pair of immune humans, Anna and a young boy named Ethan, who have traveled from Maryland after hearing his broadcast.
They transport the injured Neville back to his home, where Anna explains they survived the outbreak aboard a Red Cross evacuation ship from São Paulo, and are making their way to a survivors' camp in Bethel, Vermont. Neville argues no such survivors' camp exists. As he continues working to cure the female Darkseeker, Neville theorizes by lowering her body temperature with ice, he can increase the treatment's potency. The next night, a group of Darkseekers, who tracked Anna and Neville the night before, invade the house. Neville, Anna, and Ethan retreat into the basement laboratory sealing themselves in with the female test subject.
### Theatrical ending
As the Darkseekers attack the lab, discovering the last treatment was successful, Neville assesses the situation as the Darkseeker alpha male rams himself against a glass door to break in. Neville draws a vial of blood from the woman he cured, and gives it to Anna, before shutting Ethan and her inside a coal chute in the back of the lab. Neville then kills both himself and the attacking Darkseekers with a grenade, saving the cure.
The following day, Anna and Ethan arrive at the survivors' camp in Bethel, where they are greeted by military officers and other survivors before Anna hands them the cure. Anna narrates how Neville's efforts and sacrifices to save humanity ultimately became legend.
### Alternate ending
As the Darkseekers attack the lab, the alpha male Darkseeker creates a butterfly shape while attempting to break through the glass to the laboratory. Neville realizes it is referencing the butterfly-shaped tattoo on the female Darkseeker's neck and the alpha male and his followers have simply been trying to recover his mate. Neville puts his gun down and returns the female. Neville and the alpha male stare each other down and Neville apologizes after seeing the latter emotionally respond to his mate's return. The alpha male departs with the rest of the pack. Once they are gone, a shocked Neville looks over at the many pictures of his test subjects and realizes he has become a monster in the eyes of the infected, showing remorse for the experiments he has undertaken over the years.
The next morning, Neville abandons his research and heads along with Anna and Ethan to Vermont as a changed man, in the hope of finding the survivors' colony. They cross the George Washington Bridge, while Anna delivers a hopeful monologue ending with the statement: "You are not alone."
While initially released as a book-accurate alternate ending on the two-disc special edition DVD of I Am Legend in 2008, the "alternate" ending was removed from the theatrical cut due to negative response from initial test screening audiences, in February 2023, it was confirmed that the sequel to I Am Legend would consider this ending to be the canonical one, with Will Smith reprising his role as Dr. Robert Neville, as he resumes his experiments on the Darkseekers.
## Cast
- Will Smith as Dr. Robert Neville
- Alice Braga as Anna
- Charlie Tahan as Ethan
- Dash Mihok as Alpha Male
- Emma Thompson as Dr. Alice Krippin
- Salli Richardson as Zoe Neville
- Willow Smith as Marley Neville
- Joanna Numata as Alpha Female
- Darrell Foster as Mike
- Pat Fraley as voice of the President of the United States
- Mike Patton as voices of the Darkseekers
Additionally, Neville's pet German Shepherd Samantha ("Sam") is portrayed by Abbey and Kona.
## Production
### Development
The science-fiction horror genre reemerged in the late 1990s. In 1995, Warner Bros. began developing the film project, having owned the rights to Richard Matheson's 1954 novel I Am Legend since 1970 and having already made the 1971 adaptation The Omega Man. Mark Protosevich was hired to write the script after the studio was impressed with his spec script of The Cell. Protosevich's first draft took place in 2000 in San Francisco, and contained many similarities with the finished film, though the Darkseekers (called 'Hemocytes') were civilized to the point of the creatures in The Omega Man and Anna was a lone morphine addict, as well as the fact that a Hemocyte character named Christopher joined forces with Neville. Warner Bros. immediately put the film on the fast track, attaching Neal H. Moritz as producer.
Actors Tom Cruise, Michael Douglas, and Mel Gibson had been considered to star in the film, using a script by Protosevich and with Ridley Scott as director; however, by June 1997, the studio's preference was for actor Arnold Schwarzenegger. In July, Scott and Schwarzenegger finalized negotiations, with production slated to begin the coming September, using Houston as a stand-in for the film's setting of Los Angeles. Scott had Protosevich replaced by a screenwriter of his own choosing, John Logan, with whom he spent months of intensive work on a number of different drafts. The Scott–Logan version of I Am Legend was a mix of sci-fi and psychological thriller, without dialogue in the first hour and with a sombre ending. The creatures in Logan's version were similar to the Darkseekers of the finished film in their animalistic, barbaric nature. The studio, fearing its lack of commercial appeal and merchandising potential, began to worry about the liberties they had given Scott – then on a negative streak of box office disappointments – and urged the production team to reconsider the lack of action in the screenplay. After an "esoteric" draft by writer Neal Jimenez, Warner Bros. reassigned Protosevich to the project, reluctantly working with Scott again.
In December 1997, the project was called into question when the projected budget escalated to \$108 million due to media and shareholder scrutiny of the studio in financing a big-budget film. Scott rewrote the script to reduce the film's budget by \$20 million but in March 1998, the studio canceled the project due to budgetary concerns and quite possibly to the box office failures of Scott's last three films, 1492: Conquest of Paradise, White Squall, and G.I. Jane. Schwarzenegger's recent films (Eraser and Warner Bros. own Batman & Robin) also underperformed, and the studio's latest experiences with big budget sci-fi movies Sphere and The Postman were negative as well. In August 1998, director Rob Bowman was attached to the project, with Protosevich hired to write a third new draft, far more action-oriented than his previous versions but the director (who reportedly wished for Nicolas Cage to play the lead) moved on to direct Reign of Fire and the project did not get off the ground.
In March 2002, Schwarzenegger became the producer of I Am Legend, commencing negotiations with Michael Bay to direct and Will Smith to star in the film. Bay and Smith were attracted to the project based on a redraft that would reduce its budget. The project was shelved due to Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn's dislike of the script. In 2004, Akiva Goldsman was asked by head of production Jeff Robinov to produce the film. In September 2005, director Francis Lawrence signed on to helm the project, with production slated to begin in 2006. Guillermo del Toro was originally approached to direct by Smith, but turned it down to direct Hellboy II: The Golden Army. Lawrence, whose film Constantine was produced by Goldsman, was fascinated by empty urban environments. He said, "Something's always really excited me about that... to have experienced that much loss, to be without people or any kind of social interaction for that long."
Goldsman took on the project, as he admired the second I Am Legend film adaptation, The Omega Man. A rewrite was done to distance the project from the other zombie films inspired by the novel, as well as from the recently released 28 Days Later, although Goldsman was inspired by the scenes of a deserted London in the British horror film to create the scenes of a deserted New York City. A 40-page scene-by-scene outline of the film was developed by May 2006. When delays occurred on Smith's film Hancock, which was scheduled for 2007, it was proposed to switch the actor's films. This meant filming would have to begin in 16 weeks; production was given a green light, using Goldsman's script and the outline. Elements from Protosevich's script were introduced, while the crew consulted with experts on infectious diseases and solitary confinement. Rewrites continued throughout filming, because of Smith's improvisational skills and Lawrence's preference to keep various scenes silent. The director had watched Jane Campion's film The Piano with a low volume so as to not disturb his newborn son and realized that silence could be very effective cinema.
### Casting
Will Smith signed on to play Robert Neville in April 2006. He said he took on I Am Legend because he felt it could be like "Gladiator [or] Forrest Gump—these are movies with wonderful, audience-pleasing elements, but also uncompromised artistic value. [This] always felt like it had those possibilities to me." The actor found Neville to be his toughest acting challenge since portraying Muhammad Ali in Ali (2001). He said that "when you're on your own, it is kind of hard to find conflict." The film's dark tone and exploration of whether Neville has gone insane during his isolation meant Smith had to restrain himself from falling into a humorous routine during takes. To prepare for his role, Smith visited the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Georgia. He also met with a person who had been in solitary confinement and a former prisoner of war. Smith compared Neville to Job, who lost his children, livelihood, and health. Like the Book of Job, I Am Legend studies the questions, "Can he find a reason to continue? Can he find the hope or desire to excel and advance in life? Or does the death of everything around him create imminent death for himself?" He also cited an influence in Tom Hanks' performance in Cast Away (2000).
Abbey and Kona, both three-year-old German Shepherd dogs, played Neville's dog Sam. The rest of the supporting cast consists of Salli Richardson as Zoe, Robert's wife, and Alice Braga as a survivor named Anna. Willow Smith, Will Smith's daughter, makes her film debut as Marley, Neville's daughter. Emma Thompson has an uncredited role as Dr. Alice Krippin, who appears on television explaining her cure for cancer that mutates into the virus. Singer Mike Patton provided the guttural screams of the infected "hemocytes", and Dash Mihok provided the character animation for the infected "alpha male". Several filler characters with uncredited roles were in old news broadcasts and flashbacks, such as the unnamed President's voice (Pat Fraley), and the cast of The Today Show.
### Filming
Akiva Goldsman decided to move the story from Los Angeles to New York City to take advantage of locations that would more easily show emptiness. Goldsman explained, "L.A. looks empty at three o'clock in the afternoon, [but] New York is never empty . . . it was a much more interesting way of showing the windswept emptiness of the world." Warner Bros. initially rejected this idea because of the logistics, but Francis Lawrence was determined to shoot on location, to give the film a natural feel that would benefit from not shooting on soundstages. Lawrence went to the city with a camcorder, and filmed areas filled with crowds. Then, a special effects test was conducted to remove all those people. The test had a powerful effect on studio executives. Michael Tadross convinced authorities to close busy areas such as the Grand Central Terminal viaduct, several blocks of Fifth Avenue, and Washington Square Park. The film was shot primarily in the anamorphic format, with flashback scenes shot in Super 35.
Filming began on September 23, 2006. The Marcy Avenue Armory in Williamsburg was used for the interior of Neville's home, while Greenwich Village was used for the exterior. Other locations include the Tribeca section of lower Manhattan, the aircraft carrier Intrepid, the Kingsbridge Armory in the Bronx, and St. Patrick's Cathedral. Weeds were imported from Florida and were strewn across locations to make the city look like it had been overgrown with them. The closure of major streets was controversial with New Yorkers. Will Smith said, "I don't think anyone's going to be able to do that in New York again anytime soon. People were not happy. That's the most middle fingers I've ever gotten in my career."
A bridge scene was filmed for six consecutive nights in January on the Brooklyn Bridge to serve as a flashback scene in which New York's citizens evacuate the city. Shooting the scene consumed \$5 million of the film's reported \$150 million budget, which was likely the most expensive shoot in the city to date. The scene, which had to meet requirements from 14 government agencies, involved 250 crew members and 1,000 extras, including 160 National Guard members. Also present were several Humvees, three Strykers, a 110-foot (34 m) cutter, a 41-foot (12 m) utility boat, and two 25-foot (7.6 m) response boat small craft, as well as other vehicles including taxis, police cars, fire trucks, and ambulances. Filming concluded on March 31, 2007. Computer-generated imagery (CGI) was used to depict the main spans of the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge collapsing as missiles from passing military jets blew them up to quarantine Manhattan island.
The end of the film was shot in Lambertville, New Jersey.
Reshoots were conducted around November 2007. Lawrence noted, "We weren't seeing fully rendered shots until about a month ago. The movie starts to take on a whole other life. It's not until later that you can judge a movie as a whole and go, 'Huh, maybe we should shoot this little piece in the middle, or tweak this a little bit.' It just so happened that our re-shoots revolved around the end of the movie."
### Effects
A week into filming, Lawrence felt the infected (referred to as "Darkseekers" or "hemocytes" in the script), who were being portrayed by actors wearing prosthetics, were not convincing. His decision to use CGI resulted in an increased budget and extended post-production, although the end results were not always well received. The concept behind the infected was that their adrenal glands were open all of the time, and Lawrence explained:
> "They needed to have an abandon in their performance that you just can't get out of people in the middle of the night when they're barefoot. And their metabolisms are really spiked, so they're constantly hyperventilating, which you can't really get actors to do for a long time or they pass out."
The actors remained on set to provide motion capture. "The film's producers and sound people wanted the creatures in the movie to sound somewhat human, but not the standard", so Mike Patton, lead singer of Faith No More, was engaged to provide the screams and howls of the infected.
In addition, CGI was used for the lions and deer in the film, and to erase pedestrians in shots of New York. Workers visible in windows, spectators, and moving cars in the distance were all removed. In his vision of an empty New York, Lawrence cited John Ford as his influence:
> "We didn't want to make an apocalyptic movie where the landscape felt apocalyptic. A lot of the movie takes place on a beautiful day. There's something magical about the empty city as opposed to dark and scary that was the ideal that the cast and crew wanted."
## Music
The soundtrack for I Am Legend was released on January 15, 2008, under the record label Varèse Sarabande. The music was composed by James Newton Howard. The film also features Bob Marley songs "Redemption Song", "Three Little Birds", "Buffalo Soldier" and "Stir It Up". Marley is also discussed in the film, and Neville's daughter is named after him.
## Release
### Theatrical
I Am Legend was originally slated for a November 21, 2007, release in the United States and Canada, but was delayed to December 14. The film opened on December 26, 2007, in the United Kingdom, and Ireland, having been originally scheduled for January 4, 2008.
In December 2007, China temporarily suspended the release of all American films in the country, which is believed to have delayed the release of I Am Legend. Will Smith spoke to the chairman of China Film Group about securing a release date, later explaining, "We struggled very, very hard to try to get it to work out, but there are only a certain amount of foreign films that are allowed in."
Premieres were held in Tokyo, New York, and London. At the London premiere in Leicester Square, British comedian and actor Neg Dupree was arrested after pushing his way onto the red carpet and running around shouting "I am Negend!". The stunt was part of his "Neg's Urban Sports" section of comedy game show Balls of Steel.
### Marketing
The film's teaser trailer was attached to the screenings of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. And a tie-in comic from DC Comics and Vertigo Comics was created, I Am Legend: Awakening. The project drew upon collaboration from Bill Sienkiewicz, screenwriter Mark Protosevich, and author Orson Scott Card. The son of the original book's author, Richard Christian Matheson, also collaborated on the project. The project advanced from the comic to an online format in which animated featurettes (created by the team from Broken Saints) were shown on the official website.
In October 2007, Warner Bros. Pictures, in conjunction with the Electric Sheep Company, launched the online multiplayer game I Am Legend: Survival in the virtual world Second Life. The game was the largest launched in the virtual world in support of a film release, permitting people to play against each other as the infected or the uninfected across a replicated 60 acres (240,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of New York City. The studio also hired the ad agency Crew Creative to develop a website that was specifically viewable on the iPhone.
### Home media
The film was released on DVD on March 18, 2008, in two editions: a one-disc release, including the movie with four animated comics ("Death As a Gift", "Isolation", "Sacrificing the Few for the Many", and "Shelter"), and other DVD-ROM features, and a two-disc special edition that includes all these extras, an alternative theatrical version of the movie with an ending that follows closer to that from the novel, and a digital copy of the film. On the high-definition end, the movie has been released on the Blu-ray Disc format and HD DVD format along with the DVD release, with the HD-DVD version being released later on April 8, 2008. Both HD releases include all the features available in the two-disc DVD edition. A three-disk Ultimate Collector's Edition was also released on December 9, 2008.
The film has sold 7.04 million DVDs and earned \$126.2 million in revenue, making it the sixth-best-selling DVD of 2008. However, Warner Bros. was reportedly "a little disappointed" with the film's performance on the DVD market.
## Reception
### Box office
I Am Legend collected \$77.2 million during its opening weekend, ranking in first place at the box office above Alvin and the Chipmunks. It surpassed The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King to have the highest December opening weekend. That record would be surpassed by The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey five years later in 2012.
The film grossed \$256 million domestically and \$329 million internationally, increasing the total gross to \$585.4 million.
### Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 68% based on 217 reviews with an average rating of 6.34/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "I Am Legend overcomes questionable special effects and succeeds largely on the strength of Will Smith's mesmerizing performance." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
A. O. Scott wrote that Will Smith gave a "graceful and effortless performance" and also noted the "third-act collapse". He felt that the movie "does ponder some pretty deep questions about the collapse and persistence of human civilization". Dana Stevens of Slate wrote that the movie lost its way around the hour mark, noting that "the Infected just aren't that scary." NPR critic Bob Mondello noted the film's subtext concerning global terrorism and that this aspect made the film fit in perfectly with other, more direct cinematic explorations of the subject. Richard Roeper gave the film a positive review on the television program At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper, commending Will Smith as being in "prime form", also saying there are "some amazing sequences" and that there was "a pretty heavy screenplay for an action film." In his review for the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four, writing, "Given its setup, I Am Legend is well-constructed to involve us with Dr. Neville and his campaign to survive." The film has been criticized for diverging from Matheson's novel, especially in its portrayal of a specifically Christian theme. Much of the negative criticism concerned the film's third act, with some critics favoring the alternative ending in the DVD release.
### Other response
Popular Mechanics published an article on December 14, 2007, addressing some of the scientific issues raised by the film:
1. the rate of deterioration of urban structures, infrastructure, and survival of fauna and flora
2. the plausibility of a retrovirus spreading out of control as depicted in the film (The measles virus depicted in the film is not a retrovirus, but is in fact a part of the Paramyxovirus family.)
3. the mechanics of the Brooklyn Bridge's destruction
The magazine solicited reactions from Alan Weisman, author of The World Without Us, virologist W. Ian Lipkin, MD, and Michel Bruneau, PhD, comparing their predictions with the film's depictions. The article raised the most questions regarding the virus' mutation and the medical results, and pointed out that a suspension bridge like the Brooklyn Bridge would likely completely collapse rather than losing only its middle span. Neville's method of producing power using gasoline-powered generators seemed the most credible: "This part of the tale is possible, if not entirely likely," Popular Mechanics editor Roy Berendsohn says.
Marxist philosopher Slavoj Žižek criticized the film politically for, in his view, "being the most regressive adaptation from the novel." He said that while the original novel had a "progressive multicultural message" where Neville became a "legend" to the new creatures and is subsequently killed by them (much like vampire were legends to humans), the 2007 film finds a cure for the Darkseekers and it is delivered by a survivor through "divine intervention". For Žižek, this misses the original message and "openly opt[s] for religious fundamentalism."
### Accolades
I Am Legend earned four nominations for the Visual Effects Society awards, and was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, Outstanding Film and Actor at the Image Awards, and Best Sound at the Satellite Awards. In June 2008, Will Smith won a Saturn Award for Best Actor. Will Smith also won the MTV Movie Awards for Best Male Performance.
## Sequel
Director Francis Lawrence said in 2008 that there would be a prequel and that Will Smith would be reprising his role. The plot of the film would reveal what happened to Neville before the infected took over New York. D. B. Weiss was hired to write the script, while Lawrence was in negotiations to return as director, contingent on a sufficiently interesting story. Smith later discussed the premise, which would have his character and a team going from New York City to Washington, D.C., as they made their last stand against those infected with the virus. The film would again explore the premise of being alone. Lawrence stated, "... the tough thing is, how do we do that again and in a different way?" In May 2011, Lawrence stated that the prequel was no longer in development saying, "I don't think that's ever going to happen."
In 2012, Warner Bros. announced that negotiations had begun to produce another installment with the intention of having Smith reprise his role. In April 2014, the studio acquired a script entitled A Garden at the End of the World, described as a post-apocalyptic variation of The Searchers. Studio executives found so many similarities to I Am Legend in the screenplay, they had the author Gary Graham rewrite it so it could serve as a reboot of the story, hoping to create a franchise with the new film. By 2014, Smith, who is known for his reluctance to appear in sequels, had not commented on whether he would appear.
On March 4, 2022, a sequel was officially announced as in development, with Will Smith reprising his role and Michael B. Jordan set to star, and both producing. Akiva Goldsman would also return to write the screenplay. The film will take place after its predecessor's alternate ending, rather than the original.
## See also
- Survival film: information regarding the genre, with a list of feature films therein.
- Medical-fiction film
- Disaster film |
848,698 | Phryne | 1,167,881,742 | 4th-century BC Greek courtesan | [
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| Phryne (/ˈfraɪni/; Ancient Greek: Φρύνη, romanized: Phrū́nē, c. 371 BC – after 316 BC) was an ancient Greek hetaira (courtesan). From Thespiae in Boeotia, she was active in Athens, where she became one of the wealthiest women in Greece. She is best known for her trial for impiety, where she was defended by the orator Hypereides. According to legend, she was acquitted after baring her breasts to the jury, though the historical accuracy of this episode is doubtful. She also modeled for the artists Apelles and Praxiteles, and the Aphrodite of Knidos was based on her.
## Life
Phryne was from Thespiae in Boeotia, though she seems to have spent most of her life in Athens. She was probably born around 371 BC, and was the daughter of Epicles. Both Plutarch and Athenaeus say that Phryne's real name was Mnesarete. According to Plutarch she was called Phryne because she had a yellow complexion like a toad (in Greek: φρύνη); she also used the name Saperdion. Phryne apparently grew up poor – comic playwrights portray her picking capers – and became one of the wealthiest women in the Greek world. According to Callistratus, after Alexander razed Thebes in 335, Phryne offered to pay to rebuild the walls. She probably lived beyond 316 BC, when Thebes was rebuilt. She was also said to have dedicated a statue of herself at Delphi, and a statue of Eros to Thespiae.
Very little is known about Phryne's life for certain, and much of her biography transmitted in ancient sources may be invented: Helen Morales writes that separating fact from fiction in accounts of Phryne's life is "impossible".
### Trial
The most famous event in Phryne's life was the prosecution brought shortly after 350 BC by Euthias, where she was defended by Hypereides. According to legend, Hypereides exposed Phryne's breasts to the jury, who were so struck by her beauty that she was acquitted.
According to the ancient sources, Phryne was charged with asebeia, a kind of blasphemy. An anonymous treatise on rhetoric, which summarises the case against Phryne, lists three specific accusations against her – that she held a "shameless komos" or ritual procession, that she introduced a new god, and that she organised unlawful thiasoi or debauched meetings. The new god that Phryne was supposed to have introduced to Athens was named by Harpocration as Isodaites; however, though Harpocration describes him as being "foreign" and "new", the name is Greek and other sources consider it an epithet of Dionysus, Helios, or Pluto.
The case against Phryne was brought by Euthias, one of her former lovers; Hypereides, who spoke in her defence, was also one of Phryne's lovers. Hypereides' defence speech survives only in fragments, though it was hugely admired in antiquity. Two prosecution speeches are mentioned by Athenaeus, though neither survive – one composed by Anaximenes of Lampsacus and delivered by Euthias, the other composed by Aristogeiton. Craig Cooper suggests that the trial of Phryne was politically motivated, noting that Aristogeiton was a political enemy of Hyperides who brought a prosecution against him for illegally introducing a decree around the same time as the trial of Phryne.
Famously, Phryne was said to have been acquitted after the jury saw her bare breasts – Quintilian says that she was saved "non Hyperidis actione... sed conspectus corporis" ("not by Hyperides' pleading, but by the sight of her body"). Three different versions of this story survive – in Quintilian's account, along with those of Sextus Empiricus and Philodemus, it is Phryne who makes the decision to expose her own breasts; while in Athenaeus' version Hypereides exposed Phryne as the climax of his speech, and in Plutarch's version Hypereides exposed her because he saw that his speech had failed to persuade the jury. Christine Mitchell Havelock notes that there is separate evidence for women being brought into the courtroom to arouse the sympathy of the jury, and that in ancient Greece baring the breasts was a gesture intended to arouse such a compassionate response, so Phryne's supposed behaviour in the court is not without parallel in Greek practice. However, this episode probably never happened. It was not mentioned in Posidippus' version of the trial in his comedy Ephesian Woman (produced c.290 BC), and therefore probably postdates this. In Posidippus' version, Phryne personally pleaded with each of the jurors at her trial for them to save her life, and it was this which secured her acquittal. Though all of these accounts assume that Phryne was on trial for her life, asebeia was not necessarily punished by death; it was an agōn timētos, in which the jury would decide on the punishment if the accused was convicted.
Hermippus reports that after Phryne's acquittal, Euthias was so furious that he never spoke publicly again. Kapparis suggests that in fact he was disenfranchised, possibly because he failed to gain one fifth of the jurors' votes and was unable to pay the subsequent fine.
### Model
Phryne was the model for two of the great artists of classical Greece, Praxiteles and Apelles. According to Athenaeus, Apelles saw Phryne walk naked into the sea at Eleusis, and inspired by this sight used her as a model for his painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene (Aphrodite Rising from the Sea). This work was on display at the sanctuary of Asclepius on the Greek island of Kos, and by the first century AD it appears to have been one of Apelles' best-known works.
Praxiteles also based a depiction of Aphrodite on Phryne – the Aphrodite of Knidos, the first three-dimensional and monumentally-sized female nude in ancient Greek art. He also produced a golden or gilt statue of Phryne which was displayed – according to Pausanias dedicated by Phryne herself – in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. This may have been the first female portrait ever dedicated at Delphi; it was certainly the only statue of a woman alone to be dedicated before the Roman period.
## Reception
Phryne was largely ignored during the Renaissance, in favour of more heroic female figures such as Lucretia, but interest in her story increased towards the end of the eighteenth century. Early depictions of her by Angelica Kauffmann and J. M. W. Turner avoid eroticising her, but in the latter half of the nineteenth century, French academic painters focused more on the eroticism of Phryne's life. The most famous nineteenth century depiction of Phryne was Jean-Léon Gérôme's Phryne before the Areopagus, which was controversial for showing her covering her face in shame, in the same pose that Gérôme used in several paintings of slaves in Eastern slave-markets. Driven by this controversy, Gérôme's painting was widely reproduced and caricatured, with engravings by Léopold Flameng, a bronze by Alexandre Falguière, and a painting by Paul Cézanne all modelled after Gérôme's Phryne. In nineteenth century literature, Phryne appears in "Lesbos" from Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du Mal, where she is used metonymically to represent courtesans in general, and in Rainier Maria Rilke's Die Flamingos, in which rather than seducing the men around her, she narcissistically seduces herself.
In the twentieth century, Phryne made the transition to cinema. Alessandro Blasetti's "Il processo di Frine" adapted the story of Phryne's trial with a contemporary setting, based on a short story by Edoardo Scarfoglio; the following year, the peplum film Frine cortigiana d'Oriente ("Phryne, the Oriental Courtesan") was released. Both films depict Phryne's disrobing at her trial with an iconography influenced by Gérôme's painting. |
4,886 | Banquo | 1,173,533,014 | Character in Macbeth | [
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"Fictional lords and ladies",
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| Lord Banquo /ˈbæŋkwoʊ/, the Thane of Lochaber, is a semi-historical character in William Shakespeare's 1606 play Macbeth. In the play, he is at first an ally of Macbeth (both are generals in the King's army) and they meet the Three Witches together. After prophesying that Macbeth will become king, the witches tell Banquo that he will not be king himself, but that his descendants will be. Later, Macbeth in his lust for power sees Banquo as a threat and has him murdered by three hired assassins; Banquo's son, Fleance, escapes. Banquo's ghost returns in a later scene, causing Macbeth to react with alarm in public during a feast.
Shakespeare borrowed the character Banquo from Holinshed's Chronicles, a history of Britain published by Raphael Holinshed in 1587. In Chronicles, Banquo is an accomplice to Macbeth in the murder of the king, rather than a loyal subject of the king who is seen as an enemy by Macbeth. Shakespeare may have changed this aspect of his character to please King James, who was thought at the time to be a descendant of the real Banquo. Critics often interpret Banquo's role in the play as being a foil to Macbeth, resisting evil whereas Macbeth embraces it. Sometimes, however, his motives are unclear, and some critics question his purity. He does nothing to accuse Macbeth of murdering the king, even though he has reason to believe Macbeth is responsible.
## Role in the play
Banquo is in a third of the play's scenes, as both a human and a ghost. As significant as he is to the plot, he has fewer lines than the relatively insignificant Ross, a Scottish nobleman who survives the play. In the second scene of the play, a wounded soldier describes the manner in which Macbeth, Thane of Glamis, and Banquo, Thane of Lochaber, resisted invading forces, fighting side by side. In the next scene, Banquo and Macbeth, returning from the battle together, encounter the Three Witches, who predict that Macbeth will become Thane of Cawdor, and then king. Banquo, sceptical of the witches, challenges them to predict his own future, and they foretell that Banquo will never himself take the throne, but will beget a line of kings. Banquo remains sceptical after the encounter, wondering aloud if evil can ever speak the truth. He warns Macbeth that evil will offer men a small, hopeful truth only to catch them in a deadly trap.
When Macbeth kills the king and takes the throne, Banquo—the only one aware of this encounter with the witches—reserves judgment for God. He is unsure whether Macbeth committed regicide to gain the throne, but muses in a soliloquy that "I fear / Thou play'dst most foully for 't". He offers his respects to the new King Macbeth and pledges loyalty. Later, worried that Banquo's descendants and not his own will rule Scotland, Macbeth sends two men, and then a Third Murderer, to kill Banquo and his son Fleance. During the melee, Banquo holds off the assailants so that Fleance can escape, but is himself killed. The ghost of Banquo later returns to haunt Macbeth at the banquet in Act Three, Scene Four. A terrified Macbeth sees him, while the apparition is invisible to his guests. He appears again to Macbeth in a vision granted by the Three Witches, wherein Macbeth sees a long line of kings descended from Banquo.
## Analysis
### Foil to Macbeth
Many scholars see Banquo as a foil and a contrast to Macbeth. Macbeth, for example, eagerly accepts the Three Witches' prophecy as true and seeks to help it along. Banquo, on the other hand, doubts the prophecies and the intentions of these seemingly evil creatures. Whereas Macbeth places his hope in the prediction that he will be king, Banquo argues that evil only offers gifts that lead to destruction. Banquo steadily resists the temptations of evil within the play, praying to heaven for help, while Macbeth seeks darkness, and prays that evil powers will aid him. This is visible in act two; after Banquo sees Duncan to bed, he says: "There's husbandry in heaven, / Their candles are all out". This premonition of the coming darkness in association with Macbeth's murders is repeated just before Banquo is killed: "it will be rain to-night", Banquo tells his son Fleance.
Banquo's status as a contrast to Macbeth makes for some tense moments in the play. In act two, scene one, Banquo meets his son Fleance and asks him to take both his sword and his dagger ("Hold, take my sword ... Take thee that too"). He also explains that he has been having trouble sleeping due to "cursed thoughts that nature / gives way to in repose!" On Macbeth's approach, he demands the sword returned to him quickly. Scholars have interpreted this to mean that Banquo has been dreaming of murdering the king as Macbeth's accomplice to take the throne for his own family, as the Three Witches prophesied to him. In this reading, his good nature is so revolted by these thoughts that he gives his sword and dagger to Fleance to be sure they do not come true, but is so nervous at Macbeth's approach that he demands them back. Other scholars have responded that Banquo's dreams have less to do with killing the king and more to do with Macbeth. They argue that Banquo is merely setting aside his sword for the night. Then, when Macbeth approaches, Banquo, having had dreams about Macbeth's deeds, takes back his sword as a precaution in this case.
Macbeth eventually sees that Banquo can no longer be trusted to aid him in his evil, and considers his friend a threat to his newly acquired throne; thus, he has him murdered. Banquo's ability to live on in different ways is another oppositional force, in this case to Macbeth's impending death. His spirit lives on in Fleance, his son, and in his ghostly presence at the banquet.
### Ghost scenes
When Macbeth returns to the witches later in the play, they show him an apparition of the murdered Banquo, along with eight of his descendants. The scene carries deep significance: King James, on the throne when Macbeth was written, was believed to be separated from Banquo by nine generations. What Shakespeare writes here thus amounts to a strong support of James' right to the throne by lineage, and for audiences of Shakespeare's day, a very real fulfilment of the witches' prophecy to Banquo that his sons would take the throne. This apparition is also deeply unsettling to Macbeth, who not only wants the throne for himself, but also desires to father a line of kings.
Banquo's other appearance as a ghost during the banquet scene serves as an indicator of Macbeth's conscience returning to plague his thoughts. Banquo's triumph over death appears symbolically, insofar as he literally takes Macbeth's seat during the feast. Shocked, Macbeth uses words appropriate to the metaphor of usurpation, describing Banquo as "crowned" with wounds. The spirit drains Macbeth's manhood along with the blood from his cheeks; as soon as Banquo's form vanishes, Macbeth announces: "Why, so; being gone, / I am a man again."
Like the vision of Banquo's lineage, the banquet scene has also been the subject of criticism. Critics have questioned whether not one, but perhaps two ghosts appear in this scene: Banquo and Duncan. Scholars arguing that Duncan attends the banquet state that Macbeth's lines to the Ghost could apply equally well to the slain king. "Thou canst not say I did it", for example, can mean that Macbeth is not the man who actually killed Banquo, or it can mean that Duncan, who was asleep when Macbeth killed him, cannot claim to have seen his killer. To add to the confusion, some lines Macbeth directs to the ghost, such as "Thy bones are marrowless", cannot rightly be said of Banquo, who has only recently died.
Scholars debate whether Macbeth's vision of Banquo is real or a hallucination. Macbeth had already seen a hallucination before murdering Duncan: a knife hovering in the air. Several performances of the play have even ignored the stage direction to have the Ghost of Banquo enter at all, heightening the sense that Macbeth is growing mad, since the audience cannot see what he claims to see. Scholars opposing this view claim that while the dagger is unusual, ghosts of murdered victims are more believable, having a basis in the audience's superstitions. Spirits in other Shakespeare plays—notably Hamlet and Midsummer Night's Dream—exist in ambiguous forms, occasionally even calling into question their own presence.
The concept of a character being confronted at a triumphant feast with a reminder of their downfall is not unique to Shakespeare and may originate from Belshazzar's feast, as portrayed in the Bible. The term 'ghost at the feast' has entered popular culture, and is often used as a metaphor for a subject a person would rather avoid considering, or (considering the general plot of Macbeth) a reminder of a person's unpleasant past or likely future.
## Performances and interpretations
Banquo's role, especially in the banquet ghost scene, has been subject to a variety of mediums and interpretations. Shakespeare's text states: "Enter Ghost of Banquo, and sits in Macbeth's place." Several television versions have altered this slightly, having Banquo appear suddenly in the chair, rather than walking onstage and into it. Special effects and camera tricks also allow producers to make the ghost disappear and reappear, highlighting the fact that only Macbeth can see it.
Stage directors, unaided by post-production effects and camera tricks, have used other methods to depict the ghost. In the late 19th century, elaborate productions of the play staged by Henry Irving employed a wide variety of approaches for this task. In 1877 a green silhouette was used to create a ghostlike image; ten years later a trick chair was used to allow an actor to appear in the middle of the scene, and then again from the midst of the audience. In 1895 a shaft of blue light served to indicate the presence of Banquo's spirit. In 1933 a Russian director named Theodore Komisarjevsky staged a modern retelling of the play (Banquo and Macbeth were told of their future through palmistry); he used Macbeth's shadow as the ghost. In 1936, Orson Welles directed the Federal Theatre Project production of the play, with an African-American cast that included Canada Lee in the role of Banquo.
Film adaptations have approached Banquo's character in a variety of ways. Akira Kurosawa's 1957 adaptation Throne of Blood makes the character into Capitan Miki (played by Minoru Chiaki), slain by Macbeth's equivalent (Captain Washizu) when his wife explains that she is with child. News of Miki's death does not reach Washizu until after he has seen the ghost in the banquet scene. In Roman Polanski's 1971 adaptation, Banquo is played by acclaimed stage actor Martin Shaw, in a style reminiscent of earlier stage performances. Polanski's version also emphasises Banquo's objection to Macbeth's ascendency by showing him remaining silent as the other thanes around him hail Macbeth as king. In the 1990 film Men of Respect, a reimagining of Macbeth as taking place among a New York Mafia crime family, the character of Banquo is named "Bankie Como" and played by American actor Dennis Farina.
## See also
- List of ghosts |
13,160,311 | Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance | 1,134,480,877 | Aerial imaging system | [
"Civil Air Patrol",
"Earth observation remote sensors",
"Spectroscopy"
]
| Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance, also known by the acronym ARCHER, is an aerial imaging system that produces ground images far more detailed than plain sight or ordinary aerial photography can. It is the most sophisticated unclassified hyperspectral imaging system available, according to U.S. Government officials. ARCHER can automatically scan detailed imaging for a given signature of the object being sought (such as a missing aircraft), for abnormalities in the surrounding area, or for changes from previous recorded spectral signatures.
It has direct applications for search and rescue, counterdrug, disaster relief and impact assessment, and homeland security, and has been deployed by the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) in the US on the Australian-built Gippsland GA8 Airvan fixed-wing aircraft. CAP, the civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force, is a volunteer education and public-service non-profit organization that conducts aircraft search and rescue in the US.
## Overview
ARCHER is a daytime non-invasive technology, which works by analyzing an object's reflected light. It cannot detect objects at night, underwater, under dense cover, underground, under snow or inside buildings. The system uses a special camera facing down through a quartz glass portal in the belly of the aircraft, which is typically flown at a standard mission altitude of 2,500 feet (760 meters) and 100 knots (50 meters/second) ground speed.
The system software was developed by Space Computer Corporation of Los Angeles and the system hardware is supplied by NovaSol Corp. of Honolulu, Hawaii specifically for CAP. The ARCHER system is based on hyperspectral technology research and testing previously undertaken by the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). CAP developed ARCHER in cooperation with the NRL, AFRL and the United States Coast Guard Research & Development Center in the largest interagency project CAP has undertaken in its 74-year history.
Since 2003, almost US\$5 million authorized under the 2002 Defense Appropriations Act has been spent on development and deployment. As of January 2007, CAP reported completing the initial deployment of 16 aircraft throughout the U.S. and training over 100 operators, but had only used the system on a few search and rescue missions, and had not credited it with being the first to find any wreckage. In searches in Georgia and Maryland during 2007, ARCHER located the aircraft wreckage, but both accidents had no survivors, according to Col. Drew Alexa, director of advanced technology, and the ARCHER program manager at CAP. An ARCHER equipped aircraft from the Utah Wing of the Civil Air Patrol was used in the search for adventurer Steve Fossett in September 2007. ARCHER did not locate Mr. Fossett, but was instrumental in uncovering eight previously uncharted crash sites in the high desert area of Nevada, some decades old.
Col. Alexa described the system to the press in 2007: "The human eye sees basically three bands of light. The ARCHER sensor sees 50. It can see things that are anomalous in the vegetation such as metal or something from an airplane wreckage." Major Cynthia Ryan of the Nevada Civil Air Patrol, while also describing the system to the press in 2007, stated, "ARCHER is essentially something used by the geosciences. It's pretty sophisticated stuff ... beyond what the human eye can generally see," She elaborated further, "It might see boulders, it might see trees, it might see mountains, sagebrush, whatever, but it goes 'not that' or 'yes, that'. The amazing part of this is that it can see as little as 10 per cent of the target, and extrapolate from there."
In addition to the primary search and rescue mission, CAP has tested additional uses for ARCHER. For example, an ARCHER equipped CAP GA8 was used in a pilot project in Missouri in August 2005 to assess the suitability of the system for tracking hazardous material releases into the environment, and one was deployed to track oil spills in the aftermath of Hurricane Rita in Texas during September 2005.
Since then, in the case of a flight originating in Missouri, the ARCHER system proved its usefulness in October 2006, when it found the wreckage in Antlers, Okla. The National Transportation and Safety Board was extremely pleased with the data ARCHER provided, which was later used to locate aircraft debris spread over miles of rough, wooded terrain. In July 2007, the ARCHER system identified a flood-borne oil spill originating in a Kansas oil refinery, that extended downstream and had invaded previously unsuspected reservoir areas. The client agencies (EPA, Coast Guard, and other federal and state agencies) found the data essential to quick remediation. In September 2008, a Civil Air Patrol GA-8 from Texas Wing searched for a missing aircraft from Arkansas. It was found in Oklahoma, identified simultaneously by ground searchers and the overflying ARCHER system. Rather than a direct find, this was a validation of the system's accuracy and efficacy. In the subsequent recovery, it was found that the ARCHER plotted the debris area with great accuracy.
## Technical description
The major ARCHER subsystem components include:
- advanced hyperspectral imaging (HSI) system with a resolution of one square meter per pixel.
- panchromatic high-resolution imaging (HRI) camera with a resolution of 8 cm × 8 cm (3.1 in × 3.1 in) per pixel.
- global positioning system (GPS) integrated with an inertial navigation system (INS)
### Hyperspectral imager
The passive hyperspectral imaging spectroscopy remote sensor observes a target in multi-spectral bands. The HSI camera separates the image spectra into 52 "bins" from 500 nanometers (nm) wavelength at the blue end of the visible spectrum to 1100 nm in the infrared, giving the camera a spectral resolution of 11.5 nm. Although ARCHER records data in all 52 bands, the computational algorithms only use the first 40 bands, from 500 nm to 960 nm because the bands above 960 nm are too noisy to be useful. For comparison, the normal human eye will respond to wavelengths from approximately 400 to 700 nm, and is trichromatic, meaning the eye's cone cells only sense light in three spectral bands.
As the ARCHER aircraft flies over a search area, reflected sunlight is collected by the HSI camera lens. The collected light passes through a set of lenses that focus the light to form an image of the ground. The imaging system uses a pushbroom approach to image acquisition. With the pushbroom approach, the focusing slit reduces the image height to the equivalent of one vertical pixel, creating a horizontal line image.
The horizontal line image is then projected onto a diffraction grating, which is a very finely etched reflecting surface that disperses light into its spectra. The diffraction grating is specially constructed and positioned to create a two-dimensional (2D) spectrum image from the horizontal line image. The spectra are projected vertically, i.e., perpendicular to the line image, by the design and arrangement of the diffraction grating.
The 2D spectrum image projects onto a charge-coupled device (CCD) two-dimensional image sensor, which is aligned so that the horizontal pixels are parallel to the image's horizontal. As a result, the vertical pixels are coincident to the spectra produced from the diffraction grating. Each column of pixels receives the spectrum of one horizontal pixel from the original image. The arrangement of vertical pixel sensors in the CCD divides the spectrum into distinct and non-overlapping intervals. The CCD output consists of electrical signals for 52 spectral bands for each of 504 horizontal image pixels.
The on-board computer records the CCD output signal at a frame rate of sixty times each second. At an aircraft altitude of 2,500 ft AGL and a speed of 100 knots, a 60 Hz frame rate equates to a ground image resolution of approximately one square meter per pixel. Thus, every frame captured from the CCD contains the spectral data for a ground swath that is approximately one meter long and 500 meters wide.
### High-resolution imager
A high-resolution imaging (HRI) black-and-white, or panchromatic, camera is mounted adjacent to the HSI camera to enable both cameras to capture the same reflected light. The HRI camera uses a pushbroom approach just like the HSI camera with a similar lens and slit arrangement to limit the incoming light to a thin, wide beam. However, the HRI camera does not have a diffraction grating to disperse the incoming reflected light. Instead, the light is directed to a wider CCD to capture more image data. Because it captures a single line of the ground image per frame, it is called a line scan camera. The HRI CCD is 6,144 pixels wide and one pixel high. It operates at a frame rate of 720 Hz. At ARCHER search speed and altitude (100 knots over the ground at 2,500 ft AGL) each pixel in the black-and-white image represents a 3 inch by 3 inch area of the ground. This high resolution adds the capability to identify some objects.
### Processing
A monitor in the cockpit displays detailed images in real time, and the system also logs the image and Global Positioning System data at a rate of 30 gigabytes (GB) per hour for later analysis. The on-board data processing system performs numerous real-time processing functions including data acquisition and recording, raw data correction, target detection, cueing and chipping, precision image geo-registration, and display and dissemination of image products and target cue information.
ARCHER has three methods for locating targets:
- signature matching where reflected light is matched to spectral signatures
- anomaly detection using a statistical model of the pixels in the image to determine the probability that a pixel does not match the profile, and
- change detection which executes a pixel-by-pixel comparison of the current image against ground conditions that were obtained in a previous mission over the same area.
In change detection, scene changes are identified, and new, moved or departed targets are highlighted for evaluation. In spectral signature matching, the system can be programmed with the parameters of a missing aircraft, such as paint colors, to alert the operators of possible wreckage. It can also be used to look for specific materials, such as petroleum products or other chemicals released into the environment, or even ordinary items like commonly available blue polyethylene tarpaulins. In an impact assessment role, information on the location of blue tarps used to temporarily repair buildings damaged in a storm can help direct disaster relief efforts; in a counterdrug role, a blue tarp located in a remote area could be associated with illegal activity. |
41,358,217 | Rust (video game) | 1,166,989,860 | 2018 survival video game | [
"2018 video games",
"Double Eleven (company) games",
"Early access video games",
"Facepunch Studios games",
"Indie games",
"MacOS games",
"Multiplayer video games",
"Open-world video games",
"PlayStation 4 games",
"Survival video games",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games with Steam Workshop support",
"Windows games",
"Xbox One games"
]
| Rust is a multiplayer survival video game developed by Facepunch Studios. Rust was first released in early access in December 2013 and received its full release in February 2018. Rust is available on Windows and macOS. Console versions for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One developed in conjunction with Double Eleven were released in May 2021. Rust was initially created as a clone of DayZ, a popular mod for ARMA 2, with crafting elements akin to those in Minecraft.
The objective of Rust is to survive in the wilderness using gathered or stolen materials. Players must successfully manage their hunger, thirst, and health, or risk dying. Despite the presence of hostile animals such as bears and wolves, the primary threat to the player is other players due to the game being solely multiplayer. Combat is accomplished through firearms and various weapons, such as bows. In addition, vehicles controlled by non-player characters will occasionally roam, attacking armed players. Rust features crafting, though initially limited until the discovery of specific items in the game's open world. To stay protected, players must build bases or join clans to improve their chance of survival. Raiding is a major aspect of Rust. Rust supports modded servers which can add additional content.
Rust was first released in December 2013 to the Steam Early Access program. During this period of development, the gameplay was changed significantly. Dangerous wildlife replaced zombies as the primary environmental threat and several fundamental revisions to the crafting system were released, along with general improvements and feature additions. While in Early Access, Rust was ported to the Unity 5 game engine, providing substantial graphical changes. The game also introduced immutable, predetermined skin colour and biological sex tied to players' Steam account details. Despite being fully released, the game continues to receive updates.
Throughout Rust's alpha release, critical reviews were mixed, with many comparisons made to other survival games. Rust was commonly explained as being a mixture of DayZ and Minecraft. During this period, reviewers frequently noted the game's unfinished nature. During its pre-release phase, critics praised the concept and gameplay and by March 2017, Rust had sold over five million copies. After leaving Early Access, it received mixed reviews from critics. The player vs player combat and survival aspects were highlighted by those who enjoyed the game, though reviewers were critical of the harsh beginner experience and the constant need to grind for materials. The game has continued to be successful post-release and has been listed as one of the best survival games.
## Gameplay
As a multiplayer-only video game, Rust pits players against each other in a harsh, open world environment with the sole goal of survival. Animals, such as wolves and bears, act as a looming threat, but the primary danger comes from other players. Most maps are procedurally generated, with the exception of some pre-built maps. When beginning, a player only has a rock and a torch. The rock can cut down trees, break apart stones, and be used as a weapon. Cloth and food can be gathered by killing animals; mining provides stone, metal ore, and sulfur ore; and chopping down trees provides wood. To survive in the world, the player must gather resources and use them to craft tools, weapons, and other gear. To craft items, the player must have a sufficient amount of all required materials, with advanced items needing more obscure components scattered around the map. There are limitations imposed on the amount of craftable items, with blueprints allowing the creation of more advanced items.
The player must stay fed or they will die of starvation. There are other challenges the player must overcome during gameplay, such as drowning, hypothermia, and wildlife attacks—primarily bears and wolves. Also, specific locales around the map are radioactive. There are four levels of radiation: minor, low, medium, and high. The correct armour or clothing must be worn to enter these areas; failure to do so can result in death. Upon death, a screen with an option to respawn at a random location or at a sleeping bag or bed (placed prior to death) appears. Respawning resets the player's inventory to the basic rock and torch. Rust is sometimes played in a "clan". Clans usually create housing for their members, give items and supplies to each other and partake in organised raiding and looting. Player vs player (PvP) combat is accomplished with bows, melee weapons and craftable guns. Bullets and other projectiles travel in a ballistic trajectory, rather than being hitscan. There are a number of different types of bullet for each gun, including high velocity and explosive, thus allowing for more diverse strategy. Hit tracking calculates damage; shots to the head are more damaging than shots to other parts of the body. The use of weapon attachments, such as holographic sights, provide an advantage over opponents.
There are player-operable vehicles in Rust. Boats are used to traverse long distances across water and reach valuable loot. Some airborne vehicles, such as hot air balloons, can also be used to explore the map quickly. Spawning randomly, they can be used once fueled. These player-controlled vehicles, and unlike the offensive AI entities, can be destroyed by surface-to-air missiles that players can position outside bases. Similarly, the player can transport themselves and others using modular vehicles found while exploring. Vehicle chassis are situated on roadsides and must be sufficiently repaired and fitted with an engine before use.
Airdrops are an important element in Rust. These are parachute-equipped pallets of supplies delivered by a prop plane. They can be seen over extremely long distances, sometimes resulting in players running toward the airdrop. There are also other entities that drop advanced loot, including an attack helicopter and the CH-47 Chinook. Both of these travel randomly around the map and attempt to kill players. The Chinook additionally travels to a randomly picked monumentautomatically generated structures guarded by violent NPCsfound in the game world and drops a locked supply crate that opens after a length of time, inviting PvP interactions. Compounds are safezones that provide players with a place to trade resources, overlooked by automated high-damage auto turrets that fire on anyone who draws a weapon, discouraging betrayal. Additionally, these treacherous players will be marked as hostile to NPCs for a predetermined amount of time.
## Development
Rust's development began as a clone of DayZ, a popular survival mod for ARMA 2, featuring elements derived from Minecraft. Garry Newman, the CEO of Facepunch Studios, said "Rust started off as a DayZ clone. But then we decided that we are sick of fighting zombies. And can't compete with the Arma island in terms of landmarks and towns." Consequently, Newman described the game as being more along the lines of entries in the S.T.A.L.K.E.R series. Facepunch released the game onto the Steam Early Access program on 11 December 2013. Following its alpha launch, Facepunch actively released updates for Rust adding mechanics like animals, hunting, armour and weapons. In February 2014, the developers removed zombies, a temporary enemy, from Rust, replacing them with red mutant bears and wolves. Early on developers made the choice not to try to populate the world with interesting locations to explore, but rather provide the ability to create them. Newman described it as "we give them the tools, they make the world". One of the developers' aims was to create a world which does not encourage any particular kind of behaviour from players. They considered implementing a system like DayZ's where those who kill other players get unique outfits which identify them as 'bandits', or possibly a rating or color-coded system. However, the developers ultimately rejected these ideas, believing they would detract from player freedom. Instead, they found to their surprise that the implementation of voice chat had a noticeable effect on player behaviour. With the ability to communicate, many players would no longer kill each other on sight out of fear.
In late 2014, developers released an experimental mode of Rust and ported it to a then-unreleased game engine, Unity 5, enhancing the graphics, and in turn, improving the shader mechanics and texture realism, as well as allowed for larger procedurally generated worlds. The experimental mode featured a new anti-cheat system called CheatPunch, which banned thousands of players within a few days. In October 2014, the experimental mode became the default launch option. Shortly after, in December, EasyAntiCheat, a third-party anti-cheat system, replaced CheatPunch. In early 2015, Rust added a feature that decided each player's skin colour based on their Steam ID.
In the original game, the heads-up display featured statistics like as health, hunger and radiation level. These were later modified and hidden statistics such as hypothermia were added. Monuments went through a phase where developers removed the radiation hazards because of the annoyance it was causing. Female models, added to the game shortly afterward, were initially only available for server administrators to test. Upon rollout, akin to skin colour, players were automatically assigned a biological sex permanently linked to their Steam account. Later in 2015, virtual goods stores selling guns, clothing and other objects were added to the game. When Valve introduced its Item Store, Rust was the first game on Steam to use the feature. The Steam Community Market was also allowed to sell similar items.
Developers removed blueprints, one of the core gameplay concepts of Rust, in July 2016. They replaced them with an experience system where players could level up after completing tasks, such as gathering wood. In September, Maurino Berry, the lead developer, mentioned in a Reddit post that the experience system was not permanent and Berry explained that the XP system was praised prior to its release, but then received a lot of criticism. In early November 2016, components replaced the experience system. Originally, players had an initial list of items they could craft. This was changed to having a complete list with the required components from the outset. Eventually, blueprints were reintroduced. Radiation, removed in 2015, was reintroduced in November 2016 after being "reprogrammed from the ground up". Instead of each location having the same level of radiation, developers added different levels ranging from low, to medium, and high.
In early 2017, Garry Newman said that had Steam Early Access not existed, Rust would have been fully released as a game by then. The development team would have continued to release updates. In June 2017, developers altered the game's gun mechanics to be more like "traditional first-person shooters". This was achieved by reducing recoil, material costs, and improving overall accuracy. This update also saw the beginnings of an overhaul of Hapis Island, the game's only non-procedurally generated map. The game left Early Access and was officially released on 8 February 2018, This update came with graphical updates and gun modifications. Newman mentioned that despite the official release, regular updates would continue. He noted the update cycle would change from weekly to monthly so as not to "rush in features and fixes that end up breaking something else".
### Post-release
Since Rust's official release in 2018, Facepunch have continued to support the game with updates, including the introduction of new weapons, vehicles, NPC-populated locations, explorable areas, and graphical overhauls. Optional paid downloadable content has also been released. The first, the "Instruments Pack", which was released in December 2019, saw the addition of new instruments, and the second, the "Sunburn Pack", released in July 2020, added swimming pool equipment. In February 2021, Rust introduced a "softcore" mode. This mode was introduced after the game saw a surge in popularity as a result of various popular video game live streamers broadcasting the game to large audiences. Softcore mode lowered the difficulty of the game through the addition of various features that limited player loss and disadvantage, such as limiting the size of clans. A third DLC, the "Voice Props Pack", was made available in July 2021 which included audio-related devices, such as boomboxes and cassette recorders.
Console versions of Rust were first announced in 2019 by Facepunch and Double Eleven at X019, Microsoft's Xbox announcement event. The game was set for release in 2020, but in December 2020, the release date was pushed back to 2021 with Double Eleven citing the COVID-19 pandemic as having impeded development. In early March 2021, Rust's console edition entered a closed beta that players could participate in. However, no specific release date was given until later in March, when it was announced that the game would be released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 21 May 2021. The developers noted that the release of a console version would not affect PC updates, and that the new version would be a "separate experience with its own roadmap and community".
## Reception
### In early access
Rust received mixed reviews following its alpha release, with many denoting the unfinished nature and lack of polish. PC Gamer's Andy Chalk said Rust was a great use of Early Access and even though "it's far from finished", it's ready to be played. GameSpot's Shaun McInnis said the early 2014 version was "rough around the edges" and "littered with bugs", but it entertained and had potential. Matthew Cox of Rock, Paper, Shotgun said it was smart of the developers to switch to the Unity engine in late 2014 due to the game's instability. In Cox's review, he noted many glitches in the late 2014 version, including unresponsive animals, framerate issues and unstable servers. IGN's Mitch Dyer did not enjoy the combat, calling Rust a "semi-broken" game he felt unable to recommend. However, he complimented the experience as experience "utterly unforgettable" and often unpredictable.
Other games like Just Survive and Ark: Survival Evolved were compared to Rust because of their open world survival aspects, as well as having similar crafting mechanics. Parallels were also drawn with DayZ because of the influence it had on the gameplay of Rust. Notably, Kotaku's Luke Plunkett considered the similarities, saying it felt as though someone had intended to create a game whereby Dayz and Minecraft could be played simultaneously.
The inability to choose and design a player's character was both commended and criticised. The YouTube channel Extra Credits commended Rust for promoting diversity by randomly selecting a player's in-game race. Tying race to their Steam ID forced players to experience the game in a different way than they might normally experience it, perhaps promoting empathy for someone of a different ethnicity. David Craddock of Shacknews criticised the lack of communication between Facepunch and the community when they added female models. In response to this criticism, Garry Newman commented he felt some trepidation about adding the racial feature, fearing it might be seen as the original character model "blacked up". He stressed the chosen ethnicity was permanent—"just like in real life, you are who you are". Newman discussed the reasoning behind not providing the option to choose their character's gender and race in an article in The Guardian, saying Rust is about survival, not characterization and identity. "We wanted the appearance of the players to be consistent over time. They should be recognisable consistently and long-term." Sales reportedly increased by 74% shortly after the addition of female models.
### Full release
After being fully released, Rust garnered "mixed or average" reviews on review aggregator website Metacritic. Critics praised the PvP combat, difficulty, and survival aspects, while grinding and the experience had by new players came under some criticism.
Many critics held the opinion that while starting anew was frustrating, the combat was rewarding. For instance, Luke Winkie of PC Gamer summarised the game saying, "Wake up naked, run for your life, do horrible things to one another. There is no grander narrative, or mythos, or win condition." He described the beginner experience as "quite prickly" but continued on to praise the combat, joking that "connecting [a] hatchet with an idiot's head feels great". Gloria Manderfeld, a writer for the German magazine GameStar, echoed these opinions, adding there was little end-game besides PvP. However, she opined the PvP itself was effective. Ray Porreca of Destructoid described the combat as the "meat" of the game. However, he wrote that the experience would vary depending on their desire to fight. "If you can look past a community that tends to be toxic, Rust's sprawling plains and toppled landmarks are an excellent backdrop for player-driven storytelling and pitched, dramatic moments." In a negative review GameSpot's Alessandro Barbosa said the whole experience felt unfulfilling. He described the game as lacking certain creative features, like the ability to easily redesign bases.
The disdain toward the experience as a new player was noted in conjunction with the necessity of grinding, and how repetitive that became. IGN's review described the game as expecting the player to spend all their gaming time on it, fearing that failing to do so will result in being raided and needing to begin again. Game Informer's Javy Gwaltney reiterated this, explaining it felt demotivating when they died solely because they came in contact with someone more experienced. Agreeing with Manderfeld's description, in an updated review Cox said his patience wore thin after a while. He said that while maintaining health bars may have once been enjoyable, he balked at the prospect in 2018.
Nonetheless, some critics praised the game's difficulty, mentioning the satisfaction they felt after managing to survive successfully. Porreca recommended the game to those willing to dedicate time, saying the game offers "a social sandbox and a deep, functioning crafting system". Winkie expressed interest in the necessity of managing hunger, thirst, and health while learning more and discovering better items. He also expressed a sense of appreciation for those dedicated to the game, mentioning the YouTube videos of large, multi-clan raids. He closed the review saying everyone should try Rust due to its difference from other games. Cox agreed noting the game's brutality only added to the gratification a player felt when they managed to eventually succeed.
The reception toward the graphics were mixed. Critics praised the environment, but denounced the animations and character models. Barbosa described the animations as "stiff and unnatural" and the models "ugly and dull". Additionally, Rust's usage of sound was commended by Gwaltney, who regarded it as compelling due to the requirement of players to listen to their surroundings to survive.
Since Rust's release, it has been included in several "best survival game" lists by video game journalists.
### Sales and player count
Within the first two weeks of Rust's alpha release it sold over 150,000 copies, compared to the 34,000 copies of Garry's Mod sold in its first week. Rust's sales had reached one million copies after being an Early Access title for only two months, and during February 2014, it overtook Garry's Mod in terms of sales, making over US\$30 million. By the end of 2015, three million copies had been sold. By March 2017, the game had sold more than 5.2 million units, with more than 1.2 million in-game skins sold. In December 2019, Facepunch announced that Rust had sold 9 million copies, making \$142 million, overtaking Garry's Mod in terms of gross, though still behind in total sales.
In January 2021, Rust saw a surge in popularity because of live streamers playing the game on Twitch.tv for large audiences. The game rose to the top of Twitch's charts, peaking at over one million concurrent live viewers on 3 January. The group primarily responsible for the high viewer counts was OfflineTV. This reinvigorated interest in the game enabled Rust to also beat its highest concurrent player count by more than double. Additionally, Newman reported that the game had generated \$1 million in sales over two days during this period. At the end of 2021, Facepunch announced the game had reached almost 12.5 million sales. They also noted that the Voice Props Pack had been the most successful of the three DLC released at the time. |
712,824 | St. Joseph Valley Parkway | 1,138,498,766 | Freeway in Indiana and Michigan | [
"Freeways and expressways in Michigan",
"Freeways in the United States",
"Transportation in Berrien County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Elkhart County, Indiana",
"Transportation in South Bend, Indiana",
"Transportation in St. Joseph County, Indiana",
"U.S. Highways in Indiana",
"U.S. Route 20",
"U.S. Route 31"
]
| The St. Joseph Valley Parkway is a freeway in the U.S. states of Indiana and Michigan, serving as a bypass route around Elkhart, Mishawaka, and South Bend in Indiana and Niles in Michigan. The freeway runs to the south and west of Elkhart and South Bend and Niles and consists of segments of U.S. Route 31 (US 31) and US 20; those two highway designations run concurrently at the southwestern rim of the South Bend metropolitan area. It continues north to run along the St. Joseph River valley.
The freeway was first built in Indiana in the 1960s, although plans in Michigan date back to the 1950s. Indiana completed its portion of the freeway in 1992, while Michigan opened its last segment in 2022.
## Route description
The Parkway begins where US 20 expands to a divided highway southeast of Elkhart. To the east in Indiana the freeway feeds into an undivided segment of US 20 at County Road 17 (CR 17). From there it runs westward along the south sides of Elkhart and Mishawaka. South of South Bend, US 31 joins the Parkway, and then the Parkway turns northward along the west side of South Bend. Along this segment, US 20 turns back west and leaves the Parkway. The Parkway meets the Indiana Toll Road which carries I-80/I-90 before crossing the state line into Michigan. West of Niles, the Parkway meets US 12 and continues northwesterly running west of Berrien Springs. From there it runs northward to end at Napier Avenue east of St. Joseph. The St. Joseph Valley Parkway ends at Napier Avenue, but US 31 continues as a five-lane highway west along Napier to connect with I-94 and the rest of the US 31 routing north of there on I-196.
The Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT) and the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) both maintain the sections of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway in their respective states. Additionally, both departments have listed their freeway segments as part of the National Highway System, a system of roads important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. The two departments conduct surveys to measure the traffic levels along their roadways. This measurement is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT) which is a calculation of the traffic volume on a stretch of roadway for any average day of the year. INDOT's figures for 2007 showed that 30,753 vehicles used the freeway near its western end. The traffic volume drops to 19,914 vehicles near the Indiana Toll Road. In Michigan, the levels drop as low as 7,402 vehicles near the Napier Road interchange.
## History
### Name
The "St. Joseph Valley Parkway" name was chosen by local chambers of commerce in the fall of 1992 as the result of a local contest held by a group of local businesses. The name was officially adopted by Michigan in 1993 (dedicated late 1995) and Indiana in 1995 (dedicated in mid-1995).
### Indiana section
There had been a southern bypass of the South Bend and Elkhart areas planned since the 1930s. The first section of the highway, started in 1958 as Bypass US 20 (BYP US 20), was completed between US 20 and Mayflower Road (at the time State Road 123) on September 19, 1963. The freeway was extended to just past the SR 23 interchange in late Summer 1965, then further east to US 31, that section opening on December 15, 1967. The BYP US 20 designation was replaced by the US 31 designation in 1978. The exit with the Indiana East–West Toll Road/I-80/I-90 was built beginning in 1979 in conjunction with the northern extension to Michigan. Construction in the early 1990s extended the freeway in sections from US 31/Business US 31 (Bus. US 31) to its current end with US 20 at CR 17, with the portion from US 31/Bus. US 31 to SR 19 opening on December 11, 1991, and the portion from there to CR 17 opening on October 9, 1992. Ramps from Nimtz Parkway were opened November 3, 1997, and the portion in Elkhart was also named the "Dean R. Mock Expressway" in March 2002.
### Michigan section
A plan to relocate US 31 in Berrien County, Michigan, existed as early as 1952. Planning to extend the South Bend Bypass northward into Michigan to I-96 (later I-196) began in 1962. A report issued in 1970 detailed four routing corridors, spawning a lawsuit over how Berrien Springs would be bypassed. Construction was to begin in 1975, but the Michigan State Highways Department delayed construction plans in 1972, pushing the start to 1977. The first section, running from the state line north to US 12, was completed and dedicated August 10, 1979, and opened to traffic by September 6 of that year. From there, US 31 was routed east along US 12 to Bus. US 12 and north along Bus. US 12 to the former routing of US 31/US 33. Final plans for the routing north to I-94 were approved in 1981. The Niles bypass section was opened August 16, 1987, bringing the freeway north to Walton Road northwest of Niles. Bus. US 31 was created along the former routing in Niles and Walton Road was rebuilt as a state trunkline connection between the northern end of the freeway and the former two-lane routing of US 31. The Berrien Springs bypass section was opened in late 1992, the southbound lanes opening on October 23 and the northbound on November 20. As a cost-saving measure, this section was initially an expressway with crossroads, and was converted to a freeway in stages through 1999. Since then, MDOT built a 9.1-mile (14.6 km) freeway segment north to Napier Avenue that was opened on August 27, 2003 at a cost of \$97 million (equivalent to \$ in ). A proposed spur westward to I-94 in the Stevensville area was never built.
#### Extension to I-94
East of Benton Harbor, Michigan, the St. Joseph Valley Parkway extension was under study due to environmental, economical and historical site issues. One of the environmental concerns relates to the habitat of an endangered species, the Mitchell's satyr butterfly that has its habitat in the area of the freeway extension. The 40-acre (16 ha) habitat is home to the second-largest population of the rare butterfly. This freeway connection was originally approved in 1981 as part of a final environmental impact study that included the freeway built from Niles northward to Napier Avenue. Since that approval, the butterfly was discovered in the Blue Creek Fen in the late 1980s, and it was listed an endangered species in 1992. The listing stalled construction of the freeway north of Berrien Springs. The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) issued an opinion two years later that the freeway project would jeopardize the species. MDOT was given permission to modify the previously approved freeway to cross the Blue Creek on longer bridges; the USFWS also required that any construction be done from elevated platforms, among other restrictions. In the interim, MDOT proceeded with construction of the southern portion of the last freeway segment, completing the freeway northward from Berrien Springs to the Napier Avenue interchange in August 2003.
A revised environmental impact study to account for the butterfly's habitat was approved in 2004. The study compared the original proposal for this extension that involved connecting directly to I-196 at I-94 with a pair of alternate routes that involved connecting US 31 directly to BL I-94 at I-94 near Benton Harbor with auxiliary lanes to I-196. The recommendation was to use the PA-2 version of the alternative connection to avoid the Blue Creek Fen. At the time the last freeway segment was opened in 2003, MDOT expected the remaining segment would not take much longer to complete, but funding was not available for many years. Construction of the extension was not included for this reason in subsequent MDOT five-year highway projects plans, although most of the design work and land acquisition was identified in 2013 as having been finished. Funding for the project was listed in the 2017–21 plan draft released in July 2016, which split the remaining work into three phases. MDOT received a federal grant for the project in December 2018, citing at that time a completion date of 2022 or 2023 for the project; construction began in June 2020. The ribbon cutting for this section occurred on September 26, 2022. The new routing to I-94 formally opened on November 9, 2022. Until the freeway was completed, US 31 followed a stretch of Napier Avenue, which was upgraded in conjunction with the St. Joseph Valley Parkway opening to that point, westward to I-94. The St. Joseph Valley Parkway name was applied to the new freeway section.
## Exit list
## See also |
21,551,817 | William G. Enloe | 1,129,289,584 | Mayor of Raleigh, North Carolina | [
"1902 births",
"1972 deaths",
"20th-century American politicians",
"African-American history in Raleigh, North Carolina",
"American Presbyterians",
"Burials at Historic Oakwood Cemetery",
"Mayors of Raleigh, North Carolina",
"North Carolina Democrats",
"People from Rock Hill, South Carolina",
"Raleigh City Council members"
]
| William Gilmore "Bill" Enloe (June 15, 1902 – November 22, 1972) was an American businessman and politician who served as the Mayor of Raleigh, North Carolina from 1957 to 1963. Enloe was born in South Carolina and sold popcorn before moving to North Carolina and taking up work with North Carolina Theatres, Inc. In 1953 he was elected to the City Council of Raleigh. Four years later he was elected Mayor. During his tenure the American South was permeated by civil unrest due to racial segregation. Considered a moderate on civil rights, Enloe criticized black demonstrators and resisted efforts to integrate the theaters he managed, but he eventually compromised and appointed a committee to oversee the desegregation of Raleigh businesses. He left office in 1963, but returned to the city council in 1971. He died the following year. William G. Enloe High School in Raleigh was named in his honor.
## Biography
William Gilmore Enloe was born on June 15, 1902, in Rock Hill, South Carolina, United States. He started working by selling popcorn at the Bijou Theatre in Greenville when he was 12 years old. In 1927 he managed two theaters in Greensboro, North Carolina until November when he was transferred to Raleigh to manage two theaters there. He later became the eastern district manager for North Carolina Theatres, Inc./Wilby-Kincey Theaters. He spent a total of 55 years in cinema-related business and served as a director of the N.C. Association of Theater Owners.
### Political career
In 1951 Enloe unsuccessfully sought a seat on the City Council of Raleigh, placing 10th in the primary election. Two years later he was elected to the body. In the spring of 1956 he was appointed to chair the "Let's Talk Sense Fund" to raise money for Adlai Stevenson II's presidential campaign. In August he attended the Democratic Party's national convention in Chicago in his capacity as a delegate. He was elected Mayor of Raleigh the following year, succeeding Fred B. Wheeler on July 1, 1957. That year he was also elected to the executive committee of the American Municipal Association, but he later left after choosing not to seek reelection. City councilman Jesse Helms disliked Enloe's leadership style, referring to him as the "Enloe Steamroller".
Enloe initially stated he would not seek reelection as Mayor, but later reversed his position and re-secured the office in 1961, becoming the city's first mayor elected to a third term under its council–manager government. That spring the City Council resolved to ban ice cream trucks from operating on Raleigh's streets. Enloe supported the measure, citing increased road traffic and safety concerns for children. A United Press International report brought the event national attention, and Enloe received letters from across the country both praising and criticizing the council's action. In January 1963 he declared with "mixed emotions" that he would not seek reelection to the city council in May and thus not continue to serve in his "strenuous and time-consuming" role as Mayor. His mayoral term ended on June 30, and he was succeeded by James W. Reid the following day.
Enloe remained affiliated with North Carolina Theatres, Inc. during his mayoral tenure. In the spring of 1963 he led a successful lobbying effort in the North Carolina House of Representatives to defeat a bill that would require the state to observe daylight saving time. He also held the office of President of the North Carolina League of Municipalities, was a member of the Governor's School Study Commission, served as Secretary-Treasurer of the Mayors' Association of Wake County, was a member of the executive committee of the Governor's Highway Safety Conference, and served as chairman of the Raleigh School Board. In 1964 Enloe sought a seat in the North Carolina Senate for the 16th District. In the May 30 Democratic primary election he received 14,191 votes, narrowly placing third. In the second primary on July 11 he placed third by a wider margin and was defeated for the two Democratic nominations. In 1969 he unsuccessfully lobbied against the introduction of cable television services in Raleigh on the grounds that they would harm the theater business. He briefly served again as a Raleigh city councilman from 1971 until his death.
#### Civil rights issues
During his time as mayor, Enloe was considered moderate on the issue of race relations. In 1960 he criticized black students who participated in the Greensboro sit-ins in protest of racial segregation at lunch counters, calling it "regrettable that some of our young Negro students would risk endangering [black and white] relations by seeking to change a long-standing custom in a manner that is all but destined to fail." In March he appointed a 15-member biracial committee to negotiate an end to desegregation demonstrations. The following month a white youth protesting segregated lunch counters in Raleigh was assaulted by a passerby. In response, Enloe convened an extraordinary session of the City Council to consider an ordinance that imposed restrictions on picketing, commenting that some demonstrators had been blocking the sidewalks in the downtown. The biracial committee announced the integration of lunch counters in August, prompting the mayor to comment, "I appreciate the spirit of cooperation shown by all concerned and am proud of the acceptance shown by our citizens."
In the spring of 1963 the American South was subject to a wave of violence, demonstrations, and mass arrests spurred by racial tension. In early May, several Raleigh protests resulted in dozens of detentions. Enloe, wanting to "avoid another Birmingham", appointed a biracial "Committee of One Hundred" to resolve the city's civil rights issues. Most of Raleigh's businesses were desegregated within the following year. Among the targets of some anti-segregation demonstrators were cinemas owned by North Carolina Theatres, which were designed to accommodate Jim Crow-era segregation with separate seating arrangements. Enloe initially resisted the integration efforts. Student activists felt he was resistant to change and unwilling to support integration. In 1961 he, in his capacity as district manager for North Carolina Theatres, negotiated the integration of the Carolina Theatre in Chapel Hill with the Chapel Hill Human Relations Committee, thus allowing it to become the first all-white movie theatre in the South to desegregate. A standoff between him and protesters over the Ambassador Theater in Raleigh prompted Enloe to announce his intention to resign from office. He only withdrew his resignation after negotiations with black community leaders which were mediated by City Councilman John W. Winters. Eventually, in a meeting with United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and the head of his cinema company, it was agreed to begin the desegregation of the cinemas he managed, starting with those in Greensboro, then Winston-Salem, Charlotte, Durham, and finally Raleigh.
### Health issues and death
In August 1964 Enloe was hospitalized for a blood clot in his left eye. He suffered a heart attack on November 2, 1972, while attending a North Carolina League of Municipalities convention in Greensboro. He died 20 days later at Rex Hospital in Raleigh. He is buried next to his wife, Ruth Erskine Enloe, in Raleigh's Historic Oakwood Cemetery. They had a son, William G. Enloe Jr., and a daughter, Ruth Enloe.
## Legacy
> Enloe ... was considered during his time to be a progressive mayor with a businessman's point of view. His tenure was marked by the integration of Raleigh's schools in 1960 and sit-ins by black college students to protest racially segregated businesses.
In 1961, the Raleigh School Board voted to name a new school after Enloe. William G. Enloe High School opened the following year. Following his exit from mayoral office, the Raleigh Rotary Club and the First Presbyterian Church (of which he was a parishioner) awarded him with plaques commemorating his service to the city of Raleigh. Both organizations specifically praised his handling of local racial issues.
In 2010 the Wake County Public School Board voted to terminate a long-standing busing policy meant to increase schools' racial diversity. The decision generated criticism from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and from historian Timothy Tyson, who emphasized that desegregation had been achieved with much difficulty in Raleigh and cited Enloe's statement on the participants in the Greensboro sit-ins as evidence. In response, members of the school board suggested that they would consider renaming Enloe High School after an African-American. Board Chairman Ron Margiotta stated Enloe was a segregationist. The editorial board of The News & Observer, Raleigh's daily newspaper, called the label "entirely unfair," reasoning that "[t]he mayor declined to get out too far ahead of his white constituents as attitudes and practices evolved, but he did his part to facilitate change." The editors also stated that Enloe "was just the sort of moderate leader who helped the city navigate those treacherous times, when the push for integrated public facilities came to shove." Historian Jim Leloudis characterized Enloe as a "moderate" who, though having to be pressured to implement integration, abstained from using strict measures to control civil rights protesters. Margiotta subsequently asked another member of the school board, John Todesco, to research Enloe's stances on civil rights. Meanwhile, several Enloe High School students and alumni who disapproved of the board proposal created a Facebook group that opposed a name change, garnering the support of over 800 people. NAACP members stated that they were not seeking such an action, and NAACP leader William Barber II maintained that Tyson's remarks were only meant to contextualize the history of segregation in Wake County schools. In the face of growing criticism, Todesco stated that the board would not remove Enloe's name from the school unless something "horrid" about him was uncovered. |
5,772,791 | New York State Route 59 | 1,147,366,956 | State highway in Rockland County, New York, US | [
"State highways in New York (state)",
"Transportation in Rockland County, New York"
]
| New York State Route 59 (NY 59) is an east–west state highway in southern Rockland County, New York, in the United States. The route extends for 14.08 miles (22.66 km) from NY 17 in Hillburn to U.S. Route 9W (US 9W) in Nyack. In Suffern, it has a concurrency with US 202 for 0.05 miles (0.08 km). NY 59 runs parallel to the New York State Thruway its entire route. The routing of NY 59 became a state highway in 1911 and was signed as NY 59 in the late 1920s.
When NY 59 was first assigned, it began at NY 17 in Suffern. A western bypass of Suffern was designated as New York State Route 339 c. 1932; however, it became part of a realigned NY 17 in the mid-1930s. NY 339 was reassigned to NY 17's former routing between Hillburn and Suffern, but it was replaced again c. 1937 by an extended NY 59. In the 1960s, proposals surfaced for the Spring Valley Bypass, a highway that would utilize the NY 59 corridor between NY 306 in Monsey and NY 45 in Spring Valley. The proposed highway was never built.
## Route description
NY 59 begins at an intersection with NY 17 in Hillburn, just south of the village of Sloatsburg in southern Rockland County. It heads to the southeast as the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, crossing over the Ramapo River and the Metro-North Railroad's Port Jervis Line before following both into Suffern. The river leaves NY 59 just inside the village line; however, the railroad continues to run alongside NY 59 into the center of Suffern, where both pass under the New York State Thruway near where Interstate 87 (I-87) connects to I-287.
Just south of the I-87 overpass, NY 59 meets US 202 at Wayne Avenue. US 202 joins NY 59 for a one block wrong way concurrency along Orange Avenue—as NY 59 eastbound is paired with US 202 westbound and vice versa—during which time both routes cross a Norfolk Southern Railway line at-grade. At the end of the overlap, US 202 continues south along Orange Avenue to the New Jersey state line while NY 59 forks eastward toward central Rockland County. As NY 59 leaves Suffern and enters Airmont, it passes Good Samaritan Hospital, a major hospital in Rockland County. While in Airmont, NY 59 intersects County Route 89 (CR 89) and CR 85. After leaving Airmont, NY 59 proceeds east through Monsey, where it intersects the southern terminus of NY 306.
As NY 59 passes Spring Valley High School, it enters the village limits of Spring Valley. While in Spring Valley, NY 59 has an overlap with CR 35A for about a tenth of a mile and meets the Thruway at exit 14, with a pair of park and ride lots located at the interchange. The route continues eastward into Nanuet, where NY 59 passes through a heavy commercialized area, crossing under NJ Transit/Metro-North Railroad's Pascack Valley Line. Before its busy intersection with CR 33, NY 59 passes The Shops at Nanuet to its south and the Rockland Plaza to its north.
Upon entering West Nyack, NY 59 intersects the Palisades Interstate Parkway (exit 8) and NY 304. The route proceeds onward, passing Palisades Center, one of the largest shopping malls in the country. Immediately after passing the Palisades Center, NY 59 briefly enters Central Nyack. Here it connects to NY 303 by way of an interchange. Before hitting the Nyack village line, NY 59 has its final interchange with the Thruway. The southbound entrance to the Tappan Zee Bridge is via Mountainview Avenue, and the northbound entrance is via Polhemus Street.
At the Nyack line, NY 59 becomes known as Main Street. As Main Street, NY 59 runs under the Thruway one final time before the Thruway heads over the bridge. The route continues toward downtown Nyack; however, it ends at an intersection with US 9W before it reaches the central district. Main Street continues for several blocks into downtown Nyack.
## History
### Origins
NY 59 originated as the Nyack Turnpike, which was the first major thoroughfare in Rockland County. A petition was filed in 1813 to construct the turnpike. Legislation stemming from the petition was passed on April 17, 1816, allowing construction to begin. The Nyack Turnpike was completed from Suffern to Nyack in the 1830s, despite many years of local opposition to the highway. Its charter was renewed multiple times throughout the 19th century, and it was designated as a toll road to help pay for its upkeep. In 1894, the turnpike was absorbed into the Rockland County road system.
The turnpike was turned over from the county to the state of New York on July 14, 1911, and added to the state highway system as part of Route 39-b, an unsigned legislative route extending from Nyack (at Broadway) to Harriman via modern NY 59 and NY 17. The Route 39-b designation was eliminated on March 1, 1921, as part of a partial renumbering of New York's legislative route system. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the portion of former Route 39-b between Suffern and Harriman became part of NY 17. The remainder of the route from Nyack to Suffern was not given a number.
### Designation
The Suffern–Nyack highway remained unnumbered until the late 1920s when was designated as NY 59. At the time, NY 59 was routed on West Nyack Road between Nanuet and Central Nyack. The route was rendered unchanged in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. A western bypass of Suffern was designated as NY 339 c. 1932. The north–south highway left NY 17 at the hamlet of Ramapo and followed the modern New York State Thruway and I-287 corridors south through Hillburn to the New Jersey state line. In the mid-1930s, the alignments of NY 17 and NY 339 south of Ramapo were swapped, placing NY 17 on the bypass and NY 339 on the Ramapo–Suffern route. In Suffern, NY 339 ended at a junction with US 202 just one block north of NY 59's western terminus. NY 339 was replaced by an extended NY 59 c. 1937.
In the early 1950s, construction began on a bypass of West Nyack Road between Nanuet and West Nyack. The highway was completed c. 1955 and became part of a realigned NY 59. The portion of NY 59's former routing that did not overlap NY 304 was redesignated as NY 59A in February 1956. This designation was short-lived as it was removed from West Nyack Road in the late 1950s. In 1960, control of the highway was turned over to the town of Clarkstown, and parts of NY 59A's former routing were abandoned. A local company carried out work to convert the highway into a shopping center access road; however, Rockland County asserted that the town—and by extension the company—had no rights to perform this action. The county sued the company that helped improve the highway in 2002.
### Traffic problems
In 1958, Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley, which had become the largest village in Rockland County by this time. This led Wallace to propose a 5-mile (8.0 km) bypass of NY 59 in Monsey and NY 45 in Hillcrest. Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later. In 1966, the Tri-State Transportation Commission released its long-term highway report for the area. The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway, a north–south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor. No action was taken on this proposal.
With the Spring Valley Bypass plan shelved, traffic continued to pour through the Spring Valley–Nanuet area. In 1987, a task force was introduced to come up with a plan to solve this issue. Traffic became even worse when the Nanuet Mall expanded in 1994. NYSDOT tried to fix the worsening situation in 1995 when they reconstructed almost 3 miles (5 km) of NY 59 from the eastern border of Spring Valley to exit 8 of the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The project widened the road to six lanes, helping to move traffic through the area from Grandview to Middletown Roads in Nanuet. In 1997, the New York State Thruway Authority dropped the Spring Valley toll on the Thruway for all motorists except truckers. This helped reduce traffic on NY 59 between exits 14A and 14B.
Shortly after the traffic problems in Nanuet were reduced, the focus was shifted to West Nyack where Palisades Center was being constructed. First proposed in the late 1980s, construction finally started in 1995. This caused major delays for motorists when a bridge was constructed from NY 59 to Palisades Center south parking lot. To keep this portion of NY 59 from being overloaded with mall goers, exit 12 of the Thruway with NY 303 was re-routed through Palisades Center via Palisades Center Drive.
In coordination with the Lower Hudson Transit Link, new traffic signals, with transit priority, were built on NY 59, along with new bus shelters, ADA-compliant sidewalks and crosswalks. Integrated Corridor Management systems and Intelligent Traffic Signal technology were also installed on NY 59 to decrease travel times for Hudson Link buses going to and from New York City.
## Future
The New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (NYMTC) has started the Route 59 Area Transportation & Land Use Study to study NY 59 between Airmont Road and the bridge over South Pascack Road. The study, taking place between Winter 2019 and Spring 2020, will investigate possible improvements to the road, such as new bicycle lanes and sidewalks.
## Major intersections
## See also |
39,974,144 | Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution | 1,154,030,381 | null | [
"Fidel Castro"
]
| The Cuban communist revolutionary and politician Fidel Castro took part in the Cuban Revolution from 1953 to 1959. Following on from his early life, Castro decided to fight for the overthrow of Fulgencio Batista's military junta by founding a paramilitary organization, "The Movement". In July 1953, they launched a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks, during which many militants were killed and Castro was arrested. Placed on trial, he defended his actions and provided his famous "History Will Absolve Me" speech, before being sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment in the Model Prison on the Isla de Pinos. Renaming his group the "26th of July Movement" (MR-26-7), Castro was pardoned by Batista's government in May 1955, claiming they no longer considered him a political threat while offering to give him a place in the government, but he refused. Restructuring the MR-26-7, he fled to Mexico with his brother Raul Castro, where he met with Argentine Marxist-Leninist Che Guevara, and together they put together a small revolutionary force intent on overthrowing Batista.
In November 1956, Castro and 81 revolutionaries sailed from Mexico aboard the Granma, crash-landing near to Los Cayuelos. Attacked by Batista's forces, they fled to the Sierra Maestra mountain range, where the 19 survivors set up an encampment from which they waged guerrilla war against the army. Boosted by new recruits that increased the guerilla army's numbers to 200, they co-ordinated their attacks with the actions of other revolutionaries across Cuba, and Castro became an international celebrity after being interviewed by The New York Times. In 1958, Batista launched a counter-offensive, Operation Verano, but his army's use of conventional warfare was overwhelmed by Castro's guerrilla tactics, and the MR-26-7 eventually pushed out of the Sierra Maestra and took control of most of Oriente and Las Villas. Recognising that he was losing the war, Batista fled to the Dominican Republic while military leader Eulogio Cantillo took control of the country. With revolutionary forces controlling most of Cuba, Castro ordered Cantillo's arrest, before establishing a new government with Manuel Urrutia Lleó as governor and José Miró Cardona as prime minister, ensuring that they enacted laws to erode the power of the Batistanos.
## The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack: 1952–54
In March 1952, Cuban military general Fulgencio Batista seized power in a military coup, with the elected President Carlos Prío Socarrás fleeing to Mexico. Declaring himself president, Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections, describing his new system as "disciplined democracy"; Castro, like many others, considered it a one-man dictatorship. Batista developed ties with the United States, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups. Intent on opposing Batista's administration, Castro brought several legal cases against them, arguing that Batista had committed sufficient criminal acts to warrant imprisonment and accusing various ministers of breaching labor laws. His lawsuits coming to nothing, Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the new government.
Dissatisfied with the Partido Ortodoxo'''s non-violent opposition, Castro formed "The Movement", a group consisting of both a civil and a military committee. The former agitated through underground newspaper El Acusador (The Accuser), while the latter armed and trained anti-Batista recruits. With Castro as the Movement's head, the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system, with each cell containing 10 members. A dozen individuals formed the Movement's nucleus, many also dissatisfied Ortodoxo members, although from July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive, gaining around 1,200 members in a year, organized into over a hundred cells, with the majority coming from Havana's poorer districts. Although he had close ties to revolutionary socialism, Castro avoided an alliance with the communist PSP, fearing it would frighten away political moderates, but kept in contact with several PSP members, including his brother Raúl. He later related that the Movement's members were simply anti-Batista, and few had strong socialist or anti-imperialist views, something which Castro attributed to "the overwhelming weight of the Yankees' ideological and advertising machinery" which he believed suppressed class consciousness among Cuba's working class.
Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks, a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba, Oriente. Castro's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on July 25, the festival of St James, when many officers would be away. The rebels would seize control, raid the armory and escape before reinforcements arrived. Supplied with new weaponry, Castro intended to arm supporters and spark a revolution among Oriente's impoverished cane cutters. The plan was to then seize control of a Santiago radio station, broadcasting the Movement's manifesto, hence promoting further uprisings. Castro's plan emulated those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader and national hero José Martí.
Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission; 138 stationed in Santiago, the other 27 in Bayamo. Mostly young men from Havana and Pinar del Río, Castro insured that – with the exception of himself – none had children, and ordered his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance. The attack took place on July 26, 1953, but ran into trouble; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there. Reaching the barracks, the alarm was raised, with most of the rebels pinned down outside the base by machine gun fire. Those that got inside faced heavy resistance, and 4 were killed before Castro ordered a retreat. The rebels had suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties, whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded.
Meanwhile, some rebels took over a civilian hospital; subsequently stormed by government soldiers, the rebels were rounded up, tortured and 22 were executed without trial. Those that had escaped, including Fidel and Raúl, assembled at their base where some debated surrender, while others wished to flee to Havana. Accompanied by 19 comrades, Castro decided to set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several miles to the north, where they could establish a guerrilla base. In response to the Moncada attack, Batista's government proclaimed martial law, ordering a violent crackdown on dissent and imposing strict censorship of the media. Propaganda broadcast misinformation about the event, claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients. Despite this censorship, news and photographs soon spread of the army's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente, causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval.
## Trial and History Will Absolve Me: 1953
Over the following days, the rebels were rounded up, with some being executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago. Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone, the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement, putting 122 defendants on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice, Santiago. Although censored from reporting on it, journalists were permitted to attend, which proved an embarrassment for the Batista administration. Acting as his own defense council, Castro convinced the 3 judges to overrule the army's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court, proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of "organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State" – was incorrect, for they had risen up against Batista, who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner. When asked who was the intellectual author of the attack, Castro claimed that it was the long deceased national icon José Martí, quoting Martí's works that justified uprisings.
The trial revealed that the army had tortured suspects, utilizing castration and the gouging out of eyes; the judges agreed to investigate these crimes, embarrassing the army, which tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further, claiming he was too ill to leave his cell. The trial ended on October 5, with the acquittal of most defendants; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years. Castro was sentenced separately, on October 16, during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me. Although the maximum penalty for leading an uprising was a 20 years, Castro was sentenced to 15, being imprisoned in the hospital wing of the Model Prison (Presidio Modelo), a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos, 60 miles off of Cuba's southwest coast.
## Imprisonment and the 26th of July Movement: 1953–55
Imprisoned with 25 fellow conspirators, Castro renamed "The Movement" the "26th of July Movement" (MR-26-7) in memory of the Moncada attack's date. Forming a school for prisoners, the Abel Santamaría Ideological Academy, Castro organized five hours a day of teaching in ancient and modern history, philosophy and English. He read widely, enjoying the works of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Martí but also reading books by Freud, Kant, Shakespeare, Munthe, Maugham and Dostoyevsky, analyzing them within a Marxist framework. He began reading about Roosevelt's New Deal, believing that something similar should be enacted in Cuba. Corresponding with supporters outside of prison, he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me, with an initial print run of 27,500 copies. Initially permitted a relatively high amount of freedom within the prison compared to other inmates, he was locked up in solitary confinement after his comrades sang anti-Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954. Meanwhile, Castro's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior, having been encouraged to do so by her brother, a friend and ally of Batista's. This was kept a secret from Castro, who found out through a radio announcement. Appalled, he raged that he would rather die "a thousand times" than "suffer impotently from such an insult". Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings, with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito; this angered Castro, who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment.
In 1954, Batista's government held presidential elections, but no politician had risked standing against him; he won, but the election was widely considered fraudulent. It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced, and Castro's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident's perpetrators. Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity, and the Congress and Batista agreed. Backed by the U.S. and major corporations, Batista believed Castro to be no political threat, and on May 15, 1955 the prisoners were released. Returning to Havana, Castro was carried on the shoulders of supporters, and set about giving radio interviews and press conferences; the government closely monitored him, curtailing his activities. Now divorced, Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters, Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde, each conceiving him a child. Setting about strengthening the MR-26-7, he established an 11-person National Directorate; despite these structural changes, there was still dissent, with some questioning Castro's autocratic leadership. Castro dismissed calls for the leadership to be transferred to a democratic board, arguing that a successful revolution could not be run by committee. Some then abandoned the MR-26-7, labeling Castro a caudillo (dictator), although the majority remained loyal.
## Mexico and guerrilla training: 1955–56
In 1955, bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent; Castro was placed under protective armed guard by supporters, before he and Raúl fled the country. MR-26-7 members remaining in Cuba were left to prepare cells for revolutionary action and await Castro's return. He sent a letter to the press, declaring that he was "leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me. Six weeks after being released from prison I am convinced more than ever of the dictatorship's intention, masked in many ways, to remain in power for twenty years, ruling as now by the use of terror and crime and ignoring the patience of the Cuban people, which has its limits. As a follower of Martí, I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them, to fight instead of pleading for them." The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico, which had a long history of offering asylum to leftist exiles. Here, Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist-Leninist named Ernesto "Che" Guevara, a proponent of guerrilla warfare keen to join Cuba's Revolution. Fidel liked him, later describing him as "a more advanced revolutionary than I was." Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo, a Republican veteran of the Spanish Civil War; Bayo agreed to teach Fidel's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare, clandestinely meeting them at Chapultepec for training.
Requiring funding, Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers; Prío contributed \$100,000. Castro later claimed that he had been monitored by Batista's agents, who orchestrated a failed assassination against him. Batista's government bribed Mexican police to arrest the rebels, however with the support of several Mexican politicians who were sympathetic to their cause, they were soon released. Castro kept in contact with the MR-26-7 in Cuba, where they had gained a large support base in Oriente. Other militant anti-Batista groups had sprung up, primarily from the student movement; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil (DRE), founded by the Federation of University Students (FEU) President José Antonio Echevarría. Antonio traveled to Mexico City to meet with Castro, but they disagreed on tactics; Antonio thought that it was legitimate to assassinate anyone connected to the government, something Castro thought rash and ineffective.
After purchasing a decrepit yacht, the Granma, on 25 November 1956 Castro set sail from Tuxpan, Veracruz, with 81 revolutionaries armed with 90 rifles, 3 machine guns, around 40 pistols and 2 hand-held anti-tank guns. The 1,200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh, and in the overcrowded conditions of the ship, many suffered seasickness, and food supplies ran low. At some points they had to bail water caused by a leak, and at another a man fell overboard, delaying their journey. The plan had been for the crossing to take 5 days, and on the ship's scheduled day of arrival, 30 November, MR-26-7 members under Frank Pais led an armed uprising against government buildings in Santiago, Manzanillo and several other towns. However, the Granma's journey ultimately lasted 7 days, and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements, Pais and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks.
## Guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra: 1956–58
The Granma crash-landed in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas, close to Los Cayuelos, on 2 December 1956. Within a few hours a naval vessel started bombarding the invaders – fleeing inland, they headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente's Sierra Maestra. At daybreak on 5 December, a detachment of Batista's Rural Guard attacked them; the rebels scattered, making their journey to the Sierra Maestra in small groups. Upon arrival, Castro discovered that of the 82 rebels who had arrived on the Granma, only 19 had made it to their destination, the rest having been killed or captured.
Setting up an encampment in the jungle, the survivors, including the Castros, Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos, began launching raids on small army-posts to obtain weaponry. In January 1957 they overran the outpost near to the beach at La Plata; Guevara treated the soldiers for any injuries, but the revolutionaries executed the local mayoral (land-company overseer) Chicho Osorio, whom the local peasants despised and who boasted of killing one of the MR-26-7 rebels several weeks previously. Osorio's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals, who typically hated the mayorals as enforcers of the wealthy landowners, although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries. As trust grew, some locals joined the rebels, although most new recruits came from urban areas. With increasing numbers of volunteers, who now numbered over 200, in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns, keeping charge of one and giving control of the others to his brother and Guevara. The MR-26-7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation, sending supplies to Castro, and on 16 February 1957 he met with other senior members to discuss tactics; here he met Celia Sánchez, who would become a close friend.
Across Cuba, militant groups rose up against Batista, carrying out bombings and acts of sabotage. Police responded with mass arrests, torture and extrajudicial killings, with corpses hung on trees to intimidate dissidents. In March 1957, Antonio's DR launched a failed attack on the presidential palace, with Antonio being shot dead; his death removed a charismatic rival to Castro's leadership of the revolution. Frank Pais was also killed, leaving Castro the unchallenged leader of the MR-26-7. Castro hid his Marxist-Leninist beliefs, in contrast to Guevara and Raúl, whose beliefs were well known; in doing so, he hoped to gain the support of less radical dissenters, and in 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo. Castro and Ortodoxo leaders Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos drafted and signed the Sierra Maestra Manifesto, in which they laid out their plans for a post-Batista Cuba. Rejecting the rule of a provisional military junta, it demanded the setting up of a provisional civilian government "supported by all" which would implement moderate agrarian reform, industrialization and a literacy campaign before introducing "truly fair, democratic, impartial, elections".
Batista's government censored the Cuban press, and so Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message. Herbert Matthews, a journalist from The New York Times, interviewed Castro, attracting international interest to the rebel's cause and turning Castro into a celebrity. Under the disguise of a wealthy American sugar owner, Matthews and Castro’s men were able to slip by Batista’s men posted near the Sierra Maestra mountain. Upon meeting with Castro, he detailed the events that occurred since December 2, 1956. Months beforehand, the US media spread news that Castro had died in the midst of the failed Granma landing in Oriente Province on December 2, 1956. Instead, Castro and the rest of the survivors retreated to the Sierra Mountains and had since been engaged in guerilla warfare with Batista military. The New York Times published the article on February 24, 1957, letting the rest of the world, including US embassy officials, know for the first time that Castro was indeed alive.
Other reporters followed, sent by such news agencies as CBS, while a reporter from Paris Match stayed with the rebels for around 4 months, documenting their routine. Castro's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts, forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region, and by spring 1958 the rebels controlled a hospital, schools, a printing press, slaughterhouse, land-mine factory and a cigar-making factory.
## Batista's fall and Cantillo's military junta: 1958–1959
Batista had come under increasing pressure by 1958. His army's military failures, coupled with his press censorship and the police and army's use of torture and extrajudicial executions, were increasingly criticized both domestically and abroad. Influenced by anti-Batista sentiment among their citizens, the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry, leading him to buy arms from the United Kingdom. The opposition used this opportunity to call a general strike, accompanied by armed attacks from the MR-26-7. Beginning on 9 April, it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba, but little elsewhere.
Batista responded with an all-out-attack on Castro's guerrillas, Operation Verano'' (28 June to 8 August 1958). The army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants, while 10,000 soldiers under the command of General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra, driving north to the rebel encampments. Despite their numerical and technological superiority, the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare or with the mountainous region. Now with 300 men at his command, Castro avoided open confrontation, using land mines and ambushes to halt the enemy offensive. The army suffered heavy losses and a number of embarrassments; in June 1958 a battalion surrendered, their weapons were confiscated and they were handed over to the Red Cross. Many of Batista's soldiers, appalled at the human rights abuses that they were ordered to carry out, defected to Castro's rebels, who also benefited from popular support in the areas they controlled. In the summer, the MR-26-7 went on the offensive, pushing the army back, out of the mountain range and into the lowlands, with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago. By November, Castro's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas, and tightened their grip around the capitals of Santiago and Santa Clara. Through control of Las Villas, the rebels divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines, severely disadvantaging Batista's forces.
The U.S. realized that Batista would lose the war, and fearing that Castro would displace U.S. interests with socialist reforms, decided to aid Batista's removal by supporting a rightist military junta, believing that General Cantillo, then commanding most of the country's armed forces, should lead it. After being approached with this proposal, Cantillo secretly met with Castro, agreeing that the two would call a ceasefire, following which Batista would be apprehended and tried as a war criminal. Double-crossing Castro, Cantillo warned Batista of the revolutionary's intentions. Wishing to avoid a tribunal, Batista resigned on 31 December 1958, informing the armed forces that they were now under Cantillo's control. With his family and closest advisers, Batista fled into exile to the Dominican Republic with over US\$300,000,000. Cantillo then entered Havana's Presidential Palace, proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra as the new President, and began appointing new members of the government.
Still in Oriente, Castro was furious. Recognizing the establishment of a military junta, he ended the ceasefire and continued on the offensive. The MR-26-7 put together a plan to oust the Cantillo-Piedra junta, freeing the high-ranking military officer Colonel Ramón Barquín from the Isle of Pines prison (where he had been held captive for plotting to overthrow Batista), and commanding him to fly to Havana to arrest Cantillo. Accompanying widespread celebrations as news of Batista's downfall spread across Cuba on 1 January 1959, Castro ordered the MR-26-7 to take responsibility for policing the country, in order to prevent widespread looting and vandalism.
Whilst Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on 2 January, Castro entered Santiago, accepting the surrender of the Moncada Barracks and giving a speech invoking the wars of independence. He spoke out against the Cantillo-Piedra junta, called for justice against human rights abusers and proclaimed a better era for women's rights. Heading toward Havana, he met José Antonio Echevarría's mother, and greeted cheering crowds in every town, giving press conferences and interviews. Foreign journalists commented on the unprecedented level of public adulation, with Castro striking a heroic "Christ-like figure" and wearing a medallion of the Virgin Mary. One such journalist, Herbert L. Matthews, spoke highly of Castro, noting his charisma and sharp, political mind frame. Comments like these helped shape the positive image Castro had during this era.
## Provisional government: 1959
Castro had made his opinion clear that lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó should become president, leading a provisional civilian government following Batista's fall. Politically moderate, Urrutia had defended MR-26-7 revolutionaries in court, arguing that the Moncada Barracks attack was legal according to the Cuban constitution. Castro believed Urrutia would make a good leader, being both established yet sympathetic to the revolution. With the leaders of the junta under arrest, Urrutia was proclaimed provisional president on 2 January 1959, Urrutia had been chosen because of his prestige and acceptability to both the moderate middle-class backers of the revolution and to the guerrilla forces who took part in the alliance formed in Caracas in 1958. with Castro erroneously announcing he had been selected by "popular election"; most of Urrutia's cabinet were MR-26-7 members. On January 8, 1959, Castro's army entered Havana. Proclaiming himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency, Castro – along with close aides and family members – set up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel, there meeting with journalists, foreign visitors and government ministers.
Officially having no role in the provisional government, Castro exercised a great deal of influence, largely because of his popularity and control of the rebel army. Ensuring the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy, he did not initially force through any radical proposals. Attempting to rid Cuba's government of Batistanos, the Congress elected under Batista was abolished, and all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 were banned from politics. The government now ruling by decree, Castro pushed the president to issue a temporary ban on all political parties, but repeatedly stated that they would get around to organizing multiparty elections; this never occurred. He began meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party, believing they had the intellectual capacity to form a socialist government, but repeatedly denied being a communist himself.
In suppressing the revolution, Batista's government had orchestrated mass human rights abuses, with most estimates for the death toll typically placing it at around 20,000. Popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice. Although remaining a moderating force and opposing the mass reprisal killings advocated by many, Castro helped set-up trials of many Batistanos, resulting in hundreds of executions. Although widely popular domestically, critics – in particular from the U.S. press – argued that many were not fair trials, and condemned Cuba's government as being more interested in vengeance than justice. In response, Castro proclaimed that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction", organizing the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17,000 at the Sports Palace stadium. He also intervened in other trials to ensure that what he saw as "revolutionary justice" was carried out; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty at a trial in Santiago de Cuba, Castro ordered a retrial in which they were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Acclaimed across Latin America, Castro traveled to Venezuela to attend the first-anniversary celebrations of Marcos Pérez Jiménez's overthrow. Meeting President-elect Rómulo Betancourt, Castro proposed greater relations between the two nations, unsuccessfully requesting a loan of \$300,000,000 and a new deal for Venezuelan oil. Returning home, an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out; the government had banned the National Lottery and closed down the casinos and brothels, leaving thousands of waiters, croupiers and prostitutes unemployed, infuriating Castro. As a result, Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned, going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti-Castro movement. |
39,427,794 | Chef (2014 film) | 1,173,025,541 | Comedy film by Jon Favreau | [
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| Chef is a 2014 American road comedy-drama film directed, written, co-produced by, and starring Jon Favreau as a chef who, after a public altercation with a food critic, loses his job at a popular Los Angeles restaurant and begins to operate a food truck with his young son. It co-stars Sofía Vergara, John Leguizamo, Scarlett Johansson, Oliver Platt, Bobby Cannavale, and Dustin Hoffman, along with Robert Downey Jr. in a cameo role.
Favreau wrote the script after directing several big-budget films, wanting to go "back to basics" and to create a film about cooking. Food truck owner and chef Roy Choi served as a co-producer and oversaw the menus and food prepared for the film. Principal photography took place in July 2013 in Los Angeles, Miami, Austin and New Orleans.
Chef premiered at South by Southwest on March 7, 2014, and was released theatrically on May 9, 2014, by Open Road Films. It was well received by critics, who praised the direction, music, writing, story, and performances, and grossed \$46 million against a production budget of \$11 million.
## Plot
Miami-born Carl Casper is the head chef of Gauloises in Brentwood, Los Angeles. While popular with his kitchen staff and hostess Molly, Carl clashes with the restaurant's owner, Riva, who wants him to stick to classical cuisine rather than innovative dishes. Carl also has a strained relationship with his tech-savvy preteen son, Percy, and his rich ex-wife, Inez.
When Carl has the chance to serve prestigious food critic and blogger Ramsey Michel, Riva demands he prepare old favorites at the last minute; Carl concedes, leading to a scathing review. Carl insults Ramsey on Twitter, not realizing that his reply is public, and gains a large online following. Carl comes up with a new menu that his staff loves and invites Ramsey to a "rematch", but leaves after confronting Riva, who wants the old menu again.
At home, Carl prepares the menu he wanted, while his sous-chef Tony serves Ramsey the same dishes from his prior visit. Ramsey tweets negatively about Carl, provoking Carl into confronting him at the restaurant. Videos of Carl's meltdown go viral, leaving him humiliated and unemployable.
Carl reluctantly accepts Inez's invitation to accompany her and Percy to Miami, where he rediscovers his love for Cuban cuisine. At Inez's encouragement, her ex-husband Marvin offers Carl a dilapidated food truck. Carl and Percy bond while restoring the truck and buying groceries, and Carl gives him a chef's knife. Martin, Carl's friend and former line cook, turns down his promotion at Gauloise to join Carl, who has reignited his passion as a chef.
Carl, Martin, and Percy drive the truck across the country to Los Angeles, serving Cuban sandwiches and yuca fries. Percy promotes them on social media, and they find success in New Orleans and Austin, where their daily specials include po' boys, beignets and barbecued brisket, made with local ingredients.
Back in Los Angeles, having strengthened his relationship with Percy, Carl accepts his son's offer to help with the food truck, with Inez also joining them. Ramsey visits the truck to explain his bad review: though an early fan of Carl, he was disappointed by a meal he felt was beneath Carl's skills. Impressed with the chef's return to form, Ramsey offers to bankroll a new restaurant where Carl will have full creative control.
Six months later, the successful new restaurant is closed for Carl and Inez's remarriage ceremony.
## Cast
- Jon Favreau as Carl Casper
- Emjay Anthony as Percy Casper
- John Leguizamo as Martin
- Sofía Vergara as Inez Casper
- Bobby Cannavale as Tony
- Scarlett Johansson as Molly
- Oliver Platt as Ramsey Michel
- Dustin Hoffman as Riva
- Amy Sedaris as Jen
- Robert Downey Jr. as Marvin
- Russell Peters as Miami cop
Musician Gary Clark Jr, Franklin Barbecue owner Aaron Franklin and general manager Benji Jacob cameo as themselves.
## Production
### Development
Jon Favreau, the writer, director and star of Chef, wrote the film's script in about two weeks. He had long wanted to make a film about food and chefs, and felt that the subject was suited to a small-scale independent film rather than a big-budget production. He cited Jiro Dreams of Sushi, Eat Drink Man Woman and Big Night as inspirations for creating a food-centric film.
The script was semi-autobiographical, incorporating parts of Favreau's life into the main character, such as being a father while having a busy career and coming from a "broken home". Favreau also drew a comparison between his career as a director and Carl's career as a chef; he stepped down from directing major studio films to go "back to basics" and create Chef on a smaller budget, much like Carl's resignation from a popular restaurant to work in a food truck.
Favreau contacted Roy Choi, a restaurateur who created the Kogi Korean BBQ food truck, to serve as a consultant on the film; Choi was eventually promoted to co-producer. While the film was in pre-production, Favreau shadowed Choi in his restaurants and worked as part of Choi's kitchen crew after training at a culinary school. Choi oversaw the menus prepared for the film and created the Cuban sandwiches that form a central part of the storyline.
### Casting
In addition to Favreau, the first actors cast in main roles were Sofía Vergara, John Leguizamo and Bobby Cannavale. To prepare for his role as Martin the line cook, Leguizamo spent time working as an actual line cook at The Lion in the West Village. It was announced that Robert Downey, Jr.whom Favreau had previously directed in two Iron Man filmshad joined the cast in May 2013. Scarlett Johansson and Dustin Hoffman were cast later that month. Favreau felt the casting was one of the film's biggest successes, which provided him with "a tremendous amount of confidence"; in particular, he was impressed by Emjay Anthony, who was ten years old at the time of filming.
### Filming
Principal photography of the film began in July 2013 in Los Angeles. Subsequent filming took place in Miami, Austin and New Orleans—cities that Favreau chose to work into the story because they all "possess a rich food and music culture". Filming locations in Miami included the Versailles restaurant, the Fontainebleau Hotel, and the Cuban restaurant Hoy Como Ayer in Little Havana. In New Orleans, some scenes were filmed at Café du Monde in the city's French Quarter.
In Austin, filming locations included Franklin Barbecue and Guero's on South Congress. Filming of the shopping scene took place in Los Angeles at Charlie's Fixtures. Food prepared for the shoot was eaten by the cast and crew after filming. Much of the dialogue in the food truck scenes between Favreau, John Leguizamo, and Emjay Anthony was improvised in order to capture the banter of a kitchen environment.
## Soundtrack
Milan Records released a Chef soundtrack on May 6, 2014, three days before the film's release. The soundtrack is a combination of Latin jazz, New Orleans jazz and blues, which serve as background to the storyline as it moves through Miami, New Orleans and Austin, respectively. The film's music was chosen by music supervisor Mathieu Schreyer, while additional incidental music was scored by Lyle Workman.
## Release
Chef premiered on March 7, 2014, at South by Southwest, where it was the opening film of the festival and was attended by Favreau, Leguizamo, Anthony, and Platt. It was subsequently screened at the Tribeca Film Festival in April. On August 19, Open Road Films announced to re-release the film nationally on August 29 for a Labor Day weekend, which would grow 100 screens to 600–800.
### Box office
The film was released theatrically on May 9, 2014, beginning in limited release in six theaters and expanding throughout May and June to a peak of 1,298 theaters. Its total gross in the United States as of November 2, 2014 is \$31.4 million.
Outside of the U.S., Chef performed best in Australia (earning \$2.8 million), the United Kingdom and Spain (\$2.6 million in each country) and Mexico (earning a little over \$1 million). In total, Chef has grossed almost \$15 million outside the United States.
### Critical response
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 191 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Chef's charming cast and sharp, funny script add enough spice to make this feel-good comedy a flavorful—if familiar—treat." Metacritic gave the film a score of 68 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Rolling Stone's Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, describing it as "an artful surprise and an exuberant gift" and "deliciously entertaining, comic, touching and often bitingly true". Ty Burr of the Boston Globe also awarded the film 3.5 out of 4 stars; he thought it was "funny and heartfelt" and that, despite its weaknesses, the strengths "overpower the parts of the meal that are undercooked". Chicago Sun-Times critic Richard Roeper gave Chef 3 out of 4 stars, finding it "funny, quirky and insightful, with a bounty of interesting supporting characters" but also noting the lack of plot and character development in some parts. Gary Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times gave particular praise to the "terrific supporting cast" and the script's lack of cliché, such as in its presentation of family dynamics.
Joe Leydon from Variety found the film's plot predictable and slow-paced, but noted "the trip itself is never less than pleasant, and often extremely funny". The New York Times' Stephen Holden described Chef as "aggressively feel-good" and "shallow but enjoyable". Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and found it "deeply satisfying, down to the soul", praising the "incredible" food photography, the "colorful supporting cast" and the "wryly observant" humor, raving, "There's nothing terribly profound about "Chef". But its messagethat relationships, like cooking, take a hands-on approachis a sweet and sustaining one." San Francisco Chronicle film critic Mick LaSalle opined that Chef was Favreau's best film to date, highlighting the "natural and convincing" chemistry between Favreau and Anthony and the "vivid" scenes featuring big-name actors in small roles.
USA Today's Scott Bowles gave Chef 3.5 out of 4 stars and called it "a nuanced side dish, a slow-cooked film that's one of the most heartwarming of the young year". Ken Choy of Wide Lantern noted the structural problems but admitted, "If you ever saw the Kristen Bell sloth video on Ellen, that was me during the entire 2nd half of the movie. Non-stop tears. It was happy-crying because Favreau's character was doing what he wanted."
Slant Magazine critic Chris Cabin, gave Chef a 1.5 out of 4 stars and described it as Favreau's "most self-satisfied, safe, and compromised film to date", chiefly criticizing the film's lack of realism and credibility. Writing for The Village Voice, Amy Nicholson agreed that the storyline was implausible and summarized the film as "so charmingly middlebrow that it's exactly the cinematic comfort food it mocks". Indiewire's Eric Kohn opined that with Chef, "Favreau has no sweeping thematic aims", and that the end product was a "self-indulgent vanity project".
## Television series
In 2019, Favreau and Choi released a documentary television spin-off on Netflix, The Chef Show, that sees Jon Favreau and Roy Choi, "experiment with their favorite recipes and techniques, baking, cooking, exploring and collaborating with some bold-face names in the entertainment and culinary world". A second season was released in 2020.
## Remake
In 2017, the film was remade into an Indian comedy-drama, also titled Chef, by Raja Krishna Menon, featuring Saif Ali Khan and Padmapriya Janakiraman in the lead roles.
[Album chart usages for Spain](Category:Album_chart_usages_for_Spain "wikilink") [Album chart usages for Spain](Category:Album_chart_usages_for_Spain "wikilink") |
73,616,521 | Merchant (Resident Evil) | 1,171,883,724 | null | [
"Fictional arms dealers",
"Fictional shopkeepers",
"Resident Evil characters",
"Video game characters introduced in 2005"
]
| The Merchant is a character in the 2005 survival horror video game Resident Evil 4 and its 2023 remake. Acting as an NPC who sells weapons and other items, he assists Leon S. Kennedy in his mission to rescue Ashley Graham from the evil cult Los Illuminados. A mysterious man with glowing eyes wearing a hooded black trench coat lined with weapons and a purple bandanna that hides most of his face, he is seemingly allowed to pass unhindered by the game's enemies, the Ganados.
Critics have called the Merchant an iconic character in the series, as well as one of the most recognizable video game NPCs ever, due to his unique appearance and often-repeated lines, including "Whaddya buyin'?" Reception to the character has been positive, citing his good-naturedness in the face of adversity. In the original game, he is played by voice actor Paul Mercier, who also voiced Leon, while in the remake, he was voiced by Shigeru Chiba in Japanese and Michael Adamthwaite in English.
## Concept and design
The Merchant was one of several characters created by artist Masaki Yamanaka for the game Resident Evil 4, in a design process he called "unique" due to the lack of restrictions on scenario or setting, and only basic guidelines to follow. The Merchant, who goes nameless besides his title, was created late in Resident Evil 4's development, and is meant to be the living embodiment of his shop. By doing this they were able to place a shop anywhere in the game's world.
His hooded black trench coat, which holds a majority of his items in its interior, was inspired by the cloak worn by Kinnikuman series character Neptuneman. Neptuneman was a villain who adorned his cloak with masks stolen from defeated fighters, something that shocked Yamanaka as a child. The Merchant covers half of his face with a purple bandanna, and carries a large tan rucksack. His eyes glow similarly to antagonists infected by the mind-controlling Las Plagas parasites (the Ganados); however, he is completely non-hostile, and, according to Resident Evil 4 Digital Archives will "do business with anyone as long as the price is right". When the character was brought back in Resident Evil 4 remake, he received minimal changes to his design.
Several unused concepts related or similar to the character also exist, such as another Merchant in Resident Evil 5 that would have run a stationary shop through a barred door. In the artbook for Resident Evil 6, the Merchant was considered as part of an unused alternate costume for series character Leon Kennedy, with him in a sitting position and strapped to his back. This version of the character was shown to be notably shorter, wearing yellow gloves and boots with his coat held open, while Leon's outfit resembled his default Resident Evil 4 attire. The design was ultimately cut due to how many technical issues arose from trying to implement it.
## Appearances
The Merchant was first introduced in the 2005 video game, Resident Evil 4 as one of the few non-hostile characters protagonist Leon encounters. First appearing at a window, the Merchant speaks in a pseudo-Australian accent and encourages Leon to follow him behind the building where Leon will find him standing near a flaming sconce. Once approached, the Merchant opens one side of his coat to reveal a vast assortment of ammunition and firearms, encouraging Leon to purchase from him with phrases such as "Whaddya buyin'?" Afterwards the Merchant will re-appear at various points throughout the game, the locations marked by similar sconces. He sells weapons and items and purchases valuable antiques and gems that Leon discovers for pesetas. He also rewards Leon prizes for good marksmanship using his shooting range as well as shooting blue medallions scattered throughout the game's levels. The Merchant instantly dies if harmed in any way, but will still appear at any of his other locations in the game.
When Resident Evil 4 was remade in 2023 the character returned, but with some changes. He now cannot be harmed or killed, and any attempts by the player to aim at him will cause Leon to lower his gun. The Merchant now also provides quests for Leon to do. Additionally characterization was provided, with the medallions now described as religious charms hung up by game's villains that the Merchant wishes to destroy, and an array of new dialogue. However, some instances such as him becoming impatient if his shop is browsed for too long proved divisive to fans, and resulted in a mod called "Patient Merchant" to remove the extra lines.
Outside of Resident Evil 4, the Merchant also appears in GungHo Online Entertainment's mobile game TEPPEN, a card-based battling game featuring various Capcom franchise characters. In this title he acts as an in-game vendor, the weapons and ammo in his coat replaced with compact discs. In printed trading card media, he appears in the Bandai produced game Resident Evil: The Deck Building Game. The 2020 video game Resident Evil: Resistance includes a "spray" cosmetic item players can apply walls featuring the game's raccoon mascot cosplaying as the Merchant. In Resident Evil Village, the Duke, a character that serves a similar function as the Merchant within the game, will sometimes say one of the character's introduction lines complete with a faux accent, and then laughingly mention it was something "an old friend of mine used to say".
## Promotion and reception
In 2006, Augusta Entertainment released a series of figures for Resident Evil 4, which included a figure for the Merchant. The stationary figure was packaged with chewing gum, and was based on his concept art appearance. The company Numskull later released a rubber duck toy cosplaying as the character as part of their "TUBBZ" line of toys for the Resident Evil series.
Critical reception of the Merchant has been positive, calling him both memorable and helpful despite his menacing appearance. In 2006, Nintendo Power described the Merchant's quote as "permanently ingrained in the gaming lexicon" despite not placing on the Best New Characters list. Zack Zweizen of Kotaku referred to him as "the real star" of the original 2005 game, calling him "chill and focused on business" despite possibly being infected with the Plaga parasite. Describing the Merchant as a "man of no allegiance" who may also be selling the villagers their weapons, he lamented the fact that the Merchant had not yet appeared in other Resident Evil titles, citing the Merchant character in Resident Evil: Degeneration as a "copy" and not the "real deal". Comparing the Merchant to the Duke, he called the Merchant slightly more mysterious, but said that the Duke provided better services, such as cooking. He cited the Merchant returning after the player killed him as evidence he had "multiple clones". Alan Wheeler of IGN called Merchant as the most iconic NPC ever. After the release of the remake of Resident Evil 4, fans wanted a Merchant type character in the possible Resident Evil 5 remake. Wireframe described him as "genuinely bizarre" due to how out of place he felt in the world, but praised that aspect at the same time, calling him "utterly fantastic, and a constant reminder that the game he's in isn't entirely serious and should be played with a big old smile on your face."
Max Scoville of IGN called the Merchant absurd, but also stated that the character exemplified the game's great aspects. Saying that he has "all the subtle salesmanship of a crack dealer in a 1980s anti-drug PSA", he characterized the Merchant as both menacing and goofy. Scoville described the Merchant's design as combining "fantasy RPG" aesthetics with "slick futuristic stuff", the player's view of the character changing when he opens his coat to reveal the weapons he has for sale. Commenting on the Merchant's unusual penchant for buying antiques in exchange for weapons, Scoville states that the game "flaunts" its ludonarrative dissonance rather than trying to hide it. Mentioning a fan theory that the Merchant might be multiple individuals who dress and speak the same way, Scoville said that it only made the Merchant more ridiculous if true, like a "scary mall Santa". Nick Bunce of Eurogamer stated that the Merchant's signature "Whaddya buyin'?" line was "eternally etched into [his] psyche", calling the character a "walking enigma". Saying that despite the Merchant's glowing eyes, he was seemingly unaffected by the mind-controlling Plaga parasite, Bunce described him as a "well-stocked ally" who "brought a unique warmth" to the hostile environment around him, claiming that his voice created "a neural connection" that meant both safety and a material advantage. Bunce said he was "bitterly disappointed" that the Merchant's original voice actor did not reprise his role in the remake.
The Merchant appeared in a skit by parody group Mega64, who acted as him towards unassuming passerby while wearing a cosplay of the character. Another parody featuring the Merchant allows players to take the role of Ashley and date him alongside other characters in the format of an otome game. In 2023, indie game developer Fractal Projects announced Save Room – The Merchant, a sequel to their Save Room item management video game that adds a female character inspired by the Merchant. |
9,244,596 | Civil War Memorial (Sycamore, Illinois) | 1,168,957,112 | null | [
"1896 establishments in Illinois",
"1896 sculptures",
"Buildings and structures completed in 1896",
"Buildings and structures in Sycamore Historic District",
"Copper sculptures in the United States",
"Historic district contributing properties in Illinois",
"Marble sculptures in Illinois",
"Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois",
"Outdoor sculptures in Illinois",
"Sculptures of men in Illinois",
"Statues in Illinois",
"Union (American Civil War) monuments and memorials in Illinois"
]
| The Civil War Memorial, in the DeKalb County county seat of Sycamore, Illinois, United States, is located in front of the DeKalb County Courthouse on a public square. The memorial was erected in 1896 and dedicated in 1897. The structure is a memorial to the thousands of DeKalb County residents who served in the American Civil War. It incorporates an obelisk which rises to 50 feet (15.2 m) in height. The base is adorned with copper sculpture, completed by an unknown sculptor. On the east facade of the memorial the word "Antietam", denoting the Battle of Antietam, is misspelled. This work of public art underwent its first restoration work in 2005-2006.
The memorial is included among the 187 buildings and structures considered contributing properties to the Sycamore Historic District. The historic district was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1978. The structure also has artistic significance as it is listed by the Smithsonian American Art Museum in their research database. It is one of the few sculptures in DeKalb County found within that database. The Civil War Memorial is owned by DeKalb County.
## History
The DeKalb County Civil War Memorial and the sculpture that adorns it was created by an unknown sculptor and installed in front of the DeKalb County Courthouse in 1896. The county-owned memorial stands on the public square in Sycamore, the county seat and is 50 feet (15.2 m) tall. The structure was dedicated on June 24, 1897 as a memorial to the 2,388 people from DeKalb County who served in the military during the American Civil War.
In July 2005 the statues adorning the monument underwent a restoration. DeKalb County appropriated US\$15,000 for the project which, among other tasks, repaired a split seam in one of the soldier statues and a crack in the other sculpture's base. The project took approximately six months; the statues were removed for the duration of the restoration work and reinstalled in March 2006. During the restoration it was revealed that the statues, thought to be bronze, were actually copper. The work, the first in the 110-year history of the memorial, was completed at a cost of \$16,500. Three months after the work was completed one of the statues was removed for a second time because the metal began to oxidize.
## Design
The 50-foot (15.2-m) tall memorial has base dimensions of 10 feet (3 m) by 6 feet (1.8 m). The monument is constructed from a combination of marble, masonry, and the metal used for the sculpted copper and masonry soldiers. The structure also incorporated wood into its design. The rifles the figures on the base hold and the bases that they stand on are made of wood. The front facade is adorned with a marble plate engraved with an excerpt from U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Each of the other facades, also marble faced, are emblazoned with the names of major battles and campaigns of the war. The word "Antietam," representing the Battle of Antietam, is misspelled on the east, marble facade of the memorial as "Anteitam."
The two copper statues, each standing 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, flank the obelisk which rises to a masonry soldier statue, instead of the typical apex of an obelisk. The figure atop the granite obelisk is a mustached American Civil War soldier dressed in a long coat, a cape, and a cap. In the figure's right hand he holds the handle of his sword and the sword's tip rests in front of his right foot. In the soldier's left hand is a flag. Below the apex of the obelisk, on the memorial's base, are two additional sculpted figures, a Union infantry soldier and a Union cavalry soldier. The Union infantryman is dressed in a cap, long coat, and a cape, much like the figure atop the obelisk. The Union cavalryman, standing on the east side of the base, is dressed in a brimmed hat and short jacket.
## Significance
The 1974 Illinois Historic Sites Survey Inventory found the DeKalb County Civil War Memorial significant in the areas of military and sculpture. At the time of the 1974 survey, the memorial was considered in "excellent" and "not altered" condition. It is also one of the few sculptures in DeKalb County that is listed in the Smithsonian American Art Museum's Smithsonian Institution Research Information System (SIRIS). The Civil War Memorial is listed as a contributing property to the Sycamore Historic District. The historic district joined the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on May 2, 1978. As a part of the Sycamore Historic District, the National Register classifies the DeKalb County Civil War Memorial as an "object."
## See also
- DeKalb County Courthouse |
50,242 | Led Zeppelin IV | 1,172,731,333 | null | [
"1971 albums",
"Albums involved in plagiarism controversies",
"Albums produced by Jimmy Page",
"Albums recorded in a home studio",
"Atlantic Records albums",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients",
"Led Zeppelin albums"
]
| The untitled fourth studio album by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, commonly known as Led Zeppelin IV, was released on 8 November 1971 by Atlantic Records. It was produced by guitarist Jimmy Page and recorded between December 1970 and February 1971, mostly in the country house Headley Grange.
The informal recording environment inspired the band, allowing them to try different arrangements of material and create songs in various styles. After the band's previous album Led Zeppelin III received lukewarm reviews from critics, they decided their fourth album would officially be untitled and would be represented instead by four symbols chosen by each band member, without featuring the name or any other details on the cover. Unlike the prior two albums, the band was joined by some guest musicians, such as vocalist Sandy Denny on "The Battle of Evermore", and pianist Ian Stewart on "Rock and Roll". As with prior albums, most of the material was written by the band, though there was one cover song, a hard rock re-interpretation of the Memphis Minnie blues song "When the Levee Breaks".
The album was a commercial and critical success and is Led Zeppelin's best-selling album, shipping over 37 million copies worldwide. It is one of the best-selling albums in the US, while critics have regularly placed it highly on lists of the greatest albums of all time. In 2010, Led Zeppelin IV was one of ten classic album covers from British artists commemorated on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail.
## Writing and recording
Following the release of Led Zeppelin III in October 1970, the group took a break from live performances to concentrate on recording a follow-up. They turned down all touring offers, including a proposed New Year's Eve gig that would have been broadcast by television. They returned to Bron-Yr-Aur, a country house in Snowdonia, Wales, to write new material.
Recording sessions for the album began at Island Records' new studios on Basing Street in London on 5 December 1970, with the recording of "Black Dog". The group had considered Mick Jagger's home, Stargroves as a recording location, but decided it was too expensive. They subsequently moved the following month to Headley Grange, a country house in Hampshire, England, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio and engineer Andy Johns, with the Stones' Ian Stewart assisting. Johns had just worked on engineering Sticky Fingers and recommended the mobile studio. Guitarist and producer Jimmy Page later recalled: "We needed the sort of facilities where we could have a cup of tea and wander around the garden and go in and do what we had to do." This relaxed, atmospheric environment at Headley Grange also provided other advantages for the band, as they were able to capture spontaneous performances immediately, with some tracks arising from the communal jamming. Bassist and keyboardist John Paul Jones remembered there was no bar or leisure facilities, but this helped focus the group on the music without being distracted.
Once the basic tracks had been recorded, the band added overdubs at Island Studios in February. The band spent five days at Island, before Page then took the multitrack tapes to Sunset Sound in Los Angeles for mixing on 9 February, on Johns' recommendation, with a plan for an April 1971 release. Mixing would take ten days, before Page travelled back to London with the newly mixed material. The band had a playback at Olympic Studios. The band disliked the results, and so after touring through the spring and early summer, Page remixed the whole album in July. The album was delayed again over the choice of cover, whether it should be a double album, with a possible suggestion it could be issued as a set of EPs.
## Songs
### Side one
"Black Dog" was named after a dog that hung around Headley Grange during recording. The riff was written by Page and Jones, while the a cappella section was influenced by Fleetwood Mac's "Oh Well". Vocalist Robert Plant wrote the lyrics, and later sang portions of the song during solo concerts. The guitar solos on the outro were recorded directly into the desk, without using an amplifier.
"Rock and Roll" was a collaboration with Stewart that came out of a jam early in the recording sessions at Headley Grange. Drummer John Bonham wrote the introduction, which came from jamming around the intro to Little Richard's "Keep A-Knockin'". The track became a live favourite in concert, being performed as the opening number or an encore. It was released as a promotional single in the US, with stereo and mono mixes on either side of the disc.
"The Battle of Evermore" was written by Page on the mandolin, borrowed from Jones. Plant added lyrics inspired by a book he was reading about the Scottish Independence Wars. The track features a duet between Plant and Fairport Convention's Sandy Denny, who provides the only female voice to be heard on a Led Zeppelin recording. Plant played the role of narrator in the song, describing events, while Denny sang the part of the town crier representing the people.
"Stairway to Heaven" was mostly written by Page, and the bulk of the chord sequence was already worked out when recording started at Basing Street Studios. The lyrics were written by Plant at Headley Grange, about a woman who "took everything without giving anything back". The final take of the song was recorded at Island Studios after the Headley Grange session. The basic backing track featured Bonham on drums, Jones on electric piano and Page on acoustic guitar. The whole group contributed to the arrangement, such as Jones playing recorders on the introduction and Bonham's distinctive drum entry halfway through the piece. Page played the guitar solo using a Fender Telecaster he had received from Jeff Beck and had been his main guitar on the group's first album and early live shows. He put down three different takes of the solo and picked the best to put on the album.
The song was considered the standout track on the album and was played on FM radio stations frequently, but the group resisted all suggestions to release it as a single. It became the centrepiece of the group's live set from 1971 onwards; in order to replicate the changes between acoustic, electric and twelve-string guitar on the studio recording, Page played a Gibson EDS-1275 double-neck guitar during the song.
### Side two
"Misty Mountain Hop" was written at Headley Grange and featured Jones playing electric piano. Plant wrote the lyrics about dealing with the clash between students and police over drug possession. The title comes from J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit. Plant later performed the track on solo tours.
"Four Sticks" took its title from Bonham playing the drum pattern that runs throughout the song with four drum sticks, and Jones played analog synth. The track was difficult to record compared to the other material on the album, requiring numerous takes. It was played live occasionally in early 1971. The song was also re-recorded with the Bombay Symphony Orchestra in 1972. This version appears on the deluxe edition reissue of the group's 1982 album Coda. The song was also reworked for Page and Plant's 1994 album No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded.
"Going to California" is a quiet acoustic number. It was written by Page and Plant about Californian earthquakes, and trying to find the perfect woman. The music was inspired by Joni Mitchell, of whom both Plant and Page were fans. The track was originally titled "Guide To California"; the final title comes from the trip to Los Angeles to mix the album.
"When the Levee Breaks" comes from a blues song recorded by Memphis Minnie and Kansas Joe McCoy in 1929. The track opens with Bonham's heavy unaccompanied drumming, which was recorded in the lobby of Headley Grange using two Beyerdynamic M 160 microphones which were hung up a flight of stairs; output from these were passed to a limiter. A Binson Echorec, a delay effects unit, was also used. Page recalled he had tried to record the track at early sessions, but it had sounded flat. The unusual locations around the lobby gave the ideal ambience for the drum sound. This introduction was later extensively sampled for hip hop music in the 1980s. Page and Plant played the song on their 1995 tour promoting No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded.
### Other songs
Three other songs from the sessions, "Down by the Seaside", "Night Flight" and "Boogie with Stu" (featuring Stewart on piano), were included four years later on the double album Physical Graffiti. An early version of "No Quarter" was also recorded at the sessions.
## Title
After the lukewarm, if not confused and sometimes dismissive, critical reaction Led Zeppelin III had received in late 1970, Page decided that the next Led Zeppelin album would not have a title, but would instead feature four hand-drawn symbols on the inner sleeve and record label, each one chosen by the band member it represents. The record company were strongly against the idea, but the group stood their ground and refused to hand over the master tapes until their decision had been agreed to.
Page has also stated that the decision to release the album without any written information on the album sleeve was contrary to strong advice given to him by a press agent, who said that after a year's absence from both records and touring, the move would be akin to "professional suicide". Page thought, "We just happened to have a lot of faith in what we were doing." He recalled the record company were insisting that a title had to be on the album, but held his ground, as he felt it would be an answer to critics who could not review one Led Zeppelin album without a point of reference to earlier ones.
Releasing the album without an official title has made it difficult to consistently identify. While most commonly called Led Zeppelin IV, Atlantic Records catalogues have used the names Four Symbols and The Fourth Album. It has also been referred to as ZoSo (which Page's symbol appears to spell), Untitled and Runes. Page frequently refers to the album in interviews as "the fourth album" and "Led Zeppelin IV", and Plant thinks of it as "the fourth album, that's it". The original LP also has no text on the front or back cover, and lacks a catalogue number on the spine.
## Cover
In place of a title, Page decided each member could choose a personal emblem for the cover. Initially thinking of a single symbol, he then decided there could be four, with each member of the band choosing his own. He designed his own symbol and has never publicly disclosed any reasoning behind it. It has been argued that his symbol appeared as early as 1557 to represent Saturn. The symbol is sometimes referred to as "ZoSo", though Page has explained that it was not in fact intended to be a word at all. Jones' symbol, which he chose from Rudolf Koch's Book of Signs, is a single circle intersecting three vesica pisces (a triquetra). It is intended to symbolise a person who possesses both confidence and competence. Bonham's symbol, the three interlocking (Borromean) rings, was picked by the drummer from the same book. It represents the triad of mother, father and child, but, also happens to be the logo for the Gun Producer Krupp and, turned upside down, Ballantine beer. Plant's symbol of a feather within a circle was his own design, being based on the sign of the supposed Mu civilisation. A fifth, smaller symbol chosen by guest vocalist Sandy Denny represents her contribution to "The Battle of Evermore"; the figure, composed of three equilateral triangles, appears on the inner sleeve of the LP, serving as an asterisk.
During Led Zeppelin's tour of the United Kingdom in winter 1971 shortly after the album's release, the symbols could be seen on the group's stage equipment; Page's on one of his amplifiers, Bonham's on his bass drum head, Jones' on a covering for his Rhodes piano, and Plant's on the side of a PA cabinet. Only Page's and Bonham's symbols were retained for subsequent tours.
The 19th-century rustic oil painting on the front of the album was purchased from an antique shop in Reading, Berkshire by Plant. The painting was then juxtaposed and affixed to the internal, papered wall of a partly demolished suburban house for the photograph to be taken. The block of flats seen on the album is the Salisbury Tower in the Ladywood district of Birmingham. Page has explained that the cover of the fourth album was intended to bring out a city/country dichotomy that had initially surfaced on Led Zeppelin III, and a reminder that people should look after the Earth. He later said the cover was supposed to be for "other people to savour" rather than a direct statement. The album cover was among the 10 chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of "Classic Album Cover" postage stamps issued in January 2010.
The inside illustration, entitled "The Hermit", painted by Barrington Coleby (credited to Barrington Colby MOM on the album sleeve), was influenced by the design of the card of the same name in the Rider–Waite tarot deck. This character was later portrayed by Page himself in Led Zeppelin's concert film, The Song Remains the Same (1976). The inner painting is also referred to as View in Half or Varying Light. The typeface for the lyrics to "Stairway to Heaven", printed on the inside sleeve of the album, was Page's contribution. He found it in an old arts and crafts magazine called The Studio which dated from the late 19th century. He thought the lettering was interesting and arranged for someone to create a whole alphabet.
## Release
The album was released by Atlantic on 8 November 1971. It was promoted via a series of teaser advertisements showing the individual symbols on the album artwork. It entered the UK chart at No. 10, rising to No.1 the following week and has spent a total of 90 weeks on the chart. In the US it was Led Zeppelin's best-selling album, but did not top the Billboard album chart, peaking at No. 2 behind There's a Riot Goin' On by Sly and the Family Stone and Music by Carole King. "Ultimately", writes Lewis, "the fourth Zeppelin album would be the most durable seller in their catalogue and the most impressive critical and commercial success of their career". At one point, it was ranked as one of the top five best-selling albums of all time. The album is one of the best-selling albums of all time with more than 37 million copies sold as of 2014. As of 2021, it is tied for fifth-highest-certified album in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America at 24× Platinum.
The album was reissued several times throughout the 1970s, including a lilac vinyl pressing in 1978, and a box set package in 1988. It was first issued on CD in the 1980s. Page remastered the album in 1990 with engineer George Marino in an attempt to update the catalogue, and several tracks were used for that year's compilation Led Zeppelin Remasters and the Led Zeppelin Boxed Set. All remastered tracks were reissued on The Complete Studio Recordings, while the album was individually reissued on CD in 1994.
A remastered version of Led Zeppelin IV was reissued on 27 October 2014, along with Houses of the Holy. The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition, a deluxe two-CD edition, a standard LP version, a deluxe two-LP version, a super deluxe two-CD plus two-LP version with a hardback book, and as high-resolution 24-bit/96k digital downloads. The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material. The reissue was released with an inverted colour version of the original album's artwork as its bonus disc's cover. The album's remastered version received widespread acclaim from critics, including Rolling Stone, who found Page's remastering "illuminative".
## Critical reception
Led Zeppelin IV received overwhelming praise from critics. In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, Lenny Kaye called it the band's "most consistently good" album yet and praised the diversity of the songs: "out of eight cuts, there isn't one that steps on another's toes, that tries to do too much all at once." Billboard magazine called it a "powerhouse album" that has the commercial potential of the band's previous three albums. Robert Christgau originally gave Led Zeppelin IV a lukewarm review in The Village Voice, but later called it a masterpiece of "heavy rock". While still finding the band's medieval ideas limiting, he believed the album showed them at the pinnacle of their songwriting, and regarded it as "the definitive Led Zeppelin and hence heavy metal album".
In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine credited the album for "defining not only Led Zeppelin but the sound and style of '70s hard rock", while "encompassing heavy metal, folk, pure rock & roll, and blues". In his album guide to heavy metal, Spin magazine's Joe Gross cited Led Zeppelin IV as a "monolithic cornerstone" of the genre. BBC Music's Daryl Easlea said that the album made the band a global success and effectively combined their third album's folk ideas with their second album's hard rock style, while Katherine Flynn and Julian Ring of Consequence of Sound felt it featured their debut's blues rock, along with the other styles from their second and third albums. Led Zeppelin's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography described the album as "a fully realized hybrid of the folk and hard-rock directions". PopMatters journalist AJ Ramirez regarded it as one of the greatest heavy metal albums ever, while Chuck Eddy named it the number one metal album of all time in his 1991 book Stairway to Hell: The 500 Best Heavy Metal Albums in the Universe. According to rock scholar Mablen Jones, Led Zeppelin IV and particularly "Stairway to Heaven" reflected heavy metal's presence in countercultural trends of the early 1970s, as the album "blended post-hippie mysticism, mythological preoccupations, and hard rock".
Steven Hyden observed in 2018 that the album's popularity had given rise to a reflexive bias against it from both fans and critics. "There are two unwritten laws" about the album, he wrote. The first was that a listener must claim a track from side two, the "deep cuts with credibility" side, was his or her favorite, and the second was that one should never say it was their favorite among the band's albums. He blamed this later tendency for why "rock critics who try too hard always make a case for In Through the Out Door being Zeppelin's best." The band members themselves, he noted, also seemed to prefer performing the songs from side two in their solo shows.
### Accolades
In 2000, Led Zeppelin IV was named the 26th-greatest British album in a list by Q magazine. In 2002, Spin magazine's Chuck Klosterman named it the second-greatest metal album of all time and said that it was "the most famous hard-rock album ever recorded" as well as an album that unintentionally created metal—"the origin of everything that sounds, feels, or even tastes vaguely metallic". In 2000 it was voted number 42 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2003, the album was ranked number 66 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", then re-ranked number 69 in a 2012 revised list, and re-ranked 58 in a 2020 revised list. It was also named the seventh-best album of the 1970s in a list by Pitchfork. In 2016, Classic Rock magazine ranked Led Zeppelin IV as the greatest of all Zeppelin albums.
| Accolade | Publication | Country | Year | Rank |
|--------------------------------------------------|----------------------------|---------|------|------|
| "The 100 Greatest Albums Ever Made" | Mojo | UK | 1996 | 24 |
| Grammy Hall of Fame Award | Grammy Awards | US | 1999 | \* |
| "Album of the Millennium" | The Guitar | US | 1999 | 2 |
| "100 Greatest Rock Albums Ever" | Classic Rock | UK | 2001 | 1 |
| "500 Greatest Albums Ever" | Rolling Stone | US | 2020 | 58 |
| "Top 100 Albums of the 1970s" | Pitchfork | US | 2004 | 7 |
| 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die | Robert Dimery | US | 2005 | \* |
| "100 Best Albums Ever" | Q | UK | 2006 | 21 |
| "100 Greatest British Rock Albums Ever" | Classic Rock | UK | 2006 | 1 |
| "The Definitive 200: Top 200 Albums of All-Time" | Rock and Roll Hall of Fame | US | 2007 | 4 |
| NMEs The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time | NME | UK | 2013 | 106 |
Accolades for the fourth Led Zeppelin album
\* designates unordered lists.
## Track listing
### Original release
### Deluxe edition (2014)
## Personnel
Led Zeppelin
- John Bonham – drums
- John Paul Jones – bass, electric piano, mandolin, recorders, synthesizer
- Jimmy Page – electric and acoustic guitars, mandolin on "The Battle of Evermore", production, mastering, digital remastering
- Robert Plant – vocals, harmonica
Additional musicians
- Sandy Denny – duet vocals on "The Battle of Evermore"
- Ian Stewart – piano on "Rock and Roll"
Production'''
- George Chkiantz – mixing
- Andy Johns – engineering, mixing
- Peter Grant – executive production
- Barrington Colby M.O.M. – The Hermit'' illustration
- Keith Morris – photography
- Graphreaks – design coordination
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications |
2,589,151 | Ohio State Route 228 | 1,151,437,047 | State highway in Seneca County, Ohio, US | [
"State highways in Ohio",
"Transportation in Seneca County, Ohio"
]
| State Route 228 (SR 228) is a short north–south state highway in the U.S. state of Ohio. The southern terminus of the state route is at State Route 19 (SR 19) nearly five and a half miles (8.9 km) north of Republic. Its northern terminus is at SR 101 approximately 5.5 miles (8.9 km) southwest of Clyde.
The state highway was established in 1924. It serves as a connector between SR 19 and SR 101 east and northeast of where the two routes intersect. SR 19 jogs west from SR 228's southern terminus, and SR 101 traverses in a southwest-to-northeast fashion, creating a tight angle between the two routes. SR 778 serves a similar purpose to SR 228 to the west and southwest of the junction of SR 19 and SR 101.
## Route description
SR 228 is located entirely within Adams Township in Seneca County, and it has an annual average daily traffic count of 320. The short connector route begins where SR 19 and County Road 32 (CR 32) meet, an intersection in which SR 19 forms the southern and western legs and CR 32 approaches from the east. The route passes through mostly farmland. After that, SR 228 arrives at its endpoint at the intersection of SR 101, where it crosses southwest-to-northeast, and Township Road 180 (Rowe Road) continues to the northwest after SR 228 terminates.
## History
SR 228 came into being in 1924 along the routing that it occupies to this day. No significant changes have taken place to the route since its designation. The route was repaved in 1969, 1983, and 1995.
## Major intersections |
66,917,094 | Brewer Island | 1,073,751,134 | Island in California | [
"Islands of Northern California",
"Islands of San Mateo County, California"
]
| Brewer Island is an island in the San Francisco Bay, in San Mateo County, California. Originally owned by W. P. A. Brewer, for over one hundred years it was used for hay farming. Several attempts to develop the island failed between 1912 and 1959. Ultimately, a venture by Richard Grant and T. Jack Foster succeeded in 1960; Brewer Island's surface was raised by 6 ft (1.8 m), an artificial lake was dug in its center, and it became the location of what is now known as Foster City.
## Geography
As marsh land covered in sloughs, Brewer Island appears in United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps dating to 1892 (the earliest available for the area). In 1894, it appears on an official map of San Mateo County; the first USGS map in which it is labeled "Brewer Island" is in 1939. The USGS gave its elevation as 7 ft (2.1 m) in 1981. Since being surrounded by levees in the 1890s, and built up with fill in the 1960s, Brewer Island is no longer marshland.
On the north, Brewer Island is bounded by mud flats of San Francisco Bay. To its east and southeast is Belmont Slough. To its south is O'Neill Slough, and to its west is Seal Slough; across these lies the city of San Mateo. It is crossed by California State Route 92; the San Mateo–Hayward Bridge terminates on the northern end of Brewer Island.
Brewer Island consists mostly of dry land, with a system of lagoons in the center providing drainage; the water in these lagoons is kept at a controlled level, with excess being pumped into San Francisco Bay. The lagoons and waterways of the island, which cover approximately 200 acres (81 ha), are also used for recreation.
## History
In prehistoric times, the area later occupied by Brewer Island was "situated at the bay margin in an area of extensive marshlands". While California was inhabited by humans as early as the 10th millennium BC, evidence of such habitation has not been found on Brewer Island. However, by the time of European settlement in the mid-19th century, Brewer Island was part of territory controlled by Ohlone hunter-gatherers.
Starting in the 1860s, the shoals surrounding the island were used by the Morgan Oyster Company, founded by J. S. Morgan (which "came to monopolize the Bay Area's oyster industry").
Brewer Island was created in the late 1800s by Arthur L. Whitney and E. B. Pond, who built a series of levees around the salt marsh to reclaim the land for agricultural use. From this point onward, it was used to produce hay and graze cattle.
Buildings are known to have existed on the island at this time, with an 1894 map showing buildings labeled "House", "Wharf", and "Chinese Fish House". The island was named for William P. A. Brewer, who purchased large amounts of land on the island in 1898 and used it to run the San Mateo Ranch Dairy. The Brewer family also had a beach house on the shore of the island. When William died in 1905, his son Frank became the owner of the dairy, and of the island.
### Unsuccessful developments
#### Hog farm (1912)
In the early 20th century, a hog farm was proposed to be operated on Brewer Island. In 1912, however, numerous parties entered protests to the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors, urging them to deny it a permit. The land remained undeveloped.
#### "Elaborate plans" (1923)
By 1923, the Morgan Oyster Company had gone out of business; meanwhile, preparations were being made for the construction of two bridges across San Francisco Bay. "Elaborate plans" were formulated for Brewer Island's development, as it was near the San Mateo end of one proposed bridge. However, the land remained undeveloped.
#### Army aviation base (1929)
In 1929, two island sites in San Francisco Bay were being considered by the government for an Army aviation base; Brewer Island was one, and Alameda was the other. The San Mateo Times said that "The San Francisco Chamber of Commerce never had a better opportunity of practically demonstrating its desire to aid in the development of the Peninsula than is offered in the present campaign to obtain the location of the United States army aviation base in this vicinity." The argument in favor of using Brewer Island was that it could be used immediately, as the Alameda site "would require an enormous amount of fill before it could be improved for aviation purposes". The site, which was offered to the War Department for free, comprised some 350 acres (140 ha).
The owner of Brewer Island, Arden Salt Company principal Rudolph Schilling, agreed to offer the island as a site for the aviation base. Local organizations and committees "worked indefatigably on the air base offer for eight months." In August, the Times reported that "members of the military affairs committee of the house of representatives are on their way to the bay region from Cuba to make an inspection of Brewer Island and other sites proposed", for a base estimated to cost \$5,000,000 (\$ in ).
However, before they could arrive, Schilling withdrew his offer. He refused to explain why, saying only that he had done so for "important reasons". The site at Alameda would eventually become Naval Air Station Alameda; on Brewer Island, the land remained undeveloped.
#### Seaplane base (1935)
San Mateo County again offered Brewer Island as a potential military site in 1935; this time as a seaplane base. At that time, transportation and weather data were also being prepared for proposed sites on Belle Air Island. These plans never materialized, and the land remained undeveloped.
#### City airport (1945)
Ten years later, Brewer Island was the subject of another proposed development when it was selected by a meeting of the Burlingame and San Mateo chambers of commerce as their desired future location for a planned San Mateo Airport. This development was projected to cost \$250,000 (\$ in ); while other locations were being looked at, the amount of available acreage on Brewer Island—1,700 acres (690 ha)—as well as the low cost were cited as driving factors. Nonetheless, by June, the San Mateo Chamber of Commerce had selected the alternate Bay Meadows site for the airport; the Burlingame Chamber of Commerce "reiterated its stand" that Brewer Island should be chosen. Ultimately, the Civil Aeronautics Administration engineer forbade the use of Brewer Island, determining that aircraft approaches would interfere with safe operation of radio facilities. In 1952, the city of San Mateo conducted a study of the viability of Brewer Island for residential and industrial development, but the land remained undeveloped.
#### County airport (1953)
In 1953, Brewer Island was again suggested for development as an airport; George Van Vliet, chairman of San Mateo's county aviation committee, presented a proposal to the county's Board of Supervisors recommending that the island be used for a central county airport. The committee cited the potential wartime utility of an airport, as well as recreational potential and the possibility of the county expanding its tax base as benefits of such a development. However, these plans did not succeed, and the land remained undeveloped.
#### A single storage shed (1954)
By 1954, nearly a half-century of efforts by various private and governmental entities toward developing the island had culminated in several shacks which seasonal workers slept in during the haying season, as well as a storage shed used to house some two hundred pheasants. The storage shed burned to the ground in July. The land remained undeveloped.
### Successful developments
#### Foster City (1954–1962)
In the later half of 1954, the development of Brewer Island was proposed yet again; this time, it was part of a bayside expansion plan for the city of San Mateo. On August 4, it was reported that plans for a "city within a city" included as many as 10,000 homes and 35,000 residents.
By August 26, a Citizens' Pro-Industry Committee, composed of several "civic, service, and improvement club leaders", had been organized to protest the development of homes on the island. James Tormey, the county superintendent of schools, told the Board of Supervisors that the full development would create a \$10,000,000 (\$ in ) "bonding deficit on the elementary and high school district levels, and a substantial tax increase within the district". He said that "the effects of building 10,000 homes would be the same whether the subdivision were on Brewer Island or in the hills. The difference lies in the fact that Brewer Island could be used for light industry and the hills could not".
The next year, Brewer Island remained the "biggest single undeveloped area in the county", and San Mateo city planners were "voicing fear of the bugaboo of Brewer Island's residential development". In July they "informally vetoed" a proposed revision of the city's street map which included a skeleton layout of streets on Brewer Island.
In October 1955, negotiations were underway for the sale of Thomas Therkildsen's 328 acres (133 ha) property on the island to real estate developer Thomas Culligan for between \$1,000,000 and \$1,250,000 (\$ and \$ in ); the land was planned for use in a \$40,000,000 (\$ in ) "Fiesta Gardens type of home development". This would involve some 1,800 homes, which would be sold for \$18,000 to \$20,000 each (\$ to \$ in ). While it was initially unclear what amount of the land would be set aside for industrial use, and how it would be annexed to San Mateo, initial plans featured a \$1,000,000 (\$ in ) "industrial area, major business center, and recreational compound complete with swimming pool and 9-hole golf course". Development would require large amounts of fill dirt to raise the land, taken from hills to the west of San Mateo.
In 1958, the city of San Mateo's master plan included a "water sports center" on Brewer Island, consisting of a "system of inland waterways along the bayshore" developed from existing sloughs. By that point, the Therkildsen lands (now 353 acres (143 ha)) were proposed for a \$100,000,000 (\$ in ) recreational development; Therkildsen's representative Ray Holdren said that "he did not want any comparison with Disneyland, and that the project here would be larger and somewhat different in character". This plan would have included "a hotel-inn, auditorium, baseball park, stadium, marina, horse show arena, central plaza, western town, stables and corrals, stockade museum, zoo, miniature working ranch [...] heliport, Indian village and museum, mock gold mine and museum, picnic and camp sites, Junior league baseball parks, tennis club, golf course, polo field, Country club, beach and trap shooting" as well as "permanent international displays of Mexico, Copenhagen, the Middle East, Hawaii, South America, Holland, Venice, France, Japan and England". The proposal drew "varied reactions"; some spoke positively of the "tremendous advantage to be gleaned from high tax-producing develop of the island, preferred in many quarters to home development". Others said that the project would "have to be a bang-up job or could cause a blight on the community".
This ambitious proposal was to "officially hit the wastebasket" by 1959; county officials returned to debating the virtue of industrial versus residential use of the land. Meanwhile, Brewer Island remained undeveloped, and a haystack caught fire in March of that year. The Leslie Salt Company, which at that time controlled approximately 2,200 acres (890 ha) of the island, began official negotiations to annex the island to the city of San Mateo in April. By 1960, an approximately \$10,000,000 (\$ in ) option-purchase agreement had been recorded for the island. The transaction involved developer Richard Grant and financier T. Jack Foster, who proposed a \$350,000,000 (\$ in ) "self-supporting, balanced community of industry, apartments, businesses, schools, recreational facilities and homes for an estimated 45,000 residents". The development was planned "so that a newcomer finding a job will also find a vacant and available dwelling at the same time"; houses were expected to sell for between \$25,000 and \$150,000 (\$ to \$ in ). Also planned were "a championship golf course, a beach, a yacht harbor, theatres, public swimming pools, parks and playgrounds" in addition to "a community center, libraries, medical buildings, churches, shopping facilities and adequate parking" and a "small-size 'Radio City' for offices, recording studios, and TV production".
Brewer Island's last hay harvest was in 1960; at this point, construction began on Grant and Foster's developments. This involved dredging around 22,000,000 cu yd (17,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of sand from San Francisco Bay for fill, raising land on the island by as much as 6 ft (1.8 m). Dredging was also used to create a lake in the center of the island, for a 100 acres (40 ha) "recreational and boating area". This was claimed by the developers to be "America's first 'new city', the first completely planned from raw land to the tallest building, with all utilities, roads, and other developments pre-determined prior to commencement of the city's construction". At this point, Brewer Island had become Foster City.
#### Foster City (1963–present)
Foster City incorporated in 1971, with Wayne McFadden as its first mayor. A period of "intense political dissension" followed, including two years (1971 and 1977) in which four separate City managers were appointed and dismissed. The city claims on its website that it has had "stable leadership" since then. In 1983, the levees were reinforced by CalTrans. Further improvements were made during the 1990s, at which time the levees were raised 18 in (460 mm) and a concrete stormwall was constructed (as well as access ramps for a pedestrian/bicycle trail on the levees' crest).
The population of Foster City, according to the 2020 United States Census, was 33,805; corporations located there include Gilead Sciences and Visa. |
69,651,663 | Champagne Problems (album) | 1,157,422,686 | null | [
"2022 albums",
"Albums recorded in a home studio",
"Inna albums"
]
| Champagne Problems is the eighth studio album by Romanian singer Inna. It was released in two parts, Champagne Problems \#DQH1 and Champagne Problems \#DQH2, that were made available for digital download and streaming through Global Records on 7 January and 11 March 2022, respectively. Recording sessions took place in late 2021 for both releases and was completed in 16 days in a mansion Inna resided in with several Romanian songwriters and producers; such as Sebastian Barac, Marcel Botezan, David Ciente, Alexandru Cotoi, Minelli, Moa Pettersson Hammar and Gustav Nyström. The first release has been described as a primarily dance-pop record that encompasses Latin pop and reggaeton influences.
Inna vlogged the progress of Champagne Problems through her YouTube channel. The daily episodic videos were part of the second season of her Dance Queen's House series. Commercially, \#DQH1 peaked at numbers 72 and 81 on the UK Album Downloads Chart and Germany Album Download Chart, respectively. In celebration of reaching seven million subscribers on her YouTube account, Inna performed songs from both parts of Champagne Problems in March 2022.
## Background and creation
On 27 November 2020, Inna released her seventh studio album Heartbreaker. Sessions for the album took place over a three-week period at a rented Bucharest mansion, where Inna resided in with Romanian songwriters and producers Sebastian Barac, Marcel Botezan, David Ciente, Alexandru Cotoi and Minelli. She documented the progress of the album with daily vlogs on her YouTube channel—which constituted the first season of her series Dance Queen's House. The second season provided viewers with the progress of Champagne Problems. The recording sessions began in late 2021 and lasted 16 days to complete. Ciente was replaced in favor of songwriters Moa Pettersson Hammar and Gustav Nyström, who were present on the selected dates.
The vlogs ran from 6 to 21 December 2021. By the third episode, Inna had recorded 20 songs in consideration for Champange Problems. One of those songs, "De dragul tău", a promotional single released by Inna earlier in 2021, was revealed to have been recorded during the sessions for Champagne Problems in the fourth episode of the series. The final episode released on 21 December 2021, provided viewers a link to pre-order the album. The episode revealed the street date of 7 January 2022 for the first part of Champagne Problems, dubbed \#DQH1, for digital download and streaming through Global Records. The label handled the release for the second part, Chamapgne Problems \#DQH2, released on 11 March 2022.
## Composition and reception
1. DQH1 is a dance pop album with reggaeton and Latin pop influences, according to Matjaž Ambrožič of 24UR. Contrary to works done by Inna, the recording is performed entirely in English. Ambrožič praised \#DQH1 as being "solid" and a "pleasing rhythmic pump" and enjoyed the melodies on the album as well as Inna's vocal delivery. Adevărul's Maria-Alexandru Mortu categorized the opener "Always on My Mind" as a dance song, praising the "catchy" refrain and "honest" lyrics, while Jon Caramanica of The New York Times found the title track as being "immaculate club-pop: ecstatic, bubbly, heartless". Musically, "Champagne Problems" is meant to resemble the spicy taste and is the result of a challenge presented to Inna and her team during the second season of Dance Queen's House.
Commercially, \#DQH1 debuted and peaked at number 72 on the UK Album Downloads Chart published by The Official Charts Company (OCC) for the week ending 20 January 2022. It also reached number 81 on GfK Entertainment's Album Download Chart on 17 January 2022.
## Track listing
Credits adapted from Tidal.
## Charts
## Release history |
14,710,700 | 1st Sustainment Brigade (United States) | 1,151,697,360 | null | [
"Military units and formations established in 2007",
"Sustainment Brigades of the United States Army"
]
| The 1st Infantry Division Sustainment Brigade is a sustainment brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Riley, Kansas. It provides logistics support to the 1st Infantry Division.
Activated in 2007, the unit is a modular brigade capable of a variety of actions. Though assigned to the 1st Infantry Division on a permanent basis, it is capable of independent operations and taking on subordinate units to fulfill large scale sustainment operations for the United States Army.
Formed from the Division Support Command of the 1st Infantry Division, the Brigade carries the lineage and honors of the division dating back to World War I campaigns as early as 1917. Having also seen action in World War II, the Vietnam War, and the Gulf War, the brigade has numerous awards and decorations from its previous designation. The brigade has also seen three tours in Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.
## Organization
The 1st Infantry Division Sustainment Brigade (1ID SB) in garrison at Fort Riley is composed of two subordinate battalions.
The 1st Special Troops Battalion (STB) contains:
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
- 267th Signal Company
- 258th Human Resources Company
- 9th Financial Management Support Unit
- 511th Field Feeding Company
The 541st Combat Sustainment Support Battalion (CSSB) provides logistics support to the 1st Infantry Division and area support to units that are echelons above brigade. The 541st CSSB has seven subordinate companies:
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company
- 1st Support Maintenance Company
- 526th Composite Supply Company
- 24th Composite Truck Company
- 266th Movement Control Team
## History
### Origins
The 1st Infantry Division Support Command (DISCOM) traces its origins to World War I, where in 1917, the Division Trains were formed to support the newly formed 1st Infantry Division. In 1921, the Division trains were consolidated into the Special Troops, 1st Infantry Division. After World War I, the Special Troops deployed to Fort Riley, Kansas . Three of the DISCOM's former subordinate battalions, the 101st Forward Support Battalion (FSB) and 201st Forward Support Battalions, and the 701st Main Support Battalion, served in World War I, but with different divisions.
These units deployed back to Germany to support the 1st Infantry Division during World War II, and participated in all eight campaigns credited to the 1st Infantry Division. In 1955, the Division and its support organizations returned to Fort Riley, Kansas.
In 1965, the division deployed to South Vietnam, as a part of the Vietnam War buildup. DISCOM units supported the Division in all of the eleven campaigns it participated in while deployed to South Vietnam .
After Vietnam, the DISCOM underwent many changes. The Division Material Management Center (DMMC) was established, and the Finance and Personnel Services Companies (PSC) were reorganized into battalion commands. In 1990, the DISCOM deployed again, this time to Southwest Asia in support of Operation Desert Storm.
In 1996, the DISCOM, deployed to Europe for a third time and consisted of the 101st FSB at Fort Riley, Kansas, the 201st FSB in Vilseck, Germany, the 701st MSB in Kitzingen, Germany, the 601st Aviation Support Battalion(ASB) in Katterbach, Germany, and the Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), also in Kitzingen.
### Global War on Terrorism
In 2003, the DISCOM was deployed to Turkey in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom I. The DISCOM simultaneously supported peacekeeping operations in the Balkans and deployed a logistics task force to support Operation Iraqi Freedom I throughout Iraq. In 2004, the DISCOM redeployed to Southwest Asia in Support of Operation Iraqi Freedom II. In addition to the organic DISCOM units, the 225th Forward Support Battalion from Hawaii and the 230th Support Battalion from North Carolina deployed to support logistical operations for Task Force Danger. Finally, in 2005, the DISCOM redeployed to Germany to reconstitute and prepare for future contingency operations. The DISCOM was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its contributions during Operation Iraqi freedom II.
As of January 2006, the DISCOM consisted of the 201st Field Support Battalion in Vilseck, Germany, the 701st Maneuver Support Battalion in Kitzingen, Germany, the 299th Field Support Battalion in Schweinfurt Germany, the 601st Aviation Support Battalion in Katterbach, Germany, and the Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), also in Kitzingen. Over the months between January 2006 and July 2006 the 601st returned to Fort Riley, the 701st was inactivated, the 299th was task organized to the 2nd Brigade Combat Team in preparation for another deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom, and the 201st was task organized under the 3rd Brigade Combat Team and later deactivated. The DISCOM HHC was re-deployed to Fort Riley Kansas in August 2006 to build the 1st Sustainment Brigade.
For a brief period, the DISCOM gained administrative control over the 97th Military Police Battalion, the 541st CSSB, the Band, and the 101st Military Intelligence Battalion. The 101st was in-activated in December 2006, the 541st and 97th were deployed and task organized away from the DISCOM.
In November 2006, the brigade reviewed its own Shoulder Sleeve Insignia (SSI) and Distinctive Unit Insignia. These items were based heavily on the SSI of the 1st Infantry Division. Later that month, the Brigade was informed that it would be deployed to Iraq again in 2007.
The 1st Sustainment Brigade (SB) was activated on 15 February 2007 at 10:00 am local time at Fort Riley, Kansas. It is a scalable tailorable Sustainment Brigade, with a mission statement of: Plans, synchronizes, monitors, and executes distribution operations. Conducts sustainment operations within assigned area of operation. Conducts Theater Opening and/or Theater Distribution operations when directed. Provides support to joint, interagency, and multinational forces as directed.
The brigade deployed to Iraq again in late 2007, operating in the areas such as those around Central Iraq. The brigade's headquarters during this time has been Camp Taji. The brigade made history on 16 June 2008 when it heralded the return of the battlefield promotion system in the US Army. The system, which was previously discontinued, was part of a pilot program that the Army was looking at to bring battlefield promotions back.
Soldiers of the brigade were also some of the first to use the MRAP, or Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicle. The soldiers used the vehicles to train other soldiers on use of the vehicle, particularly leaders of the 10th Sustainment Brigade, which replaced the 1st Sustainment Brigade in late 2008.
From October 2012 to September 2013 the 1ID Sustainment Brigade deployed to Bagram, Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. This was the brigade's first deployment to Afghanistan. They deployed to Afghanistan again in February 2019 in support of Operation Freedom Sentinel and Resolute Support under the title 1ID Resolute Support Sustainment Brigade.
The 1st Infantry Division Sustainment Brigade provides a full spectrum support including: configuring for, distributions and retrogrades to and from maneuver Brigade Combat Teams, other support brigades, and to joint interagency and multinational elements as directed. The 1st SB supports Early Entry Operations or Hub operations with augmentation, providing postal, replacement, and casualty operations as well as essential personnel services and Trial Defense Services on an area basis. The brigade is assigned as the sustainment unit of the 1st Infantry Division, however it can also operate independently, being assigned other units and other missions independent of the division.
## Honors
As it was a part of the 1st Infantry Division's command, the Brigade received campaign participation credit and awards for all of the same conflicts as the Division Headquarters up until it became an independent unit in 2006. Thereafter, it retained separate lineage.
### Unit Decorations
### Campaign streamers |
303,612 | Homo rudolfensis | 1,161,083,601 | Extinct hominin from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa | [
"1972 archaeological discoveries",
"Early species of Homo",
"Fossil taxa described in 1978",
"Hominini",
"Lower Paleolithic",
"Pleistocene primates",
"Prehistoric Kenya"
]
| Homo rudolfensis is an extinct species of archaic human from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa about 2 million years ago (mya). Because H. rudolfensis coexisted with several other hominins, it is debated what specimens can be confidently assigned to this species beyond the lectotype skull KNM-ER 1470 and other partial skull aspects. No bodily remains are definitively assigned to H. rudolfensis. Consequently, both its generic classification and validity are debated without any wide consensus, with some recommending the species to actually belong to the genus Australopithecus as A. rudolfensis or Kenyanthropus as K. rudolfensis, or that it is synonymous with the contemporaneous and anatomically similar H. habilis.
H. rudolfensis is distinguished from H. habilis by larger size, but it is also argued that this species actually consists of male H. habilis specimens, assuming that H. habilis was sexually dimorphic and males were much larger than females. Because no bodily remains are definitely identified, body size estimates are largely based on the stature of H. habilis. Using this, male H. rudolfensis may have averaged about 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) in height and 60 kg (130 lb) in weight, and females 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) and 51 kg (112 lb). KNM-ER 1470 had a brain volume of about 750 cc (46 cu in). Like other early Homo, H. rudolfensis had large cheek teeth and thick enamel.
Early Homo species exhibit marked brain growth compared to Australopithecus predecessors, which is typically explained as a change in diet with a calorie-rich food source, namely meat. Though not associated with tools, dental anatomy suggests some processing of plant or meat fiber before consumption, though the mouth could still effectively chew through mechanically challenging food, indicating tool use did not greatly affect diet.
## Research history
The first fossils were discovered in 1972 along Lake Turkana (at the time called Lake Rudolf) in Kenya, and were detailed by Kenyan palaeoanthropologist Richard Leakey the following year. The specimens were: a large and nearly complete skull (KNM-ER 1470, the lectotype) discovered by Bernard Ngeneo, a local; a right femur (KNM-ER 1472) discovered by J. Harris; an upper femur (proximal) fragment (KNM-ER 1475) discovered by fossil collector Kamoya Kimeu; and a complete left femur (KNM-ER 1481) discovered by Harris. However, it is unclear if the femora belong to the same species as the skull. Leakey classified them under the genus Homo because he had reconstructed the skull fragments so that it had a large brain volume and a flat face, but did not assign them to a species. Because the horizon they were discovered in was, at the time, dated to 2.9–2.6 million years ago (mya), Leakey thought these specimens were a very early human ancestor. This challenged the major model of human evolution at the time where Australopithecus africanus gave rise to Homo about 2.5 mya, but if Homo had already existed at this time, it would call for serious revisions. However, the area was redated to about 2 mya in 1977 (the same time period as H. habilis and H. ergaster/H. erectus), and more precisely to 2.1–1.95 mya in 2012. They were first assigned to the species habilis in 1975 by anthropologists Colin Groves and Vratislav Mazák. In 1978, in a joint paper with Leakey and English anthropologist Alan Walker, Walker suggested the remains belong in Australopithecus (and that the skull was incorrectly reconstructed), but Leakey still believed they belonged to Homo, though they both agreed that the remains could belong to habilis.
KNM-ER 1470 was much larger than the Olduvai remains, so the terms H. habilis sensu lato ("in the broad sense") and H. habilis sensu stricto ("in the strict sense") were used to include or exclude the larger morph, respectively. In 1986, English palaeoanthropologist Bernard Wood first suggested these remains represent a different Homo species, which coexisted with H. habilis and H. ergaster/H. erectus. Coexisting Homo species conflicted with the predominant model of human evolution at the time which was that modern humans evolved in a straight line directly from H. ergaster/H. erectus which evolved directly from H. habilis. In 1986, the remains were placed into a new species, rudolfensis, by Russian anthropologist Valery Alekseyev (but he used the genus Pithecanthropus, which was changed to Homo three years later by Groves). In 1999, Kennedy argued that the name was invalid because Alekseyev had not assigned a holotype. Pointing out that this is in fact not mandatory, Wood the same year nevertheless designated KNM-ER 1470 as the lectotype. However, the validity of this species has also been debated on material grounds, with some arguing that H. habilis was highly sexually dimorphic like modern non-human apes, with the larger skulls classified as "H. rudolfensis" actually representing male H. habilis. In 1999, Wood and biological anthropologist Mark Collard recommended moving rudolfensis and habilis to Australopithecus based on the similarity of dental adaptations. However, they conceded that dental anatomy is highly variable among hominins and not always reliable when formulating family trees.
In 2003, Australian anthropologist David Cameron concluded that the earlier australopithecine Kenyanthropus platyops was the ancestor of rudolfensis, and reclassified it as K. rudolfensis. He also believed that Kenyanthropus was more closely related to Paranthropus than Homo. In 2008, a re-reconstruction of the skull concluded it was incorrectly restored originally, though agreed with the classification as H. rudolfensis. In 2012, British palaeoanthropologist Meave Leakey described the juvenile partial face KNM-ER 62000 discovered in Koobi Fora, Kenya; noting it shares several similarities to KNM-ER 1470 and is smaller, she assigned it to H. rudolfensis, and, because prepubescent male and female bones should be indistinguishable, differences between juvenile H. rudolfensis and adult H. habilis specimens support species distinction. She also concluded that the jawbone KNM-ER 1802, an important specimen often used in classifying other specimens as H. rudolfensis, actually belongs to a different (possibly undescribed) species, but American palaeoanthropologist Tim D. White believes this to be premature because it is unclear how wide the range of variation is in early hominins. The 2013 discovery of the 1.8 Ma Georgian Dmanisi skulls which exhibit several similarities with early Homo have led to suggestions that all contemporary groups of early Homo in Africa, including H. habilis and H. rudolfensis, are the same species and should be assigned to H. erectus. There is still no wide consensus on how rudolfensis and habilis relate to H. ergaster and descendent species.
Beyond KNM-ER 1470, there is disagreement on which specimens actually belong in H. rudolfensis as it is difficult to assign with accuracy remains that do not preserve the face and jaw. No H. rudolfensis bodily elements have been definitively associated with a skull and thus to the species. Most proposed H. rudolfensis fossils come from Koobi Fora and date to 1.9–1.85 mya. Remains from the Shungura Formation, Ethiopia, and Uraha, Malawi, are dated as far back as 2.5–2.4 mya, which would make it the earliest identified species of Homo. The latest potential specimen is KNM-ER 819 dating to 1.65–1.55 mya.
Nonetheless, H. rudolfensis and H. habilis generally are recognised members of the genus at the base of the family tree, with arguments for synonymisation or removal from the genus not widely adopted. Though it is now largely agreed upon that Homo evolved from Australopithecus, the timing and placement of this split has been much debated, with many Australopithecus species having been proposed as the ancestor. The discovery of LD 350-1, the oldest Homo specimen, dating to 2.8 mya, in the Afar Region of Ethiopia may indicate that the genus evolved from A. afarensis around this time. The species LD 350-1 belongs to could be the ancestor of H. rudolfensis and H. habilis, but this is unclear. Based on 2.1 million year old stone tools from Shangchen, China, possibly an ancestral species to H. rudolfensis and H. habilis dispersed across Asia.
## Anatomy
### Skull
In 1973, Mr. Leakey had reconstructed the skull KNM-ER 1470 with a flat face and a brain volume of 800 cc (49 cu in). In 1983, American physical anthropologist Ralph Holloway revised the base of the skull and calculated a brain volume of 752–753 cc (45.9–46.0 cu in). For comparison, H. habilis specimens average about 600 cc (37 cu in), and H. ergaster 850 cc (52 cu in). Anthropologist Timothy Bromage and colleagues revised the face again at a 5° incline (slightly prognathic) instead of completely flat, but pushed the nasal bone back directly beneath the frontal bones. He then said it was possible to predict brain size based on just the face and (disregarding the braincase) calculated 526 cc (32.1 cu in), and chalked up the errors of Leakey's reconstruction to a lack of research of the biological principles of facial anatomy at the time as well as confirmation bias, as a flat-faced reconstruction of the skull aligned with the predominant model of human evolution at the time. This was refuted by American palaeoanthropologist John D. Hawks because the skull remained more or less unchanged except for the 5° rotation outwards. Bromage and colleagues returned in 2008 with a revised skull reconstruction and brain volume estimate of 700 cc (43 cu in).
Fossils have generally been classified into H. rudolfensis due to large skull size, flatter and broader face, broader cheek teeth, more complex tooth crowns and roots, and thicker enamel compared to H. habilis. Early Homo are characterised by larger teeth compared to later Homo. The cheek teeth of KNM-ER 60000, a jawbone, in terms of size are on the lower end for early Homo, except for the third molar which is within range. The molars increase in size towards the back of the mouth. The tooth rows of KNM-ER 1470, KNM-ER 60000, and KNM-ER 62000 are rectangular, whereas the tooth row of KNM-ER 1802 is U-shaped, which may indicate that these two morphs represent different species, or demonstrate the normal range of variation for H. rudolfensis jaws. In UR 501 from Uraha, Malawi—the oldest H. rudolfensis specimen dating to 2.5–2.3 mya—the tooth enamel thickness is the same as in other early Homo, but the enamel on the molars is almost as thick as Paranthropus molars (which have some of the thickest enamel of any hominin). Such a wide variation in enamel thickness across the cheek teeth is not exhibited in KNM-ER 1802, which may indicate regional differences among H. rudolfensis populations.
### Build
Body size estimates of H. rudolfensis and H. habilis typically conclude a small size comparable to australopithecines. These largely depend on the H. habilis partial skeleton OH 62 estimated at 100–120 cm (3 ft 3 in – 3 ft 11 in) in height and 20–37 kg (44–82 lb) in weight. H. rudolfensis is thought to be bigger than H. habilis, but it is unclear how big this species was as no bodily elements have been definitively associated with a skull. Based on just the KNM-ER 1470 skull, male H. rudolfensis were estimated to have been 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) in height and 60 kg (130 lb) in weight, and females 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) and 51 kg (112 lb).
For specimens that might be H. rudolfensis: the femur KNM-ER 1472 which may also be H. habilis or H. ergaster was estimated at 155.9 cm (5 ft 1 in) and 41.8 kg (92 lb), the humerus KNM-ER 1473 162.9 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 47.1 kg (104 lb), the partial leg KNM-ER 1481 which may also be H. ergaster 156.7 cm (5 ft 2 in) and 41.8 kg (92 lb), the pelvis KNM-ER 3228 which may also be H. ergaster 165.8 cm (5 ft 5 in) and 47.2 kg (104 lb), and the femur KNM-ER 3728 which may be H. habilis or P. boisei 153.3 cm (5 ft) and 40.3 kg (89 lb). It is generally assumed that pre-H. ergaster hominins, including H. rudolfensis and H. habilis, exhibited sexual dimorphism with males markedly bigger than females. However, relative female body mass is unknown in either species.
Early hominins, including H. rudolfensis, are thought to have had thick body hair coverage like modern non-human apes because they appear to have inhabited cooler regions and are thought to have had a less active lifestyle than (presumed hairless) post-ergaster species, and so probably required thick body hair to stay warm. The juvenile specimen KNM-ER 62000, a partial face, has the same age landmarks as a 13 to 14 year old modern human, but more likely died at around 8 years of age due to the presumed faster growth rate among early hominins based on dental development rate.
## Culture
It is typically thought that the diets of early Homo had a greater proportion of meat than Australopithecus, and that this led to brain growth. The main hypotheses regarding this are: meat is energy- and nutrient-rich and put evolutionary pressure on developing enhanced cognitive skills to facilitate strategic scavenging and monopolise fresh carcasses, or meat allowed the large and calorie-expensive ape gut to decrease in size allowing this energy to be diverted to brain growth. Alternatively, it is also suggested that early Homo, in a drying climate with scarcer food options, relied primarily on underground storage organs (such as tubers) and food sharing, which facilitated social bonding among both male and female group members. However, unlike what is presumed for H. ergaster and later Homo, short-statured early Homo were likely incapable of endurance running and hunting, and the long and Australopithecus-like forearm of H. habilis could indicate early Homo were still arboreal to a degree. Also, organised hunting and gathering is thought to have emerged in H. ergaster. Nonetheless, the proposed food-gathering models to explain large brain growth necessitate increased daily travel distance. Large incisor size in H. rudolfensis and H. habilis compared to Australopithecus predecessors implies these two species relied on incisors more. The large, Australopithecus-like molars could indicate more mechanically challenging food compared to later Homo. The bodies of the mandibles of H. rudolfensis and other early Homo are thicker than those of modern humans and all living apes, more comparable to Australopithecus. The mandibular body resists torsion from the bite force or chewing, meaning their jaws could produce unusually powerful stresses while eating.
H. rudolfensis is not associated with any tools. However, the greater molar cusp relief in H. rudolfensis and H. habilis compared to Australopithecus suggests the former two used tools to fracture tough foods (such as pliable plant parts or meat), otherwise the cusps would have been more worn down. Nonetheless, the jaw adaptations for processing mechanically challenging food indicates technological advancement did not greatly affect their diet. Large concentrations of stone tools are known from Koobi Fora. Because these aggregations are coincident with the emergence of H. ergaster, it is probable H. ergaster manufactured them, though it is not possible to definitively attribute the tools to a species because H. rudolfensis, H. habilis, and P. boisei are also well known from the area. The oldest specimen of Homo, LD 350-1, is associated with the Oldowan stone tool industry, meaning this tradition had been in use by the genus since near its emergence.
Early H. rudolfensis and Paranthropus have exceptionally thick molars for hominins, and the emergence of these two coincides with a cooling and aridity trend in Africa about 2.5 mya. This could mean they evolved due to climate change. Nonetheless, in East Africa, tropical forests and woodlands still persisted through periods of drought. H. rudolfensis coexisted with H. habilis, H. ergaster, and P. boisei.
## See also |
13,382,047 | U.S. Route 30 in New Jersey | 1,170,258,849 | Highway in New Jersey | [
"Intracoastal Waterway",
"Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey",
"Transportation in Camden County, New Jersey",
"Transportation in the Pine Barrens (New Jersey)",
"U.S. Highways in New Jersey",
"U.S. Route 30"
]
| U.S. Route 30 (US 30) is a U.S. highway running from Astoria, Oregon east to Atlantic City, New Jersey. In the U.S. state of New Jersey, US 30 runs 58.26 miles (93.76 km) from the Benjamin Franklin Bridge at the Delaware River in Camden, Camden County, while concurrent with Interstate 676 (I-676), southeast to Virginia Avenue in Atlantic City, Atlantic County. Most of the route in New Jersey is known as the White Horse Pike and is four lanes wide. The road runs through mostly developed areas in Camden County, with surroundings becoming more rural as the road approaches Atlantic County. US 30 runs through several towns including Collingswood, Berlin, Hammonton, Egg Harbor City, and Absecon.
Most of US 30 in New Jersey follows the White Horse Pike, a turnpike chartered in 1854 to run from Camden to Stratford and eventually toward Atlantic City. In 1917, pre-1927 Route 3 was legislated to run from Camden to Absecon on the White Horse Pike, while US 30 was designated in New Jersey in 1926 to connect Camden and Atlantic City via the White Horse Pike. A year later, pre-1927 Route 3 was replaced by Route 43, which ran between US 130 near Camden and US 9 (now Route 157) in Absecon, and Route 25 was designated along the portion of US 30 between the Benjamin Franklin Bridge and US 130. The segment of US 30 past Route 43 into Atlantic City became Route 56 in 1938. In 1953, the state highway designations were removed from US 30. A freeway was proposed for US 30 in Camden County during the late 1960s, running from Camden to Berlin; however, it was never built.
## Route description
### Camden County
US 30 crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey on the Benjamin Franklin Bridge from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, along with I-676 and the PATCO Speedline. The road continues east into the downtown area of Camden in Camden County as a seven-lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River Port Authority that passes to the north of the former site of Campbell's Field, a former baseball stadium, and comes to the westbound toll plaza for the bridge. Past the toll plaza, US 30 splits from I-676 at an interchange and heads southeast on the six-lane, divided Admiral Wilson Boulevard maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) and named for Henry Braid Wilson. This portion, formerly known as Bridge Approach Boulevard, is an early example of a roadway designed for the automobile, and was home to the first drive-in movie theatre. Along Admiral Wilson Boulevard, the route passes under a railroad line carrying Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Vineland Secondary and NJ Transit's River Line and interchanges with CR 537 before widening to eight lanes and crossing the Cooper River. The road runs east through urbanized sections of Camden along the north bank of the Cooper River, interchanging with CR 608. After this interchange, US 30 enters suburban Pennsauken Township and comes to the Airport Circle, which has been modified to include ramps. Here, US 30 meets US 130 and the western terminus of Route 38 and turns south to form a concurrency with US 130 on Crescent Boulevard, a six-lane divided highway that narrows to four lanes. The road crosses the Cooper River into Collingswood, running to the east of Harleigh Cemetery before interchanging with CR 561 and passing under the PATCO Speedline.
At the former Collingswood Circle, US 30 splits from US 130 by heading south-southeast on two-lane, undivided White Horse Pike. The road passes homes and some businesses before crossing the Newton Creek into Oaklyn, where it passes suburban residential and commercial development. US 30 forms the border between Oaklyn to the west and Haddon Township to the east before heading into Audubon. At the border of Audubon and Haddon Heights, the route crosses CR 551 Spur. In this town, the White Horse Pike reaches an intersection with Route 41 at a modified traffic circle and an interchange with I-295 within a close distance of each other in Barrington. At this point, the route is four lanes wide, with a short divided portion immediately south of I-295.
US 30 continues into Lawnside, becoming a four-lane undivided road. It passes under the New Jersey Turnpike, but there is no interchange present between the two roads. Past here, the road enters Magnolia, where it crosses CR 544. Following this intersection, the route heads through Somerdale before turning more southeast and forming the border between Stratford to the southwest and Somerdale to the northeast. US 30 entirely enters Stratford as it intersects CR 673 and passes near the Lindenwold station, which is a stop on NJ Transit’s Atlantic City Line and the terminus of the PATCO Speedline. The White Horse Pike turns back to the south-southeast and forms the border between Laurel Springs to the west and Lindenwold to the east before continuing fully into Lindenwold. The route later turns southeast and enters Clementon. After a turn to the east, US 30 runs along the border of Lindenwold to the north and Clementon to the south and fully enters Lindenwold again prior to the border with Berlin. In Berlin, the White Horse Pike becomes concurrent with CR 534 and then CR 561 a short distance later. US 30 turns to the south-southeast and passes through the downtown area of Berlin as a two-lane road. Past the downtown area, CR 534 and CR 561 split from US 30 at the same intersection, with CR 534 heading east on Jackson Road and CR 561 heading southeast on Tansboro Road, and US 30 widens back to four lanes. The White Horse Pike encounters Route 73 and CR 536 Spur at a cloverleaf interchange.
Following the interchange, US 30 enters Waterford Township, as it passes near the community of Atco. The road turns south as it passes Atco Lake and continues into more wooded areas with some development, eventually heading south-southeast again. NJ Transit’s Atlantic City Line runs a short distance to the northeast of the route at this point. US 30 continues through Chesilhurst before it enters Winslow Township. Here, the route intersects CR 536 and forms a short concurrency with that route before it heads to the east. From this point, the road continues into a mix of woodland, farmland, and development. US 30 intersects Route 143 and passes over the Atlantic City Line as it turns southeast. The road makes another turn to the south as it crosses CR 723 and passes under an abandoned railroad line.
### Atlantic County
US 30 heads southeast into Hammonton, Atlantic County, continuing through rural areas with increasing development. The road comes to its intersection with the southern terminus US 206 and the northern terminus of Route 54. A short distance later, the route has a concurrency with CR 542 that begins adjacent to the former Atlanticare - Kessler Memorial Hospital that closed in 2009 and passes by Hammonton Lake. US 30 turns south-southwest past the CR 542 concurrency before heading south. The route crosses CR 561 and turns southeast again, entering Mullica Township. Here, the White Horse Pike enters more forested areas with a few buildings, running a short distance to the northeast of the Atlantic City Line. Past the intersection with CR 623 in the developed community of Elwood, US 30 becomes a divided highway with grass median and jughandles. This configuration continues until Egg Harbor City, when the median ends. In Egg Harbor City, US 30 passes a mix of homes and businesses, intersecting the northern terminus of Route 50 and CR 563 in the center of town. At this point, CR 563 forms a concurrency with US 30 and the two routes continue through more of the town before crossing into Galloway Township at the intersection with CR 674. The road passes through rural areas with some development, reaching the community of Cologne. In this area, there is a crossroads with CR 614 before CR 563 splits from US 30 by turning south onto Tilton Road. Past Cologne, the road reaches a junction with CR 575 in the developed community of Pomona.
Following this intersection, US 30 continues southeast past wooded residential neighborhoods to the northeast, becoming a divided highway again. The route comes to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway, with access to and from the northbound direction of the parkway. Past this interchange, the road heads through commercial areas and continues into Absecon. In Absecon, the White Horse Pike widens to six lanes and crosses CR 651 before intersecting US 9. After passing near the Absecon station along the Atlantic City Line, US 30 crosses Shore Road, which heads north as Route 157 and south as CR 585. The road turns south, narrowing back to four lanes before entering marshland to the west of Absecon Bay. There is a northbound exit and southbound entrance to CR 646 before US 30 crosses the Jonathans Thorofare into Atlantic City, where the name becomes Absecon Boulevard as it turns to the east. Absecon Boulevard crosses Newfound Thorofare before heading south and passing over Duck Thorofare. The road passes by the Jersey-Atlantic Wind Farm and heads southeast across Beach Thorofare. At this point, US 30 widens to six lanes and passes to the north of residential neighborhoods, with maintenance of the road switching from NJDOT to the South Jersey Transportation Authority. After crossing the Penrose Canal, the route passes over the tunnel carrying the Atlantic City–Brigantine Connector and intersects the southern terminus of Route 87, where there is a ramp to the northbound Atlantic City–Brigantine Connector. The road passes areas of development and intersects an access road to the southbound Atlantic City–Brigantine Connector as well as Route 187. Two blocks later, US 30 ends at the intersection with Virginia Avenue and Adriatic Avenue, where Absecon Boulevard continues east as an unnumbered road.
## History
US 30 followed the course of an old Lenape trail running from what is now Camden to the Absegami lands, in what is now Absecon. This later became the White Horse Road. The White Horse Turnpike Company was incorporated January 27, 1854 with the authority to convert White Horse Road into a turnpike, running from Camden to Stratford and eventually to Atlantic City. By 1913, maintenance of the White Horse Pike became public, and the road was incorporated into an auto trail, signed as the White Horse Trail. The route of US 30 today in New Jersey was designated as pre-1927 Route 3 from 1916 to 1927 between Camden and Absecon. On October 30, 1925, plans were made for a cross-country route from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Atlantic City, New Jersey, as part of the U.S. Highway System. This road was designated U.S. Route 30 in 1926. It entered New Jersey from Pennsylvania in Camden and followed the entire length of pre-1927 Route 3 to Absecon before continuing into Atlantic City. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 43 replaced the Route 3 designation along US 30 between US 130 and US 9 (now Route 157) in Absecon while Route 25 was designated along with US 30 between the Benjamin Franklin Bridge and US 130. In 1938, the portion of US 30 from the terminus of Route 43 in Absecon into Atlantic City was designated as Route 56. Prior to the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, spur routes of Route 43 and Route 56 were planned. Route S43 was planned in 1938 to be a route running from Route 43 in Germania to Route 4 in Northfield; this was never built as a state highway but the alignment is now followed by CR 563. Route S56 was legislated in 1945 to be a spur of Route 56 to Brigantine along what had also been legislated as Route S4A; this road became Route 87 in 1953.
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, which eliminated several concurrencies between U.S. and state routes, the designations of routes 25, 43, and 56 were removed from US 30. Prior to the completion of I-676 across the Benjamin Franklin Bridge in the 1970s, US 30 used Penn Street eastbound and Linden Street westbound to travel between the bridge and Admiral Wilson Boulevard. In the late 1960s, a freeway was proposed for US 30 in Camden County by the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission. The freeway, which was to cost \$40 million, was to run from the Benjamin Franklin Bridge to I-295 in Barrington with a \$16 million extension to the planned Route 90 freeway in Berlin. The segment between Camden and Barrington was to be complete by 1975 while the extension to Berlin was to be finished by 1985. However, the NJDOT did not build this US 30 freeway. In 2009, the Collingswood Circle at the eastern end of the US 130 concurrency was replaced with an at-grade intersection with jughandles.
## Major intersections
## See also
- Black Horse Pike |
15,441 | Italian battleship Giulio Cesare | 1,153,098,874 | Dreadnought battleship of the Italian Royal Navy | [
"1911 ships",
"1955 in the Soviet Union",
"Battleships of the Soviet Navy",
"Conte di Cavour-class battleships",
"Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar",
"Italy–Soviet Union relations",
"Maritime incidents in 1955",
"Maritime incidents in the Soviet Union",
"Ships built by Gio. Ansaldo & C.",
"Ships built in Genoa",
"Ships sunk by mines",
"Shipwrecks in the Black Sea",
"World War I battleships of Italy",
"World War II battleships of Italy"
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| Giulio Cesare was one of three Conte di Cavour-class dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) in the 1910s. Completed in 1914, she was little used and saw no combat during the First World War. The ship supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 and spent much of the rest of the decade in reserve. She was rebuilt between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns, additional armor and considerably more speed than before.
During World War II, both Giulio Cesare and her sister ship, Conte di Cavour, participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940, when the former was lightly damaged. They were both present when British torpedo bombers attacked the fleet at Taranto in November 1940, but Giulio Cesare was not damaged. She escorted several convoys to North Africa and participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in late 1940 and the First Battle of Sirte in late 1941. She was designated as a training ship in early 1942, and escaped to Malta after the Italian armistice the following year. The ship was transferred to the Soviet Union in 1949 and renamed Novorossiysk (Новороссийск). The Soviets also used her for training until she was sunk in 1955, with the loss of 617 men, by an explosion most likely caused by an old German mine. She was salvaged the following year and later scrapped.
## Description
The Conte di Cavour class was designed to counter the French Courbet-class dreadnoughts which caused them to be slower and more heavily armored than the first Italian dreadnought, Dante Alighieri. The ships were 168.9 meters (554 ft 2 in) long at the waterline and 176 meters (577 ft 5 in) overall. They had a beam of 28 meters (91 ft 10 in), and a draft of 9.3 meters (30 ft 6 in). The Conte di Cavour-class ships displaced 23,088 long tons (23,458 t) at normal load, and 25,086 long tons (25,489 t) at deep load. They had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men. The ships were powered by three sets of Parsons steam turbines, two sets driving the outer propeller shafts and one set the two inner shafts. Steam for the turbines was provided by 24 Babcock & Wilcox boilers, half of which burned fuel oil and the other half burning both oil and coal. Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22.5 knots (41.7 km/h; 25.9 mph) from 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW), Giulio Cesare failed to reach this goal on her sea trials, reaching only 21.56 knots (39.9 km/h; 24.8 mph) from 30,700 shp (22,900 kW). The ships carried enough coal and oil to give them a range of 4,800 nautical miles (8,900 km; 5,500 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
### Armament and armor
The main battery of the Conte di Cavour class consisted of thirteen 305-millimeter Model 1909 guns, in five gun turrets, with a twin-gun turret superfiring over a triple-gun turret in fore and aft pairs, and a third triple turret amidships. Their secondary armament consisted of eighteen 120-millimeter (4.7 in) guns mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull. For defense against torpedo boats, the ships carried fourteen 76.2-millimeter (3 in) guns; thirteen of these could be mounted on the turret tops, but they could be positioned in 30 different locations, including some on the forecastle and upper decks. They were also fitted with three submerged 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, one on each broadside and the third in the stern.
The Conte di Cavour-class ships had a complete waterline armor belt that had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters (9.8 in) amidships, which reduced to 130 millimeters (5.1 in) towards the stern and 80 millimeters (3.1 in) towards the bow. They had two armored decks: the main deck was 24 mm (0.94 in) thick on the flat that increased to 40 millimeters (1.6 in) on the slopes that connected it to the main belt. The second deck was 30 millimeters (1.2 in) thick. Frontal armor of the gun turrets was 280 millimeters (11 in) in thickness and the sides were 240 millimeters (9.4 in) thick. The armor protecting their barbettes ranged in thickness from 130 to 230 millimeters (5.1 to 9.1 in). The walls of the forward conning tower were 280 millimeters thick.
## Modifications and reconstruction
Shortly after the end of World War I, the number of 76.2 mm guns was reduced to 13, all mounted on the turret tops, and six new 76.2-millimeter anti-aircraft (AA) guns were installed abreast the aft funnel. In addition two license-built 2-pounder (1.6 in (40 mm)) AA guns were mounted on the forecastle deck. In 1925–1926 the foremast was replaced by a four-legged (tetrapodal) mast, which was moved forward of the funnels, the rangefinders were upgraded, and the ship was equipped to handle a Macchi M.18 seaplane mounted on the amidships turret. Around that same time, either one or both of the ships was equipped with a fixed aircraft catapult on the port side of the forecastle.
Giulio Cesare began an extensive reconstruction in October 1933 at the Cantieri del Tirreno shipyard in Genoa that lasted until October 1937. A new bow section was grafted over the existing bow which increased her length by 10.31 meters (33 ft 10 in) to 186.4 meters (611 ft 7 in) and her beam increased to 28.6 meters (93 ft 10 in). The ship's draft at deep load increased to 10.42 meters (34 ft 2 in). All of the changes made increased her displacement to 26,140 long tons (26,560 t) at standard load and 29,100 long tons (29,600 t) at deep load. The ship's crew increased to 1,260 officers and enlisted men. Two of the propeller shafts were removed and the existing turbines were replaced by two Belluzzo geared steam turbines rated at 75,000 shp (56,000 kW). The boilers were replaced by eight Yarrow boilers. On her sea trials in December 1936, before her reconstruction was fully completed, Giulio Cesare reached a speed of 28.24 knots (52.30 km/h; 32.50 mph) from 93,430 shp (69,670 kW). In service her maximum speed was about 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph) and she had a range of 6,400 nautical miles (11,900 km; 7,400 mi) at a speed of 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph).
The main guns were bored out to 320 mm (12.6 in) and the center turret and the torpedo tubes were removed. All of the existing secondary armament and AA guns were replaced by a dozen 120 mm guns in six twin-gun turrets and eight 100 mm (4 in) AA guns in twin turrets. In addition the ship was fitted with a dozen Breda 37-millimeter (1.5 in) light AA guns in six twin-gun mounts and twelve 13.2-millimeter (0.52 in) Breda M31 anti-aircraft machine guns, also in twin mounts. In 1940 the 13.2 mm machine guns were replaced by 20 mm (0.79 in) AA guns in twin mounts. Giulio Cesare received two more twin mounts as well as four additional 37 mm guns in twin mounts on the forecastle between the two turrets in 1941. The tetrapodal mast was replaced with a new forward conning tower, protected with 260-millimeter (10.2 in) thick armor. Atop the conning tower there was a fire-control director fitted with two large stereo-rangefinders, with a base length of 7.2 meters (23.6 ft).
The deck armor was increased during the reconstruction to a total of 135 millimeters (5.3 in) over the engine and boiler rooms and 166 millimeters (6.5 in) over the magazines, although its distribution over three decks, meant that it was considerably less effective than a single plate of the same thickness. The armor protecting the barbettes was reinforced with 50-millimeter (2 in) plates. All this armor weighed a total of 3,227 long tons (3,279 t). The existing underwater protection was replaced by the Pugliese torpedo defense system that consisted of a large cylinder surrounded by fuel oil or water that was intended to absorb the blast of a torpedo warhead. It lacked, however, enough depth to be fully effective against contemporary torpedoes. A major problem of the reconstruction was that the ship's increased draft meant that their waterline armor belt was almost completely submerged with any significant load.
## Construction and service
Giulio Cesare, named after Julius Caesar, was laid down at the Gio. Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa on 24 June 1910 and launched on 15 October 1911. She was completed on 14 May 1914 and served as a flagship in the southern Adriatic Sea during World War I. She saw no action, however, and spent little time at sea. Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, the Italian naval chief of staff, believed that Austro-Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic. The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way. Instead, Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet, while smaller vessels, such as the MAS torpedo boats, conducted raids on Austro-Hungarian ships and installations. Meanwhile, Revel's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro-Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement.
Giulio Cesare made port visits in the Levant in 1919 and 1920. Both Giulio Cesare and Conte di Cavour supported Italian operations on Corfu in 1923 after an Italian general and his staff were murdered at the Greek–Albanian frontier; Benito Mussolini, who had been looking for a pretext to seize Corfu, ordered Italian troops to occupy the island. Cesare became a gunnery training ship in 1928, after having been in reserve since 1926. She was reconstructed at Cantieri del Tirreno, Genoa, between 1933 and 1937. Both ships participated in a naval review by Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples in May 1938 and covered the invasion of Albania in May 1939.
### World War II
Early in World War II, the ship took part in the Battle of Calabria (also known as the Battle of Punta Stilo), together with Conte di Cavour, on 9 July 1940, as part of the 1st Battle Squadron, commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni, during which she engaged major elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet. The British were escorting a convoy from Malta to Alexandria, while the Italians had finished escorting another from Naples to Benghazi, Libya. Admiral Andrew Cunningham, commander of the Mediterranean Fleet, attempted to interpose his ships between the Italians and their base at Taranto. Crew on the fleets spotted each other in the middle of the afternoon and the battleships opened fire at 15:53 at a range of nearly 27,000 meters (29,000 yd). The two leading British battleships, HMS Warspite and Malaya, replied a minute later. Three minutes after she opened fire, shells from Giulio Cesare began to straddle Warspite which made a small turn and increased speed, to throw off the Italian ship's aim, at 16:00. Some rounds fired by Giulio Cesare overshot Warspite and near-missed the destroyers HMS Decoy and Hereward, puncturing their superstructures with splinters. At that same time, a shell from Warspite struck Giulio Cesare at a distance of about 24,000 meters (26,000 yd). The shell pierced the rear funnel and detonated inside it, blowing out a hole nearly 6.1 meters (20 ft) across. Fragments started several fires and their smoke was drawn into the boiler rooms, forcing four boilers off-line as their operators could not breathe. This reduced the ship's speed to 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). Uncertain how severe the damage was, Campioni ordered his battleships to turn away in the face of superior British numbers and they successfully disengaged. Repairs to Giulio Cesare were completed by the end of August and both ships unsuccessfully attempted to intercept British convoys to Malta in August and September.
On the night of 11 November 1940, Giulio Cesare and the other Italian battleships were at anchor in Taranto harbor when they were attacked by 21 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious, along with several other warships. One torpedo sank Conte di Cavour in shallow water, but Giulio Cesare was not hit during the attack. She participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November 1940, but never got close enough to any British ships to fire at them. The ship was damaged in January 1941 by splinters from a near miss during an air raid on Naples by Vickers Wellington bombers of the Royal Air Force; repairs at Genoa were completed in early February. On 8 February, she sailed from to the Straits of Bonifacio to intercept what the Italians thought was a Malta convoy, but was actually a raid on Genoa. She failed to make contact with any British forces. She participated in the First Battle of Sirte on 17 December 1941, providing distant cover for a convoy bound for Libya, and briefly engaging the escort force of a British convoy. She also provided distant cover for another convoy to North Africa in early January 1942. Giulio Cesare was reduced to a training ship afterwards at Taranto and later Pola. After the Italian surrender on 8 September 1943, she steamed to Taranto, putting down a mutiny and enduring an ineffective attack by five German aircraft en route. She then sailed for Malta where she arrived on 12 September to be interned. The ship remained there until 17 June 1944 when she returned to Taranto where she remained for the next four years.
### Soviet service
After the war, Giulio Cesare was allocated to the Soviet Union as part of war reparations. She was moved to Augusta, Sicily, on 9 December 1948, where an unsuccessful attempt was made at sabotage. The ship was stricken from the naval register on 15 December and turned over to the Soviets on 6 February 1949 under the temporary name of Z11 in Vlorë, Albania. She was renamed Novorossiysk, after the Soviet city of that name on the Black Sea. The Soviets used her as a training ship, and gave her eight refits. In 1953, all Italian light AA guns were replaced by eighteen 37 mm 70-K AA guns in six twin mounts and six singles. Also replaced were her fire-control systems and radars. This was intended as a temporary rearmament, as the Soviets drew up plans to replace her secondary 120mm mounts with the 130mm/58 SM-2 that was in development, and the 100mm and 37mm guns with 8 quadruple 45mm. While at anchor in Sevastopol on the night of 28/29 October 1955, an explosion ripped a 4-by-14-meter (13 by 46 ft) hole in the forecastle forward of 'A' turret. The flooding could not be controlled, and she capsized with the loss of 617 men, including 61 men sent from other ships to assist.
The cause of the explosion is still unclear. The official cause, regarded as the most probable, was a magnetic RMH or LMB bottom mine, laid by the Germans during World War II and triggered by the dragging of the battleship's anchor chain before mooring for the last time. Subsequent searches located 32 mines of these types, some of them within 50 meters (160 ft) of the explosion. The damage was consistent with an explosion of 1,000–1,200 kilograms (2,200–2,600 lb) of TNT, and more than one mine may have detonated. Other explanations for the ship's loss have been proposed, and the most popular of these is that she was sunk by Italian frogmen of the wartime special operations unit Decima Flottiglia MAS who – more than ten years after the cessation of hostilities – were either avenging the transfer of the former Italian battleship to the USSR or sinking it on behalf of NATO. Novorossiysk was stricken from the naval register on 24 February 1956, salvaged on 4 May 1957, and subsequently scrapped. |
25,606,529 | Cyclone Gwenda | 1,173,265,107 | Category 5 Australian region cyclone in 1999 | [
"1990s in Western Australia",
"1999 in Australia",
"Category 5 Australian region cyclones",
"Retired Australian region cyclones",
"Tropical cyclones in Western Australia"
]
| Severe Tropical Cyclone Gwenda is tied with Cyclone Inigo as the most intense Australian tropical cyclone on record (with the possible exception of Cyclone Mahina), with a barometric pressure of 900 hPa (mbar) and was the most intense storm worldwide in 1999. Forming out of a tropical disturbance over the Arafura Sea on 2 April 1999, the precursor to Gwenda tracked slowly westward and gradually became more organised. On 4 April, the system developed into a Category 1 cyclone and was named Gwenda. It began to undergo explosive intensification the following day, and in a 30-hour span ending early on 7 April, the storm's maximum 10-minute sustained wind speed increased from 75 to 225 km/h (45 to 140 mph) and its barometric pressure decreased to 900 hPa (mbar). The Joint Typhoon Warning Center reported that the storm had peaked as a high-end Category 4 equivalent on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale.
Increasing wind shear and an acceleration in forward speed caused Gwenda to quickly weaken. Less than 18 hours after peaking, the storm made landfall roughly 45 km (28 mi) east of Port Hedland, Western Australia with winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). After moving ashore, Gwenda abruptly stalled before dissipating on 8 April. Although it was once an extremely intense cyclone, the factors that caused its deterioration also prevented significant damage. Rainfall from the storm peaked at 205 mm (8.1 in). Minor structural damage was reported, and only localised flooding was recorded. Following its usage, the name Gwenda was retired at the end of the season.
## Meteorological history
Severe Tropical Cyclone Gwenda originated from a weak tropical disturbance that formed on 1 April over the Arafura Sea. Drifting westward, the system gradually became better organised, and early on 2 April, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology classified it as a tropical low. Over the following two days, the low continued to mature; on 4 April, the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded it to a Category 1 cyclone and named it Gwenda. Around the same time, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as deep convection became concentrated around the centre of circulation and the system's outflow significantly improved. Located within an environment of low to moderate wind shear, the storm was expected to intensify.
By 5 April, the JTWC began issuing advisories on Gwenda, classifying it as a weak tropical storm and designating it as Cyclone 32S. Tracking southwest in response to a subtropical ridge to the south, Gwenda began to rapidly intensify. Its forward motion significantly decreased as it turned due south before curving towards the southeast, and in a 30-hour span, maximum winds around the centre of the storm increased from 75 to 225 km/h (45 to 140 mph). The barometric pressure decreased by 90 hPa (mbar), making Gwenda one of the fastest intensifying storms on record. At the end of the intensification phase on 7 April, the Bureau of Meteorology classified the storm as a Category 5 cyclone, the third of the season, with a pressure of 900 hPa (mbar). The JTWC also reported a substantial increase in intensity, classifying Gwenda as a high-end Category 4 equivalent on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale with 1-minute sustained winds of 240 km/h (150 mph).
Upon attaining peak intensity, Gwenda displayed a well-defined 30 km (19 mi) eye surrounded by deep convection. At this time, some monitoring satellites estimated that it had attained winds of 260 km/h (160 mph), equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane. While Gwenda was active, the Bureau of Meteorology stated that its intensity peaked with winds of 215 km/h (135 mph) and a pressure of 915 hPa (mbar). Hours after attaining this intensity, increasing wind shear began to impact the cyclone, causing convection to become elongated and the eye less defined. Rapid weakening commenced as Gwenda turned southeastward towards the Pilbara coastline.
The cyclone continued to deteriorate as it approached Western Australia, with convection displaced ahead of its centre. In addition to the wind shear, Gwenda's forward speed suddenly increased, leading to further disorganisation. Late on 7 April, the centre of Gwenda made landfall as a Category 2 cyclone roughly 45 km (28 mi) east of Port Hedland with winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). The JTWC estimated the storm to have been slightly stronger at landfall, with winds near 120 km/h (75 mph). Shortly after moving inland, the JTWC issued their final advisory on the weakening storm. The Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor Gwenda as it abruptly stalled just onshore. However, convection associated with Gwenda continued to stream southeastward due to high wind shear. The storm's remnants persisted for several hours before dissipating early on 8 April.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology uses 10-minute sustained winds, while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one-minute sustained winds. The Bureau of Meteorology's peak intensity for Gwenda was 225 km/h (140 mph) 10-minute sustained, or 260 km/h (160 mph) one-minute sustained. The JTWC's peak intensity for Gwenda was 240 km/h (150 mph) one-minute sustained, or 220 km/h (135 mph) 10-minute sustained.
## Preparations, impact and records
Already suffering from the effects of Cyclone Vance two weeks earlier, which had destroyed or severely damaged 40% of the homes in Exmouth, residents in Western Australia heeded warnings of the impending cyclone. By 6 April, the Bureau of Meteorology had issued storm warnings for areas between Port Hedland and Exmouth. State Emergency Services throughout the threatened areas were put on high alert. Several offshore oil platforms were shut down and evacuated on 6 April and did not reopen until 15 April. Hours before the storm made landfall, the State Emergency Services stated that "Gwenda potentially had the destructive power of Cyclone Vance", and urged residents to seek appropriate shelter. Shortly before the storm struck, Len Broadbridge, director of the Western Australia Bureau of Meteorology declared, "Port Hedland is now in grave danger."
Despite the cyclone's strength, its effects were relatively minor. Winds up to 100 km/h (62 mph) were recorded in Port Hedland, leading to minor structural damage. The police in Port Hedland reported severe damage to one house, but no deaths or injuries. Emergency crews were sent to the northwest coast of Australia to assist in cleaning up damages, but found no "major incidents" or significant damage as a result of the storm. A group of five people on a camping trip in the Outback were stranded by the storm, when heavy rains swept away their vehicle. The group "would have perished", but one of its members hiked non-stop for twenty four hours to a manganese mine where he contacted rescuers.
In a 12-hour span, Port Hedland recorded 86 mm (3.4 in) of rain, well-above the average April precipitation total of 23 mm (0.91 in). Towns in the Pilbara region of Australia received heavy rainfall, amounting to 130 mm (5.1 in) in some places. Carlindi picked up the greatest rainfall total of 205 mm (8.1 in). This rain caused localised flooding, especially in Nullagine where the river traversing the town broke its banks. The rainfall contributed to a long-term cooling effect in northern Western Australia, leading to below-average temperatures for much of April.
At its peak Gwenda was the strongest storm on record to form near Australia, surpassing Cyclone Orson in 1989. Gwenda held this record until 2003, when its maximum winds were eclipsed by Cyclone Inigo. Despite the minimal damage, the name was retired from the circulating lists of tropical cyclone names for the Australian Region.
## See also
- Cyclone Mahina
- Cyclone Monica - Had the strongest maximum wind speeds ever recorded in the Australian basin
- Cyclone Inigo
- Cyclone Lua |
35,272,272 | Spring of Life (song) | 1,171,470,005 | null | [
"2012 singles",
"2012 songs",
"Billboard Japan Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Japanese-language songs",
"Perfume (Japanese band) songs",
"Song recordings produced by Yasutaka Nakata",
"Songs written by Yasutaka Nakata",
"Universal J singles"
]
| "Spring of Life" is a song by Japanese girl group Perfume from their fourth studio album Level3 (2013). The song was released as the album's lead single on 11 April 2012. It was written, composed and produced by Yasutaka Nakata. The song is a dance track, which features instrumentation from synthesizers and keyboards. "Spring of Life" is the group's first offering after departing from Tokuma Japan Communications and signing with Universal Music Japan.
"Spring of Life" received positive reviews from music critics, whom complimented the song's production and composition. Despite peaking at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart, it became the group's third single to top the Billboard Japan Hot 100. An album version of the track was re-composed and re-arranged by Nakata for the parent album. Yusuke Tanaka directed the accompanying music video for the single, which shows Perfume as robots and dancing with fairy lights around them. Perfume have performed the song in a number of live performances throughout Japan.
## Background and composition
Japanese producer and Capsule musician Yasutaka Nakata had written, arranged and composed the song. Nakata has collaborated with all of Perfume's records and songs from 2003 onwards. It was recorded in Tokyo, Japan and was mixed and mastered by Nakata. It is a dance song that fuses musical elements of techno, electronic music and pop music, and incorporates instrumentation from a drum machine, synthesizer and keyboards. This was Nataka's first single to be produced within the label since Meg's single "Passport/Paris" in 2010.
## Reception
"Spring of Life" received favorable reviews from most music critics. Writing for Land of Rising, Alex Shenmue favored the “well-done” mix of the album version and felt it was a “clear improvement that you’ll hardly come back to the single version after hearing this new mix.” Patrick St. Michael, writing for The Japan Times, said the composition wasn't an “improvement” but commented that it was "simple, catchy pop." Selective Hearing'''s writer Nia selected "Spring of Life" as an album stand out, favoring the bridge section of the song. Ian Martin, who had written their extended biography at Allmusic, had highlighted the song as an album and career standout.
The song only charted in Japan. Reaching number two on the Oricon Singles Chart, it became the group's sixth consecutive single to stall at number two. The following singles "Spending All My Time" and "Mirai no Museum" peaked at two, while the fourth single "Magic of Love" reached number three. The track peaked at number one on the Japan Hot 100, making it the group's third single to reach the top spot and their first since their 2009 single "One Room Disco". In April 2012, "Spring of Life" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) in for shipments of 100,000 units in Japan.
## Release and promotion
Selected as the lead single of Level3, the song was distributed digitally at Chaku-Uta on February 29, 2012. Two CD singles were issued; a standalone CD which included the b-side "Communication" and a bonus DVD version. The title track had already been chosen as the CM song for ‘Kirin Chu-hai Hyouketsu‘. The b-side "Communication" was chosen as the CM song for ‘Kanro Pure Gummy‘ candy.
The official music video was directed by Japanese director Yusuke Tanaka. The video features Perfume as robots, controlled by an automated-computer to perform human-like interactions such as eating, dancing, smiling and crying. Some verses and the choruses feature the group dancing to the song. It ends with member Nocchi pulling the power-plug from member A-chan's back, shutting down the computer and Perfume. The members stated that they found it interesting to try and imitate the image of themselves as robots and dolls and found the choreography to be the most powerful that they've done so far.
Perfume had included the album version of the track to their Perfume 4th Tour in DOME: LEVEL3'' tour, which features the members in blue dresses. It was featured on the DVD version of the concert and uploaded on their YouTube channel.
## Track listing
## Credits and personnel
Details adapted from the liner notes of the "Spring of Life" CD single.
### Song credits
- Ayano Ōmoto (Nocchi) – vocals
- Yuka Kashino (Kashiyuka) – vocals
- Ayaka Nishiwaki (A-Chan) – vocals
- Yasutaka Nakata – producer, composer, arranger, mixing, mastering.
### Visual credits
- Yusuke Tanaka – director
- Takahiko Kajima – video producer
- Kazunali Tajima – camera
- Mikiko – choreographer
## Charts
## Certifications
## Release history |
57,063,420 | Minneapolis City Center | 1,167,435,355 | null | [
"1983 establishments in Minnesota",
"Buildings and structures in Minneapolis",
"Shopping malls established in 1983",
"Shopping malls in Hennepin County, Minnesota",
"Shopping malls in Minnesota",
"Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings",
"Tourist attractions in Minneapolis"
]
| Minneapolis City Center (also known simply as City Center) is a mixed-use shopping mall on Nicollet Mall in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It opened in 1983 and occupies the bottom three floors of the 33 South Sixth office building. Designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Minneapolis City Center contains 250,000 square feet (23,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of leasable retail space. The mall was built around the pre-existing Forum Cafeteria restaurant. The building is adjacent to the Marriott Hotel City Center and connected to the Gaviidae Common shopping mall.
Until January 2023, Minneapolis City Center was anchored by Marshalls. Currently all anchor spaces sit vacant. Former major tenants at the mall included Carson Pirie Scott, Donaldson's, Montgomery Ward, Office Depot, Saks Off Fifth Avenue, and Sports Authority. Through the Minneapolis Skyway System, the mall connects to six other surrounding buildings. The center has also undergone several major renovations, including one in 2005 and an ongoing one that began in 2019.
## History
Minneapolis City Center first opened in 1983 between the 6th and 7th Street blocks along Minneapolis' Nicollet Mall. It was designed by the architectural firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, occupying the first three floors of the 33 South Sixth skyscraper. Ground was broken for the project in December 1979, headed by Minneapolis City Council president Lou DeMars. Construction of the mall was estimated to cost US\$37 million (US\$130 million in 2019), with assistance from a citywide tax increment initiative. Canada-based Oxford Properties agreed to develop Minneapolis City Center after much discussion: "Oxford pitched the project to the [Minneapolis] council by promising to reimburse the city for the full cost of acquiring the downtown block [...] First, though, the city would have to acquire the site using its powers of condemnation, bulldoze the existing building, and prepare the site for construction." The mall was originally anchored by a flagship Donaldson's department store, which opened ahead of the rest of the project in August 1982. The anchor later transitioned into a Carson Pirie Scott location after the retailer purchased Donaldson's in 1986.
In 1993, Montgomery Ward took over some of the space previously occupied by Carson Pirie Scott. Unused parts of the anchor tenant were transformed into leasable space for Marshalls and smaller retailers such as Limited Express and Musicland. Montgomery Ward later closed its Minneapolis location in October 1997 and was partially replaced with an Office Depot location in 1999. During 2005, the shopping center underwent a US\$15 million renovation. San Francisco-based Shorenstein Properties purchased Minneapolis City Center in 2012.
In January 2015, Saks Fifth Avenue announced plans to open a clearance store at the Minneapolis City Center, relocating from their former 27,000-square-foot (2,500 m<sup>2</sup>) location at the neighboring Gaviidae Common. The new location opened on April 21, 2016, in the two-story, 40,000-square-foot (3,700 m<sup>2</sup>) space formerly occupied by Office Depot, which closed in 2014. On October 9, 2015, Sports Authority opened a 22,000-square-foot (2,000 m<sup>2</sup>) anchor store on the southern corner. Less than a year later, the location closed along with 140 other locations nationwide. During Super Bowl LII, which took place in Minneapolis, the empty space last tenanted by Sports Authority was used as temporary office space for National Football League employees and volunteers. Other tenants leasing space at Minneapolis City Center throughout the decade include Allen Edmonds, Brooks Brothers, Fogo de Chão, and GNC. Cardigan Donuts also opened their flagship location at City Center in 2017. Local upscale retailer Len Druskin once occupied several spaces within the shopping center but shuttered all locations in 2017, following a buyout from Lebanese-American businessman Marcus Lemonis.
On July 15, 2018, a customer inside of the basement Marshalls store deliberately set a clothing rack on fire, causing US\$500,000 worth of damage to merchandise. A month later, the suspect was arrested and charged with two counts of arson, backed by surveillance camera footage which captured the incident. In October of the same year, a restaurant named Fhima's launched in a space previously vacant but once occupied by a cafeteria-style eatery. In March 2021, the Target Corporation, a major tenant of 33 South Sixth and an occupant of Minneapolis City Center, announced it would prematurely end its lease.
## Design and location
Minneapolis City Center features elements of modern and brutalist architecture. According to MinnPost's Nick Magrino, the center's brutalist exterior appearance is similar to that of the nearby Riverside Plaza apartment complex. It was designed as part of an initiative by Minneapolis to increase the amount of retail located within the downtown neighborhood. Minneapolis City Center incorporated an already existing onsite restaurant, named the Forum Cafeteria, into its design during construction. The appearance of the center, however, was criticized by some Minneapolis residents for being "bland" and boring. Beneath the shopping mall is a seven-story parking garage with 687 spaces for employees of the building and 33 South Sixth.
Minneapolis City Center also serves as a major hub for the Minneapolis Skyway System, serving as a connecting point for six skyways. The mall connects to 50 South Sixth, 700 Nicollet, Gaviidae Common, Mayo Clinic Square, the Plymouth Building, and Radisson Blu Minneapolis Downtown. Adjacent to the building is the Marriott Hotel City Center, the tallest hotel in Minneapolis, which was also designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and completed in 1983.
## Future construction
In June 2018, an unidentified foreign buyer purchased Minneapolis City Center and the adjoining 33 South Sixth building for US\$320 million, establishing a record-breaking sale for office-designated buildings in Minnesota. Minneapolis-based Ryan Companies serves as the new manager of the retail complex according to city documents. Upon the news, Ryan Companies announced plans to renovate the center in order to create better access to Nicollet Mall. On August 1, 2019, the US\$3 million renovation began on the mall's eastern facade, beginning with the removal process of precast concrete panels. One of the new corner entrances to the building, reopened in September 2020, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The US\$3 million entrance was described as "definitely an upgrade" to City Center by Star Tribune's Neal St. Anthony. |
1,084,642 | Pretty on the Inside | 1,160,161,231 | null | [
"1991 debut albums",
"Art punk albums",
"Caroline Records albums",
"City Slang albums",
"Hole (band) albums",
"Noise rock albums by American artists",
"Punk rock albums by American artists",
"albums produced by Don Fleming (musician)"
]
| Pretty on the Inside is the debut studio album by American alternative rock band Hole, released on September 17, 1991, in the United States on Caroline Records. Produced by Sonic Youth's Kim Gordon, and Gumball frontman Don Fleming, the album was Hole's first major label release after the band's formation in 1989 by vocalist, songwriter, and guitarist Courtney Love and lead guitarist Eric Erlandson.
Blending elements of punk rock and sludge metal, the album features distorted and alternating guitar compositions, screaming vocals from Love, and "sloppy punk ethics", a style which the band would later distance themselves from, opting for a less abrasive sound on subsequent releases. Love's lyrics on the album are often presented in an abstract narrative form, and describe disparate scenes of graphic violence, death, and female sexuality. The record was dedicated to Rob Ritter of the Los Angeles punk rock acts the Bags and The Gun Club.
Upon release, Pretty on the Inside was well-received by alternative music critics, garnering favorable reviews that drew comparisons to the works of Black Sabbath and Patti Smith. It was met with considerable commercial success in the United Kingdom, where the record's lead single, "Teenage Whore", entered the UK Indie Chart at number one in September 1991. It has sold over 200,000 copies in the United States and gained a contemporary cult following among punk rock fans, and has been cited as a seminal influence for songwriters and musicians such as Brody Dalle and Scout Niblett. Despite its critical acclaim, frontwoman Courtney Love went on to refer to the album as "unlistenable" in later years, though her stance on it eventually shifted, as she commented in 2021 that she had "really put the album down," and that making it was a "transformative" experience for her. Vinyl LP versions of the album have been reissued several times.
## Background
Hole formed in 1989 in Los Angeles, California when frontwoman Courtney Love, after years of fruitless attempts at forming bands, bought her neighbor Lisa Roberts a bass and posted an advertisement in a local paper stating: "I want to start a band. My influences are Big Black, Sonic Youth, and Fleetwood Mac." Eric Erlandson, along with over a dozen other musicians, answered the ad. Love later said that she knew Eric was "the one" as soon as they met, and that he had a "Thurston Moore quality about him" that she liked.
Erlandson said that early in Hole's career, they were more interested in "making noise" than achieving success and before drummer Caroline Rue joined the band that they used no percussion whatsoever. It was not until Love and Erlandson heard Mudhoney's "Touch Me I'm Sick" that they began to think about taking the band to the next level. Early on, the band was most influenced by the New York No Wave art and music scene of the 1980s, which included visual artists, such as Richard Kern, as well as scuzz rock acts, such as Teenage Jesus and the Jerks, Sonic Youth, and Pussy Galore. The band also featured a third guitarist in its early days, first Mike Geisbrecht and then Errol Stewart. After the band's first four shows, the original lineup disbanded and Hole recruited bassist Jill Emery in 1990.
In the documentary film Not Bad for a Girl, Love, who had been in the erotic dancing industry for years prior, said that she worked as a stripper to help support the band in its early incarnation. She also cited her work as a dancer as being one of many inspirations for the songs on Pretty on the Inside: "I was blonde, wore makeup, had to support my band by dancing, and had to play this ridiculous archetype at work ... so I took, you know, high heels and white pumps, and I had a wiglet—I just took that and messed with it."
## Recording and production
Hole had previously released two singles, "Retard Girl" on Sympathy for the Record Industry and "Dicknail" on Sub Pop. According to Love, she had initially wanted to release the album on Sympathy for the Record Industry, but was "talked into" signing on with Caroline Records. After signing, Love sought Sonic Youth's Kim Gordon to produce the album. In January 1991, Love sent her a letter, a Hello Kitty barrette, and copies of the band's early singles, mentioning that the band greatly admired Gordon's work and appreciated "the production of the SST record" (referring to Sonic Youth's EVOL or Sister). Gordon agreed on the condition that her friend, Gumball frontman Don Fleming, assist. The band entered Music Box Studios in Los Angeles with Gordon and Fleming in March 1991, and worked on the album for one week; the songs were recorded over a period of four days, and were mixed over the course of a further three days. During the recording sessions for the album, Love purportedly gargled whiskey and excessively smoked cigarettes before takes to give a raw edge to her vocals.
Fleming stated he was impressed by Love's "focus and intensity", especially while recording vocals for one song when Love "literally ripped her clothes off while she sang". "Courtney was amazing", said Fleming. "She was the most gung-ho person I've ever met. She was going to make the greatest record ever—I like that attitude in the studio. Courtney was like 'Let's go, fuckers', and I loved that." In a later interview, Fleming said:
> Courtney was great at the time—it was before she even knew Kurt [Cobain]. She gave 180%. I've worked with some people that you've had to coax the performance out of them. With Courtney, there was no attitude. She was gonna give it all. And she did and it was really impressive to me ... I loved the whole band; they were a lot of fun. That early lineup of Hole—I felt they were the real deal. They were Hollywood misfits—all of them. I felt it really captured what they were.
Gordon said that Love "was either charming and nice or screaming at her band" but that she was "a really good singer and entertainer and front person."
From her own recollection, Love said that the recording sessions lasted "about a week... Eric was in charge of the [guitar] tones, and I just did whatever the fuck I wanted." According to Rue, Gordon encouraged the band to freely improvise in the studio, which resulted in the recording of several tracks that appear on the album, such as "Sassy". Rue injured her finger on a diecast rim while recording the song, and ceased her drumming; Love is heard in the track saying "sit back down, sit back down" in response to Rue standing up from her drum kit.
## Composition
### Music and arrangements
The music of Pretty on the Inside has been noted by critics for its abrasive instrumentation and arrangements, often with melodies "buried" underneath. The album's sonic elements are heavily influenced by Los Angeles hardcore punk as well as New York's no wave scene; many of the tracks are accompanied by overt use of feedback, experimental playing, wah pedals, and use of sampling and interpolation. Rapid sliding techniques and string muting are also heavily present on the album, as well as what Love and Erlandson describe as "Sonic Youth tunings". Love's vocals range from whispers to violent screaming, often in succession with the extreme shifts in speed and volume.
Drummer Caroline Rue described the band's songwriting process as collaborative and organic; she stated that she wrote her own drum parts in response to Love's guitar playing and lyrics, adding that Love never gave her direction or requested that she make changes to her drumming approach.
The album contains numerous musical references to other musicians and songs, specifically in "Sassy" and "Starbelly": The guitar riff featured in "Starbelly" is based on Neil Young's "Cinnamon Girl" and features analog cassette excerpts from "Rhiannon" by Fleetwood Mac and an early recording of "Best Sunday Dress" by Pagan Babies, one of Love's earlier bands with Kat Bjelland; "Sassy" includes snippets from an angry message left by Nymphs singer Inger Lorre on Love's answering machine, accompanied by a singular chord progression repeated throughout. Love has admitted that the main riff to "Mrs. Jones" was copied verbatim from "Dark Entries" by the goth rock group Bauhaus, one of her favorite bands as a teenager.
In a 1991 Canadian television interview, Love commented on the album's coarse musical structure. She said that since the band was from Los Angeles, the "metal capital of the US", they thought they were making a "pop record with an edge", and were surprised by people's reactions when they were told it was violent and extreme. Love added, "It was all about the expression of my experience. I was not coming from a black void; I was trying to create light ... I was trying to heal." In an interview with Spin magazine several years after its release, Love said that she was "posing in a lot of ways" with the album: "It was the truth, but it was also me catching up with all my hip peers who'd gone all indie on me, and who made fun of me for liking R.E.M. and The Smiths. I'd done the whole punk thing, sleeping on floors in piss and beer, and waking up with the guy with the fucking mohawk and the skateboards and the speed and the whole goddamned thing. But I hated it. I'd grown out of it by the time I was seventeen." In a 1994 interview with Kurt Loder, Love admitted to having been "consciously self-conscious" when making the record due to her feeling the need to compete with her peers at the time.
In the 2011 documentary Hit So Hard, based on Hole's 1994–98 drummer Patty Schemel, Love referred to Pretty on the Inside as "unlistenable". "That record was a calling card for rock critics and hardcorers", Love said. "[It was me saying] "This is what I do, and I'm not going to back down from it. I am announcing my persona as a cunt.""
### Lyrical content
Many of the album's lyrics are narrative and diaristic in nature, and were heavily drawn from Love's personal life and experiences in her teenage and young adult years. In a press release promoting the album, Love said: "These songs are about my own weaknesses and impurities; things about myself that I hate ... paranoias, petty concerns, and pithy, pathetic things that are inside of me." Many of the songs are lyrically abstract and describe shocking scenes of violence. Recurrent themes discussed in the lyrics include elitism, beauty and self-image, abortion, prostitution, suicide, murder, "red lights", and self-destructiveness. Q Magazine described the lyrics on the record as "confrontational" and "genuinely uninhibited".
Hannah Levin of the Seattle publication The Stranger analyzed the lyrics to the track "Mrs. Jones", calling it a "particularly rattling sketch of what appears to be a rape scene, with Love seamlessly handling three perspectives: the ugly attacker ("Look into the bloodrot, you suicide bitch / It takes an hour with you to make me want to live"), the vengeful victim ("The abortion left an abscess / Don't ever talk to me like that again"), and the supportive narrator ("Just like a pro, she takes off her dress / And she kicks you down in her snow white pumps")." The song also quotes the Rudyard Kipling poem The Ballad of East and West.
"Garbadge Man", discusses abandonment and alienation, as well as crisis of spirituality, and is one of the few songs on the album to feature a verse–chorus–verse composition. The album closes with two songs that are bridged together as a single piece: "Pretty on the Inside", noted for its hostile lyrics and allusions to vanity, and "Clouds", a dark and raucous cover of Joni Mitchell's "Both Sides, Now" from her 1969 album Clouds. The cover of the song features altered lyrics that appear to illustrate a suicide scene.
According to drummer Caroline Rue, Love wrote the lyrics of "Babydoll" about Madonna, whom she had seen driving in Los Angeles in a Mercedes-Benz, hence the lyric referring to a "Nazi car".
In a 1991 interview with Everett True, Love stated "I try to place [beautiful imagery] next to fucked up imagery, because that's how I view things" and that "I sometimes feel that no one's taken the time to write about certain things in rock, that there's a certain female point of view that's never been given space." In spite of the album's graphic lyrics, though, the underlying female themes in many of its songs led some journalists to tag the band as being part of the riot grrl movement, which Love was not directly associated with.
## Artwork
`The album artwork for Pretty on the Inside features a saturated pink press photo of the band amidst forest underbrush, taken by photographer Vickie Berndt. Berndt said that "Courtney wanted something striking and unusual" and Berndt was experimenting with color infrared film during the shoot, testing exposure settings with Love. The photo is similar to several others taken during the same shoot, one of which was featured in a Spin article in 1991.`
The font design featured on the front cover was created by Pizz, a graphic artist from Long Beach, who also designed album cover art for several other indie rock bands. The back side of the album features a painting by bassist Emery, depicting a topless woman looking at herself through a hand mirror. On her chest is a red heart surrounded by arrows, and below, her ribs protrude from her sides.
The interior artwork (displayed in a booklet on the CD version of the album and on the record sleeve on vinyl releases), features an assemblage of scribbled and typewritten lyrics, personal "thank you" notes, cutouts of Catholic and Renaissance artwork, as well as childlike drawings and storybook pictures juxtaposed with photos of women in bondage. Love was banned from the Los Angeles Public Library for cutting out photos from library books to create the inlay artwork, which she said in retrospect, "I would never recommend that anyone" do. In a 2003 article published in The Stranger, the album's liner notes were likened to "the scrapbook of an incest victim". In the liner notes, the album is dedicated to Rob Ritter of the Los Angeles punk group the Bags.
## Release
### Promotion
Pretty on the Inside was released on September 17, 1991, in the United States on Caroline Records and on City Slang in Europe. The album's lead single, "Teenage Whore", was released in Europe on September 23, and entered the UK Indie Chart's Top 10 at number one on September 28, 1991, beating out "Heaven Sent An Angel" by Revolver, "Let It Slide" by Mudhoney, and "Love to Hate You" by Erasure, among others. On The Chart Show on Channel 4, the song's title was censored with ellipsis in place of the word "whore". The single's success in the United Kingdom led the band to perform a twelve-date tour of the country supporting Mudhoney. The subsequent success of both the album, single, and tour saw Hole embark on a further three tours of the United States, Germany and Western Europe in the latter half of 1991, playing again with Mudhoney, as well as alternative rock acts Daisy Chainsaw and Therapy?. While the album gained traction in the United Kingdom, it failed to chart in the United States despite extensive touring, though it was known to be outselling Nirvana's output before the band's release of Nevermind the following week.
On December 19, 1991, the band played their final show of the tour in Hollywood at the Whisky a Go Go opening for The Smashing Pumpkins, which ended with Love smashing her guitar headstock onstage at the end of their set after lukewarm reception from the audience. Los Angeles Times journalist David Cromelin noted in his review of the concert:
> Smashing Pumpkins' singer-guitarist Billy Corgan referred to himself as "a frustrated Midwestern youth" at the Whisky on Tuesday ... Smashing Pumpkins was preceded by smashing guitars, courtesy of Hole. The tortured, transfixing L.A. group's pairing with the headliners should have made this a bill to remember, but the audience was primed for Pumpkin and didn't take to Courtney Love's powerful howls of anguish. Hole ended its set in a tantrum, as Love ordered the band to halt and hurled her guitar to the ground. Guitarist Eric Erlandson finished things off by demolishing his instrument with a few impressive swings. Frustrated Midwestern youth, meet frustrated California youth.
The same evening, Joe Cole, a roadie and friend of the band, filmed their live set with Henry Rollins of Black Flag. After the show, while en route to his Venice Beach apartment with Rollins, Cole was murdered in an armed robbery. Hole would dedicate their second record, Live Through This, to Cole in 1994.
After Hole's 1991 tour concluded, a music video for the track "Garbadge Man" was released, though the album's only single, "Teenage Whore", did not receive a music video. The video is fairly abstract and a reflection of Hole's no wave influence at the time, with shots of Love and other band members in a car interspersed with shots of them performing outside the window. According to Love, she tracked down original rolls of radiographic medical film from Denver, Colorado, that had been used in the Vietnam War, which the music video was then shot on, giving the images an X-ray-like appearance. The video was shown on MTV's 120 Minutes in 1992 during an interview with Love and Kim Gordon, and was broadcast again on the show in 1994 and 1995 but was never as popular as the band's later videos. For the music video, an alternate mix of the song by Gordon was used to eliminate profanity.
The album was released on CD and cassette in the United States, but received a release on vinyl LP throughout Europe by City Slang, based in Berlin, Germany. The first 3,000 pressings of the LP featured blue vinyl, while the following pressings were in standard black.
### Critical reception
#### Contemporaneous
Pretty on the Inside was received with acclaim by many British and American alternative press. In a review by NME, the album was positively compared to Patti Smith's Horses, as well as the debut albums of the Ramones, Television, and New York Dolls, and was branded as being in "a class of its own", while Elizabeth Wurtzel wrote in The New Yorker that "Pretty on the Inside is such a cacophony ... very few people are likely to get through it once, let alone give it the repeated listenings it needs for you to discover that it's probably the most compelling album to have been released in 1991."
Simon Reynolds of The New York Times described the album as "a cauldron of negativity... [the band] grind[s] out torturous sound, vaguely redolent of Black Sabbath... Ms. Love's songs explore the full spectrum of female emotions, from vulnerability to rage. The songs are fueled by adolescent traumas, feelings of disgust about the body, passionate friendships with women and the desire to escape domesticity. Her lyrical style could be described as emotional nudism." Jonathan Gold of the Los Angeles Times similarly noted that the lyrics present "a terrifying emotional landscape, closer to Kathy Acker novels than to anything you might think of as pop" and praised Love's vocals as "astonishingly expressive" and ranging from "howling rage to the sort of sardonic sneer associated with the Fall’s Mark Smith... Whether it wanted one or not, the decade finally has an equivalent of Patti Smith’s Horses. Play it loud. Pretty on the Inside is about as pretty as a flayed wound." Gold later commented: "If Pretty on the Inside were a horror movie, it would be all the parts that you have to look at through your fingers." LA Weekly's Lorraine Ali echoed a similar sentiment about the album's harsh nature, describing it as a "slithering nest of ugly thoughts and horrific admissions too intriguing to pass up."
Spin's Daisy von Furth noted a lyrical preoccupation with "the repulsive aspects of L.A.— superficiality, sexism, violence, and drugs. Love is the embodiment of what drives the band: the dichotomy of pretty/ugly ... The pretty/ugly dynamic also comes across in Hole's music ... a song like "Teenage Whore" at first comes across like a ranting noisy rage, but underneath is a surprisingly lush melody." Spin ranked it among the 20 best albums of the year in December 1991. Melody Maker columnist Sharon O'Connell wrote that the album was "the very best bit of fucked up rock 'n' roll [I've heard] all year," while Deborah Frost of The Village Voice called it "genre-defying", taking note of Love's reputation on the album as "the girl who won't shut up ... She is all the things that she should not be, and she shoves it, raw, right in your face." Hannah Levin of the Seattle publication The Stranger praised the album's production by Gordon and Fleming, stating that "despite Pretty on the Insides reputation as an unhinged, raw-sounding debut, a great deal of professional calculation went into putting this record together." They also applauded Love's lyrics, writing that the album "judiciously toes the line between the evasively obtuse and overtly obscene".
In a 1994 article, Rolling Stone journalist David Fricke called the album "gloriously assaultive" and "a classic of sex-mad self-laceration, hypershred guitars and full-moon bawling ... in particular the spectacular goring of Joni Mitchell's "Both Sides, Now" (aka "Clouds") at the end of the record. You don't really know the solitary despair at the core of that song until you've heard Love's embittered delivery of the last two lines — "It's life's illusions I recall / I really don't know life at all" — over guitarist Eric Erlandson's fading squall." In 1995, Alternative Press magazine ranked the album at No. 74 in their "Top 99 Of '85–'95" list, noting that "Love works in extremes and wears that scarlet letter when she feels like it, and when she doesn't she rips it off, never neglecting melody and language as the real medium for her message." Wendy Brandes of CNN, while reviewing Hole's third release, Celebrity Skin, in 1998, described Pretty on the Inside as "the musical equivalent of scrubbing one's eardrums with sandpaper".
#### Retrospective
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album a notably positive review in 2002's AllMusic Guide to Rock, calling the album "uncompromising," and further noting: "The jagged white noise and buzzing guitars articulate Courtney Love's pent-up rage as well as her lyrics, and while that might make the album difficult to absorb in one sitting, it also makes it a singular achievement." Music historian Andrew Earles referred to the album as "brick-heavy...a crushing mix of Mudhoney at its finest, sludge-metal, Sonic Youth, and Love's terrifying but also moving vocal performance." PopMatters reviewed the album in 2009, noting that it has "bold musical splendour on display" that "[leaves one feeling] nothing short of gobsmacked".
In a 2015 retrospective assessment, Spin noted the album's overt noise rock influences, writing that it "played like a AmRep release".
## Legacy
Pretty on the Inside has had an influence on multiple alternative rock acts, being specifically mentioned by Spinnerette/The Distillers frontwoman Brody Dalle in an interview as a seminal album in the development of her music. British rock band Nine Black Alps also noted the album as a major influence on their third release, Locked Out from the Inside (2009), and indie singer-songwriter Scout Niblett cited it as a major influence on her: "For me, the thing that I loved about them and her [Courtney Love] was the anger, and aggressiveness, along with the tender side", said Niblett. "That was something I hadn't seen before in a woman playing music. That was hugely influential and really inspiring. Women up 'til then were kind of one-dimensional, twee, sweet, ethereal, and that annoys the shit out of me."
Contemporarily, the album has also gained a cult following among rock and punk music fans.
The Trouser Press Guide to '90s Rock called the album a "surly milkshake of broken rock shards ... from the artistic misspellings of song titles to the lyric collage on the inner sleeve and the abrasive, abstract guitar noises on the songs, Pretty on the Inside reveals the band's fascination with the New York no wave art and music scene of the '80s." According to Billboard, the album had sold 27,000 copies by 1994, when the band released their wildly popular follow-up album, Live Through This.
In more recent years, frontwoman Love stated that the album contains "nothing melodic". In a 2011 interview for Hit So Hard (2011), a documentary on later Hole drummer Patty Schemel, Love referred to Pretty on the Inside as "unlistenable", going on to say: "That record was a calling card for rock critics and hardcorers, [saying] 'This is what I do, and I am not going to back down from it. I am announcing my persona as a cunt. Thank you very much.'" Love's attitude toward the album shifted in the subsequent years, as she commented in 2021: "I've really put that record down as being beneath my songwriting capacity, but I really don't put it down anymore at all, because it was so transformative."
In October 2016, lead guitarist Eric Erlandson oversaw an orchestral live performance of the entire album in Los Angeles, entitled Pretty Looking Back.
## Track listing
## Reissues
In June 2011, Plain Recordings, an independent American record label specializing in cult album re-issues, announced that a 180 gram vinyl re-release of Pretty on the Inside was being introduced to their catalogue; it was released on August 2, 2011. On October 20, 2017, a second reissue of the LP was released by Plain Recordings, pressed on pink vinyl.
## Personnel
All personnel credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
Hole
- Courtney Love – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
- Eric Erlandson – lead guitar
- Jill Emery – bass guitar
- Caroline Rue – drums, percussion
Technical personnel
- Kim Gordon – producer
- Don Fleming – producer
- Brian Foxworthy – engineer
Art personnel'
- Courtney Love – art direction
- Vicki Berndt – photography (front cover)
- Pizz – typography
- Jill Emery – painting (back cover)
## Charts |
17,245,512 | 2008–09 Pittsburgh Penguins season | 1,170,159,666 | NHL team season (won 3rd Stanley Cup) | [
"2008 in sports in Pennsylvania",
"2008–09 NHL season by team",
"2008–09 in American ice hockey by team",
"2009 Stanley Cup",
"2009 in sports in Pennsylvania",
"Eastern Conference (NHL) championship seasons",
"Pittsburgh Penguins seasons",
"Stanley Cup championship seasons"
]
| The 2008–09 Pittsburgh Penguins season was the 42nd season of Pittsburgh Penguins in the National Hockey League (NHL). The regular season began with two games against the Ottawa Senators in Stockholm, Sweden on October 4 and October 5, 2008.
On February 15, the team had a record of 27–25–5 and was five points out of playoff position. The organization fired head coach Michel Therrien and replaced him with Dan Bylsma, head coach of the organization's American Hockey League affiliate in Wilkes-Barre. On February 26, the team traded defenseman Ryan Whitney to the Anaheim Ducks in return for Chris Kunitz. Before the trade deadline on March 4, they acquired Bill Guerin from the New York Islanders. Under Bylsma, the team went 18–3–4, including 10–1–2 in March, and lost only one home game.
The Penguins qualified for the playoffs for the third consecutive season. They did not repeat as champions of the Atlantic Division, but earned the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference with 99 points. They began the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs on April 15 against the Philadelphia Flyers. They beat the Flyers, Washington Capitals, and Carolina Hurricanes to earn a second-straight berth in the Stanley Cup Finals. In the Finals, the Penguins defeated the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in a rematch of the previous season's Stanley Cup Finals to win the franchise's third league title. To date, this is the only Stanley Cup the Penguins have won without having home-ice advantage.
## Pre-season
Due to their appearance in the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals, the Penguins had less than three weeks before free agency began to settle numerous contract decisions. The Penguins added nine free agents and lost ten to other teams. Head Coach Michel Therrien also signed a new three-year contract that replaced the last year of his existing contract, with an increase in salary. The new contract was projected to keep him with the Penguins through the 2010–11 season.
The Penguins renewed 99% of their season ticket sales from the 2007–08 season; having sold out 67 consecutive games at Mellon Arena dating back to the 2006–07 season. In July, ESPN named Pittsburgh the top team in the Eastern Conference, and Sporting News predicted the team would finish in the league's fifth overall position.
The team commenced training camp on September 16, 2008, in Pittsburgh. They played five pre-season games in preparation for the season, finishing with a 4–0–1 record. The team concluded its preparation for the season with practices in Stockholm. Defensemen Sergei Gonchar was injured in the pre-season opener and originally anticipated to miss "four to six months." He appeared for the first time on February 14, 2009. With Gonchar out of the lineup and previous season's two other alternate captains Ryan Malone and Gary Roberts departed, the Penguins began the season with no returning alternate captains in the lineup. Therrien selected two alternate captains each month; Evgeni Malkin and Brooks Orpik served the role throughout the opening month.
\|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 1 \|\| September 20 \|\| Tampa Bay \|\|5–4\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|SO\|\|Fleury\|\|16,287\|\|0–0–1\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 2 \|\| September 22 \|\| Pittsburgh \|\|3–2\|\|Tampa Bay\|\|\|\|Curry\|\|14,707\|\|1–0–1\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 3 \|\| September 24 \|\| Toronto\|\|2–3\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|\|\|Sabourin\|\|15,731\|\|2–0–1\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 4 \|\| September 26 \|\| Pittsburgh \|\|5–4\|\|Toronto\|\|\|\|Fleury\|\|18,884\|\|3–0–1\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 5 \|\| October 2 \|\| Pittsburgh \|\|4–1\|\|Jokerit (SML)\|\|\|\|Fleury\|\|13,464\|\|4–0–1\|\| \|-
\|- \| Legend: = Win = Loss = OT/SO Loss
## Regular season
### October
On September 27, the Penguins embarked on a trip for Sweden where they opened the season against the Ottawa Senators, at the Stockholm Globe Arena. The Penguins were one of four teams to participate in NHL Premiere which began the season with games in Prague, Czech Republic and Stockholm, Sweden. Pittsburgh won the opening game of the season in overtime, getting two goals from Tyler Kennedy, including the game-winner. The game was broadcast on Mellon Arena's JumboTron where 2,300 spectators watched the game. The team returned to Pittsburgh after ten days in Europe and a 1–1–0 record. The Penguins hosted the Trib Total Media Faceoff Festival 2008 prior to their first four home games, allowing fans to watch the games on 9-by-12 foot LED screen outside of Mellon Arena. On October 18, Sidney Crosby scored one goal in addition to three assists to surpass benchmarks of 100 goals, 200 assists, and 300 total points for his career. In the same game, Evgeni Malkin assisted on four goals, giving him 200 total career points.
The Penguins received continued fan support from their previous season. In addition to extending a home sellout streak to 72 games on October 23, the Penguins ranked 113% above the national average for male television viewers aged 18 to 34. The franchise ranked as the 18th most valuable in the league at US\$195 million, marking a 26% increase from the past season. According to Forbes, the franchise's revenue would likely put the Penguins into the top ten after their new arena, Consol Energy Center, opened in 2010. The Penguins finished October with a 3–1–1 record in Pittsburgh and concluded the month with three consecutive road losses.
### November
The Penguins won their first six games in November before losing in a shootout on November 18. Rob Scuderi and Hal Gill were selected by Therrien to be November's alternate captains, taking over for Brooks Orpik and Malkin who served in October. On November 11, the Penguins returned to Detroit for the first time since the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals. The third goal of Jordan Staal's second career hat-trick came with 22.8 seconds remaining in regulation, sending the game into overtime where the Penguins achieved a 7–6 victory. Malkin's 13-game point streak ended on November 18, during the streak he scored 27 points. Through November 19, the Penguins led the league in overtime games with nine of 18 games taking extra time to decide. Through the first 20 games of the season, Mike Zigomanis led the league in faceoff percentage and Alex Goligoski led rookie defensemen in points. After an injury to Marc-Andre Fleury, Dany Sabourin and rookie John Curry split goaltending duties in his multi-game absence in which the team was 5–6–2. On November 26, Malkin scored three goals for his third career hat-trick, three days later Sidney Crosby also achieved a hat trick—the second of his career. After the team's final game of the month, Malkin and Crosby ranked first and second in league scoring with 39 and 34 points respectively. Malkin also ranked first in the league with 29 assists, and was named the NHL's second Star of the Month.
### December
Therrien named Jordan Staal and Matt Cooke December's alternate captains. "I think it's important for our young group to try to extend the leadership group," the coach said of the decision. A survey by Turnkey Sports & Entertainment released on December 2 that surveyed fans of all 122 NFL, NBA, NHL and MLB teams ranked the Penguins eighth. The survey consisted of 21 categories such as entertainment value, commitment to winning, ticket value and likeability of the players and owners. Ranked 20th in the same poll in 2007, the Penguins were the second-ranked NHL team, behind the Detroit Red Wings. The Penguins began the month with seven games in eleven days in which they were 2–4–1. As of December 10, Crosby and Malkin continued to lead the league in points as well as leading voting for the All-Star Game in Montreal. On December 11, after losing three consecutive games, Petr Sykora and Pascal Dupuis each scored their first career hat-tricks in a 9–2 victory over the New York Islanders in Pittsburgh. It was the seventh time in the Penguins' history that two players scored a hat-trick in the same game, the first since 1993.
On December 21, Sidney Crosby surpassed the record for most All-Star Game votes at 1,020,736, set by Jaromir Jagr, then with the Penguins, in 2000. Crosby broke the record with 13 days remaining in voting. Defenceman Ryan Whitney made his first appearance of the season on December 23, after missing 33 games with a foot injury. On December 26, Marc-Andre Fleury made 37 saves in Pittsburgh's first shutout of the season, defeating the New Jersey Devils, 1–0. After concluding the month with a 5–8–1 record, the team held a players-only meeting on December 30. "The attitude is a little off right now," said Brooks Orpik, "It's easy to be a good team when you're winning games. When you're going through rough batches like this, it's what tests guys' character."
### January
The Penguins began 2009 with three consecutive losses, extending their losing streak to five games—the most consecutive since 2006. During the streak, the Penguins fell from second to ninth place in the Eastern Conference and failed to score on 32 consecutive power plays.
Sidney Crosby and Evgeni Malkin led all players in voting for the 2009 All-Star Game. However, Crosby did not play due to a knee injury. The top vote-getter for the second year in a row, Crosby also missed the 2008 All-Star Game. On January 8, the team announced that they had agreed to a four-year contract extension with Jordan Staal worth \$16 million. Staal's rookie contract was set to expire at the end of the season. He was the Penguins first round pick, second overall in 2006.
The team suffered from injuries, culminating in January where at one point they had eight starters injured. Mike Zigomanis had been inactive since December 3 and Ruslan Fedotenko was ruled out for four to six weeks after breaking his hand on January 6. Sergei Gonchar practiced with the team for the first time on January 16 after suffering a separated shoulder during the pre-season. By that time, the Penguins had lost 173 man-games due to injury, after losing 239 in the entire 2007–08 season. With a 3–0 victory over the New York Rangers on January 18, the Penguins won a second consecutive game for the first time since November 15. However, the team was unable to capitalize and lost their last game before the All-Star break to the Carolina Hurricanes. The Penguins entered the break with a 23–21–4 record. The team's 50 points put them in tenth place in the Eastern Conference, two spots out of the playoffs.
### February
On February 14, Sergei Gonchar made his season debut and Ruslan Fedotenko returned to the line-up after missing over a month due to a hand injury. On February 15—with the Penguins five points out of the playoffs—Therrien was replaced by Dan Bylsma, the coach of the Penguins' AHL affiliate Wilkes-Barre/Scranton, on an interim basis. Tom Fitzgerald was promoted from Director of Player Development to assistant coach for forwards, while Mike Yeo, already with the team, became assistant for the defensemen. Assistant Andre Savard was reassigned within the organization.
On February 21, Crosby recorded his 250th career assist in a 2-goal, 2-assist victory over the Philadelphia Flyers. On February 25, Fleury recorded his third shutout of the season, as the Penguins defeated the Islanders 1–0; the team remained two points out of the playoffs after the win. The day after the shutout, Ryan Whitney was traded to the Anaheim Ducks for Chris Kunitz and signing rights to prospect Eric Tangradi. In his first game after being traded to Pittsburgh, Kunitz recorded a goal and an assist as the Penguins defeated the Chicago Blackhawks in overtime.
### March
The Penguins began March with five of six games on the road, before a homestand of eight consecutive games. Upon the Penguins' win on March 1, the team moved into eighth place in the Eastern Conference with 70 points. The NHL trade deadline was on March 4. On March 3, the Penguins placed Miroslav Satan on waivers to clear roster space for a trade. Before the deadline, the Penguins acquired New York Islanders' captain Bill Guerin in exchange for a conditional draft pick in the 2009 draft. The Penguins also exchanged minor league defensemen, sending Danny Richmond to the St. Louis Blues organization for Andy Wozniewski. They also claimed winger Craig Adams off waivers from the Chicago Blackhawks. Dan Bylsma surpassed Herb Brooks' record for the best record in his first ten games as a Penguins' coach. The team went a franchise-first 5–0–0 on a road trip at the beginning of March.
On March 15, the Penguins soldout their 100th consecutive game at the Mellon Arena. Evgeni Malkin recorded his 100th point of the season while tying a career-high five point game against the Atlanta Thrashers on March 17. On March 20, Vince Lascheid, Penguins and Pittsburgh Pirates organist of 33 years, died. Vice President of Communications Tom McMillan said, "[Lascheid] probably is the only organist in the history of professional sports to be inducted into a team Hall of Fame." The Penguins concluded March with eight consecutive games at the Mellon Arena—their longest homestand of the season.
### April and season results
Pittsburgh finished their homestand with a 6–1–1 record, moving into fourth place in the Eastern Conference. The final game of the homestand was the most watched game of the season on FSN Pittsburgh, the Penguins regional television network. FSN Pittsburgh was the most-watched regional Fox network in the NHL for the second consecutive season. On April 7, Sidney Crosby scored his 100th point of the season, Evgeni Malkin acquired his 300th career point and Petr Sykora scored his 300th career goal, while the Penguins qualified for the post-season for the third consecutive season with a 6–4 win over the Tampa Bay Lightning. Tickets for Pittsburgh's first two opening round playoff games sold out within a few hours of going on sale. The team collected over \$100,000 for the families of three Pittsburgh Police officers who were killed days before the game. The Penguins finished their regular season on April 12 with a win over the Montreal Canadiens. Through his first 25 games as Penguins' coach, Dan Blysma's 18–3–4 record amounted to 40 points—the second-most of any coach in NHL history through their first 25 games. The Penguins finished with a 45–28–9 record, for 99 points; fourth place in the Eastern Conference and second place in the Atlantic Division.
Evgeni Malkin won the Art Ross Trophy as the league's leading scorer with 113 points. Malkin followed Mario Lemieux, Jaromir Jagr and Crosby to become the fourth different Penguin to win the award. The award was the 13th overall for the Penguins since 1988.
### Game log
\|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1 \|\| 4 \|\| 2:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–3 OT \|\| Ottawa Senators \|\| Ericsson Globe @ Stockholm, SWE (13,699) \|\| 1–0–0 \|\| 2 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 2 \|\| 5 \|\| 2:30 PM \|\| Ottawa Senators \|\| 3–1 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Ericsson Globe @ Stockholm, SWE (13,699) \|\| 1–1–0 \|\| 2 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 3 \|\| 11 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New Jersey Devils \|\| 2–1 OT \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 1–1–1 \|\| 3 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 4 \|\| 14 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Philadelphia Flyers \|\| 2–3 OT \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,965) \|\| 2–1–1 \|\| 5 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 5 \|\| 16 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Washington Capitals \|\| 4–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,030) \|\| 2–2–1 \|\| 5 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 6 \|\| 18 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Toronto Maple Leafs \|\| 1–4 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,033) \|\| 3–2–1 \|\| 7 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 7 \|\| 20 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–1 SO \|\| Boston Bruins \|\| TD Garden (17,565) \|\| 4–2–1 \|\| 9 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 8 \|\| 23 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Carolina Hurricanes \|\| 1–4 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 5–2–1 \|\| 11 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 9 \|\| 25 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–3 SO \|\| New York Rangers \|\| Madison Square Garden (IV) (18,200) \|\| 5–2–2 \|\| 12 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 10 \|\| 28 \|\| 10:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 1–2 \|\| San Jose Sharks \|\| SAP Center at San Jose (17,496) \|\| 5–3–2 \|\| 12 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 11 \|\| 30 \|\| 10:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 1–4 \|\| Phoenix Coyotes \|\| Gila River Arena (15,178) \|\| 5–4–2 \|\| 12 \|-
\|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 12 \|\| 1 \|\| 8:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 6–3 \|\| St. Louis Blues \|\| Scottrade Center (19,150) \|\| 6–4–2 \|\| 14 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 13 \|\| 6 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Edmonton Oilers \|\| 4–5 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,971) \|\| 7–4–2 \|\| 16 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 14 \|\| 8 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–3 SO \|\| New York Islanders \|\| Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum (14,303) \|\| 8–4–2 \|\| 18 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 15 \|\| 11 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 7–6 OT \|\| Detroit Red Wings \|\| Joe Louis Arena (20,066) \|\| 9–4–2 \|\| 20 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 16 \|\| 13 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Philadelphia Flyers \|\| 4–5 SO \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 10–4–2 \|\| 22 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 17 \|\| 15 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Buffalo Sabres \|\| 2–5 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 11–4–2 \|\| 24 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 18 \|\| 18 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Minnesota Wild \|\| 2–1 SO \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,971) \|\| 11–4–3 \|\| 25 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 19 \|\| 20 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–2 \|\| Atlanta Thrashers \|\| Philips Arena (13,391) \|\| 12–4–3 \|\| 27 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 20 \|\| 22 \|\| 2:00 PM \|\| Vancouver Canucks \|\| 3–1 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,040) \|\| 12–5–3 \|\| 27 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 21 \|\| 26 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 5–3 \|\| New York Islanders \|\| Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum (14,871) \|\| 13–5–3 \|\| 29 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 22 \|\| 28 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–4 \|\| Buffalo Sabres \|\| First Niagara Center (18,690) \|\| 13–6–3 \|\| 29 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 23 \|\| 29 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New Jersey Devils \|\| 1–4 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 14–6–3 \|\| 31 \|-
\|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 24 \|\| 3 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–3 SO \|\| New York Rangers \|\| Madison Square Garden (IV) (18,200) \|\| 14–6–4 \|\| 32 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 25 \|\| 4 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 5–2 \|\| Carolina Hurricanes \|\| PNC Arena (14,559) \|\| 15–6–4 \|\| 34 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 26 \|\| 6 \|\| 2:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–3 \|\| Ottawa Senators \|\| Canadian Tire Centre (19,561) \|\| 15–7–4 \|\| 34 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 27 \|\| 8 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Buffalo Sabres \|\| 4–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,976) \|\| 15–8–4 \|\| 34 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 28 \|\| 10 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 1–4 \|\| New Jersey Devils \|\| Prudential Center (16,808) \|\| 15–9–4 \|\| 34 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 29 \|\| 11 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New York Islanders \|\| 2–9 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,972) \|\| 16–9–4 \|\| 36 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 30 \|\| 13 \|\| 1:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–6 \|\| Philadelphia Flyers \|\| Wells Fargo Center (19,811) \|\| 16–10–4 \|\| 36 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 31 \|\| 18 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 6–3 \|\| Atlanta Thrashers \|\| Philips Arena (15,124) \|\| 17–10–4 \|\| 38 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 32 \|\| 20 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Toronto Maple Leafs \|\| 7–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,053) \|\| 17–11–4 \|\| 38 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 33 \|\| 22 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–3 OT \|\| Buffalo Sabres \|\| First Niagara Center (18,690) \|\| 18–11–4 \|\| 40 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 34 \|\| 23 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Tampa Bay Lightning \|\| 2–0 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,064) \|\| 18–12–4 \|\| 40 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 35 \|\| 26 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 1–0 \|\| New Jersey Devils \|\| Prudential Center (16,921) \|\| 19–12–4 \|\| 42 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 36 \|\| 27 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Montreal Canadiens \|\| 3–2 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 19–13–4 \|\| 42 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 37 \|\| 30 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Boston Bruins \|\| 5–2 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 19–14–4 \|\| 42 \|-
\|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 38 \|\| 1 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–4 \|\| Boston Bruins \|\| TD Garden (17,565) \|\| 19–15–4 \|\| 42 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 39 \|\| 3 \|\| 1:00 PM \|\| Florida Panthers \|\| 6–1 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,042) \|\| 19–16–4 \|\| 42 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 40 \|\| 5 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 0–4 \|\| New York Rangers \|\| Madison Square Garden (IV) (18,200) \|\| 19–17–4 \|\| 42 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 41 \|\| 6 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Atlanta Thrashers \|\| 1–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,975) \|\| 20–17–4 \|\| 44 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 42 \|\| 8 \|\| 8:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–5 \|\| Nashville Predators \|\| Bridgestone Arena (14,297) \|\| 20–18–4 \|\| 44 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 43 \|\| 10 \|\| 3:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–5 \|\| Colorado Avalanche \|\| Pepsi Center (17,908) \|\| 20–19–4 \|\| 44 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 44 \|\| 13 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–2 \|\| Philadelphia Flyers \|\| Wells Fargo Center (19,872) \|\| 21–19–4 \|\| 46 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 45 \|\| 14 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Washington Capitals \|\| 6–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,975) \|\| 21–20–4 \|\| 46 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 46 \|\| 16 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Anaheim Ducks \|\| 1–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,005) \|\| 22–20–4 \|\| 48 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 47 \|\| 18 \|\| 12:30 PM \|\| New York Rangers \|\| 0–3 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,024) \|\| 23–20–4 \|\| 50 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 48 \|\| 20 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Carolina Hurricanes \|\| 2–1 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,972) \|\| 23–21–4 \|\| 50 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 49 \|\| 28 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New York Rangers \|\| 2–6 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,965) \|\| 24–21–4 \|\| 52 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 50 \|\| 30 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–4 OT \|\| New Jersey Devils \|\| Prudential Center (17,625) \|\| 24–21–5 \|\| 53 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 51 \|\| 31 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–5 \|\| Toronto Maple Leafs \|\| Air Canada Centre (19,570) \|\| 24–22–5 \|\| 53 \|-
\|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 52 \|\| 3 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–4 \|\| Montreal Canadiens \|\| Bell Centre (21,273) \|\| 24–23–5 \|\| 53 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 53 \|\| 4 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Tampa Bay Lightning \|\| 3–4 OT \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,977) \|\| 25–23–5 \|\| 55 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 54 \|\| 6 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Columbus Blue Jackets \|\| 1–4 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,050) \|\| 26–23–5 \|\| 57 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 55 \|\| 8 \|\| 12:30 PM \|\| Detroit Red Wings \|\| 3–0 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 26–24–5 \|\| 57 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 56 \|\| 11 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| San Jose Sharks \|\| 1–2 SO \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,034) \|\| 27–24–5 \|\| 59 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 57 \|\| 14 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–6 \|\| Toronto Maple Leafs \|\| Air Canada Centre (19,365) \|\| 27–25–5 \|\| 59 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 58 \|\| 16 \|\| 2:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–3 SO \|\| New York Islanders \|\| Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum (16,234) \|\| 27–25–6 \|\| 60 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 59 \|\| 19 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Montreal Canadiens \|\| 4–5 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,968) \|\| 28–25–6 \|\| 62 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 60 \|\| 21 \|\| 1:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 5–4 \|\| Philadelphia Flyers \|\| Wells Fargo Center (19,992) \|\| 29–25–6 \|\| 64 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 61 \|\| 22 \|\| 12:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–5 \|\| Washington Capitals \|\| Verizon Center (18,277) \|\| 29–26–6 \|\| 64 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 62 \|\| 25 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New York Islanders \|\| 0–1 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (16,975) \|\| 30–26–6 \|\| 66 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 63 \|\| 27 \|\| 8:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 5–4 OT \|\| Chicago Blackhawks \|\| United Center (22,689) \|\| 31–26–6 \|\| 68 \|-
\|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 64 \|\| 1 \|\| 3:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–1 \|\| Dallas Stars \|\| American Airlines Center (18,532) \|\| 32–26–6 \|\| 70 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 65 \|\| 3 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–1 \|\| Tampa Bay Lightning \|\| Amalie Arena (19,908) \|\| 33–26–6 \|\| 72 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 66 \|\| 5 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–1 \|\| Florida Panthers \|\| BB&T Center (18,933) \|\| 34–26–6 \|\| 74 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 67 \|\| 8 \|\| 3:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 4–3 SO \|\| Washington Capitals \|\| Verizon Center (18,277) \|\| 35–26–6 \|\| 76 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 68 \|\| 10 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Florida Panthers \|\| 3–4 SO \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 36–26–6 \|\| 78 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 69 \|\| 12 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–4 SO \|\| Columbus Blue Jackets \|\| Nationwide Arena (19,167) \|\| 36–26–7 \|\| 79 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 70 \|\| 14 \|\| 3:00 PM \|\| Ottawa Senators \|\| 4–3 SO \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 36–26–8 \|\| 80 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 71 \|\| 15 \|\| 3:00 PM \|\| Boston Bruins \|\| 4–6 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 37–26–8 \|\| 82 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 72 \|\| 17 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Atlanta Thrashers \|\| 2–6 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,088) \|\| 38–26–8 \|\| 84 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 73 \|\| 20 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Los Angeles Kings \|\| 1–4 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 39–26–8 \|\| 86 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 74 \|\| 22 \|\| 12:30 PM \|\| Philadelphia Flyers \|\| 3–1 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 39–27–8 \|\| 86 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 75 \|\| 25 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Calgary Flames \|\| 0–2 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,083) \|\| 40–27–8 \|\| 88 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 76 \|\| 28 \|\| 1:00 PM \|\| New York Rangers \|\| 3–4 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,110) \|\| 41–27–8 \|\| 90 \|-
\|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 77 \|\| 1 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New Jersey Devils \|\| 1–6 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 42–27–8 \|\| 92 \|- style="background:#ffc;" \| 78 \|\| 4 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–3 OT \|\| Carolina Hurricanes \|\| PNC Arena (18,680) \|\| 42–27–9 \|\| 93 \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 79 \|\| 5 \|\| 5:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 2–4 \|\| Florida Panthers \|\| BB&T Center (18,232) \|\| 42–28–9 \|\| 93 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 80 \|\| 7 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 6–4 \|\| Tampa Bay Lightning \|\| Amalie Arena (19,538) \|\| 43–28–9 \|\| 95 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 81 \|\| 9 \|\| 7:30 PM \|\| New York Islanders \|\| 1–6 \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| Civic Arena (17,132) \|\| 44–28–9 \|\| 97 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 82 \|\| 11 \|\| 7:00 PM \|\| Pittsburgh Penguins \|\| 3–1 \|\| Montreal Canadiens \|\| Bell Centre (21,273) \|\| 45–28–9 \|\| 99 \|-
\|- \| Legend: = Win = Loss = OT/SO Loss
### Standings
Divisional standings
Conference standings
### Detailed records
Final
## Stanley Cup playoffs
The Penguins advanced to the Stanley Cup playoffs for the third consecutive season. They earned the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference and home-ice advantage in the opening round match-up against the Philadelphia Flyers, following a loss by the Flyers on the last day of the regular season. For the second consecutive season, the Penguins erected a 12 by 16 foot LED screen on the lawn directly outside Mellon Arena, allowing fans to watch all playoff games, free of charge. After defeating Philadelphia, the Penguins beat the Washington Capitals and the Carolina Hurricanes to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals. The Penguins faced the Detroit Red Wings, defeating them in seven games to win their third Stanley Cup in franchise history. The final game of the season drew a 42.2 television rating in Pittsburgh—the highest local rating in any city since the NHL began to track the figure.
### Eastern Conference Quarterfinals
The Penguins won Game 1 of the series 4–1, with goals from Sidney Crosby, Evgeni Malkin, Tyler Kennedy and defenseman Mark Eaton. "It was a good [night] for me," said Malkin, "It was a good [night] for everybody." Flyers head coach John Stevens was fined US\$10,000 and forward Daniel Carcillo was suspended by the NHL for the second game of the series for a hit to Maxime Talbot's head immediately following a faceoff with seven seconds left in the game; Carcillo was not penalized at the time of the hit. In Game 2, Evgeni Malkin had a goal and an assist, while Marc-Andre Fleury made 38 saves. Bill Guerin scored two goals, including the game winner in overtime, and the Penguins won 3–2. With the Penguins up two games to zero, the series moved to Philadelphia for Game 3. After falling behind 2–0, goals from Malkin and Rob Scuderi tied the game. Malkin added his second goal of the game in the final period; however, Philadelphia won the game 6–3. In Game 4, Fleury stopped 45 shots, giving up one goal as the Penguins won 3–1. Crosby scored his second goal of the playoffs and Tyler Kennedy added the game winner. The Penguins were unable to clinch the series in Game 5 at Mellon Arena. A goal by Malkin was taken away after it was determined that he had kicked the puck into the net; Martin Biron stopped 28 shots for the shutout. Pittsburgh viewers were unable to see approximately 30 minutes of the second period after a lightning strike at a FSN Pittsburgh network facility in Atlanta caused the station to temporarily black out.
In Game 6, the Flyers lead 3–0 four minutes into the second period. Maxime Talbot fought Daniel Carcillo after the Flyers tallied their third goal and the Penguins, re-energized by Talbot's display, scored three goals in what remained of the second period to tie the game 3–3. Sergei Gonchar scored his first goal of the series, his first in 23 playoff games dating back to game two of the Penguins' first-round series against Ottawa in 2008, to break the tie at 2:19 of the third period. Crosby added an empty-net goal and the Penguins eliminated the Flyers and advance to the Eastern Conference Semifinals. Three days after the Penguins series-clinching victory of the Flyers, the Penguins announced that Head Coach Dan Bylsma had signed a multi-year contract extension with the team.
### Eastern Conference semi-finals
The Penguins drew a matchup with the Washington Capitals in the second round semi-finals. The anticipation for the series was high considering the rivalry between the teams and star players, most notably Sidney Crosby and Evgeni Malkin of the Penguins and Alexander Ovechkin and Alexander Semin of the Capitals. The first three games in the series were scheduled for national television in the U.S., with game one on NBC and games two and three on Versus.
Game 1 was held in Washington, where Capitals owner Ted Leonsis took steps to prevent Penguins' fans from purchasing tickets, such as not selling tickets to customers whose 724 or 412 area code indicated they were from Western Pennsylvania. Crosby scored to give the Penguins a first period lead, but Washington scored two goals before the conclusion of the period. Mark Eaton tied the game in the second period, but Washington's Semyon Varlamov held the Penguins scoreless for the remainder of the game as the Capitals took a 1–0 lead in the series. The game had 40% more viewers than playoff games the previous season. In Game 2, Ovechkin and Crosby scored three goals each, though Dave Steckel's second period goal was the difference as Washington won 4–3.
The series moved to Pittsburgh for Game 3 with the Penguins down 2–0. Goals from Ruslan Fedotenko, Nicklas Backstrom, Ovechkin and Malkin left the game tied after regulation. Kris Letang scored a powerplay goal 11 minutes into overtime, winning the game for the Penguins. Pittsburgh tied the series at two games apiece after a 5–3 Game 4 victory at Mellon Arena. After a Washington goal scored less than a minute into regulation, the Penguins responded with three goals in the first period. The Penguins' five goals came from five different players. During the first period, Sergei Gonchar was forced to leave the game after a knee-on-knee hit from Ovechkin; Gonchar returned to the Penguins' line-up for Game 7. Game 5 took place in Washington, D.C., the next day, due to the scheduling of a Yanni concert in Pittsburgh. After a scoreless first period, Washington took a 2–1 lead in the second. Fedotenko tied the game less than a minute into the third period, but a goal by Matt Cooke was matched by Ovechkin and the game went into overtime. With one second remaining in their second powerplay of the game, Malkin scored to give the Penguins their third consecutive victory. Game 6 was the third overtime game of the series. Washington forced a seventh game with a 5–4 victory. Nine different players scored goals in the game.
In the final game of the series, Pittsburgh scored two goals within eight seconds of one another to take a 2–0 lead after Fleury stopped Ovechkin on a breakaway. Pittsburgh scored three more goals in the second period, extending their lead to 5–0, before Ovechkin scored his eighth goal of the series. Each team added a goal in the final period to end the game with a 6–2 final score. Ovechkin scored eight goals and added six assists in the series, while Crosby tallied eight goals and five assists. Crosby's 13-point tally in the series totalled one less than Ovechkin's 14 points, which was the highest single-series point total since the 1995 playoffs. While shaking hands following the final game, Crosby told Ovechkin he had played a "great series," to which Ovechkin responded, "win the Stanley Cup."
### Eastern Conference Final
Pittsburgh faced the Carolina Hurricanes in the Eastern Conference Final, after Carolina defeated the Boston Bruins and New Jersey Devils. The series opened in Pittsburgh, where Miroslav Satan and Philippe Boucher scored their first goals of the playoffs. Marc-Andre Fleury was named the game's third star after making 23 saves and helping the Penguins to a 3–2 victory. In Game 2, Malkin scored a hat-trick and Chris Kunitz scored his first goal of the playoffs as the Penguins won 7–4, taking a two games to none series lead. In Game 3, Malkin scored two goals and Crosby scored one as the Penguins took a 3–1 lead into the first intermission. After a scoreless second period, the Hurricanes came within a goal after Sergei Samsonov scored less than two minutes into the final period, but goals by Fedotenko, Craig Adams and Guerin gave the Penguins a 6–2 victory. The series concluded with the Penguins sweeping, four games to none. In the series' fourth game, Pittsburgh gave up the initial goal less than two minutes into the opening period, but goals from Fedotenko and Talbot gave them the lead after the first period. A second period goal from Guerin and an empty netter from Adams sealed the Penguins' victory in the game and the series.
Following Game 4, Crosby hoisted the Prince of Wales Trophy after refusing to touch it the previous season. As team captain, Mario Lemieux hoisted the Prince of Wales Trophy in 1991 and 1992, and the Penguins won the Stanley Cup each time.
### Stanley Cup Finals
For the second consecutive season, the Penguins played the Detroit Red Wings in the Stanley Cup Finals, marking the first time in 25 years that two teams played each other in consecutive Finals. Tickets for Games 3 and 4, which were hosted at Mellon Arena, sold out in 10 minutes. In the first game of the series, the Red Wings scored the first goal when a puck shot by Brad Stuart ricocheted off the boards behind the goal, then bounced off Marc-Andre Fleury and into the net. Ruslan Fedotenko, with an assist from Evgeni Malkin, tied the game before the conclusion of the first period. Detroit went on to score a goal in each of the final two periods to win Game 1, 3–1. Evgeni Malkin scored a powerplay goal in the first period of game two, but the Penguins were held scoreless for the remainder of the contest; falling 3–1 for a second consecutive game.
With the Penguins down two games to none, the series shifted to Pittsburgh for Game 3. After a 2–2 first period and a scoreless second period, Sergei Gonchar and Maxime Talbot each scored a goal in the third period to give the Penguins a 4–2 victory. In Game 4, the Penguins tied the Red Wings at two games apiece with three unanswered goals in the second period, including a shorthanded goal by Jordan Staal. With the series returning to Detroit, the Red Wings took a three games to two lead in the series with a 5–0 win. Staal and Tyler Kennedy scored as the Penguins tied the series at three games apiece in a 2–1 game six victory. In the seventh and final game of the series, Maxime Talbot scored two goals and Fleury made 23 saves as the Penguins won their third Stanley Cup in franchise history.
Evgeni Malkin won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the MVP of the playoffs. Fans celebrated in the streets of Pittsburgh after the game, with the Stanley Cup victory coming four months after the Pittsburgh Steelers' victory in Super Bowl XLIII. Two days after the victory, 375,000 people attended a parade of the Cup through downtown Pittsburgh.
### Playoff log
\|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1 \|\| April 15\|\|Philadelphia\|\|1–4\|\|Pittsburgh\|\| \|\|Crosby, Kennedy, Malkin, Eaton\|\|Gagne\|\|Fleury (1–0)\|\|17,132\|\|1–0\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 2 \|\| April 17\|\|Philadelphia\|\|2–3\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|18:29\|\|Malkin, Guerin, Guerin (OT)\|\|Hartnell, Powe\|\|Fleury (2–0)\|\|17,132\|\|2–0\|\| \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 3 \|\| April 19\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|3–6\|\|Philadelphia\|\| \|\|Malkin, Scuderi, Malkin\|\|Carter, Richards, Giroux,
Gagne, Ross, Gagne (en) \|\|Fleury (2–1)\|\|19,745\|\|2–1\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 4 \|\| April 21\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|3–1\|\|Philadelphia\|\| \|\|Crosby, Kennedy, Talbot (en)\|\|Carcillo\|\|Fleury (3–1)\|\|19,745\|\|3–1\|\| \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 5 \|\| April 23\|\|Philadelphia\|\|3–0\|\|Pittsburgh\|\| \|\| \|\|Asham, Giroux, Knuble\|\|Fleury (3–2)\|\|17,132\|\|3–2\|\| \|- style="background:#cff;" \| 6 \|\| April 25\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|5–3\|\|Philadelphia\|\| \|\|Fedotenko, Eaton, Crosby,
Gonchar, Crosby (en)\|\|Knuble, Lupul, Briere\|\|Fleury (4–2)\|\|20,072\|\|4–2\|\| \|-
\|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 1 \|\|May 2\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|2–3\|\|Washington\|\| \|\|Crosby, Eaton\|\|Steckel, Ovechkin, Fleischmann\|\|Fleury (4–3)\|\|18,277\|\|0–1\|\| \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 2 \|\|May 4\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|3–4\|\|Washington\|\| \|\|Crosby (3)\|\|Ovechkin, Steckel, Ovechkin (2)\|\|Fleury (4–4)\|\|18,277\|\| 0–2\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 3 \|\|May 6\|\|Washington\|\|2–3\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|11:23\|\|Fedotenko, Malkin, Letang \|\|Ovechkin, Backstrom\|\|Fleury (5–4)\|\|17,132\|\|1–2\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 4 \|\|May 8\|\|Washington\|\|3–5\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|\|\|Gonchar, Guerin, Fedotenko, Crosby, Talbot\|\|Backstrom, Clark, Jurcina\|\|Fleury (6–4)\|\|17,132\|\|2–2\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 5 \|\|May 9\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|4–3\|\|Washington\|\|3:28\|\|Staal, Fedotenko, Cooke, Malkin\|\|Ovechkin, Backstrom, Ovechkin\|\|Fleury (7–4)\|\|18,277\|\|3–2\|\| \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 6 \|\|May 11\|\|Washington\|\|5–4\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|6:22\|\|Guerin, Eaton, Letang, Crosby\|\|Kozlov, Fleischmann, Laich, Kozlov, Steckel\|\|Fleury (7–5)\|\|17,132\|\|3–3\|\| \|- style="background:#cff;" \| 7 \|\|May 13\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|6–2\|\|Washington\|\| \|\|Crosby, Adams, Guerin, Letang, Staal, Crosby\|\|Ovechkin, Laich\|\|Fleury (8–5)\|\|18,277\|\|4–3\|\| \|-
\|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1 \|\|May 18\|\|Carolina\|\|2–3\|\|Pittsburgh\|\| \|\|Satan, Malkin, Boucher\|\|LaRose, Corvo\|\|Fleury (9–5)\|\|17,132\|\|1–0\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 2 \|\|May 21\|\|Carolina\|\|4–7\|\|Pittsburgh\|\| \|\|Crosby, Malkin, Talbot, Kunitz, Malkin 2, Kennedy\|\|Larose, Jokinen, Seidenberg, Eaves\|\|Fleury (10–5)\|\|17,132\|\|2–0\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 3 \|\|May 23\|\| Pittsburgh\|\|6–2\|\|Carolina\|\| \|\|Malkin, Crosby, Malkin, Fedotenko, Adams, Guerin\|\|Cullen, Samsonov\|\|Fleury (11–5)\|\|18,789\|\|3–0\|\| \|- style="background:#cff;" \| 4 \|\|May 26\|\| Pittsburgh\|\|4–1\|\|Carolina\|\| \|\|Fedotenko, Talbot, Guerin, Adams\|\|Staal\|\|Fleury (12–5)\|\|18,680\|\|4–0\|\| \|-
\|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 1 \|\|May 30\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|1–3\|\|Detroit\|\|\|\|Fedotenko\|\|Stuart, Franzen, Abdelkader\|\|Fleury (12–6)\|\|20,066\|\|0–1\|\| \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 2 \|\|May 31\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|1–3\|\|Detroit\|\|\|\|Malkin\|\|Ericsson, Filppula, Abdelkader\|\|Fleury (12–7)\|\|20,066\|\|0–2\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 3 \|\|June 2\|\|Detroit\|\|2–4\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|\|\|Talbot, Letang, Gonchar, Talbot\|\|Zetterberg, Franzen\|\|Fleury (13–7)\|\|17,132\|\|1–2\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 4 \|\|June 4\|\|Detroit\|\|2–4\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|\|\|Malkin, Staal, Crosby, Kennedy \|\|Helm, Stuart\|\|Fleury (14–7)\|\|17,132\|\|2–2\|\| \|- style="background:#fcf;" \| 5 \|\|June 6\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|0–5\|\|Detroit\|\| \|\| \|\|Cleary, Filppula, Kronwall, Rafalski, Zetterberg\|\|Fleury (14–8)\|\|20,066\|\|2–3\|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 6 \|\|June 9\|\|Detroit\|\|1–2\|\|Pittsburgh\|\| \|\|Staal, Kennedy\|\|Draper\|\|Fleury (15–8)\|\|17,132\|\|3–3\|\| \|- style="background:#cff;" \| 7 \|\|June 12\|\|Pittsburgh\|\|2–1\|\|Detroit\|\| \|\|Talbot (2)\|\|Ericsson\|\|Fleury (16–8)\|\|20,066\|\|4–3\|\| \|-
\|- \| Legend: = Win = Loss = Playoff series win
- Scorer of game-winning goal in italics
## Player statistics
Skaters
Goaltenders
<sup>†</sup>Denotes player spent time with another team before joining the Penguins. Stats reflect time with the Penguins only.
<sup>‡</sup>Denotes player was traded mid-season. Stats reflect time with the Penguins only.
## Awards and records
### Records
### Milestones
### Awards
Prior to the team's final home game on April 9 against the New York Islanders, the team announced its annual award winners. Awards were given by the Pittsburgh chapter of the Professional Hockey Writers Association, the Penguins Booster Club, as well as voted amongst the team.
## Transactions
Concerns over future player contracts were raised just days after the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals. Approximately a dozen players, including Marian Hossa, Jarkko Ruutu, Ryan Malone and Brooks Orpik, had fulfilled the final year on their contracts. On June 28, the Penguins traded the contract negotiation rights to Gary Roberts and Ryan Malone to the Tampa Bay Lightning for a conditional draft pick; it became a third-round pick when both Malone and Roberts signed with the Lightning on June 30. Evgeni Malkin was offered a contract from a Russian team in the newly formed Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) worth approximately \$12.5 million, tax exempt, per year, which would make him the highest-paid hockey player in the world. However, Malkin turned down the offer to remain with the Penguins, and the IIHF released a statement saying that it would not honor the offer, as Malkin was already under an existing contract with the Penguins at the time. Malkin agreed to a five-year contract extension worth \$8.7 million per year—the same value as Sidney Crosby's contract—with the Penguins on July 2. On July 3, the Penguins agreed to a seven-year deal with restricted free agent goaltender Marc-Andre Fleury in addition to one-year contracts with free agents Miroslav Satan and Ruslan Fedotenko. On October 8, the Penguins made several roster adjustments, placing Kris Beech, who was already in Europe looking for a new team, on unconditional waivers and sending Janne Pesonen, John Curry and Jeff Taffe, who first had to clear waivers, to Wilkes-Barre/Scranton. The next day, on October 9, the Penguins acquired Michael Zigomanis from Phoenix for future considerations. On December 19, the team extended their agreement with Maxime Talbot for an additional two seasons.
Trades
Free agents signed by Pittsburgh
Signed with new team
Claimed from waivers
## Draft picks
The 2008 NHL Entry Draft was held on June 20–21, 2008, in Ottawa, Ontario. The Penguins did not make their first selection until the fourth round, at 120th overall.
Draft notes
- The Pittsburgh Penguins' first-round pick went to the Atlanta Thrashers as the result of a February 26, 2008 trade that sent Marian Hossa and Pascal Dupuis to the Penguins in exchange for Angelo Esposito, Colby Armstrong, Erik Christensen and this pick.
- The Pittsburgh Penguins' second-round pick went to the Toronto Maple Leafs as the result of a February 26, 2008 trade that sent Hal Gill to the Penguins in exchange for a 2009 fifth-round pick and this pick.
- The Pittsburgh Penguins' third-round pick went to the Phoenix Coyotes as the result of a February 27, 200 trade that sent Georges Laraque to the Penguins in exchange for Daniel Carcillo and this pick.
## Farm teams
Pittsburgh's American Hockey League affiliate, the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, finished the 2008–09 season third in the East Division.
Chris Minard, the AHL's leading goal scorer at time of announcement, was selected as a starter for Team Canada in the 2009 All Star Classic. Jeff Taffe and Ben Lovejoy were selected as reserves for the PlanetUSA team. All three players were under two-way NHL contracts and played games with Pittsburgh during the season. In the game, Taffe scored three goals and recorded two assists.
Janne Pesonen, who signed a contract with the Penguins in July 2008, finished the 2008–09 season as the AHL's fourth-leading scorer, set a new record for points in a single season for the team, surpassing Toby Petersen's 67-point season in 2000–01, and his 82 points were the most ever by a Finn in AHL history.
The ECHL affiliate Wheeling Nailers finished the season fourth in the Northern Division, and were eliminated in the first round of the 2009 Kelly Cup Playoffs.
The Nailers had three players selected for the 2009 ECHL All-Star Game, all reserve forwards. Nick Johnson, the only Penguins prospect, was drafted by the team 67th overall in 2004 and signed an entry-level contract with the organization in March 2008. Johnson did not play in the All-Star Game because he finished the season with Wilkes-Barre/Scranton.
## Media affiliates
WXDX-FM 105.9 of Pittsburgh was the radio flagship station for the Penguins for the third season. In April, the team and the station agreed to a six-year contract extension. Mike Lange, former Penguin Phil Bourque and Bob Grove were the station's broadcasters.
FSN Pittsburgh was the primary television network. Paul Steigerwald, Dan Potash, Rob King, and former Penguins Bob Errey and Jay Caufield were the station's broadcast team. During the semi-final playoff round against the Washington Capitals, game five set a record as the highest watched game on any FSN regional network in history. It was then surpassed by games six and seven; the final game of the series drew a 24.97 average rating—twice the viewers than the second most watched show of the evening.
## See also
- 2008–09 NHL season |
6,208,087 | Steve Driehaus | 1,165,402,195 | American politician (born 1966) | [
"1966 births",
"21st-century American politicians",
"American expatriates in Senegal",
"Democratic Party members of the Ohio House of Representatives",
"Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio",
"Elder High School alumni",
"Indiana University Bloomington alumni",
"Living people",
"Miami University alumni",
"Politicians from Cincinnati"
]
| Steven Leo Driehaus (born June 24, 1966) is an American politician and former U.S. Representative for Ohio's 1st congressional district, serving from 2009 until 2011. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the Minority Whip in the Ohio House of Representatives.
The district included the western four-fifths of Cincinnati, as well as suburbs north and west of the city in Hamilton and Butler counties. He was formerly a four-term member of the Ohio House of Representatives, representing the 31st District from 2001 to 2009. His Ohio State House district included western Cincinnati and all of Addyston, Cheviot, Cleves and North Bend, Ohio.
## Early life and education
Driehaus, a 1984 graduate and class president of Elder High School in Cincinnati, studied political science at Miami University while earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1988. He earned a Master of Public Administration (MPA) from Indiana University Bloomington in 1995.
## Career
He served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Senegal where he worked with village groups and local schools as a natural resource volunteer to promote sustainable environmental practices from 1988 to 1990.
Driehaus then served as Associate Director of the Center for International Education and Development Assistance at Indiana University. While serving in this role, he coordinated the South African Internship Program, which was sponsored by the United States Information Agency that is the largest professional exchange program between the United States and South Africa. He formerly directed and served as consultant to the Community Building Institute, a collaborative effort of Xavier University and United Way & Community Chest that promotes citizen-led, asset-based community development. He is a member of the Price Hill Civic Club and serves on the Board of Seton High School. He was a part-time political science instructor at Xavier University. He began his political career as an aide for Cincinnati City Council Member Todd Portune and former U.S. Rep. Charlie Luken in the 1990s.
### Ohio House of Representatives
Driehaus served four consecutive terms. He served as Minority Whip of the Ohio House of Representatives from the beginning of his third term in January 2005 until he resigned from the position to be replaced by Fred Strahorn in December 2007 due to his campaign.
Driehaus took a leadership role on issues such as election law and redistricting reform. He took issue with information privacy in the state.
## U.S. House of Representatives
### Committee assignments
- Committee on Financial Services
- Subcommittee on Housing and Community Opportunity
- Subcommittee on International Monetary Policy and Trade
- Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations
- Committee on Oversight and Government Reform
- Subcommittee on Information Policy, Census, and National Archives
- Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs
Driehaus was a centrist politician. Right-wing local paper The Cincinnati Enquirer named him legislative "Rookie of the Year" during his first term. In 2008, the ARC of Ohio and the Ohio Association of Election Officials named him Democratic Legislator of the Year. He had a reputation as an anti-abortion fiscal conservative.
## Political campaigns
### Ohio House campaigns
In 2000, Driehaus ran for the Ohio House of Representatives from the 33rd district, which at the time included Delhi Township, Price Hill, Sayler Park and other parts of western Hamilton County.
The incumbent, Jerome Luebbers, had surrendered his seat due to term limits. In the 2002 redistricting, Driehaus' district became the 31st district and surrendered many Republican constituents. Driehaus has served the 31st Ohio House of Representatives district, which has included wards 19–22, 25 & 26 of Cincinnati as well as Cheviot, Cleves, North Bend, and Addyston since the 2002 redistricting. This district is fully contained within Ohio's 1st congressional district. It is also (along with districts 32 and 33) part of Ohio Senate district 9, which encompasses the south central portion of Hamilton County.
Driehaus did not have an opponent in any of his Democratic primaries, and he earned at least 57% shares of the vote in each of his general elections for state legislature.
### 2006 elections
Driehaus had been the choice of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) to run in Ohio's 1st congressional district for the 2006 United States House of Representatives elections, but he decided to run for re-election in his Ohio House of Representatives seat. He had been elected as the Minority Whip of the Ohio House of Representatives, replacing Dale Miller for the beginning of the 2005 session, in a November 2004 vote after being reelected to his third term. Driehaus survived his own challenge from Scott Gehring with a 2:1 victory margin in the 2006 election for his state house seat.
Based on the 2000 and 2004 United States presidential elections, the district has voted 1% more Republican than the nation as a whole. The district is regarded as a Democratically shifting maturing suburban district that is expected to vote more city-like as it becomes more dense. The district was one of four Republican Ohio congressional seats that the party had targeted for takeover, but Chabot held off Cincinnati Councilman John Cranley by a 52% to 48% margin and the Republicans held on to three of the four seats.
### 2008 congressional campaign
Although Driehaus passed on the 2006 race, he began planning a run for the district in 2008 almost as soon as the 2006 election cycle ended. This was largely because he was barred from running for a fifth term in the state house. Ohio's 1st district was very high on the target list for the Democrats in both 2006 and 2008. Seven-term Republican incumbent Steve Chabot, elected in the Republican wave of 1994, had won the district consistently, but with varying margins. He had won the seat with less than 55% of the vote in four of his seven previous victories.
In previous elections, the 1st congressional district was hotly contested. It narrowly favored Democratic Ohio Governor Ted Strickland and United States Senator Sherrod Brown in 2006; and United States President George W. Bush narrowly outpaced Democratic nominee John Kerry by just 1 percentage point in the 2004 United States presidential election. Driehaus was recruited for the race by Democratic party officials, and he received early contributions for this race from Nancy Pelosi, Steny H. Hoyer, James E. Clyburn, and Chris Van Hollen, that were included in his 2007 second quarter financial filings. From the time of the first official announcement on May 3, 2007 and first financial filing deadline on July 15, 2007, the race has been closely watched in the national media, and Time described it as one of the 15 Congressional races to watch in the 2008 election. The DCCC has named the district's race as one of the thirteen that it is supporting in hopes of ousting a Republican incumbent in the 2008 United States House of Representatives elections.
In the midst of the financial crisis of 2007–2010, especially the subprime mortgage crisis, one of the issues in the race has been the candidates stances on foreclosures. The race was considered to be close. As of October 14, 2008 (three weeks before election day), The Rothenberg Political Report considered the race to be a toss-up. A poll by Survey USA indicated that African-American turnout would probably determine who won the race.
Although a marginally Republican district, 27 percent of the district's voters are African-American — one of the highest percentages for a Republican-held district in the 109th Congress. The district includes nearly all of Cincinnati's African-American voters. In the November 4 election, Driehaus defeated incumbent Chabot with 52 percent of the vote, largely on the strength of a 16,000-vote margin in Hamilton County. Barack Obama carried the district with 55 percent of the vote.
### 2010 congressional campaign
Driehaus was challenged by Republican nominee and his predecessor, former U.S. Congressman Steve Chabot, as well as Libertarian nominee James Berns, and Green Party nominee Richard Stevenson. As Chabot was ahead in public opinion polls, the DCCC pulled its financial support for TV ads from the Driehaus campaign, indicating to NBC pundit Chuck Todd that they expected Driehaus to be defeated, which he was, 52% to 45%. Until the 2022 election of Greg Landsman, Driehaus was the last Democrat to have represented Cincinnati in Congress.
In October 2012 Driehaus filed a criminal complaint against the Susan B. Anthony List claiming the organization violated Ohio law against making false statements in a campaign advertisement. He later asked that the complaint be dropped. Driehaus later sued the List, claiming the group caused his "loss of livelihood" by "defaming" him by saying he supported taxpayer funded abortion due to his vote for the Affordable Care Act. The case was decided in favor of the Susan B. Anthony List (Defendants) (805 F.Supp.2d 412 (2011)).
## Electoral history
## Peace Corps
In March 2011, Driehaus was selected for an approximately two and a half years tenure as the Peace Corps' director of HIV and AIDS education in Swaziland. This follows on his prior African Peace Corps experience as a volunteer. His wife and three children moved along with him. On June 29, 2011, he completed his staff training and was sworn in for service.
## Personal life
Driehaus was raised in Green Township by H. Donald and Clare Driehaus, along with his seven siblings. He lives with his wife, Lucienne, in Price Hill, Cincinnati. They are congregants at St. Teresa of Avila Catholic parish. His father, Don Driehaus, is a former Hamilton County Democratic Party co-chairman.
He was succeeded in the Ohio House of Representatives by his sister Denise. Their father died on September 21, 2008, aged 75.
In 2018, Driehaus launched GoodGovernmentGroup, a consulting firm based in Cincinnati. |
30,722,313 | Google Me (Kim Zolciak song) | 1,159,480,053 | 2012 single by Kim Zolciak | [
"2010 singles",
"2010 songs",
"Kim Zolciak-Biermann songs",
"The Real Housewives"
]
| "Google Me" is the second single by American television personality Kim Zolciak. It was independently released on October 5, 2010, after a preview of the song premiered on Gawker the month prior. A different song by Zolciak, "The Ring Didn't Mean a Thing", was initially to be released instead, but was indefinitely postponed after creative differences with co-writer Kandi Burruss. "Google Me" was written by American singer-songwriter Angela Scott, who had made several appearances on The Real Housewives of Atlanta during Zolciak's tenure on the show.
Musically, "Google Me" is a pop song that received comparisons to songs released by other The Real Housewives cast members. Lyrically, it references the search engine of the same name, and discusses Zolciak's personal life, specifically a former relationship. "Google Me" was negatively received by critics, several of whom provided sarcastic reviews. Zolciak performed it live once during an appearance on Watch What Happens Live with Andy Cohen in November 2010.
## Background and release
"Google Me" serves as Kim Zolciak's second single, following the release of "Tardy for the Party" in 2009. A second collaboration with fellow The Real Housewives of Atlanta co-star Kandi Burruss, titled "The Ring Didn't Mean a Thing", was initially slated to serve as her next single, but was ultimately shelved after a series of creative problems occurred between the two, as documented throughout the show's third season. Despite Burruss' on-screen work with these two songs, she did not assist with "Google Me"; instead, Zolciak worked with a musician friend of Burruss. Although Zolciak received a writing credit on "Tardy for the Party", she did not receive one for "Google Me". Virginia-based singer-songwriter Angela Scott penned "Google Me"; she had made several appearances on The Real Housewives of Atlanta, and was eventually approached by Zolciak to discuss potentially working together. According to Scott, Zolciak preferred a different song of hers, but Bravo ultimately felt "Google Me" would be a better fit.
A preview of "Google Me" was first released to Gawker in late September 2010. The song was released to iTunes for digital download and streaming on October 5, 2010. Zolciak told the Hartford Courant she felt more confident in "Google Me" than her debut single, "Tardy for the Party".. She later performed the song during an episode of the American late-night talk show Watch What Happens Live with Andy Cohen, on November 21, 2010. Regarding the live performance, Rodney Ho from The Atlanta Journal-Constitution wrote that Zolciak "did not embarrass herself". "Google Me" was removed from digital retailers for a temporary amount of time before being re-released on March 28, 2012, following the release of Zolciak's third single, "Love Me First", that same month.
## Music and lyrics
Emily Exton of Entertainment Weekly grouped "Google Me" with pop singles by Real Housewives cast members, such as "Money Can't Buy You Class" by Luann de Lesseps and "Real Close" by Danielle Staub. Zolciak considered "Google Me" a rap song, and compared its energy to that of "Glamorous" (2006) by Fergie. Lyrically, the song discusses her professional and romantic lives, specifically her former relationship with Lee "Big Poppa" Najjar. The refrain consists of the word "Google" being spelt out, in reference to the search engine. Zolciak later clarified the song's meaning, stating she does "Google herself" but the song was about more that this, acknowledging that not everybody would like her. Zolciak felt that focussing on doing what she loved and being able to make money from it was more important to her that what people think of her.. Zolciak also noted that song makes reference to Najjar ("Big Poppa"). The lyrics discuss how Zolciak previously considered Najjar and her girls her everything but is now able to "do it for herself" and recognise that she was always able to.
Exton also said that Zolciak's singing style was "talk-sing[ing]" and felt the lyrics summarized "just how fabulous she is". Additionally, she said the lyric "It ain't gonna be easy replacing me / Those other girls, they wanna be like me / But they're just Barbies: all body, no brain / Google my name, I'm doing my thing" hinted at Zolciak's departure from The Real Housewives of Atlanta. She later denied this rumor to TV Guide Magazine.
## Critical reception
"Google Me" was negatively received by music critics. Vulture's Edith Zimmerman wrote that with "Google Me", Zolciak gave comedy duo Tim & Eric "a run for their money". Lynsey Eidell of Glamour considered "Google Me" a part of Zolciak's "questionable" musical career. Robbie Daw from Idolator provided a sarcastic review of the song, referring to Zolciak as a "world-changing composer of song" and to the song as a "masterpiece". Exton also provided a humorous review, likening it to "Tardy for the Party", which she called a fluke. In a separate article, she wrote: "lest you forget [...] Ms. Zolciak is amidst the sea of horrifying yet hypnotic Housewives' singles." In a list ranking 25 song releases from The Real Housewives, Sadie Gennis from TV Guide Magazine listed "Google Me" as the seventeenth best, opining that she would rather listen to Zolciak's work with Burruss. People's Dave Quinn ranked "Google Me" at number 31 on his list of 37 best Real Housewives songs, and explained that it was not particularly memorable. Retrospectively, Lanford Beard from the same publication discussed the inclusion of "Google Me" in the 2017 web series Throwback Bravo, which documented popular moments from Bravo series, calling it "lesser known" than Zolciak's "Tardy for the Party".
## Release history |
60,008,699 | Bambara (band) | 1,148,831,769 | American post-punk band | [
"2008 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"American post-punk music groups",
"Musical groups established in 2001",
"Musical groups from Athens, Georgia"
]
| Bambara is an American post-punk band formed in 2007 in Athens, Georgia, currently based in Brooklyn, New York. The trio consists of twin brothers Reid Bateh (lead vocals, guitar) and Blaze Bateh (drums), and William Brookshire (bass).
The band is named after the character of the same name from the animated television series Æon Flux. Drummer Blaze Bateh stated that "honestly there wasn’t anything in particular about him as a character that drove us to use his name. We were just huge fans of the show. I’ve watched the show start to finish countless times and I still get blown away by aspects of it. But yeah, we just thought his name sounded really cool".
Reid Bateh's baritone vocals have been compared to Nick Cave and Rowland S. Howard.
## History
The members of Bambara began playing with each other in 2001 in Athens, Georgia when twin brothers Reid and Blaze Bateh and school friend William Brookshire attended North Springs High School. The trio started out playing covers of bands such as Blink-182 and Red Hot Chili Peppers before developing their own sound that incorporated "funk, progressive, and a lot of Latin". They released their debut album Curtains and Cannibals in 2005 under their original name 23jinx.
In October 2007, the band changed their name and formed as Bambara. The band moved to Brooklyn, where they signed to Arrowhawk Records in 2013. They recorded the album Dreamviolence from their basement apartment before releasing it in April of that same year. Their music was labeled as noise rock in part due to their use of machines, loops, and other assorted lo-fi software.
By mid-2014, the band nearly finished their full-length LP Swarm, but had their computer stolen with all of the tracks they had recorded up until that point. This resulted in a delay for the album as the band took a break before re-recording the stolen tracks. Bambara recorded and released an experimental EP of pure noise titled Night Chimes in August 2015. The band stated that the EP helped get the noise "out of their systems" which helped in creating a more toned down version of the abrasive sounds of Swarm when the time came to re-record it. The album was released on April 1, 2016. According to Zoë Beery of The Village Voice, Swarm showcased the band's trademark atmosphere through long reverb and distorted guitars, but with clearer production to showcase the musicality as well as Reid Bateh's vocals.
Their follow up to Swarm, entitled Shadow on Everything and released through Wharf Cat Records, continued this style for the band by restraining the noise experimentation while also incorporating a Western Gothic concept. The album follows a loose story of characters reciting eerie tales to each other at a dive bar. Critical reception for the album was positive.
Following the release of Shadow on Everything in April 2018, the band embarked on a European tour in support for the album before going on an American tour in support of Idles. Idles lead singer Joe Talbot named Shadow on Everything his favorite album of 2018.
Their time on the road continued into 2019 as they were chosen to perform at South by Southwest and announced an east coast tour in support of Daughters.
In March 2020, while on a North American tour supporting Stray, the band canceled the remainder of their tour dates due to the outbreak of COVID-19. While separated across the country during lockdown, the band began writing new music long-distance. The band was ultimately unhappy with the result and scrapped the EP only to start fresh when they were all back together in New York. They released the resulting EP, Love on My Mind in February 2022 to positive reviews. Pitchfork called it a "novella-like EP whose shoegaze blur and metallic twang animate a dreamlike world of seedy characters and half-forgotten pasts."
Bambara returned to touring in 2021, including dates opening for Foo Fighters and Nothing. In 2022, the song "Miracle" was used in season six of Peaky Blinders. Following the release of Love on My Mind, Bambara went on a two-month European tour and small run of North American dates.
## Musical style and influences
Their style has been described as noise rock and post-punk. Noisey's Colin Joyce described the songs as "chaotic" and "being held together with formless washes of noise and anxious vocal drones." Marcos Hassan from Tinymixtapes listed the severity of Swans and the "depraved cabaret mold" of The Birthday Party as the sound they've been honing together. Reid Bateh had a transformative experience listening to Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' 1996 album Murder Ballads for the first time. Reid Bateh has mentioned the films of Wong Kar Wai and David Lynch and the moods portrayed in them as influences on their sound. Bateh also cited the Southern Gothic themes from the writings of Flannery O'Connor and Bruno Schulz as influences on the themes in Swarm. Bateh has cited photographer Nan Goldin's book The Ballad of Sexual Dependency as an influence to his lyrics on Love on My Mind.
## Band members
### Current
- Reid Bateh – lead vocals, guitar (2007–present)
- Blaze Bateh – drums, vocals (2007–present)
- William Brookshire – bass, vocals (2007–present)
### Touring musicians
- Bryan Keller Jr. – guitar, vocals (2016–present)
- Sam Zalta – guitar, keyboards (2016–present)
## Discography
### Studio albums
- Dreamviolence (2013)
- Swarm (2016)
- Shadow on Everything (2018)
- Stray (2020)
### EPs
- Dog Ear Days (2010)
- Rings (2012)
- Night Chimes (2015)
- Love On My Mind (2022) |
189,827 | USS Alabama (BB-60) | 1,171,514,449 | Fast battleship of the United States Navy | [
"1942 ships",
"Battleship museums in the United States",
"Existing battleships",
"Museum ships in Alabama",
"National Historic Landmarks in Alabama",
"National Register of Historic Places in Mobile, Alabama",
"Ships built in Portsmouth, Virginia",
"Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama",
"South Dakota-class battleships (1939)",
"World War II battleships of the United States"
]
| USS Alabama (BB-60) is a retired battleship. She was the fourth and final member of the South Dakota class of fast battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1940s. The first American battleships designed after the Washington treaty system began to break down in the mid-1930s, they took advantage of an escalator clause that allowed increasing the main battery to 16-inch (406 mm) guns, but Congressional refusal to authorize larger battleships kept their displacement close to the Washington limit of 35,000 long tons (36,000 t). A requirement to be armored against the same caliber of guns as they carried, combined with the displacement restriction, resulted in cramped ships. Overcrowding was exacerbated by wartime modifications that considerably strengthened their anti-aircraft batteries and significantly increased their crews.
After entering service, Alabama was briefly deployed to strengthen the British Home Fleet, tasked with protecting convoys to the Soviet Union. In 1943, she was transferred to the Pacific for operations against Japan; the first of these was the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign that began in November that year. While operating in the Pacific, she served primarily as an escort for the fast carrier task force to protect the aircraft carriers from surface and air attacks. She also frequently bombarded Japanese positions in support of amphibious assaults. She took part in the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign in June–September and the Philippines campaign in October–December. After a refit in early 1945, she returned to the fleet for operations during the Battle of Okinawa and the series of attacks on the Japanese mainland in July and August, including several bombardments of coastal industrial targets.
Alabama assisted in Operation Magic Carpet after the war, carrying some 700 men home from the former war zone. She was decommissioned in 1947 and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet, where she remained until 1962 when she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register. A campaign to save the ship from the breakers' yard succeeded in raising the necessary funds, and Alabama was preserved as a museum ship in Mobile Bay, Alabama.
## Design
The South Dakota class was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleships construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of 35,000 long tons (36,000 t) and a main battery of 14-inch (356 mm) guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the Second London treaty that allowed displacements to rise to 45,000 long tons (46,000 t) and armament to increase to 16 in (406 mm) guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.
Alabama is 680 feet (210 m) long overall and has a beam of 108 ft 2 in (32.97 m) and a draft of 35 ft 1 in (10.69 m). She displaced 37,970 long tons (38,580 t) as designed and up to 44,519 long tons (45,233 t) at full combat load. The ship was powered by four General Electric steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. Rated at 130,000 shaft horsepower (97,000 kW), the turbines were intended to give a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). The ship had a cruising range of 15,000 nautical miles (28,000 km; 17,000 mi) at a speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). She carried three Vought OS2U Kingfisher floatplanes for aerial reconnaissance, which were launched by a pair of aircraft catapults on her fantail. Her peace time crew numbered 1,793 officers and enlisted men, but during the war the crew swelled to 2,500.
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 16"/45 caliber Mark 6 guns in three triple-gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward, with the third aft. The secondary battery consisted of twenty 5-inch /38 caliber dual-purpose guns mounted in twin turrets clustered amidships, five turrets on either side. As designed, the ship was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of twelve 1.1 in (28 mm) guns and twelve .50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, but she was completed with a battery of six quadruple 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors guns in place of the 1.1 in guns and thirty-five 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon autocannon in single mounts instead of the .50-cal. guns.
The main armored belt is 12.2 in (310 mm) thick, while the main armored deck is up to 6 in (152 mm) thick. The main battery gun turrets have 18 in (457 mm) thick faces, and they are mounted atop barbettes that are 17.3 in (440 mm) thick. The conning tower has 16 in (406 mm) thick sides.
### Modifications
Alabama received a series of modifications through her wartime career, consisting primarily of additions to anti-aircraft battery and various types of radar sets. The first addition was the installation of SC air search radar in 1941, fitted in the foremast, which was later replaced with an SK type set. At the same time, an SG surface search radar was installed on the forward superstructure; a second SG set was added to the main mast after experiences during the Guadalcanal campaign in 1942. In 1943, she received a Mark 3 fire-control radar, mounted on her conning tower to assist in the direction of her main battery guns. The Mark 3 was quickly replaced with more modern Mark 8 fire-control radar, and Mark 4 radars for the secondary battery guns. She later received Mark 12/22 sets in place of the Mark 4s. Alabama also received a TDY jammer. In 1945, her traditional spotting scopes were replaced with Mark 27 microwave radar sets.
The ship's light anti-aircraft battery was gradually expanded. Four more 40 mm quadruple mounts were allocated to the ship in late 1942, but by the time she underwent her refit in November 1943, the allotted armament had been increased to twelve quadruple mounts. Two more were to be added to the forecastle in 1945, but experience with other ships demonstrated these to be excessively wet in most sea conditions and thus unusable, so they were never installed aboard Alabama. In May 1943, she had another eight 20 mm guns installed, bringing the total to fifty-three of the guns. By 1945, the ship's 20 mm battery had grown to fifty-six guns, all in single mounts. She was slated to have these exchanged for forty twin mounts, but the work was not done before the war ended and she was removed from service.
## Service history
### Construction and Atlantic operations
The keel for Alabama was laid down on 1 February 1940 at the Norfolk Navy Yard. She was launched on 16 February 1942; Crane Ship No. 1 (ex-Kearsarge) assisted with the installation of the ship's heavy armor and armament. She was commissioned just six months later on 16 August. Fitting-out work then commenced, and on 11 November she began her shakedown cruise in the Chesapeake Bay. She then began initial training to prepare the ship's crew for wartime service, first out of Casco Bay, Maine. On 11 January 1943, Alabama returned to Chesapeake Bay for further training before moving to Norfolk. She was then assigned to Task Group (TG) 22.2 and sent back to Casco Bay on 13 February for tactical training.
Alabama's first deployment came in April with the temporary assignment to the British Home Fleet to reinforce the Allied naval forces available to escort the Arctic convoys to the Soviet Union. At the time, the British had sent several capital ships to the Mediterranean Sea to support the Allied invasion of Sicily, stripping away forces necessary to counter German naval strength in Norway, most significantly the battleship Tirpitz. Accordingly, Alabama and her sister ship South Dakota got underway on 2 April as part of Task Force (TF) 22. Screened by five destroyers, the two battleships steamed to the Orkney Islands by way of Little Placentia Sound and Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland, arriving in the main British naval base at Scapa Flow on 19 May. There, they were organized as TF 61, Home Fleet, and the ships began thorough training to familiarize the American ships with their British counterparts for joint operations. TF 61 was commanded by Rear Admiral Olaf M. Hustvedt; over the course of the next three months, they frequently operated with the battleships HMS Anson and Duke of York.
Alabama, South Dakota, and several British units covered an operation to reinforce the island of Spitzbergen in the Arctic Ocean in early June. The following month, Alabama took part in Operation Governor, a demonstration to distract German attention during the Sicily invasion. The Allies also hoped to lure out Tirpitz to sink her, but the Germans took no notice of the ships and remained in port. On 1 August, Alabama and South Dakota were detached to return to the United States; they departed immediately and arrived in Norfolk on 9 August, where Alabama underwent an overhaul in preparation for operations against Japanese forces in the Pacific Theater. Alabama emerged from the shipyard on 20 August and began the voyage to the Pacific by way of the Panama Canal, which she transited on 25 August. She reached Efate in the New Hebrides on 14 September.
### Pacific operations
#### Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
On arriving in the south Pacific, Alabama embarked on an extensive training program that lasted for a month and a half to prepare the battleship to operate with the fast carrier task force. She then steamed to Fiji on 7 November before departing four days later to support the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, which began with the invasion of Tarawa on 20 November. Alabama escorted the aircraft carriers while they struck Japanese airfields on nearby islands in the Marshalls to neutralize their ability to interfere with the landing. She then supported the landing on Betio in the Tarawa Atoll on 20 November, followed by the landing at Makin. Alabama twice engaged Japanese aircraft that approached the fleet on the night of 26 November.
Alabama and five other fast battleships bombarded Nauru on 8 December, which the Japanese used as a source of phosphate. The destroyer Boyd, which had been hit by Japanese artillery fire, came alongside Alabama and transferred three wounded men to the battleship. The ships then escorted the carriers Bunker Hill and Monterey back to Efate, which they reached on 12 December. Alabama got underway on 5 January 1944 for Pearl Harbor, arriving on 12 January for maintenance that included replacing one of her propellers. She arrived in Funafuti in the Ellice Islands on 21 January, where she joined the fleet for the next operation in the campaign. She was assigned to Task Group (TG) 58.2, which sortied on 25 January to begin Operation Flintlock, the invasion of Kwajalein. Alabama, South Dakota, and the battleship North Carolina shelled the island of Roi-Namur over the course of 29 and 30 January, targeting defensive positions, airfields, and other facilities. For the remainder of the campaign, she patrolled to the north of Kwajalein to guard against a possible Japanese counterattack that did not materialize.
Over the next two months, the fast carrier task force embarked on a series of raids on Japanese-held islands in the central Pacific to prepare for the next major offensive. The ships of TG 58.2 sortied on 12 February to participate in Operation Hailstone, a major raid on the island of Truk, which had been the primary staging area for the Japanese fleet in the central Pacific. Alabama escorted the carriers that struck the island over the course of 16–17 February, inflicting heavy damage to the Japanese forces and infrastructure there. The fleet then continued on to raid Japanese bases on Saipan, Tinian, and Guam. During a Japanese air attack on the fleet on 21 February, Alabama's No. 9 5-inch turret accidentally fired into the No. 5 mount, killing five and wounding eleven men. That day, Alabama took part in a sweep to the southeast of Saipan to search for Japanese vessels that might be in the area. Having found none, the fleet steamed to Majuro to replenish fuel and ammunition. While there, she served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher, the commander of the fast carrier task force, from 3 to 8 March.
Alabama and the rest of the fleet departed Majuro on 22 March to attack the next set of targets: Palau, Yap, Ulithi, and Woleai in the Caroline Islands. By this time, Alabama had been transferred to TG 58.3 as part of the screen for the carrier Yorktown. While en route to the Carolines, the ships came under attack from a group of Japanese aircraft on the night of 29 March and Alabama shot one of them down and assisted with another. The next day, the carriers began their raids and Alabama stood by, engaging Japanese aircraft as they attacked the fleet. She helped to drive off a lone Japanese aircraft late that day before it could close to attack. The fleet then returned to Majuro for replenishment before departing on 13 April; Alabama now escorted the veteran carrier Enterprise for a series of strikes along the coast of western New Guinea in support of Army operations in the New Guinea campaign. The final action in the series of raids saw the fleet return to the Carolines to strike Pohnpei, which Alabama and five other battleships bombarded on 1 May. The group then returned once again to Eniwetok on 4 May to begin preparations for the invasion of the Marianas.
#### Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
Alabama sortied with the rest of TF 58 in early June, now as part of TG 58.7; the fleet had arrived off the initial target, Saipan, by 12 June. The next day, Alabama took part in a preparatory bombardment of the island intended to weaken Japanese defenses so that minesweepers could begin to clear approaches to the landing beach. Alabama's gunners were not as experienced with shore bombardment as other dedicated bombardment ships, and her shooting was not particularly effective. She thereafter screened the carriers as they struck Japanese positions around the island, and ground troops landed on the island on 15 June. The landing was a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter-thrust with the 1st Mobile Fleet, the main carrier strike force.
The Japanese fleet arrived on 19 June, leading to the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Alabama was the first vessel to pick up the incoming Japanese aircraft on her radar, 141 nautical miles (261 km; 162 mi) away, at 10:06. The battleship Iowa quickly corroborated the report, and 40 minutes later the Japanese aircraft arrived over the fleet. A total of seven waves hit the American fleet, though only three of them hit TG 58.7. Of those, Alabama was able to engage Japanese aircraft in two of the attacks. During one of the attacks, a pair of aircraft penetrated the Combat Air Patrols and attacked South Dakota, and Alabama was among the vessels that fired on them. About an hour after that attack, two torpedo bombers attempted to attack South Dakota again, but Alabama helped to drive them off with a barrage of anti-aircraft fire. During this latter attack, a single dive bomber was able to use the gunners' distraction with the torpedo bombers to approach Alabama, but the pilot nevertheless missed with his bombs and caused no damage. Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee, the TG 58.7 commander, commended Alabama's radar operators for their prompt detection of the Japanese aircraft, which allowed the American carriers to launch their fighters with enough time to intercept the attackers away from the fleet.
Alabama remained on station, escorting the carriers while they raided Saipan, Guam, Tinian, and Rota throughout the campaign. She was then detached from the fleet to Eniwetok in the Marshalls for periodic maintenance. The ship then became the flagship of Rear Admiral Edward Hanson, the commander of Battleship Division (BatDiv) 9, and left the island on 14 July in company with Bunker Hill. The next stage in the campaign, the invasion of Guam, began on 21 July and Alabama performed her role of carrier escort during operations there for the next three weeks. On 11 August, she left to return to Eniwetok before embarking on the next assault on 30 August, code-named Operation Stalemate II; this consisted of a series of landings on Pelelieu, Ulithi, and Yap. By this time, the fast carrier task force had been transferred from Fifth Fleet to Third Fleet and accordingly renumbered as TF 38, so Alabama was now part of TG 38.3. She escorted the carriers while they launched a series of strikes on the islands from 6 to 8 September to prepare for the amphibious assaults.
#### Philippines campaign
After the strikes in the Carolines, the fast carrier task force left the area to begin initial raids in the Philippines, with the first strikes occurring from 12 to 14 September. Aircraft from the carriers hit Japanese bases on the islands of Cebu, Leyte, Bohol, and Negros. Another series of strikes, concentrated around the capital of Manila, followed on 21 and 22 September, and in the central Philippines on the 24th. Alabama returned to Saipan on 28 September before proceeding to Ulithi, which was by now a major staging area for the US fleet, on 1 October. Five days later, the fast carrier task force sortied to begin a major raid on the island of Formosa (Taiwan) and other islands to neutralize the airfields there in advance of the invasion of the Philippines. Alabama continued to escort the carriers as part of TG 38.3, providing heavy anti-aircraft support. On 14 October, the fleet turned south to begin raids on Luzon in the Philippines and Alabama engaged aircraft that attempted to attack the fleet. The ship's gunners claimed to have destroyed three Japanese aircraft and damaged another.
##### Battle of Leyte Gulf
Alabama supported the landing at Leyte on 15 October before returning to the carrier screen to escort them for another series of air strikes on islands throughout the Philippines on 21 October, by now having been transferred to TG 38.4. The landings on Leyte led to the activation of Operation Shō-Gō 1, the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: the 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, the Center Force under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita, and the Southern Force under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura. Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly.
Kurita's ships were detected in the San Bernardino Strait on 24 October, and in the ensuing Battle of the Sibuyan Sea, American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship Musashi, causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral William F. Halsey, the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. Alabama steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, consisting of Alabama and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Willis Lee. TF 34 was arrayed ahead of the carriers, serving as their screen. On the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the Battle off Cape Engaño; over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into Leyte Gulf the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the Battle off Samar, he was held off by a group of escort carriers, destroyers, and destroyer escorts, TU 77.4.3, known as Taffy 3. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.
However, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet, to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before Alabama and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached Iowa and New Jersey as TG 34.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.
##### Later operations
Having failed to intercept the retiring Japanese fleet, Alabama and the rest of TF 34 returned to their positions screening the carriers. On 30 October, the fleet withdrew to Ulithi to replenish ammunition and fuel. On 3 November, the fleet departed for another series of raids on Japanese airfields and other facilities on Luzon as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of Mindoro in the western Philippines. Over the next few weeks, Alabama cruised with the carriers, protecting them from Japanese aircraft, while the carriers struck targets on Luzon and the Visayas in the central Philippines. The fleet returned to Ulithi once again on 24 November and through early December Alabama was occupied with routine maintenance and training exercises with other vessels in the fleet. During this period, the fleet was reorganized and Alabama was assigned to TG 38.1. The fleet sortied again on 10 December for more strikes on Luzon that lasted from 14 to 16 December; the carriers massed so many aircraft that they could keep Japanese airfields constantly suppressed to prevent them from interfering with the passage of the Mindoro invasion fleet.
On 17 December, the fleet withdrew to refuel at sea, but late in the day, Typhoon Cobra swept through the area, battering the fleet. The storm conditions—Alabama recorded wind gusts as high as 83 knots (154 km/h; 96 mph) and heavy seas that caused her to roll up to thirty degrees—sank three destroyers and inflicted serious damage to several other vessels, though Alabama emerged with only minor damage to her superstructure, and both of her Kingfishers were wrecked. The fleet returned to Ulithi on 24 December and Alabama was detached for an overhaul at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. She entered the dry-dock there on 18 January 1945 for work that lasted until 25 February, at which point she was floated out of the dry-dock for further repairs, which were completed on 17 March. The ship then began a series of sea trials and training exercises along the coast of California before departing on 4 April for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 10 April, spent a week on additional training exercises, and then proceeded on to Ulithi, arriving there on 28 April.
#### Operations off Japan and the end of the war
At Ulithi, Alabama re-joined the fast carrier task force, which had by this point reverted to Fifth Fleet. The fast carrier task force got underway on 9 May to support the forces fighting in the Battle of Okinawa, who had gone ashore on 1 April. The Japanese had massed significant reserves of aircraft for kamikaze strikes against the invasion fleet. During one such attack on 14 May, while approximately 120 miles southeast of the Japanese home island of Kyushu, Alabama shot down two Japanese aircraft and helped to destroy two others, but one kamikaze nevertheless penetrated the fleet's anti-aircraft defenses and struck Enterprise. The operations off Okinawa continued for the next two weeks and on 4–5 June, the fleet was hit by another typhoon and Alabama—part of TG 38.1 at this time—again suffered only superficial damage, though many other vessels in the group were badly damaged. The fleet resumed its normal operations in support of the Okinawa fight on 7 June, including air strikes on Japanese airfields on Kyushu the next day that Alabama supported. With an escort of five destroyers on 9 June, Alabama, Indiana, and Massachusetts steamed to shell Japanese facilities on the island of Minami Daito Jima; they repeated the attack the next day. The fleet thereafter returned to Leyte Gulf to being preparations for a series of attacks on the Japanese Home Islands.
Third Fleet resumed control of the carrier fleet for these operations, which began on 1 July when the fleet sortied from Leyte Gulf. The carriers conducted wide-ranging attacks on various military and industrial targets throughout Japan, particularly concentrating on the area around Tokyo. On the night of 17–18 July, Alabama, four other American battleships, the British battleship HMS King George V, and a pair of cruisers bombarded six industrial facilities northeast of Tokyo. On 9 August, Alabama shelled targets at Kamaishi in company with two battleships and six American and British cruisers. The same day, Alabama transferred a medical party to the destroyer Ault, which took them to the destroyer Borie, which had been hit by a kamikaze and needed medical assistance. When she received word of the Japanese surrender on 15 August, Alabama was still at sea off the coast of Japan. She contributed sailors and marines to the initial occupation force, and she cruised with the carriers while they used their aircraft to search for prisoner of war camps.
On 5 September, Alabama steamed into Tokyo Bay, where she re-embarked crew-members who had gone ashore. She remained there until 20 September, when she got underway for Okinawa, where she took on 700 men, most of whom were Seabees, to carry them back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet. The ship arrived in San Francisco on 15 October and remained there for the Navy Day celebrations held there on 27 October, where she hosted some 9,000 visitors. Two days later, she steamed to San Pedro, California, where she lay until 27 February 1946, when she got underway for an overhaul at Puget Sound to prepare her for deactivation.
### Reserve and museum ship
She was decommissioned on 9 January 1947 at the Naval Station in Seattle and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet, stationed in Bremerton, Washington. Plans were drawn up during the period she was in reserve to modernize Alabama and the other ships of her class should they be needed for future active service. In March 1954, a program to equip the four ships with secondary batteries consisting of ten twin 3-inch (76 mm) guns were proposed, but the plan came to nothing. Another plan to convert the ship into a guided missile battleship arose in 1956–1957, but the cost of the conversion proved to be prohibitive. She would have had all three main battery turrets removed and replaced with a twin RIM-8 Talos missile launcher forward, two RIM-24 Tartar launchers aft, anti-submarine weapons, and equipment to handle helicopters. The cost of the project amounted to \$120 million.
On 1 June 1962, Alabama was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register for disposal; with the ship slated to be broken up, the state of Alabama passed a bill to establish the "USS Alabama Battleship Commission" with a view toward preserving the battleship as a museum ship. Governor George Wallace signed the law on 12 September 1963, and the commission set about raising funds to acquire the ship; ultimately around \$800,000 was raised, of which an eighth came from children in the state, the rest coming primarily from corporate donations.
On 16 June 1964, the Navy awarded the ship to her namesake state, with a provision that the Navy would retain the ability to recall the ship to service in the event of an emergency. Alabama was formally handed over on 7 July during a ceremony in Seattle, and she was then towed to Mobile, Alabama to be restored as a museum, by way of the Panama Canal. On the way to the canal, one of the tugboats accidentally sank. The ship's screws were removed for the voyage to avoid any damage. The carrier Lexington, a veteran of the fast carrier task force and still in service, escorted the ship while she was towed through the Gulf of Mexico. Alabama arrived in Mobile on 14 September having traveled some 5,600 nautical miles (10,400 km; 6,400 mi), the longest tow of a vessel that was not an active warship. The channel in Mobile Bay to her permanent berth had not yet been completed, and she had to wait until the end of the month before dredging work was finished. Once the ship was moored in her berth, work began to prepare the ship for visitors, including sandblasting painted surfaces, applying primer, and then re-painting the entire ship. The museum was opened on 9 January 1965.
In the early 1980s, when the Navy reactivated the four Iowa-class battleships, parts were cannibalized from Alabama and the other preserved battleships, including Massachusetts and North Carolina, to restore the Iowas to service. Engine room components that were no longer available in the Navy's inventory accounted for most of the material removed from the ships. The ship was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986. During her career as a museum ship, Alabama has been used as a set for several movies including Under Siege in 1992 and USS Indianapolis: Men of Courage in 2016.
In the early 2000s, the museum raised funds to complete major repairs to Alabama, including removing 2.7 million gallons of water contaminated with fuel oil from the ship. This involved erecting a cofferdam around the ship and pumping it dry, which also allowed workers to repair the ship's hull. At the same time, the submarine USS Drum, another component of the museum, was moved from the water to a display on land so her hull could be repaired. Alabama was damaged by Hurricane Katrina in September 2005, taking on water and a list to port; repairs were effected by Volkert, Inc.
## See also
- List of National Historic Landmarks in Alabama
- List of museum ships |
19,263,568 | Hurricane Hernan (1996) | 1,172,394,614 | Category 1 Pacific hurricane in 1996 | [
"1996 Pacific hurricane season",
"1996 in Mexico",
"Category 1 Pacific hurricanes",
"Pacific hurricanes in Mexico"
]
| Hurricane Hernan was fourth and final tropical cyclone to strike Mexico at hurricane intensity during the 1996 Pacific hurricane season. The thirteenth tropical cyclone, eighth named storm, and fifth hurricane of the season, Hernan developed as a tropical depression from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico on September 30. The depression quickly strengthened, and became Tropical Storm Hernan later that day. Hernan curved north-northwestward the following day, before eventually turning north-northeastward. Still offshore of the Mexican coast on October 2, Hernan intensified into a hurricane. Six hours later, Hernan attained its peak as an 85 mph (140 km/h) Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (SSHWS). After weakening somewhat, on 1000 UTC October 3, Hurricane Hernan made landfall near Barra de Navidad, Jalisco, with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). Only two hours after landfall, Hernan weakened to a tropical storm. By October 4, Tropical Storm Hernan had weakened into a tropical depression, and dissipated over Nayarit on the following day.
The storm dropped heavy rainfall along the west coast of Mexico, with some areas experiencing over 20 in (510 mm) of precipitation. As a result of the large amounts of rain, Hurricane Hernan caused moderate flooding. Despite impacting a relatively sparsely populated area of Mexico, no deaths were reported in the country, though one was reported missing. In all, flooding from the storm washed-out highways, disrupted telephone service, caused power outages, and damaged at least 1,000 homes. However, at least 100 injuries were recorded. In addition, the remnants caused flooding in southern Texas, and one person was presumed to have drowned.
## Meteorological history
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa during mid-September and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean. Even though convection associated with the system increased on two separate occasions, the tropical wave did not develop further. After emerging into the Pacific Ocean, the system entered the Gulf of Tehuantepec on September 28. Meanwhile, deep convection began to consolidate while the cloud pattern continued to improve. By late on September 29, classifications began on the system via the Dvorak technique, a technique used to measure a tropical cyclones intensity. By 0600 UTC on September 30, satellite imagery indicated that Tropical Depression Eleven-E had developed while centered over 285 mi (460 km) south-southeast of Acapulco. Three hours later, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) initiated advisories on the depression, stating that it was over warm sea surface temperatures and outflow was becoming well-established. Subsequently, it was predicted that the depression would intensify into a hurricane before October 3.
Later on September 30, satellite intensity classifications estimated wind speeds of at least 40 mph (65 km/h). Based on this, the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Hernan. By October 1, the atmospheric circulation of Hernan became difficult to locate on infrared satellite imagery. As a result, the NHC reported that it no longer anticipated that Hernan would intensify into a hurricane. Later that day, Hernan strengthened slightly; subsequently, visible satellite images indicated that the center of the storm redeveloped. Most of the computer models anticipated that Hernan would parallel the coast of Mexico, though the Global Dynamics Fluid Model (GDFL) noted that Tropical Storm Hernan would turn sharply northward and eventually make landfall in Mexico. Early on October 2, deep convection began wrapping around the center, and meteorologists noted that an eye feature may have been forming. Subsequently, Hernan also developed very cold cloud tops while tracking slowly to the northwest.
At 0600 UTC on October 2, it is estimated that Hernan had intensified into a hurricane. Operationally, however, Hernan was not upgraded to a hurricane until nine hours later. The storm strengthened a little more, and at 1200 UTC on October 2, Hernan attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph (140 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 980 mbar (hPa); 28.94 inHg. By late on October 2, radar imagery remarked that the northern eye wall was affecting portions of the west coast of Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the eye of Hernan became less distinct on satellite images. By 0900 UTC on October 3, based on data from radars in Cuyutlán, Colima, the NHC reported that Hurricane Hernan had executed a cyclonic loop to the southwest of Manzanillo. About an hour later, Hernan made landfall near Barra de Navidad, with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h).
Hernan rapidly weakened inland, and it was estimated that it had weakened to a tropical storm only two hours after landfall. By 0000 UTC on October 4, Hernan weakened further, and was downgraded to a tropical depression. Shortly thereafter, Hernan re-emerged into the Pacific Ocean, and the NHC noted that possibility for the depression to restrengthen into a tropical storm. Hernan weakened further as a large portion of its circulation remained on land, while the low-level center became difficult to locate. By 2100 UTC October 4, satellite images and surface reports indicated that Hernan had degenerated into a broad area of low pressure. Hernan finally dissipated at 0000 UTC the next day while centered over Nayarit.
## Preparations and Impact
Thirty-six hours after formation, on October 1, a tropical storm warning was issued from Acapulco, to Manzanillo. Early on the following day, a hurricane watch was put into effect from Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, to Manzanillo, . Three hours later, the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning. At 1500 UTC on that same day, a tropical storm warning was issued from Manzanillo, to San Blas, Nayarit. By 0300 UTC on October 3, the hurricane warning was extended from Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco to San Blas; the tropical storm warning was also extended, and included areas between Mazatlán and San Blas. As the storm rapidly weakened inland, all watches and warnings in effect were discontinued midday on October 3. In addition to these warnings, several ports and harbors were closed in the states of Guerrero, Michoacan, Jalisco, and Colima, a span of some 680 mi (1,095 km).
Much of Jalisco was drenched with rain for nearly 12 consecutive hours, resulting in flooding. Country-wide; however, the highest total was recorded in Petacalco and La Union, with 21.8 in (550 mm) being measured at both locations. The National Water Commission reported waves of up to 14 ft (4.3 m). Along the coasts of Colima and Jalisco, waves caused by Hernan were not as large, reaching 13 ft (3.9 m) in height. High winds were also recorded.
Because the storm made landfall in a sparsely populated area, no deaths were reported by the NHC. However, one boy was swept away in the Uxpana River and was thus reported missing. Due to flooding caused by the storm, three rivers in Veracruz overflowed their banks. Flooding from the storm also washed-out portions of two Mexico highways. Furthermore, telephone service was interrupted and power outages occurred. Around 1,000 homes were damaged or destroyed and 100 people were injured. Overall, damage from the system was not widespread.
After dissipating, the remnants of Hernan, in combination with a low pressure area that eventually became Tropical Storm Josephine, brought heavy downpours to southern Texas. Rainfall reached 5.5 in (140 mm) in Brownsville, which caused street flooding and forced several families to evacuate their homes. In addition, coastal flooding was reported in the town of South Padre Island. As a result of heavy rainfall, a flash flood watch and warning were issued for Cameron, Hidalgo, Kenedy, and Willacy Counties. One boy in Brownsville was classified as missing and later presumed to have drowned during the storm.
## See also
- Other storms of the same name
- List of Category 1 Pacific hurricanes
- Hurricane Carlos (2015)
- Hurricane Max (2017) |
53,971,225 | 1927 Pacific typhoon season | 1,139,639,221 | Pacific typhoon season | [
"1927 meteorology",
"1927 natural disasters",
"Pre-1940 Pacific typhoon seasons"
]
| In 1927, there were 27 tropical cyclones observed in the western Pacific Ocean, north of the equator and west of the 180th meridian. Many of these storms affected the Philippines, China, and Japan, collectively leaving 15,952 fatalities. The strongest storm of the year also had the lowest barometric pressure recorded in a tropical cyclone worldwide at the time. On August 18, the Dutch steamship Sapoeroea recorded a barometric pressure of 886.7 millibar (26.185 inches of mercury) about 740 kilometres (460 miles) east of Luzon. This typhoon later struck near Hong Kong, where it halted transportation, wrecked buildings, and killed 15 people.
The first storm of the year originated near the Caroline Islands on February 12, which capsized the freighter Elkton and caused the loss of its crew of 36 people. Storms were observed in each subsequent month of the year. In May, a typhoon wrecked the passenger ferry SS Negros near the Philippine province of Romblon, killing 108 people. A typhoon in July killed around 10,000 people in China, mostly related to mountain flooding near Zhangzhou, leaving around 100,000 people homeless. A month later, another landfalling typhoon in China killed about 5,000 people and damaged nearly 20,000 houses. In September, an intense typhoon moved through Japan around the same time that an undersea earthquake affected the region; the concurrent disasters killed about 600 people, after a 3 metre (10 foot) tsunami washed away boats and houses along the coast. Another Chinese typhoon in September killed 5,000 people. The final storm of the year dissipated on December 19 to the west of the Philippines.
## Season summary
The Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) tracked 21 tropical systems during the year, then referred as "depressions". Of these storms, 19 were estimated to have attained typhoon status, which has maximum sustained winds of at least 119 km/h (74 mph). The HKO distributed storm warnings to 86 weather stations or officials, including by telephone for the first time. During the year, 11 tropical cyclones passed near the Philippines, of which seven crossed land; four of these were typhoons. The fewer than average storms in the archipelago resulted in lower than average rainfall in western Luzon. The Philippines government insurance fund claimed ₱16,149.25 in damages, mostly related to a radio station that was destroyed in Baler.
## Systems
### February–June
The first tropical cyclone observed in 1927 was noted on February 12 southeast of Yap in the Caroline Islands. It moved west-northwestward, passing near Ngulu Atoll on February 14. The storm was last observed on February 16 after recurving to the northeast. Yap recorded a barometric pressure of 986 mbar (29.1 inHg), suggesting that the storm was a typhoon. On February 15, the freighter Elkton sent a distress signal amid the storm about 870 km (540 mi) northwest of Guam. By the time the S.S. Liberator arrived the next day, it only observed a 520 km<sup>2</sup> (200 sq mi) oil patch; this suggested that the ship, its crew of 36 people, and the \$1 million worth of sugar aboard, had capsized. The United States Navy deployed four destroyers from Manila, but was unable to find the wreckage.
A short-lived tropical cyclone was first observed on March 19, east of Mindanao in the Philippines. The system progressed northwestward through the Eastern Visayas, dissipating on March 20 over Masbate. On April 1, a tropical storm formed southwest of Taiwan, and progressed northeastward, passing between the island and the northern Philippines; the storm was last noted on April 4 south of Japan.
As early as May 22, a tropical cyclone existed east of the Philippine island of Samar. Tracking west-northwestward, the storm was at typhoon intensity when it struck eastern Luzon on May 26 near Baler, where a pressure of 994 mbar (29.4 inHg) was recorded. The center became disrupted while traversing the island, emerging into the South China Sea near Dagupan. It slowed to a northwest drift, dissipating on June 1 southeast of China. On May 28, the passenger ferry SS Negros foundered near Romblon during the typhoon, with the loss of 108 of the 178 people on board.
Another storm appeared east of the Philippines on May 26, located south of Yap. Initially, the system moved west-northwestward, passing over Palau, where 80% of houses were destroyed; damage was estimated at ¥400,000. The storm turned to the north-northwest, then later curved back to the west-northwest, reaching the Balintang Channel north of Luzon on June 2. That day, the town of Basco, Batanes in the waterway recorded a pressure of 973 mbar (28.7 inHg). On June 3, the storm crossed over Taiwan and recurved to the northeast. It was last noted on June 6 just south of the Japanese island of Kyushu.
### July
A tropical cyclone was first noted on July 11 east of Luzon. It moved generally to the west-northwest for a few days before curving to the northwest. On July 15, the steamer Tjikandi encountered the typhoon, estimating winds of 160 km/h (99 mph); two quartermasters were washed overboard, and the railing and hatches were wrecked. On July 17, the typhoon struck southeastern Taiwan and moved across the southern portion of the island, where Hengchun recorded a barometric pressure of 978 mbar (28.9 inHg). Crossing the Taiwan Strait, the storm entered southeastern China near Xiamen on July 17, and dissipated the next day.
On July 20, a tropical cyclone developed east of Luzon and proceeded to the west-northwest. Three days later, the storm struck Isabela province in eastern Luzon. It moved northwestward once in the South China Sea, passing near Pratas Island. On July 25, the SS President Madison encountered the storm near the coast of China, reporting hurricane-force winds and a minimum pressure of 975 mbar (28.8 inHg). That day, the typhoon moved ashore near Hong Kong, where winds reached 116 km/h (72 mph). Also near Hong Kong, a Chinese junk sank, killing 191 people, while passengers were rescued by the steamer Wing On. The storm curved to the southwest over land, dissipating on July 27. Flooding along the Jiulong River killed 10,000 people by drowning, mostly in mountainous areas near Zhangzhou. The floods left another 100,000 people homeless, and caused \$2 million in damages.
### August
The August issue of the Monthly Weather Review journal noted a small typhoon west of the Ryukyu Islands from August 2–4, moving northward and "of no great importance." A tropical cyclone was first reported on August 6 east of Luzon and north of Yap. It moved to the northwest, turned northeastward, and curved back to the northwest through the southern Ryukyu Islands. As it approached the eastern coast of China, the typhoon turned more to the north, and later crossed the Korean peninsula; it was last reported on August 10 off the east coast of the peninsula. Another storm originated north of Yap on August 11, and moved generally to the northwest. On August 16, the typhoon struck southeastern Taiwan and crossed the island. The storm proceeded westward, crossed the Taiwan Strait, and moved ashore southeastern China, dissipating on August 17.
On August 13, a tropical cyclone was observed south of Guam. It moved west-northwestward and attained a great intensity. On August 18, the Dutch steamship Sapoeroea recorded a barometric pressure of 886.7 mbar (26.18 inHg) about 740 km (460 mi) east of Luzon. This was the lowest pressure recorded in a tropical cyclone at the time, until a Hurricane hunters plane released a dropsonde into Typhoon Ida in 1958 and recorded a pressure of 877 mbar (25.9 inHg). Early on August 19, the typhoon passed near Aparri in northern Luzon, which recorded a pressure of 969 mbar (28.6 inHg). The storm's strong winds affected Cagayan, Mountain, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur provinces. Progressing into the South China Sea, the typhoon approached within 16 km (9.9 mi) of Pratas Island on August 20, where Force 11 winds were recorded. Later that day, the storm passed about 95 km (59 mi) south of Hong Kong, where wind gusts reached 187 km/h (116 mph). In Cheung Sha Wan, the typhoon wrecked 120 buildings, and the entire shanty town in Kowloon Tong was ruined. Ferry and tram service was halted, and a bus was overturned on Salisbury Road. Throughout Hong Kong, 11 boats were wrecked, 15 people were killed, and another 22 others were injured. Continuing across southern China, the storm was last observed on August 22.
As early as August 19, a tropical cyclone was near and south of Guam. Its track curved from the west-northwest to the north, drifting at times west of the Marianas Islands. The typhoon turned to the northwest, and was nearing the Ryukyu Islands on August 27. Turning westward and later to the west-southwest, the storm moved across Taiwan moved into the South China Sea. The typhoon moved ashore southern China in Guangdong on or after August 30 to the west of Hong Kong. In the province, the typhoon and its accompanying waves killed 5,000 people. More than 20,000 homes were damaged, and around 400 boats were wrecked, estimated at US\$1 million in damage.
The final August storm also originated near Guam on August 25. It moved to the northwest and intensified into a typhoon, later turning northeast and remaining south of Japan. The storm was last noted on September 2 to the east of Japan.
### September
A typhoon was first observed on September 9 northeast of the Philippines. Passing Guam two days later, its northward track shifted to the northeast toward Japan. The typhoon struck Kyushu on September 13, described in the Monthly Weather Review as the "most severe felt there in recent years." Around the same time, an underwater earthquake affected the region, which produced a 3.0 m (10 ft) tsunami that washed away buildings along the coast and carried boats two miles inland. Newspapers reported nearly 600 fatalities during the typhoon and earthquake. River flooding in Ōmura inundated 5,000 houses, leaving 15,000 people homeless. The storm ruined rice fields, causing prices to increase. Across Kyushu, the typhoon flooded or wrecked the roofs of thousands of homes. The typhoon moved through southern Japan and was last noted on September 15 nearing the Kuril Islands.
A typhoon approached eastern Luzon on September 16, and moved across the island on the next day. In the municipality of Baler on the east coast, a minimum pressure of 969 mbar (28.6 inHg) was recorded. The typhoon's eye passed over and nearly destroyed the town. A tornado spawned by the typhoon hit Metro Manila. The typhoon progressed westward into the South China Sea, later curving to the northwest and entering the Gulf of Tonkin near the island of Hainan. After the storm, the Philippine government provided aid to residents.
On September 20, a tropical cyclone was observed south off Guam, which proceeded northward through the Northern Marianas Islands. It turned to the northwest, but curved to the northeast by September 22. Passing south of Japan, the storm was last observed two days later. Another storm was observed on September 23 to the south of the Ryukyu Islands. It moved to the northeast at first before executing a loop in its track, passing through the Ryukyu Islands. The storm progressed to the northeast, remaining south of Japan, and was last noted on September 29. The final storm of the month was first observed on September 29 near Guam. Moving generally to the northwest at first, it turned to the northeast on September 30 and was last observed two days later to the southeast of Japan. While near the Bonin Islands, a station recorded a minimum pressure of 989 mbar (29.2 inHg).
On September 26, a typhoon struck China, killing about 5,000 people.
### October–December
A typhoon was first observed southwest of Guam on October 1, which progressed steadily westward. On October 4, the storm crossed the Philippines, entering from Borongan in Eastern Samar to Capiz and into the South China Sea. Heavy damage occurred along the path, and several boats were wrecked in Capiz, resulting in several fatalities. The island of Mindoro lost communications with Manila during the storm. Shifting to the west-northwest, the storm moved ashore eastern Vietnam on October 8 near Danang. Another typhoon followed a similar path, originating near Guam on October 4 and progressing westward. Five days later, the storm struck the Philippine province of Camarines Norte, causing damage as it moved westward through Luzon. Moving across the South China Sea, the storm struck the east coast of what was then Indochina on October 11.
A typhoon was observed on October 13 east of Guam, which moved generally northwestward for three days; then, it recurved to the northeast, and was last reported on October 18. Another typhoon originated southeast of Guam on October 19. It moved generally westward toward the Philippines before curving more to the north on October 24. The track shifted to the northeast, and the typhoon passed between Japan and the Bonin Islands. It was last observed on October 30.
On November 17, a typhoon originated west of Guam, which moved slowly to the west or west-northwest. It approached the eastern Philippines but remained east of the island group. On November 22, the typhoon curved to the northeast, remaining south of Japan. Another storm appeared on November 22 to the northwest of the previous storm, just to the northeast of Samar. It moved northwestward at first, but recurved to the northeast away from Luzon, and was last reported on November 24. On that same day, a typhoon was observed southeast of Guam and proceeded westward. The storm passed near Yap on November 25 and later turned to the north. Two days later, a passing United States Navy ship encountered the storm. On November 29, a storm passed near the Bonin Islands, but it was uncertain whether it was the first typhoon of the month near the Philippines or the storm that affected Yap. This storm was last observed on November 30.
A storm appeared west of Yap on December 3. Moving to the west-northwest, it crossed through the Visayas and Mindoro islands in the central Philippines. In the South China Sea, the storm trekked to the west-southwest and was last noted on December 9. The final system of the season originated on December 18 southeast of Zamboanga in the southern Philippines. It moved to the northwest and a day later dissipated in the Sulu Sea.
## See also
- 1927 Atlantic hurricane season
- 1927 Pacific hurricane season
- 1920s North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons
- 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons
- 1920s Australian region cyclone seasons
- 1920s South Pacific cyclone seasons |
980,836 | Andy Murray | 1,173,250,385 | British tennis player (born 1987) | [
"1987 births",
"ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players",
"Andy Murray",
"BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners",
"British male tennis players",
"Dunblane massacre",
"Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles",
"Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles",
"Hopman Cup competitors",
"ITF World Champions",
"Knights Bachelor",
"Laureus World Sports Awards winners",
"Living people",
"Male feminists",
"Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics",
"Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics",
"Officers of the Order of the British Empire",
"Olympic gold medallists for Great Britain",
"Olympic medalists in tennis",
"Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain",
"Olympic tennis players for Great Britain",
"People from Oxshott",
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"Scottish Olympic medallists",
"Scottish expatriate sportspeople in Spain",
"Scottish feminists",
"Scottish male tennis players",
"Sportspeople from Dunblane",
"Sportspeople from Glasgow",
"Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics",
"Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics",
"Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics",
"Tennis players at the 2020 Summer Olympics",
"US Open (tennis) champions",
"US Open (tennis) junior champions",
"Wimbledon champions"
]
| Sir Andrew Barron Murray OBE (born 15 May 1987) is a British professional tennis player. He was ranked world No. 1 in singles by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for 41 weeks, and finished as the year-end No. 1 in 2016. Murray has won three Grand Slam singles titles, two at Wimbledon (2013 and 2016) and one at the US Open (2012), and has reached eleven major finals. Murray was ranked in the top 10 for all but one month from July 2008 through to October 2017, and was no lower than world No. 4 in eight of the nine year-end rankings during that span. Murray has won 46 ATP Tour singles titles, including 14 Masters 1000 events and two gold medals at the Summer Olympics.
Originally coached by his mother Judy alongside his older brother Jamie, Murray moved to Barcelona at age 15 to train at the Sánchez-Casal Academy. He began his professional career around the time Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal established themselves as the two dominant players in men's tennis. Murray had immediate success on the ATP Tour, making his top 10 debut in 2007 at age 19. By 2010, Murray and Novak Djokovic had joined Federer and Nadal in the Big Four, the group of players who dominated men's tennis during the 2010s. Murray initially struggled against the rest of the Big Four, losing his first four major finals (three to Federer and one to Djokovic). He made his major breakthrough in 2012 by defeating Djokovic to win the US Open, becoming the first British major singles champion since Virginia Wade in 1977, and the first male champion since Fred Perry in 1936. A month earlier, he won the men's singles gold medal against Federer at the 2012 London Olympics, and a silver medal in mixed doubles.
From 2013 through 2016, Murray reached another six major finals. He won two of these encounters, at Wimbledon in 2013 and 2016. Murray had his career-best season in 2016. During that year, Murray made three major finals, winning Wimbledon. He also defended his title at the 2016 Rio Olympics to become the only player, male or female, to win two Olympic gold medals in singles. Murray also became world No. 1 for the first time that season, and clinched the year-end No. 1 ranking by winning his only Tour Finals title over Djokovic. Since 2016, he has struggled with various injuries and fell out of the top 100 in 2018 due to only seldom playing on tour, though he has since slowly risen back to the top 50.
Murray is an all-court player who excels in particular at defence, returning serve and constructing points. He is generally regarded as having one of the best and most consistent two-handed backhands on the ATP Tour. Murray is considered a national hero in the United Kingdom for re-establishing the country as a leading force in men's tennis for the first time since the early 20th century. He and his brother led the Great Britain Davis Cup team to a title in 2015. Murray has been outspoken as a feminist, and became only the second top-10 player in the history of the ATP Tour to have a female coach when he hired Amélie Mauresmo. As of 2023, he is one of two players to defeat Novak Djokovic in a Wimbledon final, the other being Carlos Alcaraz.
## Early and personal life
Andy Murray was born in Glasgow, Scotland, the son of Judy Murray (née Erskine) and William Murray. His maternal grandfather, Roy Erskine, was a professional footballer in the late 1950s. Murray is a supporter of Hibernian Football Club, one of the teams his grandfather represented, and Arsenal Football Club.
Murray began playing tennis at the age of three when his mother Judy took him to play on the local courts. He played in his first competitive tournament at age five and by the time he was eight he was competing with adults in the Central District Tennis League. Murray's elder brother, Jamie, is also a professional tennis player, playing on the doubles circuit, and became a multiple Grand Slam winner in the discipline (both men's and mixed).
Murray grew up in Dunblane and attended Dunblane Primary School. He and his brother were present during the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, when Thomas Hamilton killed 16 children and a teacher before shooting himself; Murray took cover in a classroom. Murray says he was too young to understand what was happening and is generally reluctant to talk about it in interviews, but in his autobiography Hitting Back he states that he attended a youth group run by Hamilton and his mother gave Hamilton lifts in her car. Murray later attended Dunblane High School.
Murray's parents split up when he was 10, with the boys living with their father while being mentored in tennis by their mother. He believes the impact this had on him could be the reason behind his competitive spirit. At 15, he was asked to train with Rangers Football Club at their School of Excellence, but declined, opting to focus on his tennis career instead. He then decided to move to Barcelona, Spain. There he studied at the Schiller International School and trained on the clay courts of the Sánchez-Casal Academy, coached by Pato Alvarez. Murray described this time as "a big sacrifice". His parents had to find £40,000 to pay for his 18-month stay there. In Spain, he trained with Emilio Sánchez, former world No. 1 doubles player.
Murray was born with a bipartite patella, a condition in which the kneecap remains as two separate bones instead of fusing together in early childhood, but was not diagnosed until the age of 16. He has been seen holding his knee due to the pain caused by the condition and has pulled out of events because of it.
In February 2013, Murray bought Cromlix House hotel near Dunblane for £1.8 million. Brother Jamie had celebrated his wedding there in 2010 but it had since ceased trading. The venue re-opened as a 15-room five-star hotel in April 2014. Later that month Murray was awarded the freedom of Stirling and received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Stirling in recognition of his services to tennis.
Murray began dating Kim Sears, daughter of player-turned-coach Nigel Sears, in 2005. Their engagement was announced in November 2014, and they married on 11 April 2015 at Dunblane Cathedral in his home town, with the reception at his Cromlix House hotel. The couple previously lived in Oxshott, Surrey but in 2022, moved to nearby Leatherhead, to their newly constructed home that will accommodate their young family, consisting of their son and three daughters; the youngest, a girl was born in March 2021.
He identifies himself as a feminist, and has been repeatedly vocal in his support for women players and coaches. He is also a vocal supporter of LGBT rights and supports same-sex marriage. In June 2020, he also lent his support to the Black Lives Matter movement; he and fellow players took a knee during the Schroders Battle of the Brits. Just before the 2020 US Open, he said he was "fully supportive" of Naomi Osaka's decision to sit out her semi-final match at the Western & Southern Open in the wake of Jacob Blake's shooting in Wisconsin; Osaka ultimately played the match.
Murray has invested in up to 30 UK businesses using Seedrs, a crowdfunding platform.
In January 2021, before his trip to Melbourne for the Australian Open, Murray tested positive for COVID-19 and remained in quarantine and isolating at home, eventually missing the tournament.
In March 2021, Murray decided to withdraw from the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships after his wife Kim Sears, gave birth to their fourth child. In October 2021, Murray travelled to California to compete in the Indian Wells Tennis Championships. Following training, he reported that his trainers and wedding ring had been stolen from underneath his car in the hotel car park. Following widespread appeals on Social and on mainstream media the trainers and his wedding ring were returned and reunited with him in good time for his first competitive tennis match at Indian Wells in four years.
## Junior career
Leon Smith, Murray's tennis coach from 11 to 17, described Murray as "unbelievably competitive", while Murray attributes his abilities to the motivation gained from losing to his older brother Jamie. In 1999, at the age of 12, Murray won his age group at the Orange Bowl, a prestigious event for junior players. He won it again at the age of 14, and is one of only nine tennis players to win the Junior Orange Bowl championship twice in its 70-year history, alongside the likes of Jimmy Connors, Jennifer Capriati and Monica Seles.
In July 2003, Murray started out on the Challenger and Futures circuit. In his first tournament, he reached the quarter-finals of the Manchester Challenger. In September, Murray won his first senior title by taking the Glasgow Futures event. He also reached the semi-finals of the Edinburgh Futures event.
For the first six months of 2004, Murray had a knee injury and could not play.
In July 2004, Murray played a Challenger event in Nottingham, where he lost to future Grand Slam finalist Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the second round. Murray then went on to win Futures events in Xàtiva and Rome.
In September 2004, he won the Junior US Open and was selected for the Davis Cup World Group play-off match against Austria later that month; however, he was not selected to play. Later that year, he won BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year.
As a junior, Murray reached as high as No. 6 in the world in 2003 (and No. 8 in doubles). In the 2004-instated combined rankings, he reached No. 2 in the world.
### Junior Slam results
- Australian Open: –
- French Open: SF (2005)
- Wimbledon: 3R (2004)
- US Open: W (2004)
## Professional career
### 2000s
#### 2005: Turning professional
Murray began 2005 ranked No. 407, but when he was in South America in January, he hurt his back and had to take three months off.
In March, he became the youngest Briton to play in the Davis Cup. Murray turned professional in April and was given a wild card entry to a clay-court tournament in Barcelona, the Open SEAT, where he lost in three sets to Jan Hernych. In April, Murray parted acrimoniously from his coach Pato Alvarez, complaining about his negative attitude. Murray then reached the semi-finals of the boys' French Open, where he lost in straight sets to Marin Čilić.
Mark Petchey agreed to coach Murray for four weeks until the end of Wimbledon, but it metamorphosed into a full-time position. Given a wild card to Queen's, Murray progressed past Santiago Ventura in straight sets for his first ATP match win. Following a second-round win against Taylor Dent, he played former Australian Open champion Thomas Johansson in the third round, losing in three sets after cramping and twisting his ankle. Following his performance at Queen's, Murray received a wild card for Wimbledon. Ranked No. 312, Murray became the first Scot in the Open Era to reach the third round of the men's singles tournament at Wimbledon. In the third round, Murray lost to 2002 Wimbledon finalist David Nalbandian due to cramping and fatigue, having led two sets to love.
Following Wimbledon, Murray won Challenger events on the hard courts of Aptos and Binghamton, New York. He then experienced his first Masters event at Cincinnati, where he beat Taylor Dent, before losing in three sets to then-No. 4, Marat Safin. With a wild card entry, Murray played Andrei Pavel in the opening round of the US Open, where he recovered from down two sets to one to win his first five-set match. However, he lost in the second round to Arnaud Clément in another five-set contest. Murray was again selected for the Davis Cup match against Switzerland. He was picked for the opening singles rubbers, losing in straight sets to Stanislas Wawrinka. Murray made his first ATP final at the Thailand Open where he faced No. 1 Roger Federer. Murray lost in straight sets.
Murray beat Tim Henman in their first meeting, at the Basel Swiss Indoors in the first round, and eventually reached the quarter-finals.
In November, Murray captained Scotland at the inaugural Aberdeen Cup against England led by Greg Rusedski. This was an exhibition tournament and the only event where Murray played Rusedski, they never met on the Tour. Rusedski beat Murray in the first match, but Murray won the second. This was also the first time that Andy and his brother Jamie Murray played doubles as seniors. Scotland defeated England 41⁄2 – 21⁄2. He completed the year ranked No. 64 and was named the 2005 BBC Scotland Sports Personality of the Year.
#### 2006: First ATP title and British No. 1
The 2006 season saw Murray compete on the full circuit for the first time and split with his coach Mark Petchey and team up with Brad Gilbert.
At the SAP Open in San Jose in February, Murray defeated a top ten player for the first time, Andy Roddick. Murray went on to claim the title defeating No. 11 Lleyton Hewitt. As a result, Murray became the British No. 1 later that month, ending Tim Henman's seven-year run. Murray was now world No. 42, Greg Rusedski No. 43, and Tim Henman No. 49. Rusedski regained his British No. 1 status on 15 May for eight weeks.
Murray suffered a straight sets defeat at the Australian Open, to Argentine Juan Ignacio Chela in the first round and to Gaël Monfils at the French Open, in five sets. Murray did reach the fourth round for the first time at both Wimbledon (beating 3rd seed Andy Roddick in the 3rd round) and the US Open.
Murray played in Davis Cup ties against Serbia, Israel and Ukraine. Murray missed the opening singles matches before losing the doubles as Britain lost their tie against Serbia. During the tie with Israel, Murray won his rubber and lost the doubles before pulling out with a neck injury before the reverse singles, as Britain lost the tie. Against Ukraine, Murray won both his singles rubbers, but lost the doubles, as Britain won the tie.
At the Masters, Murray lost in the first round in Miami, Monte Carlo and Rome. Murray went out of the tournaments in Indian Wells and Hamburg in the second round. Murray reached his first Masters semi-final in Toronto at the Rogers Cup, losing to Richard Gasquet.
At Cincinnati, Murray became only one of two players, alongside Rafael Nadal, to defeat Roger Federer in 2006, breaking the Swiss star's 55 match winning streak on hard courts. He lost two rounds later to Andy Roddick, but broke into the top 20 for the first time. In the final two Masters events in Madrid and Paris, Murray exited both tournaments at the last-16 stage ending his season, with losses to Novak Djokovic and Dominik Hrbatý. Murray was a finalist at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic. Playing doubles with his brother in Bangkok the pair reached the final. After the French Open, where Murray was injured again, he revealed that his bones hadn't fully grown, causing him to suffer from cramps and back problems.
In November, the Aberdeen Cup was held for the second time, with Murray leading team Scotland and Greg Rusedski captaining England. Scotland won 61⁄2–1.
#### 2007: Ascending to the top 10
Murray reached the fourth round of the Australian Open, where he lost a five-set match against No. 2, Rafael Nadal.
Following the Miami Masters, where he reached the semi-finals, Murray reached the No. 10 ranking on 16 April.
The British No. 1 sustained tendon damage during his first round match at the German Open in Hamburg. Murray was up 5–1 when he hit a forehand from the back of the court and snapped the tendons in his wrist, leaving him out of action from 15 May until 7 August, thereby missing Wimbledon. During this rest period, Murray rose to No. 8, but by 7 August, he had dropped to No. 14.
Murray suffered a third round loss at the US Open. At the Masters tournaments, Murray reached the semi-finals of Indian Wells and Miami. At Rome and Cincinnati, Murray exited in the first round whilst going out in the second in Canada. In the final two masters tournaments, Murray exited in the third round in Madrid and he went out in the quarter-finals of Paris. Murray won titles in San Jose and St. Petersburg. He also reached the final of tournaments in Doha and Metz, finishing the season ranked 11th in the world.
In November, Murray split with his coach Brad Gilbert and added a team of experts along with Miles Maclagan, his main coach.
#### 2008: First major final and Masters titles
In 2008, Murray suffered a first round loss at the Australian Open to eventual runner-up Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, and a third round loss at the French Open to Nicolás Almagro. Murray then made his first Grand Slam quarter-final at Wimbledon before making his first final at the US Open. During the tournament in New York, Murray claimed his first win over Nadal. That victory meant that he became the first player from Britain since Greg Rusedski in 1997 to reach a major final. In his first Grand Slam final Murray suffered a straight sets loss to Federer. At the Beijing Olympics, Murray suffered one of the worst defeats of his career, losing his first round singles match to No. 77 Yen-hsun Lu of Taiwan in straight sets. That abject defeat was still on his mind in a BBC interview five years later – despite an intervening Olympic gold medal and a head-to-head win – when he met the same player (now ranked No. 75) in the second round of Wimbledon 2013.
In the Masters tournaments, Murray went out in round four in Indian Wells and the first round of Miami. In the clay Masters Murray made the third round of Monte Carlo and Hamburg and the second of Rome. On the American hard court swing Murray made the semi-finals of Toronto before winning his first Masters shield in Cincinnati. He added another shield to his collection in Madrid; before losing in the quarter-finals of Paris. Now at No. 4 in the world, Murray qualified for the first time for the Masters Cup. He played well in defeating an injured Federer but lost to Davydenko in the semi-finals. Murray ended 2008 ranked No. 4. Murray also won tournaments in Doha, Marseille and St Petersburg.
#### 2009: Ascent to world No. 2 and two Masters titles
Murray opened the 2009 season with a successful defence of his title at the Qatar Open in Doha, defeating Andy Roddick in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Murray made it to the fourth round, losing to Fernando Verdasco. Murray won his eleventh career title in Rotterdam, defeating No. 1, Nadal in three sets. Murray next went to Dubai but withdrew before the quarter-finals with a re-occurrence of a virus that had affected him at the Australian Open. The virus caused Murray to miss a Davis Cup tie in Glasgow. Murray then lost in the finals to Nadal at Indian Wells, but won a week later in Miami over Djokovic for another masters title.
In the lead-up to the French Open, Murray beat No. 9, Nikolay Davydenko at the Monte Carlo Masters, the first time he had beaten a top ten player on clay, though he lost to Nadal in the semi-finals. Murray was upset in round two of the Rome Masters by qualifier Juan Mónaco, and he reached the quarter-finals of the Madrid Masters, losing to Juan Martín del Potro. During this time Murray achieved the highest ever ranking of a British male in the Open Era when he reached the No. 3 ranking on 11 May 2009. Murray reached the quarter-finals of the French Open, but was defeated by Fernando González in four sets.
Murray won a title for the first time on grass at Queen's and became the first British winner of the tournament since 1938. In the final Murray defeated American James Blake. At Wimbledon, against Stanislas Wawrinka, Murray's fourth round match was the first match to be played entirely under Wimbledon's retractable roof. This also enabled it to be the then latest finishing match ever at Wimbledon, a record he would go on to eclipse three years later in a second round match against Marcos Baghdatis. However Murray lost a tight semi-final to Andy Roddick.
Murray returned to action in Montreal, defeating del Potro in three sets to take the title. After this victory, he overtook Nadal in the rankings and held the number two position until the start of the US Open. Murray followed the Masters win playing at the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost to Federer. At the US Open, Murray was hampered by a wrist injury and suffered a straight-sets loss to Čilić. Murray won both his singles matches, and lost at doubles in the Davis Cup against Poland, but then missed six weeks with a wrist injury.
In November, Murray won at Valencia, but bowed out in round two of the Paris Masters. To end the season, Murray did not make it out of the round robin at the World Tour Finals in London. He ended the year ranked \#4 for the second consecutive year.
### 2010s
#### 2010: Hopman Cup and Australian Open finals
Murray and Laura Robson represented Britain at the Hopman Cup. The pair progressed to the final, where they were beaten by Spain. At the Australian Open Murray beat Nadal and Čilić before losing in the final to Roger Federer.
At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray reached the quarter-finals, losing to Robin Söderling in straight sets. Murray next played at the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open, but lost his first match of the tournament to Mardy Fish, afterwards saying that his mind hadn't been fully on tennis. At the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, Murray suffered another first match loss, this time to Philipp Kohlschreiber. He entered the doubles competition with Ross Hutchins; the duo lost to the Bryan brothers on a champions tie-breaker. Murray reached the third round in the Rome Masters, and the quarter-finals at the Madrid Masters, losing both times to David Ferrer.
After playing an exhibition match, Murray started the French Open with three tough wins, before losing in straight sets to Tomáš Berdych in the fourth round. In London, Murray progressed to the third round, where he faced Mardy Fish. At 3–3 in the final set with momentum going Murray's way (he had just come back from 3–0 down), the match was called off for bad light, leaving Murray fuming. Coming back the next day, Murray was edged out by the eventual finalist in a tie-breaker for his second defeat by him in the year. At Wimbledon, Murray progressed to the semi-finals, losing to Nadal in straight sets. On 27 July 2010, Murray and his coach Maclagan split, and Murray replaced him with Àlex Corretja.
Starting the US hard-court season with the 2010 Farmers Classic, Murray reached the final but lost against Sam Querrey in three sets. This was his first loss to Querrey in five career meetings. In Canada, Murray became the first player since Andre Agassi in 1995 to defend the Canadian Masters. Murray defeated Nadal and then Federer in straight sets, ending his eight-month title drought. At the Cincinnati Masters, Murray first complained about the speed of the court, and then in a quarter-final match with Fish, Murray complained that the organisers refused to put the match on later in the day With temperatures reaching 33 °C in the shade, Murray won the first set in a tie-breaker but began to feel ill. The doctor was called on court to actively cool Murray down. Murray said after the match that he had considered retiring. He lost the second set, but forced a final-set tie-breaker, before Fish won. After losing to Stanislas Wawrinka in the third round of the US Open, questions about Murray's conditioning arose, as he called the trainer out twice during the match.
His next event was the China Open in Beijing, where Murray reached the quarter-finals, losing to Ivan Ljubičić. Murray then won the Shanghai Rolex Masters dismissing Roger Federer in straight sets. He did not drop a single set throughout the event. Murray returned to Spain to defend his title at the Valencia Open 500 but lost in the second round to Juan Mónaco. However, in doubles, Murray partnered his brother Jamie Murray to the final, where they defeated Mahesh Bhupathi and Max Mirnyi. The victory was Murray's first doubles title and the second time he had reached a final with his brother.
Murray reached the quarter-finals at the BNP Paribas Masters losing to Gaël Monfils in three sets. Combined with his exit and Söderling's taking the title, Murray found himself pushed down a spot in the rankings, to No. 5 from No. 4. At the Tour finals in London, Murray went 2–1 in round robin play before facing Nadal in the semi-final. They battled for over three hours, before Murray fell to the Spaniard in a final-set tie-breaker, bringing an end to his season. He ended the year ranked \#4 for the third consecutive year.
#### 2011: Consistency in slams and two more Masters
Murray and Laura Robson lost in the round-robin stage 2011 Hopman Cup, losing all three ties even though Murray won all of his singles matches. Then Murray, along with other stars such as Federer, Nadal, and Djokovic, participated in the Rally for Relief event to help raise money for the flood victims in Queensland.
Seeded fifth in the 2011 Australian Open, Murray met former champion Novak Djokovic in the final and was defeated in straight sets. In Rotterdam, he was defeated by Marcos Baghdatis in the first round. Murray reached the semi-finals of the doubles tournament with his brother Jamie. Murray lost to qualifiers in the first rounds at the Masters Series events in Indian Wells and Miami, after which he split with coach Àlex Corretja.
Murray returned to form at the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, but lost to Nadal in the semi-finals. Murray sustained an elbow injury before the match and subsequently withdrew from the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell due to the injury. Murray lost in the third round at the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, but made it to the semi-finals of the Rome Masters, where he lost to Novak Djokovic.
At the French Open, Murray won two tough early matches, before losing in his first semi-final at Roland Garros, against Rafael Nadal.
Murray defeated Jo-Wilfried Tsonga to win his second Queen's Club title. At Wimbledon, Murray lost in the semi-final to Nadal, despite taking the first set. At the Davis Cup tie between Great Britain and Luxembourg, Murray led the British team to victory. Murray was the two-time defending 2011 Rogers Cup champion, but lost in the second round to South African Kevin Anderson. However, the following week, he won the 2011 Western & Southern Open after Novak Djokovic retired due to injury. At the 2011 US Open, Murray battled from two sets down to win a five-set second-round encounter with Robin Haase, but lost in the semi-finals to Rafael Nadal in four sets. This was the first time in his career that Andy had reached the quarter-finals, or better, at all four slams in a calendar year.
Murray easily won the small 250-class Thailand Open, and the following week he won his third title in four tournaments at the Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships. His opponent in the final was Rafael Nadal, whom he beat for the first time in the year in three sets. Murray then won the doubles with his brother Jamie Murray, becoming the first person in the 2011 season to capture both singles and doubles titles at the same tournament. Murray then successfully defended his Shanghai Masters crown with a straight-sets victory over David Ferrer in the final. At the ATP World Tour Finals, Murray lost to David Ferrer in straight sets and withdrew from the tournament after the loss with a groin pull. Murray ended the year ranked \#4, behind Djokovic, Nadal, and Federer, for the fourth consecutive year.
#### 2012: Olympic Gold, US Open champion, and Wimbledon runner-up
With Ivan Lendl as his new full-time coach, Murray began the season by playing in the 2012 Brisbane International. He overcame a slow start in his first two matches to win his 22nd title by beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the final. In doubles, he lost in the quarter-finals against second seeds Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner in a tight match. After an exhibition tournament, Murray made it to the semi-finals of the 2012 Australian Open, where he was defeated by Djokovic in a four-hour-and 50-minute match.
At the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships, Murray defeated Djokovic in the semi-finals, but lost in the final to Roger Federer. After an early defeat at the BNP Paribas Open, Murray made the final of the Miami Masters, losing to Djokovic. Murray then had quarter-final losses at the Monte Carlo Masters and Barcelona Open, and a third round loss at the Italian Open. Murray battled back spasms throughout the French Open, and in the quarter-finals, he was beaten by David Ferrer.
Murray lost in the opening round of the Queen's Club Championships to No. 65 Nicolas Mahut. At Wimbledon, Murray set the then record for the latest finish at the championships when he completed a four-set victory over Marcos Baghdatis at 23:02 BST, which was eclipsed by the 2018 Wimbledon men's singles semi-finals which saw play being completed at 23:03 BST. Murray beat Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the semi-final in four sets to become the first male British player to reach the final of Wimbledon since Bunny Austin in 1938. In the final, he faced Federer, but after taking the first set, he lost the match in four sets.
Murray returned to Wimbledon within weeks, this time to compete in the London 2012 Summer Olympics in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles. He partnered his brother Jamie Murray in doubles and suffered a first-round exit to Austria (Jürgen Melzer and Alexander Peya) in three sets. In the mixed doubles, Murray was partnered by Laura Robson. They made it all the way to the finals where they lost to the Belarusian top seeds (Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi) in three sets, settling for the silver medal. In singles, Murray lost only one set on his way to the finals where he met Federer, defeating him in straight sets, for the loss of just 7 games. By winning the Olympic gold medal, Murray became the first British man to win the Olympic singles gold medal in tennis since Josiah Ritchie in 1908, and only the 7th man in the open era to win two medals at the same Olympic Games. Murray retired early in the Rogers Cup due to a knee injury, and was beaten by unseeded Jérémy Chardy at the Cincinnati Masters in straight sets.
He next competed in the final major of the season at the US Open. He cruised through his opening two rounds in straight sets against Alex Bogomolov and Ivan Dodig, before facing a tough four-set battle with Feliciano López, where Murray had to win three tie-breakers. In the fourth round, he defeated the Canadian Milos Raonic in straight sets, and then in the quarter-finals, had to come from a set and two breaks down against Marin Čilić to prevail in four. In the semi-finals, he defeated Tomáš Berdych in a long-fought match that lasted almost four hours, to reach his second consecutive Grand Slam final. Murray defeated Djokovic in five sets, becoming the first British man to win a Grand Slam final since Fred Perry in 1936, and the first Scottish-born player to win a Grand Slam final since Harold Mahony in 1896. The win would also set several records for Murray: it involved the longest tiebreak in US Open final history at 12–10 in the first set, it made Murray the first man ever to win an Olympic gold medal and the US Open in the same year, and it tied with the 1988 US Open final (in which Murray's coach Lendl competed) as the longest final in the tournament's history. By defeating Djokovic in the final, Murray achieved his 100th Grand Slam match win of his career. The victory made Murray part of the "Big Four" according to many pundits and contemporaries, including Novak Djokovic.
In his first tournament after the US Open, Murray reached the semi-finals of the Rakuten Japan Open after entering as defending champion. He was beaten by Milos Raonic in a close three-set match. He was defending champion in the doubles with his brother Jamie. However, they were knocked out in the quarter-finals by top seeds Leander Paes and Radek Štěpánek. At the penultimate Masters 1000 tournament of the year in Shanghai, after receiving a bye into round two, Murray's first match was due to be played against Florian Mayer. However, Mayer had to pull out due to injury, giving Murray a walkover into round three. After beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the third round, he then overcame Radek Štěpánek in a three-set quarter-final. Murray next faced Roger Federer in the semi-finals, whom he defeated in straight sets to set up a second consecutive final against Djokovic, and his third consecutive Shanghai final. After failing to capitalise on five match points, Murray eventually lost in three sets, bringing to an end his 12–0 winning streak at the competition. When Nadal pulled out of both the Paris Masters and the year-end championships, Murray finished the year at No. 3, after four years at No. 4. This was the first time Murray had finished the year higher than No. 4. At the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Murray found himself voted third overall, ahead of Mo Farah. Murray won the World Breakthrough of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards.
Murray was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to tennis.
#### 2013: Wimbledon champion and back surgery
Murray began his 2013 season by retaining his Brisbane International title, defeating Grigor Dimitrov in the final in straight sets. Trying to win his second major in a row, he began the 2013 Australian Open well with a straight sets victory over Dutchman Robin Haase. He followed this up with straight set victories over João Sousa, practice partner Ričardas Berankis and French No. 14 seed Gilles Simon. In the quarter-finals he cruised past Jérémy Chardy in straight sets to set up a semi-final clash with Roger Federer. After exchanging sets, Murray eventually prevailed in 5 sets, recording his first Grand Slam tournament triumph over Federer. With this victory, each member of the ATP's most dominant quartet of the previous four years (Federer, Nadal, Djokovic and Murray) had beaten the other three at the majors. This victory set up Murray's third consecutive major final appearance, and second in a row against Djokovic. After taking the first set in a tiebreak, Murray was eventually defeated in four sets. His defeat in this final meant that Murray became only the second man in the Open Era to achieve three runner-up finishes at the Australian Open, the other being Stefan Edberg.
At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray lost at the quarter-final stage to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets. At the Miami Masters, Murray made it through his first four matches without dropping a set, and after overcoming Richard Gasquet in the semi-finals, faced David Ferrer in the final. After losing the first set, and facing match point in the decider at 5–6, Murray eventually took the match in a third-set tiebreaker to win his second Miami Masters title, and leapfrog Roger Federer into second place in the rankings, ending a near-decade long time period in which either Federer or Rafael Nadal were ranked in the top two. Murray briefly fell back to No. 3, following a third round defeat by Stanislas Wawrinka in Monte-Carlo, but reclaimed the No. 2 ranking as a result of Federer failing to defend his title at the Mutua Madrid Open. Later, Murray lost at the quarter-final stage to Tomáš Berdych in straight sets.
At the Rome Masters, Murray retired due to a hip injury during his second round match against Marcel Granollers on his 26th birthday. Murray had just battled back to tie the match at one set all after winning the second set on a tiebreak. This left Murray with only eleven days to be fit for the start of the French Open.
Speaking at a press conference after the match, Murray said, "As it is, I'd be very surprised if I was playing in Paris. I need to make a plan as to what I do. I'll chat with the guys tonight and make a plan for the next few days then make a decision on Paris after the next five days." He would go on to withdraw from Roland Garros later, citing a back injury. After a four-week break due to injury, Murray made his comeback at the 2013 Aegon Championships, where he was the top seed. After a rain delayed first day, Murray had to complete his second round match against Nicolas Mahut, and his subsequent match against Marinko Matosevic on the same day, both of which he won in straight sets. After beating Benjamin Becker in the quarter-finals, Murray next faced his first top ten opponent since losing to Tomáš Berdych in Madrid, taking on Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the semi-finals. After dropping the first set against the Frenchman, Murray eventually raised his level and won in three to set up a final against Marin Čilić of Croatia, his third consecutive final on grass courts. He came from behind again to beat Čilić in three sets to claim his third title at Queen's Club.
Going into Wimbledon, Murray had not lost a match on grass since the previous year's final, and was on a winning streak of 11 matches on grass. In the first two rounds, Murray faced Benjamin Becker and Yen-hsun Lu respectively, defeating both in straight sets. His third round match was against 32nd seed Tommy Robredo, and despite a tour comeback over the past year, Murray overcame the Spaniard in straight sets to set up a clash with Mikhail Youzhny, the highest seed left in Murray's half following the unexpectedly early exits of Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. Despite facing a fightback in the second set, Murray won in straight sets to make it through to his tenth consecutive Grand Slam quarter-final, in which he was to play Fernando Verdasco, the first left-handed player Murray had faced since the 2012 US Open. For the seventh time in his career, Murray had to come back from a deficit of two sets to ultimately come through in five, setting up a semi-final clash with 24th seed Jerzy Janowicz, the Polish player who beat Murray in their previous encounter. After Murray failed to break Janowicz's serve, the Pole took the opening set in the tiebreak, following a double fault from Murray. However, Murray managed to up his level of play, and won the next three sets, making it through to his second consecutive Wimbledon final, and third consecutive major final against Novak Djokovic.
Despite the Serb being the favourite to win the title throughout the Championships, Murray overcame Djokovic in a straight sets match that lasted over three hours, to become the first British winner of the men's singles title since Fred Perry in 1936, the first Scot of either sex to win a Wimbledon singles title since Harold Mahony in 1896, and to extend his winning streak on grass to 18 matches.
At the US Open, Murray entered a Grand Slam tournament as defending champion for the first time and started strongly with a straight sets win against Michaël Llodra. He backed this up with wins over Leonardo Mayer, Florian Mayer and Denis Istomin to reach the quarter-finals at a major for the 11th straight tournament. In the last 8, Murray faced Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland, but lost in straight sets, ending Murray's streak of four consecutive major finals. Following his disappointing run of form on hard courts, Murray next joined the Great Britain Davis Cup team in their World Group Play-off tie on clay against Croatia, where he played in two singles and the doubles rubbers. After defeating 16-year-old Borna Ćorić in straight sets, Murray teamed up with Colin Fleming to defeat Croatian number 1 Ivan Dodig and Mate Pavić in the doubles, and take a 2–1 lead in the tie. Murray then sealed Britain's return to the World Group by defeating Dodig in straight sets.
Following the Davis Cup, Murray's season was cut short by his decision to undergo surgery, in order to sort out the lower back problems that had caused him problems since the early stages of the previous season. After being forced to withdraw from the French Open in May, the injury flared up again during the US Open and later during the Davis Cup World Group play-offs, Murray made the decision that surgery was the best way to sort the problem out for the long-term. Following the conclusion of the 2013 season, Murray was voted the 2013 BBC Sports Personality of the Year, after having been heavy favourite since the nominees were announced.
#### 2014: 30th career title and out of top 10
Murray started his season at the Qatar Open in Doha. In the first round, he defeated Mousa Shanan Zayed in straight sets in 37 minutes without dropping a single game, but was defeated in three sets by No. 40 Florian Mayer in the second round, despite being a set and a break up three games into the second set. He then played a warm-up match at the 2014 AAMI Classic in Kooyong against No. 43 Lleyton Hewitt, losing in two close tiebreaks.
He next headed to Melbourne for the 2014 Australian Open, where he drew the No. 112, Go Soeda of Japan. Despite worries that he was not match-fit, Murray got off to a strong start, dispatching the Japanese number 2 in under 90 minutes, losing just 5 games in the process. He next went on to defeat Vincent Millot and Feliciano López respectively in straight sets. In the fourth round, Murray dropped his first set of the tournament on his way to beating Stephane Robert in four sets to set up a meeting with long-standing rival Roger Federer in the quarter-finals. Despite saving two match points to take the third set, he ultimately went out in four, ending his streak of four consecutive Australian Open semi-finals. As a result of losing before the final, Murray fell to No. 6, falling out of the top 5 for the first time since 2008.
He next headed to the United States to compete in the Davis Cup World Group first round with Great Britain, who went into the tie as outsiders. Murray won both of his ties against Donald Young and Sam Querrey respectively, helping Britain to their first Davis Cup quarter-final since 1986. Murray's next tournament was the Rotterdam Open after receiving a late wild card, however he lost to Marin Čilić in straight sets in the quarter-finals. His following competition, the Mexican Open in Acapulco, ended in a semi-final defeat by Grigor Dimitrov in a thrilling three-setter that required two tiebreakers to decide the final two sets.
At Indian Wells, Murray struggled in his first two matches against Lukáš Rosol and Jiří Veselý respectively, overcoming both in close three-set encounters to set up a fourth round clash with Canadian Milos Raonic, which he lost in three sets. Murray offered to play with 2012 Wimbledon Doubles champion Jonathan Marray, because Marray was unable to convince anyone to join him on court. For Murray's and Marray's first competitive match together, they won a doubles clash against Gaël Monfils and Juan Mónaco only to lose in the second round to the No 2 seeds Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares.
In March, Murray split with coach Ivan Lendl, who had been widely praised for helping Murray achieve his goal of winning Grand Slam titles. At the 2014 Miami Masters, Murray defeated Matthew Ebden, Feliciano López and Jo Wilfried Tsonga but lost to Djokovic in the quarter-finals. In the Davis Cup quarter-finals against Italy, he beat Andreas Seppi in his first rubber, then teamed up with Colin Fleming to win the doubles rubber. Murray had only beaten one top ten player on clay, Nikolay Davydenko, back in 2009, and so in his final singles match, was stunned by Fabio Fognini in straight sets, which took Great Britain to the deciding final rubber. However, in this match his compatriot, James Ward was defeated by Andreas Seppi, also in straight sets, knocking Murray and Great Britain out of the Davis Cup.
Murray next competed at the Madrid Open and following his opening win, over Nicolas Almagro, he dedicated the victory to former player Elena Baltacha. He then lost to qualifier Santiago Giraldo in the following round. Murray then reached the quarter-finals of the Rome Masters where he lost to No. 1 Rafael Nadal in a tight match in which he had been up a break in the final set. At the French Open, Murray defeated Andrey Golubev and Marinko Matosevic before edging out 28th seed Philipp Kohlschreiber 12–10 in the final set. This was the first time Murray had ever gone beyond 7–5 in a deciding set. He followed this up with a straight sets win over Fernando Verdasco and then recorded a five set victory over Frenchman Gaël Monfils in the quarter-final, which saw Murray rise to No. 5 and equal his best ever French Open by reaching the semi-finals. However, he subsequently lost to Nadal in straight sets, winning only 6 games in the match. After losing the 2014 French Open semi-finals to Nadal, Murray appointed former women's world No. 1, and two-times slam titlist, Amélie Mauresmo as his coach in a 'historic move' which made Mauresmo the first woman to coach a top male tennis player.
After strong grass court seasons in 2012 and 2013, Murray was seeded third for the 2014 Wimbledon Championship, behind Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal, who were seeded first and second respectively. He began his title defence with straight sets wins over David Goffin and Blaž Rola, defeating the latter for the loss of just two games. Murray continued his good form, defeating Roberto Bautista Agut and Kevin Anderson, the 27th and 20th seeds, again in straight sets to reach his seventh consecutive Wimbledon quarter-final. Murray's defence then came to a halt as Grigor Dimitrov ended his 17 match winning-streak on the grass of Wimbledon (this includes the 2012 Olympics) with a straight sets win, meaning Murray failed to reach the semi-finals for the first time since 2008. After his defeat at the Championships, Murray dropped to No. 10, his lowest ranking since 2008.
Before the North American hard court swing, Murray announced he was extending his partnership with Amélie Mauresmo until the end of the US Open, but was ideally looking for a long-term deal. He also revealed he had only just returned to a full training schedule following his back surgery last September. Murray reached back-to-back quarter-finals at the Canadian Open and Cincinnati Masters, losing to eventual champions Jo Wilfried Tsonga, after being a break up in the decider, and Roger Federer, after being two breaks up in the second set, respectively. He made it to the quarter-finals of the 2014 US Open, losing to Novak Djokovic, after earning his first top ten win of the year in the previous round against Jo Wilfried Tsonga. This was the first season since 2009 where Murray failed to reach a grand slam final. As a consequence Murray fell outside of the top 10 ranking places for the first time since June 2008.
Murray took a wildcard into the inaugural Shenzhen Open in China, entering as the number 2 seed. Victories over Somdev Devvarman, Lukáš Lacko and Juan Mónaco saw Murray reach his first final of the season, breaking a drought of 14 months following his title at Wimbledon. In the final, he faced Tommy Robredo of Spain, the second final between the two. After saving five championship points in the second set tie break, Murray went on to win the title in three sets, Robredo's drop in fitness ultimately proving decisive. He then took his good form into Beijing, where he reached the semi-finals before losing to Djokovic in straight sets, however he lost in the third round at the Shanghai Masters to David Ferrer despite being a set up. Following his early exit in Shanghai, Murray took a wildcard into the Vienna Open in an attempt to claim a place at the ATP World Tour Finals. He reached the final, where he once again faced Ferrer, and triumphed in three sets for his second title of the season, and the 30th of his career. Murray defeated Ferrer again in the semi-finals of the Valencia Open to move into his third final in five weeks, and further strengthen his bid for a place at the season finale in London. In a repeat of the Shenzhen Open final, Murray again saved five championship points as he overcame Tommy Robredo in three sets. Murray then went on to reach the quarter-finals of the Paris Masters, where he was eliminated by Djokovic in what was his 23rd match in the space of only 37 days. However, his win over Dimitrov in the third round had already guaranteed him a spot at the ATP World Tour Finals.
At the ATP World Tour Finals, Murray lost his opening round robin match to Kei Nishikori but won his second match against Milos Raonic. However, he lost his final group match against Federer in straight sets and only managed to win one game against him, marking his worst defeat since losing to Djokovic in the 2007 Miami Masters, eliminating him from the tournament.
Following the conclusion of the season, Murray mutually agreed on a split with long-term backroom staff, training partner Dani Vallverdu and fitness coach Jez Green. They had been with him for five and seven years respectively but were both reported to have been unhappy at the lack of consultation they had been given about the appointment of Mauresmo. Murray also took part in the inaugural season of the International Premier Tennis League, representing the Manila Mavericks, who had drafted him as an icon player in February. Murray took part in the first three matches of the tournament which were all played in Manila.
#### 2015: Davis Cup champion and return to world No. 2
Murray began his year by winning an exhibition event in Abu Dhabi. He then played the Hopman Cup with Heather Watson and, despite winning all his singles matches in straight sets, they finished second in their group behind Poland. His first competitive tournament of the year was the Australian Open. He won his opening three matches in straight sets before defeating 11th seed Grigor Dimitrov to reach the quarter-final. Wins over Nick Kyrgios and Tomáš Berdych followed as Murray reached his fourth final at the tournament (three of which were against Djokovic) and the eighth grand slam final of his career. He lost the final to Novak Djokovic in four sets, however his run to the final saw his return to the top four in the world rankings for the first time in 12 months.
Murray next participated in the Rotterdam Open as the top seed, but he lost in the quarter-finals to Gilles Simon who ended a 12 match losing streak against Murray. Murray then played in the Dubai Championships but suffered another quarter-final defeat to 18-year-old Borna Ćorić and as a result, Murray slipped to No. 5 behind Rafael Nadal and Kei Nishikori. Afterwards, Murray played the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow against the United States. He won both his matches against Donald Young and John Isner, allowing Great Britain to progress to the quarter-finals for the second consecutive time with a 3–2 lead over the United States.
Murray then reached the semi-finals of the 2015 Indian Wells, overtaking Tim Henman's record of 496 career wins to have the most career wins for a British man in the Open Era. However, he suffered a 6th consecutive defeat to Djokovic in straight sets. Murray then reached the final of the 2015 Miami Open, recording his 500th career win along the way to become the first British player to have 500 or more wins in the Open Era. He went on to lose the final to Djokovic, this time in three sets. Murray added Jonas Björkman to his coaching staff in March initially on a five-week trial to help out in periods when Mauresmo was unavailable as she only agreed to work with him for 25 weeks. However, at the end of the Australian Open, Mauresmo had informed Murray that she was pregnant and he announced at the end of April, that Björkman would be his main coach for all of the grass court season and all of the US hard court swing, while Mauresmo would only be with the team for Wimbledon.
Murray won his first ATP clay court title at the 2015 BMW Open. He defeated German Philipp Kohlschreiber in three close sets to become the first Briton since Buster Mottram in 1976 to win a tour level clay court event. The following week he reached his second final on clay, at the Madrid Open after recording only his second and third victories over top 10 opposition on clay, against Raonic and Nishikori. In the final, he defeated Rafael Nadal in straight sets for his first Madrid title on clay, and first ever clay court Masters 1000 title. The win was Murray's first over Nadal, Federer or Djokovic since Wimbledon 2013, and his first over Nadal on a clay court.
Murray continued his winning streak at the Italian Open, beating Jeremy Chardy in straight sets in his opening match, but then withdrew due to fatigue after having played nine matches in the space of 10 days. Murray then reached his third semi-final at the French Open, but lost to Djokovic in five sets after threatening a comeback from two sets to love down, ending his 15 match winning streak on clay. To start his grass court campaign, Murray went on to win a record-tying fourth Queen's Club title, defeating the big serving South African Kevin Anderson in straight sets in the final. At the third grand slam of the year, the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, Murray dropped only two sets on his way to setting up a semi-final clash with Roger Federer. Murray lost to the Swiss veteran in straight sets, gaining only one break point in the entire match.
After Wimbledon, Murray returned to Queen's Club, to play for Great Britain against France in their Davis Cup quarter-final tie. Great Britain went 1–0 down when James Ward lost to Gilles Simon in straight sets, however Murray levelled the tie with a victory against Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. Murray then teamed up with his brother Jamie to win the doubles rubber, coming back from a set down to defeat Tsonga and Nicolas Mahut in four sets, giving Britain a crucial 2–1 lead going into the final day. He then faced Simon in the fourth rubber and after initially being a set and a break down, he suddenly found his form again towards the end of the second set and eventually won in four sets, winning 12 of the last 15 games in the process (with Simon struggling from an ankle injury). With a 3–1 lead over France, this resulted in Great Britain reaching their first Davis Cup semi-final since 1981.
Murray next participated at the Citi Open (for the first time since 2006), as the top seed and favourite to win the tournament. However, he suffered a defeat in his first match, losing to No. 53 Teymuraz Gabashvili in a final set tiebreak, despite serving for the match. In doubles, he partnered Daniel Nestor, however they lost in the first round to the fourth seeds, Rohan Bopanna and Florin Mergea, also in three sets.
He bounced back from this defeat by winning the Montreal Masters Rogers Cup, defeating Tsonga and Nishikori in the quarter-finals and semi-finals respectively. He then prevailed in the final against Djokovic in three sets. This broke his eight-match, two-year losing streak against Djokovic (his last win against him being in the final of Wimbledon in 2013). In winning the title he also surpassed Federer in terms of ranking, becoming the world No. 2 for the first time in over two years. In doubles, he partnered Leander Paes and they won their first match against Chardy and Anderson, but were then defeated by Murray's brother Jamie and John Peers in two sets – the first time the Murray brothers had competed against each other in a Tour-level match, a situation which Andy described as "awkward" and Jamie as "a bit weird".
In the second Master Series tournament of the US Hard Court season, the Cincinnati Masters, Murray defeated veteran Mardy Fish in the second round, and then beat both Grigor Dimitrov and Richard Gasquet in three-set matches, having to come from a set down on both occasions, while Dimitrov had served for the match in the deciding set. In the semi-final, he lost to defending champion Roger Federer in straight sets, and after Federer went on to win the tournament, this result saw Murray return to the No. 3 ranking and seeding for the US Open. At the US Open, Murray beat Nick Kyrgios in four sets before beating Adrian Mannarino in five sets after being two sets down, equaling Federer for winning eight matches from two sets to love down. He then beat Thomaz Bellucci in straight sets but suffered a defeat in the fourth round to Kevin Anderson in four sets. This ended Murray's five-year run of 18 consecutive Grand Slam quarter-finals (not counting his withdrawal from the 2013 French Open) since his third round loss to Stan Wawrinka in the 2010 US Open.
Playing against Australia in the semi-finals of the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow, Murray won both his singles rubbers in straight sets, against Thanasi Kokkinakis and Bernard Tomic. He also partnered his brother Jamie, and they won in five sets against the pairing of Sam Groth and Lleyton Hewitt, the results guiding Great Britain to the Davis Cup final for the first time since 1978 with a 3–2 lead over Australia.
After losing in the semi-finals of the Shanghai Masters to Djokovic in straight sets, Murray reached the finals of the Paris Masters for the loss of just one set, with victories against Borna Ćorić, David Goffin and David Ferrer. After a three set win over Richard Gasquet, he joined Novak Djokovic, Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal as the only players to reach the semi-finals (or better) at all nine of the ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournaments, and also ensured that he compiled his best match record in a single season. He then lost the final to Djokovic again in straight sets.
As the world No. 2, Murray participated in the ATP World Tour Finals in London, and was drawn into the Ilie Năstase group with David Ferrer, Rafael Nadal and Stan Wawrinka. He went out in the round-robin stage, after defeating Ferrer and losing to Nadal and Wawrinka. However, after Federer failed to win the tournament, he finished the season ranked No. 2 for the first time.
In the Davis Cup final, Murray's victory over Ruben Bemelmans in straight sets pulled Great Britain level in the final after Kyle Edmund had lost the first singles rubber in five sets, played on indoor clay courts at Ghent. He then partnered his brother Jamie in a four-set victory over the pairing of Steve Darcis and David Goffin, before defeating Goffin again in the reverse singles on Sunday, thus ensuring a 3–1 victory for Great Britain, their first Davis Cup title since 1936 and their tenth overall. Murray also became only the third person since the current Davis Cup format was introduced to win all eight of his singles rubbers in a Davis Cup season, after John McEnroe and Mats Wilander.
#### 2016: Second Wimbledon and Olympic Gold, and ascent to world No. 1
Murray began his 2016 season by playing in the Hopman Cup, pairing up with Heather Watson again. However, they finished second in their group after losing their tie to eventual champions Nick Kyrgios and Daria Gavrilova from Australia.
Murray played his first competitive tournament of 2016 at the Australian Open where he was aiming to win his first title there after four runner-up finishes. He went on to reach his fifth Australian Open final with victories over Alexander Zverev, Sam Groth, João Sousa, Bernard Tomic, David Ferrer and Milos Raonic, dropping four sets along the way. However, in a rematch of the previous year final, he was unable to win his first title as he lost in the final to an in-form Novak Djokovic (who won a record-equalling sixth title) in straight sets. He became the second man in the Open Era (after Ivan Lendl) to lose five Grand Slam finals at one event, and the only one not to have won the title. Subsequently, in February, Murray appointed Jamie Delgado as an assistant coach.
Murray then played at 2016 Davis Cup defeating Taro Daniel in straight sets and Kei Nishikori in five sets. Murray then competed at the first Masters 1000 of the year at the 2016 Indian Wells Masters. He defeated Marcel Granollers in the second round in straight sets but had an early loss to Federico Delbonis in the third round. Murray then played at the 2016 Miami Open as the 2nd seed. He defeated Denis Istomin in the second round in straight sets but had another early loss, to 26th seed Grigor Dimitrov, despite taking the first set.
Murray began his clay court season at the 2016 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters as the 2nd seed. Murray struggled in his second round match against Pierre-Hugues Herbert but Murray came through in 3 sets. Murray struggled again in his third round match against 16th seed Benoît Paire as Murray was down a set and two breaks. Paire also served for the match in the third set but Murray still came through in 3 sets. Murray then defeated 10th seed Milos Raonic in straight sets in the quarter-finals. In the semi-finals, Murray lost to 5th seed and eventual champion Rafael Nadal despite winning the first set. Murray then played at the 2016 Mutua Madrid Open as the 2nd seed and the defending champion. Murray defeated qualifier Radek Štěpánek in three sets. He then proceeded to the semi-finals after defeating 16th seed Gilles Simon and 8th seed Tomáš Berdych both in straight sets. In the semi-finals, Murray defeated Nadal in straight sets who Murray had lost to earlier in the year. In the final Murray lost to number 1 seed Novak Djokovic in three sets. This loss dropped Murray from second to third in the ATP rankings. Shortly afterwards Mauresmo and Murray issued a joint statement announcing that they had "mutually agreed" to end their coaching partnership.
Murray regained his number two ranking after he won the 2016 Internazionali BNL d'Italia for his 1st title of the season and 36th overall. He defeated Mikhail Kukushkin, Jérémy Chardy, 12th seed David Goffin, Lucas Pouille, and number 1 seed Djokovic all in straight sets. This was his first win over Djokovic on clay and became the first British player since Virginia Wade in 1971 to win the title and the first British man since George Patrick Hughes in 1931. Murray then moved on to the French Open where he struggled in the opening rounds coming through two five-set matches against Štěpánek and French wildcard Mathias Bourgue. He came through in straight sets against big servers Ivo Karlović and John Isner to reach the quarter-finals where he beat home favourite Richard Gasquet in four sets to set up a semi-final clash against defending champion Stanislas Wawrinka. Murray defeated Wawrinka in four sets to become the first male British player since Bunny Austin in 1937, to reach a French Open final. He was unable to win his maiden French Open final, losing to Djokovic in four sets.
In June 2016, Ivan Lendl agreed to return to his former role as Murray's coach. Murray started his grass season at the 2016 Aegon Championships as the 1st seed and the defending champion. Murray defeated Nicolas Mahut in straight sets despite facing a set point in the first set and three set points in the second set. He then defeated his countryman Aljaž Bedene in straight sets. He then had three set wins over Kyle Edmund, another countryman, and No. 5 seed Marin Čilić. In the final he was down a set and a break to 3rd seed Milos Raonic. Murray still managed to come back and win a record 5th Queen's Club Championships and it was also his 2nd title in 2016. Murray then played at the third major of the year at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships as the 2nd seed. Murray had straight set wins over Liam Broady, Lu Yen-hsun, John Millman, and Nick Kyrgios in the first four rounds. Murray then defeated 12th seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in five sets in the quarter-final and 10th seed Tomáš Berdych in straight sets to reach his third straight major final. In the final on 10 July, Murray defeated Raonic in straight sets to win his second Wimbledon title and third major title overall. His Wimbledon crown was his 3rd title of the season and 38th career Tour title.
Murray next played at the Rio Olympic Games. He became the first player, male or female, to win two consecutive gold medals in the tennis singles events by defeating Juan Martín del Potro in the final, which lasted over four hours. The win was his 3rd consecutive title and 4th title of the season. Murray then entered the US Open and beat Lukas Rosol, Marcel Granollers, Paolo Lorenzi and Grigor Dimitrov in the first four rounds. However, his run came to an end when he lost to sixth seed Kei Nishikori in five sets despite holding a two sets to one lead.
His next activity was the 2016 Davis Cup semi-final in Glasgow against Argentina. He lost the opening rubber against Juan Martín del Potro in five sets. After Great Britain lost the second rubber as well, he teamed up with his brother Jamie to beat del Potro and Leonardo Mayer in the third rubber in four sets. He then won the fourth rubber against Guido Pella in straight sets, though Great Britain eventually lost the tie. Murray then won the China Open for his fifth title of 2016 and 40th career tour title. He defeated Andreas Seppi, Andrey Kuznetsov, Kyle Edmund, David Ferrer, and Grigor Dimitrov all in straight sets. Murray then backed this up with a tournament win at the Shanghai Rolex Masters defeating Steve Johnson, Lucas Pouille, David Goffin, Gilles Simon, and Roberto Bautista Agut all in straight sets to capture his 13th masters title and 3rd title in Shanghai. This marked his 6th title of 2016 and drew him even with former No. 1 Stefan Edberg at No. 15 on the Open Era titles list with 41 Tour titles each.
Murray brought his win streak to 15 consecutive match wins by winning the Erste Bank Open for his seventh tour title of the 2016 season. His tournament started slowly with three-set wins over Martin Klizan and Gilles Simon in the first two rounds. However, a decisive win over John Isner in the quarter-final and a walkover due to David Ferrer's withdrawal with a leg injury saw Murray reach the final. There he defeated Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, for his third title in succession. The result saw Murray win seven titles in a single season for the first time in his career, and move to solo 15th on the all-time list of singles titles in the Open Era, breaking a tie with former world No. 1 Stefan Edberg.
Murray entered the Paris Masters knowing that in the event of Djokovic not reaching the final, winning the title would be enough to see him crowned world No. 1 for the first time. After reaching the quarter-finals, courtesy of wins over Fernando Verdasco and Lucas Pouille, Murray faced Berdych for a place in the semi-finals, winning in straight sets. Meanwhile, Djokovic lost to Marin Cilic, meaning that Murray would replace Djokovic at the top of the rankings should he reach the final. He was due to face Milos Raonic in the semi-finals. However, Raonic withdrew before the start of the match, giving Murray a walkover. As a result, Murray became the first British man to reach No. 1 since the introduction of the rankings in 1973. Murray then defeated John Isner in the final in 3 sets to win his fourth consecutive tournament and first Paris Masters title. In November 2016, Murray reached the final of the ATP World Tour Finals for the first time before winning against Novak Djokovic in two sets, thus reaching year-end No. 1 and in doing so, becoming the first player to win a Grand Slam, the ATP World Tour Finals, the men's singles at the Olympic Games and a Masters 1000 title in the same calendar year. The International Tennis Federation recognised Murray as their men's 2016 ITF men's world champion, the first time Murray had achieved this honour.
#### 2017: Struggles with form and injury, and hiatus
Murray was knighted in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to tennis and charity, making him the UK's youngest knight, at 29. He opened the season with a loss in the semi-finals of the Mubadala World Tennis Championship to David Goffin, following which he won against Milos Raonic in the third-place play-off. Murray then reached the final of the Qatar Open, but lost to Novak Djokovic in three sets despite saving three championship points. At the Australian Open he lost in the fourth round against Mischa Zverev in four sets.
Murray returned to action at the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships event in February. There he won his only tournament of the year, beating Fernando Verdasco in straight sets, despite almost losing in the quarter-finals to Philipp Kohlschreiber where Murray had to save seven match points. The next week, he suffered a shock defeat in the second round of the Indian Wells Masters to Vasek Pospisil.
After missing a month due to an elbow injury, Murray returned to compete in the Monte-Carlo Masters in April, losing out in the third round to Albert Ramos-Vinolas. He then competed in Barcelona where he was beaten by Dominic Thiem in the semi-finals. Murray continued to struggle in his next two tournaments, losing to Borna Coric in the third round of Madrid, and to Fabio Fognini in second round of Rome, where he was defending champion. In both of these defeats, he failed to win a set. At the 2017 French Open, following tough four-set victories over Andrey Kuznetsov and Martin Kližan in the opening rounds, Murray defeated Juan Martín del Potro and Karen Khachanov in straight sets. In the quarter-finals he defeated Kei Nishikori in four sets, but lost in the semi-finals to Stan Wawrinka in five sets.
As the five-time champion at Queens, Murray pledged his prize money to the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire, however he was defeated in straight sets by Jordan Thompson in the first round. Despite concerns over a lingering hip injury, he returned to Wimbledon as the defending champion and progressed to the third round with straight set wins against Alexander Bublik and Dustin Brown. He dropped his first set of the tournament to Fabio Fognini but proceeded to the fourth round in four sets. Murray continued to the quarter-final with a straight set victory against Benoit Paire. However, he was defeated in the quarter-final by Sam Querrey in five sets.
Murray missed the Canadian Open and the Cincinnati Masters due to his hip injury, which led to him losing his No. 1 ranking to Rafael Nadal. His injury then forced him to withdraw from the 2017 US Open two days before the start of the tournament, making it the first Grand Slam tournament he had missed since the 2013 French Open. Murray then withdrew from the Asian hard court swing and said it was "most likely" that he would not play in a professional tournament again in 2017. Ultimately he did indeed not play again, withdrawing from Paris which left him unable to qualify for the 2017 ATP Finals; that November, as a result of his inactivity, his ranking fell sharply to No. 16, his lowest ranking since May 2008. Murray returned to the court to play a charity match against Federer in Glasgow and expressed his hope to return to the tour in Brisbane. The following week, he and Ivan Lendl announced that they had mutually ended their coaching arrangement for a second time.
#### 2018: Hip surgery, out of top 800, and return to tour
Murray withdrew from the Brisbane International and Australian Open due to hip injury. In a post on Instagram, Murray explained that rehab was one option for recovery. He added that hip surgery was also an option but that the chances of a successful outcome were not as high. On 8 January, Murray announced on Instagram he had undergone hip surgery.
In March, Murray lost his British No. 1 ranking for the first time since 2006, to Kyle Edmund. Later that month, Murray said he was making progress after several days of playing at the Mouratoglou Academy in Nice after posting pictures of himself practising against Aidan McHugh, a British junior player, on Instagram. He then announced he would play his first ATP tournament since hip surgery at the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships in June, although he later withdrew saying he was not quite ready and wanted to be 100%. However, he later announced he would make his return at the Queen's Club Championships. He subsequently lost to Nick Kyrgios in the first round in three sets. He was given a wildcard for the Eastbourne International, where he beat Stan Wawrinka in the first round before losing to Kyle Edmund in the second. He withdrew from Wimbledon with a "heavy heart" a day before the tournament, saying it was too soon to play five-set matches. As a result of this withdrawal, he dropped to 839th in the ATP rankings, his newest low ranking since he first entered the ATP rankings on 21 July 2003.
He then entered the Washington Open, where he won his first round match against Mackenzie McDonald in three sets. He then faced Kyle Edmund, who had dealt him his last defeat at Eastbourne, overcoming him in three sets. His next match, a dramatic three-set victory over Marius Copil in the third round, lasted until just past 3:00 AM local time; Murray wept after the conclusion of the match, overcome with emotion. He then withdrew from the tournament and the Canadian Open the following week to continue his recovery and to focus on the Cincinnati Masters for which he was awarded a wildcard. He eventually lost in the first round to France's Lucas Pouille in three sets.
Murray made his grand slam return at the US Open where he defeated the Australian James Duckworth in four sets. However, he was unable to progress further, losing in the second round to Spain's Fernando Verdasco in four sets.
Murray then withdrew from Great Britain's Davis Cup tie against Uzbekistan in Glasgow to continue his rehabilitation from his injury.
He entered the Shenzhen Open as a wildcard. He advanced to the second round after Zhizhen Zhang retired in the third set of the first round. There, he faced defending champion and top seed David Goffin, who Murray upset in straight sets. He then faced Fernando Verdasco in the quarter-finals, but was defeated in straight sets. Murray had been due to play at the China Open the following week, but, after suffering a slight ankle problem, he decided to end his season early to ensure he would be fit for the following year.
#### 2019: Second hip surgery, comeback, and first title in two years
Murray travelled to Brisbane early in order to better prepare for the Brisbane International. He won his first round match against James Duckworth in straight sets but admitted post-match that he did not know how long he would be able to play top-class tennis. Murray was defeated in the next round by Daniil Medvedev, at that time ranked 16th in the world.
On 11 January 2019, at a press conference just before the 2019 Australian Open, an emotional Murray announced that he could possibly retire from professional tennis due to struggling physically for a "long time", particularly with his hip injury. He said that he had been suffering with hip pain on a daily basis, and that it caused him to struggle with tasks like putting his shoes and socks on. He spoke of the possibility of a second hip surgery, but expressed doubt this would be a viable option to prolong his career, merely allowing him to "have a better quality of life, and be out of pain". He hoped to make it through to Wimbledon, but that the Australian Open could be his final tournament if he was not able to last until the summer, stating: "I'm not sure I can play through the pain for another four or five months". Active and retired tennis players, including Juan Martín del Potro, Kyle Edmund, Bilie Jean King and the other members of the 'Big Four' paid tribute to Murray upon his announcement.
Murray entered the singles of the Australian Open, however lost his opening match against 22nd seed Roberto Bautista Agut in a four-hour, five-set 'epic'. At its conclusion, a video montage of tributes featuring other top players Roger Federer, Novak Djokovic, Sloane Stephens and Caroline Wozniacki played in deference to his impending retirement. In his post-match interview, he stated that he was considering a second hip surgery, and had not yet ruled out a return to the sport upon recovering from the operation.
Bob Bryan urged Murray to have the "Birmingham hip resurfacing (BHR)" operation he underwent in August 2018, involving a cobalt-chrome metal cap being placed over the femur with a matching metal cup in the acetabulum (a conservative bone-saving alternative to a traditional Total Hip Replacement). Bryan informed Murray that the BHR would improve his quality of life and may help him return to the professional tennis tour. On 29 January, Murray announced on Instagram that he had undergone hip resurfacing surgery in London and hoped that it would "be the end of my hip pain." On 4 February, in an interview with The Times, Professor Derek McMinn, who invented the BHR implant and procedure, gave the opinion that Murray's chances of returning to competitive tennis should be "in the high 90 per cent". On 7 March, Murray stated in an interview that he was now free of pain in his hip as a result of the surgery and may therefore return to playing competitive tennis, but that any potential Wimbledon return would be dependent on how his hip felt, and that he would not rush his comeback and may test his condition by playing doubles.
On 16 May 2019, Murray received his knighthood from Prince Charles at Buckingham Palace, two years after he was awarded the honour.
Murray returned to the professional tennis circuit in June, entering the doubles competition of the Queen's Club Championships alongside Feliciano Lopez. The duo won their first round match against the top seeds Juan Sebastián Cabal and Robert Farah in straight sets and then beat the defending champions John Peers and Henri Kontinen in the semi-finals. Murray and Lopez went on to win the tournament by defeating Rajeev Ram and Joe Salisbury in a final set champions tiebreak. Following the win, Murray stated that his "hip felt great" and that "there was no pain." Murray continued his comeback from injury by partnering Marcelo Melo in the doubles at the Eastbourne International where they lost in the first round against Cabal and Farah. At the 2019 Wimbledon Championships, Murray entered the men's doubles and mixed doubles events. In the men's doubles he partnered Pierre-Hugues Herbert and was eliminated in the second round, while his mixed doubles partnership with Serena Williams ended with a third round defeat to top seeds Bruno Soares and Nicole Melichar.
After Murray's Wimbledon campaign, he and his brother Jamie participated in the Citi Open doubles, where they defeated Edouard Roger-Vasselin and Nicolas Mahut before losing to Michael Venus and Raven Klaasen in the round of 16. His next tournament at the Canadian Open renewed his partnership with Feliciano Lopez where they defeated Lukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo and lost to Fabrice Martin and Jeremy Chardy. Following the conclusion of the tournament, Murray stated his return to the singles competition at the Western and Southern Open and revealed his plans to play in China in the autumn.
In his first singles match since the 2019 Australian Open, Murray faced Richard Gasquet in the first round of the 2019 Cincinnati Masters, losing in straight sets. In the quarter-final of the Cincinnati doubles tournament, Andy Murray and Feliciano López met Jamie Murray and Neal Skupski in only the second match between the siblings in their senior careers; Jamie and Skupski won in three sets to progress, with Andy stating afterwards that he would now concentrate his efforts on returning to the singles tour. Murray then played at the 2019 Winston-Salem Open, where he faced Tennys Sandgren in the first round. Murray lost in straight sets, though the score was close. Murray then contemplated dropping down to Challenger level, skipping the US Open entirely to focus on two tournaments happening concurrently. Murray opted to play at the 2019 Rafa Nadal Open Banc Sabadell Challenger event, the first time he had competed on the second tier Challenger Tour since 2005. In the first round of the event, Murray defeated 17-year-old Imran Sibille in straight sets in under 43 minutes to record his first singles victory since his hip surgery. He lost to Matteo Viola in the third round.
In September 2019, Murray participated in the inaugural Zhuhai Championships, losing to eventual champion Alex de Minaur in the second round. He also participated in the China Open, where he recorded a win against Matteo Berrettini, ranked 13th in the world, but he was eliminated by eventual champion Dominic Thiem in the quarter-final. Murray lost against 12th ranked Fabio Fognini in the second round of the Shanghai Open, before winning the first title after his operation in the European Open in October 2019, beating three-time Grand Slam winner Stan Wawrinka in the final. In November 2019, he represented Great Britain for the first time since 2016 after being named in the squad for the 2019 Davis Cup finals; however, he was only able to play one rubber in Great Britain's run to the semi-finals.
At the end of November 2019, a television documentary, Andy Murray: Resurfacing, was released on the Amazon Prime platform, detailing Murray's various attempts to overcome his hip injury over a two-year period from his defeat at Wimbledon in 2017 to his doubles victory at Queen's Club in 2019. In late December, Murray's team confirmed that the pelvic injury which had curtailed his involvement in the Davis Cup would also prevent him from entering the upcoming 2020 Australian Open and the inaugural ATP Cup.
### 2020s
#### 2020: First top 10 win in three years
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous tournaments on the 2020 ATP Tour were either cancelled or rescheduled for later in the year. Murray's first ATP tournament of 2020 was at the Western & Southern Open in August in which he entered as a wildcard. He beat Frances Tiafoe in the first round before beating world No. 7 Alexander Zverev in the second, his first victory over a top-10 player in over three years and the 102nd of his career. He lost his third round match to Milos Raonic in straight sets.
In his first round match at the spectator-less US Open Murray came back from two down to narrowly defeat Yoshihito Nishioka of Japan in five sets. Then in the second round he lost in straight sets to the 15th seed Felix Auger-Aliassime of Canada.
He then entered the French Open as a wildcard but was defeated in the first round in straight sets by Stan Wawrinka.
Murray's last tournament of the year was the Bett1Hulks Indoors where he received a wildcard into the main draw and lost in the first round to Fernando Verdasco in straight sets. He did not enter the European Open and thus failed to defend his title.
#### 2021: Wimbledon third round
Murray was due to start his season at the 2021 Australian Open again as a wildcard but this was put in doubt after testing positive for COVID-19 on 14 January. On 22 January, it was confirmed that he would miss the Australian Open due to not being able to find a workable quarantine after his positive test.
His first tournament of the season was the 2021 Open Sud de France where, as a wildcard, he lost in the first round. After that in March, he competed at the 2021 ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam as a wildcard where he lost in the second round against Andrey Rublev.
Murray was largely inactive during the next three months due to a groin injury, managing only two match appearances in doubles at the Italian Open in May. This left his ranking too low for a direct entry for the French Open. He decided against entering qualifying or trying to earn a wild card in order to focus on the upcoming grass court season.
He returned to singles play as a wildcard at the Queen's Club Championships where he defeated Benoît Paire in the first round but lost in the second to the 1st seed, Matteo Berrettini, in straight sets.
At Wimbledon he received a wildcard. He lost in the third round to Denis Shapovalov, after defeating 24th seed Nikoloz Basilashvili and qualifier Oscar Otte.
Murray entered into the men's singles and men's doubles at the 2020 Summer Olympics as the two-time defending champion. Murray was drawn against world no. 15 Canadian Félix Auger-Aliassime, but he withdrew before his first-round singles match due to a quadriceps strain, electing to remain in the doubles match. Murray was replaced by Australian Max Purcell, who went on to defeat Auger-Aliassime. Murray, along with partner Joe Salisbury, reached the quarter-finals of the men's doubles event before losing to the Croatian pair and eventual silver medallists Marin Čilić and Ivan Dodig, after defeating French pair Nicolas Mahut and Pierre-Hugues Herbert in the first round, and German pair Kevin Krawietz and Tim Pütz in the second.
Murray played two events on the US circuit. At the 2021 Western & Southern Open, Murray won as a wildcard in straight sets against Richard Gasquet before losing to Hubert Hurkacz in the second round. At the 2021 Winston-Salem Open, Murray entered as a wildcard again and won in straight sets against Noah Rubin (a replacement for Nick Kyrgios who withdrew shortly before the start of the match), in the first round, before losing to Frances Tiafoe in the second. At the US Open, he lost to Stefanos Tsitsipas in five sets in the first round. The match was controversial, with Murray accusing Tsitsipas of cheating, in reference to an eight-minute bathroom break that was had by Tsitsipas during the match.
Murray subsequently entered the 2021 Open de Rennes, an event on the ATP Challenger Tour after accepting a wildcard. He defeated Yannick Maden in the first round in straight sets, but lost in three sets to Roman Safiullin. Murray then reached the quarterfinal of the Moselle Open as a wildcard only losing out to the eventual champion and top seed, Poland's Hubert Hurkacz. Murray lost also as a wildcard in the round of 16 to the 2nd seed and eventual champion Casper Ruud at the 2021 San Diego Open. He received another wildcard for the Indian Wells Masters, where he reached the third round and was beaten by Alexander Zverev. He then reached the second round of the European Open as a wildcard after a 3-hour and 45 minute marathon win against Frances Tiafoe. He lost in the second round to Diego Schwartzman in straight sets. At the Vienna Open, Murray entered as a wildcard and upset 5th seed and world No. 10 Hubert Hurkacz in the first round in three sets to claim the 103rd top 10 victory of his career and the first of the year, but fell in straight sets to Carlos Alcaraz the following round. At the 2021 Stockholm Open, he reached the quarterfinals as a wildcard, defeating top seed and World No. 10 Jannik Sinner for his second top 10 win in two weeks and for the season and the 104th in his career.
#### 2022: First ATP final since 2019, 700th match win and return to top 50
Murray entered the 2021 Mubadala World Tennis Championship, an exhibition tournament held in Abu Dhabi in December. After defeating Dan Evans in straight sets, he met Rafael Nadal for their first match since the semi-finals of the 2016 Madrid Open. He beat Nadal in straight sets. Murray lost the final match in straight sets and a tiebreak to Andrey Rublev.
After a first round loss as a wildcard at the Melbourne Summer Set to Facundo Bagnis, Murray reached the final as a wildcard at the Sydney Tennis Classic, beating Viktor Durasovic in the first round and second seed Nikoloz Basilashvili in the second round in a match lasting over 3 hours. After his quarterfinal opponent, eight seed David Goffin retired due to injury, he beat Reilly Opelka in the semifinals before falling to Aslan Karatsev in the final.
Murray participated in the 2022 Australian Open as a wildcard . Murray met Nikoloz Basilashvili for the second time in the space of a week, and won the first round in five sets. He lost in the second round, in straight sets against Taro Daniel.
Having decided to end his trial period with new coach Jan de Witt, Murray received a wildcard to play at the 2022 Rotterdam Open. He beat Alexander Bublik in the first round, and lost to Félix Auger-Aliassime in the second. He also hired Dani Vallverdu as his replacement coach. Murray entered the 2022 Qatar Open as a wildcard, and, in a rematch of the second round of the Australian open, met Taro Daniel, who he defeated in straight sets. Murray lost his second-round match to second seed Roberto Bautista Agut 6–0 6–1, being served a bagel for the first time since his loss to Novak Djokovic at the 2015 Miami Open final.
After Qatar, Murray entered the 2022 Dubai Tennis Championships as a wildcard, looking to secure his first win at the event in five years. He beat Christopher O'Connell, but lost to Jannik Sinner in straight sets. After his stint with Vallverdu ended, Murray re-hired Ivan Lendl as his coach, who he had worked with twice before.
In March, Murray entered the 2022 Indian Wells Masters as a wildcard, meeting Taro Daniel in the first round, in their third meeting in 2022. He beat Daniel in three sets, marking his 700th win overall, but lost in the second round to Alexander Bublik in straight sets. Moving onto the 2022 Miami Open as a wildcard, Murray beat Federico Delbonis in straight sets. He lost in straight sets to top seed and world No. 2 Daniil Medvedev in the second round.
Although Murray had originally stated in February that he is planning to skip the Spring clay season, he later changed his mind and accepted a wildcard into the 2022 Madrid Open in April. At the 2022 Madrid Open Murray beat Dominic Thiem and Denis Shapovalov in the first two rounds to set up a clash against Novak Djokovic for the first time in five years. Murray later withdrew from the match due to a stomach illness, giving Djokovic a walkover.
Murray's first tournament back was the challenger tournament in Surbiton, where he reached the semifinals before losing to Denis Kudla in three sets. Murray then played in Stuttgart, where after beating Chris O'Connell and 7th seed Alexander Bublik, Murray won his first match against a top 5 player since 2016 by beating top seed and world No. 5 Stefanos Tsitsipas in straight sets. He then beat Nick Kyrgios in straight sets to reach the final, where he lost to Matteo Berrettini in three sets. As a result, Murray's ranking rose to No. 47, entering the top 50 for the first time since 2018. However, an injury sustained during the final forced him to withdraw from the Queen's Club Championships.
At Wimbledon, Murray beat James Duckworth in four sets in the first round, before losing in the second round to 20th seed John Isner, in four sets. After Wimbledon, he entered the Hall of Fame Open, where he reached the quarterfinal before losing in straight sets to the third seed, Alexander Bublik.
Murray's American hard court swing began with a first-round loss at the Citi Open to Mikael Ymer, as well as another first-round loss to Taylor Fritz, at the Canadian Open as a wildcard. For the first time since 2005, Murray entered a qualifying tournament for the Cincinnati Masters. However, thanks to a Special Exempt spot being withdrawn from the tournament, Murray was moved to the main draw, where he entered the second round by defeating Stan Wawrinka in three sets. In the second round, Murray lost to Cameron Norrie in three sets.
At the 2022 US Open he lost in the third round to Matteo Berrettini.
#### 2023: Three Challenger titles, Longest career match, record wildcards
At the 2023 Australian Open, Murray reached the third round after 5-set victories against 13th seed Matteo Berrettini and Thanasi Kokkinakis. His match against Kokkinakis lasted 5 hours and 45 minutes, the longest in Murray's career up until this point and the second longest in the tournament history. He lost to 24th seed Roberto Bautista Agut in the third round in 4 sets.
He received wildcards for the 2023 Qatar ExxonMobil Open in Doha, in which he reached the final but was defeated by Daniil Medvedev in straight sets, and the 2023 Dubai Tennis Championships equaling the record of 53, for most wildcards received for a player since 1990, of former player Tommy Haas, who retired in 2017.
At the Indian Wells Masters, Murray lost in the third round to fellow Brit Jack Draper in a two hour match. In Miami, Murray lost in the first round to Dušan Lajović in straight sets.
Murray began his European clay court season at the Monte-Carlo Masters and Madrid Masters, where he fell to Alex de Minaur and Andrea Vavassori respectively in the opening rounds. He next played the Aix-en-Provence Challenger in France, where he defeated first seed Tommy Paul in the final in three sets to clinch his first title since 2019. However, he withdrew from the French Open to begin his preparations for the grass season.
Murray began his grass court season with the 2023 Surbiton Trophy Challenger 125 as a wildcard, where he clinched his second title of the season after defeating Jurij Rodionov in the final. His winning streak continued at the 2023 Nottingham Open, another home Challenger 125, where he won the final, beating Arthur Cazaux 6-4, 6-4.
At Wimbledon, he lost in the second round to Stefanos Tsitsipas and at the US Open, he lost at the same stage to Grigor Dimitrov.
## Rivalries
### Murray vs. Djokovic
Novak Djokovic and Murray have met 36 times with Djokovic leading 25–11. Djokovic leads 5–1 on clay, 20–8 on hard courts, and Murray leads 2–0 on grass. The two are almost exactly the same age, with Murray being only a week older than Djokovic. They went to training camp together, and Murray won the first match they ever played as teenagers. The pair have met 19 times in finals, with Djokovic leading 11–8. Ten of the finals were at ATP Masters 1000 events, and they are tied at 5–5. They have met in seven major finals: The 2011 Australian Open, the 2012 US Open, the 2013 Australian Open, the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, the 2015 Australian Open, the 2016 Australian Open, and the 2016 French Open. Djokovic won in Australia four times and at the French Open, Murray emerged as the victor at the US Open and Wimbledon. The former of Murray's victories was the longest ever final at the US Open, tying with the 1988 final played between Ivan Lendl and Mats Wilander at 4 hours and 53 minutes, while the latter was notable for being the first home triumph in men's singles at Wimbledon since 1936.
They also played a nearly five-hour-long semifinal match in the 2012 Australian Open, in which Djokovic won 7–5 in the fifth set after Murray led 2 sets to 1. Murray and Djokovic met again in 2012 at the London 2012 Olympic Games, with Murray winning in straight sets. During the final of the 2012 Shanghai Masters, Murray held five championship points in the second set, however Djokovic saved each of them, forcing a deciding set. He eventually prevailed to win his first Shanghai Masters title, ending Murray's 12–match winning streak at the event. The three set matches they played in Rome and Shanghai in 2011 and 2012 respectively were voted the ATP World Tour Match of the Year for each respective season. Due to the tight competition between 2008 and 2013, many saw this as the emerging rivalry. Djokovic went on to dominate the rivalry after the 2013 Wimbledon final, winning 13 of their last 16 matches. In 2016, Murray suffered his 4th loss (his 5th total) in the final of the Australian Open from Djokovic, followed by another defeat in the Roland Garros final, where Djokovic won his first Roland Garros title and completed the Career Grand Slam. Murray and Djokovic met in the final at the year's end final of the ATP World Tour Finals for the first time in their rivalry, where the winner would be granted the year-end No. 1 status. Djokovic dropped only one set en route to the final, but lost in straight sets to Murray, who finished the year at No. 1 and became the first British player to achieve this feat.
### Murray vs. Federer
Murray and Roger Federer have met 25 times with Federer leading 14–11. Federer leads 12–10 on hard courts and 2–1 on grass, having never met on clay. They have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level, with Federer leading 5–1. After Federer won the first professional match they played, Murray dominated the first half of the rivalry, with an 8–5 lead in 2010. The second half of the rivalry has been dominated by Federer, who leads 9–3 since 2011, and has led their rivalry since the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals. Federer leads 5–3 in finals, having won each of their Grand Slam Final meetings at the 2008 US Open and 2010 Australian Open, both of which Federer won in straight sets, and the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, where Murray took the first set, but ended up losing in 4 sets. Murray leads 6–3 in ATP 1000 tournaments and 2–0 in finals. They have met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals, with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 and Federer coming out victorious in London in 2009, 2010, 2012, and in 2014.
In August 2012, Murray met Federer in the final of the London 2012 Olympics at Wimbledon Centre Court, just four weeks after the 2012 Wimbledon Final, in which Federer had defeated Murray to win his record-tying 7th title at the All-England Club. Murray defeated Federer in straight sets to win the gold medal, denying Federer a Career Golden Slam. In 2013 Murray beat Federer for the first time in a major in the semi-finals of the Australian Open, prevailing in five sets after Federer had come back twice from a set down. Their last grand slam meeting was at the 2015 Wimbledon Championships semi-finals, where a dominant Federer defeated Murray in straight sets, earning a place in his 10th Wimbledon final. Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer, the other two being Nadal and Djokovic. Their most recent meeting took place at the 2015 Cincinnati Masters semi-finals, with Federer winning the match in two close sets, recording his fifth consecutive victory over Murray.
### Murray vs. Nadal
Murray has played against Rafael Nadal on 24 occasions since 2007, with Nadal leading 17–7. Nadal leads 7–2 on clay, 3–0 on grass and 7–5 on hard courts. The pair regularly meet at Grand Slam level, with nine out of their twenty-four meetings coming in slams, with Nadal leading 7–2 (3–0 at Wimbledon, 2–0 at the French Open, 1–1 at the Australian Open and 1–1 at the US Open). Eight of these nine appearances have been at quarter-final and semi-final level. They have never met in a slam final, however, Murray leads 3–1 in ATP finals, with Nadal winning at Indian Wells in 2009 and Murray winning in Rotterdam the same year, Tokyo in 2011, and at Madrid in 2015.
Murray lost three consecutive Grand Slam semi-finals to Nadal in 2011 from the French Open to the US Open. The pair had not met for three years since the final of the 2011 Japan Open until the quarter-finals of the 2014 Rome Masters, although they were scheduled to meet in the semi-final of the 2012 Miami Masters before Nadal withdrew injured. At the semi-final stage of the 2014 French Open, Nadal triumphed in a dominant straight sets win for the loss of just 6 games. In one of their most recent meetings, Murray beat Nadal for the first time on clay, and the first time in a Masters 1000 final, at the Madrid Open in 2015. Murray fell to Nadal in the semi-finals of the 2016 Monte Carlo Masters, despite taking the first set. Three weeks later they met again at the semi-final stage of the 2016 Madrid Open, this time Murray winning the match in straight sets.
### Murray vs. Wawrinka
Murray and Stan Wawrinka have played 22 times with Murray leading 13–9. Murray leads 9–4 on hard courts and 3–0 on grass courts while Wawrinka leads 5–1 on clay courts. They have also met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments with Wawrinka holding a slight 4–3 edge. They have contested some close matches and one of their most notable meetings was in the 2009 Wimbledon fourth round, which Murray won in five sets; this was the first men's match to be played under the Wimbledon roof, having the latest finish for a Wimbledon match at the time. Wawrinka also ended Murray's title defence at the 2013 US Open quarter-finals with a comfortable straight sets victory. Other close matches between the two include three-set wins for Murray at the 2008 Canada Open and 2011 Shanghai Masters, and the 2010 US Open which Wawrinka won in four sets.
While Murray has led the majority of the rivalry, Wawrinka won their first two matches and beat Murray three times in succession between 2013 and 2015, winning all of them in straight sets, until Murray ended the losing streak at the 2016 French Open, beating defending champion Wawrinka in four sets to reach his first-ever French Open final. Around this time Wawrinka was identified by some, including Djokovic, as a potential contender to turn the Big Four tennis quartet into a "Big Five", although Wawrinka himself downplayed those suggestions, stating that he was still far behind the others. Their most recent match in a major was in the first round of the 2020 French Open, which Wawrinka won in straight sets. However, in the first round of the 2022 Cincinnati Masters, Murray won in three tight sets.
## Playing style
Murray plays an all-court game with an emphasis on defensive baseline play, and in 2009 professional tennis coach Paul Annacone stated that Murray "may be the best counterpuncher on tour today." His strengths include groundstrokes with low error rate, the ability to anticipate and react, and his transition from defence to offence with speed, which enables him to hit winners from defensive positions. Murray also has one of the best two-handed backhands on the tour, with dynamic stroke execution while he primarily uses his forehand, which is more passive, and a sliced backhand to let opponents play into his defensive game before playing more offensively. Tim Henman stated in 2013 that Murray may have the best lob in the game, succeeding Lleyton Hewitt. Murray's tactics often involve passive exchanges from the baseline. He is capable of injecting sudden pace into his groundstrokes to surprise his opponents who are used to the slow rally. Murray is also one of the top returners in the game, often able to block back fast serves with his excellent reach and ability to anticipate. For this reason, Murray is rarely aced.
Murray is known for being one of the most intelligent tacticians on the court, often constructing points. Other strengths in his game, although not huge parts of his game, include his drop shot and net game. As he plays predominantly from the baseline, he usually approaches the net to volley when finishing points more quickly. Murray is most proficient on a fast surface, like grass, where he has won eight singles titles including the Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 Olympic Gold Medal, although hard courts are his preferred surface. He has worked hard since 2008 on improving his clay court game, ultimately winning his first clay titles during 2015 at Munich and Madrid, as well as reaching his first French Open final during 2016. While Murray's serve is a major weapon for him, with his first serve reaching speeds of 130 mph or higher on some occasions and winning him many free points, it can become inconsistent when hit under pressure, especially with a more vulnerable and slower second serve. Since the 2011 season, under Ivan Lendl's coaching, Murray has played a more offensive game and has also worked to improve his second serve, forehand, consistency and mental game which have all been crucial to his further success.
## Endorsements and equipment
In 2009, German manufacturer Adidas and Murray signed a five-year-deal worth £30 million. This included wearing their range of tennis shoes. The contract with Adidas allowed Murray to keep his shirt sleeve sponsors Shiatzy Chen, Royal Bank of Scotland and Highland Spring. Before he was signed by Adidas in late 2009, he wore Fred Perry apparel. At the end of their contract together Adidas decided not to re-sign with Murray, and he began a 4-year partnership with athletic apparel company Under Armour in December 2014, reportedly worth \$25 million. Murray signed with Castore for the 2019 season which Murray called his last deal before announcing his retirement.
Murray uses Head rackets, and regularly appears in advertisements for the brand. He endorses the Head Radical Pro model, whereas his actual playing racket (underneath the various Radical Pro paintjobs) is reported to be a customized pro stock PT57A, derived from the original Pro Tour 630 model, but with a 16×19 string pattern. The racquet used to be set up extremely heavy at the beginning of his career, but after a 2007 wrist injury its weight was lowered.
In June 2012, the Swiss watch manufacturer Rado announced that Murray had signed a deal to wear their D-Star 200 model.
## Coaches
Murray's coach has changed through the years, as follows: Leon Smith (1998–2004), Pato Álvarez (2003–2005), Mark Petchey (2005–2006), Brad Gilbert (2006–2007), Miles Maclagan (2007–2010), Àlex Corretja (2010–2011), Ivan Lendl (2011–2014, 2016–2017, 2022–), Amélie Mauresmo (2014–2016), Jonas Björkman (2015), Jamie Delgado (2016–2021). In 2022 he was coached for a short while by Dani Vallverdu; Ivan Lendl has been his coach since March 2022.
## Charitable work
Murray is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with David Beckham. Footage from the launch at Wembley Stadium can be seen on YouTube and the charity's website. Murray also made 'Nets Needed', a short public service announcement, for the charity to help raise awareness and funds to help in the fight against malaria. Murray has also taken part in several charity tennis events, including the Rally for Relief events that took place before the start of the 2011 Australian Open.
In June 2013, Murray teamed up with former British No. 1 Tim Henman for a charity doubles match against Murray's coach and eight-time grand slam champion Ivan Lendl, and No. 6 Tomáš Berdych at the Queen's Club in London. The event named Rally Against Cancer was organised to raise money for Royal Marsden Cancer Charity after his best friend and fellow British player Ross Hutchins was diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma. The event took place following the final day of competitive play at the AEGON Championships, on Sunday 16 June. Subsequently, following his victory at the tournament, Murray donated his entire prize money pot to The Royal Marsden Cancer Charity.
In June 2014, following the death of Elena Baltacha due to liver cancer, Murray featured in an event known as 'Rally for Bally'. Murray played at Queen's Club alongside Victoria Azarenka, Martina Hingis, Heather Watson and his brother Jamie. The event raised money for the Royal Marsden Cancer Charity and the Elena Baltacha Academy of Tennis. Children from Baltacha's academy took to the court to play alongside Murray. As a result of his various charitable exploits, Murray was awarded the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year award for 2014.
## Public image
### National identity
Murray identifies himself as "Scottish, but also British". His national identity has often been commented on by the media. While making a cameo appearance on the comedy show Outnumbered, Murray was asked whether he was British or Scottish, to which he responded "Depends whether I win or not." Much of the discussion about Murray's national identity began before Wimbledon 2006, when he was quoted as saying he would "support whoever England is playing" at the 2006 World Cup. English ex-tennis player Tim Henman confirmed that the remarks had been made in jest and were only in response to Murray being teased by journalist Des Kelly and Henman about Scotland's failure to qualify.
Murray initially refused to endorse either side of the debate in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, citing the abuse he had received after his 2006 World Cup comments. Just before the referendum, Murray tweeted a message that was considered by the media to be supportive of independence. He received online abuse for expressing his opinion, including messages that were described as "vile" by Police Scotland; one referred to the Dunblane massacre. A few days after the vote, in which a 55% majority opposed Scottish independence, Murray said that he did not regret stating his view, but said that it was out of character and that he would concentrate on his tennis career in the future.
### Victory salute
After defeating Nikolay Davydenko at Wimbledon 2012, Murray pointed upwards with both hands and wagged them back and forth while looking to the sky. Murray declined to reveal the reason, and ever since, he has continued to celebrate his victories with this gesture. Murray marked his first Wimbledon title in 2013 with the same victory salute. Then in his book Seventy-Seven; My Path to Wimbledon Glory, released in November 2013, Murray said: “The real reason is that around that time I had a few friends and family who had various issues affecting them ... I knew that they would be watching and I wanted to let them know I was thinking of them.”
After winning the Brisbane International in January 2013, he dedicated the victory to his friend Ross Hutchins who had been diagnosed with cancer in December 2012. Hutchins confirmed that Murray's victory salute after this win was a sign to him.
### Other
In 2006, there was controversy after a match with Kenneth Carlsen. Having been given a warning for racket abuse, Murray went on in the post-match interview to state that he and Carlsen had "played like women" during the first set. Murray was booed for the remark, but said later that the comment had been intended as a jocular response to what Svetlana Kuznetsova had said at the Hopman Cup. A few months later, Murray was fined for swearing at the umpire, Adel Aref during a Davis Cup doubles rubber with the Serbia and Montenegro Davis Cup team. Murray refused to shake hands with the umpire at the end of the match.
In 2007, Murray suggested that tennis had a match-fixing problem, stating that everyone knows it goes on, in the wake of the investigation surrounding Nikolay Davydenko. Both Davydenko and Rafael Nadal questioned his comments, but Murray responded that his words had been taken out of context.
In a June 2015 column written for the French sports newspaper L'Équipe, Murray criticised what he described as a double standard applied by many in their attitudes towards Amélie Mauresmo in her role as Murray's coach, highlighting how many observers attributed his poor performances during the early part of her tenure to her appointment, which Murray denied, before pointing out that his previous coaches had not been blamed by the media for other spells of poor form. He also lamented the lack of female coaches working in elite tennis, and concluded: "Have I become a feminist? Well, if being a feminist is about fighting so that a woman is treated like a man then yes, I suppose I have". Murray has corrected others a number of times on the subject of women's tennis. After BBC host John Inverdale indirectly suggested Murray was the first person to win more than one tennis Olympic gold medal, Murray interjected; "I think Venus and Serena have won about four each." Murray has also argued that male and female tennis players should receive equal amounts of prize money.
Murray has not commented on his personal opinion on Britain's decision to leave the European Union. However, following his win at Wimbledon in 2016, he expressed his surprise at the outcome of the referendum in the UK and added that "it's important that everyone comes together to make the best of it."
## Career statistics
### Grand Slam performance timeline
Current through the 2023 US Open.
#### Grand Slam tournament finals: 11 (3 titles, 8 runners-up)
### Year–end championships finals
#### Singles: 1 (1 title)
### Olympic medal matches
#### Singles: 2 (2 gold medals)
#### Mixed doubles: 1 (1 silver medal)
### Records and achievements
- These records were attained in the Open Era.
- Records in bold indicate peerless achievements.
- Records in italics are currently active streaks.
### Professional awards
- ITF World Champion: 2016.
- ATP Player of the Year: 2016.
## Awards and honours
- BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year: 2004
- BBC Sports Personality Team of the Year: 2012, 2015
- Most Titles in an ATP World Tour Season: 6 in 2009, 9 in 2016
- US Open Series Champion: 2010, 2015
- Best ATP World Tour Match of the Year (3): 2010, 2011, 2012
- Officer of the Order of the British Empire: 2013
- Laureus "World Breakthrough of the Year" Award: 2013
- Glenfiddich Spirit of Scotland Award for Top Scot: 2013
- Glenfiddich Spirit of Scotland Award for Sport: 2013
- BBC Sports Personality of the Year: 2013, 2015, 2016
- Doctor of the University of Stirling: 2014
- Freeman of Stirling: 2014
- Freeman of Merton: 2014
- Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year: 2014, 2022
- ITF Player of the Year: 2016
- Knight Bachelor: 2017
- 3rd Class Order of Merit of Ukraine: 2022
## See also
- 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics gold post boxes
- List of Grand Slam men's singles champions
- Open Era tennis records – Men's singles |
1,141 | Augustin-Jean Fresnel | 1,165,934,736 | French optical physicist (1788–1827) | [
"1788 births",
"1827 deaths",
"19th-century French physicists",
"19th-century deaths from tuberculosis",
"Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery",
"Corps des ponts",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"French Roman Catholics",
"French civil engineers",
"French humanitarians",
"History of physics",
"Jansenists",
"Light",
"Lighthouses",
"Members of the French Academy of Sciences",
"Optical physicists",
"People from Eure",
"Physical optics",
"Tuberculosis deaths in France",
"École Polytechnique alumni",
"École des Ponts ParisTech alumni"
]
| Augustin-Jean Fresnel (10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and physicist whose research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light, excluding any remnant of Newton's corpuscular theory, from the late 1830s until the end of the 19th century. He is perhaps better known for inventing the catadioptric (reflective/refractive) Fresnel lens and for pioneering the use of "stepped" lenses to extend the visibility of lighthouses, saving countless lives at sea. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) stepped lens, first proposed by Count Buffon and independently reinvented by Fresnel, is used in screen magnifiers and in condenser lenses for overhead projectors.
By expressing Huygens's principle of secondary waves and Young's principle of interference in quantitative terms, and supposing that simple colors consist of sinusoidal waves, Fresnel gave the first satisfactory explanation of diffraction by straight edges, including the first satisfactory wave-based explanation of rectilinear propagation. Part of his argument was a proof that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. By further supposing that light waves are purely transverse, Fresnel explained the nature of polarization, the mechanism of chromatic polarization, and the transmission and reflection coefficients at the interface between two transparent isotropic media. Then, by generalizing the direction-speed-polarization relation for calcite, he accounted for the directions and polarizations of the refracted rays in doubly-refractive crystals of the biaxial class (those for which Huygens's secondary wavefronts are not axisymmetric). The period between the first publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and the submission of his first correct solution to the biaxial problem, was less than a year.
Later, he coined the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, explained how optical rotation could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and (by allowing the reflection coefficient to be complex) accounted for the change in polarization due to total internal reflection, as exploited in the Fresnel rhomb. Defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his quantitative explanations of so many phenomena on so few assumptions.
Fresnel had a lifelong battle with tuberculosis, to which he succumbed at the age of 39. Although he did not become a public celebrity in his lifetime, he lived just long enough to receive due recognition from his peers, including (on his deathbed) the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London, and his name is ubiquitous in the modern terminology of optics and waves. After the wave theory of light was subsumed by Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in the 1860s, some attention was diverted from the magnitude of Fresnel's contribution. In the period between Fresnel's unification of physical optics and Maxwell's wider unification, a contemporary authority, Humphrey Lloyd, described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted."
## Early life
### Family
Augustin-Jean Fresnel (also called Augustin Jean or simply Augustin), born in Broglie, Normandy, on 10 May 1788, was the second of four sons of the architect Jacques Fresnel (1755–1805) and his wife Augustine, née Mérimée (1755–1833). In 1790, following the Revolution, Broglie became part of the département of Eure. The family moved twice—in 1789/90 to Cherbourg, and in 1794 to Jacques's home town of Mathieu, where Madame Fresnel would spend 25 years as a widow, outliving two of her sons.
The first son, Louis (1786–1809), was admitted to the École Polytechnique, became a lieutenant in the artillery, and was killed in action at Jaca, Spain, the day before his 23rd birthday. The third, Léonor (1790–1869), followed Augustin into civil engineering, succeeded him as secretary of the Lighthouse Commission, and helped to edit his collected works. The fourth, Fulgence Fresnel (1795–1855), became a noted linguist, diplomat, and orientalist, and occasionally assisted Augustin with negotiations. Fulgence died in Bagdad in 1855 having led a mission to explore Babylon. Léonor apparently was the only one of the four who married.
Their mother's younger brother, Jean François "Léonor" Mérimée (1757–1836), father of the writer Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870), was a paint artist who turned his attention to the chemistry of painting. He became the Permanent Secretary of the École des Beaux-Arts and (until 1814) a professor at the École Polytechnique, and was the initial point of contact between Augustin and the leading optical physicists of the day .
### Education
The Fresnel brothers were initially home-schooled by their mother. The sickly Augustin was considered the slow one, not inclined to memorization; but the popular story that he hardly began to read until the age of eight is disputed. At the age of nine or ten he was undistinguished except for his ability to turn tree-branches into toy bows and guns that worked far too well, earning himself the title l'homme de génie (the man of genius) from his accomplices, and a united crackdown from their elders.
In 1801, Augustin was sent to the École Centrale at Caen, as company for Louis. But Augustin lifted his performance: in late 1804 he was accepted into the École Polytechnique, being placed 17th in the entrance examination. As the detailed records of the École Polytechnique begin in 1808, we know little of Augustin's time there, except that he made few if any friends and—in spite of continuing poor health—excelled in drawing and geometry: in his first year he took a prize for his solution to a geometry problem posed by Adrien-Marie Legendre. Graduating in 1806, he then enrolled at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (National School of Bridges and Roads, also known as "ENPC" or "École des Ponts"), from which he graduated in 1809, entering the service of the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées as an ingénieur ordinaire aspirant (ordinary engineer in training). Directly or indirectly, he was to remain in the employment of the "Corps des Ponts" for the rest of his life.
### Religious formation
Fresnel's parents were Roman Catholics of the Jansenist sect, characterized by an extreme Augustinian view of original sin. Religion took first place in the boys' home-schooling. In 1802, his mother said:
> I pray God to give my son the grace to employ the great talents, which he has received, for his own benefit, and for the God of all. Much will be asked from him to whom much has been given, and most will be required of him who has received most.
Augustin remained a Jansenist. He regarded his intellectual talents as gifts from God, and considered it his duty to use them for the benefit of others. According to his fellow engineer Alphonse Duleau, who helped to nurse him through his final illness, Fresnel saw the study of nature as part of the study of the power and goodness of God. He placed virtue above science and genius. In his last days he prayed for "strength of soul," not against death alone, but against "the interruption of discoveries... of which he hoped to derive useful applications."
Jansenism is considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church, and Grattan-Guinness suggests this is why Fresnel never gained a permanent academic teaching post; his only teaching appointment was at the Athénée in the winter of 1819–20. The article on Fresnel in the Catholic Encyclopedia does not mention his Jansenism, but describes him as "a deeply religious man and remarkable for his keen sense of duty."
## Engineering assignments
Fresnel was initially posted to the western département of Vendée. There, in 1811, he anticipated what became known as the Solvay process for producing soda ash, except that recycling of the ammonia was not considered. That difference may explain why leading chemists, who learned of his discovery through his uncle Léonor, eventually thought it uneconomic.
About 1812, Fresnel was sent to Nyons, in the southern département of Drôme, to assist with the imperial highway that was to connect Spain and Italy. It is from Nyons that we have the first evidence of his interest in optics. On 15 May 1814, while work was slack due to Napoleon's defeat, Fresnel wrote a "P.S." to his brother Léonor, saying in part:
> I would also like to have papers that might tell me about the discoveries of French physicists on the polarization of light. I saw in the Moniteur of a few months ago that Biot had read to the Institute a very interesting memoir on the polarization of light. Though I break my head, I cannot guess what that is.
As late as 28 December he was still waiting for information, but he had received Biot's memoir by 10 February 1815. (The Institut de France had taken over the functions of the French Académie des Sciences and other académies in 1795. In 1816 the Académie des Sciences regained its name and autonomy, but remained part of the institute.)
In March 1815, perceiving Napoleon's return from Elba as "an attack on civilization", Fresnel departed without leave, hastened to Toulouse and offered his services to the royalist resistance, but soon found himself on the sick list. Returning to Nyons in defeat, he was threatened and had his windows broken. During the Hundred Days he was placed on suspension, which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mother's house in Mathieu. There he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments.
## Contributions to physical optics
### Historical context: From Newton to Biot
The appreciation of Fresnel's reconstruction of physical optics might be assisted by an overview of the fragmented state in which he found the subject. In this subsection, optical phenomena that were unexplained or whose explanations were disputed are named in bold type.
The corpuscular theory of light, favored by Isaac Newton and accepted by nearly all of Fresnel's seniors, easily explained rectilinear propagation: the corpuscles obviously moved very fast, so that their paths were very nearly straight. The wave theory, as developed by Christiaan Huygens in his Treatise on Light (1690), explained rectilinear propagation on the assumption that each point crossed by a traveling wavefront becomes the source of a secondary wavefront. Given the initial position of a traveling wavefront, any later position (according to Huygens) was the common tangent surface (envelope) of the secondary wavefronts emitted from the earlier position. As the extent of the common tangent was limited by the extent of the initial wavefront, the repeated application of Huygens's construction to a plane wavefront of limited extent (in a uniform medium) gave a straight, parallel beam. While this construction indeed predicted rectilinear propagation, it was difficult to reconcile with the common observation that wavefronts on the surface of water can bend around obstructions, and with the similar behavior of sound waves—causing Newton to maintain, to the end of his life, that if light consisted of waves it would "bend and spread every way" into the shadows.
Huygens's theory neatly explained the law of ordinary reflection and the law of ordinary refraction ("Snell's law"), provided that the secondary waves traveled slower in denser media (those of higher refractive index). The corpuscular theory, with the hypothesis that the corpuscles were subject to forces acting perpendicular to surfaces, explained the same laws equally well, albeit with the implication that light traveled faster in denser media; that implication was wrong, but could not be directly disproven with the technology of Newton's time or even Fresnel's time .
Similarly inconclusive was stellar aberration—that is, the apparent change in the position of a star due to the velocity of the earth across the line of sight (not to be confused with stellar parallax, which is due to the displacement of the earth across the line of sight). Identified by James Bradley in 1728, stellar aberration was widely taken as confirmation of the corpuscular theory. But it was equally compatible with the wave theory, as Euler noted in 1746—tacitly assuming that the aether (the supposed wave-bearing medium) near the earth was not disturbed by the motion of the earth.
The outstanding strength of Huygens's theory was his explanation of the birefringence (double refraction) of "Iceland crystal" (transparent calcite), on the assumption that the secondary waves are spherical for the ordinary refraction (which satisfies Snell's law) and spheroidal for the extraordinary refraction (which does not). In general, Huygens's common-tangent construction implies that rays are paths of least time between successive positions of the wavefront, in accordance with Fermat's principle. In the special case of isotropic media, the secondary wavefronts must be spherical, and Huygens's construction then implies that the rays are perpendicular to the wavefront; indeed, the law of ordinary refraction can be separately derived from that premise, as Ignace-Gaston Pardies did before Huygens.
Although Newton rejected the wave theory, he noticed its potential to explain colors, including the colors of "thin plates" (e.g., "Newton's rings", and the colors of skylight reflected in soap bubbles), on the assumption that light consists of periodic waves, with the lowest frequencies (longest wavelengths) at the red end of the spectrum, and the highest frequencies (shortest wavelengths) at the violet end. In 1672 he published a heavy hint to that effect, but contemporary supporters of the wave theory failed to act on it: Robert Hooke treated light as a periodic sequence of pulses but did not use frequency as the criterion of color, while Huygens treated the waves as individual pulses without any periodicity; and Pardies died young in 1673. Newton himself tried to explain colors of thin plates using the corpuscular theory, by supposing that his corpuscles had the wavelike property of alternating between "fits of easy transmission" and "fits of easy reflection", the distance between like "fits" depending on the color and the medium and, awkwardly, on the angle of refraction or reflection into that medium. More awkwardly still, this theory required thin plates to reflect only at the back surface, although thick plates manifestly reflected also at the front surface. It was not until 1801 that Thomas Young, in the Bakerian Lecture for that year, cited Newton's hint, and accounted for the colors of a thin plate as the combined effect of the front and back reflections, which reinforce or cancel each other according to the wavelength and the thickness. Young similarly explained the colors of "striated surfaces" (e.g., gratings) as the wavelength-dependent reinforcement or cancellation of reflections from adjacent lines. He described this reinforcement or cancellation as interference.
Neither Newton nor Huygens satisfactorily explained diffraction—the blurring and fringing of shadows where, according to rectilinear propagation, they ought to be sharp. Newton, who called diffraction "inflexion", supposed that rays of light passing close to obstacles were bent ("inflected"); but his explanation was only qualitative. Huygens's common-tangent construction, without modifications, could not accommodate diffraction at all. Two such modifications were proposed by Young in the same 1801 Bakerian Lecture: first, that the secondary waves near the edge of an obstacle could diverge into the shadow, but only weakly, due to limited reinforcement from other secondary waves; and second, that diffraction by an edge was caused by interference between two rays: one reflected off the edge, and the other inflected while passing near the edge. The latter ray would be undeviated if sufficiently far from the edge, but Young did not elaborate on that case. These were the earliest suggestions that the degree of diffraction depends on wavelength. Later, in the 1803 Bakerian Lecture, Young ceased to regard inflection as a separate phenomenon, and produced evidence that diffraction fringes inside the shadow of a narrow obstacle were due to interference: when the light from one side was blocked, the internal fringes disappeared. But Young was alone in such efforts until Fresnel entered the field.
Huygens, in his investigation of double refraction, noticed something that he could not explain: when light passes through two similarly oriented calcite crystals at normal incidence, the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the ordinary refraction in the second, while the extraordinary ray emerging from the first suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second; but when the second crystal is rotated 90° about the incident rays, the roles are interchanged, so that the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second, and vice versa. This discovery gave Newton another reason to reject the wave theory: rays of light evidently had "sides". Corpuscles could have sides (or poles, as they would later be called); but waves of light could not, because (so it seemed) any such waves would need to be longitudinal (with vibrations in the direction of propagation). Newton offered an alternative "Rule" for the extraordinary refraction, which rode on his authority through the 18th century, although he made "no known attempt to deduce it from any principles of optics, corpuscular or otherwise."
In 1808, the extraordinary refraction of calcite was investigated experimentally, with unprecedented accuracy, by Étienne-Louis Malus, and found to be consistent with Huygens's spheroid construction, not Newton's "Rule". Malus, encouraged by Pierre-Simon Laplace, then sought to explain this law in corpuscular terms: from the known relation between the incident and refracted ray directions, Malus derived the corpuscular velocity (as a function of direction) that would satisfy Maupertuis's "least action" principle. But, as Young pointed out, the existence of such a velocity law was guaranteed by Huygens's spheroid, because Huygens's construction leads to Fermat's principle, which becomes Maupertuis's principle if the ray speed is replaced by the reciprocal of the particle speed! The corpuscularists had not found a force law that would yield the alleged velocity law, except by a circular argument in which a force acting at the surface of the crystal inexplicably depended on the direction of the (possibly subsequent) velocity within the crystal. Worse, it was doubtful that any such force would satisfy the conditions of Maupertuis's principle. In contrast, Young proceeded to show that "a medium more easily compressible in one direction than in any direction perpendicular to it, as if it consisted of an infinite number of parallel plates connected by a substance somewhat less elastic" admits spheroidal longitudinal wavefronts, as Huygens supposed.
But Malus, in the midst of his experiments on double refraction, noticed something else: when a ray of light is reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaves like one of the two rays emerging from a calcite crystal. It was Malus who coined the term polarization to describe this behavior, although the polarizing angle became known as Brewster's angle after its dependence on the refractive index was determined experimentally by David Brewster in 1815. Malus also introduced the term plane of polarization. In the case of polarization by reflection, his "plane of polarization" was the plane of the incident and reflected rays; in modern terms, this is the plane normal to the electric vibration. In 1809, Malus further discovered that the intensity of light passing through two polarizers is proportional to the squared cosine of the angle between their planes of polarization (Malus's law), whether the polarizers work by reflection or double refraction, and that all birefringent crystals produce both extraordinary refraction and polarization. As the corpuscularists started trying to explain these things in terms of polar "molecules" of light, the wave-theorists had no working hypothesis on the nature of polarization, prompting Young to remark that Malus's observations "present greater difficulties to the advocates of the undulatory theory than any other facts with which we are acquainted."
Malus died in February 1812, at the age of 36, shortly after receiving the Rumford Medal for his work on polarization.
In August 1811, François Arago reported that if a thin plate of mica was viewed against a white polarized backlight through a calcite crystal, the two images of the mica were of complementary colors (the overlap having the same color as the background). The light emerging from the mica was "depolarized" in the sense that there was no orientation of the calcite that made one image disappear; yet it was not ordinary ("unpolarized") light, for which the two images would be of the same color. Rotating the calcite around the line of sight changed the colors, though they remained complementary. Rotating the mica changed the saturation (not the hue) of the colors. This phenomenon became known as chromatic polarization. Replacing the mica with a much thicker plate of quartz, with its faces perpendicular to the optic axis (the axis of Huygens's spheroid or Malus's velocity function), produced a similar effect, except that rotating the quartz made no difference. Arago tried to explain his observations in corpuscular terms.
In 1812, as Arago pursued further qualitative experiments and other commitments, Jean-Baptiste Biot reworked the same ground using a gypsum lamina in place of the mica, and found empirical formulae for the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images. The formulae contained two coefficients, supposedly representing colors of rays "affected" and "unaffected" by the plate—the "affected" rays being of the same color mix as those reflected by amorphous thin plates of proportional, but lesser, thickness.
Arago protested, declaring that he had made some of the same discoveries but had not had time to write them up. In fact the overlap between Arago's work and Biot's was minimal, Arago's being only qualitative and wider in scope (attempting to include polarization by reflection). But the dispute triggered a notorious falling-out between the two men.
Later that year, Biot tried to explain the observations as an oscillation of the alignment of the "affected" corpuscles at a frequency proportional to that of Newton's "fits", due to forces depending on the alignment. This theory became known as mobile polarization. To reconcile his results with a sinusoidal oscillation, Biot had to suppose that the corpuscles emerged with one of two permitted orientations, namely the extremes of the oscillation, with probabilities depending on the phase of the oscillation. Corpuscular optics was becoming expensive on assumptions. But in 1813, Biot reported that the case of quartz was simpler: the observable phenomenon (now called optical rotation or optical activity or sometimes rotary polarization) was a gradual rotation of the polarization direction with distance, and could be explained by a corresponding rotation (not oscillation) of the corpuscles.
Early in 1814, reviewing Biot's work on chromatic polarization, Young noted that the periodicity of the color as a function of the plate thickness—including the factor by which the period exceeded that for a reflective thin plate, and even the effect of obliquity of the plate (but not the role of polarization)—could be explained by the wave theory in terms of the different propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves through the plate. But Young was then the only public defender of the wave theory.
In summary, in the spring of 1814, as Fresnel tried in vain to guess what polarization was, the corpuscularists thought that they knew, while the wave-theorists (if we may use the plural) literally had no idea. Both theories claimed to explain rectilinear propagation, but the wave explanation was overwhelmingly regarded as unconvincing. The corpuscular theory could not rigorously link double refraction to surface forces; the wave theory could not yet link it to polarization. The corpuscular theory was weak on thin plates and silent on gratings; the wave theory was strong on both, but under-appreciated. Concerning diffraction, the corpuscular theory did not yield quantitative predictions, while the wave theory had begun to do so by considering diffraction as a manifestation of interference, but had only considered two rays at a time. Only the corpuscular theory gave even a vague insight into Brewster's angle, Malus's law, or optical rotation. Concerning chromatic polarization, the wave theory explained the periodicity far better than the corpuscular theory, but had nothing to say about the role of polarization; and its explanation of the periodicity was largely ignored. And Arago had founded the study of chromatic polarization, only to lose the lead, controversially, to Biot. Such were the circumstances in which Arago first heard of Fresnel's interest in optics.
### Rêveries
Fresnel's letters from later in 1814 reveal his interest in the wave theory, including his awareness that it explained the constancy of the speed of light and was at least compatible with stellar aberration. Eventually he compiled what he called his rêveries (musings) into an essay and submitted it via Léonor Mérimée to André-Marie Ampère, who did not respond directly. But on 19 December, Mérimée dined with Ampère and Arago, with whom he was acquainted through the École Polytechnique; and Arago promised to look at Fresnel's essay.
In mid 1815, on his way home to Mathieu to serve his suspension, Fresnel met Arago in Paris and spoke of the wave theory and stellar aberration. He was informed that he was trying to break down open doors ("il enfonçait des portes ouvertes"), and directed to classical works on optics.
### Diffraction
#### First attempt (1815)
On 12 July 1815, as Fresnel was about to leave Paris, Arago left him a note on a new topic:
> I do not know of any book that contains all the experiments that physicists are doing on the diffraction of light. M'sieur Fresnel will only be able to get to know this part of the optics by reading the work by Grimaldi, the one by Newton, the English treatise by Jordan, and the memoirs of Brougham and Young, which are part of the collection of the Philosophical Transactions.
Fresnel would not have ready access to these works outside Paris, and could not read English. But, in Mathieu—with a point-source of light made by focusing sunlight with a drop of honey, a crude micrometer of his own construction, and supporting apparatus made by a local locksmith—he began his own experiments. His technique was novel: whereas earlier investigators had projected the fringes onto a screen, Fresnel soon abandoned the screen and observed the fringes in space, through a lens with the micrometer at its focus, allowing more accurate measurements while requiring less light.
Later in July, after Napoleon's final defeat, Fresnel was reinstated with the advantage of having backed the winning side. He requested a two-month leave of absence, which was readily granted because roadworks were in abeyance.
On 23 September he wrote to Arago, beginning "I think I have found the explanation and the law of colored fringes which one notices in the shadows of bodies illuminated by a luminous point." In the same paragraph, however, Fresnel implicitly acknowledged doubt about the novelty of his work: noting that he would need to incur some expense in order to improve his measurements, he wanted to know "whether this is not useless, and whether the law of diffraction has not already been established by sufficiently exact experiments." He explained that he had not yet had a chance to acquire the items on his reading lists, with the apparent exception of "Young's book", which he could not understand without his brother's help. Not surprisingly, he had retraced many of Young's steps.
In a memoir sent to the institute on 15 October 1815, Fresnel mapped the external and internal fringes in the shadow of a wire. He noticed, like Young before him, that the internal fringes disappeared when the light from one side was blocked, and concluded that "the vibrations of two rays that cross each other under a very small angle can contradict each other..." But, whereas Young took the disappearance of the internal fringes as confirmation of the principle of interference, Fresnel reported that it was the internal fringes that first drew his attention to the principle. To explain the diffraction pattern, Fresnel constructed the internal fringes by considering the intersections of circular wavefronts emitted from the two edges of the obstruction, and the external fringes by considering the intersections between direct waves and waves reflected off the nearer edge. For the external fringes, to obtain tolerable agreement with observation, he had to suppose that the reflected wave was inverted; and he noted that the predicted paths of the fringes were hyperbolic. In the part of the memoir that most clearly surpassed Young, Fresnel explained the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction in terms of interference, noting that if two parallel rays were reflected or refracted at other than the prescribed angle, they would no longer have the same phase in a common perpendicular plane, and every vibration would be cancelled by a nearby vibration. He noted that his explanation was valid provided that the surface irregularities were much smaller than the wavelength.
On 10 November, Fresnel sent a supplementary note dealing with Newton's rings and with gratings, including, for the first time, transmission gratings—although in that case the interfering rays were still assumed to be "inflected", and the experimental verification was inadequate because it used only two threads.
As Fresnel was not a member of the institute, the fate of his memoir depended heavily on the report of a single member. The reporter for Fresnel's memoir turned out to be Arago (with Poinsot as the other reviewer). On 8 November, Arago wrote to Fresnel:
> I have been instructed by the Institute to examine your memoir on the diffraction of light; I have studied it carefully, and found many interesting experiments, some of which had already been done by Dr. Thomas Young, who in general regards this phenomenon in a manner rather analogous to the one you have adopted. But what neither he nor anyone had seen before you is that the external colored bands do not travel in a straight line as one moves away from the opaque body. The results you have achieved in this regard seem to me very important; perhaps they can serve to prove the truth of the undulatory system, so often and so feebly combated by physicists who have not bothered to understand it.
Fresnel was troubled, wanting to know more precisely where he had collided with Young. Concerning the curved paths of the "colored bands", Young had noted the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in the two-source interference pattern, corresponding roughly to Fresnel's internal fringes, and had described the hyperbolic fringes that appear on the screen within rectangular shadows. He had not mentioned the curved paths of the external fringes of a shadow; but, as he later explained, that was because Newton had already done so. Newton evidently thought the fringes were caustics. Thus Arago erred in his belief that the curved paths of the fringes were fundamentally incompatible with the corpuscular theory.
Arago's letter went on to request more data on the external fringes. Fresnel complied, until he exhausted his leave and was assigned to Rennes in the département of Ille-et-Vilaine. At this point Arago interceded with Gaspard de Prony, head of the École des Ponts, who wrote to Louis-Mathieu Molé, head of the Corps des Ponts, suggesting that the progress of science and the prestige of the Corps would be enhanced if Fresnel could come to Paris for a time. He arrived in March 1816, and his leave was subsequently extended through the middle of the year.
Meanwhile, in an experiment reported on 26 February 1816, Arago verified Fresnel's prediction that the internal fringes were shifted if the rays on one side of the obstacle passed through a thin glass lamina. Fresnel correctly attributed this phenomenon to the lower wave velocity in the glass. Arago later used a similar argument to explain the colors in the scintillation of stars.
Fresnel's updated memoir was eventually published in the March 1816 issue of Annales de Chimie et de Physique, of which Arago had recently become co-editor. That issue did not actually appear until May. In March, Fresnel already had competition: Biot read a memoir on diffraction by himself and his student Claude Pouillet, containing copious data and arguing that the regularity of diffraction fringes, like the regularity of Newton's rings, must be linked to Newton's "fits". But the new link was not rigorous, and Pouillet himself would become a distinguished early adopter of the wave theory.
#### "Efficacious ray", double-mirror experiment (1816)
On 24 May 1816, Fresnel wrote to Young (in French), acknowledging how little of his own memoir was new. But in a "supplement" signed on 14 July and read the next day, Fresnel noted that the internal fringes were more accurately predicted by supposing that the two interfering rays came from some distance outside the edges of the obstacle. To explain this, he divided the incident wavefront at the obstacle into what we now call Fresnel zones, such that the secondary waves from each zone were spread over half a cycle when they arrived at the observation point. The zones on one side of the obstacle largely canceled out in pairs, except the first zone, which was represented by an "efficacious ray". This approach worked for the internal fringes, but the superposition of the efficacious ray and the direct ray did not work for the external fringes.
The contribution from the "efficacious ray" was thought to be only partly canceled, for reasons involving the dynamics of the medium: where the wavefront was continuous, symmetry forbade oblique vibrations; but near the obstacle that truncated the wavefront, the asymmetry allowed some sideways vibration towards the geometric shadow. This argument showed that Fresnel had not (yet) fully accepted Huygens's principle, which would have permitted oblique radiation from all portions of the front.
In the same supplement, Fresnel described his well-known double mirror, comprising two flat mirrors joined at an angle of slightly less than 180°, with which he produced a two-slit interference pattern from two virtual images of the same slit. A conventional double-slit experiment required a preliminary single slit to ensure that the light falling on the double slit was coherent (synchronized). In Fresnel's version, the preliminary single slit was retained, and the double slit was replaced by the double mirror—which bore no physical resemblance to the double slit and yet performed the same function. This result (which had been announced by Arago in the March issue of the Annales) made it hard to believe that the two-slit pattern had anything to do with corpuscles being deflected as they passed near the edges of the slits.
But 1816 was the "Year Without a Summer": crops failed; hungry farming families lined the streets of Rennes; the central government organized "charity workhouses" for the needy; and in October, Fresnel was sent back to Ille-et-Vilaine to supervise charity workers in addition to his regular road crew. According to Arago,
> with Fresnel conscientiousness was always the foremost part of his character, and he constantly performed his duties as an engineer with the most rigorous scrupulousness. The mission to defend the revenues of the state, to obtain for them the best employment possible, appeared to his eyes in the light of a question of honour. The functionary, whatever might be his rank, who submitted to him an ambiguous account, became at once the object of his profound contempt.... Under such circumstances the habitual gentleness of his manners disappeared...
Fresnel's letters from December 1816 reveal his consequent anxiety. To Arago he complained of being "tormented by the worries of surveillance, and the need to reprimand..." And to Mérimée he wrote: "I find nothing more tiresome than having to manage other men, and I admit that I have no idea what I'm doing."
#### Prize memoir (1818) and sequel
On 17 March 1817, the Académie des Sciences announced that diffraction would be the topic for the biannual physics Grand Prix to be awarded in 1819. The deadline for entries was set at 1 August 1818 to allow time for replication of experiments. Although the wording of the problem referred to rays and inflection and did not invite wave-based solutions, Arago and Ampère encouraged Fresnel to enter.
In the fall of 1817, Fresnel, supported by de Prony, obtained a leave of absence from the new head of the Corp des Ponts, Louis Becquey, and returned to Paris. He resumed his engineering duties in the spring of 1818; but from then on he was based in Paris, first on the Canal de l'Ourcq, and then (from May 1819) with the cadastre of the pavements.
On 15 January 1818, in a different context (revisited below), Fresnel showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. His method was similar to the phasor representation, except that the "forces" were plane vectors rather than complex numbers; they could be added, and multiplied by scalars, but not (yet) multiplied and divided by each other. The explanation was algebraic rather than geometric.
Knowledge of this method was assumed in a preliminary note on diffraction, dated 19 April 1818 and deposited on 20 April, in which Fresnel outlined the elementary theory of diffraction as found in modern textbooks. He restated Huygens's principle in combination with the superposition principle, saying that the vibration at each point on a wavefront is the sum of the vibrations that would be sent to it at that moment by all the elements of the wavefront in any of its previous positions, all elements acting separately . For a wavefront partly obstructed in a previous position, the summation was to be carried out over the unobstructed portion. In directions other than the normal to the primary wavefront, the secondary waves were weakened due to obliquity, but weakened much more by destructive interference, so that the effect of obliquity alone could be ignored. For diffraction by a straight edge, the intensity as a function of distance from the geometric shadow could then be expressed with sufficient accuracy in terms of what are now called the normalized Fresnel integrals:
: $C(x) = \!\int_0^x \!\cos\big(\tfrac{1}{2}\pi z^2\big)\,dz$$S(x) = \!\int_0^x \!\sin\big(\tfrac{1}{2}\pi z^2\big)\,dz\,.$
The same note included a table of the integrals, for an upper limit ranging from 0 to 5.1 in steps of 0.1, computed with a mean error of 0.0003, plus a smaller table of maxima and minima of the resulting intensity.
In his final "Memoir on the diffraction of light", deposited on 29 July and bearing the Latin epigraph "Natura simplex et fecunda" ("Nature simple and fertile"), Fresnel slightly expanded the two tables without changing the existing figures, except for a correction to the first minimum of intensity. For completeness, he repeated his solution to "the problem of interference", whereby sinusoidal functions are added like vectors. He acknowledged the directionality of the secondary sources and the variation in their distances from the observation point, chiefly to explain why these things make negligible difference in the context, provided of course that the secondary sources do not radiate in the retrograde direction. Then, applying his theory of interference to the secondary waves, he expressed the intensity of light diffracted by a single straight edge (half-plane) in terms of integrals which involved the dimensions of the problem, but which could be converted to the normalized forms above. With reference to the integrals, he explained the calculation of the maxima and minima of the intensity (external fringes), and noted that the calculated intensity falls very rapidly as one moves into the geometric shadow. The last result, as Olivier Darrigol says, "amounts to a proof of the rectilinear propagation of light in the wave theory, indeed the first proof that a modern physicist would still accept."
For the experimental testing of his calculations, Fresnel used red light with a wavelength of 638 nm, which he deduced from the diffraction pattern in the simple case in which light incident on a single slit was focused by a cylindrical lens. For a variety of distances from the source to the obstacle and from the obstacle to the field point, he compared the calculated and observed positions of the fringes for diffraction by a half-plane, a slit, and a narrow strip—concentrating on the minima, which were visually sharper than the maxima. For the slit and the strip, he could not use the previously computed table of maxima and minima; for each combination of dimensions, the intensity had to be expressed in terms of sums or differences of Fresnel integrals and calculated from the table of integrals, and the extrema had to be calculated anew. The agreement between calculation and measurement was better than 1.5% in almost every case.
Near the end of the memoir, Fresnel summed up the difference between Huygens's use of secondary waves and his own: whereas Huygens says there is light only where the secondary waves exactly agree, Fresnel says there is complete darkness only where the secondary waves exactly cancel out.
The judging committee comprised Laplace, Biot, and Poisson (all corpuscularists), Gay-Lussac (uncommitted), and Arago, who eventually wrote the committee's report. Although entries in the competition were supposed to be anonymous to the judges, Fresnel's must have been recognizable by the content. There was only one other entry, of which neither the manuscript nor any record of the author has survived. That entry (identified as "no. 1") was mentioned only in the last paragraph of the judges' report, noting that the author had shown ignorance of the relevant earlier works of Young and Fresnel, used insufficiently precise methods of observation, overlooked known phenomena, and made obvious errors. In the words of John Worrall, "The competition facing Fresnel could hardly have been less stiff." We may infer that the committee had only two options: award the prize to Fresnel ("no. 2"), or withhold it.
The committee deliberated into the new year. Then Poisson, exploiting a case in which Fresnel's theory gave easy integrals, predicted that if a circular obstacle were illuminated by a point-source, there should be (according to the theory) a bright spot in the center of the shadow, illuminated as brightly as the exterior. This seems to have been intended as a reductio ad absurdum. Arago, undeterred, assembled an experiment with an obstacle 2 mm in diameter—and there, in the center of the shadow, was Poisson's spot.
The unanimous report of the committee, read at the meeting of the Académie on 15 March 1819, awarded the prize to "the memoir marked no. 2, and bearing as epigraph: Natura simplex et fecunda." At the same meeting, after the judgment was delivered, the president of the Académie opened a sealed note accompanying the memoir, revealing the author as Fresnel. The award was announced at the public meeting of the Académie a week later, on 22 March.
Arago's verification of Poisson's counter-intuitive prediction passed into folklore as if it had decided the prize. That view, however, is not supported by the judges' report, which gave the matter only two sentences in the penultimate paragraph. Neither did Fresnel's triumph immediately convert Laplace, Biot, and Poisson to the wave theory, for at least four reasons. First, although the professionalization of science in France had established common standards, it was one thing to acknowledge a piece of research as meeting those standards, and another thing to regard it as conclusive. Second, it was possible to interpret Fresnel's integrals as rules for combining rays. Arago even encouraged that interpretation, presumably in order to minimize resistance to Fresnel's ideas. Even Biot began teaching the Huygens-Fresnel principle without committing himself to a wave basis. Third, Fresnel's theory did not adequately explain the mechanism of generation of secondary waves or why they had any significant angular spread; this issue particularly bothered Poisson. Fourth, the question that most exercised optical physicists at that time was not diffraction, but polarization—on which Fresnel had been working, but was yet to make his critical breakthrough.
### Polarization
#### Background: Emissionism and selectionism
An emission theory of light was one that regarded the propagation of light as the transport of some kind of matter. While the corpuscular theory was obviously an emission theory, the converse did not follow: in principle, one could be an emissionist without being a corpuscularist. This was convenient because, beyond the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction, emissionists never managed to make testable quantitative predictions from a theory of forces acting on corpuscles of light. But they did make quantitative predictions from the premises that rays were countable objects, which were conserved in their interactions with matter (except absorbent media), and which had particular orientations with respect to their directions of propagation. According to this framework, polarization and the related phenomena of double refraction and partial reflection involved altering the orientations of the rays and/or selecting them according to orientation, and the state of polarization of a beam (a bundle of rays) was a question of how many rays were in what orientations: in a fully polarized beam, the orientations were all the same. This approach, which Jed Buchwald has called selectionism, was pioneered by Malus and diligently pursued by Biot.
Fresnel, in contrast, decided to introduce polarization into interference experiments.
#### Interference of polarized light, chromatic polarization (1816–21)
In July or August 1816, Fresnel discovered that when a birefringent crystal produced two images of a single slit, he could not obtain the usual two-slit interference pattern, even if he compensated for the different propagation times. A more general experiment, suggested by Arago, found that if the two beams of a double-slit device were separately polarized, the interference pattern appeared and disappeared as the polarization of one beam was rotated, giving full interference for parallel polarizations, but no interference for perpendicular polarizations . These experiments, among others, were eventually reported in a brief memoir published in 1819 and later translated into English.
In a memoir drafted on 30 August 1816 and revised on 6 October, Fresnel reported an experiment in which he placed two matching thin laminae in a double-slit apparatus—one over each slit, with their optic axes perpendicular—and obtained two interference patterns offset in opposite directions, with perpendicular polarizations. This, in combination with the previous findings, meant that each lamina split the incident light into perpendicularly polarized components with different velocities—just like a normal (thick) birefringent crystal, and contrary to Biot's "mobile polarization" hypothesis.
Accordingly, in the same memoir, Fresnel offered his first attempt at a wave theory of chromatic polarization. When polarized light passed through a crystal lamina, it was split into ordinary and extraordinary waves (with intensities described by Malus's law), and these were perpendicularly polarized and therefore did not interfere, so that no colors were produced (yet). But if they then passed through an analyzer (second polarizer), their polarizations were brought into alignment (with intensities again modified according to Malus's law), and they would interfere. This explanation, by itself, predicts that if the analyzer is rotated 90°, the ordinary and extraordinary waves simply switch roles, so that if the analyzer takes the form of a calcite crystal, the two images of the lamina should be of the same hue (this issue is revisited below). But in fact, as Arago and Biot had found, they are of complementary colors. To correct the prediction, Fresnel proposed a phase-inversion rule whereby one of the constituent waves of one of the two images suffered an additional 180° phase shift on its way through the lamina. This inversion was a weakness in the theory relative to Biot's, as Fresnel acknowledged, although the rule specified which of the two images had the inverted wave. Moreover, Fresnel could deal only with special cases, because he had not yet solved the problem of superposing sinusoidal functions with arbitrary phase differences due to propagation at different velocities through the lamina.
He solved that problem in a "supplement" signed on 15 January 1818 (mentioned above). In the same document, he accommodated Malus's law by proposing an underlying law: that if polarized light is incident on a birefringent crystal with its optic axis at an angle θ to the "plane of polarization", the ordinary and extraordinary vibrations (as functions of time) are scaled by the factors cosθ and sinθ, respectively. Although modern readers easily interpret these factors in terms of perpendicular components of a transverse oscillation, Fresnel did not (yet) explain them that way. Hence he still needed the phase-inversion rule. He applied all these principles to a case of chromatic polarization not covered by Biot's formulae, involving two successive laminae with axes separated by 45°, and obtained predictions that disagreed with Biot's experiments (except in special cases) but agreed with his own.
Fresnel applied the same principles to the standard case of chromatic polarization, in which one birefringent lamina was sliced parallel to its axis and placed between a polarizer and an analyzer. If the analyzer took the form of a thick calcite crystal with its axis in the plane of polarization, Fresnel predicted that the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images of the lamina were respectively proportional to
: $I_o = \cos^2i\,\cos^2(i{-}s) + \sin^2i\,\sin^2(i{-}s) + \tfrac{1}{2}\sin 2i\,\sin 2(i{-}s)\cos\phi\,,$
: $I_e = \cos^2i\,\sin^2(i{-}s) + \sin^2i\,\cos^2(i{-}s) - \tfrac{1}{2}\sin 2i\,\sin 2(i{-}s)\cos\phi\,,$
where $i$ is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the optic axis of the lamina, $s$ is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the plane of polarization of the final ordinary image, and $\phi$ is the phase lag of the extraordinary wave relative to the ordinary wave due to the difference in propagation times through the lamina. The terms in $\phi$ are the frequency-dependent terms and explain why the lamina must be thin in order to produce discernible colors: if the lamina is too thick, $\cos\phi$ will pass through too many cycles as the frequency varies through the visible range, and the eye (which divides the visible spectrum into only three bands) will not be able to resolve the cycles.
From these equations it is easily verified that $\,I_o+I_e=1\,$ for all $\phi,$ so that the colors are complementary. Without the phase-inversion rule, there would be a plus sign in front of the last term in the second equation, so that the $\phi$-dependent term would be the same in both equations, implying (incorrectly) that the colors were of the same hue.
These equations were included in an undated note that Fresnel gave to Biot, to which Biot added a few lines of his own. If we substitute
: $U=\cos^2\tfrac{\phi}{2}$ and $A=\sin^2\tfrac{\phi}{2}\,,$
then Fresnel's formulae can be rewritten as
: $\!I_o = U\cos^2 s + A\cos^2(2i-s)\,,$
: $I_e = U\sin^2 s + A\sin^2(2i-s)\,,$
which are none other than Biot's empirical formulae of 1812, except that Biot interpreted $U$ and $A$ as the "unaffected" and "affected" selections of the rays incident on the lamina. If Biot's substitutions were accurate, they would imply that his experimental results were more fully explained by Fresnel's theory than by his own.
Arago delayed reporting on Fresnel's works on chromatic polarization until June 1821, when he used them in a broad attack on Biot's theory. In his written response, Biot protested that Arago's attack went beyond the proper scope of a report on the nominated works of Fresnel. But Biot also claimed that the substitutions for $U$ and $A,$ and therefore Fresnel's expressions for $I_o$ and $I_e,$ were empirically wrong because when Fresnel's intensities of spectral colors were mixed according to Newton's rules, the squared cosine and sine functions varied too smoothly to account for the observed sequence of colors. That claim drew a written reply from Fresnel, who disputed whether the colors changed as abruptly as Biot claimed, and whether the human eye could judge color with sufficient objectivity for the purpose. On the latter question, Fresnel pointed out that different observers may give different names to the same color. Furthermore, he said, a single observer can only compare colors side by side; and even if they are judged to be the same, the identity is of sensation, not necessarily of composition. Fresnel's oldest and strongest point—that thin crystals were subject to the same laws as thick ones and did not need or allow a separate theory—Biot left unanswered. Arago and Fresnel were seen to have won the debate.
Moreover, by this time Fresnel had a new, simpler explanation of his equations on chromatic polarization.
#### Breakthrough: Pure transverse waves (1821)
In the draft memoir of 30 August 1816, Fresnel mentioned two hypotheses—one of which he attributed to Ampère—by which the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams could be explained if polarized light waves were partly transverse. But Fresnel could not develop either of these ideas into a comprehensive theory. As early as September 1816, according to his later account, he realized that the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams, together with the phase-inversion rule in chromatic polarization, would be most easily explained if the waves were purely transverse, and Ampère "had the same thought" on the phase-inversion rule. But that would raise a new difficulty: as natural light seemed to be unpolarized and its waves were therefore presumed to be longitudinal, one would need to explain how the longitudinal component of vibration disappeared on polarization, and why it did not reappear when polarized light was reflected or refracted obliquely by a glass plate.
Independently, on 12 January 1817, Young wrote to Arago (in English) noting that a transverse vibration would constitute a polarization, and that if two longitudinal waves crossed at a significant angle, they could not cancel without leaving a residual transverse vibration. Young repeated this idea in an article published in a supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica in February 1818, in which he added that Malus's law would be explained if polarization consisted in a transverse motion.
Thus Fresnel, by his own testimony, may not have been the first person to suspect that light waves could have a transverse component, or that polarized waves were exclusively transverse. And it was Young, not Fresnel, who first published the idea that polarization depends on the orientation of a transverse vibration. But these incomplete theories had not reconciled the nature of polarization with the apparent existence of unpolarized light; that achievement was to be Fresnel's alone.
In a note that Buchwald dates in the summer of 1818, Fresnel entertained the idea that unpolarized waves could have vibrations of the same energy and obliquity, with their orientations distributed uniformly about the wave-normal, and that the degree of polarization was the degree of non-uniformity in the distribution. Two pages later he noted, apparently for the first time in writing, that his phase-inversion rule and the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams would be easily explained if the vibrations of fully polarized waves were "perpendicular to the normal to the wave"—that is, purely transverse.
But if he could account for lack of polarization by averaging out the transverse component, he did not also need to assume a longitudinal component. It was enough to suppose that light waves are purely transverse, hence always polarized in the sense of having a particular transverse orientation, and that the "unpolarized" state of natural or "direct" light is due to rapid and random variations in that orientation, in which case two coherent portions of "unpolarized" light will still interfere because their orientations will be synchronized.
It is not known exactly when Fresnel made this last step, because there is no relevant documentation from 1820 or early 1821 (perhaps because he was too busy working on lighthouse-lens prototypes; see below). But he first published the idea in a paper on "Calcul des teintes..." ("calculation of the tints..."), serialized in Arago's Annales for May, June, and July 1821. In the first installment, Fresnel described "direct" (unpolarized) light as "the rapid succession of systems of waves polarized in all directions", and gave what is essentially the modern explanation of chromatic polarization, albeit in terms of the analogy between polarization and the resolution of forces in a plane, mentioning transverse waves only in a footnote. The introduction of transverse waves into the main argument was delayed to the second installment, in which he revealed the suspicion that he and Ampère had harbored since 1816, and the difficulty it raised. He continued:
> It has only been for a few months that in meditating more attentively on this subject, I have realized that it was very probable that the oscillatory movements of light waves were executed solely along the plane of these waves, for direct light as well as for polarized light.
According to this new view, he wrote, "the act of polarization consists not in creating these transverse movements, but in decomposing them into two fixed perpendicular directions and in separating the two components".
While selectionists could insist on interpreting Fresnel's diffraction integrals in terms of discrete, countable rays, they could not do the same with his theory of polarization. For a selectionist, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the population of rays, and that distribution was presumed to be static. For Fresnel, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the variation of a displacement over time. That displacement might be constrained but was not static, and rays were geometric constructions, not countable objects. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had become unbridgeable.
The other difficulty posed by pure transverse waves, of course, was the apparent implication that the aether was an elastic solid, except that, unlike other elastic solids, it was incapable of transmitting longitudinal waves. The wave theory was cheap on assumptions, but its latest assumption was expensive on credulity. If that assumption was to be widely entertained, its explanatory power would need to be impressive.
#### Partial reflection (1821)
In the second installment of "Calcul des teintes" (June 1821), Fresnel supposed, by analogy with sound waves, that the density of the aether in a refractive medium was inversely proportional to the square of the wave velocity, and therefore directly proportional to the square of the refractive index. For reflection and refraction at the surface between two isotropic media of different indices, Fresnel decomposed the transverse vibrations into two perpendicular components, now known as the s and p components, which are parallel to the surface and the plane of incidence, respectively; in other words, the s and p components are respectively square and parallel to the plane of incidence. For the s component, Fresnel supposed that the interaction between the two media was analogous to an elastic collision, and obtained a formula for what we now call the reflectivity: the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity. The predicted reflectivity was non-zero at all angles.
The third installment (July 1821) was a short "postscript" in which Fresnel announced that he had found, by a "mechanical solution", a formula for the reflectivity of the p component, which predicted that the reflectivity was zero at the Brewster angle. So polarization by reflection had been accounted for—but with the proviso that the direction of vibration in Fresnel's model was perpendicular to the plane of polarization as defined by Malus. (On the ensuing controversy, see Plane of polarization.) The technology of the time did not allow the s and p reflectivities to be measured accurately enough to test Fresnel's formulae at arbitrary angles of incidence. But the formulae could be rewritten in terms of what we now call the reflection coefficient: the signed ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude. Then, if the plane of polarization of the incident ray was at 45° to the plane of incidence, the tangent of the corresponding angle for the reflected ray was obtainable from the ratio of the two reflection coefficients, and this angle could be measured. Fresnel had measured it for a range of angles of incidence, for glass and water, and the agreement between the calculated and measured angles was better than 1.5° in all cases.
Fresnel gave details of the "mechanical solution" in a memoir read to the Académie des Sciences on 7 January 1823. Conservation of energy was combined with continuity of the tangential vibration at the interface. The resulting formulae for the reflection coefficients and reflectivities became known as the Fresnel equations. The reflection coefficients for the s and p polarizations are most succinctly expressed as
: $r_s=-\frac{\sin(i-r)}{\sin(i+r)}$and$r_p=\frac{\tan(i-r)}{\tan(i+r)}\,,$
where $i$ and $r$ are the angles of incidence and refraction; these equations are known respectively as Fresnel's sine law and Fresnel's tangent law. By allowing the coefficients to be complex, Fresnel even accounted for the different phase shifts of the s and p components due to total internal reflection.
This success inspired James MacCullagh and Augustin-Louis Cauchy, beginning in 1836, to analyze reflection from metals by using the Fresnel equations with a complex refractive index. The same technique is applicable to non-metallic opaque media. With these generalizations, the Fresnel equations can predict the appearance of a wide variety of objects under illumination—for example, in computer graphics .
#### Circular and elliptical polarization, optical rotation (1822)
In a memoir dated 9 December 1822, Fresnel coined the terms linear polarization (French: polarisation rectiligne) for the simple case in which the perpendicular components of vibration are in phase or 180° out of phase, circular polarization for the case in which they are of equal magnitude and a quarter-cycle (±90°) out of phase, and elliptical polarization for other cases in which the two components have a fixed amplitude ratio and a fixed phase difference. He then explained how optical rotation could be understood as a species of birefringence. Linearly-polarized light could be resolved into two circularly-polarized components rotating in opposite directions. If these components propagated at slightly different speeds, the phase difference between them—and therefore the direction of their linearly-polarized resultant—would vary continuously with distance.
These concepts called for a redefinition of the distinction between polarized and unpolarized light. Before Fresnel, it was thought that polarization could vary in direction, and in degree (e.g., due to variation in the angle of reflection off a transparent body), and that it could be a function of color (chromatic polarization), but not that it could vary in kind. Hence it was thought that the degree of polarization was the degree to which the light could be suppressed by an analyzer with the appropriate orientation. Light that had been converted from linear to elliptical or circular polarization (e.g., by passage through a crystal lamina, or by total internal reflection) was described as partly or fully "depolarized" because of its behavior in an analyzer. After Fresnel, the defining feature of polarized light was that the perpendicular components of vibration had a fixed ratio of amplitudes and a fixed difference in phase. By that definition, elliptically or circularly polarized light is fully polarized although it cannot be fully suppressed by an analyzer alone. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had widened again.
#### Total internal reflection (1817–23)
By 1817 it had been discovered by Brewster, but not adequately reported, that plane-polarized light was partly depolarized by total internal reflection if initially polarized at an acute angle to the plane of incidence. Fresnel rediscovered this effect and investigated it by including total internal reflection in a chromatic-polarization experiment. With the aid of his first theory of chromatic polarization, he found that the apparently depolarized light was a mixture of components polarized parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and that the total reflection introduced a phase difference between them. Choosing an appropriate angle of incidence (not yet exactly specified) gave a phase difference of 1/8 of a cycle (45°). Two such reflections from the "parallel faces" of "two coupled prisms" gave a phase difference of 1/4 of a cycle (90°). These findings were contained in a memoir submitted to the Académie on 10 November 1817 and read a fortnight later. An undated marginal note indicates that the two coupled prisms were later replaced by a single "parallelepiped in glass"—now known as a Fresnel rhomb.
This was the memoir whose "supplement", dated January 1818, contained the method of superposing sinusoidal functions and the restatement of Malus's law in terms of amplitudes. In the same supplement, Fresnel reported his discovery that optical rotation could be emulated by passing the polarized light through a Fresnel rhomb (still in the form of "coupled prisms"), followed by an ordinary birefringent lamina sliced parallel to its axis, with the axis at 45° to the plane of reflection of the Fresnel rhomb, followed by a second Fresnel rhomb at 90° to the first. In a further memoir read on 30 March, Fresnel reported that if polarized light was fully "depolarized" by a Fresnel rhomb—now described as a parallelepiped—its properties were not further modified by a subsequent passage through an optically rotating medium or device.
The connection between optical rotation and birefringence was further explained in 1822, in the memoir on elliptical and circular polarization. This was followed by the memoir on reflection, read in January 1823, in which Fresnel quantified the phase shifts in total internal reflection, and thence calculated the precise angle at which a Fresnel rhomb should be cut in order to convert linear polarization to circular polarization. For a refractive index of 1.51, there were two solutions: about 48.6° and 54.6°.
### Double refraction
#### Background: Uniaxial and biaxial crystals; Biot's laws
When light passes through a slice of calcite cut perpendicular to its optic axis, the difference between the propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves has a second-order dependence on the angle of incidence. If the slice is observed in a highly convergent cone of light, that dependence becomes significant, so that a chromatic-polarization experiment will show a pattern of concentric rings. But most minerals, when observed in this manner, show a more complicated pattern of rings involving two foci and a lemniscate curve, as if they had two optic axes. The two classes of minerals naturally become known as uniaxal and biaxal—or, in later literature, uniaxial and biaxial.
In 1813, Brewster observed the simple concentric pattern in "beryl, emerald, ruby &c." The same pattern was later observed in calcite by Wollaston, Biot, and Seebeck. Biot, assuming that the concentric pattern was the general case, tried to calculate the colors with his theory of chromatic polarization, and succeeded better for some minerals than for others. In 1818, Brewster belatedly explained why: seven of the twelve minerals employed by Biot had the lemniscate pattern, which Brewster had observed as early as 1812; and the minerals with the more complicated rings also had a more complicated law of refraction.
In a uniform crystal, according to Huygens's theory, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time is the ray-velocity surface—that is, the surface whose "distance" from the origin in any direction is the ray velocity in that direction. In calcite, this surface is two-sheeted, consisting of a sphere (for the ordinary wave) and an oblate spheroid (for the extraordinary wave) touching each other at opposite points of a common axis—touching at the north and south poles, if we may use a geographic analogy. But according to Malus's corpuscular theory of double refraction, the ray velocity was proportional to the reciprocal of that given by Huygens's theory, in which case the velocity law was of the form
: $v_o^{2\!}-v_e^2 = k\sin^2\theta \,,$
where $v_o$ and $v_e$ were the ordinary and extraordinary ray velocities according to the corpuscular theory, and $\theta$ was the angle between the ray and the optic axis. By Malus's definition, the plane of polarization of a ray was the plane of the ray and the optic axis if the ray was ordinary, or the perpendicular plane (containing the ray) if the ray was extraordinary. In Fresnel's model, the direction of vibration was normal to the plane of polarization. Hence, for the sphere (the ordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of latitude (continuing the geographic analogy); and for the spheroid (the extraordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of longitude.
On 29 March 1819, Biot presented a memoir in which he proposed simple generalizations of Malus's rules for a crystal with two axes, and reported that both generalizations seemed to be confirmed by experiment. For the velocity law, the squared sine was replaced by the product of the sines of the angles from the ray to the two axes (Biot's sine law). And for the polarization of the ordinary ray, the plane of the ray and the axis was replaced by the plane bisecting the dihedral angle between the two planes each of which contained the ray and one axis (Biot's dihedral law). Biot's laws meant that a biaxial crystal with axes at a small angle, cleaved in the plane of those axes, behaved nearly like a uniaxial crystal at near-normal incidence; this was fortunate because gypsum, which had been used in chromatic-polarization experiments, is biaxial.
#### First memoir and supplements (1821–22)
Until Fresnel turned his attention to biaxial birefringence, it was assumed that one of the two refractions was ordinary, even in biaxial crystals. But, in a memoir submitted on 19 November 1821, Fresnel reported two experiments on topaz showing that neither refraction was ordinary in the sense of satisfying Snell's law; that is, neither ray was the product of spherical secondary waves.
The same memoir contained Fresnel's first attempt at the biaxial velocity law. For calcite, if we interchange the equatorial and polar radii of Huygens's oblate spheroid while preserving the polar direction, we obtain a prolate spheroid touching the sphere at the equator. A plane through the center/origin cuts this prolate spheroid in an ellipse whose major and minor semi-axes give the magnitudes of the extraordinary and ordinary ray velocities in the direction normal to the plane, and (said Fresnel) the directions of their respective vibrations. The direction of the optic axis is the normal to the plane for which the ellipse of intersection reduces to a circle. So, for the biaxial case, Fresnel simply replaced the prolate spheroid with a triaxial ellipsoid, which was to be sectioned by a plane in the same way. In general there would be two planes passing through the center of the ellipsoid and cutting it in a circle, and the normals to these planes would give two optic axes. From the geometry, Fresnel deduced Biot's sine law (with the ray velocities replaced by their reciprocals).
The ellipsoid indeed gave the correct ray velocities (although the initial experimental verification was only approximate). But it did not give the correct directions of vibration, for the biaxial case or even for the uniaxial case, because the vibrations in Fresnel's model were tangential to the wavefront—which, for an extraordinary ray, is not generally normal to the ray. This error (which is small if, as in most cases, the birefringence is weak) was corrected in an "extract" that Fresnel read to the Académie a week later, on 26 November. Starting with Huygens's spheroid, Fresnel obtained a 4th-degree surface which, when sectioned by a plane as above, would yield the wave-normal velocities for a wavefront in that plane, together with their vibration directions. For the biaxial case, he generalized the equation to obtain a surface with three unequal principal dimensions; this he subsequently called the "surface of elasticity". But he retained the earlier ellipsoid as an approximation, from which he deduced Biot's dihedral law.
Fresnel's initial derivation of the surface of elasticity had been purely geometric, and not deductively rigorous. His first attempt at a mechanical derivation, contained in a "supplement" dated 13 January 1822, assumed that (i) there were three mutually perpendicular directions in which a displacement produced a reaction in the same direction, (ii) the reaction was otherwise a linear function of the displacement, and (iii) the radius of the surface in any direction was the square root of the component, in that direction, of the reaction to a unit displacement in that direction. The last assumption recognized the requirement that if a wave was to maintain a fixed direction of propagation and a fixed direction of vibration, the reaction must not be outside the plane of those two directions.
In the same supplement, Fresnel considered how he might find, for the biaxial case, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time—that is, the surface that reduces to Huygens's sphere and spheroid in the uniaxial case. He noted that this "wave surface" (surface de l'onde) is tangential to all possible plane wavefronts that could have crossed the origin one unit of time ago, and he listed the mathematical conditions that it must satisfy. But he doubted the feasibility of deriving the surface from those conditions.
In a "second supplement", Fresnel eventually exploited two related facts: (i) the "wave surface" was also the ray-velocity surface, which could be obtained by sectioning the ellipsoid that he had initially mistaken for the surface of elasticity, and (ii) the "wave surface" intersected each plane of symmetry of the ellipsoid in two curves: a circle and an ellipse. Thus he found that the "wave surface" is described by the 4th-degree equation
: $r^2\big(a^2x^{2\!}+ b^2y^{2\!}+ c^2z^2\big) - a^2\big(b^{2\!} + c^2\big)x^2 - b^2\big(c^{2\!} + a^2\big)y^2 - c^2\big(a^{2\!} + b^2\big)z^2 + a^2b^2c^2 =\, 0\,,$
where $\,r^2 = x^{2\!} + y^{2\!} + z^2,\,$ and $\,a,b,c\,$ are the propagation speeds in directions normal to the coordinate axes for vibrations along the axes (the ray and wave-normal speeds being the same in those special cases). Later commentators put the equation in the more compact and memorable form
: $\frac{x^2}{r^2-a^2} + \frac{y^2}{r^2-b^2} + \frac{z^2}{r^2-c^2} \,=\, 1\,.$
Earlier in the "second supplement", Fresnel modeled the medium as an array of point-masses and found that the force-displacement relation was described by a symmetric matrix, confirming the existence of three mutually perpendicular axes on which the displacement produced a parallel force. Later in the document, he noted that in a biaxial crystal, unlike a uniaxial crystal, the directions in which there is only one wave-normal velocity are not the same as those in which there is only one ray velocity. Nowadays we refer to the former directions as the optic axes or binormal axes, and the latter as the ray axes or biradial axes .
Fresnel's "second supplement" was signed on 31 March 1822 and submitted the next day—less than a year after the publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and just less than a year after the demonstration of his prototype eight-panel lighthouse lens .
#### Second memoir (1822–26)
Having presented the pieces of his theory in roughly the order of discovery, Fresnel needed to rearrange the material so as to emphasize the mechanical foundations; and he still needed a rigorous treatment of Biot's dihedral law. He attended to these matters in his "second memoir" on double refraction, published in the Recueils of the Académie des Sciences for 1824; this was not actually printed until late 1827, a few months after his death. In this work, having established the three perpendicular axes on which a displacement produces a parallel reaction, and thence constructed the surface of elasticity, he showed that Biot's dihedral law is exact provided that the binormals are taken as the optic axes, and the wave-normal direction as the direction of propagation.
As early as 1822, Fresnel discussed his perpendicular axes with Cauchy. Acknowledging Fresnel's influence, Cauchy went on to develop the first rigorous theory of elasticity of non-isotropic solids (1827), hence the first rigorous theory of transverse waves therein (1830)—which he promptly tried to apply to optics. The ensuing difficulties drove a long competitive effort to find an accurate mechanical model of the aether. Fresnel's own model was not dynamically rigorous; for example, it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed, and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string, whatever the direction of the wave-normal. But it was enough to enable the wave theory to do what selectionist theory could not: generate testable formulae covering a comprehensive range of optical phenomena, from mechanical assumptions.
#### Photoelasticity, multiple-prism experiments (1822)
In 1815, Brewster reported that colors appear when a slice of isotropic material, placed between crossed polarizers, is mechanically stressed. Brewster himself immediately and correctly attributed this phenomenon to stress-induced birefringence—now known as photoelasticity.
In a memoir read in September 1822, Fresnel announced that he had verified Brewster's diagnosis more directly, by compressing a combination of glass prisms so severely that one could actually see a double image through it. In his experiment, Fresnel lined up seven 45°–90°–45° prisms, short side to short side, with their 90° angles pointing in alternating directions. Two half-prisms were added at the ends to make the whole assembly rectangular. The prisms were separated by thin films of turpentine (térébenthine) to suppress internal reflections, allowing a clear line of sight along the row. When the four prisms with similar orientations were compressed in a vise across the line of sight, an object viewed through the assembly produced two images with perpendicular polarizations, with an apparent spacing of 1.5 mm at one metre.
At the end of that memoir, Fresnel predicted that if the compressed prisms were replaced by (unstressed) monocrystalline quartz prisms with matching directions of optical rotation, and with their optic axes aligned along the row, an object seen by looking along the common optic axis would give two images, which would seem unpolarized when viewed through an analyzer but, when viewed through a Fresnel rhomb, would be polarized at ±45° to the plane of reflection of the rhomb (indicating that they were initially circularly polarized in opposite directions). This would show directly that optical rotation is a form of birefringence. In the memoir of December 1822, in which he introduced the term circular polarization, he reported that he had confirmed this prediction using only one 14°–152°–14° prism and two glass half-prisms. But he obtained a wider separation of the images by replacing the glass half-prism with quartz half-prisms whose rotation was opposite to that of the 14°–152°–14° prism. He added in passing that one could further increase the separation by increasing the number of prisms.
### Reception
For the supplement to Riffault's translation of Thomson's System of Chemistry, Fresnel was chosen to contribute the article on light. The resulting 137-page essay, titled De la Lumière (On Light), was apparently finished in June 1821 and published by February 1822. With sections covering the nature of light, diffraction, thin-film interference, reflection and refraction, double refraction and polarization, chromatic polarization, and modification of polarization by reflection, it made a comprehensive case for the wave theory to a readership that was not restricted to physicists.
To examine Fresnel's first memoir and supplements on double refraction, the Académie des Sciences appointed Ampère, Arago, Fourier, and Poisson. Their report, of which Arago was clearly the main author, was delivered at the meeting of 19 August 1822. Then, in the words of Émile Verdet, as translated by Ivor Grattan-Guinness:
> Immediately after the reading of the report, Laplace took the floor, and... proclaimed the exceptional importance of the work which had just been reported: he congratulated the author on his steadfastness and his sagacity which had led him to discover a law which had escaped the cleverest, and, anticipating somewhat the judgement of posterity, declared that he placed these researches above everything that had been communicated to the Académie for a long time.
Whether Laplace was announcing his conversion to the wave theory—at the age of 73—is uncertain. Grattan-Guinness entertained the idea. Buchwald, noting that Arago failed to explain that the "ellipsoid of elasticity" did not give the correct planes of polarization, suggests that Laplace may have merely regarded Fresnel's theory as a successful generalization of Malus's ray-velocity law, embracing Biot's laws.
In the following year, Poisson, who did not sign Arago's report, disputed the possibility of transverse waves in the aether. Starting from assumed equations of motion of a fluid medium, he noted that they did not give the correct results for partial reflection and double refraction—as if that were Fresnel's problem rather than his own—and that the predicted waves, even if they were initially transverse, became more longitudinal as they propagated. In reply Fresnel noted, inter alia, that the equations in which Poisson put so much faith did not even predict viscosity. The implication was clear: given that the behavior of light had not been satisfactorily explained except by transverse waves, it was not the responsibility of the wave-theorists to abandon transverse waves in deference to pre-conceived notions about the aether; rather, it was the responsibility of the aether modelers to produce a model that accommodated transverse waves. According to Robert H. Silliman, Poisson eventually accepted the wave theory shortly before his death in 1840.
Among the French, Poisson's reluctance was an exception. According to Eugene Frankel, "in Paris no debate on the issue seems to have taken place after 1825. Indeed, almost the entire generation of physicists and mathematicians who came to maturity in the 1820s—Pouillet, Savart, Lamé, Navier, Liouville, Cauchy—seem to have adopted the theory immediately." Fresnel's other prominent French opponent, Biot, appeared to take a neutral position in 1830, and eventually accepted the wave theory—possibly by 1846 and certainly by 1858.
In 1826, the British astronomer John Herschel, who was working on a book-length article on light for the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, addressed three questions to Fresnel concerning double refraction, partial reflection, and their relation to polarization. The resulting article, titled simply "Light", was highly sympathetic to the wave theory, although not entirely free of selectionist language. It was circulating privately by 1828 and was published in 1830. Meanwhile, Young's translation of Fresnel's De la Lumière was published in installments from 1827 to 1829. George Biddell Airy, the former Lucasian Professor at Cambridge and future Astronomer Royal, unreservedly accepted the wave theory by 1831. In 1834, he famously calculated the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture from the wave theory, thereby explaining the limited angular resolution of a perfect telescope . By the end of the 1830s, the only prominent British physicist who held out against the wave theory was Brewster, whose objections included the difficulty of explaining photochemical effects and (in his opinion) dispersion.
A German translation of De la Lumière was published in installments in 1825 and 1828. The wave theory was adopted by Fraunhofer in the early 1820s and by Franz Ernst Neumann in the 1830s, and then began to find favor in German textbooks.
The economy of assumptions under the wave theory was emphasized by William Whewell in his History of the Inductive Sciences, first published in 1837. In the corpuscular system, "every new class of facts requires a new supposition," whereas in the wave system, a hypothesis devised in order to explain one phenomenon is then found to explain or predict others. In the corpuscular system there is "no unexpected success, no happy coincidence, no convergence of principles from remote quarters"; but in the wave system, "all tends to unity and simplicity."
Hence, in 1850, when Foucault and Fizeau found by experiment that light travels more slowly in water than in air, in accordance with the wave explanation of refraction and contrary to the corpuscular explanation, the result came as no surprise.
## Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens
Fresnel was not the first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens. That distinction apparently belongs to the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, whose first lenses, 53 cm in diameter and 14 cm thick at the center, were installed at the Old Lower Lighthouse at Portland Bill in 1789. Further samples were installed in about half a dozen other locations by 1804. But much of the light was wasted by absorption in the glass.
Nor was Fresnel the first to suggest replacing a convex lens with a series of concentric annular prisms, to reduce weight and absorption. In 1748, Count Buffon proposed grinding such prisms as steps in a single piece of glass. In 1790, the Marquis de Condorcet suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time. These designs were intended not for lighthouses, but for burning glasses. Brewster, however, proposed a system similar to Condorcet's in 1811, and by 1820 was advocating its use in British lighthouses.
Meanwhile, on 21 June 1819, Fresnel was "temporarily" seconded by the Commission des Phares (Commission of Lighthouses) on the recommendation of Arago (a member of the Commission since 1813), to review possible improvements in lighthouse illumination. The commission had been established by Napoleon in 1811 and placed under the Corps des Ponts—Fresnel's employer.
By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called lentilles à échelons (lenses by steps) to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light. One of the assembled commissioners, Jacques Charles, recalled Buffon's suggestion, leaving Fresnel embarrassed for having again "broken through an open door". But, whereas Buffon's version was biconvex and in one piece, Fresnel's was plano-convex and made of multiple prisms for easier construction. With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, produced the prototype. Finished in March 1820, it had a square lens panel 55cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular) prisms—and so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels 76cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.
Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by Saint-Gobain, giving eight rotating beams—to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7 degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a louver or Venetian blind. Each ring, shaped as a frustum of a cone, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished Arc de Triomphe on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the commission—and by Louis and his entourage—from 32 km away. The apparatus was stored at Bordeaux for the winter, and then reassembled at Cordouan Lighthouse under Fresnel's supervision. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. Soon afterwards, Fresnel started coughing up blood.
In May 1824, Fresnel was promoted to secretary of the Commission des Phares, becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary, albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief. He was also an examiner (not a teacher) at the École Polytechnique since 1821; but poor health, long hours during the examination season, and anxiety about judging others induced him to resign that post in late 1824, to save his energy for his lighthouse work.
In the same year he designed the first fixed lens—for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below. Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of toroids about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (catoptric) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive. The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825. However, due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan.
In 1825, Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.
Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the Carte des Phares (Lighthouse Map), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes (called orders, the first order being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (sixteen panels).
In late 1825, to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then total internal reflection off the second surface, then refraction through the third surface. The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In 1826 he assembled a small model for use on the Canal Saint-Martin, but he did not live to see a full-sized version.
The first fixed lens with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer Alan Stevenson under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel, and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. from French glass; it entered service at the Isle of May in 1836. The first large catadioptric lenses were fixed third-order lenses made in 1842 for the lighthouses at Gravelines and Île Vierge. The first fully catadioptric first-order lens, installed at Ailly in 1852, gave eight rotating beams assisted by eight catadioptric panels at the top (to lengthen the flashes), plus a fixed light from below. The first fully catadioptric lens with purely revolving beams—also of first order—was installed at Saint-Clément-des-Baleines in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original Carte des Phares.
Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became practical in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company patented a method of making such lenses from press-molded glass. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use fine-stepped Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors. Still finer steps can be found in low-cost plastic "sheet" magnifiers.
## Honors
Fresnel was elected to the Société Philomathique de Paris in April 1819, and in 1822 became one of the editors of the Société's Bulletin des Sciences. As early as May 1817, at Arago's suggestion, Fresnel applied for membership of the Académie des Sciences, but received only one vote. The successful candidate on that occasion was Joseph Fourier. In November 1822, Fourier's elevation to Permanent Secretary of the Académie created a vacancy in the physics section, which was filled in February 1823 by Pierre Louis Dulong, with 36 votes to Fresnel's 20. But in May 1823, after another vacancy was left by the death of Jacques Charles, Fresnel's election was unanimous. In 1824, Fresnel was made a chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (Knight of the Legion of Honour).
Meanwhile, in Britain, the wave theory was yet to take hold; Fresnel wrote to Thomas Young in November 1824, saying in part:
> I am far from denying the value that I attach to the praise of English scholars, or pretending that they would not have flattered me agreeably. But for a long time this sensibility, or vanity, which is called the love of glory, has been much blunted in me: I work far less to capture the public's votes than to obtain an inner approbation which has always been the sweetest reward of my efforts. Doubtless I have often needed the sting of vanity to excite me to pursue my researches in moments of disgust or discouragement; but all the compliments I received from MM. Arago, Laplace, and Biot never gave me as much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretical truth and the confirmation of my calculations by experiment.
But "the praise of English scholars" soon followed. On 9 June 1825, Fresnel was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. In 1827 he was awarded the society's Rumford Medal for the year 1824, "For his Development of the Undulatory Theory as applied to the Phenomena of Polarized Light, and for his various important discoveries in Physical Optics."
A monument to Fresnel at his birthplace was dedicated on 14 September 1884 with a speech by Jules Jamin, Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences. "" is among the 72 names embossed on the Eiffel Tower (on the south-east side, fourth from the left). In the 19th century, as every lighthouse in France acquired a Fresnel lens, every one acquired a bust of Fresnel, seemingly watching over the coastline that he had made safer. The lunar features Promontorium Fresnel and Rimae Fresnel were later named after him.
## Decline and death
Fresnel's health, which had always been poor, deteriorated in the winter of 1822–1823, increasing the urgency of his original research, and (in part) preventing him from contributing an article on polarization and double refraction for the Encyclopædia Britannica. The memoirs on circular and elliptical polarization and optical rotation, and on the detailed derivation of the Fresnel equations and their application to total internal reflection, date from this period. In the spring he recovered enough, in his own view, to supervise the lens installation at Cordouan. Soon afterwards, it became clear that his condition was tuberculosis.
In 1824, he was advised that if he wanted to live longer, he needed to scale back his activities. Perceiving his lighthouse work to be his most important duty, he resigned as an examiner at the École Polytechnique, and closed his scientific notebooks. His last note to the Académie, read on 13 June 1825, described the first radiometer and attributed the observed repulsive force to a temperature difference. Although his fundamental research ceased, his advocacy did not; as late as August or September 1826, he found the time to answer Herschel's queries on the wave theory. It was Herschel who recommended Fresnel for the Royal Society's Rumford Medal.
Fresnel's cough worsened in the winter of 1826–1827, leaving him too ill to return to Mathieu in the spring. The Académie meeting of 30 April 1827 was the last that he attended. In early June he was carried to Ville-d'Avray, 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) west of Paris. There his mother joined him. On 6 July, Arago arrived to deliver the Rumford Medal. Sensing Arago's distress, Fresnel whispered that "the most beautiful crown means little, when it is laid on the grave of a friend." Fresnel did not have the strength to reply to the Royal Society. He died eight days later, on Bastille Day.
He is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. The inscription on his headstone is partly eroded away; the legible part says, when translated, "To the memory of Augustin Jean Fresnel, member of the Institute of France".
## Posthumous publications
Fresnel's "second memoir" on double refraction was not printed until late 1827, a few months after his death. Until then, the best published source on his work on double refraction was an extract of that memoir, printed in 1822. His final treatment of partial reflection and total internal reflection, read to the Académie in January 1823, was thought to be lost until it was rediscovered among the papers of the deceased Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), and was printed in 1831. Until then, it was known chiefly through an extract printed in 1823 and 1825. The memoir introducing the parallelepiped form of the Fresnel rhomb, read in March 1818, was mislaid until 1846, and then attracted such interest that it was soon republished in English. Most of Fresnel's writings on polarized light before 1821—including his first theory of chromatic polarization (submitted 7 October 1816) and the crucial "supplement" of January 1818—were not published in full until his Oeuvres complètes ("complete works") began to appear in 1866. The "supplement" of July 1816, proposing the "efficacious ray" and reporting the famous double-mirror experiment, met the same fate, as did the "first memoir" on double refraction.
Publication of Fresnel's collected works was itself delayed by the deaths of successive editors. The task was initially entrusted to Félix Savary, who died in 1841. It was restarted twenty years later by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Of the three editors eventually named in the Oeuvres, Sénarmont died in 1862, Verdet in 1866, and Léonor Fresnel in 1869, by which time only two of the three volumes had appeared. At the beginning of vol. 3 (1870), the completion of the project is described in a long footnote by "J. Lissajous."
Not included in the Oeuvres are two short notes by Fresnel on magnetism, which were discovered among Ampère's manuscripts. In response to Ørsted's discovery of electromagnetism in 1820, Ampère initially supposed that the field of a permanent magnet was due to a macroscopic circulating current. Fresnel suggested instead that there was a microscopic current circulating around each particle of the magnet. In his first note, he argued that microscopic currents, unlike macroscopic currents, would explain why a hollow cylindrical magnet does not lose its magnetism when cut longitudinally. In his second note, dated 5 July 1821, he further argued that a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot, whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism. He was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magnetism are even smaller than molecules . The two notes, together with Ampère's acknowledgment, were eventually published in 1885.
## Lost works
Fresnel's essay Rêveries of 1814 has not survived. While its content would have been interesting to historians, its quality may perhaps be gauged from the fact that Fresnel himself never referred to it in his maturity.
More disturbing is the fate of the late article "Sur les Différents Systèmes relatifs à la Théorie de la Lumière" ("On the Different Systems relating to the Theory of Light"), which Fresnel wrote for the newly launched English journal European Review. This work seems to have been similar in scope to the essay De la Lumière of 1821/22, except that Fresnel's views on double refraction, circular and elliptical polarization, optical rotation, and total internal reflection had developed since then. The manuscript was received by the publisher's agent in Paris in early September 1824, and promptly forwarded to London. But the journal failed before Fresnel's contribution could be published. Fresnel tried unsuccessfully to recover the manuscript. The editors of his collected works were also unable to find it, and admitted that it was probably lost.
## Unfinished business
### Aether drag and aether density
In 1810, Arago found experimentally that the degree of refraction of starlight does not depend on the direction of the earth's motion relative to the line of sight. In 1818, Fresnel showed that this result could be explained by the wave theory, on the hypothesis that if an object with refractive index $n$ moved at velocity $v$ relative to the external aether (taken as stationary), then the velocity of light inside the object gained the additional component $\,v(1-1/n^2)$. He supported that hypothesis by supposing that if the density of the external aether was taken as unity, the density of the internal aether was $n^2$, of which the excess, namely $\,n^2{-}1\,$, was dragged along at velocity $v$, whence the average velocity of the internal aether was $\,v(1-1/n^2)$. The factor in parentheses, which Fresnel originally expressed in terms of wavelengths, became known as the Fresnel drag coefficient.
In his analysis of double refraction, Fresnel supposed that the different refractive indices in different directions within the same medium were due to a directional variation in elasticity, not density (because the concept of mass per unit volume is not directional). But in his treatment of partial reflection, he supposed that the different refractive indices of different media were due to different aether densities, not different elasticities. The latter decision, although puzzling in the context of double refraction, was consistent with the earlier treatment of aether drag.
In 1846, George Gabriel Stokes pointed out that there was no need to divide the aether inside a moving object into two portions; all of it could be considered as moving at a common velocity. Then, if the aether was conserved while its density changed in proportion to $n^2$, the resulting velocity of the aether inside the object was equal to Fresnel's additional velocity component.
### Dispersion
The analogy between light waves and transverse waves in elastic solids does not predict dispersion—that is, the frequency-dependence of the speed of propagation, which enables prisms to produce spectra and causes lenses to suffer from chromatic aberration. Fresnel, in De la Lumière and in the second supplement to his first memoir on double refraction, suggested that dispersion could be accounted for if the particles of the medium exerted forces on each other over distances that were significant fractions of a wavelength. Later, more than once, Fresnel referred to the demonstration of this result as being contained in a note appended to his "second memoir" on double refraction. No such note appeared in print, and the relevant manuscripts found after his death showed only that, around 1824, he was comparing refractive indices (measured by Fraunhofer) with a theoretical formula, the meaning of which was not fully explained.
In the 1830s, Fresnel's suggestion was taken up by Cauchy, Baden Powell, and Philip Kelland, and it was found to be tolerably consistent with the variation of refractive indices with wavelength over the visible spectrum for a variety of transparent media . These investigations were enough to show that the wave theory was at least compatible with dispersion; if the model of dispersion was to be accurate over a wider range of frequencies, it needed to be modified so as to take account of resonances within the medium .
### Conical refraction
The analytical complexity of Fresnel's derivation of the ray-velocity surface was an implicit challenge to find a shorter path to the result. This was answered by MacCullagh in 1830, and by William Rowan Hamilton in 1832.
Hamilton went further, establishing two properties of the surface that Fresnel, in the short time given to him, had overlooked: (i) at each of the four points where the inner and outer sheets of the surface make contact, the surface has a tangent cone (tangential to both sheets), hence a cone of normals, indicating that a cone of wave-normal directions corresponds to a single ray-velocity vector; and (ii) around each of these points, the outer sheet has a circle of contact with a tangent plane, indicating that a cone of ray directions corresponds to a single wave-normal velocity vector. As Hamilton noted, these properties respectively imply that (i) a narrow beam propagating inside the crystal in the direction of the single ray velocity will, on exiting the crystal through a flat surface, break into a hollow cone (external conical refraction), and (ii) a narrow beam striking a flat surface of the crystal in the appropriate direction (corresponding to that of the single internal wave-normal velocity) will, on entering the crystal, break into a hollow cone (internal conical refraction).
Thus a new pair of phenomena, qualitatively different from anything previously observed or suspected, had been predicted by mathematics as consequences of Fresnel's theory. The prompt experimental confirmation of those predictions by Humphrey Lloyd brought Hamilton a prize that had never come to Fresnel: immediate fame.
## Legacy
Within a century of Fresnel's initial stepped-lens proposal, more than 10,000 lights with Fresnel lenses were protecting lives and property around the world. Concerning the other benefits, the science historian Theresa H. Levitt has remarked:
> Everywhere I looked, the story repeated itself. The moment a Fresnel lens appeared at a location was the moment that region became linked into the world economy.
In the history of physical optics, Fresnel's successful revival of the wave theory nominates him as the pivotal figure between Newton, who held that light consisted of corpuscles, and James Clerk Maxwell, who established that light waves are electromagnetic. Whereas Albert Einstein described Maxwell's work as "the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton," commentators of the era between Fresnel and Maxwell made similarly strong statements about Fresnel:
- MacCullagh, as early as 1830, wrote that Fresnel's mechanical theory of double refraction "would do honour to the sagacity of Newton".
- Lloyd, in his Report on the progress and present state of physical optics (1834) for the British Association for the Advancement of Science, surveyed previous knowledge of double refraction and declared:
> The theory of Fresnel to which I now proceed,—and which not only embraces all the known phenomena, but has even outstripped observation, and predicted consequences which were afterwards fully verified,—will, I am persuaded, be regarded as the finest generalization in physical science which has been made since the discovery of universal gravitation.
In 1841, Lloyd published his Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light, in which he described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted."
- William Whewell, in all three editions of his History of the Inductive Sciences (1837, 1847, and 1857), at the end of Book , compared the histories of physical astronomy and physical optics and concluded:
> It would, perhaps, be too fanciful to attempt to establish a parallelism between the prominent persons who figure in these two histories. If we were to do this, we must consider Huyghens and Hooke as standing in the place of Copernicus, since, like him, they announced the true theory, but left it to a future age to give it development and mechanical confirmation; Malus and Brewster, grouping them together, correspond to Tycho Brahe and Kepler, laborious in accumulating observations, inventive and happy in discovering laws of phenomena; and Young and Fresnel combined, make up the Newton of optical science.
What Whewell called the "true theory" has since undergone two major revisions. The first, by Maxwell, specified the physical fields whose variations constitute the waves of light. Without the benefit of this knowledge, Fresnel managed to construct the world's first coherent theory of light, showing in retrospect that his methods are applicable to multiple types of waves. The second revision, initiated by Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, supposed that the energy of light waves was divided into quanta, which were eventually identified with particles called photons. But photons did not exactly correspond to Newton's corpuscles; for example, Newton's explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index, which photons do not. Neither did photons displace waves; rather, they led to the paradox of wave–particle duality. Moreover, the phenomena studied by Fresnel, which included nearly all the optical phenomena known at his time, are still most easily explained in terms of the wave nature of light. So it was that, as late as 1927, the astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi declared Fresnel to be "the dominant figure in optics."
## See also
## Explanatory notes |
17,465,070 | Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations | 1,170,717,542 | 2006 book | [
"2006 non-fiction books",
"Books about micronationalism",
"Gazetteers"
]
| Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations is an Australian gazetteer about micronations published by Lonely Planet. Written by John Ryan, George Dunford and Simon Sellars, the book's profile of micronations offers information on their flags, leaders, currencies, date of foundation, maps and other facts. It was published in September 2006, and later re-subtitled Guide to Self-Proclaimed Nations. The book is written in a light-hearted and humorous tone.
## Background and publication
Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations—later re-subtitled Guide to Self-Proclaimed Nations—was published in September 2006 by Lonely Planet as a "fully illustrated, humorous mock-guidebook" to micronations. Micronations are political entities that claim independence and mimic acts of sovereignty as if they were a sovereign country, but lack any legal recognition. They are classified separately from states with limited recognition or quasi-states as they lack the legal basis in international law for their existence.
The book is authored by Australian journalist John Ryan, freelance journalist George Dunford, and writer and blogger Simon Sellars. Ryan, the principal author of the book, became interested in the concept of micronationalism upon his discovery of the Principality of Hutt River in Australia. After researching further into the topic and finding out about the Conch Republic in the United States, Ryan became even more inspired by micronations, saying "as I started looking into the movement, I just saw that there were these strange little nations popping up all over the place."
According to Sellars in an interview with BLDGBLOG, he overheard Ryan discussing the idea for a book about micronations with one of the Lonely Planet staff while he was working as an editor for Lonely Planet. Upon hearing it had been approved, Sellars pestered Ryan for several months until Ryan agreed to accept him as a co-writer. Dunford was later invited by Ryan as well. Sellars—who founded his own micronation when he was a kid—became interested in the concept because of his fondness of parallel universes in fiction—"anything that distorts or reflects or comments on the 'real' world – or sets up an alternative world".
## Content
Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations has 160 pages, and includes an introduction and a full index. It also includes illustrations and maps. The book's profile of micronations offers information on their flags, leaders, currencies, date of foundation, maps and other facts. Sidebars throughout the book provide overviews of such topics as coinage and stamps, as well as a profile of Emperor Norton. Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations is split into three parts: "Serious Business", which includes what the authors equate as serious secessionist attempts, "My Backyard, My Nation", which includes local and jocular micronations, and "Grand Dreams", which includes largely imaginative micronations.
Below are the micronations featured in the book:
### Serious Business
- Principality of Sealand, United Kingdom
- Freetown Christiania, Denmark
- Principality of Hutt River, Australia
- Kingdom of Lovely, United Kingdom
- Whangamomona, New Zealand
- Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands, Australia
- Kingdom of Elleore, Denmark
- Sovereign Military Order of Malta (not a micronation)
- Akhzivland, Israel
- , United States
- Principality of Seborga, Italy
- Freedonia, United States
- Great Republic of Rough and Ready, United States
### My Backyard, My Nation
- Republic of Molossia, United States
- , United States
- , United Kingdom
- Empire of Atlantium, Australia
- North Dumpling Island, United States
- Republic of Kugelmugel, Austria
- Grand Duchy of the Lagoan Isles, United Kingdom
- Kingdom of Vikesland, Canada
- , Finland and Romania
- , Germany
- Ibrosian Protectorate, United Kingdom
- , United Kingdom
- Kingdom of Talossa, United States
- Aerican Empire, United States
- Republic of Cascadia, United States and Canada
- Principality of Trumania, United States
- Kingdom of Redonda, Antigua and Barbuda
### Grand Dreams
- Grand Duchy of Westarctica, Antarctica
- , fictional
- , United States
- Republic of Rathnelly, Canada
- Republic of Saugeais, France
- , France
- Nutopia, non-territorial
- Conch Republic, United States
- Le Royaume de L'Anse-Saint-Jean, Canada
- Ladonia, Sweden
- Dominion of British West Florida, United States
- Grand Duchy of Elsanor, United States
- Principality of Snake Hill, Australia
- , Finland
## Critical reception
Peter Needham, writing for The Australian, states that "Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-made Nations provides plenty of information [on micronations]", calling it "amusing" and adding "[this] 160-page book takes a tongue-in-cheek look at the world's oddest little countries: some created as intricate pranks, others born of discontent, to avoid paying tax or just for fun." Needham appreciated the work's "light-hearted" approach to micronations and politics, and joked that "the prospect of a listing in future editions is an added incentive to those contemplating creating countries."
Jo Sargent of The Geographical Magazine was more negative, writing that while he thinks Lonely Planet produces excellent guidebooks, Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations was more limited to eccentric micronational leaders rather than their micronations, saying "although mildly diverting, the format simply doesn't work." He adds that, although the book is amusing at first and there are some interesting entries, "there are only so many 'wacky' young men deciding that life is unfair and setting up a nation in their bedroom that one can stomach before your patience begins to wear thin."
Jesse Walker, writing in The American Conservative, notes that Lonely Planet's book is more whimsical than Erwin Strauss' How to Start Your Own Country (1979), and has a greater focus on "charming, tongue-in-cheek projects like Molossia". Though he found two factual errors, Walker calls the book "entertaining reading," adding that "despite such minor errors, I assume it would be useful as an actual guide as well, if you ever decide to take a whirlwind tour of the world's micronations."
## See also
- Bibliography of works on micronationalism
- List of micronations |
69,438 | Crewe Alexandra F.C. | 1,173,779,209 | Association football club in England | [
"1877 establishments in England",
"Association football clubs established in 1877",
"Crewe",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"EFL Trophy winners",
"English Football League clubs",
"Football clubs in Cheshire",
"Football clubs in England",
"Lancashire League (football)",
"The Central League",
"The Combination",
"West Midlands (Regional) League"
]
| Crewe Alexandra Football Club is a professional association football club based in the town of Crewe, Cheshire, England. The team compete in League Two, the fourth level of the English football league system. Nicknamed 'The Railwaymen' because of the town's links with the rail industry, and also commonly known as 'The Alex', they have played at Gresty Road since 1906. The supporters' fiercest rivalry is with Staffordshire-based side Port Vale.
The club was formed in 1877 as the football division of Crewe Alexandra Cricket Club, named after Princess Alexandra. Crewe reached the FA Cup semi-finals in 1888 and were then a founding member of the Football League Second Division in 1892. In 1921, the club was invited to join the newly created Football League Third Division North, where they stayed for the next 37 years before being placed in the new Fourth Division in 1958. The team achieved their first promotion after finishing third in 1962–63. Crewe were immediately relegated but were promoted again in 1967–68; they again lasted just one season in the Third Division.
Crewe spent 20 years struggling in the fourth tier before their fortunes were revived under Dario Gradi, manager for 24 years from 1983. He twice led the team to promotion to the third tier, and after two unsuccessful play-off campaigns, won the 1997 Second Division play-off final to win a place in the Football League First Division. After an absence of 101 years, they played at this second tier level―renamed the Football League Championship before the start of the 2004–05 season―for eight of the following nine seasons. Gradi encouraged Crewe to play attractive, technical football and built a reputation for developing young players, with future England internationals David Platt, Danny Murphy, Seth Johnson and Dean Ashton all emerging at the club. After Crewe dropped down to the fourth tier again in 2009, Steve Davis led the club to promotion to the third tier via the play-offs in 2012. In 2013, the club won its first and only Football League Trophy. Under David Artell, manager from January 2017, Crewe returned to third tier League One in 2020 and finished 12th in the 2020–21 season, but were relegated in 2022.
## History
### Formation and early years
Crewe Alexandra Football Club was formed in 1877 as an offshoot of Crewe Alexandra Cricket Club (established in September 1866 by Thomas Abraham and other workers at Crewe locomotive works), and named after Princess Alexandra. They were based at the Alexandra Recreation Ground in Crewe, adjacent to Crewe railway station, and played their first match against a side from Basford in North Staffordshire on 1 December 1877, drawing 1–1. In 1883, Crewe Alexandra's first match in the FA Cup was against Scottish club Queen's Park of Glasgow, losing 10–0. In February 1886, William Bell became the first Crewe player to win an international cap, playing for Wales against Ireland in Wrexham. In 1887–88, the club reached the FA Cup semi-finals, defeating Swifts, Derby County and Middlesbrough en route, before going out to Preston North End. In 1891, the football club split away from the cricket club—a step that was condemned by Francis Webb, chief engineer of the town's London and North Western Railway works, who supported the exclusion of professional sportsmen; following the schism, Webb and the LNWR said the company would 'refuse to find employment in the Crewe Works for any professional football player'. Consequently, "the football section of the Alexandra Club owed little to the LNWR..., despite the teams being closely linked to the local railway industry." On 5 March 1892, John Pearson became the first Crewe player to win an England cap, playing against Ireland in Belfast; he remains the only Crewe player capped for the full England side while playing for the club.
Crewe secretary J.G. Hall helped found the unsuccessful Combination (launched at Crewe's Royal Hotel in early 1889) and then the Football Alliance (1889–1892). When the latter merged with the Football League, Crewe were a founding member of the Football League Second Division in 1892, but lost their league status in 1896 after only four seasons—finishing third from bottom, fourth from bottom, then bottom twice—possibly due to a player budget that was a quarter of that of other clubs. The club left the Alexandra Recreation Ground shortly before the end of the 1895–96 season, and after playing at a number of different venues, including in nearby Sandbach, they moved to the first Gresty Road ground in 1897 (in 1906 the current Gresty Road ground was rebuilt to the west of the original site). Incorporated as a limited company on 29 May 1899, Crewe spent two further seasons in the second incarnation of the Combination from 1896 followed by three seasons in the Lancashire League, before competing in the Birmingham & District League for ten years. They also won the Cheshire Senior Challenge Cup in 1907 and 1910. The team spent the 1910s in the Central League, finishing second in 1913–14 and 1920–21.
Crewe rejoined the Football League in 1921; they finished 6th in their first two seasons in the Third Division North but did not finish as high again until 1931–32 and 1935–36. In October 1932, defender Fred Keenor's last Wales appearance marked Crewe's first international cap of the 20th century. Crewe's first major honours were Welsh Cup wins in 1936 and 1937; Crewe is not in Wales but English clubs, usually from border areas, participated by invitation. In 1936, Bert Swindells scored his 100th League goal for Crewe, going on to score 128 League goals for the club, a record that still stands, as well as goals in both Welsh Cup finals.
### Post-World War II
From the 1950s to the early 1980s, Crewe enjoyed only occasional success. Looking over Gresty Road, Michael Palin, in the 1980 BBC Great Railway Journeys of the World series, described Crewe as "like those other railway towns, Swindon and Doncaster, possessed of a football team which is perpetually propping up the bottom of the Fourth Division". Between 1894 and 1982, Crewe finished last in the Football League eight times, more than any other league club. On 25 December 1954, Crewe embarked on a sequence where they did not win away from home for 56 matches; the run ended with a 1–0 win at Southport on 24 April 1957. Crewe finished bottom of Division Three North three times in a row from 1955–56 to 1957–58, tallying just 28, 21 and 23 points from 46 games in each respective season. The club was placed into the newly formed Fourth Division in 1958–59.
All-time records were set against First Division Tottenham Hotspur in the FA Cup fourth round in 1960. A new record Gresty Road attendance of 20,000 saw Crewe hold Spurs to a 2–2 draw on 30 January. On 3 February, Tottenham convincingly won the replay 13–2, Crewe's record defeat. The following year, however, Jimmy McGuigan's Crewe side defeated another First Division club, Chelsea, 2–1 in the FA Cup at Stamford Bridge on 7 January 1961. Chelsea's side included former Crewe player Frank Blunstone—who scored Chelsea's goal—as well as England internationals Peter Bonetti, Jimmy Greaves and Terry Venables. Crewe were then again drawn against the eventual double-winning Spurs side, who won 5–1 in the fourth round at White Hart Lane.
#### 1960s promotions and relegations
In 1963, Crewe secured their first promotion to the Third Division, winning the season's final game against Exeter City, with Frank Lord scoring the only goal in front of a crowd of 9,807 at Gresty Road. Lord holds the record for most hat-tricks for the club with eight. The club finished in third place, behind champions Brentford and Oldham Athletic, but were relegated back to Division Four the following season. In the 1964–65 season, Terry Harkin scored a record 34 league goals for Crewe. Managed by Ernie Tagg, the club achieved promotion for a second time in 1967–68, but again spent just one season in the Third Division.
#### 1970s and early 1980s
From 1969, Crewe spent 20 years in Division Four, finishing bottom in 1971–72, 1978–79 and 1981–82, and not achieving a top half finish until 1985. In 1974, they came within two minutes of taking Aston Villa into extra time in a League Cup third round replay at Villa Park. In 1977, Tommy Lowry played his record-setting 475th and last game for the Railwaymen; he had earlier passed Peter Leigh's total of 430 appearances between 1960 and 1972. From February to September 1979, the club went a record 16 matches (15 league, one League Cup tie) without winning at Gresty Road. In December 1979, manager Tony Waddington signed the goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar who kept eight clean-sheets in his 24 matches played, and, on 5 May 1980, scored a penalty—his only professional goal—to seal a 2–0 victory over York City.
### Gradi years (1983–2011)
In June 1983, after Crewe finished second from bottom at the end of the 1982–83 season, the then club chairman Norman Rowlinson appointed Milan-born Dario Gradi as manager. Gradi looked to build an academy structure to develop players that could be sold to help fund the player development programme. Among his early transfer successes were Geoff Thomas and John Pemberton (both signed from Rochdale and sold to Crystal Palace, in 1987 and 1988 respectively), and former Manchester United apprentice David Platt, signed in 1985 and sold to Aston Villa for £200,000 in February 1988.
Under Gradi, and despite some Crewe fans' initial reservations, Crewe played attractive, technical football and gained a reputation for developing young talent. Steve Walters became Crewe's youngest player, aged just 16 years and 119 days when he played against Peterborough United on 7 May 1988. In 1989, Crewe won their third promotion, a 1–1 draw at Tranmere Rovers enough to take both teams into the Third Division. Meanwhile, on 7 January 1989, Crewe had hosted Aston Villa—and Platt—at Gresty Road in the FA Cup third round, taking a 2–0 lead before the visitors rallied to secure a 3–2 win, with Platt netting the winner but refusing to celebrate against his former club. A year later, on 6 January 1990, Crewe were again drawn away at Chelsea in the third round; Walters gave Crewe a first-half lead at Stamford Bridge before Chelsea equalised in the 82nd minute to force a replay which they won 2–0. In March 1990, Crewe defender Paul Edwards was sold to Coventry City for £350,000; he was later named in the 1989-1990 Third Division PFA Team of the Year, Crewe's first player to feature in the awards.
Crewe were relegated in 1991. However, despite further player sales―defender Rob Jones joined Liverpool for £300,000, then Craig Hignett was sold for a club record £500,000 to Middlesbrough―the club reached the 1993 Third Division play-off final but lost against York City at Wembley. Crewe then gained promotion in 1994 after a final day victory at Chester City. In the same year, Neil Lennon became the first Crewe player to win an international cap since Fred Keenor in 1932 when he was selected to play for Northern Ireland against Mexico. Crewe twice lost in play-off semi-finals, to Bristol Rovers in 1995 and Notts County in 1996, then returned to Wembley in the 1997 Division Two play-off final, securing a 1–0 victory over Brentford to put the club back in the second tier for the first time since 1896.
#### Second tier survival
Crewe achieved their highest finishing position, 11th, in the 1997–98 First Division season. Gradi kept his team in the division until 2002, despite a matchday income on which many more lowly clubs could not survive. Boosting the finances, notable player sales included Lennon (to Leicester City for £750,000), Danny Murphy (to Liverpool for an initial fee of £1.5m), and Seth Johnson (to Derby County for £3m). Gradi celebrated his 1,000th game in charge of Crewe on 20 November 2001.
After one season in the Division Two the team were promoted back to Division One at the end of the 2002–03 season, having finished in second place—Crewe's first runner-up position—with Rob Hulse scoring 22 league goals, and being named in the PFA Team of the Year, ahead of a £750,000 transfer to West Bromwich Albion. Crewe retained their Division One place in the 2003–04 season, during which assistant manager Neil Baker took temporary charge between 22 September and 17 October 2003 while Gradi underwent heart surgery. At the start of the 2004–05 season, Crewe were rated one of the teams most likely to be relegated from the newly renamed 'Championship'. In the event, they put in a good showing in the first half of the season, but after selling Dean Ashton to Norwich City for £3 million in the January 2005 transfer window, Crewe failed to win until the final match of the season, when they defeated Coventry City 2–1 to avoid relegation on goal difference. However, they were relegated to League One (level three) the following season. Nonetheless, Crewe were named the "Most Admired Club" in the 2006 Football League Awards.
#### Stepping back
By the summer of 2007, Gradi was the longest-serving manager in English league football, having completed 24 years in sole charge of the club. Crewe announced that, from 1 July 2007, Gradi would take up a new role as the club's technical director while gradually allowing newly appointed first-team coach Steve Holland control of the team. Holland's first season was a disappointment as the club narrowly avoided relegation, finishing 20th with 50 points. Ahead of his second season, he spent half a million pounds on new signings, while striker Nicky Maynard joined Bristol City for £2.25 million. However, despite a positive pre-season, Crewe took only nine points from their first 16 games. The board sacked Holland as first team coach in November 2008, and re-appointed Gradi as caretaker manager.
On 24 December 2008, former Stoke City manager Gudjon Thordarson was appointed as Holland's successor. He made a promising start, and received the February 2009 Manager of the Month award (the first Crewe manager to win the award), but the team suffered a poor end-of-season run, not winning for 10 games, and were relegated to League Two. On 2 October 2009, after nine months in charge and another poor run of results, Thordarson was sacked, and Gradi was reinstated as caretaker manager. Despite lingering close to the playoff places for the majority of the season, another run of poor form saw the club finish 18th. Crewe improved to 10th in the 2010–11 season, during which Gradi won the January 2011 Manager of the Month. In November 2011, Gradi finally stepped down as manager and returned to his previous role as director of football focusing on youth development.
### 2011 to present day
Steve Davis was appointed manager in the same month. Previously manager of nearby Nantwich Town, Davis had been appointed assistant manager in June 2009, replacing former assistant Neil Baker. Davis immediately led the team to a 16-match unbeaten run in early 2012 up to 7th position, earning the club a play-off place. Crewe defeated Southend United in the two-legged semi-final, extending the unbeaten run to a club record 18 matches and securing a play-off final against Cheltenham Town at Wembley on 27 May 2012 which they won 2–0; the goalscorers were academy graduates Nick Powell and Byron Moore.
Before the 2012–13 season, Crewe sold Powell to Manchester United, and on transfer deadline day captain Ashley Westwood joined Aston Villa. However, with new Academy players coming into the first team, Crewe returned to Wembley to win the Football League Trophy, beating Southend United 2–0 in the final in April 2013. In the league, Crewe finished in mid-table; they ended the season by fielding a team whose starting line-up were all Crewe Academy graduates.
In March 2014, John Bowler, Crewe chairman since 1988, was honoured with the Contribution to League Football Award at The Football League Awards. Dario Gradi had earlier won the same award, in 2011. In the 2015 New Year Honours, Bowler was awarded an MBE for services to football; Gradi was presented an MBE in January 1998.
Crewe retained their place in League One in the 2013–14 season, but started the following season poorly, gaining four points from the first 11 League games. Some sustained runs of better results pulled the club out of the relegation places. The team needed at least a home draw against Bradford City to secure safety but lost 1–0 and had to rely on results elsewhere to ensure League One football for another year, finishing two points above the bottom four in 20th.
The 2015–16 season started in a similar pattern, with the team winning just two of their first 15 league games. They also crashed out of the FA Cup in the first round against non-league Eastleigh, forcing Davis to defend his position as the 'right man' for the job. Crewe's relegation to League Two was confirmed following a 3–0 defeat at local rivals Port Vale, with five games remaining. After an initially promising start to the following season, Crewe's form slumped during the final months of 2016, and on 8 January 2017, Davis was sacked as Crewe manager.
Former Crewe defender and Academy operations manager David Artell replaced Davis. Artell maintained the flow of Academy players and, as Crewe improved to 15th at the end of the 2017–18 season, he emulated Davis in selecting another starting line-up who were all Crewe Academy graduates.
After 36 years involvement with the club, Gradi, 78, announced his retirement from all positions at Crewe Alexandra on 7 October 2019. In February 2020, further changes to the club's board were announced with local businessman Stuart Whitby and former Nantwich Town chairman Tony Davison joining the board following a £1.75m buy-out of majority shareholder Norman Hassall. The Railwaymen Supporters Society also raised £250,000, to earn the right for a Crewe fans' representative on the club's new board.
On the pitch, Artell's progress since 2017 culminated in Crewe vying for promotion for much of the 2019–20 season, with the club top of the table (ahead of Swindon Town on goal difference) when the football season was suspended in March 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic. On 9 June, Crewe's promotion to League One was confirmed, but Swindon were crowned League Two champions on the basis of average points per game. Artell was selected as League Two Manager of the Year in the League Managers Association Awards—becoming the first Crewe manager to win such an annual award—and two Academy graduates, Perry Ng and Charlie Kirk, were named in the PFA League Two Team of the Year. Crewe finished 12th in League One at the end of the 2020–21 season – the club's highest finish since relegation from the Championship in 2006.
However, the following season was "one of the worst" seasons in Crewe's modern history; the club was relegated with four games still to play after a 2-0 defeat at Doncaster Rovers on 9 April 2022. Two days later, Crewe parted company with Artell; assistant manager Alex Morris was appointed interim manager, becoming the permanent manager on 28 April 2022. However, just over six month later, on 4 November 2022, Morris, winless in nine games, stepped down as manager "for compassionate reasons" and reverted to assistant manager. Lee Bell became interim manager and on 1 December 2022 was given the job on a permanent basis, managing the side to 13th place at the end of the 2022–23 season.
## Stadiums
### Alexandra Recreation Ground
Until 1896, Crewe played at the Alexandra Recreation Ground, located just to the north of the modern-day Gresty Road. After playing at various venues in 1896 and 1897, including in nearby Sandbach, the club returned to the same area of Crewe, adjacent to Crewe railway station, to play at the first Gresty Road ground, located to the south-east of the original stadium. In 1906 the ground was demolished to make way for some new railway lines, and a new Gresty Road stadium was built on a site directly to the west.
### Gresty Road
The pitch runs approximately east to west, with teams playing either west towards Gresty Road or east towards the railway station. The main stand has always been situated on the south side of the ground. Until the 1990s, the main stand was a wooden structure, built in 1932 after a fire destroyed the original stand, offering the ground's only (wooden) seating plus a standing area―'The Paddock'―while the other three sides were all standing terraces. This configuration saw the club's record attendance when 20,000 people watched the FA Cup third round tie against Spurs in 1960.
During the 1990s, phased modernisation saw open terracing at the "Railway End" (at one time a roughly formed "ash bank" terraced with sleepers) replaced by a new family stand in 1993. The "Gresty Road End" (then the main away supporters area) was also replaced by an all-seater stand in 1995; and the partially-covered northern stand (the home supporters' "Pop Side") was replaced by an all-seater stand in 1996–97. Completion of the final phase in 2000, including construction of a new £5.2 million main stand, saw some reorganisation of seating allocations. Away fans are currently accommodated in the stand along the northern touchline, with the option of additional capacity in the family stand for particularly large visiting contingents; Crewe hosted its first crowd of over 10,000 in the now all-seater stadium in 2000 with the record attendance of 10,092 when Crewe played Manchester City on 12 March 2002. The Gresty Road End and main stand are solely for home supporters.
In June 2021, the club agreed a £0.5m naming rights deal with long-term shirt sponsor Mornflake; the ground will be called the "Mornflake Stadium" until 2023–24. Also known as the Alexandra Stadium, it has an all-seated capacity of 10,153. It features four stands:
- The "Boughey Stand", or main stand, seats 6,809 spectators and also has a directors area and media seating, and houses the club's offices, team changing rooms, hospitality facilities, ticket office and club shop.
- The "Rhino Safety Stand", also known as the "Gresty Road End", accommodates 982 spectators and 4 disabled spectators. A bar for home supporters is situated to the north of this stand.
- The "Blue Bell Family Stand", also known as the "Railway End", accommodates 682 spectators.
- The "Whitby Morrison Ice Cream Van Stand", formerly the "Pop Side", accommodates 1,680 away spectators, and also houses the ground's matchday video filming facilities. In July 2021, Whitby Morrison announced a 99-year extension of its stand sponsorship at Crewe.
Should the ground require expansion, the most likely change will be redevelopment of the Ice Cream Van Stand to become a two-tiered stand.
## Club identity
Since the late 1890s, the main (home) Crewe playing strip has featured a red or predominantly red top, usually with white shorts (though red and black shorts have also been briefly adopted) and red socks. The team played in white shirts and blue shorts from 1886 to 1896, but have since played mainly in red and white. The red shirts earned the early nickname of the "Robins", though the club is more commonly referred to as the "Alex" or the "Railwaymen" (reflecting the club's railway works founders, the town's associations with the railway industry, and the club's proximity to Crewe railway station).
Crewe's away colours have varied. Blue, white or blue-and-white shirts have been the most commonly adopted, but during the 21st century, the club has also occasionally played in other colours; black with a gold trim was adopted for the 2021–2022 season, then light and dark blue vertical stripes the following season.
The town's crest appeared on the team's shirts in the 1958–59 season. This included a lion―associated with the Marquess of Crewe―holding a cogged wheel, a larger six-spoked railway wheel, and two wheatsheaves reflecting south Cheshire's agricultural connections. This was replaced in 1975 by a simpler badge with a lion holding a railway wheel―a motif borrowed from British Railways―on a circle containing the words 'Crewe Alexandra Football Club' arranged around a football. The current badge, adopted in 1998, features a lion perched on a football, encircled by a laurel and the club's name; it dropped the railway wheel, prompting some Crewe fans to demand the club "bring back the wheel". The club's mascot is also a lion: Gresty the Lion appears on matchdays and in other community activities.
The current shirt sponsor is cereals supplier Mornflake―also based in Gresty Road―whose logo has appeared on the shirts since 2005, and is set to continue through to 2023–24.
## Supporters and rivalries
### Attendances
Crewe is the third largest town in Cheshire: its built-up area had a total population of 76,437 in 2021. Founded by employees of the railway works, the club drew many of its supporters from the works, as well as residents from more rural areas surrounding the town. The club's location next to Crewe railway station has also helped supporters travel to and from games at Gresty Road. From the 1920s through to the 1960s, attendances typically averaged around 6,000, but local derbies could more than double crowds: the visit of Stoke City on 26 October 1926 attracted 15,102, for example, while Port Vale drew 17,883 on 21 September 1953, Crewe's record league crowd. Cup matches against major clubs such as Spurs also drew large crowds (a record 20,000 in 1960). However, league attendances dwindled in the 1970s and 1980s, when seasonal averages of under 2,000 were recorded four times, with 1986-87 being lowest: 1,817; just 1,009 watched a 1–1 draw with Peterborough United on 4 February 1986. Crewe's resurgence from the mid-1980s under Gradi boosted local interest, with 5,000-plus attendances increasingly common, even as Gresty Road's transition to an all-seater stadium began to restrict numbers in the late 1990s; average attendance peaked at 7,741 in 2004 during Crewe's years in the Championship. League Two crowds before the COVID-19 pandemic shutdown in 2020 averaged 4,580, just above their all-time average, 4,576.
Ticket prices at Gresty Road are broadly in line with other clubs' rates for all-seated areas. In the BBC's 2017 Price of Football survey, Crewe's tickets for individual League Two games cost a maximum of £22 (15 other clubs charged higher prices); the most expensive Crewe season ticket cost £325 (only one other club, Accrington Stanley, charged less for its most expensive season tickets), and its lowest priced season ticket (£280) was in the mid-range for the division. For the 2021–2022 season in League One, matchday tickets cost a maximum of £25.
### Rivalries
Crewe's main rivals are fellow English Football League team Port Vale. As of June 2023, the clubs have played 81 games since 1892 (8 games against Burslem Port Vale); overall, Crewe have won 20 games, Port Vale have won 38, with the teams drawing 23 games. The rivalry (known by some since the 1980s as the A500 Derby) intensified after the millennium, when both clubs were in Leagues One and Two, with close encounters sometimes resulting in violence and arrests. On 22 February 2014, Crewe beat Vale 3–1, at Vale Park and there was trouble before, during and after the game, with several arrests made and flares thrown on the pitch. In January 2015 at Vale Park, Crewe won 1–0 to seal their first league double over Port Vale, and two arrests were made at the game, with minor disturbances between rival fans after the match. Six arrests were made at Gresty Road during the 22 September 2018 meeting between the two sides. A 2019 study ranked the Port Vale-Crewe Alexandra rivalry as the 14th biggest rivalry in English professional football.
Crewe also maintain smaller rivalries with Wrexham, Shrewsbury Town, Stoke City and traditional local Cheshire derbies with Macclesfield, Chester City, Stockport County and Tranmere Rovers. The Railwaymen's rivalry with Stockport intensified somewhat in 2009 when Stockport all but relegated Crewe from League One, after beating them 4–3 at Edgeley Park. Crewe then returned the favour on 30 April 2011, when they beat County 2–0 at Gresty Road, confirming County's relegation to non-League football.
### Songs and music
Crewe's fans were the first to sing the song "Blue Moon"―also sung by fans of Manchester City―(with lyrics that do not quite match the Rodgers and Hart original) and said to be a response to the gloomy days of the 1950s and 1960s, or reflecting an old joke that the team only wins 'once in a blue moon', ie, rarely. During the 1990s, one Crewe supporter, classically trained musician Richard Sutton, was known for taking a trumpet to games, playing occasional fanfares such as the theme from Star Wars during matches. The Crewe-based dance trio Dario G were named after Dario Gradi.
### Railwaymen Supporters Society
Crewe supporters often sing a song featuring the line "We are the Railwaymen". Aggregating and formalising several former Crewe supporters groups, and supported by the national Football Supporters' Association, the independent Railwaymen Supporters Society was established in 2018, and incorporated as a community benefit society on 8 July 2019. Initiatives have included a campaign, Project250, to raise £250,000 to invest in club shares and gain representation on the club's board (achieved in February 2020), and the establishment of an Ex-Players Association (Gareth Whalley is its president).
## Reputation
### Player development
As an early professional club in the late 19th century, several Crewe players achieved international selection, particularly for Wales. During the 20th century, however, Crewe had few stars. Welsh international Fred Keenor played his final league games for the club and his last international cap in 1932 was Crewe's first of the century. Some players started or developed their careers at Crewe before achieving fame elsewhere. For example, forward Frank Blunstone played 48 League games for Crewe in the early 1950s before a move to Chelsea and five England caps, Stan Bowles scored 18 Crewe goals in 51 games in the early 1970s and went on to play for Queens Park Rangers and England, and goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar played 24 Crewe matches at the start of the 1980s before moving to Liverpool.
Crewe's conscious investment in young players began in the late 1980s when then manager Dario Gradi and club chairman John Bowler got the local council to contribute towards the costs of an all-weather pitch at Gresty Road. This formed the starting point for a youth coaching facility, which by the early 1990s was coaching 120 youngsters every week. In 1995, Crewe leased a 20-acre site at Reaseheath, near Nantwich, planning a £750,000 training and player development facility largely funded by transfer sales. In 1996, Crewe received a lottery grant to develop a youth coaching facility in nearby Shavington. By 2015, player sales had generated over £20 million which had contributed to modernising Gresty Road and developing Crewe's Academy, making it the only club outside the top two divisions to have a Category Two academy club; in 2022, it was ranked in the top 10 academies in England and Wales.
Players who passed through the ranks since establishment of the Academy include England internationals Geoff Thomas and David Platt, Wales international Robbie Savage, and Northern Ireland's Neil Lennon and Steve Jones. These were all youngsters signed from other clubs, but the Academy also nurtured Crewe's own trainees – most notably England internationals Rob Jones, Danny Murphy, Seth Johnson and Dean Ashton, plus Wales midfielder David Vaughan.
### Sexual abuse scandal
On 16 November 2016, former Crewe defender Andy Woodward revealed that he had been the victim of child sexual abuse by former football coach Barry Bennell (convicted as a paedophile in the US in 1994) at the club in the 1980s. By the time club chairman John Bowler responded to the revelations, on Monday 21 November, six other individuals had contacted the police, with Woodward's Crewe teammate Steve Walters alleging he was another of Bennell's victims. Woodward criticised Crewe for failing to apologise. On 27 November 2016, a third former Crewe player, Anthony Hughes, revealed that he too had been abused by Bennell, as did Crewe trainee, later Wimbledon and Northern Ireland international Mark Williams.
Bennell was tried at Liverpool Crown Court in early 2018, and convicted of 50 offences of sexual abuse against 12 boys (and on 20 February 2018 was sentenced to 30 years in prison). After the guilty verdicts on 15 February, victims including Andy Woodward and Steve Walters read statements outside court. Crewe Alexandra expressed its "deepest sympathies" to Bennell's victims, saying it was not aware of any sexual abuse by Bennell nor had it received any complaint about sexual abuse by him before or during his employment with the club, though this has been disputed.
Walters accused Crewe of "victim blaming" in a bid to avoid compensation payouts. He and at least one other former Crewe player launched High Court damages claims of upwards of £200,000 against the club; an eight-week trial was listed to start in October 2021. On 19 March 2019, the Guardian reported Crewe Alexandra planned to contest victims' claims, but later (27 March 2019), reported an apparent U-turn in Crewe's approach; it had agreed an out-of-court financial settlement with one of Bennell's victims. Andy Woodward had unsuccessfully sued Crewe for damages in 2004.
Crewe were additionally criticised for not holding an independent review into how they dealt with historical child sex abuse allegations. In March 2018, the said that, as it had fully co-operated with police investigations, it did "not intend to commission a further independent investigation," and the police's report had also been supplied to the FA review headed by Clive Sheldon. This decision was criticised by local MP Laura Smith, by MP Damian Collins, chair of the DCMS select committee, by Crewe Town Council, and by the Professional Footballers Association's Gordon Taylor. In his final report, Sheldon said he "liaised with the Club and its lawyers with a view to suggesting other lines of enquiry that could usefully be followed up by the Club. Ultimately, the Club agreed to conduct those further enquiries, and provided me with a report setting out its conclusions."
The FA's 710-page report, published on 17 March 2021, identified failures to act adequately on complaints or rumours of sexual abuse at eight professional clubs including Crewe. Considering whether senior Crewe people knew about Bennell, Sheldon concluded they had not received specific reports of abuse. However, directors had discussed concerns about inappropriate behaviour, and the club "should have done more to check on the well-being of the boys". Following publication of the report, Crewe Alexandra apologised to all survivors of Bennell's abuse, expressing "wholehearted regret" about their ignorance of his crimes, and Gradi also apologised. With Gradi "effectively banned for life" from football for safeguarding reasons, Crewe chairman John Bowler was pressed to resign and did so on 25 March 2021. Awarded an MBE in 1998, Gradi was stripped of the award in August 2023 following a professional disbarment for failing to protect children from sexual abuse.
## Honours and achievements
League
- Second Division (level 3)
- 2nd place promotion: 2002–03
- Play-off winners: 1997
- Football League Fourth Division / League Two (level 4)
- 2nd place promotion: 2019–20
- 3rd place promotion: 1962–63, 1993–94
- 4th place promotion: 1967–68, 1988–89
- Play-off winners: 2012
Cup
- Football League Trophy
- Winners: 2012–13
- Welsh Cup
- Winners: 1935–36, 1936–37
Crewe Alexandra have never won a division title, and have only been division runners-up twice. In addition to play-off promotions, the club also achieved four promotions, all from the fourth tier, by third place finishes in 1962–63 and 1993–94 and by fourth place finishes in 1967–68 and 1988–89. Crewe's highest finishing league position was 11th in the second tier, the First Division in 1997–98.
In the major cup competitions, Crewe reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup in 1888. They have reached the third round of the League Cup ten times (1960, 1974, 1975, 1978, 1992, 1999, 2001, 2004, 2006, 2008), losing 1–0 to Aston Villa in a replay at Villa Park in 1974, and taking cup holders Manchester United into extra time at Gresty Road in 2006 before losing 2–1.
While Crewe is not in Wales, English clubs, usually from border areas, have participated by invitation in the Welsh Cup, which Crewe won twice, in 1936 and 1937. The club won the Cheshire Senior Cup 19 times up to 1998, and have won it a further three times, most recently in 2017.
## Records
Crewe's biggest league victory came against Rotherham United on 1 October 1932 in the Third Division North when they won 8–0. In the FA Cup, their biggest win was 9–1 over Northwich Victoria on 16 November 1889. The club's heaviest defeat was in the FA Cup in 1960 when they were beaten 13–2 by Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane on 30 January 1960, a game watched by 64,365: the largest crowd for a match involving Crewe. In the league, Crewe's worst performance saw them beaten 11–1 at Lincoln City on 29 September 1951 in the Third Division North.
Tommy Lowry made the most first team appearances in all competitions for Crewe: 482 between 1965 and 1977. Bert Swindells holds the record for most Crewe goals: 128, scored from 1927 to 1937, while Terry Harkin scored the most Crewe goals in a single season: 34 in 1964–65. Best match return was five goals, scored by Tony Naylor in Crewe's 7–1 league defeat of Colchester United at Gresty Road on 24 April 1993.
William Bell was the first Crewe player to win an international cap, playing for Wales against Ireland in Wrexham in February 1886. Clayton Ince, with 31 caps for Trinidad and Tobago, has won most caps while playing for Crewe. Efe Sodje is the only Crewe player to play in a World Cup Finals tournament, for Nigeria against Argentina, on 2 June 2002, and then against England on 12 June 2002, both in Japan.
Crewe's most expensive player was Rodney Jack, signed from Torquay United in August 1998 for £650,000. Crewe were reported to have received £3 million for Nick Powell when he moved to Manchester United on 2 July 2012, with options for the fee to grow to £6 million depending on appearances. Crewe also received £3 million for Seth Johnson's 1999 move to Derby County, and for Dean Ashton's move to Norwich City in 2005.
## Players
### Current squad
`(on loan from Newcastle United)`
#### Out on loan
### Former players
In 2004 the BBC's Football Focus asked fans of all professional football clubs in England and Scotland to vote for their cult hero. For Crewe, Seth Johnson won with 59% of the vote; Danny Murphy came second with 33%, and Craig Hignett third with 8%.
### Full international players
William Bell was the first Crewe player to win an international cap, playing for Wales against Ireland in Wrexham in February 1886. On 15 March 1890, three Crewe players – Alfred Davies (also Wales captain), Dick Jones and Billy Lewis – played in Wales's 3–1 defeat by England in Wrexham; Lewis scored Wales's goal, the first international goal scored by a Crewe player. John 'Jackie' Pearson became the first Crewe player to win an international cap for England, playing against Ireland in Belfast on 5 March 1892. He remains the only Crewe player capped for England while playing at the club. Donervon Daniels was the most recent Crewe player to win a full international cap; he played for Montserrat in their FIFA World Cup 2022 qualifier against US Virgin Islands on 2 June 2021.
## Management
### Managerial history
Since 1892, 27 men have managed Crewe. Dario Gradi holds the record for the most games: 1,359 first team games. Two Crewe managers have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame: Gradi in 2004 and Harry Catterick, posthumously, in 2010.
As of 2 September 2023. Only competitive matches are counted.
<sup>1</sup>As secretary-manager
<sup>2</sup>A railway clerk, John Bradburn Blomerley (also among the club's first directors in 1899, and, in 1902, chairman of the Cheshire F.A.) was secretary-manager to 1911; honorary secretary to 1925
<sup>3</sup>As sole manager. Between 22 September and 17 October 2003, Gradi underwent heart surgery. Assistant manager Neil Baker took charge of the team for this period (P6, W0, D1, L5).
<sup>4</sup>As technical director
<sup>5</sup>As first team coach
<sup>6</sup>As caretaker manager
### Coaching positions |
9,795,085 | Purico complex | 1,173,646,021 | Pleistocene volcanic complex in Chile | [
"Atacama Desert",
"Geology of Antofagasta Region",
"Landforms of Antofagasta Region",
"Pyroclastic shields",
"Stratovolcanoes of Chile"
]
| The Purico complex is a Pleistocene volcanic complex in Chile close to Bolivia, formed by an ignimbrite, several lava domes and stratovolcanoes and one maar. It is in the Chilean segment of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the four volcanic belts which make up the Andean Volcanic Belt. The Central Volcanic Zone spans Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and includes 44 active volcanoes as well as the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex, a system of large calderas and ignimbrites of which Purico is a member. Licancabur to the north, La Pacana southeast and Guayaques to the east are separate volcanic systems.
The Purico complex consists of a shield shaped volcanic structure consisting of the Purico ignimbrite and a number of secondary volcanoes that are emplaced on this volcanic shield. During the ice ages, the shield was in part covered by glaciers which have left moraines. Purico is the source of the Purico ignimbrite, which has a volume of about 80–100 cubic kilometres (19–24 cu mi). After the emplacement of the Purico ignimbrite, a number of lava domes and stratovolcanoes developed on the ignimbrite shield. The maar of Alitar is still fumarolically active. In historical times, sulfur was mined on Purico. Today, the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory lies on the ignimbrite shield.
## Geography and structure
The Purico complex lies in Chile close to the border between Bolivia and Chile, east of the town of San Pedro de Atacama and northeast of Toconao. The volcanic complex can be seen from San Pedro de Atacama. A road runs along the northern and eastern margin of the Purico complex, and a gas pipeline crosses the complex as well. The existence of the Purico complex was established on the basis of Landsat images.
### Regional
Licancabur volcano was constructed on ignimbrites from Purico just north of the complex. Guayaques lies east of Purico, the La Pacana caldera is located southeast of the complex, and La Pacana's Filo Delgado ignimbrite has buried part of the Purico ignimbrite. The known volcanoes Lascár and El Tatio are found at larger distances from Purico.
Purico is part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), a belt of volcanoes that runs along the western margin of South America between 14° and 28° southern latitude. This 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) long belt is one of four separate volcanic belts that make up the Andean Volcanic Belt. They are separated from each other by gaps where no recent volcanism occurs. The CVZ segment includes 44 active systems, 18 minor volcanic centres and over 6 large ignimbrite or caldera systems. One of these volcanoes, Ojos del Salado, is the highest volcano in the world. The largest historical eruption in the CVZ occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina in Peru while Lascár is its most active member, with a major eruption in 1993.
### Local
Purico is a circular shield with a diameter of 15–25 kilometres (9.3–15.5 mi), whose slopes descend away from a centre at an elevation of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). This shield forms a plateau, which is known as the Chajnantor Plateau, and which contains further flat areas such as Llano de Chajnantor, Pampa El Vallecito and Pampa La Bola. There is no evidence that a caldera exists there, unlike in many other volcanoes of this type. To the west, close to the margin of the Salar de Atacama, the shield drops down to a bajada. A north-south trending system of fractures and conspicuous normal faults cuts across the western margin of the Purico complex.
On top of this shield, a complex of lava domes and lavas reaches elevations of over 5,800 metres (19,000 ft) above sea level; the vent of the ignimbrite may be buried beneath this complex. This complex forms approximately a 10 by 20 kilometres (6.2 mi × 12.4 mi) wide semicircle open to the southwest around the centre of the shield, which may reflect the existence of a ring fault on which the individual centres were emplaced.
Clockwise starting from the west this semicircle includes 5,016 metres (16,457 ft) high Cerro Negro (), Cerro Purico, "dacite dome D" and 5,639 metres (18,501 ft) high El Cerillo which is also known as Cerro Chajnantor (), 5,703 metres (18,711 ft) high Cerro El Chascon (), the 5,262 metres (17,264 ft) high Cerro Aspero ( and the 5,462 metres (17,920 ft) high Cerro Putas () to the south. All these domes (with the exception of the pancake-like "dacite dome D") have conical shapes, and Aspero, El Cerillo and El Chascon appear to be post-glacial in age.
The Chascon dome is constructed by lava flows and has a well preserved summit crater, while Cerro Purico is a stratovolcano and also known as Cerro Toco (). Additional more subdued structures in the principal complex are 5,058 metres (16,594 ft) high Cerro Agua Amarga () just southwest of El Chascon and the Cordon Honor with Cerro Purico Sur in the "opening" of the semicircle. Lahars and debris flows from the volcanoes have covered parts of the ignimbrite shield with gravels. A meltwater-fed spring on Cerro Toco is known as Aguada Pajaritos, and a small lake Laguna de Agua Amarga is found south of Chascon. Presently, the Purico complex forms the drainage divide between the Salar de Atacama and the Salar de Pujsa. The 5,130 metres (16,830 ft) high Macon stratovolcano (), Alitar maar () and 5,346 metres (17,539 ft) high Alitar volcano () lie to the south of the main complex. Alitar maar is located is 500 metres (1,600 ft) wide and 50 metres (160 ft) deep.
## Geology
West of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at rates of 9–7 centimetres per year (3.5–2.8 in/year). This subduction process along with that of the Antarctic Plate beneath the South American Plate farther south is responsible for volcanism in the Andean Volcanic Belt.
Volcanic activity in the region of the Central Volcanic Zone has been ongoing for 200 million years, but with temporal and local variations; 25 million years ago for example it was centered farther east and later moved west. About 23 million years ago, large scale ignimbritic activity commenced in the region with the emplacement of the Oxaya Formation, followed by the Altos de Pica Formation 17-15 million years ago. However, effusive activity of andesitic composition dominated volcanism until the late Miocene.
### Regional
Purico appears to be part of a group of large, caldera-forming volcanic centres that erupted dacitic ignimbrites, a group that is known as the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex. This group includes the Cerro Guacha, Cerro Panizos, Coranzulí, La Pacana, Pastos Grandes and Vilama centres that cluster around the tripoint between Argentina, Bolivia and Chile. The arid climate of this region means that most volcanic systems are well preserved with little erosion.
This complex is underpinned by a magma body at depths of 15–35 kilometres (9.3–21.7 mi), where arc magmas interact with the crust to form the secondary magmas later erupted by the volcanoes of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex. This magma body has been imaged with seismic tomography as a sill-like body and has been named the "Altiplano-Puna magma body".
Ignimbritic activity in such systems is episodic, being interrupted by periods with lower volume "steady state" volcanism. The eruption of the Purico ignimbrite is the youngest large ignimbrite eruption in the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex; the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex presently is in such a "steady state" stage, but the presence of active geothermal system indicates that magmatic activity is still ongoing.
### Local
Outcrops in the region range in age from Paleozoic to Holocene. The Purico complex formed on top of older ignimbrites such as the Puripicar ignimbrite in the north, the Atana and the La Pacana ignimbrites farther south. The neighbouring La Pacana caldera between 4.5 and 4.1 million years ago erupted some of these ignimbrites including the Atana ignimbrite. Occasionally Purico is considered part of the La Pacana system.
### Composition
The Purico complex has erupted various different magmas, ranging from the dacitic Purico ignimbrite over rhyolitic pumices contained in the ignimbrite to the andesitic-dacitic post-ignimbrite volcanics. Dacite is the dominant component and forms a crystal-rich potassium-rich suite. Varying amounts of phenocrysts occur in the Purico complex rocks; the minerals they are formed of include augite, biotite, clinopyroxene, hornblende, hypersthene, iron oxides, oligoclase, orthopyroxene, plagioclase, quartz and titanium oxides.
Additionally, mafic xenoliths are found in the Purico ignimbrite; such xenoliths are a common finding in volcanic arc rocks. They are even more common in Chascon rocks, where they might reflect the occurrence of mafic magma in the feeder system prior to the formation of Chascon.
Some physical properties of the Purico magmas have been inferred from the chemistry and petrology of the erupted rocks. The dacites had temperatures of about 750–810 °C (1,380–1,490 °F) while the andesites and rhyolites reached higher temperatures, up to 800–880 °C (1,470–1,620 °F). Water contents ranged from 3.2 to 4.8% by weight, while carbon dioxide concentrations were low throughout.
## Climate and vegetation
The climate at Purico is cold (mean temperatures −3 – −4 °C (27–25 °F)), the air thin because of the high elevation and ultraviolet radiation is high. There is little precipitation in the area (about 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year) on the upper parts of the shield, decreasing to less than 10 millimetres per year (0.39 in/year) close to the Salar de Atacama), which mainly happens during the summer months as a consequence of the South American monsoon. Snow also falls during winter but winter snow mainly evaporates while summer snow melts. This dry climate is due to the combined effects of the subtropical ridge, the Humboldt Current in the Pacific Ocean and the rain shadow exercised by the Andes, but it was in the past interrupted by wet periods.
The dry climate and high elevation mean that vegetation is scarce in the region, with cacti such as Echinopsis atacamensis and grasses occurring at lower elevations. The little vegetation that is present displays an altitudinal zonation with a lower "Prepuna" with shrubs and succulents, a middle "Puna" with grasses and shrubs and a "high Andean steppe" with bunch grass. A report in 1993 stated that red-brown cacti and brown grass grew around the foot of Purico. Conversely, the soils on the Purico complex contain a diverse population of microbes which have to tolerate extreme environmental conditions. Among these are the bacteria Amycolatopsis vastitatis, Lentzea chajnantorensis, Micromonospora acroterricola, Micromonospora arida, Micromonospora inaquosa, Modestobacter altitudinis, Modestobacter excelsi, Nocardiopsis deserti and Streptomyces aridus which were first isolated at the Purico complex. Some of these yield pharmacologically interesting compounds.
Increased moisture availability during the ice ages caused the development of glaciers on Purico; at times, an ice cap with outlet glaciers covered an area of 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi)-250 square kilometres (97 sq mi) at 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) elevation on Purico. Apparently three different stages of glaciation occurred, the third between 30,000–25,000 years ago, the second between 50,000–60,000 years ago and the first over 100,000 years ago. Moraines associated with Lake Tauca appear to be either small or nonexistent. These glaciations have left moraines on Purico which extend for many kilometres at altitudes of 4,400–4,600 metres (14,400–15,100 ft), sometimes descending as far down as 4,200 metres (13,800 ft). The moraines reach heights of 10 metres (33 ft) on the eastern side of Purico and 2–5 metres (6 ft 7 in – 16 ft 5 in) on its western side. These moraines are covered with boulders and accompanied by striated surfaces and erratics. Penitentes still occur on Purico to this day.
## Eruptive history
The Purico complex is the source of the major Purico ignimbrite, which was emplaced at the time of the Jaramillo geomagnetic reversal. It was originally called Cajon ignimbrite and attributed to an area northwest of Purico known as Chaxas. Also, the Toconao ignimbrite was originally attributed to the Purico complex, but now the La Pacana caldera is considered to be its source.
The Purico ignimbrite itself covers a surface area of 1,500 square kilometres (580 sq mi) over the whole complex, and its volume has been estimated to be 80–100 cubic kilometres (19–24 cu mi) with an additional 0.4 cubic kilometres (0.096 cu mi) contributed by tephra fall deposits. The ignimbrite is 250 metres (820 ft) thick and becomes thinner westward, with more distal sectors reaching thicknesses of 25 metres (82 ft). Potassium-argon dating has yielded ages between 1,380,000 ± 70,000 and 870,000 ± 520,000 years ago for the Purico ignimbrite. The 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) large "dacitic dome D" has an age of 980,000 ± 50,000 and may thus have formed at the same time as the ignimbrites. The emplacement of the Purico ignimbrite was part of a pulse of activity in the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex 1 million years ago.
The Purico ignimbrite contains three flow units, the two Lower Purico Ignimbrites and the Upper Purico Ignimbrite. Their thicknesses differ; the Upper ignimbrite is 10–12 metres (33–39 ft) thick while the two lower ones together reach an average thickness of 30 metres (98 ft), with a maximum of 80 metres (260 ft). The lowermost Lower Purico Ignimbrite is one single flow. The upper Lower Purico Ignimbrite is more heterogeneous, starting with a base surge, a pumice layer and then another flow unit, which is volumetrically the largest part. The Lower Purico Ignimbrite covers a surface of 800 square kilometres (310 sq mi) primarily on the western side of the Purico complex. Finally, the Upper Purico Ignimbrite is a moderately to densely welded flow that occurs particularly close to the summit of the Purico complex, where it forms six flow units that contain fiamme textures. Characteristic for the Purico ignimbrite is the so-called "banded" pumice, which consist of alternating darker mafic and brighter components, in the upper 33% of the ignimbrite. The extrusion of the Purico ignimbrite was accompanied by the eruption of large amounts of tephra, some of which fell as far as the Coastal Cordillera west of Purico.
After emplacement, the ignimbrites were modified by fluvial erosion, which formed curvilinear channels in the ignimbrites. In contrast to other ignimbrites in the region, there is little evidence of eolian erosion of the Purico ignimbrite. Eolian erosion takes much longer than fluvial erosion and it is possible that the Purico ignimbrite is too young to have been modified by wind action. Some surfaces of the ignimbrite have been affected by glaciation, giving them a smooth surface.
This structure of the ignimbrite has been explained by magma chamber processes. Prior to the Purico ignimbrite eruption, a dacitic magma chamber already existed beneath the volcano. Probably after an injection of andesitic magma, dacitic contents of the magma chamber escaped upwards and formed the lowermost Lower Purico Ignimbrite. This injection of mafic magma rapidly increased the temperature and gas content of the dacite, causing the eruption to become a violent Plinian eruption with the development of an eruption column. This phase then drew onto denser dacitic magma, causing the column to collapse and the Upper Purico Ignimbrite and the "dacite dome D" to form.
### Post-ignimbrite activity
Volcanic activity after the eruption of the ignimbrite has been subdivided into the older andesitic Purico group and the younger Chascon group. The first includes Cerro Negro, Cerro Purico, Putas and Cerro Toco which assume the structure of polygenetic volcanoes, while the latter is taken to include Aspero, El Cerillo/Chajnantor and El Chascon which are lava dome-lava flow structures. The Chascon group of domes is also the only one which contains mafic xenoliths.
The Cerro Purico and Macon volcanoes formed a short time after, and possibly even before, the ignimbrites. They are thus old volcanic centres and deeply eroded, displaying moraine deposits from glaciation and rocks which have been subject to hydrothermal alteration from fumarolic activity. Such hydrothermal alteration processes, together with desublimation of fumarolic sulfur, are also the origin of the sulfur deposits at Purico.
Aspero, Cerro El Chascon, Cerros El Negro and Putas are younger and show no evidence of glaciation. El Chascon especially may be only tens of thousands of years old, seeing as it displays both a summit crater and pristine lava flow structures. Aspero was once considered to be of Holocene age in light of it and Chascon overlying moraines; later, dates of 180,000 ± 20,000 years ago were obtained on Aspero and Chascon. Apart from these, there are no radiometric dates for post-ignimbrite volcanic structures at Purico. The Alitar volcano is considered to be of Plio-Pleistocene age. The eruptive episode that formed these centres is thus more recent than the Purico ignimbrite and may have been triggered by mafic magma being injected into the Purico system. It is also much smaller, with volumes ranging 0.36–4 cubic kilometres (0.086–0.960 cu mi).
This change in the pattern of eruptive activity from large ignimbrites to smaller domes reflects a change in the nature of the magma supply, from large volume flow that heavily interacted with the crust and gave rise to the ignimbrites to smaller volume flows in a colder and thus brittler crust and did not accumulate or interact with it in a significant way. Thus the later eruption products appear to be more primitive and less affected by crustal contamination.
### Holocene and fumarolic activity
Macon stratovolcano is considered to be of Holocene age, and Alitar maar displays active fumaroles and hot springs. There are no know historical eruptions of Alitar and there is no indication of seismic activity in the Purico area. Renewed activity at Alitar would likely be in the form of phreatic eruptions of only local significance.
The fumaroles of Alitar are concentrated in the northern and eastern parts of Alitar, while the hot springs occur in the Quepiaco creek area about 250 metres (820 ft) southwest of Alitar and consist of six separate small vents. The temperatures of the Alitar vents range between 54–57 °C (129–135 °F). Fumarolic gases are mostly water vapour, with lesser amounts of carbon dioxide, and sulfur deposition takes place. They appear to originate from both magmatic and precipitation water, with a large contribution from atmospheric air and an important role for a hydrothermal system.
## Other
Purico has been quarried for building materials, and many buildings in San Pedro de Atacama were built from rocks quarried there. As of 1984, Alitar was under investigation as a potential source of geothermal power. Two sulfur deposits occur at Purico, the first southeast of Cerro Toco and the second at Alitar. The Purico deposit in 1968 was estimated to feature 4 million tons of caliche with a grade of 50%, while the Alitar deposit in that year amounted to 1.5 million tons of caliche with a grade of 60%. In the 1950s and as recently as 1993, sulfur was mined on Purico and transported by truck to San Pedro de Atacama where it was processed. In 1993, production of sulfur amounted to 200 tonnes per month (2,400 t/a).
The Purico complex is the site of a number of astronomical observatories, including but not limited to the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array. In 1998, the Cerro Chascón Science Preserve was established on Purico, which among other things disallows mining in the area of the preserve. This Science Preserve covers most of the Purico complex.
## See also
- List of volcanoes in Chile
- Ignimbrite
- Salar de Atacama |
24,539,970 | Álvaro Domínguez (footballer, born 1989) | 1,164,363,248 | Spanish footballer | [
"1989 births",
"Atlético Madrid B players",
"Atlético Madrid footballers",
"Borussia Mönchengladbach players",
"Bundesliga players",
"Expatriate men's footballers in Germany",
"Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics",
"Footballers from Madrid",
"La Liga players",
"Living people",
"Men's association football defenders",
"Olympic footballers for Spain",
"Segunda División B players",
"Spain men's international footballers",
"Spain men's under-21 international footballers",
"Spain men's under-23 international footballers",
"Spain men's youth international footballers",
"Spanish expatriate men's footballers",
"Spanish expatriate sportspeople in Germany",
"Spanish men's footballers",
"UEFA Europa League winning players"
]
| Álvaro Domínguez Soto (; born 16 May 1989) is a Spanish former professional footballer who played as a centre back and left back during the course of his career.
He began playing professional football in 2008 when he made his debut with Atlético Madrid. Domínguez went on to play in 120 competitive games and won three major titles with the club, including two Europa League trophies. In 2012, he signed for Bundesliga club Borussia Mönchengladbach, where he made just over 100 appearances. His time in Germany was hampered by injuries, however, which ultimately forced him to retire in 2016, at the age of 27.
Prior to his retirement, Domínguez had represented Spain at various youth levels and was part of the team which was triumphant at the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. The following year he was included in the squad which took part in the 2012 Olympics in the United Kingdom and also made his debut for the senior national team.
## Club career
### Atlético Madrid
Having been released from the academy of Real Madrid as a youngster, Domínguez was signed by local rivals Atlético Madrid when he was 12 years old. In the coming years he progressed through the various youth levels at Atlético before being handed his senior debut by manager Javier Aguirre on 22 October 2008, starting in place of the injured Tomáš Ujfaluši in a 1–1 Champions League draw with Premier League team Liverpool. Four days later, he made his La Liga debut in a 4–4 draw with Villarreal at the Estadio de la Cerámica. Domínguez managed five senior appearances for the campaign but spent the majority of his first professional season with the Atlético Madrid B team in Segunda División B.
The following year, following the appointment of Quique Sánchez Flores as new club manager, Domínguez became a mainstay in the Atlético Madrid team at left back where he displaced captain Antonio López from the starting XI. López later returned to the starting line-up when Sánchez Flores opted to convert Domínguez to the centre-back position. It was also the season in which Domínguez signed his first professional contract with los Colchoneros, penning a four-year deal until June 2013. He ultimately made 46 appearances for the season across all competitions and was part of the squads which ended as runners-up in the Copa del Rey and as champions in the UEFA Europa League, where he started in a 2–1 win over Fulham.
Domínguez continued to be a fixture in the Atlético Madrid first-team the following season and in August 2010 he started and played the full 90 minutes in the team's UEFA Super Cup win over Inter Milan. He then scored his first senior goal for the club on 19 December, netting the team's second in a 3–0 La Liga win over Málaga. He scored once more for Atlético Madrid as he ended the season with 28 appearances to his name across all competitions. In the 2011–12 campaign, Domínguez was named as the third-captain for the season, behind López and vice-captain Luis Perea. On 10 September, he made his 50th league appearance for Atlético Madrid when he started in a 1–0 loss against Valencia at the Mestalla. Domínguez ultimately featured in 41 matches as the club ended the season in fifth in the league, thereby missing out on a Champions League spot. He enjoyed success in the Europa League, however, coming on as a late substitute for Arda Turan as Atlético Madrid beat fellow Spaniards Athletic Bilbao 3–0 in the final to reclaim their title.
It would be his final match for the Red and Whites, though, as at the end of the season he agreed to sign for Bundesliga club Borussia Mönchengladbach. He made 120 appearances for Atlético Madrid over the course of a four-year span, scoring six goals and earning three winners' medals. Domínguez later revealed that the club's lack of trust in academy players had contributed to his decision to sign for Gladbach.
### Borussia Mönchengladbach
On 27 June 2012, Bundesliga club Borussia Mönchengladbach completed the signing of Domínguez on a five-year contract for a fee of €8 million, bringing him in to replace the outgoing Dante. He made his league debut for the club on 1 September, starting in a 0–0 draw with Fortuna Düsseldorf. Three games later, Domínguez scored his first goal for the club, netting an extra-time equalizer in 2–2 draw against Hamburg. He ultimately made 40 appearances and scored two goals across all competitions for the season as Gladbach finished eighth in the Bundesliga.
During Gladbach's opening match of the 2013–14 season against Bayern Munich, Domínguez conceded a penalty when he handled the ball in the box. Thomas Müller's resultant penalty was saved by goalkeeper Marc-André ter Stegen but Domínguez handled again from the rebound, giving away a second penalty which was duly converted by David Alaba. Gladbach ultimately lost the match 3–1. It was an injury-disrupted season for Domínguez, though, as early in October he suffered a broken collarbone and dislocated shoulder. He managed just 22 appearances for the campaign, and 34 in the next before a spate of back injuries severely curtailed his playing time in the seasons that followed.
Having struggled throughout 2015 with back problems, playing through the pain and medicating before matches, Dominguez sought the advice Dr. Miiller-Wohlfahrt in Munich in August. The doctor was astounded that Dominguez was still playing football as X-rays and MRI scans revealed that he had three herniated disks and further complications in his spinal canal. The full extent of Domínguez's back problems, which saw him undergo two operations, was such that during his time with Gladbach he missed 88 of the 194 games the team played while he was at the club.
On 6 December 2016, after having not played a match in more than a year, Domínguez announced his retirement from all football at the age of 27 as a result of the chronic back problems he suffered from. He revealed that he had been living with a back condition for the past few years and that, despite having twice undergone surgery in an attempt to rectify the problem, had been obliged to play by Gladbach. Domínguez later admitted to Spanish news publication Marca that he was considering taking legal action against Gladbach for medical negligence, claiming that the club had failed to treat his condition appropriately. He later revealed that he would not be taking legal steps, stating that he "wants peace, not war."
## International career
### Youth
Domínguez represented Spain at various youth levels and in 2009 was called up to the Spain under-20 team for the FIFA U-20 World Cup. He was then named in Luis Milla's under-21 squad for the 2011 UEFA European Championship. He started in all of Spain's matches, partnering Sporting de Gijón's Alberto Botía in central defense, as the national team won the tournament in Denmark. The following year, Domínguez was included in the Spain squad for the 2012 Olympics alongside Atlético Madrid teammates Adrián López and Koke. Spain were eliminated early on however, after defeats to Japan and Honduras saw them knocked out of the tournament.
### Senior
On 25 August 2011, following the UEFA European Under-21 Championship, Domínguez was called up to the senior national team by coach Vicente del Bosque for matches against Chile and Liechtenstein. Domínguez failed to feature in either match but made his debut on 26 May the following year, playing 45 minutes in a 2–0 friendly win over Serbia ahead of the 2012 European Championship. He featured again four days later in Spain's 4–1 win over South Korea but ultimately missed out on a place in the final tournament squad.
## Post-playing career
In 2018, Domínguez worked in collaboration with the Spanish footballers' Association to publish a manual which aimed to help footballers better deal with their finances. In an interview with Marca, he revealed that he had once spent €15,000 in one night and that young players were not educated on how to manage their money.
## Personal life
Domínguez attended King's College in his native Madrid until he was 18-years old. As a result of the school's British curriculum, Domínguez learned to speak English fluently. Though an Atlético Madrid supporter from birth, Domínguez revealed in a 2010 interview with The Guardian that he is fan of Premier League team Chelsea, and that the club's captain John Terry was his idol.
## Career statistics
### Club
### International
Source:
## Honours
Atlético Madrid
- UEFA Europa League: 2009–10, 2011–12
- UEFA Super Cup: 2010
Spain U21
- UEFA European Under-21 Championship: 2011 |
4,412,005 | Oklahoma State Highway 8 | 1,170,178,057 | Highway in Oklahoma | [
"State highways in Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Alfalfa County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Blaine County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Caddo County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Canadian County, Oklahoma",
"Transportation in Major County, Oklahoma"
]
| State Highway 8, also abbreviated as SH-8 or OK-8, is a highway maintained by the U.S. state of Oklahoma. Because it runs mainly north–south, it has an even number (which is normal for Oklahoma state highways, but opposite from national highways). Highway 8 runs from U.S. Highway 277 in Cyril, Oklahoma to the state line south of Kiowa, Kansas, for a total length of 179.1 miles (288.2 km) The highway has two lettered spur routes.
Highway 8 dates from the creation of the state highway system in 1924. Initially a border-to-border route, it was shortened to its current extent due to encroaching U.S. highways. SH-8 has followed its current route since 1966.
## Route description
The highway begins in Cyril, at US-277 (which at the time is concurrent with State Highway 19), and immediately heads northward. Fourteen miles (23 km) later, the highway passes through Anadarko, sharing a brief overlap with US-62/SH-9. It also becomes concurrent with US-281 here, which it remains with after passing through Anadarko.
US-281 and SH-8 continue northward to meet SH-152, which they overlap for five miles (8.0 km). SH-152 splits off to the west at Binger, and US-281/SH-8 go northward through Lookeba to meet SH-37 at its western terminus in Hinton. Four miles (6.4 km) to the north, the two highways have an interchange with Interstate 40 at its milemarker 101. After this, US-281/SH-8 cross the Canadian River and begin a concurrency with U.S. Highway 270 in Geary. SH-8 splits off by itself after passing through Watonga, sixteen miles (26 km) to the north.
North of Watonga, SH-8 generally runs parallel to SH-51A and, after intersecting SH-51 in Okeene, it runs parallel to SH-58. Eleven miles (18 km) north of Okeene, SH-58 and SH-8 switch places through a 9-mile (14 km) overlap, with SH-8 ending up running to the west through Fairview and SH-58 running to the east to Ringwood.
After swapping places with SH-58, Highway 8 continues north, overlapping US-60 for nine miles (14 km), spending the last three miles (4.8 km) also signed concurrently with US-412. Eleven miles (18 km) north of this, SH-8 has a three-mile (4.8 km) concurrency with SH-45 southeast of Carmen. Through Cherokee, the Alfalfa County seat, it overlaps U.S. Highway 64 and SH-58. After US-64 splits off to the west, SH-11 joins the concurrency.
After six miles (9.7 km), SH-58 splits off to the northeast. SH-11 and SH-8 remain overlapped for seven more miles (11.3 km) before splitting off to the north. SH-8 ends seven miles (11 km) to the north of this at the Kansas state line. After crossing the state line, it becomes K-8, which soon ends at K-2 in Kiowa, Kansas.
## History
SH-8 was one of the original thirty-one state highways created on 1924-08-24. When it was created, it was a border-to-border highway, stretching from Texas to Kansas. It began at the Red River near Burkburnett, Texas. It then passed through Randlett and had a short concurrency with SH-5 west of Walters. The highway then ran through Lawton—concurring with the original SH-29—en route to Anadarko via Apache. In Anadarko, SH-8 linked up with the present highway. The remainder of the route was mostly the same as it is today.
In November 1926, AASHTO officially approved the United States Numbered Highways system. The Oklahoma Transportation Commission applied the national highways to Oklahoma's state highway system on 1926-11-26. Three U.S. highways were assigned to portions of what was then SH-8: U.S. Highway 64 was added to a segment of highway south of Cherokee, U.S. Highway 66 was added between Bridgeport and Geary, and U.S. Highway 70 was added from the Texas state line to Randlett. US-66 and 64 merely ran concurrently with SH-8. However, US-70 completely replaced the state highway, which was truncated so that its southern terminus was at US-70 in Randlett.
By 1936, several U.S. highways had been added to the system that took over parts of State Highway 8's route. US-62, added in 1930, took over the Lawton–Anadarko portion of the road. US-277 took over much of the remaining route between Randlett and Lawton. In addition, a US-70N had been created that overlaid US-277 between Randlett and the split with SH-5 west of Walters. These changes to the U.S. route system precipitated the truncation of SH-8 in 1936. On 1936-03-13, the section of the route between Anadarko and the state line was dropped. However, a new road between Anadarko and Cyril had been built; this became part of SH-8 and set the highway's southern terminus at its present location.
By the end of 1937, however, the highway's southern terminus had changed once again. On 1937-10-19, SH-8 had been truncated to Anadarko. However, on 1938-10-18, the route was extended back to the former southern terminus at Randlett; this change did not appear on the state map until the April 1941 edition. On 1941-04-14, the route was realigned to run through Cyril once again.
On 1955-09-12, SH-8 underwent a small realignment. Previously, the highway went due north from Carmen, then turned due east, running through Lambert before connecting to US-64 south of Cherokee. As a result of the 1955 realignment, SH-8 cut northeast to connect to US-64 directly, bypassing Lambert.
All of SH-8 between Randlett and Cyril was once again dropped on 1966-05-09, restoring the route to its current southern terminus at US-277/SH-19 in Cyril. No major changes to the highway have occurred since 1966.
## Spurs
- SH-8A runs from SH-8 to SH-51A, north of Watonga. Along the way, it provides access to Roman Nose State Park.
- A former SH-8A connected the highway to the town of Geronimo. When SH-8 was truncated to Cyril in 1966, it became SH-281A.
- SH-8B is a spur route from SH-8 to Aline.
## Junction list
## See also
- List of state highways in Oklahoma |
14,465,495 | Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary | 1,170,126,768 | Protected forest area in Assam, India | [
"1997 establishments in Assam",
"Nature conservation organisations based in India",
"Primate sanctuaries",
"Protected areas established in 1881",
"Protected areas established in 1997",
"Wildlife sanctuaries in Assam"
]
| The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary, formerly known as the Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary or Hollongapar Reserved Forest (Assamese: হোলোঙাপাৰ গিবন অভয়াৰণ্য), is an isolated protected area of evergreen forest located in Assam, India. The sanctuary was officially constituted and renamed in 1997. Set aside initially in 1881, its forests used to extend to the foothills of the Patkai mountain range.
Since then, the forest has been fragmented and surrounded by tea gardens and small villages. In the early 1900s, artificial regeneration was used to a develop well-stocked forest, resulting in the site's rich biodiversity. The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary contains India's only gibbons – the hoolock gibbons, and Northeastern India's only nocturnal primate – the Bengal slow loris.
The upper canopy of the forest is dominated by the hollong tree (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus), while the nahar (Mesua ferrea) dominates the middle canopy. The lower canopy consists of evergreen shrubs and herbs. The habitat is threatened by illegal logging, encroachment of human settlements, and habitat fragmentation.
## History
Hollongapar reserved forest as a potential wildlife sanctuary was identified in late 1980s during a primate survey. The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary is located in the civil district of Jorhat in Assam, India. Set aside as a "Reserve Forest" (RF) on 27 August 1881, it was named after its dominant tree species, hollong or Dipterocarpus macrocarpus. At the time, it was considered an "integral part" of the foothill forests of the Patkai mountain range.
Although the sanctuary is currently completely surrounded by tea gardens and a few small villages, it used to connect to a large forest tract that ran to the state of Nagaland. The protected area started with 206 ha (0.80 sq mi) and then shrank in 1896 as sections were de-reserved. As tea gardens began to emerge between 1880 and 1920, and villages were established during the 1960s to rehabilitate people from Majuli and adjoining areas who had lost their lands to floods, the forest became fragmented and the reserve became isolated from the foothills.
Historically, sporadic evergreen trees covered the area along with Bojal bamboos (Pseudostachyum sp.). In 1924, artificial regeneration was introduced in an attempt to develop well-stocked, even-aged forest. These plantations along with the natural vegetation subsequently created a forest stocked with a rich variety of flora and fauna (biodiversity). During the 1900s, forest areas were added to the reserve, eventually totaling 2,098.62 ha (8.1 sq mi) by 1997. However, the sanctuary remains fragmented into five distinct segments.
On 30 July 1997, in notification no. FRS 37/97/31, the sanctuary was constituted under the civil district of Jorhat and named it the "Gibbon Sanctuary, Meleng" after the only apes found in India: the hoolock gibbons (genus Hoolock). It is the only sanctuary in India named after a primate due to its distinction for containing a dense hoolock gibbon populations. On 25 May 2004, the Assam Government correctly renamed it as the "Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary" through notification no. FRP 37/97/20.
## Surrounding region
The elephants' range of this small sanctuary extends to the Dissoi Valley Reserve Forest, Dissoi Reserve Forest, and Tiru Hill Reserve Forest, which are used as dispersal areas through tea gardens (Elephas maximus). Three extensive tea gardens that belong to the estates of Dissoi, Kothalguri, and Hollonguri span the distance between the Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary and the nearest forests in Assam-Nagaland border, the Dissoi Valley Reserve Forest.
The tea gardens include Katonibari, Murmurai, Chenijan, Koliapani, Meleng, Kakojan, Dihavelleoguri, Dihingapar, Kothalguri, Dissoi and Hoolonguri. Neighboring villages include Madhupur, Lakhipur, Rampur, Fesual A (the western part), Fesual B (the eastern part), Katonibari, Pukhurai, Velleoguri, Afolamukh, and Kaliagaon.
## Biota and habitat
The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary is classified as "Assam plains alluvial semi-evergreen forests" with some wet evergreen forest patches. It receives 249 cm (98 in) of rainfall on average per year. Situated at an altitude between 100 and 120 m (330 and 390 ft), the topography gently slopes downward from southeast to northwest. The Bhogdoi River creates a waterlogged region dominated by semi-hydrophytic plants along the border of the sanctuary, helping to create three distinct habitat zones or micro-ecosystems in the park: the up-slope zone, the down-slope zone, and the flood-prone zone.
### Fauna
The sanctuary has a very rich biodiversity and is home to the only apes in India, the western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock), as well as the only nocturnal primate found in the northeast Indian states, the Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis).
Other primates include the stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides), northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina), eastern Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis assamensis), rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), and capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus). Also found at the sanctuary are Indian elephants, leopards (Panthera pardus), jungle cats (Felis chaus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), three types of civet, four types of squirrels, among several others. At least 219 species of bird and several types of snake are known to live in the park. Apart from that 211 species of butterflies were also reported from the Wildlife Sanctuary. The tiger (Panthera tigris) is now extirpated.
### Flora
Most of the vegetation within Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary is evergreen in character and is composed of several canopy layers.
The upper canopy consists mostly of Dipterocarpus macrocarpus rising 12 to 30 m (39 to 98 ft) and having straight trunks. Other species found in the top canopy include sam (Artocarps chaplasha), amari (Amoora wallichi), sopas (Mcheliai spp.), bhelu (Tetramels mudiflora), udal (Sterculia villosa) and hingori (Castanopsis spp.).
Nahor (Mesua ferrea) dominates the middle canopy with its spreading crown, casting fairly heavy shade over a wide area. Other species that make up the middle canopy include bandordima (Dysoxylum procerum), dhuna (Conarium resiniferum), bhomora (Terminalia belerica), ful gomari (Gmelina sp.) bonbogri (Pterospermum lanceafolium), morhal (Vatica lanceafolia), selleng (Sapium baccatum), sassi (Aqualari agolacha), and otenga (Dillenia indica).
A variety of evergreen shrubs and herbs make up the lower canopy and ground layers. The most common of these are dolu bamboo (Teinostachyum dullooa), bojal bamboo (Pseudostachyum polymorphum), jengu (Calamus erectus), jati bet (Calamus spp.), houka bet (Calamus spp.), tora (Alpinia allughas), kaupat (Phrynium imbricatum), and sorat (Laportea cremulata).
## Conservation
The isolation of the park by numerous tea gardens creates a geographic barrier for migrating animals. The growing populations of tea garden workers also threatens the habitat since many people rely on the forest for firewood, traditional medicine and food. Large quantities of leaves and grass are collected from the forests to feed cattle. During the rainy season, herbicides and pesticides from the tea gardens wash through the sanctuary.
The tea gardens are also used by elephants as a migration route to Nagaland, making them vulnerable to frequent poaching. Railway lines further divide the park, stranding a single group of gibbons in the smaller fragment. Illegal logging and the encroachment by local people employed by the tea gardens degraded the habitat quality. |
1,025,010 | Ricardo Arjona | 1,172,930,305 | Guatemalan singer (born 1964) | [
"1964 births",
"Guatemalan male singer-songwriters",
"Guatemalan men's basketball players",
"Guatemalan people of Spanish descent",
"Guatemalan singer-songwriters",
"Latin Grammy Award winners",
"Latin music songwriters",
"Living people",
"People from Sacatepéquez Department",
"Ricardo Arjona",
"Rodven Records artists",
"Sony BMG Norte artists",
"Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala alumni",
"Warner Music Latina artists"
]
| Edgar Ricardo Arjona Morales (born 19 January 1964), known as Ricardo Arjona (), is a Guatemalan singer and songwriter. He is one of the most successful and best-selling Latin American artists of all time, with more than 20 million records sold. He is often called El Animal Nocturno (The Nocturnal Animal), thanks to his breakthrough success with his fourth studio album, which bears the same name. His music ranges from ballads to Latin pop, rock, pop rock, Cuban music, and more recently a cappella performances and a mixture of Tejano music and Norteño music, and Latin sounds. Arjona is noted for his lyrical style, and often addresses topics such as love, sexuality, violence, racism and immigration.
As of 2016, Arjona had released sixteen studio albums, one live album, nine compilation albums and forty-three singles. Four Arjona albums reached number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums, and ten reached number one in Argentina. Four albums had charted on the Billboard 200. Four singles had reached number one on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and seven had done the same on Latin Pop Songs. His work earned him numerous awards and accolades, including one Grammy Award, one Latin Grammy Award, the Latin Heritage Award as well as awards from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers; a silver and golden torch and two silver seagulls from the 2010 Viña del Mar International Song Festival, two Billboard Latin Music Awards, and a "Latin Trajectory of the Year" Award at the Orgullosamente Latino Awards of 2010.
## Early years and personal life
Edgar Ricardo Arjona Morales was born on 19 January 1964, in Jocotenango, Guatemala, to parents Ricardo Arjona Moscoso and Mimi Morales de Arjona. He spent most of his childhood in Guatemala City, where he began his musical instruction. At age twelve, he participated in the contest "Festival Infantil Juventud 74" with "Gracias al Mundo", a song composed by his father, finally winning the event. Although he initially enrolled in architecture and engineering at the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (USAC), he graduated with a degree from the School of Communication Sciences. In the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, he met Puerto Rican Leslie Torres and had two children with her: Adria and Ricardo. They separated in 2005. As of 2010, Arjona began his current love relationship with the venezuelan model Deisy Arvelo, with whom he has a child: Nicolas.
## Sports career
Arjona was a talented basketball player who played for Leones de Marte and TRIAS. He toured Central America as a member of the Guatemala national basketball team. Until recently, he held the record for the most points scored (78) in a single game by a Guatemalan. He also taught at a primary school (called Santa Elena III), where he claimed to have spent six hours giving lessons and the rest of the day playing football. This earned him a visit from a Ministry of Education representative, who was sent to evaluate his pupils. The representative found that the students' education was actually above average. In 1988, he became the basketball coach of a boys' school (called Instituto Don Bosco).
## Music career
### 1980s: Beginnings and early breakthrough
Arjona began his musical career at age 21, when he signed with the now defunct Guatemalan record label, Discos de Centroamérica, S.A., and distributed by PolyGram, and released his debut album Déjame Decir Que Te Amo in 1985. The label attempted to portray Arjona as a stereotypical Latin lover. The title track was released as a single, "Déjame Decir Que Te Amo". This album failed to chart, but received moderate praise from critics, with Allmusic awarding it three stars out of five. Because of his negative experience recording the album and its commercial failure, he decided to abandon music to teach school. At age 24, Arjona reversed course and sought the opportunity to represent his country in the OTI Festival with the song "Con Una Estrella En El Vientre". The sessions immediately following this decision produced the song "S.O.S Rescátame". His second studio album, Jesús, Verbo No Sustantivo brought him commercial and critical success across Latin America and the U.S. and became a best-seller in many Central American territories.
### 1990s: International breakthrough, Si El Norte Fuera El Sur and Sin Daños a Terceros
Arjona started the new decade as a regular in the Mexican telenovela (soap opera) "Alcanzar una Estrella" (English translation: Reaching a Star), which assisted him in becoming a known singer throughout Latin America. After joining Sony Music in 1990 he released Del Otro Lado del Sol, one of his least successful albums. That year, he started composing songs for other artists, such as Yuri's "Detrás de Mi Ventana", for her album Nueva era (1993). The song became a hit, reaching No.1 on the US Hot Latin Songs chart for three weeks in 1994. He later covered the song in his compilation album, Trópico (2009), alongside Melina León. Animal Nocturno, Arjona's fourth studio album, was released in 1993. The album contained the hit singles "Mujeres" (No. 6 on Latin Songs) and "Primera Vez" (No. 6 on Latin Songs) and received thirteen platinum and one diamond certifications. Animal Nocturno sold 500,000 copies in 1994, and carried Arjona to fame along with his work on the Mexican telenovela Alcanzar Una Estrella, which allowed him to showcase his songwriting and singing skills.
He confirmed his reputation with the release of his fifth studio album, Historias. The album sold 2 million copies throughout Latin America and received twenty-seven platinum and two diamond certifications, including quadruple Platinum in Argentina. Historias reached No. 43 on Top Latin Albums and included the hit singles "Te Conozco" (No. 3 on Billboard Latin Songs) and "Señora De Las Cuatro Décadas" (No. 7 on Latin Songs). The Allmusic review by Jason Birchmeier awarded the album 4.5 stars stating that "If you were to pick only one Arjona album for your collection that wasn't a greatest-hits compilation, this should be the one. Historias was a career-defining success for Arjona." His fourth and fifth studio albums were the best-selling of his career.
In 1996, he released his sixth studio album, Si El Norte Fuera El Sur. This was the first album in which Arjona ventured beyond the theme of love to explore nationalism and globalization, among other sociopolitical topics. Its four singles were "Si El Norte Fuera El Sur" (No. 9 on Latin Pop Songs), whose main theme is the relationship between the United States and Latin America, "Tu Reputación" (No. 18 on Latin Songs, No. 2 on Latin Pop Songs), "Me Enseñaste" (No. 18 on Latin Pop Songs), and "Ella y Él" (No. 24 on Latin Songs, No. 8 on Latin Pop Songs). Birchmeier awarded the album 4.5 stars stating "All in all, it's Arjona's third classic album in a row, each distinct from its predecessor." Billboard named it the Rock Album of the Year in 1997. Si El Norte Fuera El Sur received multiple Platinum certifications in the United States and Argentina.
In 1998, he released his seventh studio album, Sin Daños a Terceros. Terry Jenkins from Allmusic, on his review of the album, awarded it 4 stars, writing that "Sin Daños a Terceros continues Ricardo Arjona's streak of accomplished, affecting albums that spotlights both his melodic skills and his sharp social consciousness." His fourth consecutive album to receive critical success, Sin Daños a Terceros also enjoyed commercial success, debuting at No. 6 on Top Latin Albums, the first to reach the top 10, and reaching No. 3 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart. It contained the hit singles "Dime Que No" (No. 6 on Latin Songs, No. 3 on Latin Pop Songs), and "Mentiroso" (No. 22 on Latin Songs, No. 5 on Latin Pop Songs). The album received multiple Platinum certifications from the United States and Argentina. More than 700,000 copies were sold.
On 5 December 1998 and in front of a live audience of more than 100,000 people at the Hippodrome of Guatemala City, Arjona recorded his first live album, the 1999 release Vivo. The album was moderately successful, certified Gold in Mexico and Platinum in the United States and Argentina. It produced the hit "Desnuda", which became his first No. 1 on the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart. As of December 2005, Vivo had sold 243,000 copies in the United States, his best-selling album there as of that date.
### 2000–2005: Galería Caribe, world tour, Santo Pecado, hiatus and Adentro
Arjona's eighth studio album, Galería Caribe was preceded by the single "Cuándo", which became a commercial success and reached No. 1 on both Top Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs. The singer commented that the album consumed twelve months and that before starting, he "had more friends." He also mentioned he had "lived in love with Caribbean culture and music since my childhood." Birchmeier awarded the album 3 stars stating "All in all, Galería Caribe is a curious entry in Arjona's catalog that most fans can overlook without missing much." The album became his first to chart on the Billboard 200, peaking at No. 136, while charting at No. 1 on Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums. It was awarded Platinum certification in Mexico, Argentina and the US. Its three singles were "Lo Poco Que Queda De Mi"; "Mesías", which reached No. 19 on Top Latin Songs and No. 11 on the Latin Pop Songs chart, and "A Cara O Cruz", which reached No. 28 on Latin Pop Songs. To promote the album, which sold more than one million copies, Arjona embarked on his Galería Caribe Tour, which began in Mexico in 2000 and finished in 2001.
In "Mesias" Arjona talks about a character who appears "in the form of a wealthy, well-armed magnate with [...] some sinister plan for the world." Some critics argued that it was a "metaphorical attack" on capitalism and imperialism, named as "classic Arjona targets." The song became a subject of some controversy when fans and critics noted connections between its theme and the attacks of September 2001, months after the song's release, which resulted in the FBI investigating Arjona. The singer later commented that "Mesías" had no relationship to the attacks, and that the lyrics were pure coincidence. He further stated the FBI had never spoken directly to him, but instead to somebody on his team.
On 19 November 2002, Arjona released his ninth studio album, Santo Pecado, preceded by singles "El Problema", which reached No. 1 on both the Billboard Top Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts, and "Minutos", which reached No. 5 on the Top Latin Songs and No. 3 on the Latin Pop Songs charts. Santo Pecado became a commercial success, selling more than 300,000 copies just in Mexico (double Platinum), 160,000 in Argentina (quadruple Platinum) and 200,000 in the United States (double Platinum). In 2003 Arjona released Lados B, his second compilation album, including songs that were "not so commercial", and that he wanted to give a second chance at radio airplay. The album contained songs from all his past studio albums. Critical reception for the album was mixed. Birchmeier noted that it was "a misleading entry point into Arjona's catalog." Despite this, the album received a Gold certification in Mexico.
On 6 December 2005, Arjona released his tenth studio album, Adentro. This was Arjona's first collaboration with Tommy Torres. In an interview, the singer commented that he first "tested" Torres by sending him the "hookiest and darkest tracks" on the album, "Acompañame A Estar Solo" and "Iluso". Torres said that he "went all out on the first demo, hiring a full band that included a string orchestra", which grabbed Arjona's attention. The album was critically acclaimed, with Evan C. Gutiérrez from Allmusic giving it four stars out of five and commenting that "Be it for the stripped, natural production value, the confident performance of Ricardo Arjona, or his relevant-as-ever lyricism, he's got both his loyal fans and the execs at Norte smiling. While the instrumentation, performance, and overall sonic palette of this project are minimalist and unassuming, there is a depth and brilliance to them. The listener's ear does not tire or want for more, humble as Adentro is." Arjona further commented that Adentro was "a very representative and tremendously complete album," adding that "having different producers made it rich in possibilities."
Adentro became Arjona's second studio album to chart on the Billboard 200, reaching No. 126. It reached No. 3 on the Top Latin Albums and No. 2 on the Latin Pop Albums charts. Five singles were released from Adentro: the lead single, "Acompañame A Estar Solo" (No. 7 on Latin Songs, No. 1 on Latin Pop Songs), "Pingüinos En La Cama" featuring Spanish singer Chenoa (No. 44 on Latin Songs, No. 19 on Latin Pop Songs); "Mojado", featuring American Tejano/Norteño band Intocable (No. 34 on Latin Songs, No. 30 on Latin Pop Songs), "A Ti" (No. 14 on Latin Songs, No. 3 on Latin Pop Songs), and "De Vez En Mes" (No. 49 on Latin Songs, No. 16 on Latin Pop Songs). The album sold more than a million copies worldwide.
### 2006–2007: Adentro Tour and Quién Dijo Ayer
In 2006, Arjona started the first leg of his world tour, named the Adentro Tour. The tour resumed in 2007 for a second leg, in which he visited more countries. Approximately two million people attended the performances. The tour was officially closed on 14 September 2007 on the mainland city of Barquisimeto, Venezuela, during the International Fair, in front of more than 100,000 people. On 21 August 2007, Arjona released his fifth compilation album, Quién Dijo Ayer. The album is a two-disc set which contains, on the first disc, new versions of past hits, some of them including featured artists such as Marta Sánchez on "Tarde (Sin Daños a Terceros)" from Sin Daños a Terceros; Panteón Rococó on "Si El Norte Fuera el Sur", from the album of the same name; Marc Anthony on "Historia de Taxi", from Historias; Eros Ramazzotti on "A Ti", from Adentro, and Sandro on "Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo", from Historias, and which was the last song recorded by the singer, who died on 4 January 2010. Arjona's manager told Argentinian newspaper Clarín that "[the singer] had the idea of inviting Roberto [Sandro] for his album, he [Sandro] showed enthusiasm and manifested the same degree of appreciation to Arjona. It seemed to him that he [Arjona] was an artist who proclaims the same values he proclaimed." The second disc contained remastered versions of the hits on the first disc, but in their original versions. It was the second time Arjona collaborated with Torres.
The album became a critical and commercial success. Jason Birchmeier commented that "while only a couple of the new versions depart stylistically from the originals, the contemporary productions breathe new life into these songs, which should be well known by longtime fans", and reaching double Platinum in Argentina and the United States, and Platinum in Mexico. The record was additionally certified Gold in Colombia, Chile and Venezuela. Two singles were released from the album. The first, "Quién", a previously unreleased song produced by Torres, failed to reach the top 20 on Latin Songs, standing at No. 21, but reached No. 4 on the Latin Pop Songs chart. Arjona commented that "'Quién' is a story with the hurry of the desperate, is the flashback of those who end up loving alone." "Quiero", the second single, reached No.12 on the Latin Songs chart, and No.8 on the Latin Pop Songs chart.
### 2008–2010: New label, Quinto Piso, world tour and Poquita Ropa
After spending the majority of his career with Sony, and Sony BMG, Arjona signed a long-term deal with Warner Music Latina in September 2008. Iñigo Zabala, chairman of Warner Music Latin America, said "He's an artist that fits perfectly with our company," and that "We are a label that has a major catalog of songwriters and quality pop and rock from the likes of Maná, Alejandro Sanz, Laura Pausini, and now, Arjona." Arjona announced his eleventh studio album, 5to Piso, on 18 November 2008. The album was preceded by the first single, "Cómo Duele" on September, which reached No. 2 on Top Latin Songs and No. 1 on Latin Pop Songs. He moved approximately 200,000 copies of the album in the first month at retail, and it went Platinum in Mexico, the United States, Spain, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, and several other countries. It debuted at No. 1 on Top Latin Albums, becoming his second chart-topper on that list, and sold more than one million copies worldwide. The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album and a Latin Grammy Award nomination for Best Singer-Songwriter Album. The album received positive critical response. Birchmeier gave it three-and-a-half stars out of five, saying that "More typical than exceptional for Arjona at this point in his career, 5to Piso isn't as grand an album as his past few... Yet it's a great album all the same, particularly the opening run of songs that culminates with 'Cómo Duele', and it finds Arjona still at the top of his craft."
While Warner Music released his new studio album, Sony Music released a compilation album, Simplemente Lo Mejor. This led to speculation that the labels were in a fight to win Arjona's fanbase and sales. Simplemente Lo Mejor contained hits from past albums, namely Sin Daños a Terceros, Si El Norte Fuera El Sur, among others. This compilation went Gold in Mexico, and Platinum in Argentina. "Sin Ti... Sin Mi" was released as 5to Piso'''s second single, and reached No. 4 on both Top Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts. On 24 April 2009, Arjona started the Quinto Piso Tour. The tour included 123 shows in the United States, Spain, Argentina, Guatemala, Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico, among many other countries in Latin America, and ended on 18 June 2010.
The Quinto Piso Tour was one of the most successful tours made by a Latin artist, with more than one million attendees from 19 countries. He received in 2010 the "Latin Tour of the Year" Billboard Latin Music Award for the tour. On 26 February 2010, he participated in the 2010 Viña del Mar International Song Festival as one of the top performers. His performance was followed by Colombian singer Fanny Lu. One hour after Lu's performance, a 8.8 magnitude massive earthquake affected the south-central regions of Chile. On social networks, Arjona was jokingly blamed, with remarks such as "earthquakes go where he goes", making reference also to the earthquake felt in Mexico after the singer arrived. After the tour, Arjona announced his twelfth studio album, Poquita Ropa, which was released on 24 August 2010. It was preceded by the genre-mixing track "Puente", an ode to Havana, Cuba's largest and capital city. The song failed to break in the upper tier of Billboard charts, and was reportedly prohibited in Cuba. The album became his third to debut or reach No. 1 on the Top Latin Albums chart. Within two weeks of release, the album received a Gold certification in Chile, United States, Colombia and Puerto Rico; and Platinum certification in Mexico and Argentina.
The album marked a change in Arjona's sound, which he called a "stripped-down version" of his music. Birchmeier gave the album a somewhat positive review, saying that it was a "stripped-down acoustic effort" yet considered it "impressive". Two more singles were released from Poquita Ropa, "Vida", a song the singer dedicated to his recently deceased father; and "Marta", an autobiographical song whose music video stars Edith González. Both, like the lead single, failed to gain much airplay in the U.S., and charted poorly.
### 2011–2013: Independiente, Metamorfosis and world tour
Arjona released his thirteenth studio album, Independiente, on 4 October 2011. It became his fourth number-one on the Top Latin Albums chart the week ending 22 October 2011; and within a week went Gold in Chile, United States and Mexico; and Platinum in Venezuela and Argentina. Independiente was his first release as an independent artist, appearing on his Metamorfosis label, a company he created to refocus his career. The album was distributed by Warner. Billboard noted that although other groups have decided to go independent after working with major record labels, Arjona was by far the most important artist in Latin pop to do so. By the end of 2012, the album sold more than 500,000 copies in the United States and 4,000,000 copies worldwide.
"El Amor" was released in August 2011 as the lead single from Independiente; it managed to top both the US Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts. It also became a hit in the rest of Latin America, reaching number one in several countries. "Fuiste Tú", a collaboration with Guatemalan singer Gaby Moreno, followed as second single in February 2013; it reached number two on the Latin Songs chart, and topped the Latin Pop Songs chart. On May, Arjona released the music video for "Mi Novia Se Me Está Poniendo Vieja." However, "Te Quiero" was released as third single in July 2012, and became the second song off the album to top the Latin Songs chart. This made Independiente Arjona's first album to ever have two number-one hits on that chart. The song also topped the Latin Pop Songs chart, becoming the third song off the album to do so. "Si Tu No Existieras" was released in November 2012, and managed to peak at number 14 in Mexico.
To promote the album, Arjona embarked on the Metamorfosis World Tour. The show, his first since 2009's Quinto Piso Tour, comprised five legs across North and Latin America. It ran from January 2012 until March 2013 and included 102 shows in 18 countries, with an estimated attendance of over one million people. The tour opened in Toluca, where he had started all of his concert tours, and grossed more than \$13.4 million in the United States.
### 2021: Blanco y Negro tour
In September 2021, Arjona announced a 25-date North America tour, named Blanco y Negro. The tour, presented by Loud and Live, will kick off March 24, 2022 at the Kiva Auditorium in Albuquerque and conclude on June 11, 2022 at Coliseo de Puerto Rico in San Juan.
## Music and style
Arjona's primary musical style is Latin pop. He usually sings without the help of featured or additional singers. His style varied over the years, as Arjona took risks to keep his music from becoming stale. In contrast to the ballad-laden Déjame Decir Que Te Amo, on the following two albums Arjona experimented with a range of pop/rock styles. Animal Nocturno intersperses energetic rock songs among heartfelt ballads, and the instrumentation is heavy on guitar, synthesizer, and drums. On Historias, each song is stylistically distinct and the instrumentation is varied. Around two dozen instruments were used on the album, including horns, piano and Hammond B-3, and strings. On Si El Norte Fuera El Sur, he crafted a relatively low-key effort characterized by intimate songs about love, culture, and politics. Most of the songs were written in 1995 while Arjona was touring and are performed acoustically with Caribbean touches. Besides a couple of rockers, the songs are fairly even in tone and tempo.
In Galería Caribe, Arjona explored Afro-Caribbean sounds, employing traditional rhythms such as guaracha, bachata, merengue, and salsa. On Santo Pecado, Arjona explored the use of symphonic sounds on his ballads, amidst a couple of rock songs stylistically similar to those on Sin Daños a Terceros. This album included the song "La Nena (Bitácora de un Secuetro)", in which Arjona relates the story of a girl who is kidnapped by her uncle. Then, in 2005, Arjona adopted new sounds in Adentro. Gutierrez considered the instrumentation, performance, and overall sonic palette to be "minimalist" and "unassuming". On this album, Arjona included more Latin sounds, Mexican and Tejano music on "Mojado", a song about immigration; merengue and Colombian tones on "Adiós Melancolía", and some on "No Te Cambio Por Nada".
On 2007's Quién Dijo Ayer, Arjona reworked past songs to fit a new style. For example, he gave "Si El Norte Fuera El Sur" a ska beat, and performed with the aid of Panteón Rococó. He transformed "Historia de Taxi" into a salsa song, with the help of American singer Marc Anthony and pianist Sergio George, who commented that "It's been interesting to work with two figures from different music worlds on the interest of making good music." He further stated that "every time a reunion of this kind happens, it's a reason to celebrate." Birchmeier commented, "While only a couple of the new versions depart stylistically from the originals, the contemporary productions breathe new life into these songs." "Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo" was re-recorded with singer Sandro. This turned out to be the last song recorded by the latter, who died 4 January 2010. This album included three new songs. The lead single, "Quién" was written by Arjona and produced by himself and Torres. "Quiero" and "Espantapájaros" are the other two new songs on the album.
5to Piso is mainly driven by piano and strings. Exceptions are "La Bailarina Vecina", crafted with pure orchestral arrangements; and "Ni Tú Ni Yo", a Ranchera style song featuring Paquita la del Barrio. The album also includes a song called "Que Nadie Vea", in which the artist sings about homosexuality. On 5to Piso, Arjona commented that he tried to recoup the freshness of his first albums, saying that he "tried to reconcile a little with the Ricardo Arjona from the first albums to let out some of that freshness that makes so good to the songs." Poquita Ropa offered a drastic change in which Arjona minimized the number of instruments. The result was a set of a cappella performances. Arjona commented about this album that "music and women look better with little clothes." Production was handled by Arjona and Dan Warner, who also worked with Shakira, Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera. Birchmeier gave the album a somewhat positive review, saying that it was a "stripped-down acoustic effort", considering it "impressive". He also commented that Poquita Ropa "finds Arjona at his most naked, backed by spare arrangements of acoustic guitar, piano, and Hammond B-3 along with occasional touches of strings, woodwinds, and chorus vocals."
"Puente", the lead single, is the only notable exception. It lasts eight and a half minutes and is divided in three parts. The first is sung mainly with a piano. The second part is a ballad with Caribbean and Latin sounds, with some salsa and Cuban influences. The third mixes salsa and merengue, with Cuban influences. "Puente" resembles Arjona's work on Galería Caribe. This album was the first since Adentro, that Arjona worked without Torres. In Independiente, Arjona returned to his trademark sound, which Torres helped craft. David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a somewhat positive review. He compared the production values and musical style of Independiente with those of past albums Animal Nocturno and Historias, stating, "Returning fans will revel in this combination of freedom and growth, and appreciate the return of producer Tommy Torres, the man who has been behind the boards for quite a few of Arjona's most popular releases", referring precisely to the absence of Torres in the production of Poquita Ropa.
## Discography
- Déjame Decir Que Te Amo (1986)
- Jesús, Verbo No Sustantivo (1988)
- Del Otro Lado del Sol (1991)
- Animal Nocturno (1993)
- Historias (1994)
- Si El Norte Fuera El Sur (1996)
- Sin Daños a Terceros (1998)
- Galería Caribe (2000)
- Santo Pecado (2002)
- Adentro (2005)
- 5to Piso (2008)
- Poquita Ropa (2010)
- Independiente (2011)
- Viaje (2014)
- Apague la Luz y Escuche (2016)
- Circo Soledad (2017)
- Blanco (2020)
- Hecho a la Antigua (2021)
- Negro (2021)
## Awards and nominations
In 1993, he received the Rafael Álvarez Ovalle Order from the then President of Guatemala, Ramiro de León Carpio, for his international accomplishments. At USAC a library hall bears his name. His birthplace, Jocotenango, named a street after him. In 2017, Arjona received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2017 Billboard'' Latin Music Awards. Arjona is also a recipient of the Order of the Quetzal, Guatemala's highest condecoration. In August 2015, Arjona returned the Order of the Quetzal, with which he had been bestowed upon by president Otto Pérez Molina in 2013, and demanded Pérez Molina's resignation, amid accusations of corruption.
## See also
- List of best-selling Latin music artists
- List of Guatemalans
- Music of Guatemala |
9,045,269 | Cosmology of Tolkien's legendarium | 1,172,582,053 | Fictional cosmology of J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium | [
"Fictional philosophies",
"Middle-earth theology",
"Mythopoeia"
]
| The cosmology of J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium combines aspects of Christian theology and metaphysics with pre-modern cosmological concepts in the flat Earth paradigm, along with the modern spherical Earth view of the Solar System.
The created world, Eä, includes the planet Arda, corresponding to the Earth. It is created flat, with the dwelling of the godlike Valar at its centre. When this is marred by the evil Vala Melkor, the world is reshaped, losing its perfect symmetry, and the Valar move to Valinor, but the Elves can still sail there from Middle-earth. When Men try to go there, hoping for immortality, Valinor and its continent of Aman are removed from Arda, which is reshaped as a round world. Scholars have compared the implied cosmology with that of Tolkien's religion, Roman Catholicism, and of Medieval poetry such as Pearl or Dante's Paradiso, where there are three parts, Earth, Purgatory or the Earthly Paradise, and Heaven or the Celestial Paradise. Scholars have debated the nature of evil in Middle-earth, arguing whether it is the absence of good – the Boethian position, or equally as powerful as good – the Manichaean view.
## Ontology
### Creation and destruction
Eru is introduced in The Silmarillion as the supreme being of the universe, creator of all existence, including the world, Arda, and its central continent, Middle-earth. In Tolkien's invented Elvish language Quenya, Eru means "The One", or "He that is Alone" and Ilúvatar signifies "Allfather". Eru first created a group of godlike or angelic beings, the Ainur, consisting of the powerful Valar and their assistants, the Maiar. These assisted in the creation of the universe through a holy music and chanting called the Ainulindalë or "Music of the Ainur".
The "Flame Imperishable" or "Secret Fire" represents the Holy Spirit in Christian theology, the creative activity of Eru, inseparable both from him and from his creation. In the interpretation of Christopher Tolkien, it represents "the mystery of authorship", the author both standing outside of his work and indwelling in it. In the First Age, Eru alone created Elves and Men, the "Children of Ilúvatar". The race of the Dwarves was created by Aulë, and given sapience by Eru. Animals and plants were fashioned by Yavanna during the Music of the Ainur after the themes set out by Eru.
Arda ends in the apocalyptic battle of Dagor Dagorath, which Tolkien stated owed something to the Norse myth of Ragnarök.
### Eru's direct interventions
In the Second Age, Eru buried King Ar-Pharazôn of Númenor and his army when they invaded Aman in the Second Age, trying to reach the Undying Lands, which they wrongly supposed would give them immortality. He caused the Earth to take a spherical shape, drowned Númenor, and caused the Undying Lands to be taken "outside the spheres of the earth". When Gandalf died in the fight with the Balrog in The Fellowship of the Ring, it was beyond the power of the Valar to resurrect him; Eru himself intervened to send Gandalf back.
Discussing Frodo's failure to destroy the Ring in The Return of the King, Tolkien indicates in a letter that "the One" does intervene actively in the world, pointing to Gandalf's remark to Frodo that "Bilbo was meant to find the Ring, and not by its maker", and to the eventual destruction of the Ring despite Frodo's failure to complete the task.
### Fëa and hröa
Fëa and hröa are the "soul" and "body" of Elves and Men. Their hröa is made out of the matter of Arda; for this reason hröar are marred or as Tolkien wrote, contain a "Melkor ingredient". When an Elf dies, the fëa leaves the hröa, which then dies. The fëa is summoned to the Halls of Mandos in Valinor, where it is judged; however as with death their free-will is not taken away, they could refuse the summons. If allowed by Mandos, the fëa may be re-embodied into a new body identical to the previous hröa. The situation of Men is different: a Mannish fëa is only a visitor to Arda, and when the hröa dies, the fëa, after a brief stay in Mandos, leaves Arda completely.
### Unseen world
In The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien justifies the nature of the Ring by explaining that Elves and other immortal beings dwell in "both worlds" at once (the physical and the spiritual, or Unseen world) and have great power in both, especially those who have dwelt in the light of the Two Trees before the Sun and Moon; and that the powers associated with "magic" were spiritual in nature.
The Elves who stayed in Middle-earth where Melkor once was dominant, being in bodies and surrounded by things that are themselves marred and subject to decay by the influence of Melkor, created the Elven Rings out of a desire to preserve the physical world unchanged; as if it were in the Undying Lands of Valinor, home of the Valar. Without the rings they are destined to eventually "fade", eventually becoming shadows in the physical world, prefiguring the concept of Elves as dwelling in a separate and often-underground (or overseas) plane in historical European mythology. Mortals who wear a Ring of Power are destined to "fade" more rapidly, as the rings unnaturally preserve their life-span turning them into wraiths. Invisibility is a side-effect of this, as the wearer is temporarily pulled into the spirit-world.
### Men, Elves, and Paradise
Men live only in the world (Arda), are able to die from it, have souls, and may ultimately go to a kind of Heaven, though this is left vague in the legendarium. The case of Elves is different. They may inhabit the "undying lands" of Valinor, home of the Valar, effectively, according to the Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey, an "Earthly Paradise" as envisaged for Elves in the Middle English South English Legendary. Other Elves are in Middle-earth; the Elf-queen Galadriel indeed is expelled from Valinor, much like the fallen Melkor, though she is clearly good, and much like an angel. Shippey considers whether Elves have souls. He reasons that since they can not leave the world, the answer would have to be no; but given that they do not disappear completely on death, the answer must be yes. In Shippey's view, the Silmarillion resolves the puzzle, letting Elves go not to Heaven but to the halfway house of the Halls of Mandos on Valinor. The problem arises again with apparently wholly evil beings such as Orcs. Since evil cannot make, only mock, Orcs cannot have an equal and opposite morality to that of Men; but since they speak and have a moral sense (though they are unable to keep to it), they cannot be described as wholly evil or lacking sentience. All of this implies, as various scholars have commented, a hierarchy of races comparable with the Medieval great chain of being.
Several scholars have likened the implied cosmology of Tolkien's legendarium to that of his religion, Roman Catholicism, and that of Medieval poetry.
### Evil in Middle-earth
Tolkien used the first part of The Silmarillion, the Ainulindalë or creation account, to describe his thoughts on the origin of evil in his fictional world, which he took pains to comport with his own beliefs on the subject, as accounted in his Letters. In the Ainulindalë, evil represents a rebellion against the creative process set in motion by Eru. Evil is defined by its original actor, Melkor, a Luciferian figure who falls from grace in active rebellion against Eru, out of a desire to create and control things of his own. Melkor creates Orcs in mockery of Elves, or by corrupting Elves he had captured in his northern Middle-earth fortress of Udûn.
Shippey writes that Tolkien's Middle-earth writings embody the ancient Christian debate on the nature of evil. Shippey notes Elrond's Boethian statement that "nothing is evil in the beginning. Even [the Dark Lord] Sauron was not so", in other words all things were created good; but this is set alongside the Manichean view that good and evil are equally powerful, and battle it out in the world. Tolkien's personal war experience was Manichean: evil seemed at least as powerful as good, and could easily have been victorious, a strand which Shippey notes can also be seen in Middle-earth. Brian Rosebury, a humanities scholar, interprets Elrond's statement as implying an Augustinian universe, created good.
## The physical universe
### Flat-earth cosmology
Eä is the Quenya name for the material universe as a realisation of the vision of the Ainur. The word comes from the Quenya word for the existential to be in its aorist form. Thus, Eä is 'that which is'. Eä was the word spoken by Eru Ilúvatar by which he brought the universe into actuality.
The Void (Kúma, the Outer Dark) is the nothingness outside Arda. From Arda, it is accessible through the Doors of Night. The Valar exiled Melkor to the Void after his defeat in the War of Wrath. Legend foretells that Melkor will return to Arda just before the apocalyptic battle of Dagor Dagorath. The void is not to be confused with the state of non-being that preceded the creation of Eä.
When Arda (the Earth) was created, "innumerable stars" were already in existence. To provide greater light, the Valar later created the Two Lamps in Middle-earth, and when these were destroyed they created the Two Trees of Valinor. These gave rise to the Ages of the Lamps and the Years of the Trees, however the Ages of the Stars did not conclude until the creation of the Sun. During the Years of the Trees, shortly before the Awakening of the Elves, Varda created the Great Stars: "new stars and brighter" and constellations.
Ilúvatar created Arda (Earth) according to a flat Earth cosmology. This disc-like Arda has continents and the seas, and the moon and the stars revolve around it. Arda was created to be the "Habitation" (Ambar) for Elves and Men. This world was lit by two lamps created by the Valar: Illuin ('Sky-blue') and Ormal ('High-gold'). To support the lamps, Aulë forged two enormous pillars of rock: Helcar in the north of the continent Middle-earth, and Ringil in the south. Illuin was set upon Helcar and Ormal upon Ringil. Between the columns, where the light of the lamps mingled, the Valar dwelt on the island of Almaren in the midst of a Great Lake. When Melkor destroyed the Lamps, two vast inland seas (Helcar and Ringil) and two major seas (Belegaer and the Eastern Sea) were created, but Almaren and its lake were destroyed. The Valar left Middle-earth, and went to the newly formed continent of Aman in the west, where they created their home called Valinor. To discourage Melkor from assailing Aman, they thrust the continent of Middle-earth to the east, thus widening Belegaer at its middle, and raising five major mountain ranges in Middle-earth: the Blue, Red, Grey, and Yellow Mountains, plus the Mountains of the Wind. This act disrupted the symmetrical shapes of the continents and seas.
Ekkaia, also called the Enfolding Ocean and the Encircling Sea, is a dark sea that surrounds the world before the cataclysm at the end of the Second Age. During this flat-Earth period, Ekkaia flows completely around Arda, which floats on it like a ship on a sea. Above Ekkaia is a layer of atmosphere. Ulmo the Lord of Waters dwells in Ekkaia, underneath Arda. Ekkaia is extremely cold; where its waters meet the waters of the ocean Belegaer on the northwest of Middle-earth, a chasm of ice is formed: the Helcaraxë. Ekkaia cannot support any ships except the boats of Ulmo. The ships of the Númenóreans that tried to sail on it sank, drowning the sailors. The Sun passes through Ekkaia on its way around the world, warming it as it passes.
Ilmen is a region of clean air pervaded by light, before the cataclysm at the end of the Second Age. The stars and other celestial bodies are in this region. The Moon passes through Ilmen on its way around the world, plunging down the Chasm of Ilmen on its return.
### Spherical-earth cosmology
Tolkien's legendarium addresses the spherical Earth paradigm by depicting a catastrophic transition from a flat to a spherical world, in which Aman, the continent where Valinor lay, was removed "from the circles of the world". The only remaining way to reach Aman was the so called Straight Road, a hidden route leaving Middle-earth's curvature through sky and space which was exclusively known and open to the Elves, who were able to navigate it with their ships.
This transition from a flat to a spherical Earth is at the center of Tolkien's "Atlantis" legend. The Númenóreans, growing arrogant, tried to reach Valinor, thinking that being there would confer immortality; but Eru destroyed their island and reshaped the world to prevent Men from ever reaching it. Tolkien's unfinished The Lost Road suggests a sketch of the idea of historical continuity connecting the Elvish mythology of the First Age with the classical Atlantis myth, the Germanic migrations, Anglo-Saxon England and the modern period, presenting the Atlantis legend in Plato and other deluge myths as a "confused" account of the story of Númenor. The cataclysmic re-shaping of the world would have left its imprint on the cultural memory and collective unconscious of humanity, and even on the genetic memory of individuals. The "Atlantis" part of the legendarium explores the theme of the memory of a 'straight road' into the West, which now only exists in memory or myth, because the physical world has been changed. The Akallabêth says that the Númenóreans who survived the catastrophe sailed as far west as they could in search of their ancient home, but their travels only brought them around the world back to their starting points.
A few years after publishing The Lord of the Rings, in a note associated with the story "Athrabeth Finrod ah Andreth", Tolkien equated Arda with the Solar System; because Arda by this point consisted of more than one heavenly body, with Valinor on another planet, while the Sun and Moon were celestial objects in their own right.
### Planets and constellations
Tolkien developed a list of names and meanings called the Qenya Lexicon. Christopher Tolkien included extracts from this in an appendix to The Book of Lost Tales, with mentions of specific stars, planets, and constellations. The Sun was called Anor or Ur. The Moon was called Ithil or Silmo. Eärendil's Star denotes the light of a Silmaril, set on Eärendil's ship Vingilot as it flew across the sky, identified as the planet Venus. The English use of the word "earendel" in the Old English poem Christ A was found by 19th century philologists to be some sort of bright star, and from 1914 Tolkien took this to mean the morning-star. The line éala éarendel engla beorhtast "Hail, Earendel, brightest of angels" was Tolkien's inspiration. Tolkien created Sindarin names for the other planets in the solar system, as recorded in Morgoth's Ring, but these were not used elsewhere. The names were Silindo for Jupiter, Carnil for Mars, Elemmire for Mercury, Luinil for Uranus, Lumbar for Saturn, and Nenar for Neptune. The Book of Lost Tales lists Morwen as a name for Jupiter.
A few individual stars have been identified as names of real stars, whether by Tolkien, his son Christopher, or by scholars. Tolkien indicates in "Three is Company" in The Fellowship of the Ring that Borgil is a red star which appears between Remmirath (the Pleiades) and before Menelvagor (Orion). Larsen and others write that Aldebaran is the only major red star to fit the description. Helluin (also Gil, Nielluin and Nierninwa) is the dog star, Sirius, while Morwinyon is Arcturus.
As with the planets, a few major constellations are named in the Legendarium, and can be equated with real constellations seen in the Northern hemisphere. Eksiqilta (also Ekta) is Orion's Belt. Menelvagor (also Daimord, Menelmacar, Mordo, Swordsman of the Sky, Taimavar, Taimondo, Telimbektar, Telimektar, Telumehtar) is Orion the hunter and was meant to represent Túrin Turambar. Remmirath (also Itselokte or Sithaloth), "the Netted Stars", is the Pleiades or Seven Sisters. Valacirca, "the Sickle of the Valar", is Ursa Major (the Plough or Big Dipper) which Varda set in the Northern sky as a warning to Melkor. Wilwarin, meaning "Butterfly", is taken to be Cassiopeia.
## Analysis
In his 2020 book Tolkien's Cosmology, the scholar of English literature Sam McBride suggests a new category, "monotheistic polytheism", for the theological basis of Tolkien's cosmology, insofar as it combines a polytheistic pantheon with the Valar, Maiar, and beings such as Tom Bombadil, alongside an evidently monotheistic cosmos created by one god, Eru Ilúvatar. In his view, the Valar "cannot be reduced either to spirit-beings or earth-forces; they encompass both simultaneously". McBride shows how Eru's actions can be seen in the creation of the world (Eä) and the Valar through which he acts, and more ambiguously in the Third Age where the divine will is at most hinted at.
The theologian Catherine Madsen writes that Tolkien found it impossible to make his many drafts and revisions of The Silmarillion consistent with The Lord of the Rings, leaving it unpublished at his death. Its cosmology is glimpsed: she notes that the tale of Earendil is recited, and it serves as background to Frodo and Sam's use of the Phial of Galadriel, which contains some of the light of Earendil's star. In contrast, the creation myth of the Ainulindalë is not even mentioned in The Lord of the Rings, though she notes that it could have been: Beowulf offered a suitable model familiar to Tolkien, in the minstrel's telling of a creation story. By having The Lord of the Rings told from the hobbits' point of view, Madsen writes, cosmology is pushed still further into the background: the hobbits know even less of the Valar than Men do, and Eru is not mentioned at all.
Scholars have noted that Tolkien seems in later life to have hesitated and drawn back from the flat-Earth cosmology of Arda, but that it was so deeply embedded in the entire Legendarium that recasting it in what Deirdre Dawson, writing in Tolkien Studies, calls "a more rational, scientifically plausible, global shape", proved unworkable.
The Tolkien scholar Janet Brennan Croft states in Mythlore that the races of Middle-earth, Hobbits, Men, Elves, and Dwarves, are all in no doubt at all that there is "a literal cosmological battle between Good and Evil", all expecting a "final cataclysmic battle". Readers may, she writes, consider interpreting the Ainulindalë metaphorically, so that Melkor's attempts to destroy Arda, "raising the valleys, throwing down the mountains, spilling the seas—could be read as a symbolic representation of geological forces", but there is no suggestion of this in the text.
## See also
- Tolkien's maps |
10,843,334 | Delaware Route 3 | 1,160,682,857 | State highway in New Castle County, Delaware, United States | [
"State highways in Delaware",
"Transportation in New Castle County, Delaware"
]
| Delaware Route 3 (DE 3) is a state highway northeast of the city of Wilmington in New Castle County, Delaware. The route runs from Lighthouse Road/Hay Road just south of Interstate 495 (I-495) in Edgemoor north to DE 92 in Hanbys Corner. The route passes through the suburban areas of Brandywine Hundred, Bellefonte, and Arden. It intersects I-495 and U.S. Route 13 (US 13) in Edgemoor, US 13 Business (US 13 Bus.) in Bellefonte, and I-95 near Bellevue State Park. DE 3 was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s. By 1968, the route was designated between US 13 (now US 13 Bus.) north to DE 92 on Marsh Road. The route was moved to its current alignment and terminus by 1984.
## Route description
DE 3 begins at an intersection with Lighthouse Road/Hay Road just south of an interchange with I-495 in an industrial section of Edgemoor, heading northwest on four-lane divided Edgemoor Road. After the I-495 interchange, the road passes over Norfolk Southern's Shellpot Secondary and Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad lines before it intersects US 13 near businesses. Past this intersection, DE 3 enters a more residential area as a three-lane undivided road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane. The route narrows to two lanes and turns west and north, coming to an intersection with US 13 Bus. At this point, Shipley Road heads north and DE 3 turns northeast to form a concurrency with US 13 Bus. on four-lane undivided Philadelphia Pike, running through residential and commercial areas. DE 3 splits from US 13 Bus. at the northwest edge of the town of Bellefonte by turning northwest onto Washington Street Extension, a four-lane divided highway. The route passes to the southwest of Mount Pleasant High School and turns north onto Marsh Road, a four-lane undivided road that forms the western boundary of Bellevue State Park. The road becomes a divided highway as it crosses Carr Road and comes to a diamond interchange with I-95, with the ramps to and from northbound I-95 connecting to Carr Road.
Immediately after this interchange, DE 3 crosses under CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line and narrows into a two-lane undivided road that heads through suburban areas in Brandywine Hundred, passing east of a park and ride lot located at a church and running through residential neighborhoods and past a few businesses. The route gains a center left-turn lane between Wilson Road/Veale Road and Silverside Road. The road curves northeast and forms the western border of the village of Arden. DE 3 turns north again past the Grubb Road/Harvey Road intersection and leaves Arden as it runs between neighborhoods to the west and woodland to the east, ending at an intersection with DE 92 in Hanbys Corner. Marsh Road continues north past this intersection as an unnumbered road toward the Pennsylvania state line.
DE 3 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13,642 vehicles at the I-95 interchange to a low of 4,708 vehicles on Washington Street Extension.
## History
What is now DE 3 existed as a county road by 1920. Four years later, the road was upgraded to a state highway between Philadelphia Pike and Harvey Road. The state highway was extended north to Naamans Road by 1931. By 1968, DE 3 was designated to run from US 13 (now US 13 Bus.) north to DE 92 along Marsh Road. DE 4 was extended onto the Washington Street Extension portion of present-day DE 3 three years later. DE 4 was removed from Washington Street Extension by 1981. Three years later, DE 3 was extended to I-495 in Edgemoor. At this time, DE 3 was realigned to follow Washington Street Extension from Marsh Road to a concurrency with US 13 Bus., heading southwest along that route before heading southeast along Edgemoor Road.
## Major intersections
## See also |
35,431,272 | Scottish society in the Middle Ages | 1,160,873,812 | Overview of aspects of Scottish society in the Middle Ages | [
"Scottish society in the Middle Ages"
]
| Scottish society in the Middle Ages is the social organisation of what is now Scotland between the departure of the Romans from Britain in the fifth century and the establishment of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century. Social structure is obscure in the early part of the period, for which there are few documentary sources. Kinship groups probably provided the primary system of organisation and society was probably divided between a small aristocracy, whose rationale was based around warfare, a wider group of freemen, who had the right to bear arms and were represented in law codes, above a relatively large body of slaves, who may have lived beside and become clients of their owners.
From the twelfth century there are sources that allow the stratification in society to be seen in detail, with layers including the king and a small elite of mormaers above lesser ranks of freemen and what was probably a large group of serfs, particularly in central Scotland. In this period the feudalism introduced under David I meant that baronial lordships began to overlay this system, the English terms earl and thane became widespread. Below the noble ranks were husbandmen with small farms and growing numbers of cottars and gresemen (grazing tenants) with more modest landholdings. The combination of agnatic kinship and feudal obligations has been seen as creating the system of clans in the Highlands in this era. Scottish society adopted theories of the three estates to describe its society and English terminology to differentiate ranks. Serfdom disappeared from the records in the fourteenth century and new social groups of labourers, craftsmen and merchants, became important in the developing burghs. This led to increasing social tensions in urban society, but, in contrast to England and France, there was a lack of major unrest in Scottish rural society, where there was relatively little economic change.
## Early Middle Ages
### Kinship
The primary unit of social organisation in Germanic and Celtic Europe of the early Middle Ages was the kin group and this was probably the case in early Medieval Scotland. The mention of descent through the female line in the ruling families of the Picts in later sources and the recurrence of leaders clearly from outside of Pictish society, has led to the conclusion that their system of descent was matrilineal. However, this has been challenged by a number of historians who argue that the clear evidence of awareness of descent through the male line suggests that this more likely to indicate an agnatic system of descent, typical of Celtic societies and common throughout North Britain.
### Social structure
Scattered evidence, including the records in Irish annals and the visual images like the warriors depicted on the Pictish stone slabs at Aberlemno, Forfarshire and Hilton of Cadboll, in Easter Ross, suggest that in Northern Britain, as in Anglo-Saxon England, the upper ranks of society formed a military aristocracy, whose status was largely dependent on their ability and willingness to fight. Below the level of the aristocracy it is assumed that there were non-noble freemen, working their own small farms or holding them as free tenants. There are no surviving law codes from Scotland in this period, but such codes in Ireland and Wales indicate that freemen had the right to bear arms, represent themselves in law and to receive compensation for murdered kinsmen.
### Slavery
Indications are that society in North Britain contained relatively large numbers of slaves, often taken in war and raids, or bought, as St. Patrick indicated the Picts were doing, from the Britons in Southern Scotland. Slave owning probably reached relatively far down in society, with most rural households containing some slaves. Because they were taken relatively young, many slaves would have been more integrated into their societies of capture than their societies of origin, in terms of both culture and language. Living and working beside their owners in practice they may have become members of a household without the inconvenience of the partible inheritance rights that divided estates. Where there is better evidence from England and elsewhere, it was common for slaves who survived to middle age to gain their freedom, with such freedmen often remaining clients of the families of their former masters.
### Religious life
In the Early Medieval era most evidence of religious practice comes from monks and is heavily biased towards monastic life. From this can be seen the daily cycle of prayers and the celebration of the Mass. There was also the business of farming, fishing and in the islands, seal hunting. Literary life revolved around the contemplation of texts and the copying of manuscripts. Libraries were of great importance to monastic communities. The one at Iona may have been exceptional, but it demonstrates that the monks were part of the mainstream of European Christian culture. Less well recorded, but as significant, was the role of bishops and their clergy. Bishops dealt with the leaders of the tuath, ordained clergy and consecrated churches. They also had responsibilities for the poor, hungry, prisoners, widows and orphans. Priests carried out baptisms, masses and burials. They also prayed for the dead and offered sermons. They anointed the sick with oil, brought communion to the dying and administered penance to sinners. Early local churches were widespread, but since they were largely made of wood, like that excavated at Whithorn, the only evidence that survives for most is in place names that contain words for church, including cill, both, eccles and annat, but others are indicated by stone crosses and Christian burials. Beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east, these were replaced with basic masonry-built buildings.
### Education
In the Early Middle Ages, Scotland was overwhelmingly an oral society and education was verbal rather than literary. Fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there may have been filidh, who acted as poets, musicians and historians, often attached to the court of a lord or king, and passed on their knowledge in Gaelic to the next generation. After the "de-gallicisation" of the Scottish court from the twelfth century, a less highly regarded order of bards took over these functions and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century. They often trained in bardic schools, of which a few, like the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty, who were bards to the Lord of the Isles, existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland, until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century. Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century. The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language. Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education, often running schools and providing a small educated elite, who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society.
## High Middle Ages
### Ranks
The legal tract known as Laws of the Brets and Scots, probably compiled in the reign of David I (1124–53), underlines the importance of the kin group as entitled to compensation for the killing of individual members. It also lists five grades of man: King, mormaer, toísech, ócthigern and neyfs. The highest rank below the king, the mormaer ("great officer"), was probably composed of about a dozen provincial rulers. Below them the toísech (leader), appear to have managed areas of the royal demesne, or that of a mormaer or abbot, within which they would have held substantial estates, sometimes described as shires. The lowest free rank mentioned by the Laws of the Brets and Scots, the ócthigern (literally, little or young lord), is a term the text does not translate into French. There were probably relatively large numbers of free peasant farmers, called husbandmen in the south and north of the country, but fewer in the lands between the Forth and Sutherland. This changed from the twelfth century, when landlords began to encourage the formation of such a class through paying better wages and deliberate immigration. Below the husbandmen a class of free farmers with smaller parcels of land developed, with cottars and grazing tenants (gresemen). The non-free bondmen, naviti, neyfs or serfs existed in various forms of service, under terms with their origins in Irish practice, including cumelache, cumherba and scoloc who were tied to a lord's estate and unable to leave it without permission, but who records indicate often absconded for better wages or work in other regions, or in the developing burghs.
### Feudalism
The feudalism introduced under David I, particularly in the east and south where the crown's authority was greatest, saw the placement of lordships, often based on castles, and the creation of administrative sheriffdoms, which overlay the pattern of administration by local thanes. Land was now held from the king, or a superior lord, in exchange for loyalty and forms of service that were usually military. It also saw the English earl and Latin comes begin to replace the mormaers in the records. However, the imposition of feudalism continued to sit beside existing system of landholding and tenure and it is not clear how this change impacted on the lives of the ordinary free and unfree workers. In places, feudalism may have tied workers more closely to the land, but the predominantly pastoral nature of Scottish agriculture may have made the imposition of a manorial system, based on the English model, impracticable. Obligations appear to have been limited to occasional labour service, seasonal renders of food, hospitality and money rents.
### Royal women
A large proportion of the women for who biographical details survive for the Middle Ages, were members of the royal houses of Scotland, either as princesses or queen consorts. Some of these became important figures in the history of Scotland or gained a significant posthumous reputation. There was only one reigning Scottish Queen in this period, the uncrowned and short-lived Margaret, Maid of Norway (r. 1286–90). The first wife called "queen" in Scottish sources is the Anglo-Saxon and German princess Margaret, the wife of Malcolm III, which may have been a title and status negotiated by her relatives. She was a major political and religious figure within the kingdom, but her status was not automatically passed on to her successors, most of whom did not have the same prominence. Ermengarde de Beaumont, the wife of William I acted as a mediator, judge in her husband's absence and is the first Scottish Queen known to have had her own seal.
### Monasticism
Some early Scottish monasteries had dynasties of abbots, who were often secular clergy with families, as at Dunkeld and Brechin. Perhaps in reaction to this secularisation, a reforming movement of monks called Céli Dé (lit. "vassals of God"), anglicised as culdees, began in Ireland and spread to Scotland in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. Some Céli Dé took vows of chastity and poverty and while some lived individually as hermits, others lived beside or within existing monasteries. The introduction of continental forms of monasticism to Scotland is associated with Queen Margaret (c. 1045–93). She was in communication with Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and he provided a few monks for a new Benedictine abbey at Dunfermline (c. 1070). Subsequent foundations under Margaret's sons, Edgar (r. 1097–1107), Alexander (r. 1107–24) and particularly David I (r. 1124–53), tended to be of the reformed type that followed the lead set by Cluny Abbey in the Loire from the late tenth century. Most belonged to the new religious orders that originated in France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These stressed the original Benedictine virtues of poverty, chastity and obedience, but also contemplation and service of the Mass and were followed in various forms by reformed Benedictine, Augustinian and Cistercian houses. This period also saw the introduction of more sophisticated forms of church architecture that had become common on the Continent and in England, known collectively as Romanesque.
### Saints
One of the main features of Medieval Catholicism was the Cult of Saints. Saints of Irish origin who were particularly revered included various figures called St Faelan and St. Colman, and saints Findbar and Finan. Columba remained a major figure into the fourteenth century and a new foundation was endowed by William I (r. 1165–1214) at Arbroath Abbey and his relics, contained in the Monymusk Reliquary, were handed over to the Abbot's care. Regional saints remained important to local identities. In Strathclyde the most important saint was St Kentigern, whose cult (under the pet name St. Mungo) became focused in Glasgow. In Lothian it was St Cuthbert, whose relics were carried across the Northumbria after Lindisfarne was sacked by the Vikings before being installed in Durham Cathedral. After his martyrdom around 1115, a cult emerged in Orkney, Shetland and northern Scotland around Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney. One of the most important cults in Scotland, that of St Andrew, was established on the east coast at Kilrymont by the Pictish kings as early as the eighth century. The shrine, which from the twelfth century was said to have contained the relics of the saint brought to Scotland by Saint Regulus, began to attract pilgrims from across Scotland, but also from England and further away. By the twelfth century the site at Kilrymont had become known simply as St. Andrews and it became increasingly associated with Scottish national identity and the royal family. Its bishop would supplant that of Dunkeld as the most important in the kingdom and would begin to be referred to as Bishop of Alba. The site was renewed as a focus for devotion with the patronage of Queen Margaret, who also became important after her canonisation in 1250 and after the ceremonial transfer of her remains to Dunfermline Abbey, as one of the most revered national saints.
### Schools
In the High Middle Ages there were new sources of education, such as song and grammar schools. These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in the developing burghs. By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns. Early examples including the High School of Glasgow in 1124 and the High School of Dundee in 1239. There were also petty schools, more common in rural areas and providing an elementary education.
## Late Middle Ages
### Kinship and clans
The agnatic kinship and descent of late Medieval Scottish society, with members of a group sharing a (sometimes fictional) common ancestor, was often reflected in a common surname in the south. Unlike in England, where kinship was predominantly cognatic (derived through both males and females), women retained their original surname at marriage and marriages were intended to create friendship between kin groups, rather than a new bond of kinship. As a result, a shared surname has been seen as a "test of kinship", providing large bodies of kin who could call on each other’s support. This could help intensify the idea of the feud, which was usually carried out as a form of revenge for the death or injury of a kinsman. Large bodies of kin could be counted on to support rival sides, although conflict between members of kin groups also occurred.
The combination of agnatic kinship and a feudal system of obligation has been seen as creating the Highland clan system, evident in records from the thirteenth century. Surnames were rare in the Highlands until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the Middle Ages all members of a clan did not share a name and most ordinary members were usually not related to its head. At the beginning of the era, the head of a clan was often the strongest male in the main sept or branch of the clan, but later, as primogeniture began to dominate, it was usually the eldest son of the last chief. The leading families of a clan formed the fine, often seen as equivalent in status to Lowland gentlemen, providing council to the chief in peace and leadership in war. Below them were the daoine usisle (in Gaelic) or tacksmen (in Scots), who managed the clan lands and collected the rents. In the Isles and along the adjacent western seaboard, there were also buannachann, who acted as a military elite, defending the clan lands from raids and taking part in attacks on clan enemies. Most of the followers of the clan were tenants, who supplied labour to the clan heads and sometimes act as soldiers. In the early modern era they would take the clan name as their surname, turning the clan into a massive, if often fictive, kin group.
### Structure
From 1357 onwards parliaments began to be referred to as the Three Estates, adopting the language of social organisation that had developed in France in the eleventh century. It was composed of the clergy, nobles and burgesses, (those that pray, those that fight and those that work). This marked the adoption of a commonplace view of Medieval society as composed of distinct orders. Within these estates there were ranks for which the terminology was increasingly dominated by the Scots language and as a result began to parallel that used in England. This consciousness over status was reflected in military and (from 1430) sumptuary legislation, which set out the types of weapons and armour that should be maintained, and clothes that could be worn, by various ranks.
Below the king were a small number of dukes (usually descended from very close relatives of the king) and earls, who formed the senior nobility. Below them were the barons, who held baronial manors from the crown. From the 1440s, fulfilling a similar role were the lords of Parliament, the lowest level of the nobility with the rank-given right to attend the Estates. There were perhaps 40 to 60 of these in Scotland throughout the period. Members of these noble ranks, perhaps particularly those that had performed military or administrative service to the crown, might also be eligible for the status of knighthood. Below these were the lairds, roughly equivalent to the English gentlemen. Most were in some sense in the service of the major nobility, either in terms of landholding or military obligations, roughly half sharing with them their name and a distant and often uncertain form of kinship. Below the lords and lairds were a variety of groups, often ill-defined. These included yeomen, later called by Walter Scott "bonnet lairds", often owning substantial land. Below them were the husbandmen, lesser landholders and free tenants that made up the majority of the working population. Serfdom died out in Scotland in the fourteenth century, although through the system of courts baron landlords still exerted considerable control over their tenants. Society in the burghs was headed by wealthier merchants who often held local office as a burgess, alderman, bailies or as a member of the council. A small number of these successful merchants were dubbed knights for their service by the king by the end of the era, although this seems to have been an exceptional form of civic knighthood that did not put them on a par with landed knights. Below them were craftsmen and workers that made up the majority of the urban population.
### Social conflict
Historians have noted considerable political conflict in the burghs between the great merchants and craftsmen throughout the period. Merchants attempted to prevent lower crafts and guilds from infringing on their trade, monopolies and political power. Craftsmen attempted to emphasise their importance and to break into disputed areas of economic activity, setting prices and standards of workmanship. In the fifteenth century a series of statutes cemented the political position of the merchants, with limitations on the ability of residents to influence the composition of burgh councils and many of the functions of regulation taken on by the bailies. In rural society historians have noted a lack of evidence of widespread unrest of the nature of that evidenced the Jacquerie of 1358 in France and the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 in England. This was possibly because in Scotland there was relatively little of the type of change in agriculture, like the enclosure of common land, that could create widespread resentment before the modern era. Instead a major factor was the willingness of tenants to support their betters in any conflict in which they were involved, for which landlords reciprocated with charity and support. Both Highland and border society acquired reputations for lawless activity, particularly the feud. However, more recent interpretations have pointed to the feud as a means of preventing and speedily resolving disputes by forcing arbitration, compensation and resolution.
### Popular religion
Traditional Protestant historiography tended to stress the corruption and unpopularity of the late Medieval Scottish church, but more recent research has indicated the ways in which it met the spiritual needs of different social groups. Historians have discerned a decline of monastic life in this period, with many religious houses keeping smaller numbers of monks, and those remaining often abandoning communal living for a more individual and secular lifestyle. The rate of new monastic endowments from the nobility also declined in the fifteenth century. In contrast, the burghs saw the flourishing of mendicant orders of friars in the later fifteenth century, who, unlike the older monastic orders, placed an emphasis on preaching and ministering to the population. The order of Observant Friars were organised as a Scottish province from 1467 and the older Franciscans and the Dominicans were recognised as separate provinces in the 1480s.
In most Scottish burghs, in contrast to English towns where churches and parishes tended to proliferate, there was usually only one parish church, As the doctrine of Purgatory gained importance in the period, the number of chapelries, priests and masses for the dead within them, designed to speed the passage of souls to Heaven, grew rapidly. The number of altars dedicated to saints, who could intercede in this process, also grew dramatically, with St. Mary's in Dundee having perhaps 48 and St Giles' in Edinburgh over 50. The number of saints celebrated in Scotland also proliferated, with about 90 being added to the missal used in St Nicholas church in Aberdeen. New cults of devotion connected with Jesus and the Virgin Mary began to reach Scotland in the fifteenth century, including the Five Wounds, the Holy Blood and the Holy Name of Jesus. There were also new religious feasts, including celebrations of the Presentation, the Visitation and Mary of the Snows.
In the early fourteenth century the Papacy managed to minimise the problem of clerical pluralism, by which clerics held two or more livings, which elsewhere resulted in parish churches being without priests, or serviced by poorly trained and paid vicars and clerks. However, the number of poor clerical livings and a general shortage of clergy in Scotland, particularly after the Black Death, meant that in the fifteenth century the problem intensified. As a result, parish clergy were largely drawn from the lower and less educated ranks of the profession, leading to frequent complaints about their standards of education or ability. Although there is little clear evidence that standards were declining, this would be one of the major grievances of the Reformation. Heresy, in the form of Lollardry, began to reach Scotland from England and Bohemia in the early fifteenth century. Lollards were followers of John Wycliffe (c. 1330–84) and later Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415), who called for reform of the Church and rejected its doctrine on the Eucharist. Despite evidence of a number of burnings of heretics and limited popular support for its anti-sacramental elements, it probably remained a small movement. There were also further attempts to differentiate Scottish liturgical practice from that in England, with a printing press established under royal patent in 1507 to replace the English Sarum Use for services.
### Expansion of schools and universities
The number and size of schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s. There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers. The growing emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne". All this resulted in an increase in literacy, but which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite, with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period. Until the fifteenth century, those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent, and just over a 1,000 have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410. After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence, with occasional exceptions under safe conduct, English universities were closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant. Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities. This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495. Initially these institutions were designed for the training of clerics, but they would increasingly be used by laymen who would begin to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in the government and law. Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go elsewhere and Scottish scholars continued to visit the continent and English universities, which reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century.
### Women
Medieval Scotland was a patriarchal society, where authority was invested in men and women had a very limited legal status. How exactly patriarchy worked in practice is difficult to discern. Women could marry from the age of 12 (while for boys it was from 14) and, while many girls from the social elite married in their teens, by the end of the period most in the Lowlands only married after a period of life-cycle service, in their twenties. The extensive marriage bars for kinship meant that most noble marriages necessitated a papal dispensation, which could later be used as grounds for annulment if the marriage proved politically or personally inconvenient, although there was no divorce as such. Separation from bed and board was allowed in exceptional circumstances, usually adultery. In the burghs there were probably high proportions of poor households headed by widows, who survived on casual earnings and the profits from selling foodstuffs or ale. Spinning was an expected part of the daily work of Medieval townswomen of all social classes. In crafts, women could sometimes be apprentices, but they could not join guilds in their own right. Some women worked and traded independently, hiring and training employees, which may have made them attractive as marriage partners. Scotland was relatively poorly supplied with nunneries, with 30 identified for the period to 1300, compared with 150 for England, and very few in the Highlands. The Virgin Mary, as the epitome of a wife and mother was probably an important model for women. There is evidence from late Medieval burghs like Perth, of women, usually wives, acting through relatives and husbands as benefactors or property owners connected with local altars and cults of devotion. By the end of the fifteenth century, Edinburgh had schools for girls, sometimes described as "sewing schools", which were probably taught by lay women or nuns. There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers, which may have extended to women.
### Children
Childhood mortality was high in Medieval Scotland. Children were often baptised rapidly, by laymen and occasionally by midwives, because of the belief that unbaptised children would be damned. It was more normally undertaken in a church and was a means of creating wider spiritual kinship with godparents. Cemeteries may not represent a cross section of Medieval society, but in one Aberdeen cemetery 53 per cent of those buried were under the age of six and in one Linlithgow cemetery it was 58 per cent. Iron deficiency anaemia seems to have been common among children, probably caused by long-term breastfeeding by mothers that were themselves deficient in minerals. Common childhood diseases included measles, diphtheria and whooping-cough, while parasites were also common. In Lowland noble and wealthy society by the fifteenth century the practice of wet-nursing had become common. In Highland society there was a system of fosterage among clan leaders, where boys and girls would leave their parents' house to be brought up in that of other chiefs, creating a fictive bond of kinship that helped cement alliances and mutual bonds of obligation. The majority of children, even in urban centres where opportunities for formal education were greatest, did not attend school. In the families of craftsmen children probably carried out simpler tasks. They might later become apprentices or journeymen. In Lowland rural society, as in England, many young people, both male and female, probably left home to become domestic and agricultural servants, as they can be seen doing in large numbers from the sixteenth century. By the late Medieval era, Lowland society was probably part of the north-west European marriage model, of life-cycle service and late marriage, usually in the mid-20s, delayed by the need to acquire the resources to be able to form a household. |
3,189,332 | Cry (Michael Jackson song) | 1,166,690,859 | 2001 single by Michael Jackson | [
"2000s ballads",
"2001 singles",
"2001 songs",
"Anti-war songs",
"Contemporary R&B ballads",
"Epic Records singles",
"Gospel songs",
"Michael Jackson songs",
"Music videos directed by Nick Brandt",
"Song recordings produced by Michael Jackson",
"Songs written by R. Kelly"
]
| "Cry" is a song recorded by American singer-songwriter Michael Jackson that features on his tenth and final studio album, Invincible (2001). The song was written by R&B singer-songwriter R. Kelly, who had previously written Jackson's 1995 single "You Are Not Alone". "Cry" was produced by Jackson and Kelly. It was released on December 5, 2001, under Epic Records as the third single from Invincible. "Cry" is an R&B ballad with lyrics that highlight problems with the planet. The lyrics also urge people to unite to make the world a better place. Thus the track recalls previous Jackson songs that promote peace and environmentalism.
The song was released only in Europe with two B-side tracks; "Shout" and "Streetwalker". "Cry" received mixed reviews from music critics. The single had a moderate chart performance internationally, with its highest peak being number sixteen in Denmark, and its least successful charting country being Austria. The track was promoted with a music video, which was filmed by Nicholas Brandt. The video does not feature Jackson but shows people holding hands and standing side by side in a variety of settings, including a beach and a forest.
## Background
"Cry" was recorded by American singer Michael Jackson for his tenth and final studio album, Invincible (2001). The song was written by R&B singer-songwriter R. Kelly, who had previously worked with Jackson on his 1995 single, "You Are Not Alone;" Jackson and Kelly's collaboration on "Cry" is the second of what would be three collaborations. "Cry" was one of the first songs completed for the album. The track was produced by Jackson and Kelly. Outside of the United States, the song was released on December 3, 2001, as the second single from Invincible, under Epic Records. The single was released with two B-side tracks, "Shout" and "Streetwalker". "Shout" was a previously unreleased song that was originally intended for Invincible, but was replaced at the last moment by "You Are My Life". "Streetwalker" had previously appeared as a track on the 2001 special edition of Jackson's seventh studio album, Bad. Like "Shout", it was replaced last minute by "Another Part of Me".
## Composition
The themes of "Cry" are world issues such as isolation, war, and brotherhood. It also suggests if everyone pulls together as one, then they make a change to the world, with Jackson singing, "You can change the world/I can't do it by myself". Music critic Mark Brown of Rocky Mountain News felt that Jackson cries the lyrics "I can't do it by myself". The song's lyrics and themes are similar to the ones in Jackson's 1988 single "Man in the Mirror" and his 1992 single "Heal the World". "Cry" is composed in the key of A major and the song's time signature is common time. "Cry" has a moderate metronome of eighty four beats per minute. The single is built in the chord progression of A–G/A–A–A/G in the verses and A–A/G–D–A in the chorus. Jackson's vocal range spans from D<sub>3</sub> to E<sub>5</sub>.
## Critical reception
Jason Elias of AllMusic describes "Cry" as a moody and reflective piece of material reminiscent of Jackson's Quincy Jones-produced ballads for Bad, and indicates the song's themes are those of alienation and sorrow rather than love. He believes the strength of the strings, the competent backing vocals, and the keyboard figures prevent the listener from convulsing with laughter at Jackson's "oh-so-pained delivery" and interjections of "Hold on" or "Oh my!" Jon Pareles of The New York Times called the track the "change-the-world-song" and wrote that the single "applies its grand buildup to one of pop's strangest utopian schemes," which was asking everyone to cry at the same time, at which point Jackson may answer their prayers. Catherine Halaby of Yale Daily News felt that the song is a "less triumphant use of a contemporary's input" on the album.
NME music critic Mark Beaumont believed that Jackson "starts banging creepily on about" the lyrics which pertain to saving the children. Frank Kogan of the Village Voice noted that while "Cry" and another song from Invincible ("Speechless") are "very pretty", they give the impression that Jackson's "standing sideways, so as to let the beauty slide off him." Los Angeles Times staff writer Robert Hilburn wrote that the track "fills the social commentary role" of Jackson's "Man in the Mirror" (1988), while Hartford Courant rock music critic Roger Catlin believed that the single is a redux to Jackson's "Heal the World" (1991). Newsday staff writer Glenn Gamboa said that the song was "equally average" to other tracks on Invincible. James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that R. Kelly "more or less succeeds with the kind of life affirming number" on the single.
Jim Farber of New York's Daily News wrote that in "Cry", Jackson "goes into his healing-the-world shtick, though rarely has he been this condescending about his role as universal savior." Chicago Tribune rock music critics Greg Kot believed that R. Kelly "reprises the formula of his big gospel-stoked anthem" ("I Believe I Can Fly") on the track. A journalist for The Wichita Eagle wrote that Jackson "shines on the sincere ballads" such as "Cry" and "Speechless". Pop music critic Thor Christensen of the Dallas Morning News described the single as being the musician's "latest batch of inspirational cotton candy." Francisco Cangiano of University Wire noted that the overall good songs from Invincible are "Heartbreaker," "Cry" and "Speechless." Pamela Davis and Gina Vininetto of St. Petersburg Times called the song "hubris- filled" and said that it was full of Jackson's "freaky messiah-savior complex."
## Chart performance
"Cry" was not released as a CD single in the United States, but it ranked at the bottom of Billboard music charts for three weeks within the country, peaking at number one at Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles. "Cry" was a moderate commercial success worldwide. "Cry" debuted at number twenty five, its peak position, on December 22, 2001, on the UK Singles Chart. The single remained on the country's chart for four consecutive weeks from December 2001 to January 2002, before falling out of the top 100 positions. The track debuted at number thirty seven on December 12, and peaked at number thirty in the succeeding week on the French Singles Chart. The song debuted at its peak position, number forty three, on December 12, on the Australian Singles Chart. It only remained on the country's chart for one week. "Cry" did not chart on Belgian Ultratip Singles Chart, but did chart on the Belgian Wallonia music chart, debuting at number thirty seven on December 15, and peaking at number thirty one on January 12, 2002.
"Cry" charted on the Swedish Singles Chart for five consecutive weeks. Having debuted at number fifty on December 21, and peaked at number forty eight the following week. The single spent the next four weeks fluctuating down the chart. The track peaked at number forty two on the Swiss Singles Chart, and remained on the country's chart for six weeks. The single's most commercially successful charting territory was Spain. Although the track only remained on the singles chart for two weeks, it peaked at number 6. The single's least successful chart territory was Austria. Having debuted on the country's singles chart at its peak position, number sixty five on December 16, in the succeeding week the track charted at number seventy one and fell out of the top 100 positions the following week. Regarding the song's chart performance, Halstead and Cadman wrote that it was a "setback for sure, but not a major one" for Jackson.
## Music video
"Cry" was promoted by a music video, or "short film," as Jackson would refer to it. The video was directed by photographer Nick Brandt, who had previously directed "Earth Song" (1995), "Childhood" (1995) and "Stranger in Moscow" (1996), all of which were featured on Jackson's HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I album. The video was filmed in six different locations, all were filmed in California. People featured in the video included members of a real life gospel group. The video begins with dozens of people of different ages, ethnicities and races holding hands. Long lines of people were stretched over mountains, across highways, in a forest and on the beach. Everyone stands in silence for a majority of the video. Following the bridge, everyone begins singing the chorus. Towards the final chorus, the group collectively clap their hands along with the song, taking hands once more as the song ends.
"Cry" is the only Michael Jackson video to be included on an enhanced CD of the single.
"Cry" was issued as a single against Jackson's original intentions to release "Unbreakable." (The same situation applied with the release of "You Rock My World" months prior.) Filmed in the weeks after 9/11, Jackson was too nervous to travel to the shoot in northern California. When Jackson saw the rough cut of the video, he and the director, Nick Brandt, agreed that the video was stronger without Jackson in it. Craig Halstead and Chris Cadman, authors of the book Michael Jackson: The Solo Years, believe that Jackson's absence from the video "did little to promote it."
## Track listing and formats
UK enhanced maxi CD
1. "Cry" – 5:01
2. "Shout" – 4:17
3. "Streetwalker" – 5:49
4. "Cry" (short film in MPEG and QuickTime formats) – 5:00
UK 12" vinyl
- A. "Cry" – 5:01
- B1. "Shout" – 4:17
- B2. "Streetwalker" – 5:49
UK cassette single
- A1. "Cry" – 5:01
- A2. "Shout" – 4:17
- A3. "Streetwalker" – 5:49
- B1. "Cry" – 5:01
- B2. "Shout" – 4:17
- B3. "Streetwalker" - 5:49
Enhanced maxi CD
1. "Cry" – 5:01
2. "Shout" – 4:17
3. "Streetwalker" – 5:49
4. "Cry" (Video) – 5:00
CD single
1. "Cry" – 5:01
2. "Shout" – 4:17
US 7" vinyl, 45 RPM
- A. "Cry" – 5:01
- B. "Cry" – 5:01
European promo CD single
1. "Cry" – 5:01
## B-sides
"Shout" was recorded within the "Invincible" album sessions and left off the album while "Streetwalker" (recorded from the "Bad" sessions) is included in the "Bad Special Edition" (2001), in the video-game "Michael Jackson: The Experience" (2010) and in "Bad 25" (2012).
## Credits and personnel
- Written and composed by R. Kelly
- Produced by Michael Jackson and R. Kelly
- Lead vocal by Michael Jackson
- Percussion by Paulinho da Costa
- Keyboard and drum programming by Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer
- Choir arrangement by R. Kelly
- Drums by John "JR" Robinson
- Guitars by Michael Landau
- Recorded by Mike Ging, Bad Gilderman and Humberto Gatica
- Mixed by Michael Jackson and Mick Guzauski
## Charts |
6,126,464 | Darkness Falls (The X-Files) | 1,159,348,807 | null | [
"1994 American television episodes",
"Eco-terrorism in fiction",
"Olympic National Forest",
"Television episodes about insects",
"Television episodes set in Washington (state)",
"Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)",
"The X-Files (season 1) episodes"
]
| "Darkness Falls" is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files, premiering on the Fox network on April 15, 1994. "Darkness Falls" was written by series creator Chris Carter and directed by Joe Napolitano. It featured guest appearances by Jason Beghe and Titus Welliver. The episode is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, a stand-alone plot that is unconnected to the series' wider mythology. "Darkness Falls" earned a Nielsen household rating of 8.0, being watched by 7.5 million households in its initial broadcast, and received mostly positive reviews.
The show centers on FBI agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In this episode, Mulder and Scully are called-in to investigate when a team of loggers disappear without a trace. Initially suspecting eco-terrorism, the agents find themselves trapped by a seemingly ancient menace lurking in the woods.
Carter was inspired to write this episode based on an interest in dendrochronology, a subject that involves analyzing annual growth rings found in non-tropical tree species. Carter credits the episode's ominous ending with his experience growing up in the era following the Watergate scandal, having spent his life coming to profoundly mistrust the government.
## Plot
In Olympic National Forest in Washington State, a group of loggers flee through the woods, trying to escape from an unseen force. They are eventually killed by a large swarm of small glowing green insects. Later, at FBI headquarters, Fox Mulder shows Dana Scully a photo of the missing loggers, telling her that another group of loggers disappeared in the forest in 1934. The two agents head to the forest, where they meet U.S. Forest Service employee Larry Moore and Steve Humphreys, head of security for the logging company. While driving through the forest, their truck hits caltrops left in the ground by eco-terrorists, forcing them to walk the rest of the way. Upon arriving at the camp site, Mulder and Scully find the cabins abandoned and the communication equipment destroyed. Searching the forest, they find a corpse encased in a large cocoon hanging from a tree.
While repairing one of the generators, Humphreys catches an eco-terrorist named Doug Spinney. He tells the group that there's a deadly swarm of insects in the forest and that they must avoid darkness to stay alive. The next morning, they find an old-growth tree cut down with an unexplained band of green contained within its growth rings. Spinney suspects that an organism that was dormant in the tree for centuries was disturbed when the tree was illegally cut down. Humphreys hikes down to Moore's truck but is killed by the swarm at nightfall. In the cabin, everyone else is kept safe by the light. The next morning, Spinney convinces Mulder to let him hike to his colleagues with gasoline so he can return with a Jeep to pick them up. Scully and Moore confront Mulder, since this will leave them with little fuel for the generator.
The night passes with only a single light bulb lighting the cabin, going out just as morning arrives. Mulder, Scully and Moore hike down to the truck with a busted tire from camp, hoping to patch it, put on the spare and escape. They find Humphreys' cocooned body. Spinney returns with the Jeep, telling the others his friends are all dead. The Jeep hits another caltrop left in the ground, and Spinney is killed when he leaves the Jeep after dark. Moore and the agents are engulfed by the insects, which enter the vehicle through the air conditioning vents. They are found soon after and brought to a quarantined facility in Winthrop, Washington, where one of the scientists tells Mulder that the forest is being bombarded with pesticides and controlled fire in the hopes of eradicating the insects. Mulder asks the scientist what will happen if the efforts fail, but is simply told "that is not an option."
## Production
Series creator Chris Carter was inspired to write this episode based on an interest in dendrochronology, a subject that involves analyzing annual growth rings found in non-tropical tree species, as he believed that trees that were "thousands of years old" might end up acting as "time capsules" that would shed light on past events or species. Carter also credits the episode's ominous ending with his experience growing up in the era following the Watergate scandal, having spent his life coming to profoundly mistrust the government. The green insects in this episode were primarily computer-generated and added in during the post-production process. The close-up shots of the bugs were done using microscopic photography of mites.
The episode was intended to be a bottle episode, meaning that it would be an episode that would be based in a single location and help save money, but bad weather plagued production, and it was one of the toughest episodes of the season for the crew. The episode was shot on location in Lynn Valley, British Columbia, in the Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve, known as the Seymour Demonstration Forest. The atmosphere amongst many of the crew had grown quite tense towards the end of the shooting schedule, and it culminated in a heated argument between director Joe Napolitano and first assistant director Vladimir Steffof, after which Napolitano did not appear on location again. "Darkness Falls" was the last episode of the series that Napolitano directed. The weather delayed production at the site so much that pick-up shots and inserts had to be filmed at a later date to finish the episode. Delays were also caused by the inaccessibility of the location, as only generators, camera equipment, and first aid crew were able to stay on-site, and time was wasted commuting staff in each day. Jason Beghe, who played Ranger Larry Moore, was a childhood friend of David Duchovny and helped convince him to pursue an acting career. The camaraderie between the two actors is said to have helped lighten the mood during the episode's difficult production.
## Broadcast and reception
"Darkness Falls" premiered on the Fox network on April 15, 1994, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 9, 1995. This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8.0 with a 14 share, meaning that roughly 8 percent of all television-equipped households and 14 percent of households watching television were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 7.5 million households.
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly, "Darkness Falls" was rated a B, with the episode being called an "eerie outing" set against a "torn-from-today's-headlines backdrop". Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club, called "Darkness Falls" an "excellent" episode that "hits the right notes". He praised the episode's setting, comparing it to the earlier first-season episode "Ice"; and felt that the "on-the-nose" approach to the environmental themes worked well. Matt Haigh, writing for Den of Geek, felt positively about the episode's ambiguous resolution, feeling that its "open-ended treatment" lent the episode "a real mysticism and strength" and finding that the episode held a sense of "weight, credibility, and intrigue". Writers for IGN named the episode their fifth-favorite standalone episode of the show, finding that it "boasts several interesting twists" and noting positively the episode's "smart" environmental themes.
Although Carter claims "Darkness Falls" was not written with an environmental message in mind, the episode was honored at the fourth annual Environmental Media Awards in 1994, winning in the "Television Episodic Drama" category. The plot for "Darkness Falls" was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1995 by Les Martin. |
41,565,544 | Govindudu Andarivadele | 1,172,342,561 | 2014 film by Krishna Vamsi | [
"2010s Telugu-language films",
"2014 action drama films",
"2014 films",
"Films directed by Krishna Vamsi",
"Films scored by Yuvan Shankar Raja",
"Films set in Andhra Pradesh",
"Films set in Konaseema",
"Films shot in Andhra Pradesh",
"Films shot in Hyderabad, India",
"Films shot in Jordan",
"Films shot in Karaikudi",
"Films shot in Kerala",
"Films shot in London",
"Films shot in Pollachi",
"Films shot in Tamil Nadu",
"Indian action drama films"
]
| Govindudu Andarivadele (), also known by the acronym GAV, is a 2014 Indian Telugu-language action drama film written and directed by Krishna Vamsi. Produced by Bandla Ganesh for Parameswara Art Productions, the film stars Ram Charan and Srikanth, Prakash Raj, Kajal Aggarwal, Kamalinee Mukherjee, Jayasudha, Rahman and Adarsh Balakrishna play supporting roles. Yuvan Shankar Raja composed the film's soundtrack and score while Sameer Reddy worked as the cinematographer, and Naveen Nooli was the film's editor.
The film is partially inspired by the 1991 Telugu film Seetharamayya Gari Manavaralu directed by Kranthi Kumar. Govindudu Andarivadele portrays a "non-resident Indian" named Abhiram who visits his grandfather Balaraju's house as a student of agriculture. He actually came to reconcile the differences between his father, Chandrasekhar Rao, and Balaraju. The pair parted ways as Chadrasekhar went to the UK while Balaraju stayed and built a charitable hospital for local people. Abhiram succeeds in winning over family members, and Balaraju understands the truth behind Abhiram and his attempts.
The film was officially announced in Hyderabad on 6 February 2014. Principal photography commenced from the same day and ended on 22 September 2014. A large portion of the film was shot in Hyderabad, Rameswaram, Nagercoil, Konaseema, Kanyakumari, Pollachi and Karaikudi in India while significant portions were shot in London and Jordan. The film was released worldwide on 1 October 2014 to generally positive feedback from critics. The film became one of the highest-grossing Telugu films of 2014. It was dubbed into Hindi, Malayalam, Tamil and Bengali as Yevadu 2, Ekalavya, Ram Leela and Sesh Abhimaan respectively.
## Plot
Balaraju, the head of his village, lives with his wife Baby, his two sons; Chandrasekhar Rao and Bangari, and his two daughters. He helps Chandrasekhar become a doctor and builds a local hospital. On the day it opens, Chandrasekhar comes back home with his lover Kausalya, also a doctor. Both express their wish to marry and settle abroad, which upsets Balaraju, leading to their separation.
25 years later, Chandrasekhar, a successful doctor in London, tells the story to his son Abhiram and daughter Indu. Abhiram decides to go home to Balaraju and attempt a reconciliation. He meets his friend, Bunny, at the airport and goes to the village on Bunny's bike the next day. On the way, he witnesses a cockfight organised by Bangari and Baachi; he gets the help of Balaraju to pardon Bangari and get Baachi arrested. Abhiram then introduces himself as a student from London who came here to learn agricultural practices and martial arts. He particularly impresses Balaraju's family when he saves a child's life and so is allowed to stay with them.
Balaraju's granddaughter Satya comes back from Hyderabad. Abhiram is surprised to see Satya's cultured behaviour and traditional attire, as Bunny and Abhiram previously met her in a pub in Hyderabad. She is equally surprised to see him; his cell phone contains photos showing how she spent her time at the pub. Abhiram blackmails Satya with the photos, but she then asks Bangari to get Abhiram's cell phone by telling him that Abhiram is blackmailing her. Their collective efforts fail, and Baachi is also dragged into the affair.
A fight happens between Abhiram and Baachi, deepening their rivalry. To get rid of Bangari, Balaraju arranges Chitra's marriage. Satya tells Bangari about this who then kidnaps Chitra. Abhiram chases him, saves Chitra and gets Bangari arrested. Satya finds Abhiram's phone and finds out his true identity. Abhiram offers to help Balaraju renovate the hospital he built with his father's assistance; Balaraju accepts the offer. Abhiram finds out that Satya has his phone when he goes to call his father. She deletes the photos of her. After learning that she knows the truth, Abhiram does a deal with her. They fall in love with each other.
Later, Chitra, now Abhiram's friend at the house, tells him why Bangari was expelled from the house. Bangari and Chitra love one another and Balaraju does not approve of it, as Bangari is rather spoilt and drinks too much. Frustrated and intoxicated, Bangari enters Chitra's room and tells her of his attempt to rape her so as to marry her. However, Balaraju expels him from the house after catching him. Balaraju’s brother-in-law and his son, Rajendra, who plan to set up a special economic zone manufacturing beer, release Bangari from jail. Abhiram's father sends the advanced equipment to Hyderabad, which Bunny and Bangari receive. Bangari attacks Bunny and seizes the equipment. Abhiram stops Bangari and his men and reveals his identity. Bangari realises what he has done and reconciles with Balaraju. The equipment is unloaded at the hospital.
Indu too visits Balaraju's house. Satya gets engaged to an American NRI doctor. However, she tells Abhiram that she would die if she doesn't marry him. He decides to break up with her and upon hearing this, Bangari reveals Abhiram and Indu's identity to Balaraju, who orders Abhiram's and Indu to leave the house.
Later, Abhiram gets a phone call from his father who plans to return to the village. Suddenly, Baachi kidnaps Indu. An injured Abhiram manages to save her, but gets shot by Baachi. Bangari arrives and Abhiram prevents Baachi from being harmed by saying that Baachi too is a family member. Chandrasekhar comes to the hospital and operates on Abhiram. When Abhiram regains consciousness, Balaraju welcomes him, Indu and Chandrasekhar back into the family. The film ends with Abhiram marrying Satya and Bangari marrying Chitra, also coinciding with Balaraju and Baby's anniversary.
## Cast
## Production
### Development
In September 2010, Chiranjeevi invited Krishna Vamsi to discuss making a movie with Ram Charan as the lead. After a story-narration session, they agreed to move ahead. In August 2013, after a three-year gap, it was announced that Ram Charan, Daggubati Venkatesh and Krishna would act in a film directed by Vamsi and produced by Bandla Ganesh under the banner Parameswara Art Productions banner. At that point, however, the script was not yet complete and so the project was still put on hold.
In December 2013, Bandla Ganesh tweeted a photo featuring himself, Krishna Vamsi and Director of Photography Sameer Reddy at the Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple in Antarvedi with the finished script. The film was initially titled Vijetha after the 1985 Telugu film which featured Chiranjeevi and Bhanupriya in the lead roles. In March 2014, the supposed story of the film was leaked onto the internet. The story was that Ram Charan played the role of an NRI who visits his joint family to bridge a gap between his father and his father's younger brother.
On 27 March 2014, when the film poster was released, the title was confirmed as Govindudu Andarivadele. In mid April 2014, Yuvan Shankar Raja was signed up as the film's composer after S. Thaman opted out because of conflicting projects. Sources reported that talks were also held with G. V. Prakash Kumar. It was the first time that Krishna Vamsi had collaborated with Yuvan Shankar Raja, with the director later informing that he had waited five years to work with the composer. Reports regarding Rajkiran being replaced by Prakash Raj because of Chiranjeevi and the altering of the original script, and that Prakash Raj was included to strengthen the Telugu cultural identity of the film were dismissed as rumours. The film's shoot was put on hold due to the climate at the shooting spot being unsuitable for children acting in the film rather than because of Chiranjeevi. Ram Charan, in an interview with The Hindu, said that Rajkiran was replaced with Prakash Raj as the sections involving the former ended up looking more like a Tamil film.
### Casting
Vamsi wanted to cast a popular actor as the protagonist to widen the film's appeal, and approached Ram Charan because of his relationship with him since Charan's childhood. Venkatesh and Krishna were initially set to play the lead roles along with Charan, with Venkatesh playing the role of Charan's paternal uncle. In September 2013, Kajal Aggarwal was signed to play opposite Charan. Actor Jagapati Babu turned down the role of Charan's father as he wanted to concentrate on antagonistic character roles.
In November 2013, Tamil actor Rajkiran was chosen to play the role of Charan's grandfather, previously earmarked for Krishna. The producers also began searching for a new actress in the lead role. In December 2013, Venkatesh left the project and was subsequently replaced by Telugu actor Srikanth, saying that the role did not suit his image rather than any other dissatisfaction. Chandini Chowdary was rumoured to have been signed up as the female lead, but this proved not to be the case. Tamannaah was approached as well, but she had prior commitments in Aagadu and Baahubali. Kajal was finalised by the end of 2013 as Charan's heroine in this film, marking her return to Telugu cinema after a brief hiatus.
Kamalini Mukherjee was chosen by Krishna Vamsi in late January 2014 by Krishna Vamsi, mainly because of her appearance and her acting talent. A song from rock band "The Tapes" took seven to nine hours to film for a sequence in the film featuring Charan and Kajal. This was the band's first onscreen appearance. Vennela Kishore confirmed his presence in the film twice through his Twitter account.
In the end of May 2014, Prakash Raj replaced Rajkiran as Ram Charan's grandfather. Vamsi said "Raj Kiran was cast initially and I had doubts about this casting. After shooting a few scenes, I went to Chiranjeevi and he suggested, 'You can think of taking someone who can carry Telugu nativity.' He just made that suggestion, but that was when I replaced Raj Kiran with Prakash Raj". He added that Chiranjeevi did not interfere in this decision. However, Chiranjeevi helped Vamsi and Raj reconcile their differences. Jayasudha and Rahman were signed for key roles. M. S. Narayana was selected to play a supporting role. Adarsh Balakrishna was selected to portray the film's antagonist, recommended by Srikanth to Vamsi.
### Characterisation
Ram Charan's character was Abhiram, an NRI who goes from London to India in search of his roots. He was depicted as the star player of a professional rugby league footballer at Hemel Hempstead. Charan grew a ponytail and appeared in traditional Telugu costume, wearing a dhoti for some scenes in the film, contrasting with the modern clothes he wore in previous films. He also learnt stick fighting skills for the film.
Vamsi showed Charan a lot of family dramas, drove him to villages to help him understand the atmosphere and mindset of the people. According to Vamsi, Charan "comes across as a shy and reserved guy but has a fun and family loving side to him", which he tried to show onscreen. Srikanth played the role of Charan's younger paternal uncle and wore his hair long for the role. His costume was rustic in appearance. A still of him in costume was shown in the end of July 2014. His "crucial role" in the film was aggressive and rebellious.
Kajal Aggarwal revealed one of her outfits in the film on 27 July 2014 would be a black half-sari. Jayasudha was selected to play the role of Prakash Raj's wife in the film while Rahman was signed in to play the role of Ram Charan's father. Kamalini Mukherjee's character was named Chitra, a rural girl quite unlike the urbane roles she had played in the past. Adarsh Balakrishna, cast as a flashy M. P.'s son living in the same village, wore jewellery with Indian costume, again with long hair.
### Filming
Principal photography began on 6 February 2014 in Hyderabad and continued for 3 days there before a long pre-planned schedule started in Rameswaram, Nagercoil and Pollachi. Kajal joined the sets of the film in Hyderabad on 9 February 2014 and some scenes between herself and Charan were shot there. They also participated in the film's shoot at Nagercoil near Kanyakumari in mid February 2014 after the completion of the schedule at Rameswaram. A fight sequence with Charan, Srikanth and others was filmed at Kanyakumari before shifting to Pollachi. A few action sequences focusing Charan were shot at Pollachi in late March 2014. He also worked on some key action sequences for the film under the supervision of Ram Lakshman in mid May 2014, for which a special set was built. Some song sequences were shot in Malaysia from 2 June 2014.
The film's shoot continued in Hyderabad from 5 June 2014 and the team planned to go to London after filming some family scenes at the special house set constructed earlier in Ramanaidu Cine Village in Hyderabad. 30 scenes and 2 songs were shot in that house set in Hyderabad over a period of 45 days. Prakash Raj allotted bulk dates and the reshoot took 8 days only and not 20 days as earlier reported. After completing the shoot of few scenes and a montage song, the first part of the film's Hyderabad schedule ended on 18 June 2014. The next part commenced on 21 June 2014. At the end of June 2014, another song was shot on a special set featuring mirrors, in which the lead pair participated. Due to incessant rain at Pollachi, the shooting continued at Hyderabad, delaying the planned schedule. The Pollachi schedule therefore began on 23 July 2014, lasting for 5 days. A fresh schedule began in Karaikudi on whose completion, filming continued in Hyderabad from 4 August 2014. The film's shoot was temporarily halted on 19 August 2014 because of the statewide survey in Telangana.
The next schedule began in London on 22 August 2014. A romantic song was shot on Charan and Kajal in early September 2014 in Jordan. After its completion, a song was shot with the lead pair in London. The production unit returned to Hyderabad on 14 September 2014. A quarter of the film was shot in London. Charan's introduction scene was shot at the Pennine Way Stadium, and a rugby match was shot at the Rugby League club in Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire in south-eastern England. To add some authenticity, the local club captain B. J. Swindells was brought on board. Two songs sequences were shot simultaneously in Hyderabad.
The principal photography ended on 22 September 2014 on completion of the songs shoot. However, it was officially announced later that the film would be released without a song which would be shot on 2 and 3 October and then be added to the film.
### Post-production
The film's dubbing activities commenced at Shabdalaya Studios in Hyderabad on 18 July 2014. The supporting cast then dubbed their respective roles. Yuvan Shankar Raja started re-recording for the film's first half on 26 August 2014 at his studio in Chennai. Srikanth completed dubbing for his role on 10 September 2014 and Charan completed dubbing on 24 September 2014. Chiranjeevi personally monitored the post-production works and promotion strategies. In an interview with the Deccan Chronicle, Chiranjeevi mentioned that Charan also participated in the production and editing of the film's trailer and took extra care of the trailer's release and had asked him to check if everything was right. While shooting two songs at Hyderabad, the post production works were completed.
A copy of the film was sent to Central Board of Film Certification on 26 September 2014. The same day, the film was awarded an 'U/A' certificate instead of a clean 'U' due to some sections and scenes between the lead actors. The Board asked the makers to obtain a No Objection Certificate from Animal Welfare Board of India to retain scenes featuring animals. They muted a few dialogues as well as "backless" views of the heroine. They also insisted on obscuring the brands on alcoholic drinks as well as the display of mandatory warnings "when Srikanth is smoking".
## Themes and influences
Ram Charan said in an interview that the film was partially inspired by Seetharamayya Gari Manavaralu (1991), although there were also remarks about tracing inspiration from Vamsi's previous works, Ninne Pelladata (1996) and Murari (2001). Critics also compared the film to other family dramas like Brindavanam (2010) and Attarintiki Daredi (2013).
In an interview with The Hindu, Vamsi said "Tell me one new story that has been written since Ramayana and Mahabharata. Aatma Bandhuvu (1962), Devudu Chesina Manushulu (1973), Ramarajyamlo Bheemaraju (1983) and Muddula Manavaralu (1996) — which was a remake of the Tamil film Poove Poochooda Vaa (1985) — all had a similar structure of a protagonist returning to unite a family". He added that this film was made to showcase the folk arts, music and spirituality of the Telugu people. He also drew inspiration from the husband and wife scenes shown in the film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), as he wanted to incorporate the same themes into Telugu films.
## Music
Yuvan Shankar Raja composed the music for the film, which marked his first collaboration with Vamsi; it was also the first time he scored for a film starring Srikanth and Ram Charan. The soundtrack, consisting of six songs, was released on 1 September 2014 at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad. The audio rights were purchased by Aditya Music. The soundtrack received positive reviews from critics.
## Release
Govindudu Andarivadele was released on 1 October 2014. The makers wanted to capitalise on the long holiday of Navratri, followed by Bakrid. Charan attended the film's premiere show in the United States on 30 September 2014 alongside other cast and crew members. The film was released in 750 screens in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, 100 in Karnataka, 50 in Tamil Nadu, 85 in Maharashtra and 60 in other parts of North India; and 154 screens in the United States and 50 screens in other International markets. The film was dubbed into Malayalam and Tamil as Ekalavya and Ram Leela respectively.
### Distribution
In mid-July 2014, the distribution rights of the film in the Ceded region were sold for approximately ₹81 million (US\$1.0 million) including prints & publicity costs which, as of March 2015, is the highest amount for a Ram Charan film. The Nellore region rights were sold to Hari Pictures for a record price of ₹20 million (US\$250,000). Asian Movies acquired the film's overseas distribution rights and released it in collaboration with CineGalaxy, Inc. Aakash Movies distributed the film in the UAE along with Ravi Teja's Power. Errabus distributed the film in the United Kingdom. Bandla Ganesh himself distributed the film in the Nizam and Krishna regions.
### Marketing
The first-look posters and stills of the film were unveiled on 26 March 2014 and 27 March 2014. On 26 March 2014, 4 stills of Charan from the film were released into the Internet, coinciding with his birthday on 27 March 2014 and receiving a positive response. The next day, posters designed by Working Title featuring the logo and 3 of those 4 stills were released. The posters also received a positive response and were widely distributed on various social networking sites. The film's teaser was initially planned to be launched on 29 July 2014 at Ramanaidu Studios, but the release was postponed to 7 August 2014. A promotional event was planned at Ramanaidu Studios in Nanakramguda for the teaser's launch.
The first teaser of 40 seconds was launched on 7 August 2014 with a press conference at the house set in Ramanaidu Studios where the film was shot. The teaser received a positive response from critics and viewers alike. Reviewing the teaser, Nivedita Mishra of Hindustan Times wrote "Make no mistake, this one is no poor regional cousin of Bollywood. It's got color, good-looking stars with baddies to boot and loads of song and dance executed with a finesse that only Indian film industry can. The teaser of Ram Charan Teja's new film Govindudu Andarivadele is out and proves just that. From lush paddy fields to festive Indian family lives, this one has it all. Watch out for a shot of Ram Charan Teja riding a bullock cart! Quite novel!". The Times of India wrote "the teaser looked colorful and quite impressive reminding Krishna Vamsi's style of family and love entertainers". Subramaniam Harikumar of Bollywood Life wrote "The teaser sure has raised out hope. A lot of importance seems to be given to the rustic village backdrop with green fields and bullock carts and big ancestral bungalows. The cinematography is top notch with colours melting in your eyes in every frame. The teaser gives equal importance to family, tradition and romance, with all the important characters getting a decent exposure in the promo." The film's teaser received more than 300,000 views within 24 hours of its online release on YouTube. A set of stills were released in the last week of August 2014.
The film's official trailer was launched on 1 September 2014 at the Shilpakala Vedika along with the film's soundtrack. The trailer too received positive response. As a part of the film's promotion, Bandla Ganesh booked 860 spots on the Telugu news channels for airing the film's teaser and trailer until 2 October 2014. Out of them 70 spots each were booked on TV5, TV9, and Sakshi, while 50 spots each were booked on 14 other Telugu news channels. Post release, Ram Charan and Kajal participated in a special promotional program title Radhe Govinda hosted by Anasuya where they spoke about the film as a part of the film's promotion. As a marketing strategy, the makers planned to add the song Kokkokkodi to the film being screened in theatres to boost the takings.
### Home media
Gemini TV acquired the film's satellite rights for an amount of ₹90 million (US\$1.1 million). The film had its worldwide Television premier on 21 March 2015 on the eve of Ugadi.
## Reception
### Critical reception
The film received generally positive reviews from critics. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote "Filmmakers hope the family audience will troop in, connect with a thought, a dialogue, a character or a bond between the on-screen family members, have a good laugh, shed a few tears and get their money's worth. An old-fashioned story told reasonably well is enough to put a smile on many faces. Krishnavamsi walks this predictable path in Govindudu Andarivadele" and added "This oft-repeated tale, has shades of several family dramas told earlier in Telugu, Tamil and Hindi cinema. Yet, Krishna Vamsi makes it his own in the way he narrates it". Sandhya Rao of Sify wrote, "Overall Govindhudu Andhari Vadele is a neat family drama with the right dash of emotions. The first half is okay, but the second half surely does elevate the film to a different level. Watch GAV this festive season."
Oneindia Entertainment wrote "Govindudu Andarivadele is a must watch family entertainer with emotion, action, family bonding and love. The movie has included everything which should be in a family drama. GAV will be a grand treat this festival season" and rated the film 3.5 out of 5. Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film 3 out of 5 and said, "The film has some moments that stand out like Ram Charan's introduction on the rugby field, a couple of well picturised songs, a few smart one-liners and a couple of profound musings on the importance of family and overly color graded village imagery", before concluding that "the movie does offer [...] some feel good melodrama and production values that are more rich than original." Suresh Kaviyarani of the Deccan Chronicle rated the film 3 out of 5 and said, "You can watch it once for Charan's performance and it is a clean family drama. This is a holiday time and it may work out for this film."
In contrast, Subramanian Harikumar of Bollywood Life gave a mixed review saying, "Govindudu Andarivadele is an earnest attempt to dish out a clean family entertainer. But alas it's cliche ridden plot pulls it down." He felt that the film was pleasing to the eyes but lacked novelty in its novelty in story and treatment, giving the film a rating of 2.5 out of 5. Haricharan Pudipeddi, writing for IANS, gave a mixed review saying, "Govindudu Andarivadele displays Telugu filmmakers' reluctance to dig deep within a genre. There's enough material readily available from our own lives for an engaging family tale, but rarely do we come across anything realistic." and gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5.
### Box office
#### India
Govindudu Andarivadele took a record opening at the box office. The film grossed approximately ₹86.2 million (US\$1.1 million) in both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana together on the first day of its theatrical run. This surpassed the opening-day collections of Mahesh Babu's 1: Nenokkadine, which grossed ₹84 million (US\$1.1 million) in the region. According to trade reports, the film amassed approximately ₹23 million (US\$290,000) in Nizam while the Ceded region registered around ₹16 million (US\$200,000). Collections in the East Godavari and Guntur regions were around ₹10 million (US\$130,000) and ₹12.4 million (US\$160,000) respectively. According to trade analyst Trinath, the film collected a total of ₹128.3 million (US\$1.6 million) in India alone on its release day. The film collected a share of ₹231.8 million (US\$2.9 million) in five days at the AP/Nizam region. The film managed to gross a total of ₹271.8 million (US\$3.4 million) at AP/Nizam region by the end of its first week run. This took the first week worldwide collections to approximately ₹350 million (US\$4.4 million) share. The film had the third-highest AP/Nizam share as well as having the top worldwide week one share, surpassing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu (2013) and Race Gurram.
The film's collections slowed down on its eighth day, collecting ₹9.5 million (US\$120,000) at Nizam box office alone. This took its nine-day worldwide collections to ₹363.8 million (US\$4.6 million). On the next day, there was a drop of nearly 50% in the film's collections when compared to the release day because of new releases in many theatres. On that day, it collected approximately ₹40 million (US\$500,000) at the worldwide box office. It witnessed subsequent growth on the second Saturday and collected ₹8 million (US\$100,000) share at AP/Nizam Box office. The film grossed a total of ₹317.2 million (US\$4.0 million) at AP/Nizam region in 12 days and with revenue from Karnataka, Rest of India and Overseas, the 12-day global total was ₹395 million (US\$4.9 million) with which this film surpassed the final collections of Businessman (2012), Pokiri (2006), Arundhati (2009), Aagadu and Iddarammayilatho (2013). The film was declared one of the biggest hits of 2014 at the box office.
The film crossed the ₹400 million (US\$5.0 million) mark in two weeks with the film collecting ₹322.5 million (US\$4.0 million) at AP/Nizam Box office and the rest from Karnataka, Rest of India and Overseas. It was Ram Charan's fifth film to gross in excess of ₹400 million (US\$5.0 million). The film's final collections in AP/Nizam region stood at ₹338.5 million (US\$4.2 million), ₹36 million (US\$450,000) in Karnataka and ₹10 million (US\$130,000) from rest of India. It surpassed the final collections of Legend but failed to enter the list of all-time top 10 Telugu films with highest worldwide share, ending in thirteenth place behind Eega (2012). The film completed a 50-day run on 20 November 2014.
#### Overseas
The film had the biggest opening for a Ram Charan picture in the US, where it grossed ₹10.7 million (US\$130,000) on its first day, according to trade analyst Jeevi of Idlebrain.com. The film grossed ₹18.5 million (US\$230,000) in 2 days in the US. The film grossed around ₹7.28 million (US\$91,000) on its third day in the US including reported and non-reported screens, making the film Ram Charan's highest-grossing US-released film. By the end of the first weekend, the film grossed around ₹39.8 million (US\$500,000) at US Box office including rentrak and non reporting screens. It earned around ₹36.2 million (US\$450,000) rentrak only from 121 locations in 5 days including Tuesday premier shows in the US. The film collected an amount of ₹32 million (US\$400,000) in its lifetime at Overseas Box office.
## Awards and nominations
## Remake
In mid January 2015, an associate of Prabhu Deva said he was interested in remaking the film in Hindi after watching a special screening by Bandla Ganesh. Ganesh confirmed that Prabhu watched the film and liked it. Prakash Raj was also expected to be a part of the remake as Prabhu was impressed with his performance. |
25,561,064 | Further Adventures of Lad | 1,173,743,442 | 1922 American novel written by Albert Payson Terhune | [
"1922 American novels",
"American novels adapted into films",
"American young adult novels",
"George H. Doran Company books",
"Novels about dogs",
"Novels first published in serial form",
"Short stories about dogs"
]
| Further Adventures of Lad, also known as Dog Stories Every Child Should Know, is a 1922 American novel written by Albert Payson Terhune and published by George H. Doran. A follow-up to Lad: A Dog, it contains an additional eleven short stories featuring a fictional version of Terhune's real-life rough collie Lad, including the stories of Lad's initial arrival at the "Place", the death of his mate, and the day of his own death. Most of the stories were originally published in various magazines, and touch on themes of justice and the concepts of right and wrong. Terhune notes that he decided to publish the novel due to numerous letters received in response to the first novel, and the thousands of visitors who came to Sunnybank to visit the real-life Lad's grave. Though he initially intended for Further Adventures of Lad to be the final book of Lad stories, he would eventually publish one more book of stories, Lad of Sunnybank, in 1929.
The novel was a bestseller and well received by fans of the first novel, as well as new readers. Critics praised the stories as "charming" and "entertaining", finding Lad a "delightful" and desirable dog. A critic for the New York Tribune, however, criticized Terhune's writing style and felt Lad was an unbelievable character, while also still noting that book lovers would enjoy it. It was listed among H.W. Wilson Company's 1922 list of 10,000 books they deemed the "most useful". Warner Brothers purchased the film rights for Lad: A Dog, Further Adventures of Lad, and Lad of Sunnybank, intending to produce a series of films and possibly a television series. The first film, Lad: A Dog, was released in June 1962 but it was unsuccessful in the box office and the project was dropped. The novel is now a public domain work.
## Plot
"The Coming of Lad"
A couple, referred to only as the Master and Mistress, purchase a pure-bred rough collie named Lad to be the guard dog of their home, the Place. Though they are surprised when they receive a puppy instead of an adult dog, they decide to keep him and he quickly shows himself to be very intelligent and easily trainable. At first, Lad views all people as friends, including a burglar who robs the house one night. When the man climbs out the window with a bag of loot, Lad thinks he is playing a game and snatches the bag in play. The thief chases Lad, then shoots him to get back the bag. Lad realizes the man is not friendly and turns to attack him, but the thief falls into a ditch, knocking himself unconscious. Afterward, Lad no longer trusts strangers so easily and has become a true watchdog.
"The Fetish"
While in town with the Mistress, Lad saves her from an attack by a sick dog being chased by the police and other citizens, who believe it to be rabid. The dog is shot and the upset Mistress, who knew it was not really rabid, goes home. The next day, the town constable comes by boat to the Place to execute Lad under the notion that he is now rabid. The Master argues that the other dog was not rabid and refuses to allow Lad to be shot, ordering the officer off his property. As the man is leaving, his boat overturns. Unable to swim, he is in danger of drowning until Lad jumps in and brings him back to shore. The grateful officer states that he killed the dog he came to kill and Lad only looks a little like him.
"No Trespassing!"
Two young couples trespass on the Place's lake shore, only to be driven off by the Master and Lad. A week later, Lad is taken to compete in a dog show in Beauville. One of the men from the lake is there to show his boss' champion Lochaber King. He plots to dye Lad's coat red to embarrass the Master for the earlier incident, but accidentally dyes Lochaber King's coat instead, after the two dogs change locations. He is left having to answer for the dog's ruined coat while Lad wins the silver trophy.
"Hero-Stuff"
The Master and Mistress buy a female collie puppy named Lady to be Lad's companion and mate. Lad becomes her protector and slave, as she bullies him from his food and the best places to lie and he endures the flashes of nasty temper that lead her to bite his ears and paws. As she grows older, she becomes a generally well-behaved house dog, but when she is eight months old, she tries to attack a beloved mounted bald eagle belonging to the Master. He whips her and then locks her in a shed for the night as punishment; however, during the night it catches on fire. Lad desperately tries to break down the door to free her, then howls in agony, before jumping through its high window to join Lady inside. The Master, awakened by Lad's howl, arrives in time to free them both, though both have badly burned coats.
"The Stowaway"
When Lady returns from a fifteen-week hospital stay, she abandons Lad to play with their son Wolf, whom she no longer recognizes. The moping Lad takes to hiding in the car to beg for a ride and accidentally becomes a stowaway when the Master and Mistress go to the Catskills to visit friends. As dogs are not allowed in the residential park where they are staying, they take Lad to a kennel, but he quickly escapes and returns to the park. While waiting for the Master and Mistress to wake up, he follows a strange scent through a neighbor's house, leading to his being blamed for destroying a room in that house. However, it is quickly discovered that the vandal was another neighbor's pet monkey, hidden by its owner who did not like the park's new "no pet" rules. When Lad returns home, Lady effusively greets her returned mate.
"The Tracker"
Cyril, an eleven-year-old with a nasty penchant for making trouble, comes to stay at the Place for three months. While there, he frequently lies, sneakily torments Lad and plays such horrible pranks on the staff that two quit. After he is caught kicking Lad in plain sight, the Master loses his temper and scolds him. Cyril goes into a rage and runs away in a snowstorm. He gets lost and falls off a high cliff, landing on a small ledge. Lad finds him there, but has to jump down to the ledge to save the boy from a bobcat. Now trapped with the boy, Lad keeps him warm until a rescue party arrives.
"The Juggernaut"
Lad's mate Lady is run over and killed by a speeding driver who deliberately aimed his car at her. Lad and his owners both saw the crime, but were unable to catch up to the driver in time. Lad grieves terribly until they go to a local tennis tournament where he finds Lady's killer. He attacks the man to kill him, but the Master calls him off. The Mistress explains to the shocked crowd what the man had done, then takes a cured Lad home. They later learn that the crowd destroyed the man's expensive car and he was expelled from the club for killing Lady.
"In Strange Company"
The Master and Mistress take Lad on their annual fall camping trip to the mountains for two weeks. During the trip, Lad playfully teases a bear, leading to a fight, which the Master ends by scaring off the bear. At the end of the trip, Lad is accidentally left tied to a tree at the camp site. While his owners are returning to find their missing dog, Lad is trapped by a forest fire. When the bear he fought earlier rushes past with singed fur, Lad chews through his rope and follows the other animals of the forest to sit in a nearby lake. When his owners arrive, he runs through the burning fire to join them, blistering his paws on some coals.
"Old Dog; New Tricks"
After 12-year-old Lad is praised for bringing the Mistress a lace parasol that he found on the road, he begins searching the road for more things to find, sometimes stealing them unintentionally from people who were nearby but not watching their items. As he had gotten more sensitive in his older age, his owners always praised him for the gifts, which ranged from a full picnic basket to roadkill. One night, he "finds" a baby, who was kidnapped from a wealthy household by a disgruntled former employee and his kin. The baby had been set in the grass by his two kidnappers while they changed a flat tire. The kidnappers eventually catch up to Lad, who is carrying the child home. He fights off the men when they attack him, eventually chasing them back to their car, and they escape. The baby is returned to his parents and the kidnappers arrested, but Lad is hurt that his present results in no praise, just a lot of activity around the house.
"The Intruders"
A large, cranky sow escapes from its herd and attacks the Mistress after she tries to shoo it out of her garden. Lad charges between them and battles the sow, but with his old age and blunt fangs he struggles with the fight and is badly injured. Bruce and Wolf return from a forest romp in time to aid him and the younger dogs are able to easily drive her off. While fleeing, the pig runs directly into the path of one of the Place's cars, driven by a car thief who is knocked unconscious. Lad's feelings are hurt by the battle being finished by the other dogs and the Mistress' holding him back from joining them at the end, but he quickly forgives her.
"The Guard"
At 16, the aging Lad befriends Sonya, a seven-year-old girl whose father works at the Place. Her father forces her to assist him with his work, then brutally mistreats her if she is slow. The Master and the Place's superintendent try to quell the behavior, with no success. During a walk with the girl, Lad protects her from her father. The next day, while the Master and Mistress are at a show and the other workers are off on holiday, Sonya's father starts to beat her for accidentally dropping a heavy basket. Lad comes to her rescue and they retreat to the veranda where she pets him while he sleeps. When Sonya goes to the barn, her father is waiting for her and closes the door. Somehow she senses Lad beside her, which gives her the courage to stand up to her father. The man imagines he sees Lad beside her and runs away in fear. Unknown to both, Lad had died in his sleep and the Master and Mistress were crying over his body on the veranda.
## Development and publication
In 1915, Albert Payson Terhune penned his first canine short story, "His Mate", basing the main canine character on his real-life Rough Collie Lad. After the short story's publication in the January 1916 issue of Red Book Magazine, Terhune began writing additional short stories. The Lad Stories were published in the Saturday Evening Post, Ladies' Home Journal, Hartford Courant and the Atlantic Monthly, though Red Book remained the most consistent purchaser of the stories. Terhune collected twenty of the stories into a novel form, publishing it as Lad: A Dog in 1919, the year after the real Lad died. The novel was well received by critics and readers, becoming a best seller.
Available evidence indicates that the real Lad was born in December 1902, and that unlike his fictional counterpart, Lad was a collie of unknown lineage with no American Kennel Club registration papers. After living five years with a heart tumor, the dog died on September 3, 1918, and his obituary was featured on a multi-page spread of the September 14, 1918, issue of Field and Fancy magazine. Terhune reported that he received hundreds of letters from fans asking him to publish more stories about Lad and that over 1,700 people visited Lad's grave at Sunnybank. In 1922, he collected together eleven more short stories into a novel; the stories were published earlier in The Ladies' Home Journal, with some new stories and some from other magazines. The new set of stories primarily revolved around the themes of right and wrong, abuse of authority and justice. Intending it to be the last book he would write about his late collie, Terhune killed the fictional Lad in the last chapter of the novel. The novel was published by George H. Doran as Further Adventures of Lad. Seven years and twenty other novels later, he would change his mind and release one more Lad novel, Lad of Sunnybank, which was published by HarperCollins.
After the initial publication, Further Adventures of Lad was re-released in the same year by Grosset & Dunlap. In 1941, it was republished by Doubleday as Dog Stories Every Child Should Know, and has since entered the public domain. It has released online by Project Gutenberg, in print-on-demand form by Echo Library and as a downloadable eBook by Ebookslib.
## Reception
Further Adventures of Lad quickly became a best-seller and was praised by both new readers and existing fans. Critics, however, gave it more mixed reviews. The Literary Digest called the stories "delightful sketches" that invoked a feeling of "privilege [at being] admitted to the friendship and to obtain the devotion of an animal like Lad." The reviewer for the Springfield Republican found it as "entertaining" as the previous novel and felt it was "written with the same understanding of dog nature which made the other stories universally read." A reviewer for the Olympia Daily Recorder considered it a "charming story" and a "worth while" book, calling Lad both "delightful" and a "great hero". However, Isabel Paterson, of the New York Tribune, considered Lad to be an unbelievable and undesirable dog and felt that Terhune wrote in a "rather hysterical style" whose "incessant piling up of the agony and adjectives [was] wearing." Despite these failings, she did note that dog lovers would likely enjoy the book.
The H.W. Wilson Company listed it in its 1922 Standard Catalog Bimonthly, a selection of "10,000 titles of the most useful books covering all classes of literature." In the 1960s, Warner Brothers purchased the film rights for the novel from the late Terhune's wife Anice Terhune, hoping to produce a sequel and possible television series as a follow-up to Lad: A Dog, the film adaptation of the first novel it had released in June 1962. However, the film was not as successfully as the studio hoped and all plans for follow-ups were dropped. |
3,201,877 | Falaki Shirvani | 1,162,435,925 | 12th century Persian poet | [
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"12th-century Persian-language poets",
"12th-century Persian-language writers",
"People from Shamakhi",
"Poets of the Shirvanshahs"
]
| Muhammad Falaki (Persian: محمد فلکی; 1107–1155), commonly known as Falaki Shirvani (فلکی شروانی) was a poet who served at the court of the Shirvanshah Manuchihr III (r. 1120 – after 1160). A student of the poet Khaqani, Falaki is known to have authored a Persian divan (collection of poems), of which 1,512 verses have survived. He played a leading role in the early development of the habsiyat (prison poetry), a genre in Persian literature.
Like other poets of his time, Falaki was imprisoned due to the libel spread by his rivals. It has been surmised Falaki died soon after his release as a result of the stress he had endured there.
## Biography
Of Persian decsent, Falaki Shirvani was born in 1107 in the city of Shamakhi in Shirvan, a region now located in present-day Azerbaijan. The city served as the capital of the rulers of Shirvan, the Shirvanshahs. In his work, Falaki calls himself "Muhammad Falaki", but some tadhkirahs (collection of biographies) refer to him by other names, such as Abu'l-Nizam Jalalu'd-Din, Afsahu'd-Din, Najmu'd-Din, or Mu'ayyidu'd-Din Uthman. "Falaki" was his pen name with his real name being Muhammad. Due to the former meaning "astronomer" and the poet Khaqani mentioning that Falaki was "aware of the mysteries of the nine spheres" it could be surmised that Falaki was a professional astronomer. However, this could have also been a word-play by Khaqani. Falaki was a student of Khaqani, despite being older.
According to a story reported by later biographers such as Dawlatshah Samarqandi, both Falaki and Khaqani were students of the poet Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi. Khaqani married Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi's daughter while Falaki was given 20,000 dirhams, which he was let down by. Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi told Falaki that with that money he could buy fifty Turkish handmaidens more beautiful than Khaqani's new wife. Iranologist Anna Livia Beelaert does not consider this story to be real, arguing that no parts of it is mentioned in Khaqani's writings, which mentions both Falaki and Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi. Falaki had a wife who died shortly after giving birth to their daughter. His remaining relatives (with the exception of his daughter) also died. Like Khaqani and Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi, Falaki served as a court poet of the Shirvanshah Manuchihr III (r. 1120 – after 1160).
Like other poets of his time (Khaqani, Mujir al-Din Baylaqani, and probably Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi), Falaki was imprisoned due to libel spread by his rivals. His imprisonment took place in the fortress of Shabaran, where he stayed for some time. After being freed, Falaki wrote an ode in which he claimed that his confinement had almost killed him and left him a "mere skeleton". It is uncertain whether Falaki was allowed back into the royal court or not. The Indian scholar Hadi Hasan, noting that Khaqani reported Falaki's death as "premature", considered it more plausible that Falaki soon died as a result of the stress he had endured during his imprisonment.
The death of Manuchihr III is not mentioned in Falaki's writings, which indicates that Falaki died before him. Based on this, the suggestion by authors such as Taqi Kashi that Falaki died in 1181/82 has been dismissed by historian Francois de Blois. Hadi Hasan surmised that Falaki died in c. 1155 in Shirvan. According to Taqi Kashi, Falaki was buried in Shamakhi. Khaqani dedicated an eulogy to him.
## Works
Falaki is known to have authored a Persian divan (collection of poems), of which 1,512 verses have survived. In 1929, Hadi Hasan published his collection of Falaki's poems which he had gathered from an anthology in Munich and poetry referenced in other works. In 1958, he published a updated version based on newly-found poems in a manuscript from Madras and a revised version of his previous collection. The only ruler that appears in Falaki's work is Manuchihr III, whom Falaki describes in several scenarios, such as his victory against the Alans and "Khazars" (Kipchaks), how he seized parts of Arran, how he had the cities of Kardinan and Sa'dun constructed, and how he restored the Bakilani dam.
Falaki is the first known Shirvani composer of the habsiyat (prison poetry) genre, and also played an role in its early development. There are three important words in the genre: gham (sorrow), mihnat (affliction) and ranj (suffering). These words began to set themselves apart from one another at the early stage of the development of genre. Gham communicates a gloomy resignation. Mihnat conveys enduring injustice that is connected to a universal state. Poets in Shirvan started to use the word mihnat to convey the same physical tiredness as its equivalent ranj. This lexicon was first assembled by Falaki:
> I drown in such affliction [mihnat], that I don’t care [gham] for this endless suffering [ranj].
The prison poetry genre was created by a Persian poet under the Ghaznavids, Masud Sa'd Salman, whom Falaki claimed to be below him in terms of style. Falaki displayed anxiety of influence, trying to make the accomplishments of Masud Sa'd Salman seem less important, whilst also using the latter's trademark genre. Historian Rebecca Gould considers Falaki's impact in prison poetry to pale in comparison to Masud Sa'd Salman's, but maintains that he still played an important role in the genre, contributing to its geographical and cross-generational transmission.
Falaki considered himself to be on the same level as Abu Nuwas (died 810) and Abu Tammam (died 846). The Czech orientalist Jan Rypka considered it "strange" that Falaki did not think of any contemporary poet who merited mention. Both Salman Savaji (died 1376) and Ismat Bukhara'i [fa] (died 1425/26) are known to have copied Falaki's style of poetry, though the former never admitted it. According to Gould, the works of Falaki, Khaqani, Abu'l-Ala Ganjavi and Mujir al-Din Baylaqani fully supports the claim made by academics that the Persianate Caucasus developed a distinctive literary tradition comparable to that of Bukhara, Khwarazm, and Khurasan. |
6,621 | Cnidaria | 1,170,100,504 | Aquatic animal phylum having cnydocytes | [
"Animal phyla",
"Aquatic animals",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Cnidarians",
"Ediacaran first appearances",
"Freshwater animals",
"Marine animals",
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| Cnidaria (/nɪˈdɛəriə, naɪ-/) is a phylum under kingdom Animalia containing over 11,000 species of aquatic animals found both in freshwater and marine environments, predominantly the latter.
Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes, specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell thick.
Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming medusae and sessile polyps, both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Both forms have a single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration. Many cnidarian species produce colonies that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like zooids, or both (hence they are trimorphic). Cnidarians' activities are coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming species of Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess balance-sensing statocysts, and some have simple eyes. Not all cnidarians reproduce sexually, but many species have complex life cycles of asexual polyp stages and sexual medusae stages. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, and the parasitic classes evolved to have neither form.
Cnidarians were formerly grouped with ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly sessile Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens); swimming Scyphozoa (jellyfish); Cubozoa (box jellies); and Hydrozoa (a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members, such as Hydra, and colonial swimmers, such as the Portuguese man o' war). Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the highly derived parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa were firmly recognized as cnidarians in 2007.
Most cnidarians prey on organisms ranging in size from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from dinoflagellates, and a few are parasites. Many are preyed on by other animals including starfish, sea slugs, fish, turtles, and even other cnidarians. Many scleractinian corals—which form the structural foundation for coral reefs—possess polyps that are filled with symbiotic photo-synthetic zooxanthellae. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in polar regions, and in freshwater.
Recent phylogenetic analyses support monophyly of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the sister group of bilaterians. Fossil cnidarians have been found in rocks formed about , and other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before and diversified a few million years later. However, molecular clock analysis of mitochondrial genes suggests a much older age for the crown group of cnidarians, estimated around , almost 200 million years before the Cambrian period, as well as any fossils.
## Distinguishing features
Cnidarians form a phylum of animals that are more complex than sponges, about as complex as ctenophores (comb jellies), and less complex than bilaterians, which include almost all other animals. Both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like basement membranes; muscles; nervous systems; and some have sensory organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire harpoon like structures and are usually used mainly to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Cnidarians are also distinguished by the fact that they have only one opening in their body for ingestion and excretion i.e. they do not have a separate mouth and anus.
Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges. However, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of muscle that, in more complex animals, arises from the middle cell layer. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic, and it has been suggested that cnidarians evolved from triploblastic ancestors.
## Description
### Basic body forms
Most adult cnidarians appear as either free-swimming medusae or sessile polyps, and many hydrozoans species are known to alternate between the two forms.
Both are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively. Since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as "oral" (nearest the mouth) and "aboral" (furthest from the mouth).
Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with cnidocytes around their edges, and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth. Some hydroids may consist of colonies of zooids that serve different purposes, such as defense, reproduction and catching prey. The mesoglea of polyps is usually thin and often soft, but that of medusae is usually thick and springy, so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out, enabling medusae to swim by a sort of jet propulsion.
### Skeletons
In medusae the only supporting structure is the mesoglea. Hydra and most sea anemones close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the water in the digestive cavity then acts as a hydrostatic skeleton, rather like a water-filled balloon. Other polyps such as Tubularia use columns of water-filled cells for support. Sea pens stiffen the mesoglea with calcium carbonate spicules and tough fibrous proteins, rather like sponges.
In some colonial polyps, a chitinous epidermis gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps. Stony corals secrete massive calcium carbonate exoskeletons. A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides. Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with sediment particles.
### Main cell layers
Cnidaria are diploblastic animals; in other words, they have two main cell layers, while more complex animals are triploblasts having three main layers. The two main cell layers of cnidarians form epithelia that are mostly one cell thick, and are attached to a fibrous basement membrane, which they secrete. They also secrete the jelly-like mesoglea that separates the layers. The layer that faces outwards, known as the ectoderm ("outside skin"), generally contains the following types of cells:
- Epitheliomuscular cells whose bodies form part of the epithelium but whose bases extend to form muscle fibers in parallel rows. The fibers of the outward-facing cell layer generally run at right angles to the fibers of the inward-facing one. In Anthozoa (anemones, corals, etc.) and Scyphozoa (jellyfish), the mesoglea also contains some muscle cells.
- Cnidocytes, the harpoon-like "nettle cells" that give the phylum Cnidaria its name. These appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells.
- Nerve cells. Sensory cells appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells, and communicate via synapses (gaps across which chemical signals flow) with motor nerve cells, which lie mostly between the bases of the muscle cells. Some form a simple nerve net.
- Interstitial cells, which are unspecialized and can replace lost or damaged cells by transforming into the appropriate types. These are found between the bases of muscle cells.
In addition to epitheliomuscular, nerve and interstitial cells, the inward-facing gastroderm ("stomach skin") contains gland cells that secrete digestive enzymes. In some species it also contains low concentrations of cnidocytes, which are used to subdue prey that is still struggling.
The mesoglea contains small numbers of amoeba-like cells, and muscle cells in some species. However, the number of middle-layer cells and types are much lower than in sponges.
### Polymorphism
Polymorphism refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians, particularly the polyp and medusa forms, or of zooids within colonial organisms like those in Hydrozoa. In Hydrozoans, colonial individuals arising from individuals zooids will take on separate tasks. For example, in Obelia there are feeding individuals, the gastrozooids; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the medusae.
### Cnidocytes
These "nettle cells" function as harpoons, since their payloads remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads. Three types of cnidocytes are known:
- Nematocysts inject venom into prey, and usually have barbs to keep them embedded in the victims. Most species have nematocysts.
- Spirocysts do not penetrate the victim or inject venom, but entangle it by means of small sticky hairs on the thread.
- Ptychocysts are not used for prey capture — instead the threads of discharged ptychocysts are used for building protective tubes in which their owners live. Ptychocysts are found only in the order Ceriantharia, tube anemones.
The main components of a cnidocyte are:
- A cilium (fine hair) which projects above the surface and acts as a trigger. Spirocysts do not have cilia.
- A tough capsule, the cnida, which houses the thread, its payload and a mixture of chemicals that may include venom or adhesives or both. ("cnida" is derived from the Greek word κνίδη, which means "nettle")
- A tube-like extension of the wall of the cnida that points into the cnida, like the finger of a rubber glove pushed inwards. When a cnidocyte fires, the finger pops out. If the cell is a venomous nematocyte, the "finger"'s tip reveals a set of barbs that anchor it in the prey.
- The thread, which is an extension of the "finger" and coils round it until the cnidocyte fires. The thread is usually hollow and delivers chemicals from the cnida to the target.
- An operculum (lid) over the end of the cnida. The lid may be a single hinged flap or three flaps arranged like slices of pie.
- The cell body, which produces all the other parts.
It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex. At least four hypotheses have been proposed:
- Rapid contraction of fibers round the cnida may increase its internal pressure.
- The thread may be like a coiled spring that extends rapidly when released.
- In the case of Chironex (the "sea wasp"), chemical changes in the cnida's contents may cause them to expand rapidly by polymerization.
- Chemical changes in the liquid in the cnida make it a much more concentrated solution, so that osmotic pressure forces water in very rapidly to dilute it. This mechanism has been observed in nematocysts of the class Hydrozoa, sometimes producing pressures as high as 140 atmospheres, similar to that of scuba air tanks, and fully extending the thread in as little as 2 milliseconds (0.002 second).
Cnidocytes can only fire once, and about 25% of a hydra's nematocysts are lost from its tentacles when capturing a brine shrimp. Used cnidocytes have to be replaced, which takes about 48 hours. To minimise wasteful firing, two types of stimulus are generally required to trigger cnidocytes: nearby sensory cells detect chemicals in the water, and their cilia respond to contact. This combination prevents them from firing at distant or non-living objects. Groups of cnidocytes are usually connected by nerves and, if one fires, the rest of the group requires a weaker minimum stimulus than the cells that fire first.
### Locomotion
Medusae swim by a form of jet propulsion: muscles, especially inside the rim of the bell, squeeze water out of the cavity inside the bell, and the springiness of the mesoglea powers the recovery stroke. Since the tissue layers are very thin, they provide too little power to swim against currents and just enough to control movement within currents.
Hydras and some sea anemones can move slowly over rocks and sea or stream beds by various means: creeping like snails, crawling like inchworms, or by somersaulting. A few can swim clumsily by waggling their bases.
### Nervous system and senses
Cnidarians are generally thought to have no brains or even central nervous systems. However, they do have integrative areas of neural tissue that could be considered some form of centralization. Most of their bodies are innervated by decentralized nerve nets that control their swimming musculature and connect with sensory structures, though each clade has slightly different structures. These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, and much more. Medusa usually have several of them around the margin of the bell that work together to control the motor nerve net, that directly innervates the swimming muscles. Most Cnidarians also have a parallel system. In scyphozoans, this takes the form of a diffuse nerve net, which has modulatory effects on the nervous system. As well as forming the "signal cables" between sensory neurons and motoneurons, intermediate neurons in the nerve net can also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers. Communication between nerve cells can occur by chemical synapses or gap junctions in hydrozoans, though gap junctions are not present in all groups. Cnidarians have many of the same neurotransmitters as many animals, including chemicals such as glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine.
This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously, and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body, and it also is better able to recover after injury.
Medusae and complex swimming colonies such as siphonophores and chondrophores sense tilt and acceleration by means of statocysts, chambers lined with hairs which detect the movements of internal mineral grains called statoliths. If the body tilts in the wrong direction, the animal rights itself by increasing the strength of the swimming movements on the side that is too low. Most species have ocelli ("simple eyes"), which can detect sources of light. However, the agile box jellyfish are unique among Medusae because they possess four kinds of true eyes that have retinas, corneas and lenses. Although the eyes probably do not form images, Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid-colored objects.
### Feeding and excretion
Cnidarians feed in several ways: predation, absorbing dissolved organic chemicals, filtering food particles out of the water, obtaining nutrients from symbiotic algae within their cells, and parasitism. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the corals Hetroxenia and Leptogorgia, depend almost completely on their endosymbionts and on absorbing dissolved nutrients. Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae carbon dioxide, some nutrients, and protection against predators.
Predatory species use their cnidocytes to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous nematocysts may start digestion by injecting digestive enzymes. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of cilia whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of mucus to trap particles. Their digestion is both intra and extracellular.
Once the food is in the digestive cavity, gland cells in the gastroderm release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by diffusion or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick mesogleas, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea.
Indigestible remains of prey are expelled through the mouth. The main waste product of cells' internal processes is ammonia, which is removed by the external and internal water currents.
### Respiration
There are no respiratory organs, and both cell layers absorb oxygen from and expel carbon dioxide into the surrounding water. When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced, and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it. Some Anthozoa have ciliated grooves on their tentacles, allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth. This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals, which use the cavity as a hydrostatic skeleton, to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food.
Cnidaria that carry photosynthetic symbionts may have the opposite problem, an excess of oxygen, which may prove toxic. The animals produce large quantities of antioxidants to neutralize the excess oxygen.
### Regeneration
All cnidarians can regenerate, allowing them to recover from injury and to reproduce asexually. Medusae have limited ability to regenerate, but polyps can do so from small pieces or even collections of separated cells. This enables corals to recover even after apparently being destroyed by predators.
## Reproduction
### Sexual
Cnidarian sexual reproduction often involves a complex life cycle with both polyp and medusa stages. For example, in Scyphozoa (jellyfish) and Cubozoa (box jellies) a larva swims until it finds a good site, and then becomes a polyp. This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae, a process called strobilation. The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity, while the polyp re-grows and may continue strobilating periodically. The adults have gonads in the gastroderm, and these release ova and sperm into the water in the breeding season.
This phenomenon of succession of differently organized generations (one asexually reproducing, sessile polyp, followed by a free-swimming medusa or a sessile polyp that reproduces sexually) is sometimes called "alternation of asexual and sexual phases" or "metagenesis", but should not be confused with the alternation of generations as found in plants.
Shortened forms of this life cycle are common, for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely, and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa. Hydrozoa have a variety of life cycles. Some have no polyp stages and some (e.g. hydra) have no medusae. In some species, the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae. Meanwhile, life cycle reversal, in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process, was observed in both Hydrozoa (Turritopsis dohrnii and Laodicea undulata) and Scyphozoa (Aurelia sp.1). Anthozoa have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction.
Spawning is generally driven by environmental factors such as changes in the water temperature, and their release is triggered by lighting conditions such as sunrise, sunset or the phase of the moon. Many species of Cnidaria may spawn simultaneously in the same location, so that there are too many ova and sperm for predators to eat more than a tiny percentage — one famous example is the Great Barrier Reef, where at least 110 corals and a few non-cnidarian invertebrates produce enough gametes to turn the water cloudy. These mass spawnings may produce hybrids, some of which can settle and form polyps, but it is not known how long these can survive. In some species the ova release chemicals that attract sperm of the same species.
The fertilized eggs develop into larvae by dividing until there are enough cells to form a hollow sphere (blastula) and then a depression forms at one end (gastrulation) and eventually becomes the digestive cavity. However, in cnidarians the depression forms at the end further from the yolk (at the animal pole), while in bilaterians it forms at the other end (vegetal pole). The larvae, called planulae, swim or crawl by means of cilia. They are cigar-shaped but slightly broader at the "front" end, which is the aboral, vegetal-pole end and eventually attaches to a substrate if the species has a polyp stage.
Anthozoan larvae either have large yolks or are capable of feeding on plankton, and some already have endosymbiotic algae that help to feed them. Since the parents are immobile, these feeding capabilities extend the larvae's range and avoid overcrowding of sites. Scyphozoan and hydrozoan larvae have little yolk and most lack endosymbiotic algae, and therefore have to settle quickly and metamorphose into polyps. Instead, these species rely on their medusae to extend their ranges.
### Asexual
All known cnidaria can reproduce asexually by various means, in addition to regenerating after being fragmented. Hydrozoan polyps only bud, while the medusae of some hydrozoans can divide down the middle. Scyphozoan polyps can both bud and split down the middle. In addition to both of these methods, Anthozoa can split horizontally just above the base. Asexual reproduction makes the daughter cnidarian a clone of the adult.
### DNA repair
Two classical DNA repair pathways, nucleotide excision repair and base excision repair, are present in hydra, and these repair pathways facilitate unhindered reproduction. The identification of these pathways in hydra is based, in part, on the presence in the hydra genome of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways.
## Classification
Cnidarians were for a long time grouped with Ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Modern cnidarians are generally classified into four main classes: sessile Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens); swimming Scyphozoa (jellyfish) and Cubozoa (box jellies); and Hydrozoa, a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members such as Hydra and colonial swimmers such as the Portuguese Man o' War. Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa are now recognized as highly derived cnidarians rather than more closely related to the bilaterians.
Stauromedusae, small sessile cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage, have traditionally been classified as members of the Scyphozoa, but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class, Staurozoa.
The Myxozoa, microscopic parasites, were first classified as protozoans. Research then found that Polypodium hydriforme, a non-Myxozoan parasite within the egg cells of sturgeon, is closely related to the Myxozoa and suggested that both Polypodium and the Myxozoa were intermediate between cnidarians and bilaterian animals. More recent research demonstrates that the previous identification of bilaterian genes reflected contamination of the Myxozoan samples by material from their host organism, and they are now firmly identified as heavily derived cnidarians, and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa than to Anthozoa.
Some researchers classify the extinct conulariids as cnidarians, while others propose that they form a completely separate phylum.
Current classification according to the World Register of Marine Species:
- class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834
- subclass Ceriantharia Perrier, 1893 — Tube-dwelling anemones
- subclass Hexacorallia Haeckel, 1896 — stony corals
- subclass Octocorallia Haeckel, 1866 — soft corals and sea fans
- class Cubozoa Werner, 1973 — box jellies
- class Hydrozoa Owen, 1843 — hydrozoans (fire corals, hydroids, hydroid jellyfishes, siphonophores...)
- class Myxozoa Grassé, 1970 — obligate parasites
- class Polypodiozoa Raikova, 1994 — (uncertain status)
- class Scyphozoa Goette, 1887 — "true" jellyfishes
- class Staurozoa Marques & Collins, 2004 — stalked jellyfishes
## Ecology
Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on endosymbiotic algae for much of their nutrients. The life cycles of most have polyp stages, which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates. Nevertheless, major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations. Hydrozoans have a worldwide range: some, such as Hydra, live in freshwater; Obelia appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans; and Liriope can form large shoals near the surface in mid-ocean. Among anthozoans, a few scleractinian corals, sea pens and sea fans live in deep, cold waters, and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near hydrothermal vents over 10 km (33,000 ft) below sea-level. Reef-building corals are limited to tropical seas between 30°N and 30°S with a maximum depth of 46 m (151 ft), temperatures between 20 and 28 °C (68 and 82 °F), high salinity, and low carbon dioxide levels. Stauromedusae, although usually classified as jellyfish, are stalked, sessile animals that live in cool to Arctic waters. Cnidarians range in size from a mere handful of cells for the parasitic myxozoans through Hydra'''s length of 5–20 mm (1⁄4–3⁄4 in), to the Lion's mane jellyfish, which may exceed 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter and 75 m (246 ft) in length.
Prey of cnidarians ranges from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves. Some cnidarians are parasites, mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish. Others obtain most of their nourishment from endosymbiotic algae or dissolved nutrients. Predators of cnidarians include: sea slugs, flatworms and comb jellies, which can incorporate nematocysts into their own bodies for self-defense (nematocysts used by cnidarian predators are referred to as kleptocnidae); starfish, notably the crown of thorns starfish, which can devastate corals; butterfly fish and parrot fish, which eat corals; and marine turtles, which eat jellyfish. Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with some fish; for example clownfish live among the tentacles of sea anemones, and each partner protects the other against predators.
Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems. Common coral reef cnidarians include both Anthozoans (hard corals, octocorals, anemones) and Hydrozoans (fire corals, lace corals). The endosymbiotic algae of many cnidarian species are very effective primary producers, in other words converters of inorganic chemicals into organic ones that other organisms can use, and their coral hosts use these organic chemicals very efficiently. In addition, reefs provide complex and varied habitats that support a wide range of other organisms. Fringing reefs just below low-tide level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high-tide level and seagrass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.
## Evolutionary history
### Fossil record
The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern-looking cnidarians, possibly from around , although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately. The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested, but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other mineralized structures made by corals. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged. Although the Ediacaran fossil Charnia used to be classified as a jellyfish or sea pen, more recent study of growth patterns in Charnia and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis, leaving the Canadian polyp Haootia and the British Auroralumina as the only recognized cnidarian body fossils from the Ediacaran. Auroralumina is the earliest known animal predator. Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized skeletons are known from more recent rocks, except in lagerstätten that preserved soft-bodied animals.
A few mineralized fossils that resemble corals have been found in rocks from the Cambrian period, and corals diversified in the Early Ordovician. These corals, which were wiped out in the Permian–Triassic extinction event about , did not dominate reef construction since sponges and algae also played a major part. During the Mesozoic era rudist bivalves were the main reef-builders, but they were wiped out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event , and since then the main reef-builders have been scleractinian corals.
### Family tree
It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the evolutionary "family tree" of animals using only morphology (their shapes and structures), because the large differences between Porifera (sponges), Cnidaria plus Ctenophora (comb jellies), Placozoa and Bilateria (all the more complex animals) make comparisons difficult. Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on molecular phylogenetics, which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their biochemistry, usually in their DNA or RNA.
It is now generally thought that the Calcarea (sponges with calcium carbonate spicules) are more closely related to Cnidaria, Ctenophora (comb jellies) and Bilateria (all the more complex animals) than they are to the other groups of sponges. In 1866 it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called Coelenterata ("hollow guts"), because Cnidaria and Ctenophora both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding, excretion and respiration. In 1881, it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other, since they shared features that Cnidaria lack, for example muscles in the middle layer (mesoglea in Ctenophora, mesoderm in Bilateria). However more recent analyses indicate that these similarities are rather vague, and the current view, based on molecular phylogenetics, is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora. This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been labelled "Planulozoa" because it suggests that the earliest Bilateria were similar to the planula larvae of Cnidaria.
Within the Cnidaria, the Anthozoa (sea anemones and corals) are regarded as the sister-group of the rest, which suggests that the earliest cnidarians were sessile polyps with no medusa stage. However, it is unclear how the other groups acquired the medusa stage, since Hydrozoa form medusae by budding from the side of the polyp while the other Medusozoa do so by splitting them off from the tip of the polyp. The traditional grouping of Scyphozoa included the Staurozoa, but morphology and molecular phylogenetics indicate that Staurozoa are more closely related to Cubozoa (box jellies) than to other "Scyphozoa". Similarities in the double body walls of Staurozoa and the extinct Conulariida suggest that they are closely related.
However, in 2005 Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of triploblastic animals, since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have striated muscle, which in bilaterians arises from the mesoderm. They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians.
In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards, important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in chordates. In fact cnidarians, and especially anthozoans (sea anemones and corals), retain some genes that are present in bacteria, protists, plants and fungi but not in bilaterians.
The mitochondrial genome in the medusozoan cnidarians, unlike those in other animals, is linear with fragmented genes. The reason for this difference is unknown.
## Interaction with humans
Jellyfish stings killed about 1,500 people in the 20th century, and cubozoans are particularly dangerous. On the other hand, some large jellyfish are considered a delicacy in East and Southeast Asia. Coral reefs have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds, protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides, and more recently as centers of tourism. However, they are vulnerable to over-fishing, mining for construction materials, pollution, and damage caused by tourism.
Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great productivity, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the organic carbon they produce is exhaled as carbon dioxide by organisms at the middle levels of the food chain and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials; pollution, including large influxes of fresh water from storm drains; commercial fishing, including the use of dynamite to stun fish and the capture of young fish for aquariums; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs. Coral, mainly from the Pacific Ocean has long been used in jewellery, and demand rose sharply in the 1980s.
Some large jellyfish species of the Rhizostomae order are commonly consumed in Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia. In parts of the range, fishing industry is restricted to daylight hours and calm conditions in two short seasons, from March to May and August to November. The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared, and "Jellyfish Masters" guard their trade secrets carefully. Jellyfish is very low in cholesterol and sugars, but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of heavy metals.
The "sea wasp" Chironex fleckeri has been described as the world's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths, although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent. Most stingings by C. fleckeri cause only mild symptoms. Seven other box jellies can cause a set of symptoms called Irukandji syndrome, which takes about 30 minutes to develop, and from a few hours to two weeks to disappear. Hospital treatment is usually required, and there have been a few deaths.
A number of the parasitic Myxozoans are commercially important pathogens in salmonid aquaculture. A Scyphozoa species – Pelagia noctiluca – and a Hydrozoa – Muggiaea atlantica'' – have caused repeated mass mortality in salmon farms over the years around Ireland. A loss valued at £1 million struck in November 2007, 20,000 died off Clare Island in 2013 and four fish farms collectively lost tens of thousands of salmon in September 2017. |
14,678,693 | Tibetan blackbird | 1,157,298,470 | Species of bird from the Himalayas | [
"Birds described in 1881",
"Birds of Nepal",
"Birds of North India",
"Birds of Pakistan",
"Birds of Tibet",
"Taxa named by Henry Seebohm",
"Turdus"
]
| The Tibetan blackbird (Turdus maximus) is a species of bird in the thrush family Turdidae. It is found in the Himalayas from northern Pakistan to southeastern Tibet. Originally described as a separate species by Henry Seebohm in 1881, it was then considered a subspecies of the common blackbird until 2008, when phylogenetic evidence revealed that it was only distantly related to the latter species. It is a relatively large thrush, having an overall length of 23–28 centimetres (9–10 inches). Males are blackish-brown all over with darker plumage on the head, breast, wings and tail and dull orange-yellow bills, while females have browner , faint streaking on the throat, and a dull darkish yellow bill. Both sexes may seem slightly hooded. It can be differentiated from the common blackbird by its complete lack of an eye-ring and reduced song.
The Tibetan blackbird inhabits steep grassy, rocky slopes and alpine meadows above the tree line. Usually found at elevations of 3,200–4,800 metres (10,500–15,700 feet), it descends to lower elevations in the winter, but seldom below 3,000 m (9,800 ft). It is omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates, lizards, fruit, and seeds. Breeding occurs from May to July, peaking from June to early July. Cup nests are made out of mud, animal hair, and fine grass and contain clutches of 3–4 eggs. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the species as being of least concern due to its large range, along with a large and increasing population.
## Taxonomy and systematics
The Tibetan blackbird was originally described as Merula maxima by Henry Seebohm in 1881 on the basis of a specimen collected by Thomas Jerdon in Gulmarg, Kashmir. It was subsequently considered a subspecies of the common blackbird by Charles Richmond in 1896, and was moved to Turdus with that species. It was raised to species status again in 2008 on the basis of phylogenetic evidence. The generic name Turdus is from the Latin turdus, meaning thrush, while the specific name maximus is from the Latin maximus, meaning greatest. Tibetan blackbird is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. It is also called the Central Asian blackbird.
The Tibetan blackbird is one of 65 species in the genus Turdus. It was previously treated as a subspecies of the common blackbird (Turdus merula). However, a 2008 phylogenetic study by Johan Nylander and colleagues showed the Tibetan blackbird to be only distantly related to the common blackbird, with the species instead being sister to the white-backed thrush. Richard and Annie Meinertzhagen described a proposed subspecies buddae on the basis of the smaller bills of birds from Sikkim and Gyangtse in 1925, but this character is not consistent throughout the population, and the species is consequently treated as being monotypic.
## Description
The Tibetan blackbird is a relatively large thrush, being 23–28 centimetres (9–10 inches) in length. Males are brownish-black all over and darker on the head, breast, wings and tail, with dull orange-yellow bills. Females have blackish-brown and browner , with faint streaking on the throat and a dull darkish yellow bill. Both sexes may appear slightly hooded. Juveniles are like females, but have greyish-buff on the back to and rump, greyish-buff streaking on the throat, and greyish-buff barring on the belly to . It differs from the common blackbird in its complete lack of an eye-ring and reduced song.
### Vocalisations
The song of the Tibetan blackbird is repetitious series of rapid grating notes, unpleasant squeaks, drongo-like wheezes, and guttural caws, with sporadic piew-piew whistles, given from a ridge top, rock, or trees. Unlike the song of the common blackbird, it does not have warbles or trills. Calls include a low-pitched chut-ut-ut, a staccato chak-chak-chak-chak given in flight, and a rattling chow-jow-jow-jow given as an alarm call.
## Distribution and habitat
The Tibetan blackbird is found locally in the Himalayas of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and China. During the breeding season, it inhabits steep grassy, rocky slopes and alpine meadows just above the tree line at elevations of 3,200–4,800 m (10,500–15,700 ft). In the winter, it descends to lower elevations, but rarely goes below 3,000 m (9,800 ft).
## Behaviour and ecology
### Diet
The Tibetan blackbird is omnivorous, feeding on earthworms, molluscs, insects, small lizards, fruit, and seeds. It forages on the ground, hopping over rocks and boulders, and favours soft bare ground at the edge of melting snow for foraging. In late summer, foraging occurs in flocks of up to ten individuals.
### Breeding
The Tibetan blackbird's breeding season lasts from May to July, with breeding peaking from June to early July. Breeding occurs in juniper or rhododendron bushes. It builds a bulky cup nest with mud, animal hair, and fine grass. Nests are built in roots on the ground, at the foot of a boulder, in low bushes, on cliff faces, or against rocky walls. Cotoneaster microphyllus is the favourite plant for building nests in China. Eggs are large and dull buff to grey with brown blotches, and are laid in clutches of three or four. The time taken to incubate the eggs is 12–13 days and the time it takes for nestlings to fledge is 16–18 days. Nestlings are fed small worms. A study in China found the success rate of nests to be 59%.
## Status
The Tibetan blackbird is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List due to its very large range, large population, and a population that appears to be increasing. |
11,579,935 | Spotted eagle ray | 1,153,904,135 | Species of fish | [
"Aetobatus",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Fish described in 1790",
"Fish of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Fish of the Indian Ocean",
"Fish of the Pacific Ocean",
"Ovoviviparous fish"
]
| The spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) is a cartilaginous fish of the eagle ray family, Aetobatidae. As traditionally recognized, it is found globally in tropical regions, including the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Recent authorities have restricted it to the Atlantic (including the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico) with other populations recognized as the ocellated eagle ray (A. ocellatus) and Pacific white-spotted eagle ray (A. laticeps). Spotted eagle rays are most commonly seen alone, but occasionally swim in groups. They are ovoviviparous, the female retaining the eggs then releasing the young as miniature versions of the parent.
This ray can be identified by its dark dorsal surface covered in white spots or rings. Near the base of the ray's relatively long tail, just behind the pelvic fins, are several venomous, barbed stingers. Spotted eagle rays commonly feed on small fish and crustaceans, and will sometimes dig with their snouts to look for food buried in the sand of the sea bed. These rays are commonly observed leaping out of the water, and on at least two occasions have been reported as having jumped into boats, in one incident resulting in the death of a woman in the Florida Keys. The spotted eagle ray is hunted by a wide variety of sharks. The rays are considered near threatened on the IUCN Red List. They are fished mainly in Southeast Asia and Africa, the most common market being in commercial trade and aquariums. They are protected in the Great Barrier Reef.
## Taxonomy
The spotted eagle ray was first described by Swedish botanist Bengt Anders Euphrasén as Raja narinari in 1790 from a specimen collected at an unknown location (possibly the coast of Brazil) during a trip he made to the Antilles, and was later classified as Stoasodon narinari. Its current genus name is Aetobatus, derived from the Greek words aetos (eagle) and batis (ray). The spotted eagle ray belongs to the Myliobatidae, which includes the well known manta ray. Most rays in the family Myliobatidae swim in the open ocean rather than close to the sea floor.
Although traditionally considered to have a circumglobal distribution in tropical oceans throughout the world, recent authorities have restricted the true Aetobatus narinari to the Atlantic Ocean based on genetic and morphologic evidence. The Indo-Pacific population is Aetobatus ocellatus and the East Pacific is Aetobatus laticeps.
The spotted eagle ray has many different common names, including white-spotted eagle ray, bonnet skate, bonnet ray, duckbill ray and spotted duck-billed ray.
## Appearance
Spotted eagle rays have flat disk-shaped bodies, deep blue or black with white spots on top with a white underbelly, and distinctive flat snouts similar to a duck's bill. Their tails are longer than other rays and may have 2–6 venomous spines, behind the pelvic fins. The front of the wing-like pectoral disk has five small gills in its underside.
Mature spotted eagle rays can be up to 5 meters (16 ft) in length; the largest spotted eagle rays have a wingspan of up to 3 meters (10 ft) and a mass of 230 kilograms (507 lb).
### Reproduction
One male, or sometimes several, will pursue a female. When one of the males approaches the female, he uses his upper jaw to grab her dorsum. The male will then roll the female over by grabbing one of her pectoral fins, which are located on either side of her body. Once he is on her ventral side, the male puts a clasper into the female, connecting them venter to venter, with both undersides together. The mating process lasts for 30–90 seconds.
The spotted eagle ray develops ovoviviparously; the eggs are retained in the female and hatch internally, feeding off a yolk sac until live birth. After a gestation period of one year the mother ray will give birth to a maximum of four pups. When the pups are first born, their discs measure from 17–35 centimeters (6.7–13.8 in) across. The rays mature in 4 to 6 years.
### Feeding and diet
Spotted eagle ray preys mainly upon bivalves, crabs, whelks and other benthic infauna. They also feed on mollusks (such as the queen conch) and crustaceans, particularly malacostracans, as well as echinoderms, polychaete worms, hermit crabs, shrimp, octopuses, and some small fish.
The spotted eagle ray's specialized chevron-shaped tooth structure helps it to crush the mollusks' hard shells. The jaws of these rays have developed calcified struts to help them break through the shells of mollusks, by supporting the jaws and preventing dents from hard prey. These rays have the unique behavior of digging with their snouts in the sand of the ocean. While doing this, a cloud of sand surrounds the ray and sand spews from its gills. One study has shown that there are no differences in the feeding habits of males and females or in rays from different regions of Australia and Taiwan.
### Behavior
Spotted eagle rays prefer to swim in waters of 24 to 27 °C (75 to 81 °F). Their daily movement is influenced by the tides; one tracking study showed that they are more active during high tides. Uniquely among rays they dig with their snouts in the sand, surrounding themselves in a cloud of sand that spews from their gills. They also exhibit two motions in which the abdomen and the pectoral fins are moved rapidly up and down: the pelvic thrust and the extreme pelvic thrust. The pelvic thrust is usually performed by a solitary ray, and repeated four to five times rapidly. The extreme pelvic thrust is most commonly observed when the ray is swimming in a group, from which it will separate itself before vigorously thrusting with its pectoral fins. The rays also performs dips and jumps; in a dip the ray will dive and then come back up rapidly, perhaps as many as five times consecutively. There are two main types of jump: in one, the ray propels itself vertically out of the water, to which it returns along the same line; the other is when the ray leaps at a 45 degree angle, often repeated multiple times at high speeds. When in shallow waters or outside their normal swimming areas the rays are most commonly seen alone, but they do also congregate in schools. One form of travelling is called loose aggregation, which is when three to sixteen rays are swimming in a loose group, with occasional interactions between them. A school commonly consists of six or more rays swimming in the same direction at exactly the same speed.
## Human interaction
The dorsal spots make the spotted eagle ray an aquarium attraction, although because of its large size it is likely kept only at public aquariums. There are no target fisheries for the spotted eagle ray, but it is often eaten after being caught unintentionally as bycatch. There have been several reported incidents of spotted eagle rays leaping out of the water onto boats and landing on people. Nevertheless, spotted eagle rays do not pose a significant threat to humans, as they are shy and generally avoid human contact. Interactions with an individual snorkeler in the Caribbean has been reported especially in Jamaica involving one, two and even three spotted eagle rays. The rays may exhibit a behavior similar to human curiosity which allows the snorkeler to observe the eagle ray who may slow down so as to share more time with the much slower human observer if the human observer appears to be unthreatening or interesting to the spotted eagle ray.
## Predators and parasites
Spotted eagle rays, in common with many other rays, often fall victim to sharks such as the tiger shark, the lemon shark, the bull shark, the silver tip shark, and the great hammerhead shark. A great hammerhead shark has been observed attacking a spotted eagle ray in open water by taking a large bite out of one of its pectoral fins, thus incapacitating the ray. The shark then used its head to pin the ray to the bottom and pivoted to take the ray in its jaws, head first. Sharks have also been observed to follow female rays during the birthing season, and feed on the newborn pups.
As other rays, spotted eagle rays are host to a variety of parasites. Internal parasites include the gnathostomatid nematode Echinocephalus sinensis in the spiral intestine. External parasites include the monocotylid monogeneans Decacotyle octona, Decacotyle elpora and Thaumatocotyle pseudodasybatis on the gills.
## Distribution and habitat
As traditionally defined, spotted eagle rays are found globally in tropical regions from the Indo-Pacific region from the western Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the western Atlantic Ocean.
They are found in shallow coastal water by coral reefs and bays, in depths down to 80 meters (262 ft). Spotted eagle rays are found in warm and temperate waters worldwide. In the western Atlantic Ocean it is found off the eastern coast of United States of America, the Gulf Stream, the Caribbean, and down past the southern part of Brazil. In the Indian Ocean, it is found from the Red Sea down to South Africa and eastward to the Andaman Sea. In the Western Pacific Ocean it can be found near Japan and north of Australia. In the Central Pacific Ocean, it can be found throughout the Hawaiian Islands. In the Eastern-Pacific Ocean, it is found in the Gulf of California down through Puerto Pizarro, an area that includes the Galapagos Islands. Spotted eagle rays are most commonly seen in bays and reefs. They spend much of their time swimming freely in open waters, generally in schools close to the surface, and can travel long distances in a day.
Within these regions, there are significant variations in genetics and morphology. As a consequence, recent authorities have split it into three: This restricts the true spotted eagle ray (A. narinari) to the Atlantic, while the Indo-Pacific population is the ocellated eagle ray (A. ocellatus) and the East Pacific is the Pacific white-spotted eagle ray (A. laticeps).
## Conservation
The spotted eagle ray is included in the IUCN's Red List as "near threatened". The rays are caught mainly in Southeast Asia and Africa. They are also common in commercial marine life trade and are displayed in aquariums. Among the many efforts to help protect this species, South Africa's decision to deploy fewer protective shark nets has reduced the number of deaths caused by entanglement. South Africa has also placed restrictions on the number of rays that can be bought per person per day. In the U.S. state of Florida, the fishing, landing, purchasing and trading of spotted eagle ray are outlawed. This ray is also protected in the Great Barrier Reef on the eastern coast of Australia.
In Europe there is a breeding program managed by the EAZA for spotted eagle rays to reduce the amount of wild caught individuals needed by public aquaria. From the start until 2018 Burgers' Zoo in the Netherlands kept the studbook. Since 2018, Wroclaw Zoo in Poland is the new studbook keeper. Burgers' Zoo was also the first place in Europe to breed with the species and in 2018 was the most successful breeder worldwide with over 55 births. |
5,991,221 | Eorpwald of East Anglia | 1,160,024,648 | null | [
"627 deaths",
"7th-century Christian saints",
"7th-century English monarchs",
"7th-century murdered monarchs",
"East Anglian monarchs",
"East Anglian saints",
"House of Wuffingas",
"Year of birth unknown"
]
| Eorpwald; also Erpenwald or Earpwald, (reigned from c. 624, assassinated c. 627 or 632), succeeded his father Rædwald as ruler of the independent Kingdom of the East Angles. Eorpwald was a member of the East Anglian dynasty known as the Wuffingas, named after the semi-historical king Wuffa.
Little is known of Eorpwald's life or of his short reign, as little documentary evidence about the East Anglian kingdom has survived. The primary source for Eorpwald is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written by Bede in the 8th century. Soon after becoming king, Eorpwald received Christian teaching and was baptised in 627 or 632. Soon after his conversion he was killed by Ricberht, a pagan noble, who may have succeeded him and ruled for three years. The motive for Eorpwald's assassination was probably political as well as religious. He was the first early English king to suffer death as a consequence of his Christian faith and was subsequently venerated by the Church as a saint and martyr.
In 1939, a magnificent ship-burial was discovered under a large mound at Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk. Although Rædwald is usually considered to have been buried with the ship (or commemorated by it), another possibility is Eorpwald. Alternatively, he might also have had his own ship-burial nearby.
## Background and family
By the beginning of the 7th century, southern England was almost entirely under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. These peoples, who are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, began to arrive in Britain in the 5th century. By 600, a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the conquered territories, including the Kingdom of the East Angles, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Almost no documentary sources exist about the history of the kingdom before the reign of Rædwald, who reigned until about 624. Sources of information include the names of a few of the early Wuffing kings, mentioned in a short passage in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written in the 730s.
In 616, Rædwald defeated and killed Æthelfrith of Northumbria in the Battle of the River Idle and then installed Edwin as the new Deiran king. Whilst Edwin had been an exile at Rædwald's court, he had had a dream where he was told that if he converted to Christianity, he would become greater than any that had ruled before him. Steven Plunkett relates that, according to the version of events as told in the Whitby Life of St Gregory, it was Paulinus who visited Edwin and obtained his promise to convert to Christianity in return for regal power. After Edwin emerged as the ruler of Deira, with its centre at York, he became accepted as king of the northern Northumbrian province of Bernicia. Following his victory over the Northumbrians, Rædwald was not only king of the East Angles, but also the most powerful king amongst the rulers of the various English kingdoms, occupying the role which was later described by the term Bretwalda. He is thought by many to have been buried in the sumptuous ship burial at Sutton Hoo.
Eorpwald was the son of Rædwald by a wife whose name is not recorded. He had at least one brother, Rægenhere, and another sibling, Sigeberht, may also have been his brother. Rædwald used the letters R and E when naming two of his own sons (as did his own father when he and his younger brother Eni were named), which suggests that Eorpwald was the younger sibling and would only have become Rædwald's heir after his elder brother Rægenhere was slain in battle in 616. It is unclear whether, as Bede understood, Sigebert and Eorpwald were brothers, or whether they shared the same mother but not the same father, as was stated by the 12th-century chronicler William of Malmesbury. According to the historian Barbara Yorke, Sigebert may have been a member of a different line of Wuffings who, as his rival, was forced into exile, in order to ensure that Eorpwald became king.
## Accession and conversion to Christianity
Eorpwald was still a pagan when he became king of the East Angles, following the death of Rædwald in around 624. D. P. Kirby maintains that Sigeberht fled from East Anglia to Gaul during the internal strife that followed Eorpwald's accession and that the new king's paganism created tension between Christian and pagan factions within the kingdom, which resulted in a reduction in his influence. In 627, Edwin undertook the conversion of the peoples of Northumbria, Lindsey and East Anglia and at his prompting Eorpwald was, according to Bede, "persuaded to accept the Christian faith and sacraments". It can be calculated that this event occurred in 627, taking into account the years that Felix of Burgundy was known to have held the East Anglian bishopric. In contrast, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that Eorpwald's baptism took place during 632: "Her wæs Eorpwald gefullod", ("Here Eorpwald was baptized").
It is not known whether Eorpwald was baptised in East Anglia, Northumbria or Kent, but it is very likely that Edwin, now the senior ruler, was present as his sponsor. Higham suggests that because of the lack of proper facilities in East Anglia, it is likely that he was baptised by Paulinus at Edwin's centre of authority in Northumbria. The manner of Eorpwald's conversion indicated that he was a subordinate king and that Edwin was his overlord.
Following his baptism, Edwin's Northumbrian priests were in a position to be able to suppress pagan practices in Eorpwald's kingdom and convert the East Anglians. The conversion had the general political benefit of bringing the entire eastern seaboard from Northumbria to Kent, with the exception of Essex, under the dominion of Edwin and his Christian allies.
## Death and sainthood
The conversion of Eorpwald's kingdom did not result in the establishment of any ecclesiastical infrastructure, such as the establishment of a see within the kingdom. Bede reported that soon after his conversion, Eorpwald was slain (occisus) by a heathen (uiro gentili) named Ricberht and that after he was killed, the kingdom reverted to heathen rule (in errore uersata est) for three years.
Eorpwald was the first English king to be killed because of his Christian faith. The circumstances are not recorded, so that it is not known whether Ricberht represented an internal East Anglian opposition to Christian rule, or if he was an emissary from abroad wishing to diminish Edwin of Northumbria's influence over the East Angles. The return of East Anglia to pagan rule does not necessarily mean that there was an overt struggle between the worship of the Anglo-Saxon gods and the worship of Christ, but could express a reaction against Christianity amongst the East Angles, prompted by Edwin's rise to power and his subsequent dominance over their king. The ancestry of Ricberht is unknown and it is unclear as to whether he ever ruled after he killed Eorpwald, but in 630 or 631, three years after Eorpwald's assassination, Sigeberht returned from exile in Gaul and became king of the East Angles.
At Sutton Hoo (near Woodbridge, in Suffolk) is the site of two 6th-7th century Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, where it is believed that members of Eorpwald's dynasty were entombed under large earth mounds. Several East Anglian kings, including Eorpwald, have been suggested as possible candidates for the occupant of the burial site under Mound 1, discovered in 1939. Martin Carver has speculated that historians could use regal lists and other sources of information to identify the occupants, whilst acknowledging that no material evidence exists to support the theory that Eorpwald or other members of his family are buried there. He has used Eorpwald's relationship as the son of Rædwald to place him in either Mound 1 or 2.
According to Fleming's Complete History of the British Martyrs, published in 1904, King Eorpwald was venerated as a saint and a martyr by the English Church. His feast day is not known. |
20,503,646 | Terrence Cody | 1,173,726,148 | American football player (born 1988) | [
"1988 births",
"Alabama Crimson Tide football players",
"All-American college football players",
"American football defensive tackles",
"Baltimore Ravens players",
"Living people",
"Mississippi Gulf Coast Bulldogs football players",
"Players of American football from Fort Myers, Florida"
]
| Terrence Bernard Cody, Jr. (born June 28, 1988) is a former American football defensive tackle. He played college football for the University of Alabama. He was selected by the Baltimore Ravens in the second round of the 2010 NFL Draft and played five seasons in the NFL.
A native of Florida, Cody spent two seasons at Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College, where he helped the Bulldogs to an unbeaten season in 2007. Surprisingly nimble even at a peak weight of more than 400 pounds (180 kg), Cody drew the attention of major Division I programs. He finished his collegiate career at Alabama, where he earned consensus All-American honors twice while anchoring one of college football's best defenses during the 2008 and 2009 seasons. During his senior season with the Alabama Crimson Tide in 2009, he helped lead the Tide to an undefeated 14–0 season including a victory in the 2010 BCS National Championship Game.
Cody is one of the few football players ever to win a championship at Junior College, NCAA Division I College, and in the NFL.
## Early years
Cody was born in Fort Myers, Florida on June 28, 1988. As a child, he wore size-10 shoes by the age of eight and was never eligible for the Pop Warner youth leagues because he was always over the weight limit. He attended Riverdale High School in Fort Myers. Already 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) and 275 lb (125 kg) as a ninth-grader, Cody began playing high school football and displayed a high degree of athleticism, causing his high school coach, Scott Jones, to predict "he could be making \$2 million playing in the NFL" at some point. He played only two years of varsity football: as a freshman and then as a senior. He struggled academically, had to help take care of his seven younger siblings, and ended up "running with the wrong crowd".
After sitting out his sophomore and junior seasons, Cody dominated as a senior. In a game against North Fort Myers, he had a memorable collision with star running back Noel Devine. "Terrence hit and spun Noel Devine so hard that [Devine] was on the sideline puking," coach Jones said.
He also participated in track and field, competing in the throwing events. He got top-throws of 14.63 meters in the shot put and 46.32 meters in the discus throw.
Cody was not ranked among the nation's elite football prospects in 2006 by any recruiting service. Nonetheless he was offered athletic scholarships by the University of Miami and the University of South Florida, but could not qualify academically. Cody eventually signed with Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College.
## College career
### Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
Cody played two seasons at Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College in Perkinston, Mississippi as a defensive tackle. As a freshman, he recorded 48 tackles with 2.5 sacks and an interception. In his sophomore year, he added 31 tackles and 3.5 sacks while anchoring a Bulldog defense that ranked number one in the state in rushing defense and total defense. Mississippi Gulf Coast finished the season with a 12–0 season record and a NJCAA Co-National Championship. Cody was named to the NJCAA All-American first team.
Despite his dominance, he had trouble drawing scholarship offers, as his weight of 410 pounds (190 kg) scared off many teams. "A lot of people are just wary of guys that big," Mississippi Gulf Coast coach Steve Campbell said. "You know when people say that if things seem too good to be true that they usually are. A big guy like that who's that athletic, you just don't believe what you're seeing." Particularly noted for his lower body strength, Cody had a squat max of 660 pounds (300 kg) in junior college.
However, after Cody had his weight down to 385 lb (175 kg), a number of schools offered him scholarships, including Tennessee, Ole Miss, and Florida State. He was heavily recruited particularly by Alabama Crimson Tide head coach Nick Saban, who was in need of a true nose tackle for his 3–4 defense. Cody recalls Saban telling him, "We need a body like yours in the middle, to stop the run, to change the rhythm of the game."
Considered a three-star recruit by 247Sports.com, Cody was listed as the No. 39 junior college prospect in 2008.
Cody committed to the Crimson Tide on November 29, 2007.
### University of Alabama
#### 2008 season
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright " style="
width:25%;
;
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> "Offenses have to assign two blockers to [Cody] and he routinely clogs up the middle anyway. He forces running backs into other tacklers' arms and opens up rushing lanes for teammates."
<cite class="left-aligned" style="">''Yahoo! Sports columnist Dan Wetzel.</cite>
</div>
Cody made an immediate impact for the Crimson Tide defensive line, recording four tackles—one for loss—in a 34–10 rout of the Clemson Tigers. He and the rest of the defense also held the Tigers, which included running backs James Davis and C. J. Spiller, to zero net rushing yards. With his presence in the middle of the Crimson Tide defensive line, Cody earned himself the nickname of "Mount Cody." By mid-season he was already considered the No. 1 nose tackle prospect for the 2009 NFL Draft by league scouts.
Against Arkansas, Cody dominated Razorbacks center Jonathan Luigs—the 2007 Rimington Trophy winner—and helped the Crimson Tide to a 49–14 win. In a memorable play on a fourth-and-goal from the 1-yard line late in the first half, Cody blasted past Luigs and left guard Wade Grayson to grab running back Michael Smith before he could reach the end zone. In Alabama's rout over Georgia at Sanford Stadium, Cody was instrumental in holding Doak Walker award candidate Knowshon Moreno to just 34 yards rushing. In the seventh game of the season against Ole Miss, he received a knee injury during the third quarter which sidelined him for two weeks.
In the annual Iron Bowl versus rival Auburn, Cody and teammate Bobby Greenwood sacked quarterback Kodi Burns, giving Cody his first half-sack of the season. He also recovered a fumble, which set up an Alabama touchdown. In the 2008 SEC Championship Game versus Florida, Cody recorded three tackles in a 31–20 loss. In the loss, the Crimson Tide allowed 142 yards rushing—the second most in the 2008 season. In the season finale, he recorded one assisted tackle, while holding the Utah Utes to 13 yards rushing. However, Alabama went on to lose the game 31–17, finishing the season 12–2.
Alabama's rush defense considerably improved in 2008. After giving up 128.4 rushing yards a game in 2007, the Crimson Tide only allowed 78.8 yards per game in 2008. "As far as one guy who has changed our team more than any, you'd have to go with Terrence," offensive lineman Mike Johnson said. Cody was subsequently given the team's Defensive Achievement Award for a newcomer who has played a critical role in the effectiveness of his unit.
Despite being commonly regarded as a top prospect, Cody decided to pass on from the 2009 NFL Draft. On Christmas Day of 2008, an "announcement" on his Facebook page said that he was leaving early, but turned out to be a joke by his girlfriend.
#### 2009 season
Prior to the 2009 season Cody dropped about 10 pounds and worked on his conditioning, hoping to keep himself in the game on third-down passing situations. He was often replaced by Josh Chapman on passing downs in 2008. Nick Saban stated Cody needed to reduce his weight to 340 pounds (150 kg) in order to become an every-down player and pass-rusher; he reported for fall practice at 354 pounds (161 kg), set a goal to reach 345 pounds (156 kg) by the season opener, and eventually dropped his weight to 349 pounds (158 kg). Only a couple of days before the first game, Cody and a few of his teammates were sidelined with flu-like symptoms. Cody returned after a three-day absence.
Cody was named to the 2009 Lombardi Award, Lott Trophy, and Outland Trophy pre-season watch lists. Rivals.com ranked him as the No. 1 defensive tackle in college football in 2009. On October 14, 2009, Cody and teammate Rolando McClain were announced as two of the twelve finalists for the 2009 Lombardi Award. Cody was also named to The Sporting News and CBS Sports midseason college football All-American teams.
In a game against Tennessee on October 24, Cody blocked his first two field goals of his career, including a 44-yard attempt in the game's final seconds, to secure Alabama's 12–10 win. According to Yahoo! Sports national columnist Dan Wetzel, Cody earned himself Heisman Trophy consideration with his performance against the Volunteers. A couple of weeks later, Mike Hiserman of the Los Angeles Times also called for Heisman consideration for Cody, describing him as "the best player on what might be college football's top defense."
On November 10, Cody was named one of four finalists for the Lombardi Award, alongside Jerry Hughes, Gerald McCoy, and Ndamukong Suh. He was the seventh Crimson Tide player to be named a finalist and the second in a row, joining offensive tackle Andre Smith, who was a finalist for the award in 2008. Former All-American linebacker Cornelius Bennett was the only Alabama player to win the Lombardi Award, capturing the honor in 1986. In the end, Nebraska's Ndamukong Suh won the award. On November 19, Cody joined Pat Angerer, Eric Berry, Jerry Hughes, and Ndamukong Suh as the five finalists for the 2009 Nagurski Trophy, but was again beat out by Suh for the award. On November 23, Cody, Brandon Spikes and Suh were announced as the three finalists for the 2009 Bednarik Award, which was eventually won by Suh as well.
In his two seasons at Alabama, Cody helped the Crimson Tide to lead the Southeastern Conference in rushing defense, allowing opponents a rushing average of only 78.8 and 78.1 yards per game in 2008 and 2009, respectively. No individual player reached the 100-yard rushing mark against the Crimson Tide in those two seasons; Anthony Dixon of Mississippi State came closest with 81 yards in 2009. Cody's presence improved Alabama's pass rush despite his not being an effective pass rusher himself. Wrote Michael Casagrande: "The power that comes with his size typically forces opposing lines to focus two players on blocking him, thus creating favorable rushing lanes for unblocked linebackers."
Prior to the 2009 BCS National Championship Game, Cody drew awestruck praise from Texas players and coaches. "They call him Mount Cody. Mount Cody is for a reason. He plays like he's 450 pounds. He can move like he's Sergio Kindle," said Longhorns guard Charlie Tanner. Alabama's defense held Texas to 81 yards rushing—more than 70 yards below their season average—on 28 attempts, and helped the Crimson Tide to their first national title since 1992.
Along with Crimson Tide teammates Javier Arenas, Mike Johnson, Leigh Tiffin, and Colin Peek, Cody participated in the 2010 Senior Bowl on January 30, 2010. In the Senior Bowl weigh-in at the Mobile Convention Center, Cody tipped the scales at 370 pounds, which hurt his draft status according to NFL Network draft analyst Mike Mayock.
### College awards and honors
### College career statistics
## Professional career
### 2010 NFL Draft
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright " style="
width:25%;
;
">
> "Regardless of questions on weight or build, when you look for that 3–4 centerpiece, a guy who has the physical traits of a block-occupying clogger who will let your linebackers play with freedom, Cody's that type of guy."
<cite class="left-aligned" style="">''ESPN analyst Mel Kiper, Jr.</cite>
</div>
Frequently drawing comparisons to Ted Washington and Shaun Rogers, Cody was considered one of the rare two-gap defensive tackles that NFL teams covet for their 3–4 type defenses. Many NFL experts therefore projected Cody to be selected in the first-round of the 2010 NFL Draft. One of the teams interested in Cody was rumored to be his near-hometown Miami Dolphins, who lost their veteran defensive tackle Jason Ferguson to injury during the 2009 season.
Some pro scouts, however, were concerned about Cody's weight and said he needed to reduce it to 340 pounds (154 kg) in order to be an effective NFL player. They questioned whether he had the stamina to be a three-down player, or the quickness to be an effective pass rusher, at his college weight of about 360 pounds (163 kg). ESPN's'' K. C. Joyner analyzed Cody's relative playing time in a four-game SEC stretch in October 2009 (at Kentucky, at Mississippi, vs. South Carolina, vs. Tennessee), and found that Cody was in the Alabama defensive lineup on only 122 of 281 plays. Joyner also discovered that during that stretch Cody drew an impressively high amount of double-teams: 63.6 percent, compared to NFL player Albert Haynesworth's 2007 double-team mark of 51.3 percent.
At the 2010 Senior Bowl, Cody disappointed a lot of NFL scouts when he weighed in at 370 pounds (168 kg), 16 pounds (7 kg) above his official weight according to the 2009 Alabama media guide. In the game, however, Cody "moved pretty well for a 370-pound behemoth" and used "his hands well to create a little space to get penetration". He finished with 1.5 tackles for loss. Cody worked out at API in Pensacola, Florida, along with Sam Bradford, Jason Worilds, and former Alabama teammates Mike Johnson and Roy Upchurch. He made pre-draft visits to the Baltimore Ravens, New York Jets, San Diego Chargers, and Kansas City Chiefs.
At the NFL Combine, Cody weighed in at 354 pounds (161 kg), making him the heaviest combine participant since Aaron Gibson in 1999. He had managed to shed some weight since the Senior Bowl, but according to Mike Mayock he was still not worthy of a first-round pick. Cody ran a 5.71 sec 40-yard dash, the slowest by an eventually drafted defensive tackle since Corey Swinson, a seventh round pick in the 1995 NFL Draft. Cody was selected in the second round (57th overall) by the Baltimore Ravens. He was the highest picked Alabama Crimson Tide defensive tackle since Cornelius Griffin was drafted 42nd overall by the New York Giants in the 2000 NFL Draft.
### Baltimore Ravens
At Baltimore, Cody was projected to strengthen a Ravens defense that allowed the fewest rushing yards per carry (3.4) of any NFL team in 2009 and had a streak of 39 consecutive games without allowing a 100-yard rusher—broken when Cincinnati's Cedric Benson rushed for 120 yards on October 11, 2009. Regarded by Ravens director of player personnel Eric DeCosta as a first-round prospect "from an ability standpoint", Cody competed against Kelly Gregg for the starting defensive tackle spot in 2010. The combination of Cody and 345-pound defensive tackle Haloti Ngata gave Baltimore the AFC North's heaviest interior line, reminiscent of the Sam Adams and Tony Siragusa tandem on the 2000–2001 Ravens teams.
Cody signed a four-year, \$3.385 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) maximum value contract with the Ravens on July 26, 2010. In training camp at McDaniel College, Cody—along with veteran cornerback Walt Harris—failed their conditioning test for the Ravens, and were thus placed on the physically unable to perform (PUP) list. He passed the conditioning test on his third try, allowing him to go to training camp for the Ravens.
In his professional debut, a preseason game against the Carolina Panthers, Cody had a solid performance, finishing with five tackles (four solo). His most impressive play came in the first half, when he tackled DeAngelo Williams single-armed for a loss while holding off Panthers center Ryan Kalil with the other. On November 21, he made his first official start, debuting against the Carolina Panthers at Bank of America Stadium. Unlike his preseason performance, he was criticized for his poor performance from fans and head coach John Harbaugh. During a play, the Panthers offensive lineman pushed Cody out of the way, allowing Mike Goodson to have a 45-yard run. Cody finished the game without any tackles, as the Ravens defense allowed 120 rushing yards. As a rookie in 2010, Cody played 13 games with 13 tackles.
In the 2011 off-season, the team parted ways with their long-time starting defensive tackle Kelly Gregg. Cody spent the entire 2011 season as a full-time starter, registering 34 tackles and helping lead the Ravens defense to be ranked 2nd in the league against the run, ranked 3rd overall. In 2011, Cody eventually started all 16 games as the 3-4 type defensive tackle and finished the year with 39 tackles and 1 pass defended.
With the acquiring of Ma'ake Kemoeatu in the off-season, Cody's playing time was limited after a rough preseason and the Ravens using a 3-4 type defense. In 15 games (3 starts) of 2012, Cody made 25 tackles with 3 passes defended. With the Ravens clinching an AFC North title on a 10-6 record, the team eventually won Super Bowl XLVII 34-31 against the San Francisco 49ers, giving Cody his first NFL championship title.
Despite Kemoeatu being released following the Super Bowl victory, Haloti Ngata took over as the starting defensive tackle, again limiting Cody's playing time. In 2013, Cody appeared in 12 games with 1 start making 15 tackles.
On April 4, 2014, Cody was re-signed by the Ravens. He only appeared in one game in the 2014 season and did not record a single statistic that year.
On January 23, 2015, the Ravens announced they had released Cody.
### NFL statistics
Key
- GP: games played
- COMB: combined tackles
- TOTAL: total tackles
- AST: assisted tackles
- SACK: sacks
- FF: forced fumbles
- FR: fumble recoveries
- FR YDS: fumble return yards
- INT: interceptions
- IR YDS: interception return yards
- AVG IR: average interception return
- LNG: longest interception return
- TD: interceptions returned for touchdown
- PD''': passes defensed
## Legal troubles
### Animal cruelty
On February 2, 2015, Cody was indicted on animal cruelty and drug charges by a Baltimore County grand jury. The indictment included 15 charges: Two counts of aggravated animal cruelty involving a dog, five counts of animal abuse or neglect involving the same dog, one count of illegal possession of an alligator, five counts of animal abuse or neglect involving the alligator, one count of possession with intent to use the drug paraphernalia, and one count of possession of marijuana. Cody's agent, Peter Schaffer, denied his client's guilt and said that Cody's dog died of worms and that there was no animal cruelty. The investigating veterinarian said the dog was neglected and starved to death.
On November 16, 2015, Cody was found not guilty of two felony counts of aggravated animal cruelty but he was convicted of five other counts related to failing to provide care for his dog, Taz. He was also found guilty of illegally possessing an alligator and of neglecting the alligator, and also two misdemeanor drug charges related to marijuana and paraphernalia that police found in his former home. The alligator was confiscated, and relocated to a sanctuary. Prosecuting state attorney Adam Lippe alleged Taz suffered more than four weeks of starvation in a cage in Cody's garage.
On January 4, 2016, Cody's sentencing was delayed because a psychological evaluation of Cody was being completed at the time.
On March 24, 2016, Cody was sentenced to nine months in jail for his role in the dog's starvation death and neglecting the illegal alligator. His girlfriend was acquitted of the aggravated animal cruelty, drug and alligator charges but found guilty of five counts in connection with neglecting Taz.
## Personal life
By his own description of his early family life, Cody grew up poor. His mother worked two jobs, as a traveling nurse and a bus driver, to care for him and his seven younger siblings. His parents were not married, but his father, a construction worker, was a big part of his life until he died in a car accident when Cody was 11. At the end of his junior year of high school, Cody moved in with the family of a high school teammate.
In his two years at Alabama, Cody became the Tide's most popular player because of his outsized personality and body. Former Alabama quarterback Greg McElroy said of Cody: "He's an enjoyable person to have on our team, have in the locker room, and (he) has great charisma. He has fun when he plays the game, and that's a big reason why he's so popular." |
36,348,228 | Sarah Vinci | 1,168,317,779 | Australian wheelchair basketball player (born 1991) | [
"1991 births",
"Australian women's wheelchair basketball players",
"Living people",
"Medalists at the 2012 Summer Paralympics",
"Paralympic medalists in wheelchair basketball",
"Paralympic silver medalists for Australia",
"Paralympic wheelchair basketball players for Australia",
"People with paraplegia",
"People with spina bifida",
"Sportspeople from Perth, Western Australia",
"Sportswomen from Western Australia",
"Wheelchair basketball players at the 2012 Summer Paralympics",
"Wheelchair basketball players at the 2020 Summer Paralympics"
]
| Sarah Vinci (born 4 December 1991) is a 1 point wheelchair basketball player who plays for the Perth Western Stars in the Australian Women's National Wheelchair Basketball League. She made her debut with the Australia women's national wheelchair basketball team, known as the Gliders, in 2011, when she played in the Osaka Cup in Japan. Vinci represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London in wheelchair basketball, winning a silver medal. She represented Australia at the 2020 Summer Paralympics in Tokyo.
## Personal life
Vinci was born on 4 December 1991 in Perth, Western Australia. She has spina bifida. As of 2013, Vinci lives in Perth, Western Australia, and is a student. She has already attended a Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institute, where she earned a certificate in digital media.
Sarah volunteers at the Telethon community cinemas to help support children's charities.
## Career
Vinci is a 1 point wheelchair basketball player. She started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006. Vinci joined the Perth Western Stars in the Women's National Wheelchair Basketball League (WNWBL) in 2009, and has been with the club into the 2013 season. In 2010, she won the league's junior championship, the Kevin Coombs Cup, when her team beat the New South Wales side 63–58.
Vinci was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010, and made her debut with the national team, universally known as the Gliders, the following year, when she played in the Osaka Cup in Japan. She competed in the 2011 Asia Oceania Regional Championships, the 2011 U25 World Championships, and the 2012 BT Paralympic World Cup, competing in the final match against Germany.
Vinci was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball. The London Games were her first. She attended a Paralympic farewell ceremony at Perth's State Basketball Centre in late July.
In the group stage, the Australia women's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil, Great Britain, and the Netherlands, but lost to Canada. This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter-finals, where they beat Mexico. The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany. The Gliders lost 44–58, and earned a silver medal.
At the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan, Vinci and the Gliders successfully defended the title they had previously won in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2012. She represented Australia at the 2018 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship where the team came ninth. At the 2020 Tokyo Paralympics, the Gliders finished ninth after winning the 9th-10th classification match. In June 2023, she was a member of the Gliders team at the 2022 Wheelchair Basketball World Championships in Dubai.
## Statistics
## Gallery |
69,614,297 | American logistics in the Western Allied invasion of Germany | 1,173,760,403 | Aspect of World War II | [
"1945 in the United States",
"Allies of World War II",
"Military logistics of World War II",
"Military logistics of the United States",
"Western Allied invasion of Germany",
"Western European Campaign (1944–1945)"
]
| American logistics in the Western Allied Invasion of Germany supported the American and French operations in Northwest Europe during the Second World War from 26 January 1945 until the end of World War II in Europe on 8 May 1945.
By the end of January 1945, the American forces had recovered from the disruption to the supply system and the large losses of materiel inflicted by the German offensives in the Ardennes and Alsace. Sixty-eight ships loaded with replacement ordnance were dispatched from the United States. Casualties were harder to replace, and about 49,000 men were transferred from service units to the infantry branch. The Allied forces had to advance across the Rhineland, which was in the grip of thaws, rains and floods. They were then confronted by the Rhine, the most formidable barrier to the Allied advance since the English Channel. The river was crossed and bridged, and railways and pipelines were run across it. Most supplies were delivered by rail, and five railway bridges over the Rhine supported the final American advance into the heart of Germany.
Once across the Rhine, combat losses in terms of tanks, vehicles and equipment, and the expenditure of ammunition declined, while shortages of fuel and spare parts developed, as was to be expected in fast-moving mobile operations. The American logistics system was stretched, but nowhere near breaking point. The railheads were pushed forward, the rehabilitation of the network keeping pace with the advance. No less than twenty-six engineer general service regiments worked on the railways. By 8 May, when the war in Europe ended, railheads had been established at Stendal, Magdeburgy, Leipzig, Regensburg and Stuttgart in Germany. The Motor Transport Service organized XYZ, an express road service that moved supplies from the railheads to the forward units. Air supply also played its part in bringing the campaign to a successful conclusion, with a substantial amount of gasoline delivered by air in the final weeks.
## Background
The campaign in Northwest Europe had commenced on 6 June 1944 (D-Day), with Operation Overlord, the Allied Normandy landings. The American forces were mainly supplied over the beaches and through the port of Cherbourg, which was opened on 19 July. German resistance was stubborn, casualties were high, and the advance much slower than planned until 25 July, when the Operation Cobra broke through the German defenses. What followed was a far more rapid advance than anticipated. On 19 August, the decision was taken to pursue the retreating German forces beyond the Seine.
By early September, the Allied forces had reached the Dutch and German borders in the north and the Moselle in the south, but the rapid advance came to a halt due to logistical difficulties, particularly fuel shortages, and stiffening German resistance. Between September and November, the American forces in Northwest Europe were beset by severe difficulties with port discharge capacity and inland transportation infrastructure that only eased with the opening of the port of Antwerp in Belgium in November. The American forces were then engulfed by the German offensives in the Ardennes and Alsace in December 1944 and January 1945.
Once the German offensives had been dealt with, the Supreme Allied Commander, General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, returned to his next objective: reaching and crossing the Rhine. He chose to make the main Allied effort in the north. There were tactical, operational and political reasons for this: the best crossing sites were there; a crossing in the north gave access to the North German Plain, where the terrain was best suited for mobile warfare, for which his Allied forces were particularly trained and equipped; and it had the political advantage of involving the British and Canadians. After some debate, the Combined Chiefs of Staff endorsed Eisenhower's strategy at the Malta Conference in January and February 1945.
## Organization
In January 1945, there were five American armies in Northwest Europe. The First and Ninth Armies were serving as part of Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery's British 21st Army Group. The former returned to Lieutenant General Omar N. Bradley's 12th Army Group on 18 January 1945, but the Ninth Army remained under British command, and did not return to the 12th Army Group until 4 April. Although they were under the operational control of the 21st Army Group, the administrative control remained with the 12th Army Group.
The 12th Army Group also included Lieutenant General Leonard T. Gerow's Fifteenth Army, which was responsible for the garrisons west of the Rhine, and Lieutenant General George S. Patton Jr.'s Third Army. In the south, Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers's 6th Army Group controlled Lieutenant General Alexander Patch's Seventh Army along with the French First Army. Devers kept his headquarters down to around 600 personnel, while Bradley's was more than twice the size, with enough officers to staff an infantry division. This was primarily due to the 12th Army Group assuming logistical responsibilities, something which ran counter to US Army doctrine.
Logistical support of the American forces was the responsibility of Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee's Communications Zone (COMZ). COMZ headquarters doubled as that of the European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA). It was the senior US headquarters in the theater, but the operational functions of a US general headquarters were exercised by Eisenhower's Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). In administrative matters, the staff of ETOUSA, and the chiefs of the services in particular, were supreme. In a dispute between the service chief of one of the armies or army groups and the one at COMZ, the latter could appeal to the ETOUSA service chief, who was himself. This was resented by the staffs of the armies and army groups, who felt that ETOUSA favored COMZ.
The Advance Section (ADSEC) followed closely behind the armies to develop the lines of communication, take over forward dumps and depots from the armies as they advanced, and coordinate the activities with COMZ and the armies. The forces in Southern France had their own line of communication from the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, United States Army (MTOUSA), with their own advance section, the Continental Advance Section (CONAD), and base section, the Delta Base Section. By February 1945, the integration of the Southern Line of Communications (SOLOC) with COMZ had progressed to the point where the SOLOC was superfluous, and it was abolished on 6 February 1945. CONAD and the Delta Base Section then came directly under COMZ. The commander of SOLOC, Major General Thomas B. Larkin, became the deputy commander of COMZ on 12 March, and on 9 April he succeeded Brigadier General Royal B. Lord as chief of staff of COMZ and deputy chief of staff of ETOUSA.
The base sections were dived into districts. The base sections in the UK became Western, Southern and London districts of the UK Section. When the COMZ Loire Base Section was absorbed by the Brittany Base Section on 1 December 1944, it became the Loire district. Similarly, when the it in turn was absorbed by the Normandy Base Section on 1 February 1945, it became the Brittany district. Henceforth, COMZ consisted of the two advance sections (ADSEC and CONAD), the three base sections controlling the ports (the Delta, Normandy and Channel Base Sections), and the UK, Seine and Oise Sections.
## Situation in January 1945
### Effect of the Ardennes-Alsace battles on logistics
The opening of the port of Antwerp on 28 November 1944 ended the transportation difficulties related to port capacity that had dogged the American forces in the autumn. Major depot areas were established in September 1944 around Liège, Belgium, to support the First and Ninth Armies, and Verdun, France, to support the Third Army. The Liège area was chosen for its accessibility by rail, and by barge via the Meuse. On one side of the river there was storage space for 120,000 long tons (120,000 t) of subsistence; the other side had facilities for the storage of 41,000 long tons (42,000 t) of petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL). The former had sidings for unloading 466 railway cars, and the latter for 352. There was closed storage for 3,200 long tons (3,300 t) of subsistence, and cold storage for 450 long tons (460 t). In contrast, Verdun was not a single complex, but a cluster of eight subsistence and eight fuel depots that held up to 14,000,000 US gallons (53,000,000 L) of fuel and cold storage for 1,900 long tons (1,900 t) of subsistence. It employed 315 German prisoners of war (POWs) and 2,000 Polish displaced persons.
The German Ardennes offensive disrupted the American supply arrangements. The movement of supplies to the depots around Liège, which were threatened by the German advance, had to be halted, and the unloading of ships at Antwerp had to be curtailed. Only 130 ships were unloaded in December, and on 23 December ETOUSA requested that 24 ships be cut from upcoming convoys. The Germans cut the main rail link between Antwerp and the Third Army depots, so alternative routes were developed. ADSEC units south of the German advance found themselves cut off. This included engineer units that became engaged in laying land mines, carrying out demolitions and fighting delaying actions. Some of the truck drivers who had helped move the 101st Airborne Division found themselves cut off in Bastogne, Belgium, and fought as infantry.
Stockpiles from threatened dumps and depots in the First and Third Army areas were back hauled to COMZ dumps by rail, so not only were unloadings held up, but freight cars had to be diverted to the forward areas to evacuate supplies. At Liège, tanker trucks took away 400,000 US gallons (1,500,000 L) of aviation gasoline, about half of the POL stock. The Third Army lost 100,000 US gallons (380,000 L) through air raids, and air raids and V-1 flying bomb attacks on ADSEC installations resulted in the loss of 900,000 US gallons (3,400,000 L). By the end of December, the First Army's stocks of POL had dropped from nearly 3,500,000 US gallons (13,000,000 L) gallons to less than 400,000 US gallons (1,500,000 L). Supply trains and railway installations came under attack from the Luftwaffe, resulting in casualties and damage. A particular concern was the railway bottleneck around Liège, which was highlighted by damage to the Renory Viaduct [fr] by bombing in December and January. A new railway bridge was built over the Meuse at Maastricht in the Netherlands to provide an alternative route, but was not required.
With the army dumps being evacuated, the ADSEC depots began issuing supplies direct to the operational units. To relieve the congestion at the port caused by ships being unloaded without the ability to forward their contents, COMZ sought to acquire depot space around Antwerp. This was resisted by the British, who pointed to the original agreement that had been hammered out when the US forces had been granted access to the port. They relented under pressure from SHAEF, and allowed US depots to be established in France around Lille and Charleroi. POL shipments from Antwerp were consigned to Lille, and rations were sent to Charleroi.
### Equipment loss and replacement
The tactical situation resulted in requests for large quantities of barbed wire, land mines, small arms ammunition, anti-tank rockets and demolition charges. Some 500,000 land mines were sent forward. The First Army alone used 186,000 anti-tank mines and 745,830 pounds (338,300 kg) of explosives in late December and early January to establish as series of defenses between the Ardennes and Liege. All available machine gun ammunition in the Communications Zone depots was despatched, but still could not meet demand. Two ships loaded with anti-tank rockets and small arms ammunition were called forward and given top priority for discharge. The ammunition unloaded was moved to forward depots as rapidly as possible.
Ammunition expenditure soared. First Army's expenditure of 105 mm howitzer rose to 69 rounds per gun per day in December, easily exceeding its previous record of 44 rounds per gun per day in November. In December, the armies expended 2,579,400 rounds of 105 mm howitzer high explosive shell, and the theater stocks were reduced to 2,524,000 rounds, compared to an authorized stock level of 8,900,000 rounds. Expenditure of 155 mm howitzer ammunition was also high. To alleviate ammunition shortages, the 12th Army Group borrowed one hundred 25-pounders with 300,000 rounds from the British.
The American forces lost nearly 400 tanks in December. MTOUSA loaned 150 tanks and the British handed over 351 M4 Sherman tanks from stocks that had been acquired under Lend-Lease. It was decided to allocate the entire American production to the US forces until they built up a reserve of 2,000 tanks. Nonetheless, all combat vehicles destroyed in battle were replaced by the middle of January, The supply of Shermans was sufficient for all four armies to request that no more should be shipped with the 75 mm gun and only those with the 76 mm gun should be sent from then on. By April, holdings of Shermans reached the number authorized by the War Department: 7,779.
Meanwhile, the New York Port of Embarkation (NYPE) began shipping the new M26 Pershing tank to the ETO in January 1945. A shipment of 157 Pershing tanks left the United States on 23 March, by which time another 53 were either at port or en route. The Third Army had not yet received any by April, and although the Ninth Army had received nineteen by the end of March, none had been issued to the troops due to lack of time to train crews in their operation. More arrived the last two weeks of April, and the Third Army had ninety by the end of the month. By V-E Day there were 310 Pershing tanks in the theater, of which about 200 had been issued to troops.
Losses of Browning Automatic Rifles, 60 mm mortars and light machine guns were all made good by mid-January. Sixty-eight ships loaded with replacement ordnance were despatched from the United States in January. By 21 February 1945, in spite of the fighting in Alsace and the renewed advance to the Rhine, the armies' depots held 114,535 long tons (116,373 t) of ammunition, and the ADSEC forward depots held 275,136 long tons (279,551 t).
### Transportation
In early February, for the first time there were more ships being worked at the ports than awaiting discharge, and by the end of the month less than a hundred were awaiting discharge. By the end of March, that number had fallen to just fifty-seven. Additional capacity at the port made unloadings more efficient, as the best possible port could be assigned, minimizing the distance to the cargo's ultimate destination. In turn this reduced turnaround time for the trucks and trains.
During February, the First Army moved stores back across the Meuse to the sites used before the German Ardennes offensive, and established a new fuel decanting point at Stolberg, Germany. The ability of ADSEC to deliver supplies direct to the corps and divisions by rail eased the pressure on its motor transport, and allowed it to build up 4.5 days' supply of rations, 6 days of fuel, and 45,549 long tons (46,280 t) of ammunition by 22 February.
In January, a rapid express shipping service known as REX was instituted for high priority cargo required for combat operations. The first REX shipment left the United States in March, and by 8 May, when the service was discontinued, about 120,000 long tons (120,000 t) had been despatched in REX shipments, of which about 90 percent was ordnance and signal supplies.
A daily express rail service known as the "Toot Sweet Express" was also inaugurated in January to carry high priority freight. Most of it came from depots and manufacturers in the United States, sent across the Atlantic by expedited sea or air movement. The Toot Sweet Express ran from Cherbourg to Paris, and thence to the forward ADSEC depots. It started at Cherbourg with twenty cars, and collected up to twenty more in Paris. Two trains were then assembled, one bound for Liège and the other for Bad Kreuznach, Germany. By 13 March, each Toot Sweet Express was full to capacity, carrying a daily average of 385 long tons (391 t). Shipping mail on these trains reduced instances of pilferage.
## Personnel problems
### Balancing the troop basis
By May 1944, the original plans for a large U.S. Army had been scaled back to one of 89 divisions. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General George C. Marshall, took cognisance of the fact that the Soviet Union was doing most of the fighting, and decided that ninety divisions was the largest force that could be maintained in the field. The proportion of soldiers in the ground forces steadily dropped from 41 percent of the army in August 1942 to 27 percent in April 1945 due to the greater than anticipated requirements for service troops, overheads, and the needs of the B-29 bomber program. On 31 December 1944, ETOUSA had 52 divisions and 1,392,100 troops in combat support and service units. The theater had an authorized strength of 1,535,600 in combat support and service units, and it was planned to increase the number of divisions in the ETO to 61.
In the original planning for the campaign in Northwest Europe, the War Department had reckoned on a division slice of 40,000, of whom 15,000 would be in the division itself, 15,000 in corps and army units, and 10,000 in the Communications Zone. This allocation was divided among the services to produce a troop basis. It was difficult to predict what units would be required, so shortages of some types and surpluses of others developed. This resulted in units being deployed on tasks for which they were neither organized nor trained, and some had to be converted to other types or broken up to provided personnel for more sorely need units. The advance across France in 1944 had absorbed much of the ETO's surplus manpower in augmenting truck companies to permit them to operate around the clock, and sixteen additional military police battalions had been activated to handle the large number of German POWs.
In addition to the five American armies, support had to be provided to the French First Army, which had insufficient logistical units. In December 1944, SOLOC had 106,464 service troops, of whom 18,300 were French and 88,164 American, to support eight French and nine American divisions, which gave the forces in the south a division slice of only 6,262 service troops. This was not counting 20,000 men in Italian service units, which Larkin argued were less efficient than French and American troops. Four more American divisions were added the 6th Army Group in December, and additional French divisions were scheduled to be activated. Additional combat units were transferred to the 6th Army Group for the Colmar Pocket operations in January and February, along with 12,000 additional service troops. These were supplied on condition that they would be returned, but by February a comprehensive redistribution of service units was underway.
In order to supply the 123,000 service troops to support the additional nine divisions, the War Department inactivated antiaircraft battalions, which were no longer required, but it balked at providing 16,000 additional truck drivers unless the theater provided compensating reductions. The field forces were willing to accept fewer combat units in order to secure their needs for service and support units, and acquiesced to a cut of ten field artillery battalions in return for the additional truck drivers. This was a difficult decision: these units would be needed if heavy German resistance developed, but there was a shortage of artillery ammunition, and it was thought that by the time they arrived the fighting would have moved into a mobile phase where the truck drivers would be more valuable. Bradley even offered to accept the inactivation of the 20th Armored Division, which was scheduled for shipment to the ETO in February.
### Replacing casualties
Limiting the U.S. Army to 89 divisions meant that in the ETO divisions had to remain in the line for long periods of time, maintained at full strength by replacements. American battle casualties in the November fighting were much greater than anticipated, and there was a higher rate of nonbattle casualties as well, largely as a result of cold injury such as trench foot and frostbite. In 1944–1945, there were 71,038 cold injury cases in the American forces in the ETO, compared to 206 cases in the British and Canadian armies. Both battle and nonbattle casualties fell disproportionately on the infantry branch, who accounted for an estimated 80 percent of them. The War Department said it could not supply enough replacements from the United States, and that the theater would run out of infantry replacements if casualties were as high in December. In fact, they were even higher, due to the German Ardennes offensive. Bradley was disturbed at the number of infantry replacements being sent to the Pacific, where the need was also acute. "Don't they realize", he asked Eisenhower rhetorically, "that we can still lose this war in Europe?".
Casualties were replaced on an individual basis. Replacements often lost proficiency while en route or waiting for an assignment at replacement depots. Some had difficulty assimilating into their new units, as battle-hardened soldiers became wary of even learning the names of replacements because through inexperience they were a danger to themselves and others, and too often soon became casualties, beginning the cycle anew. Historians like Stephen Ambrose criticized the Army's replacement policy as inefficient, wasteful, and a cause of unnecessary loss of life. Some divisions implemented an unofficial policy of holding back replacements until the division was out of the line, or at least there was a break in combat activity, so replacements could be assimilated in a less stressful and dangerous environment.
By 1945, nearly 40 percent of replacements were "casuals"—men who had already become casualties and had been processed by the medical system. These men were generally anxious to return to their units, and commanders wanted to have them back, but this conflicted with ETO policy, as it would have resulted in overstrengths in some units and shortages in others. Unofficially, replacement depots attempted to return men to their old units, but this was not always possible. In January 1945, Devers prevailed on SHAEF to authorize the automatic return of casuals to their old units in the 6th Army Group, and later in that month this was extended to the 12th Army Group as well. That same month, to address problems with the replacement system, the chief of Army Ground Forces in the United States, General Joseph W. Stilwell, instituted a new policy whereby all replacements, including casuals, were formed into four-man groups who would train, travel, and fight together.
One source of additional infantry replacements was infantry serving in the Communications Zone. There were three infantry regiments (the 29th, 118th and 156th Infantry Regiments) assigned to the Communications Zone for guard duties. A program was initiated in early December 1944 under which sixty percent of their personnel were to be given three weeks' refresher training and released into the replacement stream. A similar twelve-week training course was instituted to retrain replacements for other branches and services as infantry. In January 1945, as the situation became dire, the three weeks of retraining for men released from the three infantry regiments was reduced to one, and the retraining for other branches was shortened to four weeks.
On 26 December, SHAEF put out an appeal for volunteers to join the infantry. Among those who did so were 4,562 African American soldiers, many of whom accepted a reduction in rank in order to qualify, as only privates were eligible. The Army remained racially segregated, and they were used to form fifty-three infantry platoons. In the 12th Army Group platoons were assigned in groups of three to infantry divisions, which attached one to each regiment, where they became a fourth platoon of one of the companies. In the 6th Army Group they were formed into four companies and assigned to the 12th and 14th Armored Divisions. SHAEF announced that all physically qualified men serving in noncombat units were eligible for retraining as infantry except for combat medics and those with highly specialized skills. On 1 January 1945, Lee assigned quotas to the COMZ sections to provide 21,000 men over the following five weeks. The War Department was asked to provide 25,000 limited service men to replace them.
Casualties remained high in January, but by March the measures taken to address the replacement shortage began to have an effect, and casualties, while still high, were lower than anticipated, so a surplus of infantry replacements began to accumulate. By April, there was an excess of 50,000 infantrymen in the replacement system. Partially retrained infantrymen were assigned to military police, antiaircraft and heavy artillery units used to guard POWs and control displaced persons, and the War Department decided to divert 19,000 infantry replacements scheduled for shipment to Europe in May to the Pacific.
Meanwhile, a shortage of 20,000 men developed in the other arms and services. The ADSEC commander, Brigadier General Ewart G. Plank reported that his white units were understrength by an average of 16 percent, and some by as much as 34 percent. There was little hope that additional service troops could be provided. Shortages of service personnel were addressed through greater utilization of civilians and POWs. About 49,000 men were transferred from COMZ between 1 February and 30 April, when SHAEF suspended the program. About half of them completed their retraining before the war in Europe ended on 8 May.
## Planning and preparations for the Rhine crossing
The Rhine constituted the most formidable barrier to the Allied advance since the English Channel. Planning for the crossing of the Rhine had begun in September 1944. The SHAEF staff studied three possible crossing areas in Germany: Emmerich–Wesel, Cologne–Koblenz, and Frankfurt–Mannheim. The Emmerich–Wesel sector north of the Ruhr was preferred, and was the only one mentioned in Eisenhower's 8 January 1945 directive, but the possibility of a smaller, subsidiary operation in one or both of the other sectors was considered. The main logistical problem with a river crossing was that the site would inevitably become a transportation bottleneck.
The SHAEF planners estimated that 15 British or Canadian and 21 American divisions could be supported in the northern sector, based on a maintenance of 600 long tons (610 t) per division slice per day. A key decision was to lay pipelines across the river to provide three-quarters of the petrol, oil and lubricant (POL) requirements of the forces on the east bank. This was considered risky in Germany due to the danger of sabotage, but POL accounted for at least a third of the armies' tonnage requirements, and the consequent savings in traffic over the bridges would be substantial. The 12th Army Group headquarters anticipated having pipelines over the Rhine in operation three weeks after crossing the river. It did not count on the railways being operational east of the Rhine until nine weeks after crossing.
In September 1944, anticipating the Rhine would soon be reached, Bradley asked the US Navy for assistance. Four boat units, each with 24 landing craft, vehicle, personnel (LCVP), were formed under the command of Commander William J. Whiteside, one each for the First, Third and Ninth Armies, plus a reserve unit, and were transported from the UK to Le Havre, France, on the British dock landing ships HMS Oceanway and Northway and forty-five of the larger landing craft mechanized (LCM) were later attached to the task group.
Transporting the LCVPs overland presented few problems, as they could be carried by a heavy ponton trailer. The LCMs presented more of a challenge, as they were too wide for Bailey bridges and for two-way traffic on most roads. The LCMs for the First and Ninth Armies made their way from Antwerp to Maastricht via the Albert Canal, but those assigned to the Third Army had to travel overland from Le Havre. They had to be carried by M25 Tank Transporters. Their height was reduced from 17 feet 6 inches (5.33 m) to 15 feet 11 inches (4.85 m) by removing some of the protective armor on the operator tower. In some cases, the corners of buildings were blown off to allow the LCMs to pass. To get them on and off the tank transporters required two 2-cubic-yard (1.5 m<sup>3</sup>) mobile cranes.
The ETO Chief Engineer, Major General Cecil R. Moore, held a meeting of the chief engineers of the major headquarters in October 1944 to discuss the engineering issues involved in crossing the Rhine. A long list of bridging and construction materials was drawn up, which included steel beams up to 92 feet (28 m) long and 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, and pilings up to 100 feet (30 m) long. As with the LCMs, careful planning was required to move the such heavy and awkward loads forward. ADSEC intended to provide double-track railway lines to support the armies: a line from Aachen, Germany, to Wesel, Germany, for the Ninth Army; one from Aachen to Cologne for the First Army; and one from Thionville, France, to Koblenz, Germany, for the Third Army.
To conserve stocks of M2 treadway bridging, the Ninth Army engineers planned to use the narrower M1 treadway bridging for one of the Rhine bridges. A problem with this was that its Sherman tanks were fitted with track extenders that helped them move over snow and mud. To accommodate this, two M1 treadway bridges were modified by increasing the space between the treadways.
The German offensives in the Ardennes and Alsace had convinced Eisenhower that the entire west bank of the Rhine had to be cleared before attempting a crossing. The river would then provide the Allies as well as the Germans with a defensive barrier that could be held with a minimum of forces. There was no intention of seizing an intact bridge; on the contrary, in the fall he had asked the air forces if they could destroy all the bridges. There were 26 major bridges over the Rhine, and the air staff reckoned that at least twenty would have to be destroyed to have any effect on operations. Given the poor fall and winter flying weather and the large number of antiaircraft guns defending the bridges, the staff calculated that it would require too much time and bomb tonnage, and divert too many aircraft from the oil campaign. It was anticipated that the retreating Germans would blow all the bridges.
## Rhineland
With the German offensives in the Ardennes and Alsace defeated, priority for ammunition, which was rationed due to recurrent shortages, switched to Ninth Army, which was to make the main Rhine crossing effort. In February, 45 percent of the artillery ammunition received was delivered to the Ninth Army, compared to 30 percent to the First Army and 25 percent to the Third Army. As it happened though, the Third Army was engaged in the most activity of the three in the first weeks of the month. By the mid-February it had 5.4 days' supply of 155 mm gun M1 ammunition on hand compared to 23.3 days for the Ninth Army and 25.9 days for the First. It was a similar story with 81 mm M1 mortar ammunition, with Third Army having 2.4 days on hand while the Ninth and First Armies had 12.7 and 16 days respectively. The 12th Army Group headquarters had to adjust the quotas.
Before it could reach the Rhine, the Ninth Army had first to cross the Roer. The Ninth Army's troop movements for the Roer crossing, codenamed Operation Grenade, coincided with a thaw and frequent rains. Roads quickly deteriorated under the military traffic. Some roads were made one-way to protect their soft shoulders; in other instances, it was simply accepted that the traffic would destroy the road. To keep the traffic flowing, engineer units patched the roads and ordnance units recovered vehicles that had broken down. A particular concern was the bridge over the Maas at Maastricht, which was threatened by flood waters, and had to be closed to traffic and weighed down by sand bags. A bridge under construction at Maaseik, Belgium, was damaged by floating debris and two cranes being used as pile drivers were lost when the barges they were on sank.
Up river on the Roer were two major dams that were still in German hands: the Urft Dam (Urfttalsperre), which was filled to capacity with 45,500,000 cubic meters, and the Rur Dam (Schwammenauel), which was two-thirds full with 65,500,000 cubic meters. Their demolition could create a catastrophic flood of the Roer valley for five or six days. Alternatively, the Germans could destroy the outlets, which would create a more controlled flood. The First Army's 78th Infantry Division captured the Urft on 4 February and the Rur after hard fighting five days later. The retreating Germans demolished the discharge valves, creating a controlled flood. Within hours the waters rose by 5 feet (1.5 m) and their velocity increased to 10+1⁄2 feet per second (3.2 m/s). On the advice of his engineers, Simpson postponed Operation Grenade to 23 February, the day before the river was expected to return to normal.
This provided an opportunity to move more supplies forward. In the week ending 10 February, 32,924 long tons (33,452 t) were delivered by rail, and another 44,555 long tons (45,270 t) the following week. To move these supplies to the dumps, the Ninth Army's twenty-seven truck companies were augmented with ten from the 12th Army Group and three borrowed from the First Army. About 30 percent of the automotive spare parts required for Operation Grenade were obtained from recovered salvage, allowing more signals and engineering stores to be brought forward. In preparation for the advance to the Rhine, one of the Ninth Army's light tank battalions and the reconnaissance units of its armored and infantry divisions were reequipped with the new M24 Chaffee light tank, and nine tank destroyer battalions were reequipped, six of them with the M36 tank destroyer.
The Ninth Army amassed twenty days' supply of ammunition (about 46,000 long tons (47,000 t) and ten days' supply of fuel (about 3,000,000 US gallons (11,000,000 L)). In case there was some hold up with the bridges, 500 Douglas C-47 Skytrain transport aircraft loaded with supplies were on standby. Between 10 December 1944 and 11 March 1945, when Operation Grenade was completed, the Ninth Army consumed 26,494,933 rations, 20,806,185 US gallons (78,759,980 L) of gasoline, and 833,505 US gallons (3,155,160 L) of diesel oil. Most of the fuel was supplied over a pipeline from Antwerp to the ADSEC tank farms around Maastricht, which could deliver 1,035,920 US gallons (3,921,400 L) per day. During the February thaw the decanting station at Maastricht where fuel was transferred into jerry cans could not handle the traffic, so a forward decanting station was established at Lutterade in the Netherlands, which was supplied by tank cars from Maastricht.
Operation Grenade was finally launched on 23 February. By the end of the first day, seven Class 40 and twelve smaller bridges were open or nearing completion. A class 70 bridge was built near Körrenzig [de] that was opened on 26 February. The railway bridges over the Roer in Germany at Baal and Dueren were rebuilt by ADESEC Engineer Groups A and C and opened for traffic on 11 March. The 1056th Port Construction and Repair Group extended the railway from Baal toward Geldern and Wesel and Engineer Group C extended the line from Aachen towards Cologne.
## Rhine crossing
### First Army
Nonetheless, efforts were made to seize an intact bridge. On 2 March, a task force from the Ninth Army's 83rd Infantry Division attempted to seize the bridge at Oberkassel, Germany, by using German-speaking Americans and tanks disguised as German ones. They reached the bridge, but not in time to prevent it being blown up. By 5 March, all eight of the bridges in the Ninth Army's area had been demolished. On 7 March 1945, the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen, Germany, was captured intact, albeit heavily damaged, by a task force from the First Army's 9th Armored Division after the German demolition charges failed to destroy it. Eisenhower and Bradley took time to decide what to do about the unexpected opportunity. On 9 March, Bradley told Hodges to hold a bridgehead but limit it to what five divisions could defend.
A treadway bridge company had formed part of the 9th Armored Division task force, and First Army headquarters despatched two combat engineer battalions, two treadway bridge companies, and two heavy ponton battalions to Remagen. The engineers soon had ferries in operation, and DUKWs were also employed. Nearly 8,000 men crossed the Rhine in the first 24 hours after the bridge's capture. The first ten LCVPs of Boat Unit 1 were launched on the Rhine on 11 March and established a ferry service. The LCMs were not deployed, as the First Army staff considered that the bridge made them unnecessary. The LCVPs could make the round trip in seven minutes, carrying infantrymen across the river faster than they could walk across the bridge. On 17 March, six LCVPs carried 2,200 infantrymen of the 1st Infantry Division in three hours. By 27 March they had ferried 14,000 troops and 400 vehicles across.
The Luftwaffe attempted to destroy the bridge but ran into a cordon of antiaircraft fire. To defend the bridge, the First Army deployed thirteen anti-aircraft battalions, which claimed 109 aircraft destroyed. The Germans attempted to destroy it with artillery, including a 540 mm Karl-Gerät siege mortar. Eleven V-2 rockets were fired at it and frogmen attempted to attack it. A 1,032-foot (315 m) treadway bridge was in operation on 10 March, and it allowed 3,105 troops to cross in its first two days of operation. Construction of a heavy ponton bridge began at 16:00 on 10 March but the swift current gave so much trouble for the engineers' power boats that they called on the LCVPs for help to move the pontons into place. The bridge was opened at 23:00 on 11 March and carried eastbound traffic while the treadway bridge handled westbound traffic.
With these bridges in operation, the Ludendorff bridge was closed for repairs on 12 March. At 15:00 on 17 March it suddenly collapsed, weakened by the initial demolition attempt and vibrations from German and American artillery fire. Twenty-eight men were killed, ten of whose bodies were never recovered. At 07:30 the following day, work commenced on a 1,258-foot (383 m) floating Bailey bridge that was opened at 07:15 on 20 March. A two-way Bailey bridge was built at Bad Godesberg, Germany, and opened on 5 April.
With the capture of the Ludendorff bridge, ADSEC began reconstructing the railway line from Dueren to Remagen. The collapse of the bridge ended the possibility of using it for railway traffic, so the line was extended southward to Koblenz along the west bank of the Rhine. SHAEF considered exploiting the Remagen bridgehead for an advance on the Ruhr to be logistically inadvisable in view of the terrain. Instead, it called for an advance to the south, where the bridgehead could link up with the railway and pipeline from Verdun in the Mainz-Mannheim area.
### Ninth Army
The Ninth Army's 30th and 79th Infantry Divisions began crossing the Rhine south of Wesel at 02:00 on 24 March, aided by a massive artillery barrage. The two assault division were soon across, followed by LVTs and DUKWs carrying supplies and ammunition. Next came the 24 LCVPs and 20 LCMs of Boat Unit 3. On the first day it ferried 3,000 troops, 374 tanks and tank destroyers, 15 bulldozers, 180 M29 Weasels and 300 jeeps across, and brought back 200 wounded and 500 prisoners. To guide the watercraft in the dark, machine gun tracer ammunition was used to mark the boundaries of the assault areas for the first wave. Ten-foot (3.0 m) stakes with flashlights on them were then erected to mark the landing sites: two lights for the LCVPs, three for the LCMs, four for DD tanks. The DD tanks were acquired from the British, and operated by a company of the 736th Tank Battalion. The LVTs were operated by the 747th Tank Battalion. Although some ferries were built, they saw little use, as the light German resistance permitted the construction of tactical floating bridges sooner than anticipated. Construction of the first bridge, a 1,530-foot (470 m) treadway at Wallach [de], commenced at 06:30 on 24 March and the bridge was completed in nine hours. Over the following week, three more treadways, three heavy ponton bridges and three floating Bailey bridges were completed.
Although the Rhine had now been crossed at several points, Wesel was the only one of the previously selected crossing points securely in Allied hands on 26 March, so the engineers decided to start there. The planners had intended to use the site of the existing bridge downstream from where the Lippe entered the Rhine, but the ADSEC engineers found that damage on the far side was so extensive that rehabilitation work would take too long. They therefore settled on an upstream site near a demolished road bridge over which the Germans had laid a single-track railway line. This meant that in addition to twenty-three spans totaling 1,753 feet (534 m), the Lippe also had to be bridged, which involved another six spans totaling 463 feet (141 m).
Work was undertaken by the 1056th Engineer Port Construction and Repair Group, which controlled elements of the elements of the 341st, 355th, and 1317th Engineer General Service Regiments and smaller units, including a detachment of the U.S. Navy Seabees of the 629th Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit, and commenced on 29 March. Working around the clock, they managed to complete the bridge in ten days, an accomplishment comparable to Caesar's Rhine bridges two thousand years before. The bridge was opened to traffic at 01:00 on 9 April, and was named after Major Robert A. Gouldin, one of three men of the 355th Engineer General Service Regiment who were drowned during construction when their DUKW overturned. Although the bridge was single track, it had double-track approaches on both sides. Two miles of connecting track were laid and the rail yards at Wesel and Büderich, Germany, were rehabilitated. The first train rolled over the bridge 25 minutes after it was opened.
The Ninth Army's 1146th Engineer Combat Group, with the 250th, 252nd, and 1256th Engineer Combat Battalions and detachments of ADSEC's 1053d and 1058th Port Construction and Repair Groups and the 629th Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit, undertook the construction nearby of a three-lane highway bridge with two class 40 lanes and a class 70 lane. A preliminary bridge design had been drawn up in November 1944. As with the railway bridge, both the Rhine and the Lippe had to be bridged, the former with 1,036 feet (316 m) and the latter with 120 feet (37 m) of bridge. Some 19,500 cubic yards (14,900 m<sup>3</sup>) of fill was required for the western approach roads, and Fort Blücher [de] was demolished to provide rubble for the embankment. The bridge was opened to traffic at 14:30 on 18 April and named the Roosevelt bridge in honor of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had died the week before.
### Third Army
In the south the Third Army was supplied by road and rail from the ADSEC depots around Verdun and Reims. On 18 March a rail link was opened to Ehrang station in Trier, France. ADSEC trucks hauled supplies between there and the Third Army depots. The sudden collapse of opposition to the Third and Seventh Armies east of the Moselle allowed the railways to be extended to the Rhine, although not in time for the assault crossings. It was discovered that the line from Thionville to Mainz, Germany, could be restored more easily than the one from Thionville to Koblenz, so work was shifted there. ADSEC Engineer Group B had a single-track line to Mainz completed by 1 April. The railhead supporting the Third Army moved to Heidesheim and Ingelheim near Mainz in Germany on 4 April.
The Third Army had begun planning for the Rhine crossing in August 1944, and commenced stocking equipment for it the following month. When the boundaries between the Third and Seventh Armies were adjusted during the German Ardennes offensive to allow the Third Army to pivot north, Patton had insisted on them being drawn so as to retain the dumps with the accumulated equipment in the Third Army's zone. The stocks were depleted by assault crossings of the Saar in February and the Moselle in March, but the dumps still held 1,500 assault boats, 300 smaller storm boats, 660 22-horsepower (16 kW) and 250 55-horsepower (41 kW) outboard motors, 7,000 feet (2,100 m) of floating Bailey bridge, 2,200 feet (670 m) of heavy ponton bridge, and 11,000 feet (3,400 m) of treadway bridge. When the Rhine was finally reached the dumps were up to 150 miles (240 km) from the crossing sites. The equipment was brought forward by trucks, carefully prioritized so as to deliver it in the required order.
At 22:00 22 March, the Third Army's 5th Infantry Division commenced an assault crossing of the Rhine at Nierstein and Oppenheim, Germany. The site had been selected long before because it straddled one of the main roads to Frankfurt am Main, and the Rhine was only 1,000 feet (300 m) wide at this point, with a slow current of 3 to 4 feet per second (0.91 to 1.22 m/s), and sandy banks firm enough to support amphibious vehicles. For political reasons, Marshall, Eisenhower, Bradley and Patton wanted an American assault crossing ahead of the British one the following day. It was represented as an improvised crossing in contrast to that of the 21st Army Group, but the only improvisation resulted from the crossing date being brought forward.
This had consequences; a German self-propelled 105 mm howitzer disrupted the efforts of the 88th Engineer Heavy Ponton Battalion to assemble rafts. It was not until 08:30 that they were available and tank destroyers could cross and silence the German gun. The 24 LCVPs of Boat Unit 2 were on the water by 06:30 on 23 March, but the DUKWs and Weasels did not arrive until the following day. Work on a class 40 treadway bridge commenced at daybreak and it was opened at 18:00 on 23 March. A 1,280-foot (390 m) class 40 heavy ponton bridge was in operation by noon the following day, and a second treadway was completed on 25 March.
Patton's chief artillery officer, Brigadier General Edward T. "Molly" Williams, had proposed using artillery observation aircraft to move troops across the Rhine. A trial was undertaken, which demonstrated that a hundred light aircraft could transport a battalion in two hours, but the appearance of the Luftwaffe over the crossing site caused the idea to be abandoned.
The 87th Infantry Division attempted to cross the Rhine Gorge at Rhens and Boppard, Germany, on 25 March. This was one of the most difficult and treacherous sections of the river. It was flanked by steep cliffs with winding approach roads. Patton selected the site in the belief that such a poor site would be lightly defended. This proved to be incorrect. The German defense at Rhens was so fierce that the crossing there was abandoned and units were switched to Boppard, where the erection of a 1,044-foot (318 m) M2 treadway bridge began at 08:00 on 25 March and was completed by 09:30 the next day. The outboard motors on the power boats had difficult moving M2 treadway rafts in the swift current, so LCVPs were used. It was estimated that they ferried about 5,000 men and 400 vehicles across.
The 89th Infantry Division attempted a crossing of the Rhine Gorge at St. Goar and Oberwesel, Germany, on 26 March. The defenders at St. Goar were alert and well-equipped with automatic weapons. The main crossing effort was switched to Oberwessel where resistance was also staunch. Work on a treadway bridge began at St. Goar at 18:00 on 27 March, but took 36 hours to complete owing to the swift 6 to 8 feet per second (1.8 to 2.4 m/s) current and a rocky bottom that made anchorage difficult. In the meantime, units the 89th Infantry Division crossed using the 87th Infantry Division's bridge at Boppard.
Patton could have used the bridges that had been established at Oppenheim and Boppard, but they were poorly situated from a logistical point of view, with limited road and rail access. He therefore chose to undertake a third river crossing operation at Mainz, which was more centrally located and possessed good road and rail networks, making it the preferred site for highway and railway bridges. The 80th Infantry Division began crossing there at 01:00 on 28 March, The 160th Engineer Combat Battalion constructed a 1,896-foot (578 m) M2 treadway bridge at the site, believed to be the longest of its type ever built under combat conditions. ADESEC's Engineer Group B undertook the task of building a new railway bridge at Mainz. It was 2,215 feet (675 m) long and took nine and a half days to build. Patton opened it on 14 April, and it was named after President Roosevelt, who had died two days before.
### Seventh Army
The Seventh Army crossed the Rhine in the upstream from Worms, Germany, at 02:30 on 26 March. The 163rd Engineer Combat Battalion built a treadway bridge but it was not open until 18:50. In the meantime, the 85th Engineer Heavy Ponton Battalion built a 1,047 feet (319 m) heavy ponton bridge, making the treadway bridge necessary. The ponton bridge was named the Alexander Patch Bridge after the Seventh Army's commander. Some 3,040 vehicles crossed the bridge during its first day of operation. The 1553rd Heavy Ponton Battalion built another bridge downstream at Rheinduerkheim, Germany, but the Alexander Patch Bridge was open earlier and had a superior location, so that bridge saw little use. The 85th and 1553rd Heavy Ponton Battalions teamed up to build a new class 70 heavy ponton bridge at Ludwigshafen, Germany, on 30 March. Work commenced at daybreak and the bridge was open to heavy vehicles at 19:00, and named the Gar Davidson Bridge after the Seventh Army's chief engineer, Brigadier General Garrison H. Davidson.
The 1st Military Railway Service built two railway bridges over the Rhine in the Seventh Army zone. Work commenced on the first, a 937-foot (286 m) bridge at Mannheim, on 12 April, and it was completed on 23 April. The second was a 851-foot (259 m) bridge at Karlsruhe, Germany, where work commenced on 17 April and was completed on 29 April. With the bridge at Wesel in the Ninth Army zone and the one at Mainz in the Third Army's, that made four railway bridges over the Rhine. A fifth railway bridge over the Rhine was built at Duisburg, Germany, by ADSEC Group A, which commenced work on 2 May. The thirty-eight-span, 2,815-foot (858 m) bridge was completed in a record time of six and a half days but too late to have any impact on the campaign.
## Central Europe campaign
Once the Rhine had been crossed, the American armies advanced rapidly into Germany. The major effort was the encirclement of the Ruhr, which was accomplished when the First and Ninth Armies linked up at Lippstadt on 1 April. The armies then moved east and south on a broad front. German resistance crumbled rapidly in most areas, but remained fierce and stubborn in others, especially the Thuringian Forest and the Harz Mountains. By 18 April, when the Ruhr pocket was eliminated, the armies had reached the Elbe and Mulde rivers. The Third and Seventh Armies then drove south into southern Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Italy, while the First Army made contact with the Red Army at Torgau on 25 April.
### Organization changes
For the final advance into Germany, it was planned that ADSEC and CONAD would follow the 12th and 6th Army Groups respectively, but have no area responsibilities in Germany. The Burgundy District was therefore transferred from CONAD to the Oise Section on 21 March, and on 2 April the Oise Section became the Oise Intermediate Section, with three territorial districts: Burgundy, Luxembourg and Marne. On 1 April ADSEC relinquished all its territorial responsibilities to the Channel Base Section and the Oise Intermediate Section, and CONAD turned its remaining territory over to the Oise Intermediate Section the following week. ADSEC moved its headquarters to Germany, first to Bonn, and then to Fulda, while CONAD established its at Kaiserslautern, Germany.
### Railways
The logistics plans did not anticipate that railway traffic beyond the Rhine would be substantial before the middle of April at the earliest. Nonetheless, the ADSEC and Army engineers immediately set about rehabilitating the railway network. Some use was made of the railways even before the bridges were opened, hauling supplies brought across the river by truck. In the north the line from Münster to Paderborn to Kassel in Germany was already in use when the bridge at Wesel was opened on 9 April, allowing the Ninth Army to be supported by rail.
Within ten days of the opening of the bridge at Wesel, 20,000 long tons (20,000 t) of supplies were being carried across the bridges each day. The capacity of the Mainz and Wesel bridges combined had been estimated at 20,000 long tons (20,000 t) per day but up to 13,590 long tons (13,810 t) was moved over the Mainz bridge and 16,720 long tons (16,990 t) over the Wesel bridge in one day. The bridges carried an average of 8,000 long tons (8,100 t) each. Between 2 and 4 May, the railways carried 28,000 long tons (28,000 t) (80 percent) of the 35,000 long tons (36,000 t) of equipment and supplies moved across the Rhine.
The bridge at Wesel became a major bottleneck after the collapse of the Ludendorff bridge because it had to handle traffic for both the First and Ninth Armies, raising issues of coordination and traffic control. The 21st Army Group also asked for an allocation of bridge traffic. This was denied by COMZ but then authorized by SHAEF on appeal. The British were allowed one train carrying 500 tonnes (490 long tons; 550 short tons) each day. This was soon increased. It was because of the Wesel bridge's difficulty meeting both British and American requirements that the additional bridge at Duisberg was authorized.
A shortage of railway cars developed at the Mainz crossing, where at one point there was an excess of 12,200 loaded cars over unloaded ones. To alleviate this, returning cars loaded with captured German materiel were unloaded. No provision had been made for storing it in the vicinity of the river, so improvised dumps were formed by quartermaster detachments, assisted by POWs and civilians. Part of the problem was the Third Army's representatives attempted to expedite the delivery of the most urgently required supplies. This resulted in sidetracking loaded cars containing less urgent cargo. There was also a tendency to hold reserves on wheels in forward areas despite threats and warnings from ETOUSA and SHAEF.
Over the following weeks the rehabilitation of the railway network kept pace with the advance. No less than twenty-six engineer general service regiments were working on the railways. The railway service supporting the Third Army reached Würzburg, Germany, on 24 April and Nurnberg, Germany, on 5 May. By 8 May railheads had been established at Stendal and Magdeburg, Germany, for the Ninth Army, Leipzig, Germany, for the First Army, Regensburg, Germany, for the Third Army, and Stuttgart, Germany, for the Seventh Army. By July 1945, 1,987 locomotives and 43,972 railway cars, of which 21,512 were 20-ton box cars and 10,983 were 20-ton gondola cars, had been delivered to the Military Railway Service. The 1 and 2nd Military Railway Services were organized into seven grand divisions, with twenty-four railway operating battalions and seven shop battalions, and were operating 11,000 miles (18,000 km) of track.
### Motor transport
#### Motor Transport Service
The Motor Transport Service (MTS) was formed in October 1944 from personnel from the four traffic regulation groups, one of which was a Women's Army Corps unit. By January 1945, its headquarters, the 6955th Headquarters and Headquarters Company, consisted of 55 officers and 128 enlisted personnel. Colonel Ross B. Warren assumed command on 5 December. The MTS had technical and operational control of motor transport units, but they remained administratively under the base sections, which also controlled them operationally on tasks within the borders of a single base section. The MTS placed emphasis on preventative maintenance, and managed to improve the average number of serviceable vehicles per company from 30 in November 1944 to 35 at the end of December, and attempted to raise it still further in 1945. While stressing the need for the proper care of tires, the MTS obtained an additional 16,053 tires and tubes.
Of the 198 truck companies in the MTS in January 1945, 104 operated standard 21⁄2-ton 6×6 trucks. Some 1,800 semi-trailers and 690 truck-tractors were unloaded in Marseille, France, in November due to the limited reception capacity of the northern ports at the time, and thirty truck companies were sent there to be reequipped and retrained in their use. In the first three months of 1945 the MTS received 64 new companies. Of the thirty new companies that disembarked in the UK, only one had training with semi-trailers, so it trained the other twenty-nine in their use. Fourteen companies came to the ETO from the Persian Gulf Command, and were highly experienced with these vehicles, having operated them there for two years.
During the Rhineland operations and the preparations for the crossing of the Rhine, motor transport handled tremendous tonnages. In the period from 11 to 23 February 1945 motor transport moved 1,059,145 long tons (1,076,141 t) of stores and supplies, 81,472 tonnes (80,185 long tons; 89,808 short tons) per day, and 377,348 people. This rose to 1,737,601 long tons (1,765,484 t), a daily average of 108,600 long tons (110,300 t), in the period from 24 February to 11 March, when 634,425 personnel were moved.
It was anticipated that widespread destruction would hamper the ability of the railways to support operations beyond the Rhine, and motor transport would have to supplant rail. MTS planned another express route along the lines of the Red Ball Express of 1944. This plan was known as XYZ. It envisaged three phases, to meet different tonnage requirements: Plan X called for 55 companies with 2,750 vehicles to move 8,000 long tons (8,100 t) per day; Plan Y for 67 companies with 3,350 vehicles to move 10,000 long tons (10,000 t) per day; and Phase Z for 81 companies with 4,050 vehicles to move 10,000 long tons (10,000 t) per day. The four XYZ routes originated at Liège for the Ninth Army, Düren, Germany, for the First Army, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, for the Third Army and Nancy, France, for the Seventh Army. Having separate routes eased congestion and reduced coordination issues.
#### XYZ program
The XYZ program came into effect on 25 March and lasted until 31 May. To control operations in the field, the MTS organized the 6956th Highway Transport Division (Provisional) to support the Ninth and First Armies, and the 6957th Highway Transport Division (Provisional) to support the Third Army. As the armies diverged and the distances between them increased, it became more difficult for the highway division to support two of them at once, and the 6958th Highway Transport Division (Provisional) was organized to support the First Army while the 469th Quartermaster Group performed this task for the Seventh Army along what became known as the Yellow Diamond route.
Although not nearly as well known as the Red Ball Express, XYZ was far more successful. It was characterized by superior planning, organization, execution and coordination. The drivers were far more experienced, especially the units that had come from Iran, and there were far more heavy trucks available. While hauls did exceed 200 miles (320 km) on occasion, the average was closer to 140 miles (230 km), which was much shorter than the Red Ball Express routes and allowed the drivers more rest time. This was partly attributable to the rapid advance of the railheads, but also to the work of 17,000 personnel employed on road maintenance. About 40 percent of these were military personnel; 35 percent were POWs and the rest were civilians. CONAD established "GI Joe Dinners" at 50-mile (80 km) intervals where drivers could exchange their cold rations for a hot meal at any time, day or night.
XYZ was not without its difficulties. The biggest challenge was keeping the trucks running. Mechanics accompanied the convoys, and four hours of maintenance was given to trucks before they set out. Replacement vehicles and spare parts were slow to arrive owing to the distance from the supply depots in the intermediate and base sections. On the Yellow Diamond route, the shortage of tires was alleviated by the capture of a thousand German tires. The 2,000-US-gallon (7,600 L; 1,700 imp gal) tankers sprung leaks on the winding mountain roads, and large numbers of them became laid up for repairs. There were frequent changes of destination as the armies surged forward, and bottlenecks at bridges, many of which were one-way only.
The Third Army had a daily maintenance requirement of approximately 7,500 long tons (7,600 t), of which 2,000 long tons (2,000 t) was bulk POL. To meet this demand, the 6957th Highway Transport Division (Provisional) had 62 truck companies, 34 equipped with 10-ton semi-trailers and 14 with tankers. By the end of May, it had hauled 354,015 long tons (359,696 t) of supplies, nearly 30,000,000 US gallons (110,000,000 L) gallons of bulk POL, and 381,019 personnel. The Ninth Army was supported by the 6956th Highway Transport Division (Provisional), with 15 truck companies, 12 equipped with 10-ton semi-trailers and the rest with 2,000-gallon tankers. They delivered 122,684 long tons (124,653 t) tons of supplies. The 6958th Highway Transportation Division (Provisional) supported the First Army with 31 truck companies that delivered 182,425 long tons (185,352 t) of supplies. Over the 63 days that XYZ was in operation, 871,895 long tons (885,886 t) of supplies were delivered, representing a daily average lift of 12,895 long tons (13,102 t).
As motor transport was drawn away from port clearance work, the danger of increased ship turnaround times arose. On 5 April, the COMZ G-4, Brigadier General Morris W. Gilland, asked the NYPE to defer the sailings of May convoys by five days, except for ships carrying certain vehicles, ammunition, bombs, rail cars and locomotives, which would save the ports from having to handle 60,000 long tons (61,000 t) of cargo.
### Pipelines
By February 1945, COMZ held stocks of 560,000 long tons (570,000 t) of POL, far in excess of the authorized sixty days of supply, and POL was being discharged at a rate of 13,000 long tons (13,000 t) through the ports of Antwerp, Cherbourg, Le Havre, and Port-de-Bouc. At this point the northern pipeline system from Antwerp had its terminus at Maastricht. This remained the case until 3 March, when work began on extending the pipeline to Wesel. This project faced considerable difficulties; deep mud on the initial stretch from Maastrict to Sittard in the Netherlands forced the engineers to hand-carry pipe; a shortage of 6-inch (150 mm) couplings forced them to weld pipe instead of joining it; the right of way beyond Sittard was found to be mined; and floods in the vicinity of the Roer compelled the engineers to suspend the pipe from cables. These obstacles were overcome and construction was completed and the extension in operation on 28 March. Extension of the major system from Cherbourg had begun in January and by February it had reached Châlons-sur-Marne, France. During March a 6-inch line was extended to Thionville. Meanwhile, the southern system originating at Marseille was extended to Sarralbe.
Pipelines were run across the Rhine independent of the systems. Gasoline would be delivered by tank car to the east bank and then pumped across the Rhine, thereby reducing motor vehicle traffic over the bridges. The first pipeline across the Rhine was laid at Mehlem [de] near Remagen. Construction commenced on 25 March and the pipeline was in use three days later. The pipeline was extended to join an autobahn 10 miles (16 km) away, where storage tanks were erected. From there it was taken by tanker trucks to Giessen, Germany, to be decanted.
In the Third Army zone a pipeline was laid across the Rhine over a wrecked railway bridge at Mainz. This was in operation on 8 April, and the connected to the major system on 22 April. The bridge it ran over was found to be unsafe, so it was replaced by two pipelines run across the railway bridge. The Seventh Army ran a pipeline across the Rhine over a Bailey bridge at Frankenthal, Germany, to a pipehead at Sandhofen, Germany, on the east bank. Work commenced on 7 April and was completed on 15 April. Two additional lines were subsequently added, one of them running over the river bed. The first 4-inch pipeline of the southern system reached Frankenthal on 20 April, followed by two more lines by the end of the month. At Wesel work began on 21 March and was completed on 3 April. It never operated independently though, because the northern pipeline from Antwerp reached Wesel on 28 March and the two pipelines were immediately linked.
Fuel consumption soared in April as the armies moved forward, sometimes exceeding 1,000,000 US gallons (3,800,000 L) in a single day. In the last days of April, deliveries began falling short of demand, and the reserves of the Third and Seventh Armies fell to less than two days. The Third Army was forced to begin rationing fuel, but POL shortages did not have a significant impact on operations.
### Air supply
After SHAEF authorized the use of air transport to support the armies after the Rhine crossing, the Third Army put in a bid for 2,000 long tons (2,000 t) on 27 March. Poor flying weather prevented this being carried out immediately, but 329 aircraft of the IX Troop Carrier Command delivered 197,400 US gallons (747,000 L) of gasoline on 30 March. Air supply assumed great importance in April, peaking in the second week of the month when over 6,200 sorties were flown and 15,000 long tons (15,000 t) were landed at forward air fields. Elements of the 2nd Engineer Aviation Brigade followed advancing infantry and armored units and commenced rehabilitating air fields as soon as they were captured. If suitable, they would be used for delivering supplies by air.
The Third Army had the most extended supply lines, and made the most use of air supply. Between 30 March and 8 May it received about 27,000 long tons (27,000 t) of supplies by air, representing more than half of all air supply tonnage. Of this, 27,000 long tons (27,000 t), about 6,000,000 US gallons (23,000,000 L), was gasoline, accounting for 22 percent of the Third Army's gasoline receipts in that period. It also received a daily average of 50,000 rations by air, and occasionally critical items such as batteries and spare tires. During April the IX Troop Carrier Command made an average of 650 sorties each day, and delivered a daily average of 1,600 long tons (1,600 t). In the same month it also evacuated about 40,000 casualties and 135,000 Allied military personnel liberated from POW camps in Germany.
## After the German surrender
### Redeployment
In October 1944, the War Department had instituted a policy whereby all requisitions were marked STO (for stop) for those that were to be automatically canceled when hostilities ended or SHP (for ship) for those that would continue to be filled. By April, requisitions for ordnance, engineer, medical and signal supplies were far outstripping consumption, but not until 5 May did ETOUSA ask for STO shipments to be canceled. This involved 1,280,000 long tons (1,300,000 t) of supplies. STO cargo at the NYPE was returned to the depots. Where STO cargo had already been stowed, it was allowed to be shipped. All STO items that were unloaded were kept segregated and returned on the next available vessel. Seventy-five ships were returned unloaded or reloaded with STO cargo.
With the end of the war in Europe on 8 May, there were 5,500,000 long tons (5,600,000 t) of supplies on the continent, of which 700,000 long tons (710,000 t) was ammunition. The German surrender did not end the war, for the United States was still at war with Japan. Units redeploying to the Pacific took their equipment with them. Everything else had to be repaired, packed and shipped to the Pacific or the United States, or disposed of. Plans called for the repair of 94,000,000 items of clothing, 160,000 motor vehicles, 255,000 radios and 21,000 pieces of construction equipment.
Planning for the redeployment of forces to the Pacific commenced in November 1944 when a Redeployment Planning Group was established as part of ETOUSA, reporting directly to the Chief of Staff of COMZ, Brigadier General Royal B. Lord. Some 395,900 troops were to be shipped direct from Europe to the Pacific between September 1945 and January 1946, while another 408,200 would go to the Pacific via the United States. Another 2,180,000 were to be demobilized under a points system. Redeployment commenced on 12 May 1945. Marseille was designated as the principal port for shipment direct to the Pacific, and Le Havre, Antwerp, and Liverpool, England, for shipment to the United States. Personnel were mainly shipped through Le Havre, where five staging areas were established, each named after a popular brand of cigarette. Direct shipment to the Pacific ended abruptly in August when Japan surrendered.
To accommodate the troops being demobilized, COMZ activated the Assembly Area Command, with Lord in command, on 9 April 1945. The Oise Intermediate Section built seventeen transit camps around Reims to hold up to 270,000 personnel awaiting repatriation to the United States for demobilization. This called for the construction of 5,000 huts, the erection of 33,000 tents, and the laying of 8,000,000 square feet (740,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of concrete. Some 450,000 long tons (460,000 t) of rock was required for roads and hard standings and 34,000,000 board feet (80,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of lumber for works. By the end of 1945, the Assembly Area Command had processed 600,000 troops. Redeployment of units ended on 26 February 1946.
On 12 May 1945, a theater order was issued officially separating the headquarters of ETOUSA and COMZ. This went into effect on 1 July, when the former was redesignated United States Forces European Theater, with its headquarters in Frankfurt. On 1 August, COMZ was redesignated Theater Service Forces, European Theater, with its headquarters still in Paris. The Bremen Port Command was created under the command of Major General Harry B. Vaughan, formerly the commander of the UK Base Section, to operate the port of Bremen, Germany, and administer the surrounding area, an American enclave in the British occupation zone in Germany.
### Prisoners of war
When hostilities came to an end, COMZ was feeding 3,675,000 troops and 1,560,000 POWs, the latter mostly from captured stocks. The Third Geneva Convention of 1929 required that the US Army feed and care for POWs. This was partly sidestepped by a declaration by Eisenhower that this would only apply to those who had surrendered before 8 May 1945; those that surrendered after this date were classified as a disarmed enemy forces (DEFs) instead. DEFs were not accorded the same treatment as POWs. Theoretically, the responsibility for feeding DEFs lay with the German civil authorities. DEFs received the same ration as the civilians, which could be as low as 500 calories (2,100 kJ) per day in some places.
In contrast, US soldiers had a diet of 3,500 calories (15,000 kJ) per day. It had been intended that US occupation forces would be fed by Germany, but under the conditions of food scarcity in post-war Europe, the reverse was very much the case, and the US shipped millions of tons of relief supplies to Germany. Many POWs and DEFs found employment supporting the US Army. On 30 September 1945, the US Army in Germany was employing 575,214 POWs and DEFs in 2,448 German service units. They assisted with felling trees, loading and unloading trucks, baking bread and maintaining motor vehicles.
## Outcome
Once across the Rhine, combat losses in terms of tanks, vehicles and equipment, and the expenditure of ammunition declined, while shortages of fuel and spare parts developed. This was to be expected in fast-moving mobile operations. The American logistics system was stretched, but nowhere near breaking point. The Deputy Chief Historian for the United States Army, Charles B. MacDonald, who participated in the campaigns as a company commander, wrote that "the credit in general belonged to a sound logistical apparatus expertly administered". That the American forces won the war is beyond dispute, as was the fact that, as historian Roland Ruppenthal wrote, "It can hardly be claimed that U.S. forces operated on a shoestring. In fact, few armies in history have been as bountifully provided for."
There remained a lingering impression that the American logistical system could have performed better and more efficiently. The most intractable problem was that of the command setup, with ETOUSA-COMZ being the official theater staff, but many of the functions of a general headquarters being exercised by SHAEF. The ETO also had manpower shortages and achieving the right balance between operational and logistical units was a difficult one. The logistical system of ports, depots, railways, highways, pipelines and hospitals formed a highly complex system with a multitude of moving parts, and managing something so complicated inevitably involved inefficiencies.
## See also
- British logistics in the Western Allied invasion of Germany |
30,403,387 | Attack on Kennedy Road | 1,139,713,067 | Violent 2009 incident in South Africa | [
"2009 in South Africa",
"2009 murders in South Africa",
"Conflicts in 2009",
"Crime in Durban",
"Events in Durban",
"History of Durban",
"Housing in South Africa",
"Riots and civil disorder in South Africa",
"September 2009 events in South Africa"
]
| The attack on Kennedy Road in Durban, South Africa, occurred on 26 September 2009. A mob of men armed with bush knives, guns and bottles entered the Kennedy Road informal settlement searching for leaders of the shackdwellers movement Abahlali baseMjondolo (AbM). They looted shacks and threatened residents, before attacking a hall where a youth meeting was happening. Two people were killed and around a thousand were displaced. In the aftermath, AbM representatives such as S'bu Zikode went into hiding and thirteen AbM members were arrested.
The attack was immediately condemned by academics and church leaders, and Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International later expressed concerns. The trial of the Kennedy 12 experienced delays, leading the Centre for Constitutional Rights and Amnesty to raise questions about the process. In 2011, all the charges were dropped; AbM then sued the local police and the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. The incident is regarded as an attack by the police and the local branch of the African National Congress (ANC) against the AbM movement.
## Attack
In 2009, an estimated 10,000 people were living at Kennedy Road, one of many informal settlements in Durban. The shackdwellers movement Abahlali baseMjondolo (AbM) had been founded at Kennedy Road and campaigned on issues such as better sanitation, which brought it into conflict with the ruling African National Congress (ANC). On Saturday 26 September 2009, a weekend of Heritage Day events began at Kennedy Road, with an AbM youth camp. At around 22:30, a mob armed with pangas, sjamboks, guns and bottles entered the settlement. The men woke residents up by banging on their doors and made threats whilst searching for AbM leaders such as Lindela Figlan and S'bu Zikode. Figlan had received warnings that his life was in danger and was forced to hide in his shack with his wife and 3-year-old daughter. He was saved by locking his door from the outside, so it appeared that he was not at home. The mob shouted that Mpondo people were taking over the settlement from Zulu people. The police were called by residents, but did not come. At around 01:00, about fifty armed men approached the hall where the youth camp was taking place. The police came and by 03:00 the mob had dispersed. The attack was witnessed by the makers of the film Dear Mandela.
At around 03:30, the mob returned to the hall, smashing its windows and entering inside. Two people were killed in the ensuing disorder. Later, shacks belonging to members of the Kennedy Road Development Committee (KRDC) were demolished and others were looted by men shouting "Down with Abahlali! Down with the KRDC!". An estimated one thousand inhabitants fled after being threatened with violence and rape, as the violence continued into the next day. Both Figlan and Zikode (who was not present) went into hiding.
In the aftermath, nobody from the mob was arrested but thirteen members of AbM were arrested and charged with murder. Eight were granted bail and five were remanded.
## Reactions
On Monday 28 September, a letter from South African academics was published which condemned the attack and raised concerns that local police and ANC members had colluded with the mob. Signatories included the academics John Dugard, Steven Friedman, Marie Huchzermeyer, Martin Legassick, Michael Neocosmos and Peter Vale. Jacob Zuma, President of South Africa, was heckled when making speeches and Edwin Ronald Makue, representing the South African Council of Churches (SACC), called it "an attack on democracy".
The Congress of the People (COPE) party claimed that the two murdered men were members of their group and that they had been killed by people from the ANC. COPE was an offshoot from the ANC and there were tensions between the groups; the slogans shouted by the mob about supporting Zulu people were taken to be a coded message for supporting the ANC. The local authorities blamed vigilantes connected to Abahlali baseMjondolo for the violence. A representative of KwaZulu-Natal province said to the Mail & Guardian newspaper that the "underlying cause for the violence was criminal". The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Safety and Security held meetings at Kennedy Road for stakeholders which were condemned as unrepresentative by church leaders, AbM and the Mail & Guardian, the latter describing them as "a sham" and an "exercise in speaking with forked tongues". Internationally, intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky, Naomi Klein and Slavoj Zizek released a statement supporting AbM and groups such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International expressed concern about the killings.
## Court case
The trial of the Kennedy 12 began on 12 July 2010 at Durban High Court. Bishop Rubin Phillip of the Diocese of Natal wrote a statement of support in which he hoped for a fair judicial process. All twelve were charged with public violence and five also faced the charge of murder, with the rest accused of attempted murder. There were also other lesser charges.
The court case was delayed several times, leading to concerns that it was becoming a politicised trial. Amnesty wrote a report questioning the impartiality of the process, and the New York-based Centre for Constitutional Rights sent an urgent appeal to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders to ask her to investigate the attacks on Abahlali baseMjondolo and the subsequent legal process. Journalist and former political prisoner Paul Trewhela commented that the trial had lasted longer than any case under apartheid excepting the 1956 Treason Trial, saying that "the AbM trial in Durban/eThekwini is now the most graphic faultline in the struggle to preserve democratic freedoms in South Africa".
On 18 July 2011, the entire case against the Kennedy 12 was thrown out. The Durban Regional Court magistrate stated that the prosecution witnesses "contradicted their prior statements to the police during the trial. As if that was not enough, they contradicted one another" and further described them as "belligerent", "unreliable" and "dishonest". Amnesty noted that the court had found that "police had directed some witnesses to point out members of Abahlali-linked organizations at the identification parade" and that the people whose shacks had been demolished had been unable to return to Kennedy Road.
## Legacy
The attack on Kennedy Road posed a challenge to the ability of Abahlali baseMjondolo to organise, since its leaders were forced to go underground and it was unable to hold public meetings for several months, but the group survived. The attack is seen by the Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa as having been planned by local ANC members with the help of the local police. The institute launched a court case in tandem with AbM, suing the police and the municipality for their failure to intervene in the attacks. Paul Trewhela wrote:
> The scandal is that this political prosecution was ever instituted in the first place, and that it was dragged on, month after month, by magistrates, prosecution and police without a shred of reliable evidence – with plentiful evidence, rather, of manipulation and intimidation of witnesses by the police and local ANC structures. |
62,792,440 | KWKW | 1,167,521,637 | Spanish-language sports radio station in Los Angeles | [
"1922 establishments in California",
"Hispanic and Latino American culture in Los Angeles",
"Lotus Communications stations",
"Radio stations established in 1922",
"Radio stations in Los Angeles",
"Spanish-language radio stations in California",
"Sports radio stations in the United States"
]
| KWKW (1330 AM) is a commercial Spanish language radio station licensed to serve Los Angeles, California, featuring a sports format known as "Tu Liga Radio 1330". Owned by Lotus Communications, the station services Greater Los Angeles and much of surrounding Southern California, and since September 2019 has been the Los Angeles affiliate for Univision's TUDN Radio. Having adopted the current sports format on October 1, 2005, KWKW is the Spanish language flagship station for multiple Los Angeles professional sports franchises including the Rams, Lakers, Clippers, Kings, Angels and the LA Galaxy. KWKW itself is Southern California's oldest Spanish language radio station, having begun operations in 1941 at and licensed to Pasadena and transferring to —also based in Pasadena—in 1950. KWKW's programming and call sign moved to from in 1989 following Lotus' acquisition of the former and sale of the latter.
Historically, this station is perhaps best known as KFAC, one of the most visible commercial fine arts/classical music stations in the United States, and one of the first to have adopted the format on a full-time basis. For all but the final two years of their tenure with the format, KFAC boasted an airstaff with unprecedented stability and continuity including announcers Carl Princi and Fred Crane, and possessed the largest classical music library of its kind west of the Mississippi. By the time of their sales and format changes in 1989, KFAC and FM adjunct KFAC-FM (92.3) were two of only 41 stations—out of 9,000 commercial U.S. radio stations in operation—that played classical music, with The New York Times eulogizing KFAC as "a staple of Los Angeles's cultural life for 58 years". Launched by the antecedent of Biola University in 1922, the current KWKW license also holds a distinction of being the oldest surviving radio station in the United States to have been built and signed on by a religious institution.
Since 2003, the studios for KWKW have been located in the Los Angeles Hollywood Hills neighborhood, while the station transmitter is located in the nearby Crenshaw District, shared with KABC () and KFOX (). In addition to a standard analog transmission, KWKW's programming is streamed online and relayed over both low-power FM translator K264CQ () and full-power Pomona station KTMZ ().
## History
### KJS and KTBI
The Bible Institute of Los Angeles signed on station KJS on March 22, 1922, operating from their headquarters at Sixth and Hope Streets. Standing for "King Jesus Saves", KJS was the second religious broadcast station to have been established in the United States, four months after the Church of the Covenant established WDM in Washington, D.C. and four months before John Wanamaker launched WOO in Philadelphia. Not long after going on air, a 1,000-watt transmitter was scheduled to be put into service in October. As KJS was one of fourteen radio stations in operation in the region, a complex time-share arrangement between all stations to operate at 360 meters (830 kHz) was established with preference given to KHJ, itself recently established by the Los Angeles Times. Consequently, KJS only operated for one hour on Sunday mornings, 45 minutes on Sunday evenings and 30 minutes on Wednesday nights at launch. Programming primarily consisted of church services, including from the institute's affiliated Church of the Open Door, though programs from other churches were also featured along with live musical offerings. Charles E. Fuller, who would later become board chairman of the Bible Institute and host of The Old Fashioned Revival Hour, began his radio career at KJS in 1924.
In August 1925, the station changed its call letters to KTBI to identify the station with The Bible Institute. KTBI's program director in 1927, Herbert G. Tovey, also conducted the institute's women's glee club; the Bible Institute offered a range of music courses to its students. Programming continued to feature the Church of the Open Door, as well as devotionals and a "Jewish Radio Hour", in addition to a daily children's program, Aunt Martha's Children's Hour. The station broadcast on a variety of frequencies—including , (sharing time with KHJ), and —before receiving the assignment in General Order 40 reallocation. KTBI moved to new studios in June 1928 alongside a power increase to 1,000 watts. General Order 40 paired the station with another religious outlet: KGEF, the station of controversial evangelist Robert P. Shuler and his Trinity Methodist Church.
KTBI operated on a noncommercial basis. As a result, when the Great Depression hit and donations fell, the station became unsustainable for the institute to operate. While oil magnate Lyman Stewart helped found and finance construction of the institute, he failed to endow it prior to his death, exacerbating their financial crisis. Additionally, the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) informed the institute that it preferred religious programs be broadcast over commercially operated stations. In 1931, the Bible Institute sold KTBI for \$37,500 (equivalent to \$ in ) to the Los Angeles Broadcasting Company, and following a brief period of silence for technical repairs relaunched as a commercial outlet on April 30 under the KFAC call sign; the KFAC calls had themselves previously been used between 1922 and 1923 on a short-lived station in Glendale, California, owned by the Glendale Daily Press. Along with the sale, the institute continued to have several programs broadcast over the new KFAC and the time share with KGEF was to be maintained.
A very visible reminder of KJS/KTBI's past existence would soon be constructed by the Bible Institute: two large red "Jesus Saves" neon signs on top of their headquarters next to the former transmission tower. Removed after the building's 1988 demolition, the sign was purchased by Gene Scott and placed on the United Artists Theatre in Los Angeles' downtown (renamed "University Cathedral") and later were moved to Glendale along with the ministry's headquarters. A replica sign exists at the current Biola University campus in La Mirada.
### KFAC
#### Move to Wilshire
The Los Angeles Broadcasting Company was headed up by Errett Lobban Cord, a manufacturer best known for the Auburn and Cord automobile lines, and by O.R. "Ollie" Fuller, a dairy farmer who owned the Los Angeles dealership for Auburn-Cord, Fuller Motors; accordingly, KFAC stood for "Fuller-Auburn-Cord". Cord and Fuller also had purchased KFVD in Culver City, based at Hal Roach Studios; both they and KFAC would remain at their original sites until both relocated to the Fuller Motors dealership in Wilshire Center, directly adjacent to the Wilshire Community Church. KFAC broadcast a live three-hour program on April 12, 1932, to celebrate the grand opening of the new studios, with on-air talent from competing stations as special guests. As the studios were located in the dealership's fifth floor penthouse, large radio towers were erected on the roof but were purely for display and advertisement purposes as KFAC's actual transmitter site was moved to Los Angeles' Crestview neighborhood. O.R. Fuller and his company went bankrupt prior to completion of the studios in 1932, prompting Cord to acquire KFAC and KFVD outright.
In the wake of the Lindbergh kidnapping, the Associated Press and Los Angeles Times ran stories on March 21, 1934, regarding a kidnapping threat made against E.L. Cord's children. In response, Cord secretly fled with his immediate family to the United Kingdom, the news of his fleeing would not be made known until a New York Times story that May 30, when a company associate only would say that Cord "would remain away for an indefinite period". The full reason for this sudden action was never truly disclosed. KFVD would be spun off to Standard Broadcasting Co. for \$50,000 on July 15, 1936, and moved out of the dealership two years later. Cord divested his automotive holdings, which were merged into the Aviation Corporation in 1933, to separate interests in 1937 for \$2.5 million.
Starting in 1932, KFAC began broadcasting unlimited time through a series of authorizations under special temporary authority; this arrangement became permanent in January 1933 when the FRC deleted KGEF's license over Shuler's controversial views following a series of failed appeals. This would soon extend to 24-hour broadcasting for KFAC starting on March 8, 1935, joining KGFJ, which broadcast around the clock starting in 1927; both stations preceded WNEW in New York City, which started unlimited broadcasting that August 6. Between 1933 and 1935, the Los Angeles Herald-Express was affiliated with KFAC, though it held no ownership interest; the alliance ended when the newspaper bought KTM in Santa Monica and KELW of Burbank. The station was almost forced to share its frequency again when, in January 1936, a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) hearing examiner approved an application by Los Angeles city councilmember and real estate operator Will H. Kindig for a new shared-time station with KFAC (which would have been renewed for half-time only), saying the proposed Kindig station would increase media diversity in Los Angeles; the FCC broadcast division, however, reversed the examiner's ruling that July. When the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA) was enacted in 1941, KFAC moved to .
#### Whoa Bill and a springboard to stardom
Shortly after relaunching as KFAC, on July 30, 1931, an afternoon children's radio program titled the "Whoa Bill" Club debuted, hosted by Harry Jackson with the alternative rural title The Keeper of the Pig, carrying over a show he had previously hosted for four years on KFWB. Sponsored by Bullock's department store, the "Whoa Bill" Club aired every weekday afternoon at 5:30 p.m. for the next 20 years, and found lasting success when Nick Nelson took over as main emcee in 1941 under the name "Uncle Whoa Bill". At its peak, the Bullock's "Whoa Bill" Club boasted a membership of 50,000 fans—known as "Whoa Billers"—in 1944. The show also broadcast live performances every Friday afternoon for a live studio audience of children under the age of 12, Nelson himself also performed weekly puppet shows at Bullock's on Saturday afternoons. Among the child actors who performed on the "Whoa Bill" Club, bobby soxer Louise Erickson found the most fame, having started her professional career at age seven, cast as a fairy princess. Publicist/talent agent Aaron "Red" Doff, who managed the careers of Mickey Rooney, Doris Day, Liberace and Frankie Laine, also was a recurring child actor on the program.
The station also carried games from the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League starting with the 1936 season, the majority of which would be recreations produced at their studios. Entertainer Bing Crosby hosted a half-hour "radio rally" over KFAC on November 21, 1937, to promote the upcoming Loyola-Gonzaga college football matchup that included a musical performance by Crosby—a Gonzaga alum—and an on-air debate between Crosby and Times sports editor Bill Henry. KFAC would also debut a popular music program, Lucky Lager Dance Time, on August 1, 1941; hosted by Ira Cook, the late-evening program would later be regarded as one of the first record chart programs of its kind, and even featured conductor Leopold Stokowski as a guest host once.
KFAC would prove to be a springboard for entertainers and performers. Legendary broadcaster Stan Chambers began his career in 1937 as an actor for a weekly children's program produced by one of his teachers at St. Brendan School, visiting the station repeatedly. John Conte started his career in show business as an announcer at KFAC for two years. Barbara Eiler was cast for a KFAC show portraying famous actresses in their teens after being approached by a high school classmate asking if she wanted to act on the radio; that sustaining program led to supporting roles in The Life of Riley and A Day in the Life of Dennis Day, along with various film and television roles. Following a broadcast of the Radio Chautauqua Show in 1936, the station received a phone call from Eddie Cantor inquiring about one of the young girls who performed on the program; Deanna Durbin would become a part of Cantor's radio show and later, a movie star signed to Universal Studios.
#### Classical evolution
While KFAC later regarded January 15, 1938, as their "birthdate" in the station's 1978 "40th Anniversary" program guide—which was in reality the birthday of then-general manager George Fritzinger—the station began playing recorded classical music on a set schedule with the launch of Concert Hall on October 14, 1935, a daily program narrated by P. Alfred Leonard. Leonard had been hired as KFAC's "director of symphonic music" and promised in a Times interview to lift the station's musical standards with shows devoted to music appreciation. Through the remainder of the 1930s, and indeed on that aforementioned 1938 date, KFAC's program lineup was a mixture of Concert Hall, live and recorded music, Times newscasts, sporting events, the "Whoa Bill" Club and scripted fare.
Their first regularly-scheduled long-form classical music program, The Gas Company Evening Concert, debuted on October 1, 1940, and aired six nights a week, Sundays excluded. Having been encouraged by his wife to enter radio broadcasting, Thomas Cassidy joined the station from KIDO in Boise, Idaho, in December 1943 as the host of Evening Concert, a role he would maintain for the next 43 years. Cassidy would become so closely associated with the program that his obituary erroneously regarded his joining the station as when Evening Concert began. KFAC and The Gas Company eventually expanded Evening Concert's reach via regional syndication to both Riverside's KPRO () on January 1, 1958, and Santa Barbara's KDB () by June 1963.
During this transitional period, Steve Allen was hired as an overnight announcer on KFAC in 1943, having been recommended for the job by Madelyn Pugh Davis, who heard him perform on KOY () in Phoenix. Allen lasted at the station for only six months in part due to not following directives and his humorous tone not fitting the station's classical selections, but soon landed at KHJ co-hosting Smile Time with Wendell Noble over the Don Lee Network. That program, and a future late-night variety program on the CBS Radio Network, would be precursors to his tenure as the first host of NBC's The Tonight Show franchise.
The success of Evening Concert, as well as Musical Masterpieces, another program hosted by Cassidy, facilitated the station's evolution into a full-time classical music outlet. Harry Mitchell, a former announcer at the Hollywood Palladium, was appointed as program director on July 6, 1944, and pledged to have the station place a greater emphasis on live programming. E.L. Cord allegedly toured the studios one day in 1945 and recognized the substantial investments KFAC had made in classical recordings, finalizing the evolution. While very much still a commercial station, Cord continued to operate KFAC mostly as a personal hobby despite not knowing much about the classical music genre; his own personal tastes and expectations were eventually reflected in the station's on-air presentation that persisted for decades.
#### Unprecedented on-air continuity
KFAC also was in the process of slowly assembling an airstaff that had an unprecedented level of continuity. Fred Crane, an actor most famous for his supporting role as Brent Tarleton in Gone with the Wind, was hired as a part-time announcer while still continuing to perform on film and television; Fred's position became full-time in the early 1960s. Tom Dixon and Dick Crawford notably were hired on the same date in 1947. Dixon—an Edmonton native who joined the station after simultaneous work at KHJ, KNX () and KMPC () emceeing multiple programs, including The Billie Burke Show—served as afternoon announcer for nearly 39 years, while Crawford primarily worked on weekends.
Carl Princi joined the station in 1953 after freelance work at KMGM-FM and a short stint as a bilingual presenter at KWKW (). While at KWKW, that station's general manager referred Princi to KFAC's general manager in hopes of securing full-time work; KFAC host Mark Breneman unexpectedly died the day after Princi's job interview, prompting the station to hire him. Referring to himself as "the newest of the old timers", when Princi was interviewed by Hamilton Radio Quarterly in 1976 about his longevity, he replied that "he'd only been there 23 years." Princi hosted The World of Opera every weekday afternoon throughout his entire tenure with the station and conducted most of the station interviews with musicians. Bill Carlson also joined KFAC in 1953 as host of the Noontime Concert, which he presided over for the next 30 years. This core group of Cassidy, Crane, Dixon, Crawford, Princi, and Carlson was fundamentally unchanged between 1953 and 1983. Pacific Coast League baseball broadcasts, Lucky Lager Dance Time and Uncle Whoa Bill were among the last remaining non-classical programs to remain on the schedule; the baseball games at times wound up delaying the start time for Evening Concert by as much as two hours before being dropped at the end of the 1945 season. Ira Cook began working for both KFAC and KMPC, and even KSL in Salt Lake City, in similar capacities before Lucky Lager Dance Time was cancelled at the end of 1948, Cook would continue the show, itself later supervised by Bill Gavin, at KMPC. Meanwhile, Uncle Whoa Bill—whom Thomas Cassidy's son was a fan of—lasted up to September 14, 1951, when it was quietly dropped from the lineup; Viennese Varieties, sponsored by Baker Boy Bakeries and hosted by Dick Crawford, replaced it the following Monday. Uncle Whoa Bill host Nick Nelson would subsequently join KTTV as the emcee of Mister Whistle, airing at the same time period on Sunday afternoons.
Howard Rhines was hired away from KMPC in 1949 to become KFAC's program director. Under Rhines' oversight, KFAC continued to place a heavy emphasis on sustained programming like Evening Concert and forbade the use of commercial jingles on-air, explaining to Billboard that "you can't go out of Beethoven and into a rhythmic jingle." In addition, all seven staff announcers—including Rhines—were now required to be fluent in at least four distinct languages. KFAC also hired veteran radio announcer/actor Dick Joy as their news director in 1951, handling all newscasts in the morning and some in the early afternoon until 1967.
#### Branching to FM; solidifying the format
KFAC signed on an FM adjunct, KFAC-FM, on December 29, 1948, at . The FM antenna was initially placed at the AM transmitter site, which had moved to the Crenshaw district in 1947 along with a power increase for the AM station to 5,000 watts; this site is still in use today by KWKW, as well as KABC and KFOX. KFAC started carrying live concerts from the Hollywood Bowl amphitheater in 1952 as part of Evening Concert. The station pioneered an early form of stereo broadcasting by having two microphones placed on different sides of the venue, with the audio separately fed to the AM and FM stations. Advertisements placed by The Gas Company encouraged Evening Concert listeners at home who had two radios were instructed to place them seven to twelve feet apart, with one tuned to KFAC-FM and the other tuned to KFAC.
The first such broadcast in 1953 had mixed reviews due to KFAC-FM's relatively weak signal strength; an opinion column in the Redlands Daily Facts concluded their review by publicly advocating for KFAC-FM's antenna to be moved to Mount Wilson alongside the TV stations. KFAC-FM would do just that, filing paperwork with the FCC in March 1954 to move the antenna to Mount Wilson and shifting frequencies from to , increasing the potential audience by 1.5 million people and the overall coverage area from 720 square miles to 8,300 square miles. While the facility changes took place a few days prior, it was formally dedicated as part of another pseudo-stereo broadcast from the Bowl on July 15, 1954. As KFAC-FM moved to Mount Wilson prior to the FCC enacting limits for power output by FM stations in 1962, it is formally classified as a "superpower" FM by operating at a maximum power level, but with the antenna being placed well above the height limit.
Both KFAC and KFAC-FM would move out of the Fuller Motors dealership penthouse to new studios at the Prudential Square in the Miracle Mile district, now known as SAG-AFTRA Plaza. An advertisement taken out by KFAC in Broadcasting Magazine celebrating the studio move also boasted that they now held a library of music recordings that weighed over 28 tons, enough to ensure that the stations could be programmed for a full year without any duplication. The studio move was completed in April 1953 when KFAC general manager Calvin Smith, Los Angeles Mayor Fletcher Bowron and Prudential Insurance vice president Harry Volk participated in a ceremonial soldering ceremony; KFAC experienced no loss of air time in the process.
As KFAC solidified its reputation and format as a classical music outlet, it also set out to remove some of the few remaining deviations from its format. On February 15, 1957, it notified the First Methodist Church of Los Angeles, which paid commercial rates to broadcast its Sunday morning service over KFAC, that it would terminate the agreement. First Methodist claimed to have the oldest church service broadcasts in America, which were first made in 1923. KFAC carried First Methodist's morning and evening services beginning in 1942; in 1951, the station had removed the evening service from its schedule. After First Methodist asked the FCC for a hearing into the issue, claiming that the cancellation affected the station's commitment at its last license renewal to carry 1.79 percent religious programming, the commission denied the request in May. With the petition denied, the church began airing its services over KPOL.
#### From Cleveland to Atlantic
The two stations would remain in E.L. Cord's name until August 1962, when he would sell them to Cleveland Broadcasting Incorporated, headed by former Cleveland, Ohio mayor Ray T. Miller, for a combined \$2 million (equivalent to \$ in ). Miller also owned WLEC and WLEC-FM in Sandusky, Ohio, and had founded WERE and WERE-FM in Cleveland, and pledged to maintain KFAC's classical format. The Los Angeles Times would later write of Cord's ownership, "What seems indisputable is that Cord oversaw the station like a benevolent, disinterested patriarch." The pseudo-stereo broadcasts over KFAC and KFAC-FM continued until KFAC-FM converted to stereophonic sound in 1964, at one point, those broadcasts were offered for 12 hours each week. General manager Ed Stevens regarded the \$20,000 investment in FM multiplexing as a "big bonanza" for the radio and recording industries, pledging to increase KFAC-FM's stereo output over time; Evening Concert was cited as a program that would be unable to see such a complete stereo conversion due to the volume of titles for that show valued for their initial mono pressings. By 1971, the last remaining program devoted to selections from their original 78 rpm phonograph record collection, Collector's Shelf, was dropped from the schedule.
KFAC at this time boasted weekly concert broadcasts by the Hollywood Bowl Symphony and the Los Angeles Philharmonic, in addition to concert series from the Los Angeles Symphonies' high school and the Los Angeles Art Museum. Another long-running weekday program, Luncheon at the Music Center, debuted in 1965. Taking place every weekday at the Los Angeles Music Center's Pavilion Restaurant, Thomas Cassidy was the program's original host, primarily interviewing classical music artists. Martin Workman became a substitute host in 1973 and succeeded Cassidy as host in 1976, broadening the show's focus to include opera, ballet, operetta and theater.
Ray T. Miller died on July 13, 1966. One of his sons, Robert Miller, divested his stake in Cleveland Broadcasting Incorporated in April 1968 into an irrevocable trust when he acquired WDBN in Medina, Ohio—but served both the Cleveland and Akron markets—for \$1 million, then a record valuation for a full-power FM signal. The following month, Atlantic States Industries (ASI), a subsidiary of McGavren-Guild Radio, purchased the company for a combined \$9 million (equivalent to \$ in ). Due to ASI already owning five AM stations and one FM station, and because of an interim policy/proposed rule by the FCC prohibiting the purchase of an AM and FM station in the same market—the "one-to-a-customer" policy—KFAC and KFAC-FM would need a waiver in order to be exempted. Both stations purchased two full-page ads in the Los Angeles Times on January 19 and 23, 1969, soliciting listeners to write to KFAC in support of a waiver, claiming that if both stations were separated—even with a forced adoption of separate programming via the FM Non-Duplication Rule—the format would be rendered unsustainable. Approximately 3,000 people sent letters to KFAC in the first few days; by February 9, a total of 15,000 letters were sent in support, including 500 letters from San Bernardino County alone. KFAC then forwarded the letters to the FCC.
The waiver for KFAC and KFAC-FM was ultimately granted by the commission, and the deal was approved on October 29, 1969, on the condition that WERE-FM would be sold "as soon as practicable"; WERE-FM and the Sandusky stations had already been ordered for divestiture instead of either KFAC or KFAC-FM earlier in the process. After initial deals for all three fell through, the Sandusky stations were spun off to a separate entity run by another son of Raymond Miller. General Cinema Corporation acquired WERE-FM in May 1970 for \$525,000.
#### The Listeners' Guild and innovative programming
Despite the arguments presented to the FCC that separate program lineups and philosophies on KFAC and KFAC-FM would be unworkable, the full-time simulcast ended in 1970 with the FM station programmed separately for 18 hours a day; both stations also eschewed "semi-classical" programming in favor of more serious works. Another noticeable change was the adoption of clustered commercial breaks and on-air identifications similar to the Top 40 format, which was claimed to help increase the amount of music the stations could play. The stations also established the KFAC Listeners' Guild in 1970 supported by an annual \$3 membership fee, allowing listeners to provide direct feedback to the station and its operations. The Guild boasted over 11,000 paid members within the first year.
On January 17, 1972, under newly installed program director Bernie Alan, the AM station took a more "popular" approach to music selections, playing familiar tunes and melodies with the aim of attracting younger listeners, while KFAC-FM took a more serious approach via a deeper playlist and broader spectrum of selections. Both stations continued to simulcast core programming like Evening Concert, Luncheon at the Lincoln Center, and Continental Classics. All of these changes were not without controversy as a group of listeners filed challenges to KFAC's licenses with the FCC over the newly instituted programming policies. The station settled the dispute by November 1972 by resuming publication of a program guide, seeking to tone down commercials, increasing the variety of selections aired on the AM frequency and ultimately relieving Bernie Alan of his programming duties.
Clyde Allen, Ph.D. served as KFAC's music director for 14 years in addition to being the music director for the Los Angeles Ballet upon their 1974 formation. Allen wrote and produced multiple documentaries, including a 12-hour KFAC retrospective that aired over both stations on January 14, 1979. Billed as celebrating "40 years of classical music programming," with an assortment of interviews, airchecks from past programs and other archival material, it was a largely apocryphal marketing promotion. After moving studios from Prudential Square to the former Villa Capri restaurant on Hollywood's Yucca Street in 1982, KFAC unveiled a large mural painted by Thomas Surlyz outside of the station building on Christmas Day, 1983, showing their long-tenured airstaff cavorting with their respective favorite historical composers.
The station formally broke the glass ceiling in May 1985 with actress Lynne Warfel's hiring as the station's first female staff announcer; Carl Princi explained he had to wait several years for a job opening among the heavily tenured all-male staff. Despite this distinction, Nicola Lubitsch—daughter of movie director Ernst Lubitsch—had an on-air tryout to be a regular station announcer, with later press accounts erroneously attributing her as the first female announcer, but management opted to hire Warfel. Moreover, Leonora Schildkraut had been the first female to host a regularly scheduled program over KFAC in 1972 with the youth-oriented Through the Looking Glass. Co-produced by the Los Angeles Board of Education for additional use within the city's school district, this weekly show won KFAC its lone Peabody Award in 1974. Gertrude "Gussie" Moran also began a short-lived daily sportscast over KFAC on May 8, 1972, becoming the second female radio sportscaster in the city after KNX's Jane Chastain.
KFAC would continue to develop different specialty shows. Global Village debuted in 1971 and aired for two hours every Friday night; developed by Dennis Parnell, it was a "mosaic program concept" that included selections of any type of music, along with poetry and other readings. After Dennis Parnell left the station, KCSN host Doug Ordunio assumed several of Parnell's duties, taking over Global Village's production and provided the impetus for other shows. Those shows included: Soundscape, simulcast over both stations, with no set format but the intent to display similarities between different music styles, along with discussions over the selections by Fred Crane; At Home With, featuring interviews recorded at the homes of classical musical celebrities who lived in Southern California; The Circular Path, a set of five four-hour specials surrounding music concepts and forms which would eventually repeat themselves; and Making Waves, a weekly program of new-age music. Soundscape replaced a self-titled show hosted by Skip Weshner that ran from 1973 to 1979, Weshner would return to the station in 1983 to host the show again for one additional year. Ordunio also became a staff announcer in 1981 hosting Artsline, a daily call-in talk show devoted to the arts that aired exclusively on the AM frequency.
#### Dismissing the "KFAC Old Guard"
Classic Communications, Inc., a group of investors headed by Louise Heifetz—the daughter-in-law of violin virtuoso Jascha Heifetz—purchased the two stations from ASI on April 8, 1986, for \$33.5 million (equivalent to \$ in ); KFAC executive vice president/sales manager Edward Argow was also a part of the group and was named chief operating officer. At age 57, Ralph Guild, the head of ASI, thought it was time to sell KFAC. When the sale closed on December 17, program director Carl Princi announced his departure effective January 1, 1987, KUSC executive Robert Goldfarb was appointed as his replacement; while Heifetz did mention some program changes would take place, she denied KFAC would change format. In a shocking move, however, Princi, Tom Dixon, Fred Crane, Martin Workman, Doug Ordunio and A. James Liska were all fired outright on December 31, 1986, along with most of the engineering staff. Dixon notably was dismissed in the middle of his airshift, while Workman was fired immediately after his show ended; The Gas Company Evening Concert was the lone show retained on the schedule due to being a sponsored program under a separate contract. Evening Concert host Thomas Cassidy himself retired from full-time duties on February 7.
Robert Goldfarb publicly re-positioned KFAC as "100% classical", eschewing jazz selections and Broadway show tunes, with a younger airstaff consisting of Mary Fain from Seattle's KING-FM, KUSC announcer Rich Capparela, KFAC part-timer John Santana, returning staffer Bernie Alan and Martin Perlich. KFAC also cancelled Adventures in Good Music and dropped their Mutual Broadcasting System affiliation. Jeff Pollack, a programming consultant famously associated with album-oriented rock stations, signed a contract to consult KFAC. Heifetz and Argow defended the moves by saying that KFAC's programming scope needed to be broadened in order to attract younger listeners and improve perennially low Arbitron ratings, and the tenured airstaff just didn't fit their plans. One month later, KMET's entire airstaff was dismissed and format changed outright due to declining ratings of their own, echoing Heifetz and Argow's rationale. This was still a major departure from prior ASI management who regarded KFAC's audience as wealthy, educated and attractive to loyal high-end advertisers, a belief supported by the fact KFAC never operated with a financial loss.
The firings and programming adjustments were met with a generally negative response from the public and dismay among the fired personnel. A commentary piece for the Los Angeles Times by Marc Shulgold noted how he had an "unsettling experience" while listening to the revamped format and concluded by saying the fired air talent and their listeners all deserved a better fate. For their part, Carl Princi, Tom Dixon and Fred Crane all told the Times that Heifetz, Goldfarb and Argow badly misjudged the station's audience and predicted that KFAC's ratings and revenue would suffer as a result, while Dixon noted the outpouring of support from listeners upset at his removal far exceeded the recognition he received at any other point in his career. The dismissed announcers would subsequently file an age-discrimination lawsuit against KFAC and prevailed in court.
### The end of KFAC
KFAC and KFAC-FM were sold in two separate deals for a combined \$63.7 million. After being put on the market in April 1988, KFAC was sold to Lotus Communications for \$8.7 million (equivalent to \$ in ) on July 15. Just before that deal closed on January 17, 1989, KFAC-FM was subsequently sold to Evergreen Media for \$55 million (equivalent to \$ in ). The FM alone set a record for the most expensive sale of a classical music outlet in the United States. At the end, just five percent of KFAC-AM-FM's combined total audience listened to the AM frequency, which is why it was sold off first; even though KFAC-FM was not on the market, the offer made by Evergreen was high enough that it prompted Classic Communications to consider selling.
Immediately, the news of the KFAC-FM sale in particular raised alarms from industry experts that the station was about to exit the classical format. While Evergreen head Scott Ginsberg initially told Radio & Records that the station's format would remain in place, American Radio publisher James Duncan, Jr. warned, "Classical radio stations are not in vogue. What's in vogue is FM stations in Los Angeles", saying that Evergreen would have no choice but to change formats in order to make the revenue needed to pay the debt service incurred in acquiring KFAC-FM. After months of speculation, Evergreen donated the music library from both stations, estimated at 50,000 recordings, to KUSC, along with a \$35,000 check; Stanford University and the Los Angeles Public Library acquired KFAC's compact disc library, the majority of titles KUSC already held. KUSC also acquired the programming rights to the Philadelphia Orchestra and the Texaco Metropolitan Opera broadcasts.
KFAC's demise was seen as the end of an era in Los Angeles. In July, KPFK held a two-hour program that served as an "early wake" for KFAC, during which 20 listeners called into the station. KCRW presented a three-hour documentary—titled "KFAC: Requiem for a Radio Station"—hosted by Nicola Lubitsch with appearances from Fred Crane, Carl Princi, Thomas Cassidy and Tom Dixon, and a look back at KFAC's history. The Los Angeles Times editorial board mused on the pending switch, noting the dubious distinction of Los Angeles becoming the only major American city without a commercial classical music radio station, and advocated for another station in the market to adopt the format. Mount Wilson FM Broadcasters' KKGO-FM had already announced the adoption of classical programming during the daytime starting in January 1990, with its existing jazz format being transferred to KKGO (). Mount Wilson chairman Saul Levine expressed interest in acquiring the entire KFAC music library, but abandoned the offer when presented with a \$1 million asking price; newly appointed general manager Jim de Castro—who joined the station in March from Evergreen's Chicago outlet WLUP and presided over the station's music library donations—denied seeking that amount, but that two appraisers valued the collection at upwards of \$1.8 million.
Meanwhile, new ownership capitalized on the attention to begin teasing 92.3's next format. The station carried part of a Rolling Stones press conference in Los Angeles in mid-July, and in August, it paid for a billboard on Sunset Boulevard reading, "Pirate Radio, KLSX, KLOS: Get Ready to Move Over and Let the Big Dogs Eat!" While published reports speculated that the station was to call itself "KBDE" as an acronym for "Big Dogs Eat", James de Castro admitted to Radio & Records that the Sunset Boulevard billboard installation only came about after he won a bet playing golf, providing him (and Evergreen) full use of it for a full month. The earlier warnings posited by James Duncan, Jr. and the dismissed KFAC personnel would become prophetic, as de Castro told The New York Times that KFAC suffered a significant decline in advertising revenue that rendered the format economically impossible to continue. Evergreen hired Liz Kiley from KOST as program director for the replacement format; despite her background in adult contemporary and contemporary hit radio, Kiley ordered for the station several AOR-related syndicated radio specials. De Castro also expressed surprise in a Los Angeles Times interview that no organized effort to challenge the format change ever materialized, even as the station received a steady amount of protest letters and phone calls.
While the station had prepared a final schedule of music programming for the entire month of September 1989, the switch ended up occurring mid-month, as had been anticipated. That schedule for the last two days of the month was to have included, at the end of every air shift, Haydn's "Farewell" Symphony. The soon-to-be-dismissed airstaff made pointed references on-air to the station's demise in the days leading up to it; Rich Capparela compared it to an execution by firing squad before reading a weather forecast, while after playing Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6, Mary Fain said that the piece was "composed just a few months before his death, and played just a few hours before ours at KFAC." The classical music station in San Diego, KFSD, ran advertising on KFAC promoting itself as "classical music for San Diego—and now for Orange County". At the same time, Evergreen took out local ads on L.A. Law, the 1989 MTV Movie Awards, and The Arsenio Hall Show that teased the new station.
At noon on September 20, 1989, KUSC, which had also placed advertising for its classical offerings on KFAC in the final days, simulcast the final hour of KFAC's classical programming. This included Jim de Castro ceremoniously "passing a baton" to KUSC general manager Wallace Smith, followed by a farewell message from Rich Capparela, who would rejoin KUSC's airstaff; the hour concluded with KFAC-FM's final classical selection—the "Farewell" Symphony—and a moment of silence led by de Castro. At 1 p.m., after 60 seconds of silence, the FM station began stunting with heartbeat sounds, interspersed with brief snippets of rock songs, ahead of the debut of KKBT "The Beat" the next day. The mural of KFAC's core airstaff outside of the Villa Capri studios was eventually painted over and an outdoor "wall of fame" of brass plaques honoring classical music composers was supplanted by a series of plaques honoring contemporary music artists.
The KFAC call letters, which were also donated to KUSC, were placed on one of their repeater stations in Santa Barbara from 1991 to 2004; that station is now KCRW repeater KDRW.
### KWKW
#### KWKW moves to 1330
In contrast to the FM, the AM station would have a more straightforward fate. In order to facilitate their acquisition of KFAC and comply with then-existing FCC regulations, Lotus divested their existing Los Angeles AM property, KWKW () in Pasadena, to NetworksAmerica—headed by former KFAC station manager George Fritzinger—for \$4.5 million (equivalent to \$ in ); paperwork filed with the FCC showed Classic Communications purchasing KWKW from Lotus for the same dollar amount then acting as the seller. Lotus retained the KWKW call letters, all on and off-air personnel, programming, and history; the previous KWKW, owned by Lotus since 1962, was Southern California's oldest Spanish-language outlet, which had been broadcasting since 1941 and operated on the facility since 1950 following a similar asset/license swap. KWKW had been owned by Lotus since 1962 and was the first station to be purchased by the nascent broadcast chain.
On January 14, 1989, KFAC's call letters were changed to KWKW, and the programming heard on the previous KWKW effectively "moved" from 1300 to 1330, representing a coverage boost improving reception in the San Fernando Valley. In the process, a British comedy program known as Cynic's Choice hosted by Brian Clewer, which had aired only on the AM frequency since 1971, was displaced. NetworksAmerica concurrently changed the former KWKW's call letters to KAZN and relaunched it as an Asian radio station—the first such radio station to operate in the Los Angeles area. With the switch to , KWKW expanded its focus on regional Mexican music (including mariachi and banda), calling itself "La Mexicana". It also brought with it its sports coverage, which included Spanish-language broadcasts of the Los Angeles Dodgers and Los Angeles Raiders. Dodgers broadcasts were headed up by play-by-play announcer Jaime Jarrín, a position he has held continuously since the 1959 season; Jarrín began working at KWKW in 1955 as a news reporter. The station was further recognized by the National Association of Broadcasters as 1992's Spanish-language station of the year during their annual Marconi Radio Awards. That same year, Jim Kalmenson of Lotus attributed the success of KWKW to an audience that preferred tradition over change and needed a source of community information.
In 1994, new program director Alberto Vera shuffled the station's lineup, leading to the resignations of several members of the air staff and protests from listeners; Vera sought to make the station better for family listening and reduce the number of double entendres heard on the air. KWKW experimented with a talk format in 1995 but could not fully commit to it because of contracts relating to the hosts of its music-driven shows. On August 11, 1997, KWKW left its regional Mexican music format and became just the second Spanish-language all-talk station in the United States (KTNQ was the first). It was the only Spanish-language radio station in the United States to send a crew to cover the 1998 visit of Pope John Paul II to Cuba. In 2000, Arbitron surveys showed its listenership included the oldest and wealthiest Spanish speakers in the area; its programming, in addition to the Dodgers, included a live call-in show on immigration topics (Inmigración 1330) and hourly newscasts covering Mexican and Central American news. In 1996, the station became the Spanish-language flagship of the Los Angeles Lakers in Kobe Bryant's rookie season, timing that was credited with helping the Lakers cement themselves as the most important sports franchise in the Los Angeles Hispanic market.
Lotus acquired KWPA (), a 250-watt station in Pomona, from Multicultural Broadcasting in 1999 for \$750,000 (equivalent to \$ in ). Lotus renamed it KWKU and converted it to a simulcast of KWKW's sports programming improving reception in Pomona and Ontario, in addition to serving as an overflow station for KWKW sports coverage; KWKU also exclusively carried broadcasts of the Los Angeles Sparks of the WNBA. The KWKU nominal main studio in Pomona would prove critical to getting KWKW back on the air on December 6, 2001, when a major fire at the Sunset Vine Tower, home to the Lotus cluster, caused extensive electrical damage to the building, which was deemed unsafe by fire officials. 105 computers, mixers and other equipment were carted out of the building, and John Cooper, the chief engineer for Lotus Los Angeles, drove them to Pomona, where the station was back on the air in six hours. As a result of the extensive damage, Lotus relocated temporarily to the recently vacated KTNQ studios and later purchased a building near Universal Studios Hollywood to be fitted out for its operation.
In 2003, Armando Aguayo—today one of the radio voices of Los Angeles FC, heard in Spanish on KWKW's sister station KFWB—got his start in the market on KWKW.
#### ESPN Deportes and Tu Liga Radio
On October 1, 2005, KWKW went full-time as a Spanish-language sports station, the flagship of a new radio network, ESPN Deportes Radio. At the time, the station also carried Chivas USA games. However, the station's relationship with the Dodgers—which had been on KWKW from 1958 to 1972 and then again beginning in 1986—ended after the 2007 season, when the franchise, citing its dislike of soccer preemptions that could have happened under the station's new deal to carry LA Galaxy games, opted to sign with KHJ. The Galaxy deal was arranged after David Beckham signed a landmark contract with the MLS club, boosting the club and leagues' visibility on an international scale. Consequently, the station inked a five-year contract to become the Spanish-language flagship of the Los Angeles Angels, but Jaime Jarrín remained with the Dodgers broadcast team, ending a 51-year long run at KWKW as both a news reporter and sportscaster. Current Galaxy announcer Rolando 'Veloz' González has credited Jarrín with helping him get a start in U.S. broadcasting after immigrating from his native Guatemala.
Along with the Galaxy coverage, the station has carried the FIFA World Cup; while coverage of the 2006 edition was in Spanish, KWKW carried most of ESPN Radio's English-language coverage of the 2010 edition, allowing ESPN Radio affiliates KSPN and KLAA to continue with their normal program schedules. In 2018, the station contracted with Fútbol de Primera, the national soccer radio network that holds World Cup rights, to exclusively produce coverage for KWKW. KWKW and Fútbol de Primera teamed up again in 2019 to broadcast the first ever Spanish-language U.S. radio coverage of the FIFA Women's World Cup.
KWKW also was the Spanish flagship of the Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League until the team folded in April 2009. 2009 also saw KWKW add the other NBA team in Los Angeles, the Clippers, to its rights portfolio, carrying 48 games in the first season. In 2016, KWKW became the Spanish-language home of the Los Angeles Rams, heading up a multi-station network that also includes Lotus's Spanish sports outlet in Las Vegas, KENO. Two years later, the station picked up 10 games of the Los Angeles Kings—the first time in 20 years that any of the NHL team's games were broadcast in Spanish. With Francisco X. Rivera and Nano Cortes as the announcers, this addition coincided with the Kings moving their English-language coverage onto the iHeartRadio platform; the team evaluated the KWKW partnership's viability through social media feedback and interactions. The relationship was renewed for the 2019–20 season, with 12 home games airing on KWKW.
When ESPN Deportes ended operations on September 8, 2019, KWKW affiliated with TUDN Radio, another Spanish-language sports network operated by Univision, airing its programming on nights and weekends. KWKW did not learn of the network's folding until it was publicly announced; general manager Jim Kalmenson said that ESPN Deportes programming was largely supplemental to the station's local sports talk programming which earned higher ratings. The station also rebranded to Tu Liga (Your League) reflecting the addition of Liga MX soccer to the lineup via TUDN Radio's play-by-play. Along with the switch, prior TUDN affiliate KTNQ—itself owned by Univision—switched back to a talk format.
## Programming
### Weekdays and weekends
Local sports programming on KWKW includes Mi Raza...Tu Liga with Rafael Ramos Villagrana, Mario Amaya, and Armando Aguayo in early afternoons; the latter two also host SuperGol with Armando Aguayo, Troy Santiago and Mario Amaya in late afternoons. TUDN Radio programming airs on nights and weekends.
There are several non-sports specialty programs that air on KWKW, notably on Saturdays when the station airs eight hours of specialty programs under the banner Sábados Centroamericanos (Central American Saturdays). On weekdays, KWKW broadcasts a health program, Nutrición al Día (Nutrition Today), hosted by Dr. Neyda Carballo-Ricardo.
### Play-by-play
KWKW is currently the flagship of a four-station Spanish-language network for the Los Angeles Lakers (NBA), with Jose "Pepe" Mantilla, Fernando González and Francisco Pinto as announcers; all games are broadcast live. The station is additionally the flagship of a multi-station Spanish-language network for the Los Angeles Rams (NFL) featuring play-by-play announcer Troy Santiago and color analyst Ricardo López. All games from the LA Galaxy (MLS) are broadcast exclusively on KWKW with play-by-play announcer Rolando 'Veloz' González, whose involvement with the team dates back to 1996.
KWKW also airs Spanish-language play-by-play of the following teams: the Los Angeles Angels (MLB) with announcer José Tolentino, the Los Angeles Clippers (NBA) with announcer Armando Garcia and the Los Angeles Kings (NHL) with announcer Francisco X. Rivera. Select coverage of Liga MX matches are broadcast on KWKW via TUDN Radio. Co-owned KFWB also carries select play-by-play from the aforementioned teams in the event of schedule conflicts.
## FM translator
In 2017, KWKW began broadcasting on an FM translator, K264CQ (), which has its transmitter mounted to one of KWKW's AM towers. |
2,389,859 | Flaming Moe's | 1,171,166,373 | null | [
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| "Flaming Moe's" is the tenth episode of the third season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 21, 1991. In the episode, Homer tells Moe Szyslak about the Flaming Homer, an alcoholic cocktail of cough medicine and fire that he invented. Moe steals Homer's recipe, renames it the Flaming Moe and sells it at his tavern. The drink is wildly successful and boosts Moe's business, but Homer is angry at him for his betrayal and seeks revenge.
The episode was written by Robert Cohen and directed by Rich Moore, with assistance from Alan Smart (who would later work on SpongeBob SquarePants as an animation director). "Flaming Moe's" was the first episode of the show to feature Moe in a prominent role. The main plot of the episode in which Moe's Tavern becomes famous because of a drink is loosely based on the Los Angeles establishment Coconut Teaszer. The episode also parodies the NBC sitcom Cheers, including the theme song and opening sequence "Where Everybody Knows Your Name", and a character named Collette is modeled after Shelley Long's character Diane Chambers. Catherine O'Hara originally recorded dialogue for the part of Colette, but the writers felt her voice did not fit the role and instead used a track recorded by regular Jo Ann Harris.
American rock band Aerosmith (Steven Tyler, Tom Hamilton, Joey Kramer, Joe Perry and Brad Whitford) appears in the episode. They were the first band to make a guest appearance on the show. Their dialogue was recorded in Boston with Hank Azaria, the voice of Moe, who flew over to record his part with them and help them with their lines.
The episode has been well received by critics and has been included in best Simpsons episode lists by IGN, Entertainment Weekly, AskMen.com and AOL. In its original airing during the November sweeps period, the episode had a 14.4 Nielsen rating and finished the week ranked 29th.
## Plot
To avoid Lisa and her friends' disruptive sleepover, Homer visits Moe's Tavern, where he learns Moe is struggling financially because people are drinking less and he neglected to pay his Duff Beer distributor. Homer tells him about the Flaming Homer, a drink recipe he invented when Patty and Selma made his family watch slides from their vacation after Patty took his last Duff. Homer mixed drops of liquor from near-empty bottles, inadvertently including a bottle of cough syrup for children. When Patty dropped cigarette ash in the drink and set it aflame, Homer discovered that fire balanced out the alcohol content, greatly enhancing the drink's taste.
Moe makes a Flaming Homer for a customer, who loves its taste. When the customer asks what the drink is called, Moe insists it is his invention, a Flaming Moe. Soon word of mouth spreads, leading to a business boom for Moe. To handle the extra customers, he hires a waitress named Colette, who he later gets romantically involved with. Moe renames his tavern Flaming Moe's, which soon becomes one of Springfield's trendiest nightspots and Aerosmith's new hangout. Homer is angry with Moe for stealing his drink recipe and vows never to return, although Moe is unable to hear this over the clamor of his new customers. During a show and tell assignment about inventors, Bart attempts to prove that Homer invented the Flaming Moe, but everyone else in the classroom derides him.
A restaurant chain wants to buy the drink's recipe and offers \$1 million for the recipe, but Moe refuses. After Colette learns that Moe stole the recipe from Homer, she makes him promise to apologize to Homer and compensate him. As Moe is about to accept the deal – and share half of the money with him – a resentful Homer, obsessed with Moe's betrayal, appears at the tavern in the light rigging, revealing to everyone in the bar that the secret ingredient is children's cough syrup. The representative quickly retracts his offer and leaves, with Homer falling to the stage below, crushing Aerosmith.
Soon nearly all bars and restaurants in Springfield are serving rebranded versions of Flaming Moe, leaving Moe's business to dwindle again, with Colette having left for Hollywood to pursue an acting career. Homer visits Moe's, where they reconcile after Moe serves him a Flaming Homer free of charge.
## Production
`Al Jean said the opening two minutes of the episode were inspired by his own childhood where "My sister would have sleepover parties and her friends would always try to kiss me and stuff".`
The main plot of the episode, in which Moe's Tavern becomes famous because of a drink, is loosely based on the Los Angeles establishment Coconut Teaszer. According to IGN, "Flaming Moe's" was "one of the first [episodes] to really give Moe the spotlight". There was originally a joke in the episode in which a gay couple walked into "Flaming Moe's", assuming that it was a gay bar because of the name. Matt Groening feels that it was a good thing the joke was cut because he did not feel the writers should bring attention to the name.
Catherine O'Hara originally agreed to provide the voice of Collette the waitress, and went into the studio and recorded her part for the character. According to Mike Reiss, "Something about her did not animate correctly. The voice did not work for our purposes." Jo Ann Harris, a regular voice actor in the show, had recorded a temporary track using an impression of Shelley Long's character (Diane) from Cheers. The producers thought it fit the role better and used it instead of O'Hara, although O'Hara is still credited at the end of the episode. Sam Simon had previously written for Cheers, and contributed much of Collette's dialogue, as he was familiar with writing dialogue for Diane. Originally, there was more to the subplot featuring Moe and Colette, but it was cut because the writers felt it did not work. The third act opens with a parody of "Where Everybody Knows Your Name", the theme song from Cheers. The parody was written by Jeff Martin, and the sequence was designed by future Simpsons director Nancy Kruse.
American rock band Aerosmith were the first band to make a guest appearance on the show. The writers had heard that the band wanted to appear in an episode, so they wrote the guest spot for them. According to Al Jean, they later found out that part of the reason why Aerosmith agreed to appear was the drink's being called the "Flaming Moe". The band was recorded in Boston, and Hank Azaria, the voice of Moe, flew over to record his part with them and help them with their lines. In the original script, Moe tempted the band to play by offering them free beer, but the band members asked that the joke be changed. The writers changed the line to "free pickled eggs". The band is shown sitting at a table with a bearded man, who is modeled after their A&R man John Kalodner. One of the stipulations from the band was to include him in the episode. Kalodner also received a "special thanks to" credit at the end of the episode. Aerosmith's song "Young Lust" from the album Pump plays over the end credits. According to Al Jean, the band recorded a special shortened version of the song just for the episode.
The episode was directed by Rich Moore and Alan Smart. Moore's daughter was born during the production of the episode, and he missed several weeks of layout, which Smart oversaw. When Sam Simon was asked if the premise of the episode was inspired by the tumultuous relationship between himself and Matt Groening, Simon acknowledged, "That may be true."
## Cultural references
- The basic premise of the episode is similar to the film Cocktail.
- Martin's presentation at school is about Archer Martin, developer of gas chromatography which is later used in the episode.
- Several references are made to the sitcom Cheers. Collette the waitress is a parody of Cheers character (Diane), and the "theme sequence" for Flaming Moe's, is a direct parody of the Cheers opening theme. Barney Gumble is given a Norm Peterson entrance.
- Aerosmith sings "Walk This Way" in Moe's Tavern and "Young Lust" during the closing credits.
- When Homer reveals the secret of the "Flaming Moe", the scene has many parallels to The Phantom of the Opera including Homer's standing high up in the light rigging, covering half his face.
- The scene in which Professor Frink analyzes a "Flaming Moe" is an homage to The Nutty Professor.
- The scene where Bart runs away from Lisa and her friends makes reference to the Alfred Hitchcock film North by Northwest.
- Lionel Hutz says a drink can not be copyrighted, citing the "Frank Wallbanger case of '78". This refers to the Harvey Wallbanger cocktail.
- Near the end of the episode, several bars with names similar to "Flaming Moe's" can be seen. This parodies Ray's Pizza in New York City, where dozens of individual establishments have similar names.
- Colette quitting Flaming Moe's to build an acting career in Hollywood is similar to Shelley Long leaving Cheers after five seasons to pursue a career in film acting.
## Reception
In its original airing on the Fox Network during November sweeps, the episode had a 14.4 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 13.26 million homes. It finished the week ranked 29th, up from the season's average rank of 32nd. It finished second in its timeslot behind The Cosby Show, which finished 17th with a 15.9 rating. It was the highest rated show on Fox that week.
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "Possibly the best Simpsons episode, with a constant stream of gags, inspired animation (in particular the sequence when Homer begins to see and hear Moe everywhere, from Maggie's gurgles to the leaves on the trees), and a superb plot that twists about in every direction but the one you might expect."
DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote "From Lisa's slumber party at the opening through the Cheers spoof at Moe's, this episode's another real winner. Homer gets some of his all-time best lines, including a great run where he mocks Marge's attempts to have him accept his fate. We even find a great twist on Bart's prank phone calls when he asks for "Hugh Jass". All in all, "Flaming" provides a terrific show."
Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode 5/5, calling it "another great chapter in the history of The Simpsons, with tons of laughs throughout".
Emily VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine called it "a very funny episode" and highlighted the plot's focus on Moe as "an example of the show gradually expanding its supporting townspeople into characters in their own right," as "Moe was just an angry bartender before this episode. After this one, he's the sad man who sometimes tastes success but always lets it slip away because of his inability to do the right thing until it's too late." VanDerWerff also interpreted the episode as a metaphor for Simon's relationship with fellow Simpsons developers Groening and James L. Brooks and Simon's belief that he was not receiving enough credit for The Simpsons.
Niel Harvey of The Roanoke Times called "Flaming Moe's" a "classic bit of Simpsonia".
The episode is on many lists of best Simpsons episodes.
In 2006, IGN named "Flaming Moe's" the best episode of the third season. They wrote, "This episode has tons of standout moments, from the appearance by Aerosmith (the first time a musical act of that caliber appeared as themselves on the series); a funny payoff for all Bart's prank calls to Moe's, when a man named Hugh Jass actually does turn out to be a customer; a deftly done Cheers parody at the height of Moe's success; and Homer turning into a Phantom of the Opera type lunatic."
In Entertainment Weekly's 2003 list of the top 25 The Simpsons episodes ever, it was placed sixteenth. In 2003, Rich Weir of AskMen.com placed the episode in second on his list of his ten favorite episodes of the show. He wrote, "As one of the early episodes that helped solidify the show's sharp wit and satirical ability, "Flaming Moe's" has everything a classic Simpsons episode should have: gut-busting humor, nifty parody, and some superstar cameos to seal the deal. [...] highlights include a performance by Aerosmith (in a guest-starring role), Bart's actually apologizing to Moe for one of his infamous prank calls, and a memorable spoof of Cheers' theme song."
AOL placed the episode sixth on their list of the top 25 Simpsons episodes. Screen Rant called it the best episode of the third season.
The episode is also a favorite of crew members. In 2003, executive producer Al Jean listed the episode as one of his favorites. When The Simpsons began streaming on Disney+ in 2019, former Simpsons writer and executive producer Bill Oakley named this one of the best classic Simpsons episodes to watch on the service.
In 2006, the members of Aerosmith were collectively named the 24th best Simpsons guest stars by IGN. The song "Flaming Moe's", which parodies "Where Everybody Knows Your Name" from Cheers, was well received. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly named the song the "Best Theme Song Parody" of 1991. It was later included in the 1997 album Songs in the Key of Springfield, a compilation of songs from the first seven seasons of the show.
## Universal Studios
Real-life equivalents based on food shown in The Simpsons is sold at Universal Studios Florida, including the Flaming Moe. It is served in a glass with exclusive cosmetics, consisting of a flame pattern and yellow letters of its name. While the original show depicted its vague recipe as an intentional absurdity (purple in color as a result of the cough syrup), the equivalent is served at the eponymously titled Flaming Moe's and the location Moe's Tavern, depicted as a brightly-colored orange soda. Ironically enough, unlike the original (a flaming cocktail), it also contains dry ice to make it appear as if it is smoking.
## See also
- Purple drank, a real life beverage made from cough syrup and soft drink |
179,105 | Lana Turner | 1,173,232,989 | American actress (1921–1995) | [
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"People from Wallace, Idaho"
]
| Lana Turner (/ˈlɑːnə/ LAH-nə; born Julia Jean Turner; February 8, 1921 – June 29, 1995) was an American actress. Over the course of her nearly 50-year career, she achieved fame as both a pin-up model and a film actress, as well as for her highly publicized personal life. In the mid-1940s, she was one of the highest-paid actresses in the United States, and one of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's (MGM) biggest stars, with her films earning more than \$50 million ( \$634,213,692.95 in today's money) for the studio during her 18-year contract with them. Turner is frequently cited as a popular culture icon of Hollywood glamour and a screen legend of classical Hollywood cinema. She was nominated for many awards.
Born to working-class parents in northern Idaho, Turner spent her childhood there before her family relocated to California. In 1936, when Turner was 15, she was discovered while purchasing a soda at the Top Hat Malt Shop in Hollywood. At age 16, she was signed to a personal contract by Warner Bros. director Mervyn LeRoy, who took her with him when he transferred to MGM in 1938. She soon attracted attention by playing the role of a murder victim in her film debut, LeRoy's They Won't Forget (1937), and she later moved into supporting roles, often appearing as an ingénue.
During the early 1940s, Turner established herself as a leading lady and one of MGM's top stars, appearing in such films as the film noir Johnny Eager (1941); the musical Ziegfeld Girl (1941); the horror film Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941); and the romantic war drama Somewhere I'll Find You (1942), one of several films in which she starred opposite Clark Gable. Turner's reputation as a glamorous femme fatale was enhanced by her critically acclaimed performance in the noir The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946), a role which established her as a serious dramatic actress. Her popularity continued through the 1950s in dramas such as The Bad and the Beautiful (1952) and Peyton Place (1957), the latter for which she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress.
Intense media scrutiny surrounded the actress in 1958 when her teenaged daughter Cheryl Crane stabbed Turner's lover Johnny Stompanato to death in their home during a domestic struggle. Her next film, Imitation of Life (1959), proved to be one of the greatest commercial successes of her career, and her starring role in Madame X (1966) earned her a David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actress. Turner spent most of the 1970s in semi-retirement, making her final film appearance in 1980. In 1982, she accepted a much-publicized and lucrative recurring guest role in the television series Falcon Crest, which afforded the series notably high ratings.
In 1992, Turner was diagnosed with throat cancer and died of the disease three years later, aged 74.
## Life and career
### 1921–1936: Early life and education
Lana Turner was born Julia Jean Turner on February 8, 1921, at Providence Hospital in Wallace, Idaho, a small mining community in the Idaho Panhandle region. She was the only child of John Virgil Turner, a miner from Montgomery, Alabama, of Dutch descent, and Mildred Frances Cowan from Lamar, Arkansas, who had English, Scottish and Irish ancestry. Four days before her 17th birthday, Mildred gave birth to her only child. Lana's parents had first met while 14-year-old Mildred, the daughter of a mine inspector, was visiting Picher, Oklahoma, with her father, who was inspecting local mines there. John was 24 years old at the time, and Mildred's father objected to the courtship. Shortly afterward the two eloped and moved west, settling in Idaho.
The family lived in Burke, Idaho, at the time of Turner's birth, and relocated to nearby Wallace in 1925, where her father opened a dry cleaning service and worked in the local silver mines. As a child, Turner was known to family and friends as Judy. She expressed interest in performance at a young age, performing short dance routines at her father's Elks chapter in Wallace. When she was three, she performed an impromptu dance routine at a charity fashion show in which her mother was modeling.
The Turner family struggled financially, and relocated to San Francisco when she was six years old, after which her parents separated. On December 14, 1930, her father won some money at a traveling craps game, stuffed his winnings in his left sock, and headed for home. He was later found bludgeoned to death on the corner of Minnesota and Mariposa Streets, on the edge of San Francisco's Potrero Hill and the Dogpatch District, with his left shoe and sock missing. His robbery and homicide were never solved, and his death had a profound effect on Turner. "I know that my father's sweetness and gaiety, his warmth and his tragedy, have never been far from me," she later said. "That, and a sense of loss and of growing up too fast."
Turner sometimes lived with family friends or acquaintances so that her impoverished mother could save money. They also frequently moved, for a time living in Sacramento and throughout the San Francisco Bay Area. Following her father's death, Turner lived for a period in Modesto with a family who physically abused her and "treated her like a servant". Her mother worked 80 hours per week as a beautician to support herself and her daughter, and Turner recalled sometimes "living on crackers and milk for half a week".
While baptized a Protestant at birth, Turner attended Mass with the Hislops, a Catholic family with whom her mother had temporarily boarded her in Stockton, California. She became "thrilled" by the ritual practices of the church, and when she was seven, her mother allowed her to formally convert to Roman Catholicism. Turner subsequently attended the Convent of the Immaculate Conception in San Francisco, hoping to become a nun. In the mid-1930s, Turner's mother developed respiratory problems and was advised by her doctor to move to a drier climate, upon which the two moved to Los Angeles in 1936.
### 1937–1939: Discovery and early films
Turner's discovery is considered a show-business legend and part of Hollywood mythology among film and popular cultural historians. One version of the story erroneously has her discovery occurring at Schwab's Pharmacy, which Turner claimed was the result of a reporting error that began circulating in articles published by columnist Sidney Skolsky. By Turner's own account, she was a junior at Hollywood High School when she skipped a typing class and bought a Coca-Cola at the Top Hat Malt Shop located on the southeast corner of Sunset Boulevard and McCadden Place. While in the shop, she was spotted by William R. Wilkerson, publisher of The Hollywood Reporter. Wilkerson was attracted by her beauty and physique, and asked her if she was interested in appearing in films, to which she responded: "I'll have to ask my mother first." With her mother's permission, Turner was referred by Wilkerson to the actor/comedian/talent agent Zeppo Marx. In December 1936, Marx introduced Turner to film director Mervyn LeRoy, who signed her to a \$50 weekly contract with Warner Bros. on February 22, 1937 (\$ in dollars ). She soon became a protégée of LeRoy, who suggested that she take the stage name Lana Turner, a name she would come to legally adopt several years later.
Turner made her feature film debut in LeRoy's They Won't Forget (1937), a crime drama in which she played a teenage murder victim. Though Turner only appeared on screen for a few minutes, Wilkerson wrote in The Hollywood Reporter that her performance was "worthy of more than a passing note". The film earned her the nickname of the "Sweater Girl" for her form-fitting attire, which accentuated her bust. Turner always detested the nickname, and upon seeing a sneak preview of the film, she recalled being profoundly embarrassed and "squirming lower and lower" into her seat. She stated that she had "never seen myself walking before... [It was] the first time [I was] conscious of my body." Several years after the film's release, Modern Screen journalist Nancy Squire wrote that Turner "made a sweater look like something Cleopatra was saving for the next visiting Caesar". Shortly after completing They Won't Forget, she made an appearance in James Whale's historical comedy The Great Garrick (1937), a biographical film about British actor David Garrick, in which she had a small role portraying an actress posing as a chambermaid.
In late 1937, LeRoy was hired as an executive at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), and asked Jack L. Warner to allow Turner to relocate with him to MGM. Warner obliged, as he believed Turner would not "amount to anything". Turner left Warner Bros. and signed a contract with MGM for \$100 a week (\$ in dollars ). The same year, she was loaned to United Artists for a minor role as a maid in The Adventures of Marco Polo. Her first starring role for MGM was scheduled to be an adaptation of The Sea-Wolf, co-starring Clark Gable, but the project was eventually shelved. Instead, she was assigned opposite teen idol Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland in the Andy Hardy film Love Finds Andy Hardy (1938). During the shoot, Turner completed her studies with an educational social worker, allowing her to graduate high school that year. The film was a box-office success, and her appearance in it as a flirtatious high school student convinced studio head Louis B. Mayer that Turner could be the next Jean Harlow, a sex symbol who had died six months before Turner's arrival at MGM.
Mayer helped further Turner's career by giving her roles in several youth-oriented films in the late 1930s, such as the comedy Rich Man, Poor Girl (1938) in which she played the sister of a poor woman romanced by a wealthy man, and Dramatic School (1938), in which she portrayed Mado, a troubled drama student. In the former, she was billed as the "Kissing Bug from the Andy Hardy film". Upon completing Dramatic School, Turner screen-tested for the role of Scarlett O'Hara in Gone with the Wind (1939). She was then cast in a supporting part as a "sympathetic bad girl" in Calling Dr. Kildare (1939), MGM's second entry in the Dr. Kildare series. This was followed by These Glamour Girls (1939), a comedy in which she portrayed a taxi dancer invited to attend a dance with a male coed at his elite college. Turner's onscreen sex appeal in the film was reflected by a review in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch in which she was characterized as "the answer to 'oomph'". In her next film, Dancing Co-Ed (1939), Turner was given first billing portraying Patty Marlow, a professional dancer who enters a college as part of a rigged national talent contest. The film was a commercial success, and led to Turner appearing on the cover of Look magazine.
In February 1940, Turner garnered significant publicity when she eloped to Las Vegas with 28-year-old bandleader Artie Shaw, her co-star in Dancing Co-Ed. Though they had only briefly known each other, Turner recalled being "stirred by his eloquence", and after their first date the two spontaneously decided to get married. Their marriage only lasted four months, but was highly publicized, and led MGM executives to grow concerned over Turner's "impulsive behavior". In the spring of 1940, after the two had divorced, Turner discovered she was pregnant and had an abortion. In contemporaneous press, it was noted she had been hospitalized for "exhaustion". She would later recall that Shaw treated her "like an untutored blonde savage, and took no pains to conceal his opinion". In the midst of her marriage to Shaw, she starred in We Who Are Young, a drama in which she played a woman who, against their employer's policy, marries her coworker.
### 1940–1945: War years and film stardom
In 1940, Turner appeared in her first musical film, Two Girls on Broadway, in which she received top billing over established co-stars Joan Blondell and George Murphy. A remake of The Broadway Melody, the film was marketed as featuring Turner's "hottest, most daring role". The following year, she had a lead role in her second musical, Ziegfeld Girl, opposite James Stewart, Judy Garland and Hedy Lamarr. In the film, she portrayed Sheila Regan, an alcoholic aspiring actress based on Lillian Lorraine. Ziegfeld Girl marked a personal and professional shift for Turner; she claimed it as the first role that got her "interested in acting", and the studio, impressed by her performance, marketed the film as featuring her in "the best role of the biggest picture to be released by the industry's biggest company". The film's high box-office returns elevated Turner's profitability, and MGM gave her a weekly salary raise to \$1,500 as well as a personal makeup artist and trailer (\$ in dollars ). After completing the film, Turner and co-star Garland remained lifelong friends, and lived in houses next to one another in the 1950s.
Following the success of Ziegfeld Girl, Turner took a supporting role as an ingénue in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941) – a sanitized remake of the original pre-Code film from a decade earlier – remade as a Freudian-influenced horror film, opposite Spencer Tracy and Ingrid Bergman. MGM had initially cast Turner in the lead, but Tracy specifically requested Bergman for the part. The studio recast Turner in the smaller role, though she was still given top billing. While the film was financially successful at the box office, Time magazine panned it, calling it "a pretentious resurrection of Robert Louis Stevenson's ghoulish classic ... As for Lana Turner, fully clad for a change, and the rest of the cast ... they are as wooden as their roles."
Turner was then cast in the Western Honky Tonk (1941), the first of four films in which she would star opposite Clark Gable. The Turner-Gable films' successes were often heightened by gossip-column rumors about a relationship between the two. In January 1942, she began shooting her second picture with Gable, titled Somewhere I'll Find You; however, the production was halted for several weeks after the death of Gable's wife, Carole Lombard, in a plane crash. Meanwhile, the press continued to fuel rumors that Turner and Gable were romantic offscreen, which Turner vehemently denied. "I adored Mr. Gable, but we were [just] friends", she later recalled. "When six o'clock came, he went his way and I went mine." Her next project was Johnny Eager (1941), a violent mobster film in which she portrayed a socialite. James Agee of Time magazine was critical of co-star Robert Taylor's performance and noted: "Turner is similarly handicapped: Metro has swathed her best assets in a toga, swears that she shall become an actress, or else. Under these adverse circumstances, stars Taylor and Turner are working under wraps."
At the advent of US involvement in World War II, Turner's increasing prominence in Hollywood led to her becoming a popular pin-up girl, and her image appeared painted on the noses of U.S. fighter planes, bearing the nickname "Tempest Turner". In June 1942, she embarked on a 10-week war bond tour throughout the western United States with Gable. During the tour, she began promising kisses to the highest war bond buyers; while selling bonds at the Pioneer Courthouse in Portland, Oregon, she sold a \$5,000 bond to a man for two kisses, and another to an elderly man for \$50,000. Arriving to sell bonds in her hometown of Wallace, Idaho, she was greeted with a banner that read "Welcome home, Lana", followed by a large celebration during which the mayor declared a holiday in her honor. Upon completing the tour, Turner had sold \$5.25 million in war bonds. Throughout the war, Turner continued to make regular appearances at U.S. troop events and area bases, though she confided to friends that she found visiting the hospital wards of injured soldiers emotionally difficult. During World War II, the Royal Canadian Air Force 427 Lion Squadron had been "adopted" by MGM. Many of the aircraft had dedications or nose art honoring MGM's stars. A Handley-Page Halifax bomber "London's Revenge" DK186 ZL L carried the name of Lana Turner into battle over Germany.
In July 1942, Turner met her second husband, actor-turned-restaurateur Joseph Stephen "Steve" Crane, at a dinner party in Los Angeles. The two eloped to Las Vegas a week after they began dating. The marriage was annulled by Turner four months later upon discovering that Crane's previous divorce had not yet been finalized. After discovering she was pregnant in November 1942, Turner remarried Crane in Tijuana in March 1943. During her early pregnancy, she filmed the comedy Marriage Is a Private Affair, in which she starred as a carefree woman struggling to balance her new life as a mother. Though she wanted multiple children, Turner had Rh-negative blood, which caused fetal anemia and made it difficult to carry a child to term. Turner was urged by doctors to undergo a therapeutic abortion to avoid potentially life-threatening complications, but she managed to carry the child to term. She gave birth to a daughter, Cheryl, on July 25, 1943. Turner's blood condition resulted in Cheryl being born with near-fatal erythroblastosis fetalis.
Meanwhile, publicity over Turner's remarriage to Crane led MGM to play up her image as a sex symbol in the comedy Slightly Dangerous (1943), with Robert Young, Walter Brennan and Dame May Whitty, in which she portrayed a woman who moves to New York City and poses as the long-lost daughter of a millionaire. Released in the midst of Turner's pregnancy, the film was financially successful but received mixed reviews, with Bosley Crowther of The New York Times writing: "No less than four Metro writers must have racked their brains for all of five minutes to think up the rags-to-riches fable ... Indeed, there is cause for suspicion that they didn't even bother to think." Critic Anita Loos praised Turner's performance in the film, writing: "Lana Turner typifies modern allure. She is the vamp of today as Theda Bara was of yesterday. However, she doesn't look like a vamp. She is far more deadly because she lets her audience relax."
In August 1944, Turner divorced Crane, citing his gambling and unemployment as primary reasons. Turner was among 250 film notables listed by the Hollywood Democratic Committee as supporting the re-election of Democratic Party incumbent President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the 1944 presidential election. In 1945, she co-starred with Laraine Day and Susan Peters in Keep Your Powder Dry, a war drama about three disparate women who join the Women's Army Corps. She was then cast as the female lead in Week-End at the Waldorf, a loose remake of Grand Hotel (1932) in which she portrayed a stenographer (a role originated by Joan Crawford). The film was a box-office hit.
### 1946–1948: Expansion to dramatic roles
After the war, Turner was cast in a lead role opposite John Garfield in The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946), a film noir based on James M. Cain's debut novel of the same name. She portrayed Cora, an ambitious woman married to a stodgy, older owner of a roadside diner, who falls in love with a drifter and their desire to be together motivates them to murder her husband. The classic film noir marked a turning point in Turner's career as her first femme fatale role. Reviews of the film, including Turner's performance, were glowing, with Bosley Crowther of The New York Times writing it was "the role of her career". Life magazine named the film its "Movie of the Week" in April 1946, and noted that both Turner and Garfield were "aptly cast" and "take over the screen, [creating] more fireworks than the Fourth of July". Turner commented on her decision to take the role:
> I finally got tired of making movies where all I did was walk across the screen and look pretty. I got a big chance to do some real acting in The Postman Always Rings Twice, and I'm not going to slip back if I can help it. I tried to persuade the studio to give me something different. But every time I went into my argument about how bad a picture was, they'd say, "well, it's making a fortune". That licked me.
The Postman Always Rings Twice became a major box office success, which prompted the studio to take more risks on Turner, casting her outside of the glamorous sex-symbol roles for which she had come to be known. In August 1946, it was announced she would replace Katharine Hepburn in the big-budget historical drama Green Dolphin Street (1947), a role for which she darkened her hair and lost 15 pounds. The film was produced by Carey Wilson, who insisted on casting Turner based on her performance in The Postman Always Rings Twice. In the film, she portrayed the daughter of a wealthy patriarch who pursues a relationship with a man in love with her sister. Turner later recalled she was surprised about replacing Hepburn, saying: "I'm about the most un-Hepburnish actress on the lot. But it was just what I wanted to do." It was her first starring role that did not center on her looks. In an interview, Turner said: "I even go running around in the jungles of New Zealand in a dress that's filthy and ragged. I don't wear any make-up and my hair's a mess." Nevertheless, she insisted she would not give up her glamorous image. In the midst of filming Green Dolphin Street, Turner began an affair with actor Tyrone Power, whom she considered to be the love of her life. She discovered she was pregnant with Power's child in the fall of 1947, but chose to have an abortion. During this time, she also had romantic affairs with Frank Sinatra and Howard Hughes, the latter of which lasted for 12 weeks in late 1946.
Turner's next film was the romantic drama Cass Timberlane, in which she played a young woman in love with an older judge, a role for which Jennifer Jones, Vivien Leigh and Virginia Grey had also been considered. As of early 1946, Turner was set for the role, but schedules with Green Dolphin Street almost prohibited her from taking it, and by late 1946, she was nearly recast. Production of Cass Timberlane was exhausting for Turner, because it was shot in between retakes of Green Dolphin Street. Cass Timberlane earned Turner favorable reviews, with Variety noting: "Turner is the surprise of the picture via her top performance thespically. In a role that allows her the gamut from tomboy to the pangs of childbirth and from being another man's woman to remorseful wife, she seldom fails to acquit herself creditably."
In August 1947, immediately upon completion of Cass Timberlane, Turner agreed to appear as the female lead in the World War II-set romantic drama Homecoming (1948), in which she was again paired with Clark Gable, portraying a female army lieutenant who falls in love with an American surgeon (Gable). She was the studio's first choice for the role, but it was reluctant to offer her the part, considering her overbooked schedule. Homecoming was well received by audiences, and Turner and Gable were nicknamed "the team that generates steam". By this period, Turner was at the zenith of her film career, and was not only MGM's most popular star, but also one of the ten highest-paid women in the United States, with annual earnings of \$226,000.
### 1948–1952: Studio rebranding and personal struggles
In late 1947, Turner was cast as Lady de Winter in The Three Musketeers, her first Technicolor film. Around this time, she began dating Henry J. "Bob" Topping Jr., a millionaire socialite and brother of New York Yankees owner Dan Topping, and a grandson of tin-plate magnate Daniel G. Reid. Topping proposed to her at the 21 Club in New York City by dropping a diamond ring into her martini, and they married shortly after in April 1948 at the Topping family mansion in Greenwich, Connecticut. Turner's wedding celebrations interfered with her filming schedule for The Three Musketeers, and she arrived to the set three days late. Studio head Louis B. Mayer threatened to suspend her contract, but Turner managed to leverage her box-office draw with MGM to negotiate an expansion of her role in the film, as well as a salary increase amounting to \$5,000 per week (\$ in dollars ). The Three Musketeers went on to become a box-office success, earning \$4.5 million (\$ in dollars ), but Turner's contract was put on temporary suspension by Mayer after production finished. After the release of The Three Musketeers, Turner discovered she was pregnant; in early 1949, she went into premature labor and gave birth to a stillborn baby boy in New York City.
In 1949, Turner was to star in A Life of Her Own (1950), a George Cukor-directed drama about a woman who aspires to be a model in New York City. The project was shelved for several months, and Turner told journalists in December 1949: "Everybody agrees that the script is still a pile of junk. I'm anxious to get started. By the time this one comes out, it will be almost three years since I was last on the screen, in The Three Musketeers. I don't think it's healthy to stay off the screen that long." Although unenthusiastic about the screenplay, Turner agreed to appear in the film after executives promised her suspension would be lifted upon doing so. A Life of Her Own was among the least successful of Cukor's films, receiving unfavorable reviews and low box-office sales. On May 24, 1950, Turner left her handprints and footprints in cement in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre.
In response to the poor reception for A Life of Her Own, MGM attempted to rebrand Turner by casting her in musicals. The first, Mr. Imperium, released in March 1951, was a box-office flop, and had Turner starring as an American woman who is wooed by a European prince. "The script was stupid," she recalled. "I fought against doing the picture, but I lost." It earned her unfavorable reviews, with one critic from the St. Petersburg Times writing: "Without Lana Turner, Mr. Imperium ... would be a better picture."
During this period, Turner's personal finances were in disarray, and she was facing bankruptcy. Suffering from depression over her career and financial problems, she attempted suicide in September 1951 by slitting her wrists in a locked bathroom. She was saved by her business manager, Benton Cole, who broke down the bathroom door and called emergency medical services. The following year, she began filming her second musical, The Merry Widow. During the shoot, Turner began an affair with her co-star Fernando Lamas, which ended after Lamas physically assaulted her; the incident also caused Lamas to lose his MGM contract upon the production's completion. The Merry Widow proved more commercially successful than Turner's previous musical, Mr. Imperium, despite receiving unfavorable critical reviews.
Turner's next project was opposite Kirk Douglas in Vincente Minnelli's The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), a drama focusing on the rise and fall of a Hollywood film mogul, in which Turner portrayed an alcoholic movie star. The Bad and the Beautiful was both a critical and commercial success, and earned her favorable reviews. A little over a week before the film's release in December 1952, Turner divorced her third husband, Bob Topping. She later claimed Topping's drinking problem and excessive gambling as her impetus for the divorce. Her next film project was Latin Lovers (1953), a romantic musical in which Lamas had originally been cast. He was replaced by Ricardo Montalbán.
### 1953–1957: MGM departure and film resurgence
In the spring of 1953, Turner relocated to Europe for 18 months to make two films under a tax credit for American productions shot abroad. The films were Flame and the Flesh, in which she portrayed a manipulative woman who takes advantage of a musician, and Betrayed, an espionage thriller set in the Nazi-occupied Netherlands; the latter marked Turner's fourth and final film appearance opposite Clark Gable. In The New York Times, Bosley Crowther wrote of Betrayed: "By the time this picture gets around to figuring out whether the betrayer is Miss Turner or Mr. Mature, it has taken the audience through such a lengthy and tedious amount of detail that it has not only frayed all possible tension but it has aggravated patience as well." Upon returning to the United States in September 1953, Turner married actor Lex Barker, whom she had been dating since their first meeting at a party held by Marion Davies in the summer of 1952.
In 1955, MGM's new studio head Dore Schary had Turner star as a pagan temptress in the Biblical epic The Prodigal (1955), her first CinemaScope feature. She was reluctant to appear in the film because of the character's scanty, "atrocious" costumes and "stupid" lines, and during the shoot struggled to get along with co-star Edmund Purdom, whom she later described as "a young man with a remarkably high opinion of himself". Variety deemed the film "a big-scale spectacle ...End result of all this flamboyant polish, however, is only fair entertainment." Turner was next cast in John Farrow's The Sea Chase (1955), an adventure film starring John Wayne, in which she portrayed a femme fatale spy aboard a ship. The film, released one month after The Prodigal, was a commercial success.
MGM then gave Turner the titular role of Diane de Poitiers in the period drama Diane (1956), which had originally been optioned by the studio in the 1930s for Greta Garbo. After completing Diane, Turner was loaned to 20th Century-Fox to headline The Rains of Ranchipur (1955), a remake of The Rains Came (1939), playing the wife of an aristocrat in the British Raj opposite Richard Burton. The production was rushed to accommodate a Christmas release and was completed in only three months, but it received unfavorable reviews from critics. Meanwhile, Diane was given a test screening in late December 1955, and was met with poor response from audiences. Though an elaborate marketing campaign was crafted to promote the film, it was a box-office flop, and MGM announced in February 1956 that it was opting not to renew Turner's contract. Turner gleefully told a reporter at the time that she was "walking around in a daze. I've been sprung. After 18 years at MGM, I'm a free agent ...I used to go on a bended knee to the front office and say, please give me a decent story. I'll work for nothing, just give me a good story. So what happened? The last time I begged for a good story they gave me The Prodigal." At the time of her contract termination, Turner's films had earned the studio more than \$50 million.
In 1956, Turner discovered she was pregnant with Barker's child, but gave birth to a stillborn baby girl seven months into the pregnancy. In July 1957, she filed for divorce from Barker after her daughter Cheryl alleged that he had regularly molested and raped her over the course of their marriage. According to Cheryl, Turner confronted Barker before forcing him out of their home at gunpoint. Weeks after her divorce, Turner began filming 20th Century-Fox's Peyton Place, in which she had been cast in the lead role of Constance MacKenzie, a New England mother struggling to maintain a relationship with her teenage daughter. The film, directed by Mark Robson, was adapted from Grace Metalious' best-selling novel of the same name. Released in December 1957, Peyton Place was a major blockbuster success, which worked in Turner's favor as she had agreed to take a percentage of the film's overall earnings instead of a salary. She also received critical acclaim, with Variety noting that "Turner looks elegant" and "registers strongly", and, for the first and only time, she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress. Though grateful for the nomination, Turner would later state that she felt it was not "one of my better roles".
### 1958–1959: Johnny Stompanato homicide scandal
In January 1958, Paramount Pictures released The Lady Takes a Flyer, a romantic comedy in which Turner portrayed a female pilot. While shooting the film the previous spring, she had begun receiving phone calls and flowers on the set from mobster Johnny Stompanato, using the name "John Steele". Stompanato had close ties to the Los Angeles underworld and gangster Mickey Cohen, which he feared would dissuade her from dating him. He pursued Turner aggressively, sending her various gifts. Turner was "thoroughly intrigued" and began casually dating him. After a friend informed her of who Stompanato actually was, she confronted him and tried to break off the affair. Stompanato was not easily deterred, and over the course of the following year, they carried on a relationship filled with violent arguments, physical abuse and repeated reconciliations. Turner would also claim that on one occasion he drugged her and took nude photographs of her while unconscious, potentially to use as blackmail.
In September 1957, Stompanato visited Turner in London, where she was filming Another Time, Another Place, co-starring Sean Connery. Their meeting was initially happy, but they soon began fighting. Stompanato became suspicious when Turner would not allow him to visit the set and, during one fight, he violently choked her. To avoid further confrontation, Turner and her makeup artist, Del Armstrong, called Scotland Yard in order to have Stompanato deported. Stompanato got wind of the plan and showed up on the set with a gun, threatening her and Connery. Connery answered by grabbing the gun out of Stompanato's hand and twisting his wrist, causing him to run off the set. Turner and Armstrong later returned with two Scotland Yard detectives to the rented house where she and Stompanato were staying. The detectives advised Stompanato to leave and escorted him out of the house and to the airport, where he boarded a plane back to the U.S.
On the evening of March 26, 1958, Turner attended the Academy Awards to observe her nomination for Peyton Place and present the award for Best Supporting Actor. Stompanato, angered that he did not attend with her, awaited her return home that evening, whereupon he physically assaulted her. Around 8:00 p.m. on Friday, April 4, Stompanato arrived at Turner's rented home at 730 North Bedford Drive in Beverly Hills. The two began arguing heatedly in the bedroom, during which Stompanato threatened to kill Turner, her daughter Cheryl and her mother. Fearing that her mother's life was in danger, Cheryl – who had been watching television in an adjacent room – grabbed a kitchen knife and ran to Turner's defense.
According to testimony provided by Turner, Stompanato died at the scene when Cheryl, who had been listening to the couple's fight behind the closed door, stabbed Stompanato in the stomach when Turner attempted to usher him out of the bedroom. Turner testified that she initially believed Cheryl had punched him, but realized Stompanato had been stabbed when he collapsed and she saw blood on his shirt.
Because of Turner's fame and the fact that the killing involved her teenage daughter, the case quickly became a media sensation. More than 100 reporters and journalists attended the April 12, 1958 inquest, described by attendees as "near-riotous". After four hours of testimony and approximately 25 minutes of deliberation, the jury deemed the killing a justifiable homicide. Cheryl remained a temporary ward of the court until April 24, when a juvenile court hearing was held, during which the judge expressed concerns over her receiving "proper parental supervision". She was ultimately released to the care of her grandmother, and was ordered to regularly visit a psychiatrist alongside her parents.
Though Turner and her daughter were exonerated of any wrongdoing, public opinion on the event was varied, with numerous publications intimating that Turner's testimony at the inquest was a performance; Life magazine published a photo of Turner testifying in court along with stills of her in courtroom scenes from three of her films. The scandal also coincided with the release of Another Time, Another Place, and the film was met with poor box-office receipts and a lackluster critical response. Stompanato's family sought a wrongful death suit of \$750,000 in damages against both Turner and her ex-husband, Steve Crane. In the suit, Stompanato's son alleged that Turner had been responsible for his death, and that her daughter had taken the blame. The suit was settled out of court for a reported \$20,000 in May 1962. A 1962 novel by Harold Robbins entitled Where Love Has Gone and its subsequent film adaptation were inspired by the event.
### 1959–1965: Financial successes
In the wake of negative publicity related to Stompanato's death, Turner accepted the lead role in Ross Hunter's remake of Imitation of Life (1959) under the direction of Douglas Sirk. She portrayed a struggling stage actress who makes personal sacrifices to further her career. The production was difficult for Turner given the recent events of her personal life, and she suffered a panic attack on the first day of filming. Her co-star Juanita Moore recalled that Turner cried for three days after filming a scene in which Moore's character dies. When she returned to the set, "her face was so swollen, she couldn't work", Moore said.
Released in the spring of 1959, Imitation of Life was among the year's biggest successes, and the biggest of Turner's career; by opting to receive 50% of the film's earnings rather than receiving a salary, she earned more than two million dollars. Imitation of Life made more than \$50 million in box office receipts. Reviews were mixed, although Variety praised her performance, writing: "Turner plays a character of changing moods, and her changes are remarkably effective, as she blends love and understanding, sincerity and ambition. The growth of maturity is reflected neatly in her distinguished portrayal." Critics and audiences could not help noticing that the plots of Peyton Place and Imitation of Life both seemed to mirror certain parts of Turner's private life, resulting in comparisons she found painful. Both films depicted the troubled, complicated relationship between a single mother and her teenage daughter. During this time, Turner's daughter Cheryl privately came out as a lesbian to her parents, who were both supportive of her. Despite this, Cheryl ran away from home multiple times and the press wrote about her rebelliousness. Worried she was still suffering from the trauma of Stompanato's death, Turner sent Cheryl to the Institute of Living in Hartford, Connecticut.
Shortly before the release of Imitation of Life in the spring of 1959, Turner was cast in a lead role in Otto Preminger's Anatomy of a Murder, but walked off the set over a wardrobe disagreement, effectively dropping out of the production. She was replaced by Lee Remick. Instead, Turner took a lead role as a disturbed socialite in the film noir Portrait in Black (1960) opposite Anthony Quinn and Sandra Dee, which was a box-office success despite bad reviews. Ray Duncan of the Independent Star-News wrote that Turner "suffers prettily through it all, like a fashion model with a tight-fitting shoe".
In November 1960, Turner married her fifth husband, Frederick "Fred" May, a rancher and member of the May department-store family whom she had met at a beach party in Malibu shortly after filming Imitation of Life. Turner moved in with him on his ranch in Chino, California, where the two took care of horses and other animals. The following year, she made her final film at MGM with Bob Hope in Bachelor in Paradise (1961), a romantic comedy about an investigative writer (Hope) working on a book about the wives of a lavish California community; the film received a mostly positive critical reception. Upon completing filming, Turner collected the remaining \$92,000 from her pension fund with MGM. The same year, she starred in By Love Possessed (1961), based on a bestselling novel by James Gould Cozzens. The film became the first in-flight movie to be shown on a regular basis on a scheduled airline flight when TWA showed it to its first-class passengers.
In mid-1962, Turner filmed Who's Got the Action?, a comedy in which she portrayed the wife of a gambling addict opposite Dean Martin. In September of that year, Turner and May separated, divorcing shortly after in October. They remained friends throughout her later life. In 1965, she met Hollywood producer and businessman Robert Eaton, who was ten years her junior, through business associates. The two married in June of that year at his family's home in Arlington, Virginia.
### 1966–1985: Later films, television and theatre
In 1966, Turner had her last major starring role in the courtroom drama film Madame X, based on the 1904 play by Alexandre Bisson, in which Turner portrayed a lower-class woman who marries into a wealthy family. A review in the Chicago Tribune praised her performance, noting: "when she takes the stand in the final (with Keir Dullea) courtroom scene, her face resembling a dust bowl victory garden, it's the most devastating denouement since Barbara Fritchie poked her head out the window." Kaspar Monahan of the Pittsburgh Press lauded her performance, writing: "Her performance, I think, is far and away her very best, even rating Oscar consideration in next year's Academy Award race, unless the culture snobs gang up against her." The role earned Turner a David di Donatello Golden Plaque Award for Best Foreign Actress that year.
In late 1968, she began filming the low-budget thriller The Big Cube, in which she portrayed a glamorous heiress being dosed with LSD by her stepdaughter in hopes of driving her insane and receiving the family estate. One critic deemed Turner's acting in the film "strained and amateurish", and declared it "one of her poorest performances". In April 1969, Turner filed for divorce from Eaton after four years of marriage upon discovering he had been unfaithful to her. Weeks later, on May 9, 1969, she married Ronald Pellar, a nightclub hypnotist whom she had met at a Los Angeles disco. According to Turner, Pellar (also known as Ronald Dante or Dr. Dante) falsely claimed to have been raised in Singapore and to have a Ph.D. in psychology.
With few film offers coming in, Turner signed on to appear in the television series Harold Robbins' The Survivors. Premiering in September 1969, the series was given a major national marketing campaign, with billboards featuring life-sized images of Turner. Despite ABC's extensive publicity campaign and the presence of other big-name stars, the program fared badly, and it was canceled halfway into the season after a 15-week run in 1970. Meanwhile, after six months of marriage, Turner discovered Pellar had stolen \$35,000 she had given him for an investment. In addition, she later accused him of stealing \$100,000 worth of jewelry from her. Pellar denied the accusations and no charges were filed against him. She filed for divorce in January 1970, after which she claimed to be celibate for the remainder of her life. Turner married a total of eight times to seven different husbands, and later famously said: "My goal was to have one husband and seven children, but it turned out to be the other way around."
Turner returned to feature films with a lead role in the 1974 British horror film Persecution, in which she played a disturbed wealthy woman tormenting her son. Variety noted of her performance: "Under the circumstances, Turner's performance as Carrie, the perverted dame of the English manor, has reasonable poise." In April 1975, Turner spoke at a retrospective gala in New York City examining her career, which was attended by Andy Warhol, Sylvia Miles, Rex Reed and numerous fans. Her next film was Bittersweet Love (1976), a romantic comedy in which she portrayed the mother of a woman who unwittingly marries her half-brother. Lawrence Van Gelder of The New York Times wrote that the film served "as a reminder that Miss Turner was never one of our subtler actresses".
In the early 1970s, Turner transitioned to theater, beginning with a production of Forty Carats, which toured various East Coast cities in 1971. A review in The Philadelphia Inquirer noted: "Miss Turner always could wear clothes well, and her Forty Carats is a fashion show in the guise of a frothy, little comedy. It wasn't much of a play even when Julie Harris was doing it, and it all but disappears under the old-time Hollywood glamor of Miss Turner's star presence." In 1975, Turner gave a single performance as Jessica Poole in The Pleasure of His Company opposite Louis Jourdan at the Arlington Park Theater in Chicago. From 1976 to 1978, she starred in a touring production of Bell, Book and Candle, playing Gillian Holroyd. Critic Elaine Matas noted of a 1977 performance that Turner was "brilliant" and "the bright spot in an otherwise mediocre play". In the fall of 1978, she appeared in a Chicago production of Divorce Me, Darling, an original play in which she portrayed a San Francisco divorce attorney. During rehearsals, a stagehand told reporters that Turner was "the hardest working broad I've known". Richard Christiansen of the Chicago Tribune praised her performance, writing that, "though she is still a very nervous and inexpert actress, she is giving by far her most winning performance".
Between 1979 and 1980, Turner returned to theater, appearing in Murder Among Friends, a murder-mystery play that showed in various U.S. cities. During this time, Turner was in the midst of a self-described "downhill slide". She was suffering from an alcohol addiction that had begun in the late 1950s, was missing performances and weighed only 95 pounds (43 kg). In 1980, Turner made her final feature film appearance, in the comedy horror film Witches' Brew, alongside Teri Garr. The same year, she had what she referred to as a "religious awakening", and again began practicing her Catholic faith. On October 25, 1981, the National Film Society presented Turner with an Artistry in Cinema award. In December 1981, it was announced that Turner would appear as the mysterious Jacqueline Perrault in an episode of Falcon Crest, marking her first television role in 12 years. Her appearance was a ratings success, and her character returned for an additional five episodes.
In January 1982, Turner reprised her role in Murder Among Friends, which toured throughout the U.S. that year; paired with Bob Fosse's Dancin''', the play earned a combined gross of \$400,000 during one week at Pittsburgh's Heinz Hall in June 1982. In September, Turner released an autobiography entitled Lana: The Lady, the Legend, the Truth. She subsequently guest-starred on an episode of The Love Boat in 1985, which marked her final on-screen appearance.
### 1986–1995: Illness and death
Turner was a regular drinker and cigarette smoker for most of her life. During her contract with MGM, photographs that showed her holding cigarettes had to be airbrushed at the studio's request in an effort to conceal her smoking. In her early sixties Turner stopped drinking to preserve her health, but she was unable to quit smoking. She was diagnosed with throat cancer in the spring of 1992. In a press release, she stated that the cancer had been detected early and had not damaged her vocal cords or larynx. She underwent exploratory surgery to remove the cancer, but it had metastasized to her jaw and lungs. After undergoing radiation therapy, Turner announced that she was in full remission in early 1993. The cancer was found to have returned in July 1994.
In September 1994, Turner made her final public appearance at the San Sebastián International Film Festival in Spain to accept a Lifetime Achievement Award, and was confined to a wheelchair for much of the event. She died nine months later at the age of 74 on June 29, 1995, of complications from the cancer, at her home in Century City, Los Angeles, with her daughter by her side. According to Cheryl, Turner's death was a "total shock", as she had appeared to be in better health and had recently completed seven weeks of radiation therapy. Turner's remains were cremated and given to Cheryl. Multiple accounts have the ashes still in Cheryl's possession, while other accounts say the ashes were scattered in the ocean, but which ocean and location varies by the sources.
Cheryl and her partner Joyce LeRoy, whom Turner said she accepted "as a second daughter", inherited some of Turner's personal effects and \$50,000 in Turner's will. Her estate was estimated in court documents to be worth \$1.7 million. Turner left the majority of her estate to her maid, Carmen Lopez Cruz, who had been her companion for 45 years and caregiver during her final illness. Cheryl challenged the will, and Cruz said that the majority of the estate was consumed by probate costs, legal fees and medical expenses.
## Public and screen persona
When Turner was discovered, MGM executive Mervyn LeRoy envisioned her as a replacement for the recently deceased Jean Harlow and began developing her image as a sex symbol. In They Won't Forget (1937) and Love Finds Andy Hardy (1938), she embodied an "innocent sexuality" portraying ingénues. Film historian Jeanine Basinger notes that she "represented the girl who'd rather sit on the diving board to show off her figure than get wet in the water ... the girl who'd rather kiss than kibbitz". In her early films, Turner did not color her auburn hair—see Dancing Co-Ed (1939), in which she was billed "the red-headed sensation who brought "it" back to the screen". 1941's Ziegfeld Girl was the first film to showcase Turner with platinum blonde hair, which she wore for much of the remainder of her life and for which she came to be known.
After Turner's first marriage in 1940, columnist Louella Parsons wrote: "If Lana Turner will behave herself and not go completely berserk she is headed for a top spot in motion pictures. She is the most glamorous actress since Jean Harlow." She also likened her to Clara Bow, adding: "Both of them, trusting and lovable, use their hearts instead of their heads. Lana ... has always acted hastily and been guided more by her own ideas than by any advance any studio gave her." By the mid-1940s, Turner had been married and divorced three times, had given birth to her daughter Cheryl and had numerous publicized affairs. However, her image in 1946's The Postman Always Rings Twice marked a departure from her strictly-sex symbol screen persona to that of a full-fledged femme fatale.
By the 1950s, both critics and audiences began noting parallels between Turner's rocky personal life and the roles she played. The likeness was most evident in Peyton Place and Imitation of Life, both films in which Turner portrayed single mothers struggling to maintain relationships with their teenage daughters. Film scholar Richard Dyer cites Turner as an example of one of Hollywood's earliest stars whose publicized private life perceptibly inflected their careers: "Her career is marked by an unusually, even spectacularly, high degree of interpenetration between her publicly available private life and her films ... not only do her vehicles furnish characters and situations in accord with her off-screen image, but frequently incidents in them echo incidents in her life so that by the end of her career films like Peyton Place, Imitation of Life, Madame X and Love Has Many Faces seem in parts like mere illustrations of her life."
Basinger echoes similar sentiments, noting that Turner was often "cast only in roles that were symbolic of what the public knew—or thought they knew—of her life from headlines she made as a person, not as a movie character ... Her person became her persona." In addition, Basinger credits Turner as the first mainstream female star to "take the male prerogative openly for herself", publicly indulging in romances and affairs that in turn fueled the publicity surrounding her. Film scholar Jessica Hope Jordan considers Turner an "implosion" of both a "real-life image and star image" and suggests that she utilized one to mask the other, thus rendering her representative of the "ultimate femme fatale". Columnist Dorothy Kilgallen took note of the intersections between Turner's life and screen persona early in her career, writing in 1946:
> Lana Turner is a super-star for many reasons but chiefly because she is the same off-screen as she is on. Some of the stars are magnetic dazzlers on celluloid and ordinary, practical, polo-coated little things in private life. Not so Lana. No one who adored her in movies would be disappointed to meet her in the flesh. The flesh is the same. The biography is as colorful as any plot she has ever romped through on screen. The clothes she wears are just like the clothes you pay to see her in on Saturday night at the Bijou. The physical allure is just as heavy when she looks at a headwaiter as when she looks at a hero.
Historians have cited Turner as one of the most glamorous film stars of all time, an association that was made both during her lifetime and after her death. Commenting on her image, she once told a journalist: "Forsaking glamour is like forsaking my identity. It's an image I've worked too hard to obtain and preserve." Michael Gordon, who directed Turner in Portrait in Black, remembered her as "a very talented actress whose chief reliability was what I regarded as impoverished taste ... Lana was not a dummy, and she would give me wonderful rationalizations why she should wear pendant earrings. They had nothing to do with the role, but they had to do with her particular self-image."
According to her daughter, Turner's obsessive attention to detail often resulted in dressmakers storming out during dress fittings. No matter the setting, Turner also took care to ensure she was always "camera-ready", wearing jewelry and makeup even while lounging in sweatpants. Turner often purchased her favorite styles of shoes in every available color, at one time accumulating 698 pairs. She favored the designers Salvatore Ferragamo, Jean Louis, Helen Rose and Nolan Miller. Film historians Joe Morella and Edward Epstein have observed that, unlike many female stars, Turner "wasn't resented by female fans", and that women made up a large part of her fan base in later years. Turner maintained her glamorous image into her late career; a 1966 film review characterized her as "the glitter and glamour of Hollywood". While she consistently embraced her glamorous persona, she was also vocal about her dedication to acting and attained a reputation as a versatile, hard-working performer. She was an admirer of Bette Davis, whom she cited as her favorite actress.
## Legacy
Turner has been noted by historians as a sex symbol, a popular culture icon and "a symbol of the American Dream fulfilled ... Because of her, being discovered at a soda fountain has become almost as cherished an ideal as being born in a log cabin." Critic Leonard Maltin noted in 2005 that Turner "came to crystallize the opulent heights to which show business could usher a small-town girl, as well as its darkest, most tragic and narcissistic depths". She has also been cited by scholars as a gay icon because of her glamorous persona and triumphs over personal struggles. While discussions surrounding Turner have largely been based on her cultural prevalence, little scholarly study has been undertaken on her career, and opinion of her legacy as an actress has divided critics. Upon Turner's death, John Updike wrote in The New Yorker that she "was a faded period piece, an old-fashioned glamour queen whose fifty-four films, over four decades didn't amount, retrospectively to much ... As a performer, she was purely a studio-made product."
Defenders of Turner's acting ability, such as Jessica Hope Jordan and James Robert Parish, cite her performance in The Postman Always Rings Twice as an argument for the value of her work. Turner's role in the film has also caused her to be frequently associated with film noir and the femme fatale archetype in critical circles. In a 1973 Films in Review retrospective on her career, Turner was referred to as "a master of the motion picture technique and a hardworking craftsman". Jeanine Basinger has similarly championed Turner's acting, writing of her performance in The Bad and the Beautiful: "None of the sex symbols who have been touted as actresses—not Hayworth or Gardner or Taylor or Monroe—have ever given such a fine performance."
Because of the intersections between Turner's high-profile, glamorous persona, and storied, often troubled personal life, she is included in critical discussions about the Hollywood studio system, specifically its capitalization on its stars' private travails. Basinger considers her the "epitome of the Hollywood machine-made stardom". Turner has also been cited in scholarly discussions of women's sexuality.
Turner has been depicted and referenced in numerous works across literature, film, music and art. She was the subject of the poem "Lana Turner has collapsed" by Frank O'Hara, and was depicted as a minor character in James Ellroy's novel L.A. Confidential (1990). The Stompanato murder and its aftermath were also the basis of the Harold Robbins novel Where Love Has Gone (1962). In popular music, Turner was referenced in songs recorded by Nina Simone and Frank Sinatra, and was the source of the stage name of singer-songwriter Lana Del Rey. In 2002, artist Eloy Torrez included Turner in an outdoor mural, Portrait of Hollywood, painted on the auditorium of Hollywood High School, her alma mater. Turner has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6241 Hollywood Boulevard. In 2012, Complex'' named her the eighth-most infamous actress of all time.
## Filmography and credits |
43,331,803 | Cyclone Connie | 1,140,287,125 | South-West Indian tropical cyclone in 2000 | [
"Intense Tropical Cyclones",
"Tropical cyclones in 2000",
"Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands"
]
| Intense Tropical Cyclone Connie was a strong tropical cyclone that affected both Mauritius and Réunion in late January 2000. On January 24, 2000, a tropical disturbance developed well east of Madagascar. Despite moderate wind shear, it gradually strengthened while stalling offshore, and late on January 25, was believed to have attained tropical storm status. After turning generally southeast, Connie attained cyclone intensity on January 27. Rapid intensification ensued. Shortly after developing a well-defined eye, Connie attained peak intensity at 0000 UTC on January 28 as an intense tropical cyclone. Thereafter, Connie slowly weakened due to increased wind shear as thunderstorm activity quickly diminished around the eye. After threatening Mauritius, Connie then turned southwest, passing very close to Réunion late on January 28. After briefly leveling off in intensity that evening, Connie soon became less organized, and midday on January 29, the eye became less defined. The next day, Connie weakened to a severe tropical storm. Despite forecasts of additional weakening, Connie maintained its intensity for most of January 31. However, weakening resumed on February 1 and the storm transitioned to an extratropical cyclone on February 2. Two days later, Connie merged with another low-pressure area.
Despite passing well offshore Mauritius, both the airport and the port were closed due to lack of certainty in the storm's path. Connie brought several days of heavy rains and gusty winds to the island. One person was killed there and power was briefly disconnected. Overall, damage on Mauritius was minor. While passing near Reunion, Cyclone Connie brought heavy rains to the island nation. Power was knocked out to around 40,000 individuals. Roughly 100 homes were destroyed, leaving 600 people were homeless. Another 300 sought shelter. Two people were killed, but damage in Reunion was minimal. The extratropical remnants of the system later brought flooding to Mozambique, where 20,000 people were listed as homeless.
## Meteorological history
On January 22, an area of disturbed weather developed around 10°S to 15°S, a prime location for tropical cyclone formation within the basin. Although the system gradually became better organized, moderate easterly wind shear prevented significant development. By January 24 this area was located approximately 600 km (375 mi) east of the northern tip of Madagascar. Following a significant increase in organization due to decreased wind shear, the Météo-France office in Reunion (MFR) upgraded the system into Tropical Disturbance 4. At 1100 UTC on January 25, MFR upgraded the disturbance into a tropical depression while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) for the system. At 1800 UTC that day, the MFR upgraded the system into Moderate Tropical Storm Connie while the JTWC also upgraded Connie into a tropical storm.
Situated in an environment of favorable wind shear, Connie steadily became better organized. It quickly developed rainbands and good outflow. At first, Connie was nearly stationary but on January 26, moved northeastward under the influence of a subtropical ridge. Tropical Cyclone Connie slowly strengthened, although this process was slowed due to upwelling of cold ocean waters. That morning, the JTWC upgraded Connie to a 120 km/h (75 mph) hurricane. At 0703 UTC, satellite imagery dedicated a 50 km (30 mi) wide eye. Despite the eye feature, MFR assessed the intensity at 80 km/h (50 mph). Early the next day, however, MFR classified Connie as a severe tropical storm following satellite data, which suggested that Connie had developed an 80% closed eyewall. Moving east-southeast, Connie was upgraded to cyclone intensity at noon on January 27. Meanwhile, the JTWC revised the storms intensity to 160 km/h (100 mph), equivalent to a low-end Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) roughly 780 km (485 mi) north-northwest of Mauritius.
With an upper-level high located near the cyclone, the tropical cyclone steadily became better organized and thus Connie began to strengthen rapidly, as previously indicated by many tropical cyclone forecast models. The system then began to slowly turn southeast in the general direction of Mauritius and Réunion. By 1800 UTC on January 27, Tropical Cyclone Connie developed a very well defined eye; based on this, MFR upgraded Connie to a very intense tropical cyclone. Around this time, the JTWC raised the intensity of Connie to 215 km/h (135 mph), equal to a borderline Category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS, based on Dvorak intensity estimates of T5.5 and T6.0. After passing around 500 km (310 mi) north-northwest of Mauritius, Connie then decelerated east-southeast. At 0000 UTC on January 28, MFR estimated that Connie attained its peak intensity of 185 km/h (115 mph). Despite this cloud tops associated with Connie began to warm, even though the eye remained well-defined. Thus, the JTWC lowered the intensity of Connie to 190 km/h (120 mph), based on a blend of satellite intensity estimates.
Early on January 28, Connie made its closest approach to St. Brandon and initially appeared to be approaching Mauritius. However, many computer models correctly predicted Connie to turn southwest and threaten Reunion. Throughout the day, Connie maintained its intensity, but by the evening on January 28, thunderstorm activity diminished and the cloud structure became less organized, though the storm maintained a small eye. Increased southerly wind shear from a tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT) took toll on the system. During the morning hours of January 29 both agencies reduced the intensity to 145 km/h (90 mph) as the storm began to encounter dry air. By the afternoon, MFR downgraded Connie to tropical cyclone status; the eye had become cloud-filled, although it was still visible on radar. That night, the storm passed 130 km (80 mi) northwest of Reunion. Early on January 30, MFR downgraded Connie to a severe tropical storm. Later that day, the JTWC estimated that Connie lost hurricane-force winds roughly 500 km (310 mi) east of the southern tip of Madagascar; all of the storm's deep convection by this time was displaced to the south.
After moving away from Reunion, Connie accelerated towards the south around a subtropical ridge situated near Amsterdam Island. On January 31, Connie turned southeast, steered about a trough to the southeast. Contrary to forecasts which predicted continued weakening, MFR kept the intensity at 105 km/h (65 mph) for most of January 31. Based on satellite derived intensity estimates, the JTWC briefly re-upgraded Connie to a Category 1 hurricane equivalent on the SSHWS at 1800 UTC. However, the re-strengthening trend was short lived due to increased northwesterly wind shear. Satellite imagery early on February 1 revealed an exposed circulation and a rapid decreased of thunderstorm activity in bothy coverage and intensity. Based on this and the fact that the storm appeared to be losing tropical characteristics, MFR issued its final advisory on Connie. However, the JTWC continued to track Connie until February 2, when it merged with an extratropical low. At the time of dissipation, the JTWC assessed the intensity of Connie at 50 km/h (30 mph).
## Impact
Despite large uncertainty in the storm's path, the international airport on the eastern side of Mauritius and all ships within the Port Louis harbor had departed. A cyclone warning was declared and 165 shelters were opened. As a precaution, power was turned off. However, on the afternoon of January 29 all sea and airports were re-opened and power was turned back on as the storm moved away.
While making its closet approach to Mauritius on January 28, Connie brought heavy rains and strong winds to the archipelago. Winds greater than 100 km/h (62 mph) were recorded through much of the island, including a peak of 134 km/h (83 mph) in Médine. During a six-day period from January 26 to January 31, many locations along the eastern portion of the island received 600 mm (25 in), equivalent to approximately a month's worth of rainfall, including a maximum rainfall of 647 mm (25.5 in). These rains helped relieve extreme drought conditions. Offshore, waves up to 7.95 m (26.1 ft) in height were reported. One man perished on his roof while trying to fix his antenna. Two rivers were flooded but all in all, damage was minimal.
Due to its slow motion, Intense Tropical cyclone Connie deluged Reunion with heavy rains for several days before suddenly tampering off on January 29. Throughout the passage of the cyclone, many locations recorded wind gusts in excess of 100 km/h (62 mph), highlighted by 133 km/h (83 mph) in Le Port, 155 km/h (95 mph) in Peite France, and 216 km/h (134 mph) in Maida. Moreover, a peak rainfall total of 1,752 mm (69.0 in) was measured in Commerson, 1,296 mm (51.0 in) of which occurred in a 24-hour time frame. Many roads across Reunion were damaged. Power was knocked out to 40,000 customers while more than 100 homes were demolished. Two persons were killed, including a young man that fell while trying to observe the cyclone. A total of 600 people were reported homeless; roughly 300 people were evacuated. Although the agriculture sector suffered the most significant damages, overall, damage was minor. However, the French government later provided relief aid to Reunion as a result of the damage.
The non-tropical remnants of Connie brought flooding to Southern Africa for several days. In Maputo, 328 mm (12.9 in) of rain fell within a day. Large sections of many neighborhoods were inundated. Roughly 20,000 people were rendered homeless. The road that linked Maputo to South Africa was cut. The Ministry of Education was forced to delay the start of the school year. Following the floods, roughly 20 emergency shelters were opened. These rains help set the stage for additional flooding caused by Cyclone Leon–Eline and Cyclone Hudah.
## See also
- Tropical cyclones in 2000
- Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands
- Cyclone Dina (2002) – a tropical cyclone which had a similar track to Connie. |
74,206 | John II Komnenos | 1,173,874,506 | Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143 | [
"1087 births",
"1143 deaths",
"12th-century Byzantine emperors",
"Burials at the Monastery of Christ Pantocrator (Constantinople)",
"Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars",
"Byzantine people of the Crusades",
"Deaths by arrow wounds",
"Deaths by poisoning",
"Deaths from sepsis",
"Eastern Orthodox monarchs",
"Family of Alexios I Komnenos",
"Hunting accident deaths",
"John II Komnenos",
"Komnenos dynasty",
"Sons of Byzantine emperors"
]
| John II Komnenos or Comnenus (Greek: Ἱωάννης ὁ Κομνηνός, romanized: Iōannēs ho Komnēnos; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (Greek: Καλοϊωάννης, romanized: Kaloïōannēs), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina and the second emperor to rule during the Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire. As he was born to a reigning emperor, he had the status of a porphyrogennetos. John was a pious and dedicated monarch who was determined to undo the damage his empire had suffered following the Battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier.
John has been assessed as the greatest of the Komnenian emperors. This view became entrenched due to its espousal by George Ostrogorsky in his influential book, History of the Byzantine State, where John is described as a ruler who, "... combined clever prudence with purposeful energy ... and [was] high principled beyond his day." In the course of the quarter-century of his reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the west, decisively defeated the Pechenegs, Hungarians and Serbs in the Balkans, and personally led numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. John's campaigns fundamentally changed the balance of power in the east, forcing the Turks onto the defensive; they also led to the recapture of many towns, fortresses and cities across the Anatolian peninsula. In the southeast, John extended Byzantine control from the Maeander in the west all the way to Cilicia and Tarsus in the east. In an effort to demonstrate the Byzantine ideal of the emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into Muslim Syria at the head of the combined forces of Byzantium and the Crusader states; yet despite the great vigour with which he pressed the campaign, John's hopes were disappointed by the evasiveness of his Crusader allies and their reluctance to fight alongside his forces.
Under John, the empire's population recovered to about 10 million people. The quarter-century of John II's reign is less well recorded by contemporary or near-contemporary writers than the reigns of either his father, Alexios I, or his son, Manuel I. In particular little is known of the history of John's domestic rule or policies.
## Physical appearance and character
The Latin historian William of Tyre described John as short and unusually ugly, with eyes, hair and complexion so dark he was known as 'the Moor'. Yet despite his physical appearance, John was known as Kaloïōannēs, "John the Good" or "John the Beautiful"; the epithet referred to his character. Both his parents were unusually pious and John surpassed them. Members of his court were expected to restrict their conversation to serious subjects only. The food served at the emperor's table was very frugal and John lectured courtiers who lived in excessive luxury. His speech was dignified, but he engaged in repartee on occasion. All accounts agree that he was a faithful husband to his wife, an unusual trait in a medieval ruler. Despite his personal austerity, John had a high conception of the imperial role and would appear in full ceremonial splendour when this was advantageous.
John was famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign. He is considered an exceptional example of a moral ruler, at a time when cruelty was the norm. He is reputed never to have condemned anyone to death or mutilation. Charity was dispensed lavishly. For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. By the example of his personal morality and piety he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age. Descriptions of him and his actions indicate that he had great self-control and personal courage, and was an excellent strategist and general.
## Accession to the throne
John II succeeded his father as ruling basileus in 1118, but had already been crowned co-emperor by Alexios I between 1 September and early November, 1092. Despite this coronation, the accession of John was contested. That Alexios I favoured John to succeed him is made obvious by the elevation of his son to the position of co-emperor. However, Alexios' influential wife, Irene, favoured the Caesar Nikephoros Bryennios, the husband of her eldest child Anna Komnene. Anna, who in infancy had been betrothed to her father's first co-emperor Constantine Doukas, herself harboured obvious aspirations to power and the throne. During Alexios' final illness both wife and daughter exploited his physical weakness to apply pressure on him in support of their agenda for the succession. Alexios endured these constant demands without formally changing his intended successor. As Alexios lay dying in the monastery of the Mangana on 15 August 1118, John, relying on trusted relatives, especially his brother Isaac Komnenos, gained entry into the monastery and obtained the imperial signet ring from his father. He then assembled his armed followers and rode to the Great Palace, gathering the support of the citizenry on the way. The palace guard at first refused to admit John without clear proof of his father's wishes, however, the mob surrounding the new emperor simply forced an entry. In the palace John was acclaimed emperor. Irene, taken by surprise, was unable either to persuade her son to step down, or to induce Nikephoros to contend for the throne. However, this account of events, in particular the involvement of John's sister, in any palace coup attempt during the days around Alexios' death, has been disputed in a recent biography of Anna. The weight of historical opinion remains that Anna tried at least twice to usurp her brother's throne, resulting in her eventual perennial 'house arrest'. Anna later complained that John and his successor, her nephew Emperor Manuel, kept her isolated from society for 30 years.
Alexios died the night following his son's decisive move to take power. John refused to attend his father's funeral, despite the pleas of his mother, because he feared a counter-coup. However, in the space of a few days, his position seemed secure. Within a year of his accession, however, John II uncovered a conspiracy to overthrow him which implicated his mother and sister. Anna's husband Nikephoros had little sympathy with her ambitions, and it was his lack of support which doomed the conspiracy. Anna was stripped of her property, which was offered to the emperor's friend John Axouch. Axouch wisely declined and his influence ensured that Anna's property was eventually returned to her and that John II and his sister became reconciled, at least to a degree. Irene retired to a monastery and Anna seems to have been effectively removed from public life, taking up the less active occupation of historian. However, Nikephoros remained on good terms with his brother-in-law. One of the very few records of John's own words concerns the plot against him; he says that after ascending the throne, God "destroyed the cunning plots of my visible and invisible enemies and rescued me from every trap subjecting all my enemies under my feet". To safeguard his own succession, John crowned his young son Alexios as co-emperor around September 1119.
## Military and civil administration
The family intrigues that challenged his succession to the throne probably contributed to John's approach to rulership, which was to appoint men from outside the imperial family to high office. This was a radical departure from the methods of his father, who had used the imperial family and its many connections to fill almost all senior administrative and military posts.
John Axouch was John II's closest adviser and was his only intimate friend. Axouch was a Turk captured as a child at the Siege of Nicaea, who had been given as a gift to John's father. Emperor Alexios had thought him a good companion for his son, and so he had been brought up alongside the prince in the imperial household. Axouch was immediately appointed Grand Domestic (in Greek: μέγας δομέστικος, megas domestikos), upon the accession of John II. The Grand Domestic was the commander in chief of the Byzantine armies. It has been suggested that references to Axouch's possession of the imperial seal early in the reign of John's successor Manuel I meant that he was, in addition to his military duties, the head of the civil administration of the Empire. This was an unofficial position known at the time as the mesazon, and equivalent to a vizier or 'prime-minister.' Such an appointment was remarkable, and a radical departure from the nepotism that had characterised the reign of Alexios I. The imperial family harboured some degree of resentment at this decision, which was reinforced by the fact that they were required to make obeisance to John Axouch whenever they met him.
John's unwillingness to allow his family to influence his government to any great extent was to remain constant for the rest of his reign. John appointed a number of his father's personal retainers to senior administrative posts, men such as Eustathios Kamytzes, Michaelitzes Styppeiotes and George Dekanos. These were men who had been politically eclipsed during the ascendancy exercised by John's mother in the later years of the reign of Alexios I. A number of 'new men' were raised to prominence by John II, these included Gregory Taronites who was appointed protovestiarios, Manuel Anemas and Theodore Vatatzes, the latter two also became his sons-in-law. John's marriage policy, of bringing new families into the imperial orbit, may have been directed towards lessening the influence of certain prominent aristocratic clans, such as the Doukas, Diogenes and Melissenos families, some of which had produced emperors themselves in the past.
Despite his move away from close reliance on the imperial family and its connections, John's court and government had many similarities to that of his father, not least in its serious tone and piety. Indeed, an extant collection of political advice couched in poetic form, called the Mousai, are attributed to Alexios I. The Mousai are addressed directly to John II and exhort him, amongst other things, to maintain justice during his reign and a full treasury. Alexios' advice on rulership therefore continued to be available to his son, even after the old emperor's death.
The increase in military security and economic stability within Byzantine western Anatolia created by John II's campaigns allowed him to begin the establishment of a formal provincial system in these regions. The theme (province) of Thrakesion was re-established, with its administrative centre at Philadelphia. A new theme, named Mylasa and Melanoudion, was created to the south of Thrakesion.
## Conspiracies of the sebastokrator Isaac
The younger brother of John II, Isaac, had been of essential support during the accession crisis. However, despite being given the highest of court titles, that of sebastokrator, Isaac later became estranged from his brother and became an active conspirator. With trusted advisors of his own choosing, such as John Axouch, and later the support of his son and co-emperor, Alexios, John II offered no meaningful role to Isaac in the governance of the empire. In the reign of Alexios I sebastokratores had wielded considerable power and Isaac would have had an expectation of a similar level of authority being devolved on himself. This thwarted ambition is probably what disillusioned Isaac with his brother's rule. Isaac aimed at replacing his brother as emperor. In 1130 John became aware of a plot involving Isaac and other magnates as he was leaving to campaign against the Turks. When John tried to seize Isaac, the latter escaped and fled to the Danishmend emir Ghazi, who received him, and later sent him to the breakaway Byzantine regime of the Gabrades in Trebizond. Isaac then became the guest of Masoud, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, and subsequently of Leo, the Prince of Cilician Armenia. That Isaac was seeking aid from these princes in a bid to take the Byzantine throne by force is highly likely. Such a coalition did not materialise, but Isaac seems to have retained strong support in Constantinople. In 1132 John had to return from campaign in haste, when news reached him that conspirators in Constantinople had made an appeal to Isaac to become their ruler. The triumph that John celebrated following his capture of Kastamuni in 1133 can be seen as being a public affirmation of John's legitimacy as emperor embodied in the celebration of the defeat of external foes. The brothers were briefly reconciled in 1138, and Isaac returned to Constantinople; however, a year later Isaac was exiled to Heraclea Pontica, where he remained for the rest of John's life. In the extensive artwork that Isaac commissioned, he made much of his porphyrogenete status and his relationship with his imperial father, Alexios I, but he made little or no reference to his relationship to his brother John, or to the title of sebastokrator that he had received from him.
## Diplomacy
The central tenet of the foreign policy of John II in the West was to maintain an alliance with the German emperors (Holy Roman Empire). This was necessary to limit the threat posed by the Normans of southern Italy to Byzantine territory in the Balkans. This threat became especially acute after Roger II of Sicily made himself supreme in southern Italy and assumed the title of king. Emperor Lothair III had Byzantine backing, including a large financial subsidy, for his invasion of Norman territory in 1136, which reached as far south as Bari. Pope Innocent II, with the Church's possessions in Italy under threat by Roger II, who supported Antipope Anacletus II, was also party to the alliance of Lothair and John II. However, this alliance proved unable to resist Roger, who extracted by force a recognition of his royal title from the Pope in 1139 (Treaty of Mignano). Lothair's successor Conrad III was approached in 1140 for a royal German bride for John's youngest son Manuel. Bertha of Sulzbach, Conrad's sister-in-law, was chosen and despatched to Byzantium. At much the same time Roger II applied to John II for an imperial bride for his son, but was unsuccessful.
John's penchant for interfering with his wife's family, the rulers of Hungary, was problematic. The welcome accorded to ousted claimants of the Hungarian throne in Constantinople was seen by the Byzantines as a useful insurance policy and source of political leverage. However, the Hungarians treated this interference as a fighting matter. A Hungarian alliance with the Serbs produced serious consequences for continued Byzantine dominance in the western Balkans.
In the East John attempted, like his father, to exploit the differences between the Seljuq Sultan of Iconium and the Danishmendid dynasty controlling the northeastern, inland, parts of Anatolia. In 1134 the Seljuq sultan Masoud provided troops for John's attack on the Danishmend-held city of Kastamuni (reoccupied immediately after the Byzantine conquest of 1133), however, the alliance proved unreliable as the Seljuq troops abandoned the expedition, decamping during the night.
In the Crusader states of the Levant it was generally admitted that the Byzantine claims over Antioch were legally valid, though it was pragmatically viewed that only when the Byzantine emperor was in a position to enforce them militarily were they likely to be recognised in practice. The high point of John's diplomacy in the Levant was in 1137 when he extracted formal homage from the rulers of the Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa and the County of Tripoli. The Byzantine desire to be seen as holding a level of suzerainty over all of the Crusader states was taken seriously, as evidenced by the alarm shown in the Kingdom of Jerusalem when John informed King Fulk of his plan for an armed pilgrimage to the Holy City (1142).
## Religious matters
The reign of John II was taken up with almost constant warfare and, unlike his father who delighted in active participation in theological and doctrinal disputes, John appears to have been content to leave ecclesiastical matters to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and the church hierarchy. Only when religion impinged directly on imperial policy, as in relations with the papacy and the possible union of the Greek and Latin churches, did John take an active part. He organised a number of disputations between Greek and Latin theologians.
John, alongside his wife who shared in his religious and charitable works, is known to have undertaken church building on a considerable scale, including construction of the Monastery of Christ Pantokrator (Zeyrek Mosque) in Constantinople. This monastery, with its three churches, has been described as one of the most important and influential architectural constructions of Middle Byzantine Constantinople. Attached to the monastery was a hospital, of 5 wards, open to people of all social classes. The hospital was staffed by trained layman doctors rather than monks. The central of the three churches was the Komnenian funerary chapel, dedicated to St. Michael. It had twin domes, and is described in the typikon of the monastery as being in the form of a heroon; this emulates the older mausolea of Constantine and Justinian in the Church of the Holy Apostles.
Very active persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies characterised the last few years of the reign of Alexios I. No records from the reign of John mention such persecution, though countermeasures against heresy by the Byzantine Church remained in force. A permanent synod in Constantinople investigated the writings of a deceased monk named Constantine Chrysomallos which had been circulating in certain monasteries. These works were ordered to be burnt by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Leo Styppes, in May 1140, on the grounds that they incorporated elements of Bogomil belief and practices.
One of the few members of the imperial family to be placed in an important position by John was his cousin, Adrian Komnenos (son of John's uncle the sebastokrator Isaac). Adrian had become a monk, adopting the monastic name John, and had accompanied the emperor on his campaigns of 1138. Soon afterwards, Adrian was appointed Archbishop of Bulgaria as John IV of Ohrid. Bulgaria was an autocephalous see and required a prestigious man as archbishop.
## Military exploits
Though he fought a number of notable pitched battles, the military strategy of John II relied on taking and holding fortified settlements in order to construct defensible frontiers. John personally conducted approximately twenty five sieges during his reign.
### The Pechenegs destroyed (1122)
In 1119–1121 John defeated the Seljuq Turks, establishing his control over southwestern Anatolia. However, immediately afterwards, in 1122, John quickly transferred his troops to Europe to counter a Pecheneg invasion across the Danube frontier into Paristrion. These invaders had been auxiliaries of Vladimir Monomakh, the Prince of Kiev. John surrounded the Pechenegs as they burst into Thrace, tricked them into believing that he would grant them a favourable treaty, and then launched a devastating surprise attack upon their fortified camp. The ensuing Battle of Beroia was hard-fought, John was wounded in the leg by an arrow, but by the end of the day the Byzantine army had won a crushing victory. The decisive moment of the battle was when John led the Varangian Guard, largely composed of Englishmen, to assault defensive Pecheneg wagon laager, employing their famous axes to hack their way in. The battle put an effective end to the Pechenegs as an independent people; many of the captives taken in the conflict were settled as soldier-farmers within the Byzantine frontier.
### Conflict with Venice (1124–1126)
After his accession, John II had refused to confirm his father's 1082 treaty with the Republic of Venice, which had given the Italian republic unique and generous trading rights within the Byzantine Empire. Yet the change in policy was not motivated by financial concerns. An incident involving the abuse of a member of the imperial family by Venetians led to a dangerous conflict, especially as Byzantium had depended on Venice for its naval strength. After a Byzantine retaliatory attack on Kerkyra, John exiled the Venetian merchants from Constantinople. But this produced further retaliation, and a Venetian fleet of 72 ships plundered Rhodes, Chios, Samos, Lesbos, Andros and captured Kefalonia in the Ionian Sea. Eventually John was forced to come to terms; the war was costing him more than it was worth, and he was not prepared to transfer funds from the imperial land forces to the navy for the construction of new ships. John re-confirmed the treaty of 1082, in August 1126.
### War with the Hungarians and Serbs (1127–1129 – chronology uncertain)
John's marriage to the Hungarian princess Piroska involved him in the dynastic struggles of the Kingdom of Hungary. In giving asylum to Álmos, a blinded claimant to the Hungarian throne, John aroused the suspicion of the Hungarians. The Hungarians, led by Stephen II, then invaded Byzantium's Balkan provinces in 1127, with hostilities lasting until 1129; however, an alternative chronology has been suggested with the Hungarian attack and Byzantine retaliation taking place in 1125 with a renewal of hostilities in 1126. John launched a punitive raid against the Serbs, who had dangerously aligned themselves with Hungary, many of whom were rounded up and transported to Nicomedia in Asia Minor to serve as military colonists. This was done partly to cow the Serbs into submission (Serbia was, at least nominally, a Byzantine protectorate), and partly to strengthen the Byzantine frontier in the east against the Turks. The Serbs were forced to acknowledge Byzantine suzerainty once again. The Serbian campaign may have taken place between two distinct phases in the war against Hungary. The Hungarians attacked Belgrade, Nish and Sofia; John, who was near Philippopolis in Thrace, counterattacked, supported by a naval flotilla operating on the Danube. After a challenging campaign, the details of which are obscure, the emperor managed to defeat the Hungarians and their Serbian allies at the fortress of Haram or Chramon, which is the modern Nova Palanka; many Hungarian troops were killed when a bridge they were crossing collapsed as they were fleeing from a Byzantine attack. Following this the Hungarians renewed hostilities by attacking Braničevo, which was immediately rebuilt by John. Further Byzantine military successes, Choniates mentions several engagements, resulted in a restoration of peace. The Byzantines were confirmed in their control of Braničevo, Belgrade and Zemun and they also recovered the region of Sirmium (called Frangochorion in Choniates), which had been Hungarian since the 1060s. The Hungarian pretender Álmos died in 1129, removing the major source of friction.
### War of attrition against the Anatolian Turks (1119–20, 1130–35, 1139–40)
Early in John's reign the Turks were pressing forward against the Byzantine frontier in western Asia Minor. In 1119, the Seljuqs had cut the land route to the city of Attaleia on the southern coast of Anatolia. John II and Axouch the Grand Domestic besieged and recaptured Laodicea in 1119 and took Sozopolis by storm in 1120, re-opening land communication with Attaleia. This route was especially important as it also led to Cilicia and the Crusader states of Syria.
Following the end of hostilities with Hungary, John was able to concentrate on Asia Minor during most of his remaining years. He undertook annual campaigns against the Danishmendid emirate in Malatya (Melitene) on the upper Euphrates from 1130 to 1135. Thanks to his energetic campaigning, Turkish attempts at expansion in Asia Minor were halted, and John prepared to take the fight to the enemy. In order to restore the region to Byzantine control, he led a series of well planned and executed campaigns against the Turks, one of which resulted in the reconquest of the ancestral home of the Komnenoi at Kastamonu (Kastra Komnenon); he then left a garrison of 2,000 men at Gangra. John quickly earned a formidable reputation as a wall-breaker, taking one stronghold after another from his enemies. Regions that had been lost to the empire since the Battle of Manzikert were recovered and garrisoned. Yet resistance, particularly from the Danishmends of the northeast, was strong, and the difficult nature of holding the new conquests is illustrated by the fact that Kastamonu was recaptured by the Turks even as John was in Constantinople celebrating its return to Byzantine rule. John persevered, however, and Kastamonu soon changed hands once more.
In the spring of 1139, the emperor campaigned with success against Turks, probably nomadic Turkomans, who were raiding the regions along the Sangarios River, striking their means of subsistence by driving off their herds. He then marched for the final time against the Danishmend Turks, his army proceeding along the southern coast of the Black Sea through Bithynia and Paphlagonia. The breakaway Byzantine regime of Constantine Gabras in Trebizond was ended, and the region of Chaldia brought back under direct imperial control. John then besieged but failed to take the city of Neocaesarea, in 1140. The Byzantines were defeated by the conditions rather than by the Turks: the weather was very bad, large numbers of the army's horses died, and provisions became scarce.
### Campaigning in Cilicia and Syria (1137–1138)
In the Levant, the emperor sought to reinforce Byzantine claims to suzerainty over the Crusader States and to assert his rights over Antioch. In 1137 he conquered Tarsus, Adana, and Mopsuestia from the Principality of Armenian Cilicia, and in 1138 Prince Levon I of Armenia and most of his family were brought as captives to Constantinople. This opened the route to the Principality of Antioch, where Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, and Joscelin II, Count of Edessa, recognized themselves as vassals of the emperor in 1137. Even Raymond II, the Count of Tripoli, hastened northwards to pay homage to John, repeating the homage that his predecessor had given John's father in 1109. There then followed a joint campaign as John led the armies of Byzantium, Antioch, and Edessa against Muslim Syria. Aleppo proved too strong to attack, but the fortresses of Balat, Biza'a, Athareb, Maarat al-Numan, and Kafartab were taken by assault.
Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, his allies Prince Raymond of Antioch and Count Joscelin II of Edessa remained in their camp playing dice and feasting instead of helping to press the siege of the city of Shaizar. The Crusader Princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and neither wanted the other to gain from participating in the campaign. Raymond also wanted to hold on to Antioch, which he had agreed to hand over to John if the campaign was successful in capturing Aleppo, Shaizar, Homs, and Hama. Latin and Muslim sources describe John's energy and personal courage in prosecuting the siege. The city was taken, but the citadel defied assault. The Emir of Shaizar offered to pay a large indemnity, become John's vassal, and pay yearly tribute. John had lost all confidence in his allies, and a Muslim army under Zengi was approaching to try to relieve the city, therefore the emperor reluctantly accepted the offer. The emperor was distracted by a Seljuq raid on Cilicia and developments in the west, where he was pursuing a German alliance directed against the threat posed by the Normans of Sicily. Joscelin and Raymond conspired to delay the promised handover of Antioch's citadel to the emperor, stirring up popular unrest in the city directed at John and the local Greek community. John had little choice but to leave Syria with his ambitions only partially realised.
### Final campaigns (1142)
In early 1142 John campaigned against the Seljuqs of Iconium to secure his lines of communication through Attalia (Antalya). During this campaign his eldest son and co-emperor Alexios died of a fever. Having secured his route, John embarked on a new expedition into Syria determined to reduce Antioch to direct imperial rule. This expedition included a planned pilgrimage to Jerusalem on which he intended to take his army. King Fulk of Jerusalem, fearing that the emperor's presence with overwhelming military force would constrain him to make an act of homage and formally recognise Byzantine suzerainty over his kingdom, begged the emperor to bring only a modest escort. Fulk cited the inability of his largely barren kingdom to support the passage of a substantial army. This lukewarm response resulted in John II deciding to postpone his pilgrimage. John descended rapidly on northern Syria, forcing Joscelin II of Edessa to render hostages, including his daughter, as a guarantee of his good behaviour. He then advanced on Antioch demanding that the city and its citadel be surrendered to him. Raymond of Poitiers played for time, putting the proposal to the vote of the Antiochene general assembly. With the season well advanced John decided to take his army into winter quarters in Cilicia, proposing to renew his attack on Antioch the following year.
## Death and succession
Having prepared his army for a renewed attack on Antioch, John amused himself by hunting wild boar on Mount Taurus in Cilicia, where he accidentally cut himself on the hand with a poisoned arrow. John initially ignored the wound and it became infected. He died a number of days after the accident, on 8 April 1143, probably of septicaemia. It has been suggested that John was assassinated by a conspiracy within the units of his army of Latin origins who were unhappy at fighting their co-religionists of Antioch, and who wanted to place his pro-western son Manuel on the throne. However, there is very little overt support for this hypothesis in the primary sources. John's final action as emperor was to choose Manuel, the younger of his surviving sons, to be his successor. John is recorded as citing two main reasons for choosing Manuel over his older brother Isaac: Isaac's irascibility, and the courage that Manuel had shown on campaign at Neocaesarea. Another theory alleges that the reason for this choice was the AIMA prophecy, which foretold that John's successor should be one whose name began with an "M". Fittingly, John's close friend John Axouch, although he is recorded as having tried hard to persuade the dying emperor that Isaac was the better candidate to succeed, was instrumental in ensuring that Manuel's assumption of power was free from any overt opposition.
## The legacy of John II
Historian John Birkenmeier argued that John's reign was the most successful of the Komnenian period. In The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081–1180, he stresses the wisdom of John's approach to warfare, which focused on sieges rather than risking pitched battles. Birkenmeier argues that John's strategy of launching annual campaigns with limited, realistic objectives was a more sensible one than that followed by his son Manuel I. According to this view, John's campaigns benefited the Byzantine Empire because they protected the empire's heartland, which lacked reliable borders, while gradually extending its territory in Asia Minor. The Turks were forced onto the defensive, while John kept his diplomatic situation relatively simple by allying with the Holy Roman Emperor against the Normans of Sicily.
Overall, it is clear that John II Komnenos left the empire a great deal better off than he had found it. By the time of his death substantial territories had been recovered, and the goals of the recovery of control over central Anatolia and the re-establishment of a frontier on the Euphrates seemed achievable. However, the Greeks of the interior of Anatolia were becoming increasingly accustomed to Turkish rule and often found it preferable to that of Byzantium. Also, though it was relatively easy to extract submission and admissions of vassalage from the Anatolian Turks, Serbs and Crusader States of the Levant, converting these relationships into concrete gains for the security of the Empire had proven elusive. These problems were left for his gifted and mercurial son, Manuel, to attempt to solve.
## Family
John II Komnenos married Princess Piroska of Hungary (renamed Irene), a daughter of King Ladislaus I of Hungary in 1104; the marriage was intended as compensation for the loss of some territories to King Coloman of Hungary. She played little part in government, devoting herself to piety and their large brood of children. Irene died on 13 August, 1134, and was later venerated as Saint Irene. John II and Irene had 8 children:
1. Alexios Komnenos (October 1106 – summer 1142), co-emperor from 1119 to 1142
2. Maria Komnene (twin to Alexios), who married John Roger Dalassenos
3. Andronikos Komnenos (died 1142)
4. Anna Komnene (c. 1110/11 – after 1149), who married the admiral Stephen Kontostephanos, who died in battle in 1149. The couple had four children.
5. Isaac Komnenos (c. 1113 – after 1154), raised to sebastokrator in 1122, he was superseded in the succession in favour of Manuel in 1143; married twice and had several children.
6. Theodora Komnene (c. 1115 – before May 1157), who married the military commander Manuel Anemas, who was killed in action, after which she entered a monastery. The couple had at least four children.
7. Eudokia Komnene (c. 1116 – before 1150), who married the military commander Theodore Vatatzes. She had at least six children, but died early.
8. Manuel I Komnenos (28 November 1118 – 21 September 1180), became emperor, and reigned 1143–1180.
## Ancestry
## See also
- Byzantium under the Komnenos dynasty
- Komnenian army
- List of Byzantine emperors |
621,661 | The Edge of Destruction | 1,173,894,550 | null | [
"1964 British television episodes",
"Doctor Who serials novelised by Nigel Robinson",
"First Doctor serials"
]
| The Edge of Destruction (also referred to as Inside the Spaceship) is the third serial of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was written by David Whitaker, and first broadcast on BBC TV in two weekly parts on 8 February and 15 February 1964. The first episode was directed by Richard Martin, while Frank Cox directed the second. In the story, the Doctor (William Hartnell), his granddaughter Susan (Carole Ann Ford), and her teachers Ian Chesterton (William Russell) and Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) are in the Doctor's time and space machine the TARDIS when it appears to be taken over by an outside force. The travellers begin acting strangely and turn against each other.
The serial was commissioned as a "filler", in case the show was not renewed beyond the approved 13 weeks. Whitaker wrote the scripts in two days, based on an idea he had developed during the show's formative weeks; he sought to explore the characters in more depth, as well as the facets of the TARDIS. The serial's original director, Paddy Russell, left the project due to other commitments. The serial premiered with ten million viewers, maintaining the figures from the previous story, and received generally positive responses. The BBC Programme Board voiced concerns regarding a scene in which Susan uses scissors as a weapon, noting that it violated code. The serial received print adaptations, as well as home media releases.
## Plot
The First Doctor (William Hartnell), while attempting to correct the TARDIS's faulty navigation circuits, causes a small explosion. The Doctor, Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill), Ian Chesterton (William Russell), and Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) are all temporarily rendered unconscious. When they wake, Ian and Susan appear to have slight cases of amnesia and everyone begins to act strangely. The travellers are becoming suspicious of each other's motives, and the Doctor accuses Ian and Barbara of sabotage. Fearing that they have been taken over by some alien force—or that they have intentionally sabotaged the TARDIS to force the Doctor to return them to 1963—he drugs Barbara and Ian, unknowing that Ian is also suspicious and has not taken the drink given to him. The Doctor attempts to explore the problem without interference.
Gradually it becomes clear that the strange events are an attempt by the TARDIS itself to warn the crew that something is wrong. Barbara's clue gathering forces the Doctor to trace the problem to a broken spring in the Fast Return Switch. The malfunction is causing the TARDIS to head back to the beginning of time; the strange events were just attempts by the TARDIS to warn the passengers before the ship is destroyed. Fixing the switch brings all back to normal. Although the day is saved, Barbara is still affected by the Doctor's harsh words earlier. The Doctor apologises, and admits that he was wrong about Barbara and Ian. The story closes with the TARDIS materialising on a snowy landscape, where Susan spots a giant footprint in the snow.
## Production
### Conception and writing
On 16 October 1963, BBC TV's Controller of Programmes Donald Baverstock indicated that Doctor Who was only confirmed as a 13-episode show at the time, due to budgetary information. There was already several serials planned at this point, namely the four-part Doctor Who and the Tribe of Gum (later An Unearthly Child), followed by the seven-part The Mutants (later The Daleks), and the seven-part A Journey to Cathay (later Marco Polo); as a result, a new two-episode "filler" serial was required, in case the show was not renewed further. On 1 November, the serial was assigned to story editor David Whitaker to write, and Paddy Russell to direct. Since the serial had no budget and minimal resources, Whitaker took the opportunity to develop an idea conceived during the show's formative weeks: a character-driven story exploring the facets of the TARDIS.
Whitaker wrote the script in two days, describing the process as "a bit of a nightmare". He drew upon influences of ghost stories and haunted houses, and producer Verity Lambert felt that the story captured audiences because of the conflict between the characters. To avoid complication with the Writers' Guild, Whitaker only received a writing credit for the serial, omitting his usual credit of story editor. When filming for the serial was deferred for a week due to issues with the previous serial, Russell left the project due to other commitments, temporarily replaced by associate producer Mervyn Pinfield; junior director Richard Martin was later handed the role. Frank Cox directed the second episode, as Martin was unavailable. Raymond Cusick designed the extra rooms in the TARDIS. Brian Hodgson of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop designed the serial's sounds, while the music was selected from a range of sample mood music from library discs, due to budgetary constraints.
### Filming
Rehearsals for the first episode began on 13 January 1964, and it was recorded on 17 January in Lime Grove Studios, Studio D. William Hartnell initially complained about the script due to the number of lines, while Carole Ann Ford was sceptical of the characters appearing mad without reason; conversely, Jacqueline Hill and William Russell appreciated the chance to explore their characters in more depth. The second episode's rehearsals ran from 20–23 January, and recording took place on 24 January. The serial cost a total of £1,480, far less than the £2,500 granted for each episode. The Fast Return Switch label on the TARDIS console appears to be written in felt-tip pen; Cusick guessed it was written during rehearsals as a guide, while Lambert surmised it may have been written so Hartnell could find the switch, and both agreed it was probably never intended to be seen. Ford stated she and Hartnell labelled controls on the TARDIS control panel during rehearsal, and assumed they would be blotted out before production.
## Reception
### Broadcast and ratings
The first episode was broadcast on BBC TV 8 February 1964, and was watched by 10.4 million viewers, retaining the high viewing figures from the previous episode. The second episode's broadcast on 15 February received slightly lower ratings, with 9.9 million viewers. The two episodes received an Appreciation Index of 61 and 60, indicating positive audience response.
### Critical response
At a BBC Programme Review Board Meeting in February 1964, controller of television programmes Stuart Hood felt that the serial's sequences in which Susan uses scissors as a weapon "digressed from the code of violence in programmes"; Lambert apologised for the scenes. In The Discontinuity Guide (1995), Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping wrote that the story "manages to flesh out the central figures at the expense of the plot". In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker considered the second episode superior to the first and, noting the serial's origins as a "filler", noted that it "works remarkably well". In A Critical History of Doctor Who (1999), John Kenneth Muir praised the serial's exploration of its characters' relationships, an element that the show would eventually lose after the departure of Russell and Hill. In a 2008 review, Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times described Whitaker as "a master of dialogue, characterisation and atmosphere", but felt he struggled with plot logic, as evidenced by the fast return switch explanation. Despite this, he stated that the ending had "charm" as the TARDIS travellers began to become friends. DVD Talk's John Sinnott felt that The Edge of Destruction was the weakest of the show's first three serials, writing that it had "some good moments" but "overall it doesn't hang together quite as well" as the preceding two stories; he commented that it felt "rushed" and the resolution was a "cop-out". The serial was recommended by Charlie Jane Anders of io9 as an example of the classic series for new viewers to watch, describing it as "a quick hit ... and still just as intense as it was".
## Commercial releases
### In print
A novelisation of this serial, written by Nigel Robinson, was published in hardback in May 1988, with a cover painting by Alister Pearson; the paperback was published by Target Books on 20 October 1988. Since Whitaker died before novelising his scripts, Robinson considerably expanded the serial for the book. An audiobook reading of the novelisation, narrated by William Russell, was published by BBC Audiobooks on CD on 31 August 2010.
### Home media
An extract from the second episode, dubbed in Arabic, was included on the VHS release Doctor Who: The Hartnell Years in June 1991. The full story was first released on VHS in May 2000, alongside the pilot episode of An Unearthly Child. For the DVD release on 30 January 2006, the serial was released as part of Doctor Who: The Beginning alongside the preceding two stories, with several special features. |
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| Roger Joseph Ebert (/ˈiːbərt/; June 18, 1942 – April 4, 2013) was an American film critic, film historian, journalist, essayist, screenwriter, and author. He was a film critic for the Chicago Sun-Times from 1967 until his death in 2013. In 1975, Ebert became the first film critic to win the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. Neil Steinberg of the Chicago Sun-Times said Ebert "was without question the nation's most prominent and influential film critic," and Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called him "the best-known film critic in America."
Ebert was known for his intimate, Midwestern writing voice and critical views informed by values of populism and humanism. Writing in a prose style intended to be entertaining and direct, he made sophisticated cinematic and analytical ideas more accessible to non-specialist audiences. While a populist, Ebert frequently endorsed foreign and independent films he believed would be appreciated by mainstream viewers, which often resulted in such films receiving greater exposure. Early in his career Ebert co-wrote with Russ Meyer the film Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (1970).
Starting in 1975, Ebert and Chicago Tribune critic Gene Siskel helped popularize nationally televised film reviewing when they co-hosted the PBS show Sneak Previews, followed by several variously named At the Movies programs. The two verbally sparred and traded humorous barbs while discussing films. They created and trademarked the phrase "two thumbs up," used when both gave the same film a positive review. They regularly appeared on numerous talk shows together including Late Show with David Letterman. After Siskel died in 1999 of a sudden illness, Ebert continued hosting the show with various co-hosts and then, starting in 2000, with Richard Roeper.
Ebert was diagnosed with cancer of the thyroid and salivary glands in 2002. He required treatment that included removing a section of his lower jaw in 2006, leaving him severely disfigured and unable to speak or eat normally. However, his ability to write remained unimpaired and he continued to publish frequently online and in print until his death on April 4, 2013. His RogerEbert.com website, launched in 2002 and remains online as an archive of his published writings. He wrote his memoir Life Itself (2011) which was later made into a 2014 documentary film of the same title.
## Early life and education
Roger Joseph Ebert was born on June 18, 1942, in Urbana, Illinois, the only child of Annabel (née Stumm, 1911–1987), a bookkeeper, and Walter Harry Ebert (1901–1960), an electrician. He was raised Roman Catholic, attending St. Mary's elementary school and serving as an altar boy in Urbana.
His paternal grandparents were German immigrants and his maternal ancestry was Irish and Dutch. Ebert's interest in journalism began when he was a student at Urbana High School, where he was a sportswriter for The News-Gazette in Champaign, Illinois; however, he began his writing career with letters of comment to the science-fiction fanzines of the era. In his senior year, he was class president and co-editor of his high school newspaper, The Echo. In 1958, he won the Illinois High School Association state speech championship in "radio speaking," an event that simulates radio newscasts.
Ebert began taking classes at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign as an early-entrance student, completing his high school courses while also taking his first university class. After graduating from Urbana High School in 1960, Ebert then attended and received his undergraduate degree in 1964. While at the University of Illinois, Ebert worked as a reporter for The Daily Illini and then served as its editor during his senior year while also continuing to work as a reporter for the News-Gazette of Champaign-Urbana, Illinois. (He had begun at the News-Gazette at age 15 covering Urbana High School sports.)
His college mentor was Daniel Curley, who "introduced me to many of the cornerstones of my life's reading: "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", Crime and Punishment, Madame Bovary, The Ambassadors, Nostromo, The Professor's House, The Great Gatsby, The Sound and the Fury... He approached these works with undisguised admiration. We discussed patterns of symbolism, felicities of language, motivation, revelation of character. This was appreciation, not the savagery of deconstruction, which approaches literature as pliers do a rose." Years later, Ebert coauthored The Perfect London Walk with Curley. One of his classmates was Larry Woiwode, who went on to be the Poet Laureate of North Dakota. At the Daily Illini Ebert befriended William Nack, who as a sportswriter would cover Secretariat. As an undergraduate, he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity and president of the United States Student Press Association. One of the first movie reviews he ever wrote was a review of La Dolce Vita, published in The Daily Illini in October 1961.
Ebert spent a semester as a master's student in the department of English there before attending the University of Cape Town on a Rotary fellowship for a year. He returned from Cape Town to his graduate studies at Illinois for two more semesters and then, after being accepted as a PhD student at the University of Chicago, he prepared to move to Chicago. He needed a job to support himself while he worked on his doctorate and so applied to the Chicago Daily News, hoping that, as he had already sold freelance pieces to the Daily News, including an article on the death of writer Brendan Behan, he would be hired by editor Herman Kogan.
Instead, Kogan referred Ebert to the city editor at the Chicago Sun-Times, Jim Hoge, who hired Ebert as a reporter and feature writer at the Sun-Times in 1966. He attended doctoral classes at the University of Chicago while working as a general reporter at the Sun-Times for a year. After movie critic Eleanor Keane left the Sun-Times in April 1967, editor Robert Zonka gave the job to Ebert. The load of graduate school and being a film critic proved too much, so Ebert left the University of Chicago to focus his energies on film criticism.
## Career
### 1967–1974: Early writings
Ebert began his career as a film critic in 1967, writing for the Chicago Sun-Times. That same year, he met film critic Pauline Kael for the first time at the New York Film Festival. After he sent her some of his columns, she told him they were "the best film criticism being done in American newspapers today." That same year, Ebert's first book, a history of the University of Illinois titled Illini Century: One Hundred Years of Campus Life, was published by the university's press. In 1969, his review of Night of the Living Dead was published in Reader's Digest.
Ebert was one of the first critics to champion Bonnie and Clyde, calling it "a milestone in the history of American movies, a work of truth and brilliance. It is also pitilessly cruel, filled with sympathy, nauseating, funny, heartbreaking and astonishingly beautiful. If it does not seem that those words should be strung together, perhaps that is because movies do not very often reflect the full range of human life." He concluded: "The fact that the story is set 35 years ago doesn't mean a thing. It had to be set some time. But it was made now and it's about us."
Thirty one years later, he wrote "When I saw it, I had been a film critic for less than six months, and it was the first masterpiece I had seen on the job. I felt an exhilaration beyond describing. I did not suspect how long it would be between such experiences, but at least I learned that they were possible." He wrote Martin Scorsese's first review, for Who's That Knocking at My Door, and predicted the young director could become "an American Fellini."
In addition to film, Ebert occasionally wrote about other topics for the Sun-Times, such as music. In 1970, Ebert wrote the first published concert review of singer-songwriter John Prine, who at the time was working as a mailman and performing at Chicago folk clubs.
Ebert co-wrote the screenplay for the Russ Meyer film Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (1970) and sometimes joked about being responsible for the film, which was poorly received on its release yet has become a cult film. Ebert and Meyer also made Up! (1976), Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens (1979), and other films, and were involved in the ill-fated Sex Pistols movie Who Killed Bambi? In April 2010, Ebert posted his screenplay of Who Killed Bambi?, also known as Anarchy in the UK, on his blog.
Beginning in 1968, Ebert worked for the University of Chicago as an adjunct lecturer, teaching a night class on film at the Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies. In 1975, Ebert received the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. In October 1986, while continuing to work for the Sun-Times and still based in Chicago, Ebert replaced Rex Reed as the New York Post chief film reviewer.
### 1975–1999: Stardom with Siskel & Ebert
Also in 1975, Ebert and Gene Siskel began co-hosting a weekly film-review television show, Sneak Previews, which was locally produced by the Chicago public broadcasting station WTTW. The series was later picked up for national syndication on PBS. The duo became well known for their "thumbs up/thumbs down" review summaries. Siskel and Ebert trademarked the phrase "Two Thumbs Up."
In 1982, they moved from PBS to launch a similar syndicated commercial television show named At the Movies With Gene Siskel & Roger Ebert. In 1986, they again moved the show to new ownership, creating Siskel & Ebert & the Movies through Buena Vista Television, part of the Walt Disney Company. Ebert and Siskel were known for their many appearances on late night talk shows including appearances on The Late Show with David Letterman sixteen times and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson fifteen times. One of their appearances on Johnny Carson's show include when comedian Chevy Chase who was on the couch with them, decided to mimic Ebert behind his back while he was talking. They also appeared together on The Oprah Winfrey Show, The Arsenio Hall Show, Howard Stern, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and Late Night with Conan O'Brien.
During this time, In 1982, 1983, and 1985, Ebert, along with Siskel, appeared as themselves on Saturday Night Live. For their first two appearances, they reviewed sketches from that night's telecast and reviewed sketches from the "SNL Film Festival" for their last appearance. In 1991, Ebert, along with Siskel, appeared in a segment on the children's television series Sesame Street entitled "Sneak Peek Previews" (a parody of Sneak Previews). In the segment, the critics instruct the hosts Oscar the Grouch and Telly Monster on how their thumbs up/thumbs down rating system works. Oscar asks if there could be a thumbs sideways ratings, and goads the two men into an argument about whether or not would be acceptable, as Ebert likes the idea, but Siskel does not. The two were also seen that same year in the show's celebrity version of "Monster in the Mirror". In 1995, Ebert and Siskel guest-starred on an episode of the animated TV series The Critic. In the episode, Siskel and Ebert split and each wants protagonist Jay Sherman, a fellow movie critic, as his new partner. The episode is a parody of the film Sleepless in Seattle. The following year, Ebert appeared in Pitch, a documentary by Canadian filmmakers Spencer Rice and Kenny Hotz. He made an appearance as himself in a 1997 episode of the television series Early Edition, which took place in Chicago. In the episode, Ebert consoles a young boy who is depressed after he sees a character called Bosco the Bunny die in a movie.
For many years, on the day of the Academy Awards ceremony, Ebert appeared with Roeper on the live pre-awards show, An Evening at the Academy Awards: The Arrivals. This aired for over a decade, usually prior to the awards ceremony show, which also featured red carpet interviews and fashion commentary. They also appeared on the post-awards show entitled An Evening at the Academy Awards: The Winners, produced and aired by the ABC-owned KABC-TV in Los Angeles. Though not making a personal appearance, an honorary effigy of Ebert co-starred in the 1998 reimagined version of Godzilla, played by actor Michael Lerner as New York City Mayor Ebert. Ebert provided DVD audio commentaries for several films, including Citizen Kane (1941), Casablanca (1942), Dark City (1998), Floating Weeds (1959), Crumb (1995), and Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (1970). Ebert was also interviewed by Central Park Media for an extra feature on the DVD release of the anime film Grave of the Fireflies. In 1999, Ebert founded his own film festival, Ebertfest, in his hometown, Champaign, Illinois.
In May 1998 Siskel took a leave of absence from the show due to brain surgery. He returned to the show although viewers noticed a change in his physical appearance. Despite appearing sluggish and tired, Siskel continued reviewing films with Ebert and would appear on Late Night with David Letterman. In February 1999, Siskel died of a brain tumor. the producers retitled the show Roger Ebert & the Movies and used rotating co-hosts including Martin Scorsese, A.O. Scott, and Janet Maslin.
### 2000–2006: Ebert & Roeper
In September 2000, Chicago Sun-Times columnist Richard Roeper became the permanent co-host and the show was renamed At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper and later At the Movies. In 2000, Ebert interviewed President Bill Clinton at The White House. Clinton spoke about his love for the movies, his favorite films of 1999, and his favorite films of all time, such as Casablanca (1942), High Noon (1952) and The Ten Commandments (1956). Clinton named Meryl Streep, Robert De Niro, and Tom Hanks as his favorite actors.
In 2003, Ebert made a cameo appearance in the film Abby Singer. In 2005, Ebert became the first film critic to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2004, Ebert appeared in the Sesame Street franchise's direct-to-video special A Celebration of Me, Grover, delivering a review of the Monsterpiece Theater segment of "The King and I".
### 2007–2013: Rogerebert.com
Ebert ended his association with the Disney-owned At The Movies in July 2008, after the studio indicated it wished to take the program in a new direction. As of 2007, his reviews were syndicated to more than 200 newspapers in the United States and abroad. Ebert also published more than 20 books and dozens of collected reviews. His RogerEbert.com website, launched in 2002 and originally underwritten by the Chicago Sun-Times, remains online as an archive of his published writings and reviews while also hosting new material written by a group of critics who were selected by Ebert before his death. Even as he used TV (and later the Internet) to share his reviews, Ebert continued to write for the Chicago Sun-Times until he died in 2013. On February 18, 2009, Ebert reported that he and Roeper would soon announce a new movie-review program, and reiterated this plan after Disney announced that the program's last episode would air in August 2010.
Ebert was one of the principal critics featured in Gerald Peary's 2009 documentary film For the Love of Movies: The Story of American Film Criticism. He is shown discussing the dynamics of appearing with Gene Siskel on the 1970s show Coming to a Theatre Near You, which was the predecessor of Sneak Previews on Chicago PBS station WTTW. He also expressed his approval of the proliferation of young people writing film reviews today on the internet. On May 4, 2010, Ebert was announced by the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences as the Webby Person of the Year, having taken to the Internet following his battle with cancer. On October 22, 2010, Ebert appeared on camera with Robert Osborne on the Turner Classic Movies network during the network's "The Essentials" series. Ebert chose the films Sweet Smell of Success and The Lady Eve to be shown.
On January 31, 2009, Ebert was made an honorary life member of the Directors Guild of America. His final television series, Ebert Presents: At the Movies, premiered on January 21, 2011, with Ebert contributing a review voiced by Bill Kurtis in a brief segment called "Roger's Office," as well as featuring more traditional film reviews in the "At the Movies" format presented by Christy Lemire and Ignatiy Vishnevetsky. The program lasted one season, before being cancelled due to funding constraints and the subsequent death of Ebert. The last review by Ebert published during his lifetime was for the film The Host, which was published on March 27, 2013. The last review Ebert wrote was for the film To the Wonder, which he gave 3.5 out of 4 stars in a review for the Chicago Sun-Times. It was posthumously published on April 6, 2013. In July 2013, a previously unpublished review of the film Computer Chess appeared on Ebert's website. The review had been written in March but had remained unpublished until the film's wide-release date. Matt Zoller Seitz, the editor for Ebert's website, confirmed that there were other unpublished reviews that would be eventually uploaded to the website. A second review, for The Spectacular Now, was published in August 2013.
A biographical documentary about Ebert, called Life Itself (2014) directed by Steve James, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. The film was executive produced by Martin Scorsese and included interviews from Scorsese, Ava DuVernay, Werner Herzog, Errol Morris, and numerous critics. The film received critical acclaim and received numerous accolades including a Emmy Award, Producers Guild of America Award, and Critics' Choice Movie Award.
## Critical style
Ebert cited Andrew Sarris and Pauline Kael as influences, and often quoted Robert Warshow, who said: "A man goes to the movies. A critic must be honest enough to admit he is that man." He tried to judge a movie on its style rather than its content, and often said "It's not what a movie is about, it's how it's about what it's about." He awarded four stars to films of the highest quality, and generally a half star to those of the lowest, unless he considered the film to be "artistically inept and morally repugnant", in which case it received no stars, as with Death Wish II. He explained that his star ratings had little meaning outside the context of the review.
> When you ask a friend if Hellboy is any good, you're not asking if it's any good compared to Mystic River, you're asking if it's any good compared to The Punisher. And my answer would be, on a scale of one to four, if Superman is four, then Hellboy is three and The Punisher is two. In the same way, if American Beauty gets four stars, then The United States of Leland clocks in at about two.
Metacritic later noted that Ebert tended to give more lenient ratings than most critics. His average film rating was 71%, if translated into a percentage, compared to 59% for the site as a whole. Of his reviews, 75% were positive and 75% of his ratings were better than his colleagues. Ebert had acknowledged in 2008 that he gave higher ratings on average than other critics, though he said this was in part because he considered a rating of 3 out of 4 stars to be the general threshold for a film to get a "thumbs up."
Although Ebert rarely wrote outright-scathing reviews, he had a reputation for writing memorable ones for the films he really disliked, such as North. Of that film, he wrote "I hated this movie. Hated hated hated hated hated this movie. Hated it. Hated every simpering stupid vacant audience-insulting moment of it. Hated the sensibility that thought anyone would like it. Hated the implied insult to the audience by its belief that anyone would be entertained by it." A collection of his pans was published as I Hated, Hated, Hated This Movie.
He wrote that Mad Dog Time "is the first movie I have seen that does not improve on the sight of a blank screen viewed for the same length of time. Oh, I've seen bad movies before. But they usually made me care about how bad they were. Watching Mad Dog Time is like waiting for the bus in a city where you're not sure they have a bus line" and concluded that the film "should be cut up to provide free ukulele picks for the poor." Of Caligula, he wrote "It is not good art, it is not good cinema, and it is not good porn" and approvingly quoted the woman in front of him at the drinking fountain, who called it "the worst piece of shit I have ever seen."
Ebert's reviews were also characterized by what has been called "dry wit." He often wrote in a deadpan style when discussing a movie's flaws; in his review of Jaws: The Revenge, he wrote that Mrs. Brody's "friends pooh-pooh the notion that a shark could identify, follow or even care about one individual human being, but I am willing to grant the point, for the benefit of the plot. I believe that the shark wants revenge against Mrs. Brody. I do. I really do believe it. After all, her husband was one of the men who hunted this shark and killed it, blowing it to bits. And what shark wouldn't want revenge against the survivors of the men who killed it? Here are some things, however, that I do not believe" and went on to list the other ways the film strained credulity.
Richard Corliss wrote that "Roger leaves a legacy of indefatigable conoisseurship in movies, literature, politics and, to quote the title of his 2011 autobiography, Life Itself." In August 2005 Rob Schneider insulted Los Angeles Times critic Patrick Goldstein, saying that Goldstein was unqualified to review Schneider's Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo as he had not won the Pulitzer Prize. Ebert concluded his review: "As chance would have it, I have won the Pulitzer Prize, and am so qualified. Speaking in my official capacity as a Pulitzer Prize winner, Mr. Schneider, your movie sucks." He later used this phrase as a title for another collection of his pans. After Ebert's illness, Schneider sent him flowers, signed "Your Least Favorite Movie Star." Ebert wrote that while Schneider made a bad film, he was not a bad man, and would be happy to give him a good review some day.
Ebert often included personal anecdotes in his reviews; in his review of The Last Picture Show, he recalls his early days as a moviegoer: "For five or six years of my life (the years between when I was old enough to go alone, and when TV came to town) Saturday afternoon at the Princess was a descent into a dark magical cave that smelled of Jujubes, melted Dreamsicles and Crisco in the popcorn machine. It was probably on one of those Saturday afternoons that I formed my first critical opinion, deciding vaguely that there was something about John Wayne that that set him apart from ordinary cowboys." He occasionally wrote reviews in the forms of stories, poems, songs, scripts, open letters, or imagined conversations.
Alex Ross, music critic for The New Yorker, wrote of how Ebert had influenced his writing: "I noticed how much Ebert could put across in a limited space. He didn't waste time clearing his throat. 'They meet for the first time when she is in her front yard practicing baton-twirling,' begins his review of Badlands. Often, he managed to smuggle the basics of the plot into a larger thesis about the movie, so that you don't notice the exposition taking place: 'Broadcast News is as knowledgeable about the TV news-gathering process as any movie ever made, but it also has insights into the more personal matter of how people use high-pressure jobs as a way of avoiding time alone with themselves.' The reviews start off in all different ways, sometimes with personal confessions, sometimes with sweeping statements. One way or another, he pulls you in. When he feels strongly, he can bang his fist in an impressive way. His review of Apocalypse Now ends thus: 'The whole huge grand mystery of the world, so terrible, so beautiful, seems to hang in the balance.'"
In his introduction to The Great Movies III, he wrote:
> "People often ask me, 'Do you ever change your mind about a movie?' Hardly ever, although I may refine my opinion. Among the films here, I've changed on The Godfather Part II and Blade Runner. My original review of Part II puts me in mind of the 'brain cloud' that besets Tom Hanks in Joe Versus the Volcano. I was simply wrong. In the case of Blade Runner, I think the director's cut by Ridley Scott simply plays much better. I also turned around on Groundhog Day, which made it into this book when I belatedly caught on that it wasn't about the weatherman's predicament but about the nature of time and will. Perhaps when I first saw it I allowed myself to be distracted by Bill Murray's mainstream comedy reputation. But someone in film school somewhere is probably even now writing a thesis about how Murray's famous cameos represent an injection of philosophy into those pictures."
In the first Great Movies, he wrote:
> Movies do not change, but their viewers do. When I first saw La Dolce Vita in 1961, I was an adolescent for whom 'the sweet life' represented everything I dreamed of: sin, exotic European glamour, the weary romance of the cynical newspaperman. When I saw it again, around 1970, I was living in a version of Marcello's world; Chicago's North Avenue was not the Via Veneto, but at 3 A. M. the denizens were just as colorful, and I was about Marcello's age.
> When I saw the movie around 1980, Marcello was the same age, but I was ten years older, had stopped drinking, and saw him not as role model, but as a victim, condemned to an endless search for happiness that could never be found, not that way. By 1991, when I analyzed the film a frame at a time at the University of Colorado, Marcello seemed younger still, and while I had once admired and then criticized him, now I pitied and loved him. And when I saw the movie right after Mastroianni died, I thought that Fellini and Marcello had taken a moment of discovery and made it immortal. There may be no such thing as the sweet life. But it is necessary to find that out for yourself.
## Preferences
### Favorites
In an essay looking back at his first twenty-five years as a film critic, Ebert wrote:
> If I had to make a generalization, I would say that many of my favorite movies are about good people... Casablanca is about people who do the right thing. The Third Man is about people who do the right thing and can never speak to one another as a result... Not all good movies are about good people. I also like movies about bad people who have a sense of humor. Orson Welles, who does not play either of the good people in The Third Man, has such a winning way, such witty dialogue, that for a scene or two we almost forgive him his crimes. Henry Hill, the hero of Goodfellas, is not a good fella, but he has the ability to be honest with us about why he enjoyed being bad. He is not a hypocrite.
>
> Of the other movies I love, some are simply about the joy of physical movement. When Gene Kelly splashes through Singin' in the Rain, when Judy Garland follows the yellow brick road, when Fred Astaire dances on the ceiling, when John Wayne puts the reins in his teeth and gallops across the mountain meadow, there is a purity and joy that cannot be resisted. In Equinox Flower, a Japanese film by the old master Yasujiro Ozu, there is this sequence of shots: A room with a red teapot in the foreground. Another view of the room. The mother folding clothes. A shot down a corridor with a mother crossing it at an angle, and then a daughter crossing at the back. A reverse shot in the hallway as the arriving father is greeted by the mother and daughter. A shot as the father leaves the frame, then the mother, then the daughter. A shot as the mother and father enter the room, as in the background the daughter picks up the red pot and leaves the frame. This sequence of timed movement and cutting is as perfect as any music ever written, any dance, any poem.
Ebert argued for the aesthetic values of black-and-white photography and against colorization, writing:
> Black-and-white movies present the deliberate absence of color. This makes them less realistic than color films (for the real world is in color). They are more dreamlike, more pure, composed of shapes and forms and movements and light and shadow. Color films can simply be illuminated. Black-and-white films have to be lighted... Black and white is a legitimate and beautiful artistic choice in motion pictures, creating feelings and effects that cannot be obtained any other way.
Elsewhere, Ebert wrote that "Black and white (or, more accurately, silver and white) creates a mysterious dream state, a world of form and gesture." For readers who didn't appreciate black and white, he offered the following experiment: "Go outside at dusk, when the daylight is diffused. Stand on the side of the house away from the sunset. Shoot some natural-light portraits of a friend in black and white. Ask yourself if this friend, who has always looked ordinary in every color photograph you've ever taken, does not, in black and white, take on an aura of mystery. The same thing happens in the movies."
Ebert championed animation, particularly the films of Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata. In his review of Miyazaki's Princess Mononoke, he wrote: "I go to the movies for many reasons. Here is one of them. I want to see wondrous sights not available in the real world, in stories where myth and dreams are set free to play. Animation opens that possibility, because it is freed from gravity and the chains of the possible. Realistic films show the physical world; animation shows its essence. Animated films are not copies of 'real movies,' are not shadows of reality, but create a new existence in their own right." He concluded his review of Ratatouille by writing: "Every time an animated film is successful, you have to read all over again about how animation isn't 'just for children' but 'for the whole family,' and 'even for adults going on their own.' No kidding!"
Ebert championed documentaries, notably Errol Morris's debut Gates of Heaven: "They say you can make a great documentary about anything, as long as you see it well enough and truly, and this film proves it. Gates of Heaven, which has no connection to the unfortunate Heaven's Gate, is about a couple of pet cemeteries and their owners. It was filmed in Southern California, so of course we expect a sardonic look at the peculiarities of the Moonbeam State. But then Gates of Heaven grows ever so much more complex and frightening, until at the end it is about such large issues as love, immortality, failure, and the dogged elusiveness of the American Dream."
Morris credited Ebert's review with putting him on the map. He championed Michael Apted's Up films, calling them "an inspired, even noble use of the medium." Ebert concluded his review of Hoop Dreams by writing: "Many filmgoers are reluctant to see documentaries, for reasons I've never understood; the good ones are frequently more absorbing and entertaining than fiction. Hoop Dreams, however, is not only documentary. It is also poetry and prose, muckraking and expose, journalism and polemic. It is one of the great moviegoing experiences of my lifetime."
Ebert said that his favorite film was Citizen Kane, joking, "That's the official answer," although he preferred to emphasize it as "the most important" film. He said seeing The Third Man cemented his love of cinema: "This movie is on the altar of my love for the cinema. I saw it for the first time in a little fleabox of a theater on the Left Bank in Paris, in 1962, during my first \$5 a day trip to Europe. It was so sad, so beautiful, so romantic, that it became at once a part of my own memories -- as if it had happened to me." He implied that his real favorite film was La Dolce Vita.
His favorite actor was Robert Mitchum, and his favorite actress was Ingrid Bergman. He also considered Buster Keaton, Yasujiro Ozu, Robert Altman, Werner Herzog, and Martin Scorsese to be his favorite directors. He expressed his general distaste for "top-10" lists, and all movie lists in general, but did contribute a top-10 list to the 2012 Sight & Sound Critics' poll. Listed alphabetically, those films were 2001: A Space Odyssey, Aguirre, the Wrath of God, Apocalypse Now, Citizen Kane, La Dolce Vita, The General, Raging Bull, Tokyo Story, The Tree of Life and Vertigo.
His favorite Bond film was Goldfinger (1964), and he later added it to his "Great Movies" list. Several of the contributors to Ebert's website participated in a video tribute to him, featuring films that made his Sight & Sound list in 1982 and 2012.
### Best films of the year
Ebert compiled "best of the year" movie lists beginning in 1967 until 2012, thereby helping provide an overview of his critical preferences. His top choices were:
- 1967: Bonnie and Clyde
- 1968: The Battle of Algiers
- 1969: Z
- 1970: Five Easy Pieces
- 1971: The Last Picture Show
- 1972: The Godfather
- 1973: Cries and Whispers
- 1974: Scenes from a Marriage
- 1975: Nashville
- 1976: Small Change
- 1977: 3 Women
- 1978: An Unmarried Woman
- 1979: Apocalypse Now
- 1980: The Black Stallion
- 1981: My Dinner with Andre
- 1982: Sophie's Choice
- 1983: The Right Stuff
- 1984: Amadeus
- 1985: The Color Purple
- 1986: Platoon
- 1987: House of Games
- 1988: Mississippi Burning
- 1989: Do the Right Thing
- 1990: Goodfellas
- 1991: JFK
- 1992: Malcolm X
- 1993: Schindler's List
- 1994: Hoop Dreams
- 1995: Leaving Las Vegas
- 1996: Fargo
- 1997: Eve's Bayou
- 1998: Dark City
- 1999: Being John Malkovich
- 2000: Almost Famous
- 2001: Monster's Ball
- 2002: Minority Report
- 2003: Monster
- 2004: Million Dollar Baby
- 2005: Crash
- 2006: Pan's Labyrinth
- 2007: Juno
- 2008: Synecdoche, New York
- 2009: The Hurt Locker
- 2010: The Social Network
- 2011: A Separation
- 2012: Argo
Ebert revisited and sometimes revised his opinions. After ranking E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial third on his 1982 list, it was the only movie from that year to appear on his later "Best Films of the 1980s" list (where it also ranked third). He made similar reevaluations of Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and Ran (1985). Three Colours trilogy (Blue (1993), White (1994), and Red (also 1994)), and Pulp Fiction (1994) originally ranked second and third on Ebert's 1994 list; both were included on his "Best Films of the 1990s" list, but their order had reversed.
In 2006, Ebert noted his own "tendency to place what I now consider the year's best film in second place, perhaps because I was trying to make some kind of point with my top pick," adding, "In 1968, I should have ranked 2001 above The Battle of Algiers. In 1971, McCabe & Mrs. Miller was better than The Last Picture Show. In 1974, Chinatown was probably better, in a different way, than Scenes from a Marriage. In 1976, how could I rank Small Change above Taxi Driver? In 1978, I would put Days of Heaven above An Unmarried Woman. And in 1980, of course, Raging Bull was a better film than The Black Stallion ... although I later chose Raging Bull as the best film of the entire decade of the 1980s, it was only the second-best film of 1980 ... am I the same person I was in 1968, 1971, or 1980? I hope not."
### Best films of the decade
Ebert compiled "best of the decade" movie lists in the 2000s for the 1970s to the 2000s, thereby helping provide an overview of his critical preferences. Only three films for this listing were named by Ebert as the best film of the year, Five Easy Pieces (1970), Hoop Dreams (1994), and Synecdoche, New York (2008).
- Five Easy Pieces (1970s)
- Raging Bull (1980s)
- Hoop Dreams (1990s)
- Synecdoche, New York (2000s)
### Genres and content
Ebert was often critical of the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system (MPAA). His main arguments were that they were too strict on sex and profanity, too lenient on violence, secretive with their guidelines, inconsistent in applying them and not willing to consider the wider context and meaning of the film. He advocated replacing the NC-17 rating with separate ratings for pornographic and nonpornographic adult films. He praised This Film is Not Yet Rated, a documentary critiquing the MPAA, adding that their rules are "Kafkaesque." He signed off on his review of Almost Famous by asking, "Why did they give an R rating to a movie so perfect for teenagers?"
Ebert also frequently lamented that cinemas outside major cities are "booked by computer from Hollywood with no regard for local tastes," making high-quality independent and foreign films virtually unavailable to most American moviegoers.
In his review of The Exorcist, he wrote that "I've always preferred generic approach to film criticism; I ask myself how good a movie is of its type." Some horror fans accused Ebert of elitism and prejudice against the genre, especially because of his dismissive comments about "Dead Teenager Movies." In 2007, Ebert responded to a question from a horror movie reviewer by saying that he did not disparage horror movie as a whole. He wrote that he drew a distinction between films like Nosferatu and The Silence of the Lambs, which he regarded as "masterpieces," and those that had no content other than teenagers being killed. Ebert gave Halloween four stars: "Seeing it, I was reminded of the favorable review I gave a few years ago to Last House on the Left, another really terrifying thriller. Readers wrote to ask how I could possibly support such a movie. But I wasn't supporting it so much as describing it: You don't want to be scared? Don't see it. Credit must be paid to directors who want to really frighten us, to make a good thriller when quite possibly a bad one would have made as much money. Hitchcock is acknowledged as a master of suspense; it's hypocrisy to disapprove of other directors in the same genre who want to scare us too."
Ebert occasionally accused some films of having an unwholesome political agenda, such as his assertion that Dirty Harry (1971) had a fascist moral position. He was wary of films passed off as art, which he saw as lurid and sensational. He leveled this charge against such films as The Night Porter (1974).
Ebert did not believe in grading children's movies on a curve, as he thought children deserved quality entertainment. He began his review of Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory by writing: "Kids are not stupid. They are among the sharpest, cleverest, most eagle-eyed creatures on God's green Earth, and very little escapes their notice. You may not have observed that your neighbor is still using his snow-tires in mid-July, but every four-year-old on the block has, and kids pay the same attention when they go to the movies. They don't miss a thing, and have an instinctive contempt for shoddy and shabby work. I make this observation because nine out of ten kids' movies are stupid, witless and display contempt for their audiences. Is that all parents want from kids' movies? That they not have anything bad in them? Shouldn't they have something good in them-- some life, imagination, fantasy, inventiveness, something to tickle the imagination? If a movie isn't going to do your kids any good, why let them watch it? Just to kill a Saturday afternoon? That shows a subtle contempt for a child's mind, I think." He went on to say he thought Willy Wonka was the best movie of its kind since The Wizard of Oz.
Ebert commented on films using his Catholic upbringing as a point of reference, and was critical of films he believed were grossly ignorant of or insulting to Catholicism, such as Stigmata (1999) and Priest (1994). He also gave favorable reviews of controversial films relating to Jesus Christ or Catholicism, including The Last Temptation of Christ (1988), The Passion of the Christ (2004), and Kevin Smith's religious satire Dogma (1999). Ebert was described as an agnostic in 2005, but preferred not being "pigeon-holed".
### Contrarian reviews
Writing in an online magazine Hazlitt about Ebert's reviews, Will Sloan argued that "[t]here were inevitably movies where he veered from consensus, but he was not provocative or idiosyncratic by nature." Examples of Ebert dissenting from other critics include his negative reviews of such celebrated films as Blue Velvet ("marred by sophomoric satire and cheap shots"), A Clockwork Orange ("a paranoid right-wing fantasy masquerading as an Orwellian warning"), and The Usual Suspects ("To the degree that I do understand, I don't care"). He gave only two out of four stars to the widely acclaimed Brazil, calling it "very hard to follow" and is the only critic on RottenTomatoes to not like it.
He also gave a one-star review to the critically acclaimed Abbas Kiarostami film Taste of Cherry, which won the Palme d'Or at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival. Ebert later went on to add the film to a list of his most-hated movies of all time. He was dismissive of the 1988 Bruce Willis action film Die Hard ("inappropriate and wrongheaded interruptions reveal the fragile nature of the plot"), while his positive 3 out of 4 stars review of 1997's Speed 2: Cruise Control ("Movies like this embrace goofiness with an almost sensual pleasure") is one of only three positive reviews accounting for that film's 4% approval rating on the reviewer aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes (one of the two others having been written by his At the Movies co-star Gene Siskel). Ebert reflected on his Speed 2 review in 2013, and wrote that it was "Frequently cited as an example of what a lousy critic I am," but defended his opinion, and noted, "I'm grateful to movies that show me what I haven't seen before, and Speed 2 had a cruise ship plowing right up the main street of a Caribbean village." In 1999, Ebert held a contest for University of Colorado Boulder students to create short films with a Speed 3 theme about an object that could not stop moving. The winning entrant was set on a roller coaster and was screened at Ebertfest that year.
### Other interests
Ebert was an admirer of Werner Herzog, and conducted a Q&A session with him at the Walker Arts Center in 1999. It was there that Herzog read his "Minnesota Declaration" which defined his idea of "ecstatic truth." Herzog dedicated his Encounters at the End of the World to Ebert, and Ebert responded with an open letter of gratitude. Ebert often quoted something Herzog told him: "our civilization is starving for new images." Herzog said he once exhorted Ebert to watch the television reality sitcom The Anna Nicole Show, featuring the former Playboy Playmate, so he could gain a better understanding of the decline in American culture. Ebert watched it. Ebert was a lifelong reader, and said he had "more or less every book I have owned since I was seven, starting with Huckleberry Finn." Among the authors he considered indispensable were Shakespeare, Henry James, Willa Cather, Colette and Simenon. He writes of his friend William Nack: "He approached literature like a gourmet. He relished it, savored it, inhaled it, and after memorizing it rolled it on his tongue and spoke it aloud. It was Nack who already knew in the early 1960s, when he was a very young man, that Nabokov was perhaps the supreme stylist of modern novelists. He recited to me from Lolita, and from Speak, Memory and Pnin. I was spellbound." Every time Ebert saw Nack, he'd ask him to recite the last lines of The Great Gatsby. Among living authors he admired Cormac McCarthy, and credited Suttree with reviving his love of reading after his illness.
Ebert was also an advocate and supporter of Asian-American cinema, famously coming to the defense of the cast and crew of Justin Lin's Better Luck Tomorrow (2002) during a Sundance Film Festival screening when a white member of the audience asked how Asians could be portrayed in such a negative light and how a film so empty and amoral could be made for Asian-Americans and Americans. Ebert responded that "nobody would say such a thing to a bunch of white filmmakers: How could you do this to 'your people'? ... Asian-American characters have the right to be whoever the hell they want to be. They do not have to represent 'their people'!" He was a supporter of the film after the incident at Sundance, and also supported a number of Asian-American films, having them also screen at his film festival (such as Eric Byler's Charlotte Sometimes).
Ebert attended the Conference on World Affairs at the University of Colorado, Boulder for many years, where he hosted a program called Cinemus Inerruptus. He would analyze a film with an audience, and anyone in the audience could say "Stop!" to point out something they found interesting. He also served on other panels at the conference. In 2009, Ebert invited Ramin Bahrani to join him in analyzing Bahrani's film Chop Shop a frame at a time. The next year, they invited Werner Herzog to join them in analyzing Aguirre, the Wrath of God. After that, Ebert announced that he would not return to the conference: "It is fueled by speech, and I'm out of gas... But I went there for my adult lifetime and had a hell of a good time."
### Views on technology
Ebert was a strong advocate for Maxivision 48, in which the movie projector runs at 48 frames per second, as compared to the usual 24 frames per second. He was opposed to the practice whereby theaters lower the intensity of their projector bulbs in order to extend the life of the bulb, arguing that this has little effect other than to make the film harder to see. Ebert was skeptical of the resurgence of 3D effects in film, which he found unrealistic and distracting.
In 2005, Ebert opined that video games are not art, and are inferior to media created through authorial control, such as film and literature, stating, "video games can be elegant, subtle, sophisticated, challenging and visually wonderful," but "the nature of the medium prevents it from moving beyond craftsmanship to the stature of art." This resulted in negative reaction from video game enthusiasts, such as writer Clive Barker, who defended video games as an art form. Ebert wrote a further piece in response to Barker. Ebert maintained his position in 2010, but conceded that he should not have expressed this skepticism without being more familiar with the actual experience of playing them. He admitted that he barely played video games: "I have played Cosmology of Kyoto which I enormously enjoyed, and Myst for which I lacked the patience." In the article, Ebert wrote, "It is quite possible a game could someday be great art."
Ebert had reviewed Cosmology of Kyoto for Wired in 1994, and had praised the exploration, depth, and graphics found in the game, writing "This is the most beguiling computer game I have encountered, a seamless blend of information, adventure, humor, and imagination - the gruesome side-by-side with the divine." Ebert filed one other video game-related article for Wired in 1994, describing his visit to Sega's Joypolis arcade in Tokyo.
## Personal life
### Marriage
At age 50, Ebert married trial attorney Charlie "Chaz" Hammelsmith (formerly Chaz Hammel-Smith) in 1992. He explained in his memoir, Life Itself, that he did not want to marry before his mother died, as he was afraid of displeasing her. In a July 2012 blog entry titled "Roger loves Chaz," Ebert wrote, "She fills my horizon, she is the great fact of my life, she has my love, she saved me from the fate of living out my life alone, which is where I seemed to be heading." Chaz Ebert became vice president of the Ebert Company and has emceed Ebertfest.
### Alcoholism recovery
Ebert was a recovering alcoholic, having quit drinking in 1979. He was a member of Alcoholics Anonymous and had written some blog entries on the subject. Ebert was a longtime friend of Oprah Winfrey, and Winfrey credited him with persuading her to syndicate The Oprah Winfrey Show, which became the highest-rated talk show in American television history.
### Politics
A supporter of the Democratic Party, Ebert publicly urged leftist filmmaker Michael Moore to give a politically charged acceptance speech at the Academy Awards: "I'd like to see Michael Moore get up there and let 'em have it with both barrels and really let loose and give them a real rabble-rousing speech." During a 1996 panel at the University of Colorado Boulder's Conference on World Affairs, Ebert coined the Boulder Pledge, by which he vowed never to purchase anything offered through the result of an unsolicited email message, or to forward chain emails or mass emails to others. Ebert endorsed Barack Obama for re-election as president in 2012, citing the Affordable Care Act as one important reason for his support of Obama. However, he was also sympathetic to Ron Paul, noting that he "speaks directly and clearly without a lot of hot air and lip flap". During a review of the 2008 documentary I.O.U.S.A., he credited Paul with being "a lonely voice talking about the debt", proposing based on the film that the US government was "already broke".
### Beliefs
Ebert was critical of intelligent design, and stated that people who believe in either creationism or New Age beliefs such as crystal healing or astrology should not be president. Ebert expressed disbelief in pseudoscientific or supernatural claims in general, calling them "woo-woo," though he argued that reincarnation is possible from a "scientific, rationalist point of view."
Discussing his beliefs, in 2009, Ebert wrote that he did not "want to provide a category for people to apply to [him]" because he "would not want [his] convictions reduced to a word," and stated, "I have never said, although readers have freely informed me I am an atheist, an agnostic, or at the very least a secular humanist – which I am." He wrote of his Catholic upbringing: "I believed in the basic Church teachings because I thought they were correct, not because God wanted me to. In my mind, in the way I interpret them, I still live by them today. Not by the rules and regulations, but by the principles. For example, in the matter of abortion, I am pro-choice, but my personal choice would be to have nothing to do with an abortion, certainly not of a child of my own. I believe in free will, and believe I have no right to tell anyone else what to do. Above all, the state does not." He wrote "I am not a believer, not an atheist, not an agnostic. I am still awake at night, asking how? I am more content with the question than I would be with an answer."
He wrote that "I drank for many years in a tavern that had a photograph of Brendan Behan on the wall, and under it is this quotation, which I memorized: I respect kindness in human beings first of all, and kindness to animals. I don't respect the law; I have a total irreverence for anything concerned with society except that which makes the roads safer, the beer stronger, the food cheaper and the old men and the old women warmer in the winter and happier in the summer.' For 57 words, that does a pretty good job of summing it up." Summarizing his beliefs, Ebert wrote:
> "I believe that if, at the end of it all, according to our abilities, we have done something to make others a little happier, and something to make ourselves a little happier, that is about the best we can do. To make others less happy is a crime. To make ourselves unhappy is where all crime starts. We must try to contribute joy to the world. That is true no matter what our problems, our health, our circumstances. We must try. I didn't always know this, and am happy I lived long enough to find it out."
### Health
In early 2002, Ebert was diagnosed with papillary thyroid cancer which was successfully removed in February 2002. In 2003, he underwent surgery for cancer in his salivary gland, which was followed up by radiation therapy. He was again diagnosed with cancer in 2006. In June of that year, he had surgery to remove cancerous tissue in the right side of his jaw. A week later he had a life-threatening complication when his carotid artery burst near the surgery site. He was confined to bed rest and was unable to speak, eat, or drink for a time, necessitating the use of a feeding tube.
The complications kept Ebert off the air for an extended period. Ebert made his first public appearance since mid-2006 at Ebertfest on April 25, 2007. He was unable to speak, instead communicating through his wife. He returned to reviewing on May 18, 2007, when three of his reviews were published in print. In July 2007, he revealed that he was still unable to speak. Ebert adopted a computerized voice system to communicate, eventually using a copy of his own voice created from his recordings by CereProc. In February 2010, Chris Jones wrote a lengthy profile of Ebert and his health in Esquire. In March 2010, his health trials and new computerized voice were featured on The Oprah Winfrey Show. In 2011, Ebert gave a TED talk assisted by his wife, Chaz, and friends Dean Ornish and John Hunter, called "Remaking my voice". In it, he proposed a test to determine the realism of a synthesized voice.
Ebert underwent further surgery in January 2008 to try to restore his voice and address the complications from his previous surgeries. On April 1, Ebert announced his speech had not been restored. Ebert underwent further surgery in April 2008 after fracturing his hip in a fall. By 2011, Ebert was using a prosthetic chin to hide some of the damage done by his many chin, mouth, and throat surgeries.
In December 2012, Ebert was hospitalized due to the fractured hip, which was subsequently determined to be the result of cancer.
Regarding his loss of eating, Ebert wrote that what was sad was "The loss of dining, not the loss of food. It may be personal, but for me, unless I'm alone, it doesn't involve dinner if it doesn't involve talking. The food and drink I can do without easily. The jokes, gossip, laughs, arguments and shared memories I miss. Sentences beginning with the words, 'Remember that time?' I ran in crowds where anyone was likely to break out in a poetry recitation at any time. Me too. But not me anymore. So yes, it's sad. Maybe that's why I enjoy this blog. You don't realize it, but we're at dinner right now."
## Death and legacy
On April 4, 2013, Ebert died at age 70 at a hospital in Chicago, shortly before he was set to return to his home and enter hospice care.
Then-President Barack Obama wrote, "For a generation of Americans - and especially Chicagoans - Roger was the movies... [he could capture] the unique power of the movies to take us somewhere magical. ... The movies won't be the same without Roger." Martin Scorsese released a statement saying, "The death of Roger Ebert is an incalculable loss for movie culture and for film criticism. And it's a loss for me personally... there was a professional distance between us, but then I could talk to him much more freely than I could to other critics. Really, Roger was my friend. It's that simple." Steven Spielberg stated that Ebert's "reviews went far deeper than simply thumbs up or thumbs down. He wrote with passion through a real knowledge of film and film history, and in doing so, helped many movies find their audiences... [He] put television criticism on the map." Numerous filmmakers and actors paid tribute include Christopher Nolan, Oprah Winfrey, Steve Martin, Albert Brooks, Jason Reitman, Ron Howard, Darren Aronofsky, Cameron Crowe, Werner Herzog, Howard Stern, Steve Carell, Stephen Fry, Diablo Cody, Anna Kendrick, Jimmy Kimmel, and Patton Oswalt.
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune recalled that "I came late to film criticism in Chicago, after writing about the theater. Roger loved the theater. His was a theatrical personality: a raconteur, a spinner of dinner-table stories, a man who was not shy about his accomplishments. But he made room in that theatrical, improbable, outsized life for others." Andrew O'Hehir of Salon wrote that "He's up there with Will Rogers, H. L. Mencken, A. J. Liebling and not too far short of Mark Twain as one of the great plainspoken commentators on American life." The Onion paid tribute to Ebert: "Calling the overall human existence 'poignant,' 'thought-provoking,' and 'a complete tour de force,' film critic Roger Ebert praised existence as 'an audacious and thrilling triumph.'...'At times brutally sad, yet surprisingly funny, and always completely honest, I wholeheartedly recommend existence. If you haven't experienced it yet, what are you waiting for? It is not to be missed.' Ebert later said that while human existence's running time was 'a little on the long side' it could have gone on much, much longer and he would have been perfectly happy."
Hundreds of people attended the funeral Mass held at Chicago's Holy Name Cathedral on April 8, 2013, where Ebert was celebrated as a film critic, newspaperman, advocate for social justice, and husband. Father Michael Pfleger concluded the service with "the balconies of heaven are filled with angels singing 'Thumbs Up' ".
## Memorials
A nearly-three-hour public tribute, entitled Roger Ebert: A Celebration of Life, was held on April 11, 2013, at the Chicago Theatre. It featured in-person remembrances, video testimonials, video and film clips, and gospel choirs, and was, according to the Chicago Tribune's Mark Caro, "a laughter- and sorrow-filled send-off from the entertainment and media worlds."
In September 2013, organizers in Champaign, Illinois, announced plans to raise \$125,000 to build a life-size bronze statue of Ebert in the town, which was unveiled in front of the Virginia Theatre at Ebertfest on April 24, 2014. The composition was selected by his widow, Chaz Ebert, and depicts Ebert sitting in the middle of three theater seats giving a "thumbs up."
The 2013 Toronto International Film Festival opened with a video tribute of Ebert at Roy Thomson Hall during the world premiere of the WikiLeaks-based film The Fifth Estate. Ebert had been an avid supporter of the festival since its inception in the 1970s. Chaz was in attendance to accept a plaque on Roger's behalf. At the same festival, documentarian Errol Morris dedicated his film The Unknown Known to Ebert, saying "He was a really fabulous part of my life, a good friend, a champion, an inspiring writer. I loved Roger."
In August 2013, the Plaza Classic Film Festival in El Paso, Texas, paid tribute to Ebert by showing seven films that played a role in his life: Citizen Kane, The Third Man, Tokyo Story, La Dolce Vita, Beyond the Valley of the Dolls, Fitzcarraldo and Goodfellas.
At the 86th Academy Awards ceremony, Ebert was included in the in memoriam montage, a rare honor for a film critic.
In 2014, the documentary Life Itself was released. Director Steve James, whose films had been widely advocated by Ebert, started making the documentary while Ebert was still alive. Martin Scorsese served as an executive producer. The film studies Ebert's life and career, while also filming Ebert during his final months, and includes interviews with his family and friends. It was universally praised by critics. It has a 98% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
Werner Herzog told Entertainment Weekly that Ebert was "a soldier of the cinema": "I always loved Roger for being the good soldier, not only the good soldier of cinema, but he was a wounded soldier who for years in his affliction held out and plowed on and soldiered on and held the outpost that was given up by almost everyone: The monumental shift now is that intelligent, deep discourse about cinema has been something that has been vanishing over the last maybe two decades...I've always tried to be a good soldier of cinema myself, so of course since he's gone, I will plow on, as I have plowed on all my life, but I will do what I have to do as if Roger was looking over my shoulder. And I am not gonna disappoint him."
Ebert was inducted as a laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois. In 2001, the governor of Illinois awarded him the state's highest honor, the Order of Lincoln, in the area of performing arts. In 2016, Ebert was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.
The website RogerEbert.com contains an archive of every review Ebert wrote, as well as many essays and opinion pieces. The site, now operated by Ebert Digital (a partnership between Chaz and friend Josh Golden), continues to publish new material written by a group of critics who were selected by Ebert before his death.
Opposable Thumbs'', by film critic Matt Singer, details the partnership between Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert, advancing from their local Chicago PBS station to securing multimillion-dollar contracts for a syndicated series.
## Awards and honors
Ebert received many awards during his long and distinguished career as a film critic and television host. He was the first film critic to ever win a Pulitzer Prize, receiving the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism in 1975 while working for the Chicago Sun-Times, "for his film criticism during 1974".
In 2003, Ebert was honored by the American Society of Cinematographers winning a Special Achievement Award. In 2005, Ebert received a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work on television. His star is located at 6834 Hollywood Blvd. In 2009, Ebert received the Directors Guild of America Award's for Honorary Life Member Award. In 2010, Ebert received the Webby Award for Person of the Year.
In 2007, Ebert was honored by the Gotham Awards receiving a tribute and award for his lifetime contributions to independent film.
On May 15, 2009, Ebert was honored by the American Pavilion at the Cannes Film Festival by the renaming of its conference room, "The Roger Ebert Conference Center." Martin Scorsese joined Ebert and his wife Chaz at the ribbon-cutting ceremony.
Honors'''
- 1975 – Pulitzer Prize for Criticism
- 1995 – Publicists Guild of America Press Award
- 2003 – American Society of Cinematographers's Special Achievement Award
- 2004 – Savannah Film Festival's Lifetime Achievement Award
- 2007 – Gotham Award's Lifetime Achievement Award
- 2009 – Directors Guild of America Award' Honorary Life Member Award
- 2010 – Webby Award for Person of the Year
## See also
- Ebert test |
19,631,008 | Muramasa: The Demon Blade | 1,173,102,583 | 2009 action role-playing video game | [
"2009 video games",
"Fantasy video games",
"Hack and slash games",
"Marvelous Entertainment franchises",
"PlayStation Vita games",
"Rising Star Games games",
"Sengoku video games",
"Side-scrolling role-playing video games",
"Single-player video games",
"UTV Ignition Games games",
"Vanillaware games",
"Video games about demons",
"Video games about ninja",
"Video games about samurai",
"Video games based on Buddhist mythology",
"Video games based on Japanese mythology",
"Video games developed in Japan",
"Video games featuring female protagonists",
"Video games scored by Hitoshi Sakimoto",
"Video games scored by Masaharu Iwata",
"Video games set in feudal Japan",
"Wii games",
"Wii games re-released on the Nintendo eShop"
]
| Muramasa: The Demon Blade, known in Japan as Oboro Muramasa (Japanese: 朧村正, "Hazy Muramasa"), is an action role-playing game developed by Vanillaware for the Wii, and later the PlayStation Vita. The game was published in 2009 by Marvelous Entertainment (Japan), Ignition Entertainment (North America), and Rising Star Games (Europe). The Vita version was published in 2013 by Marvelous AQL in Japan and Aksys Games in Western territories. Using a 2D side-scrolling perspective, the gameplay revolves around a beat 'em up fighting system, while incorporating role-playing elements such as leveling and questing.
Muramasa takes place during the Edo period on Japan's main island of Honshu. Due to ruling shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi's thirst for power, conflicts have arisen over ownership of the Demon Blades, samurai swords that force their wielders to kill others before bringing tragedy and madness upon them. The story revolves around two different protagonists related to this conflict - Momohime, a woman who is possessed by the spirit of vengeful rōnin Jinkuro Izuna; and Kisuke, an amnesiac ninja on the run for a forgotten crime who is tied up with the tragedy that destroyed Momohime's family. The Vita port includes four self-contained stories based on Japanese folklore released under the banner title Genroku Legends (元禄怪奇譚, Genroku Kaikitan).
The concept work for Muramasa began during the middle of development on Odin Sphere. Along with improving on the action gameplay over Odin Sphere, a great deal of effort was put into making the game's setting authentic to the period. Kamitani created the story based on kabuki theatre, incorporating Japanese folklore and Buddhist theology. When the game was released in the West, it retained its Japanese voicetrack to preserve its atmosphere. It was released to moderate sales and positive reviews. The Vita port, released in the West as Muramasa Rebirth, had a strong sales and similar reception to its original version.
## Gameplay
Muramasa is a two-dimensional (2D) side-scrolling action role-playing game set on the main Japanese island of Honshu during the Edo period. Players take control of two characters with similar gameplay abilities. Navigation takes place through hand-drawn 2D side-scrolling environments reminiscent of Japanese artwork of the period, and can enter towns to talk with non-playable characters (NPCs) and buy items such as health restoratives and accept quests. An additional cooking element allows the characters to cook meals using materials gathered during exploration: meals grant temporary character boosts, and fill a "fullness" meter that limits how much food a character can eat.
Combat comes in the form of both avoidable random encounters and scripted fights where the camera is fixed within the fighting area: enemies and bosses are primarily drawn from Japanese folklore and mythology. Battles are triggered only when enemies are near, with the player character otherwise keeping their weapons sheathed. In combat, characters attack and guard using a single-button prompt, while another button accesses items such as healing potions. Continuously attacking triggers combos. Different moves include sword slashes combined with directional buttons, which have different effects such as throwing an enemy into the air with an upward slash. Additional offensive items such as smoke bombs are acquired during the course of the game. At the end of each battle, experience points are awarded to the player character depending on how fast the battle was finished: leveling up increases a character's health, stats, and the amount of damage inflicted upon enemies.
Weapons are distinguished into two categories, Blade (katana) and Long Blade (nōdachi): Blades are fast, while Long Blades are slower and deal higher damage. Three blades can be equipped at any one time: each blade has its own stats, determining the amount of damage that can be inflicted. When blocking or using a blade's Secret Art special move, its Soul Power gauge depletes: if emptied, the sword breaks and its offensive abilities are drastically reduced. When sheathed, the Soul Power regenerates. Soul Power can be gathered in various locations to restore Soul Power and the character's health. There are 108 blades that can be collected and forged in-game: forging blades requires Soul Power and "spirit", and each blade has a level cap determining when it can be forged. Weapon forging is governed by a weapon-based skill tree.
## Synopsis
### Setting and characters
Muramasa takes place on Honshu, the main island of the Japanese archipelago, with its overall style and setting drawing heavily upon Japanese folklore and mythology. It is set in the Genroku period, itself within the larger Edo period, during the reign of the shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi. Tsunayoshi's thirst for power has created conflict around ownership of the Demon Blades, samurai swords forged by the legendary swordsmith Muramasa Sengo that crave blood when drawn and bring madness and death to those foolish enough to draw them. Due to the chaos generated by this, the Demon Blades' powers begin summoning demons from Hell (Yomi), along with causing ancient gods to stir from long slumber.
The two lead characters are Momohime (百姫), a princess of the Narukami clan from the locality of Mino; and Kisuke (鬼助), a runaway ninja with no memories but a burning desire for vengeance. For the course of the game, Momohime is inadvertently possessed by the spirit of Jinkuro Izuna (飯綱 陣九朗), an unscrupulous rōnin who was trying to possess the body of Momohime's betrothed Yukinojo Yagyu (柳生 雪之丞), a high-status samurai. Momohime and Kisuke are each accompanied and watched over by a kitsune in human form. They are Kongiku (紺菊), who holds affection for Jinkuro, and Yuzuruha (弓弦葉), who aids Kisuke in his quest against the Demon Blades' corruption. A key character in Kisuke's storyline is Torahime (虎姫), Momohime's sister.
### Plot
Momohime's Story
Momohime's story begins after she wakes up in Kyo with memories of being killed by the dying Jinkuro when he was aiming for her betrothed, the samurai lord Yukinojo. Upon encountering the spirit of Jinkuro, he forcefully possesses her, but before the process of soul transference is finished, they are attacked. In the confusion, Momohime's soul is kidnapped by the vengeful monk Rankai and Jinkuro is forced to follow Kongiku as Momohime's body will die if her soul is harmed. With her soul safe, Jinkuro sets out to regain the Dark Resurrection Demon Blade so he can properly utilize his Soul Transference Technique and gain influence through a new host. Encountering Yukinojo, who is searching for Momohime, the two battle. Momohime forces Jinkuro to spare Yukinojo, even when she learns that Yukinojo's intentions in marrying her were part of a scheme to ruin her family as punishment for defying the shōgun. Jinkuro goes to Yukinojo's compound to retrieve the Dark Resurrection, but the storehouse where it is said to be is absorbed into Hell by demons. Descending into Hell, Jinkuro's soul is briefly captured by a demon, and it is only with Momohime's help that he escapes and learns that the Dark Resurrection was never in the storehouse. With Momohime's body beginning to fail due to the strain Soul Transference put on it, Jinkuro attempts to ascent to Heaven so he can become an immortal demon, but is stopped by Raijin and Fujin.
While willing to accept his death and allow Momohime her remaining time in her body, Kongiku shows them another way to Heaven. There, Yukinojo appears and reveals that he had the Dark Resurrection all along. They are then attacked by Fudo-Myoou, who is there to deliver divine justice upon Jinkuro. In the first ending, Jinkuro allows himself to be sent to Hell while Momohime lives; she decides to forgo her marriage to Yukinojo and become a Buddhist nun in the hope of saving Jinkuro's soul through prayer. In the second ending, Momohime and Jinkuro are intercepted by Kisuke and Yuzuruha, resulting in Kongiku being robbed of her human form as punishment for her defiance. Though defeated, Kisuke delivers a fatal wound to Momohime, forcing Jinkuro to merge his soul with Momohime's to save her: this act leaves her an amnesiac but grants her Jinkuro's sword fighting abilities, which become legendary as she travels Japan in search of her missing memories. In the third ending, after the battle with Fudo-Myoou Jinkuro is transported to the night he first attacked Yukinojo and Momohime with the power of the Oboro Muramasa Demon Blade, which can defy the passage of fate. He chooses not to attack them, then later possesses Yukinojo's body and uses that position to ensure Momohime's safety and her family's security. Momohime herself lives to be one hundred years old and bears three children, while Kongiku remains close to Jinkuro in the guise of a servant.
Kisuke's Story
Kisuke's story begins with him suffering amnesia and on the run from his former ninja comrades. Returning to Edo to discover the truth in the company of Yuzuruha, he accidentally breaks an ancient seal keeping damned souls at bay. Defeating the monsters they manifest as, he learns from his mollified ninja companions and their employer Yukinojo that he was part of a mission to steal the Kuzuryu Demon Blade from Momohime's Nakurami Clan and punish them for defying the shōgun's order to surrender it, which in turn was tied in with Yukinojo's intentions in marrying Momohime. Yukinojo sends Kisuke against Torahime, Momohime's sister and the shrine maiden in charge of keeping the Kuzuryu's power in check. Pursuing her, Kisuke fights both Torahime and undead soldiers loyal to her family. In pursuit of her, he faces agents who are preserving the flow of magic energy to Mount Fuji, including a young Yamabushi. His battles awaken his memories: he was originally disguised as a servant in Torahime's household as part of Yukinojo's scheme to destroy her family, but fell in love with Torahime and attempted to betray his ninja comrades when stealing the Kuzuryu. Dying from his wounds, the spirit of Senju Oboroya, the creator of the Oboro Style that controls the Demon Blades, fused with Kisuke to save his life and pass on the Oboro Style to someone who would use it for good. The fusion triggered Kisuke's amnesia, but left him with the ability to wield Demon Blades without succumbing to their evil.
Rescuing Torahime from the spider demon Tsuchigumo, Kisuke learns that she died while fleeing from Tsunayoshi's forces, and that her present life is a temporary gift from Amitābha. The two travel to Mount Fuji, where its native dragon god has gone berserk with rage after Japan's ley line energy is diverted to Edo, forcing a route into Heaven. The true culprit is the dark deity imprisoned in the Kuzuryu, the mad god Inugami. Upon being confronted, the possessed Tsunayoshi fatally wounds Torahime, who dies in Kisuke's arms: Kisuke then defeats Tsunayoshi and takes possession of the Kuzuryu. In the first ending, after the battle, Kisuke asks Amitābha to return the now-enlightened Torahime to life, then commits suicide as an act of defiance when his demand is refused. Torahime asks for her and Kisuke to be reincarnated so she can help him attain enlightenment. In the second ending, Kisuke arrives to find Tsunayoshi killed by the Jinkuro-possessed Momohime. Kisuke exorcises Jinkuro, and following Torahime's final request becomes Momohime's servant. The two then set out on a personal quest to locate all the Demon Blades causing conflict in Japan. In the third ending, after his battle, Kisuke is sent back in time to the day he first betrayed his employers through the Oboro Muramasa's power. His warning allows Torahime to foil the plot against her family, then Kisuke steals the Kuzuryu and sets off on a journey around the world to exhaust its power by striking down evil, promising to marry Torahime upon his return.
Genroku Legends
The Genroku Legends are split into four different stories directly inspired by Japanese folklore and set in the Muramasa universe. In "Fishy Tales of the Nekomata", a domestic cat called Miike sees her family brought to ruin and all its members killed. Possessing the dying body of the family daughter Okoi and becoming a nekomata, she vows revenge against her family's killers, assassins employed by their rival Netsuzo Wakamiya. Despite succeeding, her rage remains unsated and she extends her wrath to the entire household. In the end, her tails are cut off by Jinkuro when he is hired to exorcise her: before being robbed of her powers, she curses Jinkuro with illness, setting the events of Momohime's story in motion. Now at peace, Miike spends time with an old priest and hosts moonlight dances with local cats and bakeneko. In the alternate ending, Miike becomes a ravenous demon whose rage is finally quelled by the old priest.
In "A Cause to Daikon For", a local farmer named Gonbe stirs up a revolt when the local daimyō raises the taxes to the point that his village is on the brink of ruin. Aided by the spirit of his deceased wife Otae, Gonbe fights through the daimyō's minions before killing him. After the fight, it is revealed that he has been relating his story to Enma, the King of Hell and, due to his actions, is condemned to be tormented there. Due to her love for him, Otae willingly joins Gonbe despite being a pure soul. However, due to the punishment demons being overworked and Gonbe complaining to Enma, he is banished with his comrades and Otae back to the living world, where they get a chance to live in peace under a new and kinder daimyō. In the alternate ending, the entire sequence is said to have been illusions holding Gonbe's spirit captive around the ruins of the daimyō's castle. He, Otae and his comrades are freed by a traveling Yamabushi and ascend to heaven.
In "A Spirited Seven Nights' Haunting", the Iga ninja Arashimaru infiltrates the house of the Okabe clan, where Arashimaru steals the sacred Spear of Bishamon and kills the leader of the Okabe clan. After learning that he was actually the leader's son, Arashimaru flees in disgust. Taking shelter in a shrine, Arashimaru accidentally breaks a mirror sacred to the Goddess Inaraki, who becomes a Shirohebi (white snake) that curses him to die in seven days. Heading to exact revenge on the Iga leader after besting his master Shiranui in combat, Arashimaru learns that his mission was orchestrated by So Xian, a Ming-era Chinese spy working to destabilize Japan's ruling classes who was indirectly responsible for the taking of the young Kisuke from his family. Arashimaru kills So Xian and escapes his lair with Shiranui's aid, then goes peacefully to his death after asking the saddened Shirohebi to give his head and Spear of Bishamon to his brother Dengoro so he can restore the Okabe house. Arashimaru's head is given proper burial at the Shirohebi's insistence, and Arashimaru's spirit is deified due to the grave becoming a prayer site for pilgrims. In the alternate ending, Arashimaru is possessed by So Xian's spirit, who enslaves Shirohebi and takes on the name "Orochimaru". In a desperate act of defiance, Shirohebi has Shiranui spirit away the Okabe clan's last surviving heir during Orochimaru's attack who, when grown, takes on the name "Jiraiya" to fight Orochimaru.
In "Hell's Where the Heart Is", an Oni girl named Rajyaki, daughter of Enma, is journeying to recover the treasures of the Seven Gods of Fortune that she lost. On her journey, a womanizing ex-monk called Seikichi accidentally proposes to her and she accepts him as her husband. In the end, Seikichi saves her after a grueling battle by feeding her the sacred peach of Fukurokuju. Due to this, she is banished from Hell by her father. In one ending, the Seven Gods of Fortune persuade Rajyaki to return to her father, while Seikichi moves to live a proper life. In the end, Rajyaki returns in human form and formalizes their marriage, which continues after Seikichi dies and goes to Hell. In the alternate ending, Rajyaki and Seikichi run into each other again when she is being hunted by samurai. Seikichi saves her, pretending he killed her and using that to establish himself as a samurai. Rajyaki takes the guise of his human wife, and they have five children who bear their mother's demonic horns. The Genroku Legends conclude with the narrator detailing the locations of the Seven Gods' treasures scattered through the stories, and thanking the player for locating them and calming Enma so his demons could return to Hell.
## Development
Muramasa was developed by Vanillaware, a studio created by former Atlus staff members to create successor projects to the 2D action-adventure game Princess Crown. According to sound producer Hitoshi Sakimoto, the game's director George Kamitani was laying out plans for Muramasa when Odin Sphere was in the middle of development. According to Kamitani, while Odin Sphere was an evolution of Princess Crown's narrative, Muramasa provided the chance of evolving its gameplay. He even went so far as to dub it "Princess Crown III". The draft proposal was completed by the end of 2006. The positive sales of Odin Sphere gave Vanillaware the capital needed to begin full development on Muramasa. The game was also co-funded by their publishing deal with Marvelous Entertainment, who were sold the project after Odin Sphere's publisher Atlus refused to take any further products from Vanillaware until Odin Sphere had released, in addition to delaying the game so it would not compete with their main 2007 release Persona 3. In addition to Atlus, they also pitched to Capcom, but Vanillaware's untested reputation prompted them to be turned down. Kamitani stated in a later interview that Vanillaware would have closed had Marvelous not accepted the project. The team's style of development was identical to their strategy for Odin Sphere, although they worked to change up some aspects to make it a unique experience. When developing the game, the team decided to create a vertical plane for players to explore, something which the team had needed to forego with Odin Sphere. In addition, bathing sequences cut from Odin Sphere were reworked and incorporated into Muramasa as hot spring scenes.
Muramasa was worked on by 16 people, over half the entire staff of Vanillaware, including Kamitani as the game's writer. The Wii was chosen as the game's platform of release as its specs were fairly close to that of the PlayStation 2, the console for which Odin Sphere was developed. This meant that the team could carry over their earlier experience rather than start from scratch learning about new hardware. Kamitani did create design proposals for versions on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, but went undeveloped due to budget limitations. Using the Wii's motion controls was tested by the team, but due to the game's old-fashioned style there was little need to implement them. Part of the reason for this decision was that the precision needed to control characters was best achieved using a traditional control set-up. The biggest problem when developing for the Wii was the graphics, especially how to get the various pieces of artwork in the game's scenery to interact and respond properly. They also wanted to keep loading times down to a minimum, which was made possible due to the Wii's area pre-loading abilities. Technical tinkering of this kind went on until the end of development. The game's programmer was Kentaro Ohnishi, whose biggest challenge was creating a battle system which allowed for cancelling of attacks, while maintaining the appearance of smooth attack animation. The resultant code looked so strange that another programmer thought it was a fault and deleted it, forcing Ohnishi to rebuild it. The team was highly dedicated to the success of the project, putting a large amount of work to make it as good as it could be for players. By the time of release, funds for the company had been drained. Production overall was stressful, with an external company handling debugging due to the team being exhausted.
Kamitani wrote the story of Muramasa based on his wish to create a "ninja Princess Crown". As Odin Sphere had drawn inspiration from Shakespearean theater, Muramasa instead used kabuki as its influence, prompting Kamitani to buy kabuki scripts as part of his research. Due to this and the script's many references to classic Japanese literature, Kamitani had trouble handling the old-fashioned writing style. As he was nervous about using Japanese mythology so extensively, he also incorporated Buddhist theology into the narrative. In creating the game's atmosphere, which was based on Japan as it was in the Edo era combined with local folklore and mythology, the team wanted to create an air of realism within its fantasy world.
The game's setting was a heavy departure from Vanillaware's previous games, which had used Western-inspired settings and stories. The overall atmosphere was meant to emulate those of The Legend of Kage and Genpei Tōma Den. The game's central theme was "death". Kamitani's early concept was based on the long-running television drama Mito Kōmon, but his wish for something "stranger" let to the kabuki influences. The early story draft was based on Kanadehon Chūshingura, a kabuki play based on the history of the forty-seven rōnin. Only a small amount of the initial draft survived, with Torahime being a hangover character. Much of Momohime's story was based on the play Sakurahime Azuma Bunsho. Kamitani was writing the game's dialogue right into February, when voice recording took place. Several potential playable characters and storylines, such as narratives following Jinkuro and Torahime, had to be cut from the game. Elements of the cut storylines were incorporated into Kisuke and Momohime's stories. The number of protagonists in the story was dictated by the game's budget, as Kamitani's initial idea was for more characters similar to the narrative of Princess Crown.
In keeping with the wish for realism, Momohime and Kisuke were given distinct accents (Momohime used a cultured dialect while Kisuke spoke with an Edogawa accent). Another realistic element was the game's food, which was designed based on the types of delicacies that were popular in the 17th and 18th centuries. One of the folklore references was the 108 Demon Blades in the game, which was a direct reference to the 108 human vices in Japanese folklore. A number of monsters and deities from Japanese mythology made appearances in the game, and the art style was intended to give a "Japanese" feel without consciously copying artwork from the game's period. Character designs were handled by Yasuhiro Fujiwara, Yasuo Shirai, Takehiro Shiga, Kouichi Maenou and Ine Kawazu. Kamitani's art style choice was influenced by the bright ink-wash style of Japanese woodblock prints. He also drew inspiration from the folklore-centered anime series Manga Nippon Mukashibanashi. The artwork was created at double its in-game resolution, then reduced to fit within the hardware.
### Music
The music was handled by a team from sound company Basiscape, composed of multiple composers who had worked on Odin Sphere. Sakimoto acted as sound producer, the sound director was Masaaki Kaneko, and the music was composed by Sakimoto, Yoshimi Kudo, Noriyuki Kamikura, Mitsuhiro Kaneda, Kimihiro Abe, Azusa Chiba and Masaharu Iwata. Sakimoto was working on music for Odin Sphere when the project was first proposed, and thought Kamitani was being overambitious working on a premise-based in Japan when developing a game based on European mythology. During the initial planning stage, Sakimoto thought the game would be a "mock-Japanese" project, with Japanese instruments inserted into techno music. Once he realized how sincere Kamitani was with the project, Sakimoto and the team needed to re-identify with the roots of traditional Japanese music. For Sakimoto, his approach was to reconnect with how earlier Japanese people turned their wabi-sabi philosophy and worldview into words and music: he carried over this approach into the project. Each of the composers had to go through similar experiences.
## Release
Muramasa was announced at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show (TGS) under the title Oboro Muramasa Yōtōden (朧村正妖刀伝, "The Hazy Legend of Muramasa's Mystical Sword"), alongside its intended platform, setting and gameplay mechanics. After its announcement, information releases about the game virtually stopped, and an April 2008 report by Famitsu reported the game's development was "struggling", although no details were revealed. Muramasa was reintroduced at TGS 2008 under its Japanese title, along with its planned release window in 2009 and details on its characters and story. The game was released in Japan on April 9, 2009, published by Marvelous Entertainment. It was released as part of Nintendo Channel's budget game line-up in January 2010, and re-released on the Virtual Console for Wii U in July 2015.
A North American version under the title Muramasa: The Demon Blade was later published. The game was originally being published by Xseed Games, but in April 2009 they dropped the title from their schedule. Publishing rights were transferred to Ignition Entertainment. Ignition later explained that it was in competition with Xseed and Atlus to acquire the American publishing rights, and after seeing Muramasa at TGS 2008 they were encouraged to apply for the rights. The change between publishers was an internal agreement between Xseed, their parent company Marvelous USA, and Ignition. The situation was amicably resolved as Xseed already had a large number of Wii titles lined up, and giving Muramasa to another publisher allowed multiple titles not to be overlooked when it came to Western publicity. The game was released in North America on September 8, 2009. The game's localization was done by external localization companies in close collaboration with Ignition Entertainment. Due to the game's strong Japanese atmosphere, it was seen as a hard sell in the West, but during localization a lot of work went into preserving it rather than adjusting it for Western tastes. Due to this, the game was not dubbed into English, but instead retained its Japanese voice track while text was localized. An aspect Ignition worked hard with was to make sure the localization was of good quality by working closely with their chosen localization partners. This was due to backlash received by fans and critics over the "lackluster" localization of Lux-Pain, which had been beyond their control during development.
The game was published in Europe by Rising Star Games alongside other Marvelous products including Valhalla Knights: Eldar Saga and Arc Rise Fantasia. The English translation was carried over from the North American version, although the English language version underwent regional adjustment, and some minor faults were corrected. The game was also translated into French, Italian, German and Spanish, which made using the original translation more practical than creating a new one. Originally scheduled for November 2009, it was first shifted into 2010, then moved back into 2009. The game was released in Europe on November 6 of that year. Upon release in the United Kingdom, most retailers did not stock it: this was put down to a general attitude that it would not sell like prevalent franchises or games from mainstream genres. The game was released in Australia on December 3 the same year.
### Muramasa Rebirth
Muramasa Rebirth, released in Japan under its original title of Oboro Muramasa, is a port of Muramasa developed by Vanillaware for the PlayStation Vita. According to its development team, the Vita was chosen as the port's platform over the more commercially successful Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 due to the Vita's OLED-based screen, which they felt better portray the game's palette. While content was cut during the original version's development, the team decided against going back and restoring it, instead creating new additional content. The controls were also adjusted to suit the new platform. Muramasa Rebirth was published in Japan by Marvelous AQL on March 28, 2013. The game's Western release was handled by Aksys Games, which also created a new localization. Compared to the original version, which was described as a direct translation, Aksys Games' version was more "flavorful" and more faithful to the original text. It was released in North America on June 25, followed by Europe and Australia through PlayStation Network on October 16.
In addition to the main game, four self-contained stories were released as downloadable content (DLC) under the title Genroku Legends (元禄怪奇譚, Genroku Kaikitan), featuring new characters within the Muramasa universe. For the new characters, swords are replaced by other weapons such as clubs and shurikens, but they otherwise play in the same way as Momohime and Kisuke. New music was created for the title under Sakimoto's supervision: the four episodes were scored by Kudo, Chiba, Kaneda and Iwata respectively. The Vanillaware-developed DLC launched in both Japan and the West between November 2013 and November 2014: the final DLC's Japanese release was delayed by over two months behind the Western release. A special edition of Muramasa Rebirth exclusive to Japan contained all four DLC episodes alongside the original content and was released on March 19, 2015.
## Reception
The Demon Blade received generally positive reviews, garnering a score of 81/100 on Metacritic based on 58 critic reviews. In its review, Famitsu praised the art style, and called the battle system "absorbing". Their main complaints were the lack of variety between characters and the story having no proper climax. Destructoid's Conrad Zimmerman called it "a very solid title", saying that while flawed in its story delivery and instances of repetition, its visuals were "absolutely beautiful" and it proved fun to play. IGN's Mark Bozon was highly positive about the graphics and sound, but thought the backtracking might put some people off and said the story "may go over people’s heads". Game Revolution writer Nick Tan enjoyed the game greatly, but admitted that its lack of depth reduced the score he could give it as a reviewer. Joe Juba, writing for Game Informer, found The Demon Blade "stunning" despite some missteps in its pacing and depth. GameSpot's Tom McShea praised the visuals, boss battles and collectable swords, but found few other activities outside combat, which itself lacked depth. GamePro's Andy Burt called the visuals "gorgeous" and praised the combat and multiple storylines, but found its linearity and occasions where combat got "bogged down" hampered the experience. GameTrailers praised its combat and visuals, calling it "one of the better action titles on the [Wii]". Keza MacDonald, writing for Eurogamer, noted that "like many beautiful things, Muramasa: The Demon Blade is a little lacking in substance", saying that its lack of depth undermined other aspects. Michael Cunningham of RPGamer called it "a great game" to see and play despite its plain story. RPGFan's Dennis Rubinshteyn shared several points in common with reviewers about the story and repetition, while again praising the graphics and sound design.
Rebirth also had a positive reception, with Metacritic giving it a score of 78/100 based on 26 critic reviews. In its review, Famitsu praised it for being a good remake, although one reviewer was disappointed at the lack of new content. Chris Carter of Destructoid said that people who had already played the original version would not find much new content, while newcomers would likely be enchanted by it. Juba, reviewing Rebirth for Game Informer, said that the game was "exactly what developer Vanillaware intended it to be: a better-looking version of the 2009 release", while noting that this had not fixed the game's original faults as noted by him. IGN's Colin Moriarty called Rebirth a "faithful port", praising the improved localization and generally enjoying playing despite backtracking hampering the experience. Adrian den Ouden of RPGamer also praised the localization and shared points of praise and criticism with the previous reviewer. Stephen Meyerink of RPGFan, who had not played the Wii original, called Rebirth "a gorgeous, action-packed, fairly lengthy adventure that looks, sounds, and plays better than ever". Chris Holzworth of Electronic Gaming Monthly was impressed by the visuals and indifferent about the story, and recommended playing it on a higher difficulty setting.
### Sales
On its debut in Japan, The Demon Blade reached \#2 in game sales charts, coming in behind Sengoku Basara: Battle Heroes with 29,000 units sold. Sales of the title were higher than anticipated, resulting in several stores in Japan being sold out within two weeks of its release. The game had sold 47,000 units by November 2009. In North America, NPD Group reported that the game had sold 35,000 units during its first month of release. In a feature on notable video games in 2009, GamesTM stated that The Demon Blade sold "extremely well", besting established Western franchise releases such as Dead Space: Extraction. Ignition Entertainment, the game's North American publisher, confirmed that the September sales for The Demon Blade had fallen within the NPD Group's estimates, and had met their sales expectations. In a 2010 interview, publisher Marvelous Entertainment stated that, despite positive reception from both critics and players, Muramasa: The Demon Blade had suffered from low sales in Japan, North America and Europe. This was put down to it being a non-traditional game and the falling relevance of the Wii hardware.
In its first week of release, Rebirth debuted at \#5, selling 45,660 physical units. Within the first month following its release in Japan, the game topped 100,000 shipments, with at least 67,800 physical retail sales, and the remainder as digital copies distributed on the PlayStation Network. Muramasa Rebirth ranked as the seventh most downloaded digital Vita game on the Japanese PlayStation Network in 2013. In both North America and Europe, the game ranked high on PSN download charts: it ranked as the fifth best-selling Vita title in North America, while in Europe it debuted at \#5 before climbing to \#4 by December 2013.
## See also
- List of Wii games that use the Classic Controller |
1,882,121 | Phillips Exeter Academy Library | 1,162,208,563 | School library in New Hampshire | [
"Architecture of Phillips Exeter Academy",
"Libraries in Rockingham County, New Hampshire",
"Library buildings completed in 1971",
"Louis Kahn buildings",
"Modernist architecture in New Hampshire",
"Phillips Exeter Academy",
"University and college academic libraries in the United States"
]
| Phillips Exeter Academy Library is a library that serves Phillips Exeter Academy, an independent boarding school located in Exeter, New Hampshire. It is the largest secondary school library in the world, containing 160,000 volumes over nine levels with a shelf capacity of 250,000 volumes.
When it became clear in the 1950s that the library had outgrown its existing building, the school initially hired an architect who proposed a traditional design for the new building. Deciding instead to construct a library with a contemporary design, the school gave the commission to Louis Kahn in 1965. The library opened in 1971. In 1997 the library received the Twenty-five Year Award from the American Institute of Architects, an award that recognizes architecture of enduring significance that is given to no more than one building per year.
Kahn structured the library in three concentric square rings. The outer ring, which is built of load-bearing brick, includes all four exterior walls and the library carrel desks immediately inside them. The middle ring, which is built of reinforced concrete, holds the heavy book stacks. The inner ring is a dramatic atrium with enormous circular openings in its walls that reveal several floors of book stacks.
## History and services
The first library at Phillips Exeter Academy was a single small room. A member of the class of 1833 remembered it as containing "old sermons and some history, scarcely ever read". Even as late as 1905 the library had only two rooms and 2,000 volumes.
In 1912 the Davis Library was added to the campus with space for 5,000 volumes. Although a major improvement, its atmosphere was inhospitable by the standards of later generations. Stacks were locked to students, for example, and the librarian's office was located at the entrance to the stacks to maximize control over entry. Decisions about book selections and the library's program were in the hands of an all-male faculty committee instead of the female librarian.
In 1950 Rodney Armstrong became librarian, the first with a graduate degree in library science. One of his first moves was to open the stacks to students. That solved one problem, but the real difficulty was the lack of space. The library contained 35,000 volumes at that point, many of them stored in cardboard boxes for lack of shelf room. After years of effort, Armstrong eventually succeeded in bringing a new library to the academy.
Architect Louis Kahn was chosen to design the new library in 1965, and it was ready for occupancy in 1971. Architectural historian Vincent Scully acknowledged its architectural significance by using a photo of it as the frontispiece for his book Modern Architecture and Other Essays.
On November 16, 1971, classes were suspended for a day, and students, faculty, and staff moved books (the library had 60,000 volumes by this time) from the old Davis Library into the new library.
Henry Bedford, who became librarian shortly after the new library was occupied, supervised the transition not only to the new building but also to a new way of operating a library. Staff librarians were encouraged to see themselves as co-instructors with the regular faculty and to put less emphasis on shushing library patrons. A piano was installed and the library began sponsoring lectures and concerts.
In 1977 Jacquelyn Thomas became the first librarian with full faculty status. By 2006 she oversaw a staff of seven, all with graduate degrees in library science. During Thomas' tenure the library's collection and programming grew to a size appropriate to a small liberal arts college. Today the library houses 160,000 volumes on nine levels and has a shelf capacity of 250,000 volumes, making it the largest secondary school library in the world. The library also contains a collection of works by alumni as well as the Academy Archives.
The library was the first building on campus to be computerized thanks to the foresight of Armstrong and Kahn, who supplied the library with sufficient conduit space for the cabling needed by the coming computer revolution.
In 1995, the library was officially named the Class of 1945 Library, honoring Dr. Lewis Perry, Exeter's eighth principal, who served from 1914 to 1946.
## Choosing Louis Kahn as architect
The project to build a new and larger library began in 1950 and progressed slowly for several years. By the mid-1960s, O'Connor & Kilham, the architectural firm that had designed libraries for Barnard, Amherst and West Point, had been chosen to design the new library and had drafted plans with traditional architecture. Richard Day arrived as the new principal of the academy at that point, however, and found their design to be unsatisfactory. He dismissed them, declaring his intention to hire "the very best contemporary architect in the world to design our library".
The school's building committee was tasked with finding a new architect. Influential members of the committee became interested in Louis Kahn at an early stage, but they interviewed several other prominent architects as well, including Paul Rudolph, I. M. Pei, Philip Johnson and Edward Larrabee Barnes. Kahn's prospects received a boost when Jonas Salk, whose son had attended Exeter, called Armstrong and invited him to visit the Salk Institute in California, which Kahn had recently built to widespread acclaim. Kahn was awarded the commission for the library in November 1965.
Kahn had already thought deeply about the proper design for a library, having earlier submitted proposals for a new library at Washington University. He also expressed a deep reverence for books, saying, "A book is tremendously important. Nobody ever paid the price of a book, they only paid for the printing". Describing the book as an offering, Kahn said, "How precious a book is in light of the offering, in light of the one who has the privilege of the offering. The library tells you of this offering".
The building committee carefully considered what they wanted in a new library and presented their ideas to Kahn in an unusually detailed document that went through more than fifty drafts. The early designs included some items that were eventually rejected, such as a roof garden and two exterior towers with stairs that were open to the weather. They were removed from the plans when the building committee reminded Kahn that neither of those features would be practical in New England winters.
## Architecture
The library has an almost cubical shape: each of its four sides is 111 feet (33 m) wide and 80 feet (24 m) tall. It is constructed in three concentric areas (which Kahn called "doughnuts"). In the words of Robert McCarter, author of Louis I. Kahn, "From the very beginning of the design process, Kahn conceived of the three types of spaces as if they were three buildings constructed of different materials and of different scales – buildings-within-buildings". The outer area, which houses the reading carrels, is made of brick. The middle area, which contains the heavy book stacks, is made of reinforced concrete. The inner area is an atrium.
The library's heating and cooling needs are supplied by the nearby dining hall, which Kahn built at the same time as the library, but which is considered to be of less architectural significance.
### Exterior
The building committee's document specified that the new library should be "unpretentious, though in a handsome, inviting contemporary style". Kahn accordingly made the building's exterior relatively undramatic, suitable for a small New England town. Its facade is primarily brick with teak wood panels at most windows marking the location of a pair of wooden carrels. The bricks are load-bearing; that is, the weight of the outer portion of the building is carried by the bricks themselves, not by a hidden steel frame. Kahn calls this fact to the viewer's attention by making the brick piers noticeably thicker at the bottom where they have more weight to bear. The windows are correspondingly wider toward the top where the piers are thinner. Kahn said, "The weight of the brick makes it dance like a fairy above and groan below."
The corners of the building are chamfered (cut off), allowing the viewers to see the outer parts of the building's structure, the outer "doughnut." The Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects says, "Kahn sometimes perceived a building as enclosed by 'plate-walls,' and to give emphasis to this structural form, he interrupted the plates at the corner, leaving a gap between them. The Library at Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire (1967–1972) is a classic example". Each of these four brick "plate-walls," which house the library carrels, is 16 feet (4.9 m) deep.
At the top of the exterior walls is a row of openings similar to the windows below except that these openings are above the roof and have no glass. Vincent Scully said that Kahn was drawn to architecture based on "solid, almost primitive, masonry masses with voids in them without glass." The bottoms of these window-like openings are 6 feet (1.8 m) above the floor of an arcade that follows the perimeter of the top of building.
Another arcade circles the building on the ground floor. Kahn disliked the idea of a building that was dominated by its entrance, so he concealed the main entrance to the library behind this arcade. His original design, however, called for landscaping with a paved forecourt that would have indicated the entrance without disrupting the symmetry of the facade. Architectural historian William Jordy said, "Perverse as the hidden entrance may seem, it emphatically reinforces Kahn's statement that his design begins on the periphery with the circle of individual carrels, each with its separate window."
### Interior
A circular double staircase built from concrete and faced with travertine greets the visitor upon entry into the library. At the top of the stairs the visitor enters a dramatic central hall with enormous circular openings that reveal several floors of book stacks. At the top of the atrium, two massive concrete cross beams diffuse the light entering from the clerestory windows.
Carter Wiseman, author of Louis Kahn: Beyond Time and Style, said, "The many comparisons of the experience of entering Exeter's main space to that of entering a cathedral are not accidental. Kahn clearly wanted the students to be humbled by the sense of arrival, and he succeeded." David Rineheart, who worked as an architect for Kahn, said, "for Lou, every building was a temple. Salk was a temple for science. Dhaka was a temple for government. Exeter was a temple for learning."
Because the stacks are visible from the floor of the central hall, the layout of the library is clear to the visitor at a glance, which was one of the goals the academy's building committee had set for Kahn.
The central room is 52 feet (15.8 m) high, as measured from the floor to the beginning of the roof structure, and 32 feet (9.8 m) wide. Those dimensions approximate a ratio known as the golden ratio, which was studied by the ancient Greeks and has been considered the ideal architectural ratio for centuries.
The circle and the square that are combined so dramatically in the atrium were considered to be the paradigmatic geometric units by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius. He also noted that the human body is proportioned so that it can fit in both shapes, a concept that was famously expressed with a combined circle and square by Leonardo da Vinci in his drawing Vitruvian Man.The topic was repeatedly raised by Kahn in several projects.
The specifications of the academy's building committee called for a large number of carrels (the library has 210) and for the carrels to be placed near windows so they could receive natural light. The latter point matched Kahn's personal inclinations exactly because he himself strongly preferred natural light: "He is also known to have worked by a window, refusing to switch on an electric light even on the darkest of days." Each pair of carrels has a large window above, and each individual carrel has a small window at desk height with a sliding panel for adjusting the light.
The placement of carrel spaces at the periphery was the product of thinking that began years earlier when Kahn submitted proposals for a new library at Washington University. There he dispensed with the traditional arrangement of completely separate library spaces for books and readers, usually with book stacks on the periphery of the library and reading rooms toward the center. Instead he felt that reading spaces should be near the books and also to natural light. For Kahn, the essence of a library was the act of taking a book from a shelf and walking a few steps to a window for a closer look: "A man with a book goes to the light. A library begins that way. He will not go fifty feet away to an electric light." Each carrel area is associated with two levels of book stacks, with the upper level structured as a mezzanine that overlooks the carrels. This arrangement of numbered floors and mezzanines (B, G, 1, 1M, 2, 2M, 3, 3M, 4) elegantly skirted the town code limiting buildings to four stories. The book stacks also look out into the atrium.
The inherent massiveness of the brick "plate-wall" structure of the outer part of the library helps to create the cloistered atmosphere that Kahn felt was appropriate for library carrels. While explaining his proposal for the library at Washington University, Kahn had used the example of the cloistered carrels at the monastic library at Dunham, England, to explain his "desire to find a space construction system in which the carrels were inherent in the support which harbored them ... Wall-bearing masonry construction with its niches and vaults has the appealing structural order to provide naturally such spaces."
## Architectural interpretations
Architectural experts sometimes differ in their interpretations of Kahn's design. For example, in reasoning why the cross beams at the clerestory windows above the atrium are so massive, Carter Wiseman says, "While they appear to be—and indeed are—structural, they are far deeper than necessary; their no-less-important role was to diffuse the sunlight coming in from the surrounding clerestory windows and reflect it down into the atrium." Sarah Williams Goldhagen thinks there is more to the story, asserting that "the concrete X-shaped cross below the skylit ceiling at the Exeter Library is grossly exaggerated for dramatic effect." Kathleen James-Chakraborty goes even further: "Above, in the most sublime gesture of all, floats a concrete cross brace, illuminated by clerestory windows. Its weight, which appears ready to come crashing down upon the onlooker, revives the sense of threat dissipated elsewhere by the reassuring familiarity of the brick skin and wood details." Kahn similarly floated a massive concrete structure above the sanctuary of the First Unitarian Church of Rochester, which he designed a few years earlier. The library is also often discussed in comparison with contemporary sacred buildings. The plans have some characteristics of Vasrtu Purusha Mandala as well as other symbolic forms that allow various symbolic interpretations.
Another issue is the extent to which Kahn deliberately introduced elements into some of his buildings that give them the ageless atmosphere of ruins. Kahn himself spoke of "wrapping ruins around buildings", although in the context of another project. In his essay "Louis I. Kahn and the Ruins of Rome", Vincent Scully argues that Kahn followed this practice in several of his buildings, including this library, saying, "And in his library at Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire, Kahn won't even let it become a building; he wants it to remain a ruin. The walls don't connect at the top. They remain like a hollow shell". Romaldo Giurgola, on the other hand, avoids this interpretation in the entry he wrote for Louis Kahn in the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects. In it, while discussing the arrangement of exterior components of Kahn's National Assembly Building of Bangladesh, Giurgola wrote, "This relationship with daylight was the determining element behind this solution, rather than the formal desire to 'create ruins,' as some critics have suggested." In the very next paragraph Guirgola describes the chamfered corners of the library by saying only that Kahn used this device to show that the structural importance of the corner is greatly reduced in buildings like the Exeter Library that are constructed with reinforced concrete and other modern materials.
## Recognition
- In 1997 the American Institute of Architects gave the library their Twenty-five Year Award for architecture of enduring significance, which is given to no more than one building per year.
- In 2005 the United States Postal Service issued a stamp that recognized the library as one of twelve Masterworks of Modern American Architecture.
- In 2007, the library was ranked \#80 on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. |
49,371,128 | Somebody Else (The 1975 song) | 1,173,805,274 | null | [
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"2016 singles",
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"Contemporary R&B ballads",
"English electronic songs",
"Polydor Records singles",
"Songs about heartache",
"Songs by Matty Healy",
"Synth-pop ballads",
"Synthwave songs",
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| "Somebody Else" is a song by English band the 1975 from their second studio album I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful Yet So Unaware of It (2016). The song was written by band members Matty Healy, George Daniel, Adam Hann, Ross MacDonald, with the first two handling the production alongside Mike Crossey. The song was the last one written for the album; Healy developed the song's lyrics in Los Angeles while in the back of a cab. The singer focused on the after-effects of a breakup, centred on the themes of jealousy and guilt. It was released on 16 February 2016 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records as the fourth single from the album.
A slow jam, "Somebody Else" is a power ballad composed in the styles of electronic, R&B and synth-pop. The song contains elements of several genres, including house, chillwave, funk and neo-soul, with its sparse 1980s-style production incorporating synthesisers, 808 percussion, and techno beats. The lyrics explore the mixed emotions experienced after discovering a former lover has found a new partner, focusing on the themes of jealousy, grief, melancholia, and bitterness, among others.
Upon release, "Somebody Else" received widespread acclaim from contemporary music critics, several of whom deemed it the best song on I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. Reviewers praised the song's production quality, 1980s-style sound and lyrical depth, with some comparing it to the work of Tears for Fears. It later appeared on numerous year-end and decade-end lists, including ones published by NME, Pitchfork and The Times. The song peaked at number 55 on the UK Singles Chart, number eight on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart, number 29 in Scotland, number 34 in Australia and number 70 in Ireland. The song was later certified gold in Australia and the United States by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), respectively, while it received a platinum certification in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).
An accompanying music video, directed by Tim Mattia, was released on 7 July 2016. The visual depicts Healy's attempts to move on from his former relationship, engaging in various situations that explore themes of isolation and self-obsession. The video received positive reviews from critics, who highlighted the cinematic quality, introspective style and twist ending, with several comparing it to the work of filmmaker David Lynch and the film Fight Club (1999). To promote "Somebody Else", the 1975 performed the song on tour and at various music festivals, including the Reading and Leeds Festivals and Pohoda. In addition to appearing in several films and television shows, such as 13 Reasons Why and The Edge of Seventeen (2016), the song has been covered by several artists including Charlie Puth, Vérité and Lorde, with the latter citing it as a significant influence on her second studio album, Melodrama (2017).
## Background and development
"Somebody Else" was the last song written for I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. Written in the back of a cab while Healy was in Los Angeles, the singer focused on the after-effects of a breakup, alongside the accompanying feelings of jealousy. Following the song's completion, Healy said: "As soon as I finished writing it, I was like 'This is a tune'." Explaining the concept further, Healy described the feeling as "guilty jealousy" to Steve Holden of BBC, which the singer said stems from no longer wanting a partner while also not wanting somebody else to be with them. In an interview with Shahlin Graves of Coup de Main, Healy agreed that he emotionally distances himself after writing personal songs such as "Somebody Else". The singer described the songwriting process as a form of catharsis, saying: "Once I put it in a song, I can objectively think about it - it exists outside of me and I can make sense of it a bit more."
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "Somebody Else" is a melancholic power ballad, composed as an electronic, R&B and synth-pop slow jam. The song has a length of four minutes and fifty-seven seconds (4:57) and was written by the 1975 members George Daniel, Matty Healy, Adam Hann and Ross MacDonald, while the former two handled the production alongside Mike Crossey. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Music Publishing, "Somebody Else" is set in the time signature of common time with a downbeat tempo of 100 beats per minute. The track is composed in the key of C major, with Healy's vocals ranging between the notes of G<sub>3</sub> and G<sub>4</sub>. It follows a chord progression of F–G–Am7–E7–Am9–Am–C.
"Somebody Else" has a sparse 1980s-style production composed of a "bounc[ing]" synth line, heavy reverb, expansive atmospherics, whirling synthesiser washes, a disco-influenced bass, a kick drum, 808 percussion and techno beats. The song also contains elements of house, chillwave, electro, funk, neo-soul, electronica, dance, electropop, alternative pop, new wave, yacht rock and "digitized" soul. Throughout the track, Healy's vocals are pitch-altered, doubled, chopped and Auto-Tuned. The singer performs in a "breathy" style, according to Andy Gill of The Independent, while Nylon's Hayden Manders described the vocals as "lackadaisical, disinterested and wobbly".
Lyrically, "Somebody Else" deals with the after-effects of a breakup, expressing the pain of seeing a former lover with a new partner. The song describes being caught between the various emotional phases one experiences after the end of a relationship. The track is centred around the theme of loss, with Healy refusing to let go of the relationship for fear of loneliness. "Somebody Else" also deals with overcoming jealousy, as the singer does not want his partner to love someone else but takes solace from knowing she is not lonely. Pitchfork's Brad Nelson noted that, unlike the 1975's prior work, the band embodies "something less defined and more introspective" in the song, writing it explores feelings of confusion which one would normally suppress. Writing for Billboard, Rania Afitos felt the song moves through several stages of heartbreak, beginning with melancholy and grief before capturing Healy's "inevitable bitterness".
Tom Connick of DIY characterised the production of "Somebody Else" as gentle and "soft-of-touch" while writing that the lyrics see Healy "finally [laying] himself bare in the emotional sense, rather than just whipping off his top and skipping about". Manders noted the song eschews Healy's "theatrics" in favour of a "mellow" 1980s-indebted soundscape. Drowned in Sound writer Sean Adams compared the track to the works of Cut Copy and Chromatics. Writing for PopMatters, Pryor Stroud described "Somebody Else" as a merger of the "anthemic, multiplex synth-pop of Tears for Fears" with the "pretty-boy R&B" of Justin Bieber. The Irish Times writer Lauren Murphy also compared the track to the work of Tears for Fears. Dee Lockett of Vulture said the song's sexual tension, "slow-burning" sensuality and suspense is reminiscent of Tangerine Dream's "Love on a Dream", while also writing that it shares the same "control" as a Tears for Fears song. AllMusic writer Matt Collar compared the track to Tango in the Night (1987)-era Fleetwood Mac.
### Structure and analysis
"Somebody Else" begins with "mournful" opening keyboard notes, two chords and chopped vocals. Nelson observed a "swerve" to the opening synths that sonically embodies post-breakup ambivalence, noting "a damp echo to the atmosphere that makes every instrument sound slightly hazy and drunk". In the verses, Healy narrates the melancholy and grief associated with the ending of a relationship, singing in a half-whisper: "I took all my things that make sound / The rest I could do without." Continuing the themes of melancholia and grief in the chorus, the singer depicts an experience of lost love: "I don't want your body / But I hate to think about you with somebody else / Our love has gone cold / You're intertwining your soul with somebody else." Realising his lover has changed and the relationship has come to an end, Healy sings: "I'm looking through you, while you’re looking through your phone." Characterised by a change in tempo, slower synths and distorted vocals, the song's bridge sees the singer's heartbreak shifting to bitterness around intimacy, as he exclaims: "Get someone you love? / Get someone you need? / Fuck that, get money / I can't give you my soul 'cause we're never alone."
In a retrospective analysis of the 1975's lyrics for NME, Connick stated that the chorus of "Somebody Else" was instrumental in shifting the public's opinion of the band, which he credits to being "a couplet that anyone can relate to". Furthermore, Connick wrote that the lyrics recontextualise the "teenage heartbreak" of The 1975 into a more mature tone. Stroud opined that Healy's constant assertions of indifference in the couplet "I don't want your body, I don't want your body" demonstrate an attempt by the singer to repress his desires. The writer noted that "the body" mentioned in the line serves as the song's motif, comparing its constant repetition to an addiction. Rather than viewing "the body" as an abstraction, Stroud interpreted it as representing "a specific flesh-on-flesh interaction" first detailed in the 1975's "Sex" (2012). In an essay analysing the band's songwriting techniques, Vice writer Emily Bootle noted that in "Somebody Else", the chorus' melodies utilise a larger gap in intervals—hopping between the fifth and third notes of its scale—which she credited as a critical component in their ability to craft "consistently catchy choruses". Regarding the song's bridge, Jennifer Irving of Consequence interpreted the lyrics as a commentary on love in the 21st century, representing society's inability to make time for intimacy. She wrote that instead of attempting to reconcile this dilemma, the bridge serves as Healy's acceptance of this notion, summarising: "Let's just distract ourselves and make money." In contrast to Irving's analysis, Vice writer Ian Cohen felt the couplet "fuck that, get money" is a defence mechanism.
## Release and critical reception
"Somebody Else" was officially released by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records as the fourth single from I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It on 15 February 2016. 11 days later, the album was released, including the song as the 10th track. Upon release, the song was met with widespread critical acclaim from contemporary music critics. Amy Davidson of Digital Spy and the editorial staff of both DIY and Vulture deemed "Somebody Else" one of the best new songs for the week ending 19 February 2016. Dork's Stephen Ackroyd said the track "remains one of British pop music's greatest recent triumphs", while Starr Bowenbank of Cosmopolitan said: "If you had to listen to one single piece of music for the rest of your life by [t]he 1975, it better be 'Somebody Else'." Collin Brennan of Consequence proclaimed "Somebody Else" the standout from I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It; he lauded the "uncomfortably relatable" lyrics, "pristinely produced" hooks and emulation of 1980s musical excess while regarding it as "a bizarre single that somehow works beautifully". Spin writer Brian Josephs also named "Somebody Else" the record's best song, while The Sydney Morning Herald's Tim Bryon declared the song "perhaps the most impressive thing on the album". Both Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club and Gill deemed "Somebody Else" an album highlight, with the latter calling it "one of the more genuinely moving break-up songs of recent years".
Describing "Somebody Else" as a "timeless" ballad, Amit Vaidya of Rolling Stone India deemed it the best song of the 1975's career; she gave specific praise to the successful emulation of a 1980s-style sound: "If I placed this single with my Top 30 of 1988, it would fit it so perfectly, no one would know it didn’t come out 30 plus years ago!" Stereogum writer Chris DeVille praised the band's use of chillwave in the track, saying they "do pretty well with it too". Writing for The Fader, Steffanee Wang lauded "Somebody Else" as "incredibly" well-crafted; she praised the production, arrangements and euphoric tone, saying: "Is it crazy to say that if I could only listen to one song for the rest of my life, I’d pick this song?" Lorenzo Cabello of Euphoria Magazine assured that despite previously not enjoying the 1975's music, he "found [himself] helpless to their newfound sound", praising "Somebody Else" for its "encapsulating" production, "musical and lyrical muscles", and Healy's "sympathetic" and "longing" vocals. Manders commended the songs "enchanting" sound and emotional depth. Collar called the track "shimmeringly moody", while Rolling Stone's Jon Dolan praised its "moody sheen", writing this creates "an enjoyable balance of desire and distraction". Mitch Mosk of Atwood Magazine praised "Somebody Else" for "maintain[ing] an upbeat but hollow melody while being danceable all the while".
Emille Marvel of idobi wrote that "Somebody Else" is "a worthy contender for the best [t]he 1975 song of all time" while praising its "depressingly" dark lyrics and "cloudy pop vibes". Stroud declared it the best song on I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It; he commended the track's lyrics for representing an "obsession" that sees Healy "teetering toward a full-on psychosexual breakdown". Writing for NME, Connick deemed "Somebody Else" one of the band's best songs and called it a "heartbreak hit like few others", praising the songwriting for exploring tropes of love, sex, death and drugs without succumbing to "longstanding cliches". Slant Magazine's Jonathan Wroble praised the song's "pulsating midnight balladry", calling it one of the album's moments of quiet and introspection that serves as a "rewarding [moment] of restraint". Describing the track as a "synth-laden masterpiece", Callie Alghrim of Insider commended its lyrical elegance, relatability and portrayal of nostalgia, misery, guilt, self-importance and betrayal, saying: "There is no other song in existence that evokes the same ultra-specific, exquisite emotion as 'Somebody Else.'" Writing for The Observer, Kitty Empire said "Somebody Else" is a "gem", while Renowned for Sound writer Jessica Thomas opined the song radiates "soulful passion, with deep, personal significance".
### Accolades
"Somebody Else" has appeared on numerous publications' year-end and decade-end lists, including ones published by NME, Pitchfork and The Times. In DIY's annual Readers Poll, the track was deemed 2016's eighth-best song, and it was later nominated for Best Track at both the 2016 Q Awards and the 2017 NME Awards.
## Commercial performance
In the United Kingdom, "Somebody Else" peaked at number 55 on the UK Singles Chart and remained in the Top 100 for 11 weeks, standing as the 1975's second most commercially successful release up to May 2020. The song also reached number 29 in Scotland. The track was later certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on 21 February 2020, denoting over 600,000 certified units in the UK. As of May 2020, "Somebody Else" has sold a combined 633,000 copies in the country, including 60.7 million streams. Elsewhere in Europe, the song peaked at number 70 in Ireland. In Australia, the track debuted and peaked at number 34, becoming the band's highest-charting single. "Somebody Else" was later certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting over 35,000 certified units in Australia.
In the United States, "Somebody Else" reached number eight on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart. It was later ranked at number 41 on the chart's 2016 year-end edition and number 50 on the 2017 year-end edition. The song peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Rock Airplay chart and was later ranked at number 32 on the chart's 2017 year-end edition. Additionally, the track reached number 20 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and number 28 on the Billboard Adult Top 40 chart. "Somebody Else" was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting over 500,000 certified units in the US.
## Music video
### Development and release
To create the music video for "Somebody Else", the 1975 worked alongside director Tim Mattia. Healy said that despite not having synesthesia, he could visualise what colour a song is: "Not in a pretentious, wanky way but there’s an element to it." Describing himself as having a visual brain, he wrote the song's lyrics while also drafting a video treatment. Speaking to Dork, Healy said he knew how the video for the track would be lit while writing the lyrics. Having developed the visual's concept and storyline, the singer collaborated with Mattia for the video's direction, a process he praised as "surreal".
Speaking to Holden, Healy described the development of the music video as an "intense creative process". Filming occurred at the Alexandra Road Estate, a housing estate in the London Borough of Camden. Due to the visual's narrative structure, the 1975 shot "almost two or three videos". Healy was required to wear a wig and a dress for a sex scene with himself, which he described as "quite interesting". To achieve the desired shot, the singer filmed the scene with a man dressed as himself, saying, "It's 2016, there are no fears about that". On 6 July 2016, the band revealed that the music video for "Somebody Else" would debut the following day via an Instagram post containing a teaser from the video. Describing the video in a press release, the 1975 said it focuses on Healy's struggle with "self obsession in the face of heart-break" while exploring a "Lynchian night-time London". The visual was released on 7 July 2016.
### Synopsis
The music video begins with a three-minute vignette that plays before the primary video. The setup and development of the vignette is heavily inspired by the work of David Lynch, in particular, his short horror webseries Rabbits. The black and white vignette opens with Healy entering a grim hotel room, reminiscent of a retro TV show set, where a woman who never moves is sitting on the couch. The singer performs several menial tasks in a lethargic manner; he washes away clown makeup from his face, takes off his suit jacket and shirt, ties his shoes and studies himself in a mirror. Foreboding music and an inappropriate laugh track play in the background, featuring cheers, sitcom-esque applause and the occasional boo from an unseen studio audience. Healy then walks toward the couch, sitting down beside the motionless woman while getting dressed. The singer stares at the woman and attempts to have a conversation, although she does not respond, and he picks up his belongings and heads out the door with his skateboard. Althea Legaspi of Rolling Stone felt the vignette's bleak setting serves as a thematic continuation from the visual for fellow album track "A Change of Heart", while Dork's editorial staff viewed it as a literal continuation of the prior video.
As "Somebody Else" begins to play, signifying the beginning of the primary video, the visual changes from black and white to colour. Healy leaves for a dark and desolate town with his skateboard, dressed in a black and leather ensemble. The singer wanders lost and alone while dealing with an increasingly fragmented mental state, with the visual following him through a series of events while he grieves over heartbreak. Healy spends time trying to get over his lover in solitude and finds himself in different situations, each of which contains elements of self-obsession and feelings of isolation. First, Healy visits a diner where he breaks down into tears while two fellow patrons watch. The singer then traverses alleyways, cabs and deserted city streets and later falls off of his skateboard, while clips of him singing in the back of a car are interspersed.
The video showcases the after-effects of drowning in sorrow and alcohol; arriving at a local bar, Healy drinks heavily and sings karaoke while acting foolishly. The singer steals a pair of sunglasses from a fellow patron before performing on stage, where his compounding loneliness leads to him hallucinating seeing his former lover in a group of hecklers. A visibly confused Healy abruptly ends his performance and the hecklers follow him to the parking lot, where they jump the singer and leave him beaten and bloodied. Healy then visits a strip club where he meets his perfect woman. The singer and the stripper share several drinks and she gives him a lap dance before the pair leave the club to have sex in a car. However, in a twist ending, Healy is revealed to be having sex with himself. Revisiting the preceding events of the video, the singer "becomes that someone else", according to Jarod Johnson II of Paste; Healy sees himself as one of the patrons at the diner and the woman at the karaoke bar. The singer is shown dancing and leaving by himself at the strip club, before the video concludes with Healy alone in the car.
### Critical response
Grant Sharples of Alternative Press included "Somebody Else" at number two on his list of ten music videos from the 1975 that should be made into feature-length films. In addition to declaring it one of the band's most experimental visuals, Sharples praised the vignette for "speak[ing] to how, when depressed, going about life's basic functions feels like an immense effort". Soundigest writer Amanda Larrison interpreted the video's focus to be on Healy's heartbreak and "demons" and included it at number eight on the publication's list of the band's ten most creative videos. Writing for MTV News, Madeline Roth called the visual colourful and "ominous", noting that the twist ending is "totally unexpected" and viewers "have to see [it] to believe [it]". Comparing the "dark" music video to the work of David Lynch, Davidson called it "an excellent new music video to add to [the band's] repertoire" while also highlighting the "surreal" ending. Gigwise writer Alexandra Pollard called the visual strange and wrote that it "take[s] a turn for the weird" during the "bizarre" twist ending.
Gil Kaufman of Billboard commended the "epic [and] lonely" music video and deemed it a mini-movie, saying the visual emulates the "absurdly" long and narrative-driven videos characteristic of Michael Jackson. Legaspi asserted the visual has an introspective style while writing it contains a different "vibe" in comparison to the "defiantly upbeat" music video for fellow album track "The Sound". Rachel Sonis of Idolator said the visual "seems to pick up where the grim visual for 'A Change Of Heart' left off" while calling it "trippy" and drawing comparisons between the video's ending and the work of Lynch. Writing for Euphoria Magazine, Christine Nguyen praised the visual's cinematic quality, production and Healy's "striking and convincing" acting, comparing the music video to Lynch and Fight Club (1999). Promonews writer David Knight called the vignette intriguing while deeming the primary visual reminiscent of the film.
Jisselle Fernandez of B-Sides said the accompanying music video does "Somebody Else" "justice", while Josephs felt it matches the song's "moodiness", writing: "The wearing-a-leather-jacket-in-the-night life ain't easy." The Dork editorial staff wrote that the visual focuses on Healy's struggle to accept what is occurring around him, noting its "spiral into darkness" showcases a "dark descent of an evening and the most terrifying version of swapped faces since Face/Off". Lindsay Howard of Variance described the video as strange and emotional, writing that it showcases the singer's literal struggles with self-obsession and heartbreak. Deeming the music visual odd and strange, The Fader writer Ben Danridge-Lemco said it is both an examination of narcissism and a representation of Healy's journey to find himself, writing the track itself functions as his soundtrack. Peter Helman of Stereogum commented that the visual is similar to Father John Misty's "The Night Josh Tillman Came To Our Apartment" (2015) and Young Thug's "Best Friend" (2015), deeming it "another solid entry into the pantheon of 'musician fucks himself' music videos".
## Live performances and other usage
Prior to its release, the 1975 performed "Somebody Else" at a December 2015 show in Philadelphia and incorporated pink lighting. In September 2016, they performed the song at the Leeds Festival, with Gigwise deeming it the highlight of their set. The 1975 performed the track on the 8 November 2016 episode of Late Night with Seth Meyers alongside "A Change of Heart". The following year, "Somebody Else" was included as part of the band's headlining setlist for the Reading Festival. In July 2019, the band performed the song at Pohoda. Regarding the performance, Elly Watson of DIY said, "honestly, name a more compelling thing than 30,000 people chanting 'FUCK THAT GET MONEY'". "Somebody Else" was used in 13 Reasons Why, The Edge of Seventeen and Love Island.
### Cover versions
American singer Charlie Puth performed a cover of "Somebody Else" for his BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge set in September 2016. American musician Vérité released a cover of the song on 9 September 2016 to her SoundCloud. While praising the track's simplicity, relatability and songwriting, the musician asserted she "really wanted to take it into [her] world and reinterpret it a bit". Vérité's rendition features a faster rhythm and incorporates a "club-ready" beat, deep, oscillating bass and propulsive synths. The musician uses subdued, minimalist instrumentation in the verses, while the chorus is rooted in pop music and features an EDM-like drop. Regarding Vérité's cover, Amy McCann of Variance called it "delectable" and "breathtaking" while specifically highlighting her vocal performance. In February 2017, English indie rock group Circa Waves performed a rock and roll rendition of "Somebody Else" for MistaJam on BBC Radio 1. In June 2017, Holden accidentally played his vinyl copy of I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It at double speed, discovering the song sounds similar to the work of Scottish synth-pop group Chvrches. After tweeting about the discovery, Chvrches member Martin Doherty humorously replied, asking if the opposite was also true. The group later performed their own rendition of the track in BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge on 15 March 2018.
At the le Zénith show in Paris on 5 October 2017, New Zealand musician Lorde performed "Somebody Else" as part of the setlist for her Melodrama World Tour. For her rendition, the musician utilised a near-identical arrangement rather than paring the song down. Roth praised Lorde's "fittingly dreamy" cover and complimented the track's sonic connection to Lorde's Melodrama (2017). Junkee declared it the musician's fifth-best cover; Jules Lefevre echoed Roth's comments regarding the similarities between "Somebody Else" and the music on Melodrama. American singer-songwriter Conan Gray uploaded a cover of the song to YouTube on 18 February 2018. Gray's performance featured oversaturated pink and purple lights reminiscent of the artwork for I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It, and he incorporated layered vocals in the chorus. The singer-songwriter called the song a personal favourite from the band and described his version as "a little more sombre and not as well played on guitar", saying it "is one of those songs that no matter who you are and where you are in life, you can’t help but think of someone in your past when it plays". In the publication's list of Gray's Top Five Favourite Covers, Soundigest ranked his performance of the track at number one; Courtney Gould commended the video's lighting and his vocals for "highlight[ing] the dynamic details that make this song so special".
In March 2020, American Idol season 18 contestant Adam Curry performed "Somebody Else" for Hollywood Week. Curry's rendition of the song received praise for its "artistry" and "legitimacy", with Robbie Daw of Billboard writing the singer "knock[ed] everyone out with a solid rendition" of the track. On 7 May 2020, The Face hosted a tribute concert via Instagram for the 1975 to recognise their influence on contemporary artists. Several artists performed covers of the band's songs; Gracie Abrams was chosen to perform "Somebody Else". Korean-New Zealand singer Rosé, a member of K-pop girl group Blackpink, performed the track as part of an Instagram Live mini-concert on 17 May 2020, closing out the show.
## Legacy
"Somebody Else" is considered one of the band's greatest songs and has been labelled a "breakup anthem". Johnson II ranked the track at number 17 on Paste's list of the 1975's essential songs and said its lyrics "highlight the splintered emotions that make breakups a process". Vulture's Larry Fitzmaurice included "Somebody Else" in his list of 10 Essential 1975 Songs; he compared the song's production to a John Hughes' film, calling it a "straightforwardly beautiful ballad" and "an unrequited-love slow-dance classic for the ages". In a ranking of the band's ten best songs, NME listed the track at number five. The same publication also included the chorus of "Somebody Else" in a list of the band's most genius lyrics. In their list compiling the best bridges of the 21st century, Billboard ranked the song at number 86. Regarding fan reception, Consequence also noted the bridge to be among the band's 10 fan-favourite lyrics, having inspired merchandise featuring the couplet. The track is frequently included in numerous publications "best-of" lists regarding breakups, heartbreak and sadness, including those published by B-Sides, Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Seventeen and Women's Health. Don't Bore Us declared "Somebody Else" one of the seven-best breakup songs of the decade, while A.Side deemed it one of the 15 best breakup songs of the 2010s.
Puth spoke about "Somebody Else" in a 2016 interview with Michael Baggs of BBC, revealing it was the one song he wished to have penned himself. The singer praised the track's simplicity, chord structure and Healy's vocals, telling Baggs: "I love the way [the 1975] paint a picture lyrically. They're not so concerned with using huge words, it's more like getting into people's hearts with nostalgia." In a 2017 interview with NME, Lorde spoke about how "Somebody Else" inspired her, having previously revealed it was her most-played song of the year on Spotify. The musician was surprised by the track's "emotional potency", saying she related to it despite the songwriters being a group of men. Lorde further praised the production intricacies, groove and "celestial" emotional connection between the lyrics and composition, telling the magazine: "The power ['Somebody Else'] has over me is quite remarkable." The musician has stated that the song "really influenced" Melodrama, specifically impacting the album's "tones and the colours and the emotions".
Canadian indie pop band Valley told Direct Lyrics' Kevin Apaza in 2018 that the band wished they could have written and recorded the song for themselves; they highlighted the track's chord progression, Healy's vocals and contrast between the sad lyrics and the production's dance influence. In an E! Online interview with Billy Nilles, Canadian singer Tate McRae was asked to choose only one song to listen to for the rest of her life and picked "Somebody Else". Speaking on the track, the singer said: "It's my go-to driving song whenever I kinda feel like my world is falling apart." Roisin Lanigan of i-D identified the song as part of an emerging ASMR trend on YouTube and TikTok known as "from another room edits". The edits, described as part of a new "uber-specific" genre, are played through a muffled and distant filter. For "Somebody Else", the edit is designed to simulate hearing the track as if "[the listener is] making out in the bathroom of a party". In an essay analysing the sudden viral success of Olivia Rodrigo's "Drivers License" (2021), Paper writer Larisha Paul identified "Somebody Else" as one of three contributing factors, saying: "It's also clear that [Rodrigo] comes from the generation of young adults who swayed beneath pink LED lights to [t]he 1975's 'Somebody Else.'"
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It album liner notes.
- Matthew Healy – composer, producer, electric guitar, keyboards, vocals, background vocals
- George Daniel – composer, producer, programming, drums, keyboards, synthesiser
- Adam Hann – composer, electric guitar
- Ross MacDonald – composer
- Mike Crossey – producer, mixer
- Jonathan Gilmore – recording engineer
- Chris Gehringer – mastering engineer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## See also
- The 1975 discography
- List of songs by Matty Healy |
26,417,122 | Hurricane Fernanda (1993) | 1,170,724,846 | Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 1993 | [
"1993 Pacific hurricane season",
"1993 in Hawaii",
"Category 4 Pacific hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Hawaii"
]
| Hurricane Fernanda in 1993 was the first significant hurricane threat to Hawaii since Hurricane Iniki struck in September 1992. The seventh named storm and fourth major hurricane of the 1993 Pacific hurricane season, Fernanda developed on August 9 off the coast of Mexico from a tropical wave. Throughout its life, it was a large system, and the hurricane reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). After weakening slightly, Fernanda restrengthened and was expected to move across the Hawaiian Islands. Instead, the hurricane slowed its forward motion and turned away from the state, although it still produced high waves along the eastern shore of the islands. Several homes were damaged, and the surf damaged coastal roads. The storm also contributed to rainfall across the state, and minor flooding occurred in Kauai. Fernanda became extratropical on August 19, and after turning to the northeast became absorbed by a cold front.
## Meteorological history
Hurricane Fernanda origins were as a tropical wave that was first observed in the deep Atlantic Ocean on July 28. It moved across the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea, and developed an area of thunderstorms to the south of Panama on August 4. The system gradually organized as it continued westward, and on August 9, it developed into Tropical Depression Seven-E about 400 miles south of Manzanillo, Colima. Upon being classified, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) described the depression as "a large monsoon-like system", with abundant convection and well-defined upper-level outflow. With a ridge to its north, the depression tracked steadily west-northwestward, and gradual strengthening was expected.
Within 12 hours of forming, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fernanda. Banding features increased, and outflow became well-established throughout the storm. Fernanda intensified further and attained hurricane status late on August 10. Soon after, a large eye became evident on satellite imagery, which became more distinct and organized. The hurricane subsequently underwent rapid intensification, and by August 12, Fernanda reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h); at that time, it was a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, and was located about 1,070 miles (1,720 km) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula. The peak winds were based on estimates from the Dvorak technique. After maintaining peak winds for about 18 hours, the hurricane began a slow weakening trend. By August 14, the eye had become less distinct as the storm moved over cooler waters, while winds decreased to below major hurricane status, or Category 3 intensity. At that time, the NHC forecast Fernanda to decelerate and turn to the northwest, although the possibility of a more westward track toward Hawaii was noted.
On August 14, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) took over issuing warnings on the hurricane, as Fernanda crossed 140° W into their area of responsibility. After maintaining a west-northwest track for much of its duration, the hurricane turned more toward the west. By August 15, the storm was expected to pass between Maui and the Big Island of Hawaii; however, the CPHC noted uncertainty due to an approaching upper-level trough, which would produce a more northerly tack. Its winds weakened to about 85 mph (137 km/h), although late on August 15 the hurricane re-intensified to winds of 105 mph (169 km/h). By that time, it had redeveloped a large eye of 50 miles in diameter; wind gusted to 120 mph (190 km/h), while tropical storm force winds extended 200 miles (320 km) from the center. Hurricane Hunters flew into the hurricane to provide observational data while it was near Hawaii.
Early on August 16, Hurricane Fernanda was expected to continue westward and bring hurricane-force winds to the Big Island of Hawaii. By later in the day, however, it slowed significantly due to the approaching trough to its north. Hurricane Fernanda made its closest approach to Hawaii early on August 17, when it was 305 miles (491 km) east-northeast of the island of Hawaii. It began its definitive motion toward the northwest and began weakening due to increasing wind shear. Later on August 17, Fernanda weakened to tropical storm strength, by which time convection was largely removed from the circulation. On August 19, the storm transitioned into an extratropical storm, and advisories were discontinued. The remnants of Fernanda turned to the northeast, and on August 21 an approaching cold front absorbed the circulation off the coast of Washington.
## Impact
Early on August 15, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) issued a tropical storm watch for the Big Island of Hawaii, meaning gale-force winds were possible within 36 hours; concurrently, a high surf advisory was put into effect for all eastward facing shorelines. By late on August 15, the CPHC issued a hurricane watch for the entire state of Hawaii. Early the next day, the CPHC upgraded the watch to a hurricane warning for the Big Island of Hawaii, as Fernanda was expected to continue its westward track. When the hurricane slowed, its movement was uncertain, although all watches and warnings were canceled by August 17, when Fernanda began its northwest track. Officials opened nine shelters on the Big Island, and about 200 people stayed in them until the hurricane watches were canceled. One shelter near Hilo held 80 people due to concern of the high waves. Officials on the Big Island closed and evacuated all of the beach parks on August 15. On Molokai, 40 hikers were evacuated from a valley prone to flooding. Residents bought emergency supplies on Kauai, which had been struck by powerful Hurricane Iniki 11 months prior.
While moving slowly for a few days, Hurricane Fernanda produced high surf along the eastern shores of the Hawaiian Islands. The rough waves prompted the closure of several beaches in Maui and the Big Island. Wave heights reached 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) in most places, while portions of Maui experienced up to 20-foot (6.1 m) waves. The surf damaged coastal roads along most of the islands, and some homes were flooded. One home in Maui was moved several feet off of its foundation due to the waves. In the harbor at Hilo, one boat was damaged and another was destroyed, and in the Puna district, 12 homes were damaged. Although the hurricane remained away from the islands, moisture from Fernanda combined with an upper-level trough to produce rainfall across the state. Precipitation was heaviest in Kauai, where some minor flooding was reported. After Fernanda became extratropical in the shipping lanes of the north Pacific, several vessels reported gale-force winds.
## See also
- Hurricane Felicia (2009)
- List of Hawaii hurricanes
- List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes |
76,371 | Sweet Smell of Success | 1,170,707,523 | 1957 film by Alexander Mackendrick | [
"1950s American films",
"1950s English-language films",
"1957 drama films",
"1957 films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American drama films",
"American satirical films",
"Curtleigh Productions films",
"English-language drama films",
"Film noir",
"Films about journalists",
"Films based on short fiction",
"Films directed by Alexander Mackendrick",
"Films produced by Burt Lancaster",
"Films produced by Harold Hecht",
"Films produced by James Hill",
"Films scored by Elmer Bernstein",
"Films set in New York City",
"Films shot in New York City",
"Films with screenplays by Ernest Lehman",
"Norma Productions films",
"United Artists films",
"United States National Film Registry films"
]
| Sweet Smell of Success is a 1957 American film noir drama film directed by Alexander Mackendrick, starring Burt Lancaster, Tony Curtis, Susan Harrison, and Martin Milner, and written by Clifford Odets, Ernest Lehman, and Mackendrick from the novelette by Lehman. The shadowy noir cinematography filmed on location in New York City was shot by James Wong Howe. The picture was produced by James Hill of Hecht-Hill-Lancaster Productions and released by United Artists. The supporting cast features Sam Levene, Barbara Nichols, Joe Frisco, Edith Atwater, David White and Emile Meyer. The musical score was arranged and conducted by Elmer Bernstein and the film also features jazz performances by the Chico Hamilton Quintet. Mary Grant designed the costumes.
The film tells the story of powerful and sleazy newspaper columnist J.J. Hunsecker (portrayed by Lancaster and based on Walter Winchell) who uses his connections to ruin his sister's relationship with a man he deems unworthy of her.
Despite a poorly received preview screening, Sweet Smell of Success has greatly improved in stature over the years. It is now highly acclaimed by film critics, particularly for its cinematography and screenplay. In 1993, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."
Sweet Smell of Success: The Musical was created by Marvin Hamlisch, Craig Carnelia, and John Guare in 2002.
## Plot
Sidney Falco is a morally bankrupt Manhattan press agent, and a frustrated fringe player. Sidney promises his clients positive publicity in the fashionable newspaper column run by influential media kingpin J.J. Hunsecker. But Hunsecker is overly protective of his younger sister Susan, and asks Sidney to derail her romance with up-and-coming jazz guitarist Steve Dallas. When Sidney fails to do so (in fact the pair become engaged) he finds himself frozen out of Hunsecker's column.
Sidney is losing money and clients and, desperate to salvage his career, persuades Hunsecker to give him another chance to break up Susie and Steve. Sidney's plan is to plant a rumor in a rival newspaper column that Dallas is a drug user and a Communist, which is enough to get him fired from the jazz club where his combo plays. Hunsecker can then gain points with Susan by defending Dallas and getting him his job back; but Sidney counts on an overly prideful Dallas rejecting a tainted favor.
To get his dirt planted, Sidney attempts to blackmail a prominent columnist by threatening to expose his marital infidelity. Instead, the columnist chooses exposure over compromising his journalistic integrity, a choice even his wife praises as his first decent act in years. Sidney then bribes a second columnist with a sexual favor, to be provided by a cigarette girl with whom he has a friendly relationship. She is in fact waiting for Sidney back at his apartment. When Sidney arrives home with the columnist – suggesting the two "get to know each other", she is outraged but ultimately goes along with his plan.
The next day, the smear appears in the other journalist's column and Dallas's jazz group is fired from the club.
As planned, in Susan's presence Hunsecker theatrically gets Dallas rehired with a phone call, but Dallas still denounces Hunsecker for his malignant influence on society. Forced to choose between them, Susan breaks up with Dallas in an attempt to protect him from her vengeful brother. In spite of this, Hunsecker is so incensed by Dallas's insults, which he twists around to characterize as attacks on his loyal, patriotic audience, that he escalates matters. He orders Sidney to plant marijuana on Dallas and then have him arrested and roughed up by a corrupt police lieutenant, Harry Kello. To swing him round, Hunsecker dangles the offer of Sidney's filling in on his column for three months while he himself takes Susan to Europe to forget about Dallas.
At the jazz club, Sidney slips marijuana cigarettes into the pocket of Dallas's coat. Dallas is accosted by Kello outside the club and beaten so badly he ends up in hospital. Sidney then celebrates at a bar where, surrounded by his industry pals, he toasts to his favorite new perfume, "success".
The festivities are interrupted when Sidney is summoned to Hunsecker's penthouse apartment. Sidney arrives to find Susie in her nightgown; she is distraught about Steve, and is about to jump off the balcony. Sidney stops her in the nick of time, and takes her into her bedroom to rest. Hunsecker then arrives to find Sidney and Susan in what appears to be a compromising position in her bedroom. Hunsecker attacks Sidney and brutally slaps him around. Too late, Sidney realises he has been set up by Susie. Livid, Sidney reveals to Susan that her brother conspired to frame Dallas, before leaving the apartment, telling Hunsecker that nothing can stop him from making the truth public, and that Hunsecker has lost his sister forever. Hunsecker then calls Kello and tells him Dallas is innocent and that Falco planted the evidence, as unbeknown to him Sidney had been trying "to make his sister". As Sidney exits the building he is stopped and beaten by the brutal cop.
Susie packs a bag to leave; when Hunsecker tries to stop her, she says she had contemplated suicide as she would rather be dead than living with him. She is now leaving to be with Dallas. A distraught Hunsecker then watches from the balcony as Susie walks into the coming dawn to start a new life with her lover.
## Cast
## Production
Faced with potential unemployment from the sale of Ealing Studios to the BBC in 1954, director Alexander Mackendrick began entertaining offers from Hollywood. He rejected potential contracts from Cary Grant and David Selznick and signed with independent production company Hecht-Hill-Lancaster, enticed by their offer to adapt George Bernard Shaw’s play The Devil's Disciple. After the project collapsed during pre-production, Mackendrick asked to be released from his commitment. Harold Hecht refused and asked him to start work on another project – adapting Ernest Lehman’s novellette Sweet Smell of Success into a film.
Lehman’s story had originally appeared in the April 1950 issue of Cosmopolitan, renamed "Tell Me About It Tomorrow!" because the editor of the magazine did not want the word "smell" in the publication. It was based on his own experiences working as an assistant to Irving Hoffman, a New York press agent and columnist for The Hollywood Reporter. Hoffman subsequently did not speak to Lehman for a year and a half. Hoffman then wrote a column for The Hollywood Reporter speculating that Lehman would make a good screenwriter, and within a week Paramount called Lehman, inviting him to Los Angeles for talks. Lehman forged a screenwriting career in Hollywood, writing Executive Suite, Sabrina, North by Northwest, The Sound of Music, West Side Story, The King and I, and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?.
### Pre-production
By the time Hecht-Hill-Lancaster acquired Success, Lehman was in position to not only adapt his own novelette but also produce and direct the film. After scouting locations, Lehman was told by Hecht that distributor United Artists was having second thoughts about going with a first-time director, so Hecht offered the film to Mackendrick. Initially, the director had reservations about trying to film such a dialogue-heavy screenplay, so he and Lehman worked on it for weeks to make it more cinematic. As the script neared completion, Lehman became ill and had to resign from the picture. James Hill took over and offered Paddy Chayefsky as Lehman's replacement. Mackendrick suggested Clifford Odets, the playwright whose reputation as a left-wing hero had been tarnished after he named names before the House Un-American Activities Committee.
Mackendrick assumed that Odets would need only two or three weeks to polish the script, but he took four months. The director recalled, "We started shooting with no final script at all, while Clifford reconstructed the thing from stem to stern". The plot was largely intact, but in Mackendrick's biography he is quoted from Notes on Sweet Smell of Success: "What Clifford did, in effect, was dismantle the structure of every single sequence in order to rebuild situations and relationships that were much more complex, had much greater tension and more dramatic energy". This process took time, and the start date for the production could not be delayed. Odets had to accompany the production to Manhattan and continued rewriting while they shot there. Returning to the city that had shunned him for going to Hollywood made Odets very neurotic and obsessed with all kinds of rituals as he worked at a furious pace, with pages often going straight from his typewriter to being shot the same day. Mackendrick said, "So we cut the script there on the floor, with the actors, just cutting down lines, making them more spare – what Clifford would have done himself, really, had there been time".
Tony Curtis had to fight for the role of Sidney Falco because Universal, the studio to which he was contracted, was worried that it would ruin his career. Tired of doing pretty-boy roles and wanting to prove that he could act, Curtis got his way. Orson Welles was originally considered for the role of J. J. Hunsecker. Mackendrick wanted to cast Hume Cronyn because he felt that Cronyn closely resembled Walter Winchell, the basis for the Hunsecker character in the novelette. Lehman makes the distinction in an interview that Winchell was the inspiration for the version of the character in the novelette, and that this differs from the character in the film version. United Artists wanted Burt Lancaster in the role because of his box office appeal and his successful pairing with Curtis on Trapeze. Robert Vaughn was signed to a contract with Lancaster's film company and was to have played the Steve Dallas role but was drafted into the Army before he could begin the film. Ernest Borgnine, contracted to Hecht-Hill-Lancaster since Marty (1955) was offered a role in the film but turned it down as his role was only seven pages long in the script. His refusal led him to be put on suspension from Hecht-Hill-Lancaster.
Hecht-Hill-Lancaster allowed Mackendrick to familiarize himself with New York City before shooting the movie. In Notes on Sweet Smell of Success, Mackendrick said, "One of the characteristic aspects of New York, particularly of the area between 42nd Street and 57th Street, is the neurotic energy of the crowded sidewalks. This was, I argued, essential to the story of characters driven by the uglier aspects of ambition and greed". He took multiple photographs of the city from several fixed points and taped the pictures into a series of panoramas that he stuck on a wall and studied once he got back to Hollywood.
Cellist Fred Katz and drummer Chico Hamilton, who briefly appear in the film as themselves, wrote a score for the movie, which was ultimately rejected in favor of one by Elmer Bernstein.
### Principal photography
Mackendrick shot the film in late 1956, and was scared the entire time because Hecht-Hill-Lancaster had a reputation for firing their directors for any or even no reason at all. The filmmaker was used to extensive rehearsals before a scene was shot and often found himself shooting a script page one or two hours after Odets had written it. Lancaster's presence proved to be intimidating for numerous individuals involved with the production; at one point, Lehman had been approached to direct the film, but declined due to his fear of Lancaster, although Hecht maintained that Lehman had never been offered the chance to direct. Mackendrick and composer Elmer Bernstein both found Lancaster intimidating, with Bernstein later recalling, "Burt was really scary. He was a dangerous guy. He had a short fuse". Mackendrick decided to use Lancaster's volatility to work for the character of JJ, asking that Lancaster wear his own browline glasses, which Mackendrick felt gave him the presence of "a scholarly brute". Mackendrick smeared a thin layer of vaseline on the lenses, preventing Lancaster from focusing his eyes and giving him a perpetually blank gaze. Assisted by cinematographer James Wong Howe, Mackendrick intentionally filmed scenes with JJ from a low angle using a wide-angle lens and with overhead lighting directly above Lancaster, so that the spectacle frames cast shadows on his face.
Shooting on location in New York City also added to Mackendrick's anxieties. Exteriors were shot in the busiest, noisiest areas with crowds of young Tony Curtis fans occasionally breaking through police barriers. Mackendrick remembered, "We started shooting in Times Square at rush hour, and we had high-powered actors and a camera crane and police help and all the rest of it, but we didn’t have any script. We knew where we were going vaguely, but that’s all".
## Musical score and soundtrack
## Reaction
A preview screening of Sweet Smell of Success was poorly received, as Tony Curtis fans were expecting him to play one of his typical nice guy roles and instead were presented with the scheming Sidney Falco. Mackendrick remembered seeing audience members "curling up, crossing their arms and legs, recoiling from the screen in disgust". Burt Lancaster's fans were not thrilled with their idol either, "finding the film too static and talky".
The film was a box-office failure, and Hecht blamed his producing partner Hill. "The night of the preview, Harold said to me, 'You know you've wrecked our company? We're going to lose over a million dollars on this picture,'" Hill recalled. According to Lehman, Lancaster blamed him, claiming that: "Burt threatened me at a party after the preview. He said, 'You didn't have to leave – you could have made this a much better picture. I ought to beat you up.' I said, 'Go ahead – I could use the money.'"
Variety estimated the film lost at least \$400,000 on its initial run.
Although he and Hecht would fire Mackendrick from The Devil's Disciple for the same painstaking (and costly) approach, Lancaster was quoted as saying that he felt Mackendrick had done a fantastic job for Sweet Smell of Success and that it wasn't his fault the film lost money. He also believed that Curtis should have gotten an Oscar for his role as Falco.
Sweet Smell of Success premiered in New York at Loew's State in Times Square on June 27, 1957. Critical reaction was much more favorable. Time magazine said the movie was "raised to considerable dramatic heights by intense acting, taut direction ... superb camera work ... and, above all, by its whiplash dialogue". Time and the New York Herald included the film on their ten-best lists for films released in 1957. The film's critical reputation increased in subsequent decades. David Denby in New York magazine later called it "the most acrid, and the best" of all New York movies because it captured, "better than any film I know the atmosphere of Times Square and big-city journalism".
Sweet Smell of Success holds a 98% rating based on 45 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes. At Metacritic it has a weighted average score rating of 100 out of 100 based on 5 reviews. A. O. Scott wrote in March 2002 for The New York Times: "Courtesy of Ernest Lehman and Clifford Odets, a high-toned street vernacular that no real New Yorker has ever spoken but that every real New Yorker wishes he could". Andrew Sarris in the New York Observer, again in 2002, wrote, "the main incentive to see this movie is its witty, pungent and idiomatic dialogue, such as you never hear on the screen anymore in this age of special-effects illiteracy".
### Legacy
In 1993, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
In 2002, Sweet Smell of Success: The Musical was created by Marvin Hamlisch, Craig Carnelia and John Guare. It was not considered a critical or commercial success.
In its "100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains" list, the American Film Institute (AFI) named J. J. Hunsecker number 35 of the top 50 movie villains of all time in 2003.
Filmmaker Barry Levinson paid tribute to Sweet Smell of Success in his 1982 film Diner, with one character wandering around saying nothing but lines from the film. In an early scene from Levinson's 1988 movie, Rain Man, Sweet Smell of Success is seen playing on television.
The Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "Contract" is an homage to the film, with Mo Rocca playing a gossip columnist who is clearly based on J.J. (in both appearance and attitude) and other characters from the episode quoting the film's lines many times.
The titles of episodes two and three from the first season of Breaking Bad — "Cat's in the Bag..." and "...And the Bag's in the River" — are a direct quote from Sweet Smell of Success, which has been described by the show's creator, Vince Gilligan, as his all-time favorite movie.
(\*) designates unordered lists.
### American Film Institute recognition
100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains -- \#35 Villain (J.J. Hunsecker)
## Home media
Sweet Smell of Success was released on DVD (Region 1) and Blu-ray (Region A) as part of The Criterion Collection in February 2011. The release includes new audio commentary featuring film scholar James Naremore, Mackendrick: The Man Who Walked Away, a 1986 documentary produced by Scottish Television featuring interviews with director Alexander Mackendrick, actor Burt Lancaster, producer James Hill, and others. James Wong Howe: Cinematographer, a 1973 documentary about the film's director of photography, featuring lighting tutorials with Howe, a new video interview with film critic and historian Neal Gabler (Winchell: Gossip, Power and the Culture of Celebrity) about legendary columnist Walter Winchell, inspiration for the character J. J. Hunsecker, and a new video interview with filmmaker James Mangold about Mackendrick, his instructor and mentor. There is also a booklet featuring an essay by critic Gary Giddins, notes about the film and two short stories introducing its characters by screenwriter Ernest Lehman, and an excerpt about Clifford Odets from Mackendrick’s book On Film-making, introduced by the book’s editor, Paul Cronin.
## See also
- List of American films of 1957 |
6,168,333 | Penhallam | 1,083,717,941 | Former fortified manor house in Cornwall | [
"Country houses in Cornwall",
"English Heritage sites in Cornwall",
"Manors in Cornwall"
]
| Penhallam is the site of a fortified manor house near Jacobstow in Cornwall, England. There was probably an earlier, 11th-century ringwork castle on the site, constructed by Tryold or his son, Richard fitz Turold in the years after the Norman invasion of 1066. Their descendants, in particular Andrew de Cardinham, created a substantial, sophisticated manor house at Penhallam between the 1180s and 1234, building a quadrangle of ranges facing onto an internal courtyard, surrounded by a moat and external buildings. The Cardinhams may have used the manor house for hunting expeditions in their nearby deer park. By the 14th century, the Cardinham male line had died out and the house was occupied by tenants. The surrounding manor was broken up and the house itself fell into decay and robbed for its stone. Archaeological investigations between 1968 and 1973 uncovered its foundations, unaltered since the medieval period, and the site is now managed by English Heritage and open to visitors.
## 11th century
Penhallam Manor is located near Jacobstow, in a sheltered valley leading down to the sea, at the junction of two tributaries of the River Neet. The valley is now a mixture of woodland and marshes, although in the medieval period it would have formed a more open area of land.
There may have been an earlier Anglo-Saxon building on the site, although no traces have been found. Shortly after the Norman conquest of England, however, a ringwork castle was probably built at Penhallam by the invaders, and a substantial manor was recorded as being present there in the Domesday survey of 1086. The construction work was carried out either by a one Tryold - a follower of Robert, the Count of Mortain - or his son, Richard fitz Turold. In the wake of the invasion, Robert acquired vast lands in Cornwall, and in turn the pair were granted the honour of Cardinham, a feudal landing holding comprising 28 manors.
The castle at Penhallam took advantage of a raised area of ground above the marshes, with a circular bank of earth possibly up to 50 feet (15 m) wide and 12 feet (3.7 m) high, surrounded by a shallow, wet moat up to 38 feet (12 m) across. A hall would have been constructed within the ringwork, up to 60 feet (18 m) in length, possibly using stone or cobwalling. A bailey probably lay just to the south, containing the stables and outbuildings, probably within the earth bank that surrounds the modern farmstead.
## 12th-13th centuries
Tyrold and Richard fitz Turold founded what eventually became known as the Cardinham family, who became powerful Cornish landowners and agents for the Crown. Penhallam was an important manor for them, and it may have acted as their administrative caput before the family established their main castle at Cardinham. The family probably visited several times a year, possibly to go hunting in the deer park they established stretching up the valleys to the south-west. From around 1180 onwards, under either Robert fitz William or Robert de Cardinham, the manor house began to be redeveloped, with the ringwork defences being mostly demolished in the process.
The first work involved building a camera - a chamber alongside the existing hall - and was carried out between 1180 and 1200. A set of rooms known as a wardrobe, used for accommodation and storage, and a garderobe followed on the north end. Robert's son, Andrew de Cardinham, inherited the family's estates around 1226 and carried on expanding Penhallam, building a new hall, a service wing - including a kitchen, buttery, pantry, and a combined brewhouse and bakehouse - a chapel, lodgings, and a gatehouse. The gatehouse was protected by a drawbridge, leading to a set of stables and other service buildings on the site of the former bailey. The exterior walls were whitewashed and would have made the property highly visible from the nearest road. By around 1234, the result was a substantial, sophisticated manor house, with a large quadrangle of ranges, approximately 158 by 125 feet (48 by 38 m) across, facing onto an internal courtyard.
Andrew gave the manor to Emma, his widowed sister-in-law, for the remainder of her life in 1234; Andrew left no male heir, and on his death the manor passed to his daughter, Isolda de Cardinham. Isolda then gave the manor to Sir Henry de Champernowne, a member of a powerful Devonshire family, at some point before 1270. Around this time, the drawbridge was replaced with a stone bridge and, around the end of the century, the southern kitchen and lodging buildings were rebuilt.
## 14th-21st centuries
By the 14th century, Penhallam was occupied by the Beaupré family, tenants of the Champernownes, and by 1330 the manor had begun to be subdivided into smaller units of land. The manor house was abandoned and fell into disrepair; the roof collapsed at some point after 1360. The walls were robbed for their stone and by 1428 the manor itself had ceased to exist. A small farmstead, called Berry or Bury Court, was established on the site of the former stables.
In the mid-20th century, plans were drawn up to clear the area around the former house, then owned by Roger Money-Kyrle and managed by Economic Forestry (South West) Ltd., in order to plant a new forest. Initial archaeological investigations were carried out by the Ministry of Public Building and Works in 1968, and work continued until 1973. The foundations of the walls, exposed by the archaeologists, were consolidated and protected, and the moat cleaned out and refilled. The site was protected under UK law as a scheduled monument in 1996, and is now managed by English Heritage and open to visitors.
## See also
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in England |
17,738,930 | Wandering Son | 1,168,997,711 | Manga and anime series | [
"2000s LGBT literature",
"2002 manga",
"2010s LGBT literature",
"2010s LGBT-related drama television series",
"2011 Japanese television series debuts",
"2011 Japanese television series endings",
"Anime International Company",
"Aniplex",
"Coming-of-age anime and manga",
"Drama anime and manga",
"Enterbrain manga",
"Fantagraphics titles",
"Fuji TV original programming",
"Japanese LGBT-related animated television series",
"Kadokawa Dwango franchises",
"Noitamina",
"School life in anime and manga",
"Seinen manga",
"Television shows written by Mari Okada",
"Transgender in anime and manga",
"Transgender-related comics",
"Transgender-related television shows"
]
| Wandering Son (Japanese: 放浪息子, Hepburn: Hōrō Musuko) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Takako Shimura. It was originally serialized in Comic Beam from the December 2002 to August 2013 issue, and published in 15 tankōbon volumes by Enterbrain from July 2003 to August 2013. The series is licensed in English by Fantagraphics Books, which released the first volume in North America in July 2011. A 12-episode anime adaptation produced by AIC Classic and directed by Ei Aoki aired in Japan between January and March 2011. Eleven episodes aired on television, with episodes 10 and 11 edited into a single episode, and were released individually on their respective BD/DVD volumes.
The story depicts a young trans girl named Shuichi Nitori, a student who develops a close relationship with another transgender classmate, a young boy named Yoshino Takatsuki. The series deals with issues such as coming to terms with being transgender, finding one's gender identity, the onset of puberty and gender dysphoria, and the social pressures associated with being transgender. Shimura was originally going to write the story about a girl in high school who wants to be a boy, but she realized that a boy who wants to be a girl before entering into puberty would have many worries related to growing up, and changed the story to fit this model. Wandering Son was selected as a recommended work by the awards jury of the tenth Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006. The series has been lauded for its exploration of gender identity and its depiction of transgender characters at the core of the story, though the emotional realism of the young characters has been called into question.
## Plot
At the start of Wandering Son, Shuichi Nitori is a student in the fifth grade who transfers into a new school. She quickly becomes friends with another student: the tall, boyish Yoshino Takatsuki. Yoshino soon learns of Shuichi's desire to be a girl. In a show of friendship, he confesses a similar desire to be a boy. Shuichi also becomes friends with Saori Chiba and Kanako Sasa, two other girls in the class. Saori instantly takes a liking to Shuichi and continuously encourages her to wear feminine clothes.
After Shuichi, Yoshino, and their friends enter sixth grade, Shuichi meets Makoto Ariga, another student their age from another class who is also a closeted transgender girl. Shuichi and Yoshino become friends with an adult named Yuki, who is a trans woman living with a cis man named Shiina. Shuichi's older sister Maho becomes a model and eventually becomes friends with Maiko, a teen model whom she idolizes, and two other teen models: Tamaki Satō and Anna Suehiro. Maho gets a boyfriend, Riku Seya, and Shuichi confesses a crush on Yoshino, but Yoshino cannot reciprocate Shuichi's feelings. After Saori learns of this, she confesses she likes Shuichi, but Shuichi too cannot return her feelings. This results in a falling-out between Shuichi's friends as they prepare to enter junior high school.
In junior high school, they meet a tall, eccentric girl who befriends everyone, Chizuru Sarashina, and her prickly friend Momoko Shirai, who does not get along well with the others—especially Saori. Eventually, Saori and Yoshino rejoin Shuichi's group of friends, though Saori says she still hates Yoshino and Momoko. Shuichi and Anna start dating, much to the surprise of their friends and Shuichi's sister. Yoshino and Saori manage to halfway repair their friendship, though Saori is still standoffish to others. Shuichi's friends are split up into several classes upon entering their second year in junior high school. Shuichi becomes friends with Shinpei Doi, who previously teased her about wanting to be a girl. Yoshino attends school in a boy's uniform for a short time, and Shuichi tries to go to school dressed as a girl one day, but is laughed at, and they both become discouraged. Shuichi's friends worry as she begins skipping school. Although Shuichi eventually starts attending school regularly again, Anna breaks off their relationship. By the time Shuichi, Yoshino, and their friends enter their third year in junior high school, Shuichi's voice is changing which causes her dysphoria to worsen. The group of friends start thinking about their future high school plans, and Shuichi and Anna start dating again.
Shuichi begins attending the same all-boy high school as Makoto and Doi, while Yoshino and Saori begin attending a high school where uniforms are not required. Saori starts dating Fumiya Ninomiya. Yoshino starts working at Anna's modeling agency and Shuichi begins working at a cafe, but later quits. Shuichi starts writing a semi-autobiographical novel. Yoshino later tells Shuichi that they no longer wish to be seen as male and have decided to continue living as a girl. They also confess a romantic attraction to Shuichi and the pair briefly hold hands before saying goodbye. Shuichi informs Anna of her true gender identity, and much to her surprise Anna decides to stay in a relationship with her. After graduating from high school, Shuichi moves out and goes to the same college as Doi. Shuichi continues to write the novel, which is given the title The Boy Who's a Girl (ぼくは、おんなのこ, Boku wa, Onna no Ko).
## Characters
### Protagonists
Shuichi Nitori (二鳥 修一, Nitori Shūichi)
Shuichi, one of two protagonists, is in the fifth grade of elementary school. She uses the first-person pronoun "boku" despite the fact that it's traditionally used by young boys. Otherwise known by the nicknames Shu (シュウ, Shū) and Nitorin (にとりん), Shuichi is trans and identifies as a girl. She is described as cute by many of the other characters and is able to convincingly pass as a cisgender girl when presenting as her identified gender, helped by her feminine face and build. Shuichi enjoys wearing cute clothes; although initially opposed to the idea of crossdressing, her friends Yoshino Takatsuki and Saori Chiba encourage her to dress and act femininely. As Shuichi grows up, puberty becomes a topic of increasing concern, such as the growth of body hair, a deepening voice, and the onset of pimples. She exhibits signs of gender dysphoria and displays an outward attraction to two characters in the series—Yoshino and Anna Suehiro. Shuichi and Anna date for a time in junior high, until she breaks off their relationship. However, the two soon resume their relationship with each other.
Shuichi is interested in doing indoor activities, and does not partake in activities favored by boys of the same age, such as playing sports. She enjoys and is skillful in baking sweet foods, though is never shown cooking other, more conventional foods. After starting an exchange diary with Yoshino, she becomes interested in writing stories, and even joins the drama club as a writer with Saori in junior high school after they co-write a rendition of Romeo and Juliet performed by members of their class. Shuichi has an honest personality, and easily gets along with others. As a child, she has an obedient, dutiful attitude. However, upon entering puberty, she sometimes experiences outbursts of intense emotion. Shuichi can be overly sensitive at times and is often shown crying in front of others. Due to these personality quirks, it is easier for her to associate with girls of the same age. Accordingly, she has few male friends.
Yoshino Takatsuki (高槻 よしの, Takatsuki Yoshino)
Yoshino, the other protagonist, is a tall, transgender boy who at the beginning of Wandering Son is a fifth grader in Shuichi's class. He uses the first-person pronoun "watashi", which is gender-neutral. Otherwise known as Takatsuki-kun (高槻くん) by their classmates, with an honorific used mainly with boys, he wishes to be a boy. He usually refrains from dressing in traditionally feminine clothes, such as skirts or dresses. Despite this, his mother insists on buying such clothes for him. Shortly after becoming friends with Shuichi, Yoshino gets a short haircut, taking on a more masculine appearance like the other boys his age, especially when he is dressed in a male school uniform. Like Shuichi, he becomes increasingly concerned and resentful about undergoing puberty, such as at the beginning of menstruation or the growth of breasts. He goes to buy a chest-flattening garment to escape the necessity of wearing a bra. Like Shuichi, Yoshino shows consistent symptoms of gender dysphoria, gender nonconformity, and a desire to be seen as a gender he was not assigned at birth. He temporarily alleviates his dysphoria when he has personal exposure to modeling. By the end of the story Yoshino has adopted a more feminine appearance and admits that they no longer have the same desire to become a boy as they did in elementary school.
Yoshino prefers to dress and act like a boy, but usually abstains from anything which would draw too much attention, such as going to school in a male uniform after entering junior high. However, he does on occasion dress in a male school uniform and go to neighboring cities while presenting as a boy; during one such time, he enjoys being hit on by an older woman. Yoshino wants to look "cool" and wears clothes which are not girlish. When teased by others, he is prone to getting emotional and is known to get violent on occasion. He takes up an interest in basketball after entering junior high school and joins the female basketball team with Chizuru Sarashina. In junior high, he decides not to get a haircut after a comment by Saori, but later cuts it back to a short, masculine style. However, by the end of high school Yoshino has voluntarily grown it out long again and continues to present as female. Yoshino's family consists of a father, mother, older brother, and older sister.
### Classmates
Saori Chiba (千葉 さおり, Chiba Saori)
Saori, nicknamed Saorin (さおりん), is a girl who is a fifth grader in Shuichi's class at the beginning of Wandering Son. She takes an interest in encouraging Shuichi to cross-dress, even going so far as to buy Shuichi an expensive dress as a birthday gift, which Shuichi later returns, much to her displeasure. Saori finds it difficult to associate with others; she has few friends, though becomes close to Shuichi. She tends to convey what is on her mind and disregards how others may take what she says. As Saori grows up, she gradually becomes more standoffish and stoic; she even has bad relations with her teachers. Despite her self-centered attitude, she remains popular among her male classmates due to her physical attractiveness. She is a sensitive girl whose temper sometimes gets the better of her when reprimanding bullies that tease Shuichi, because of the latter's femininity and cross-dressing. Saori is often emotionally affected by circumstances involving Shuichi, because of her feelings for the latter. Saori converts to Christianity partly because of this influence of to seek forgiveness for her previous actions, though she only attends mass when feeling guilty about her behavior.
Kanako Sasa (佐々 かなこ, Sasa Kanako)
Kanako Sasa, usually referred to by her surname, is a girl who is a fifth grader in Shuichi's class at the beginning of Wandering Son. She is sometimes called Kanabun (カナブン, lit. drone beetle) by her younger brother and Chizuru. She makes her first appearance in chapter two of the manga, but is not named until volume two. She is a short, energetic girl who thinks of herself as everyone's friend and becomes distressed when her friends fight among themselves. Sasa acts as a mediator between her friends in such times and tries not to leave anyone alone. She has been friends with Yoshino since pre-school, and later becomes close with Chizuru. Sasa is an innocent, childish girl who does not have many worries aside from her friends' quarrels. She tends to be a handful for her mother, who picks out her clothes for her and even helps her get ready for school in the morning. She mentions that if she thinks too hard about something, her brain becomes itchy.
Makoto Ariga (有賀 誠, Ariga Makoto)
Makoto first appears when the cast is in sixth grade, though is in a different class. Known as Mako for short, though mostly only to Shuichi, she is also a trans girl; it is this desire that spurs her to become Shuichi's closest friend. Due to facial freckles and round glasses, she is not able to appear as cute as Shuichi when wearing feminine clothes. She is a romantic who wants to be in a relationship with a cool, adult man. She is unusually mature and is able to think calmly and objectively while providing advice to friends. She also gets along well with boys and girls of the same age, because of good listening skills, and often becomes an onlooker to what is going on in other characters' lives. Makoto is an only child whose parents run a bakery.
Chizuru Sarashina (更科 千鶴, Sarashina Chizuru)
Chizuru, nicknamed Chii-chan, is a tall girl who first appears as a classmate of Shuichi when they both enter junior high school. She is Momoko's childhood friend, and has a stylish demeanor, highlighted by her stature and long hair, which captivates both Shuichi and Yoshino when they first meet her. Chizuru is described as a free spirit, someone who enjoys doing unconventional, often outrageous things which surprise those around her; she frequently acts without thinking, and as a result projects a childish personality. Her impulsive behavior sometimes gets her in trouble with other characters, but she quickly becomes ashamed when she realizes the consequences. She tries to be everyone's friend, though Saori strongly dislikes her impulsiveness. Chizuru joins the girls' basketball team in junior high. Her family runs a soba restaurant.
Momoko Shirai (白井 桃子, Shirai Momoko)
Momoko is a childhood friend and classmate of Chizuru in junior high school; she is nicknamed Momo. She constantly hangs around Chizuru and is visibly annoyed when Chizuru socializes with others, or even if someone simply sits too close to her. Momoko inevitably starts fighting Saori, who does not particularly respect Chizuru, when they talk.
### Others
Maho Nitori (二鳥 真穂, Nitori Maho)
Maho is Shuichi's sister. She is one year older than Shuichi is, and at the beginning of Wandering Son, she is in the sixth grade of elementary school. Maho shows a strong interest in clothes, and spends much of her money on new apparel. She is a big fan of a teen fashion model named Maiko, and to meet her, Maho auditions for the same modeling agency as Maiko. After she is hired and becomes recognized as a model, Maho enjoys being asked her autograph by complete strangers. While her modeling career initially starts out slowly, Maho soon gains confidence in her abilities, and becomes friends with Maiko and two other models, Anna Suehiro and Tamaki Satō. In contrast to her younger sibling, Maho is very out-spoken and tends to be rough with Shuichi, even hitting or slapping Shuichi on occasion, and she often forces things on Shuichi with little consideration of Shuichi's opinion. She does not like Shuichi's cross-dressing and gets angry and disturbed when she finds Shuichi dressed as a girl. In junior high school, Maho becomes attracted to her classmate Riku Seya, and eventually starts dating him.
Riku Seya (瀬谷 理久, Seya Riku)
Riku Seya, usually referred to by his surname, is a classmate of Maho's who meets her when they enter junior high school. He is generally a soft-spoken boy who initially takes an interest in Shuichi, whom he believes to be a cisgender girl, when they first meet. When he learns that she is assigned male, Seya becomes angry at Maho for hiding this and stringing him along, but he soon reconciles with her and eventually starts dating her. Seya remains polite with Shuichi, though due to their initial meeting, there is always some awkwardness between the two.
Anna Suehiro (末広 安那, Suehiro Anna)
Anna is a teen model who is a good friend of Maiko and goes to the same all-girl school as her; she is similarly well-known and experienced in modeling. She is considered outspoken and sharp-tongued by other models. Anna at first disapproves of Shuichi dressing as a girl, and even calls her a freak soon after meeting her. Anna initially tells Maho she has no interest in her "weak" sibling because of Shuichi's femininity, though later dates her for a time after Shuichi asks her out. Anna would later break up with her, however, the two soon resume their relationship with each other once more. Furthermore, Anna's opinion of Shuichi presenting as female also changes, she says that it actually suits her, and the two even go out together on a date with Shuichi presenting as a girl. Anna feels Shuichi is an interesting person, and once says she is like a cute little sister. Anna spends a lot of money on clothes, and enjoys modifying them.
Yuki (ユキ)
Yuki, born Hiroyuki Yoshida (吉田 紘之, Yoshida Hiroyuki), is a tall and attractive trans woman living with her boyfriend Shiina. She takes an early interest in Yoshino when she believes him to be a cisgender boy, though remains on good terms with him even after learning of his assigned sex. She also gives Shuichi and Yoshino helpful advice when they are troubled. Despite the differences between their situations, Yuki sees much of herself in Shuichi: when they were growing up, Shiina was the only friend who stood by the young Hiroyuki, as she was called then, while girls teased her and the boys bullied her to change. Yuki always keeps up a positive attitude, and runs a gay bar. Since her transition, she has not been on good terms with her parents, who run a uniform store.
Yuki is the main character of Takako Shimura's short story "Hana" (花), in the collection Boku wa, Onna no Ko (ぼくは、おんなのこ), in which her family—which consists of her father, mother, brother, and sister-in-law—also appears; Yuki is revealed to be a fan of Keiji Sada, a Shōwa period actor.
Shiina (椎名)
Shiina, given name unknown, otherwise referred to by his nickname Shii (しー), is another adult friend of Shuichi and Yoshino. He was Yuki's classmate in elementary school, and he eventually became her boyfriend after her transition. Unlike Yuki, Shiina had many friends in school. He generally just watches over Shuichi and Yoshino with Yuki, but he sometimes does bold and unexpected things, such as grabbing Yoshino's crotch when he first meets him because he feared that, because Yoshino was presenting as a boy at the time, Yuki might be having an illicit affair with him.
Fumiya Ninomiya (二宮 文弥, Ninomiya Fumiya)
Fumiya is a talkative boy one year older than Saori whom she meets when she starts going to church. Saori is easily annoyed by him, especially when he brings her flowers from his parents' flower shop. He takes an early interest in Saori and tries to become her boyfriend. After meeting Shuichi, Fumiya becomes jealous of Saori's interest in her, and finds her cross-dressing gross. While initially lying to Saori and Shuichi about having an interest in cross-dressing, he is later seen dressed as a girl while out with Shuichi, and again at the cultural festival at Shuichi's school. Fumiya enjoys the added attention that comes from cross-dressing and admits that he likes being called cute.
Shinpei Doi (土居伸平, Doi Shinpei)
Shinpei is a classmate of Shuichi. He tends to be confident in himself and in his opinions. In junior high school, he often bullies Shuichi for a perceived lack of masculinity, but he has a change of heart once in high school after meeting Yuki. His admiration and gradual approval of Shuichi presenting as a girl tempers his overbearing attitude, and he tries to befriend her, attempting to apologize for his past conduct. He even begins encouraging her to come to school dressed as a girl.
Maiko (麻衣子)
Maiko is a classmate and best friend of Anna Suehiro. She is a singer and model. She has a large fan base among Shuichi's classmates.
## Production
In an interview in August 2003, Takako Shimura stated that the theme of Wandering Son is similar to the second half of her previous manga series Shikii no Jūnin. Shimura took the junior high school teacher Kentarō Kaneda from Shikii no Jūnin and inserted him into Wandering Son, where he teaches at Shuichi's junior high school, because she really liked his character. Shimura originally planned to use a female high school student who wants to become a boy as the main character. However, she realized that a boy who wants to become a girl before entering into puberty would have many worries related to growing up, and changed the story accordingly. Shimura used her realization that the boy would go through significant changes as he grew up to deepen the development of the story and characters. The Japanese title, Hōrō Musuko, is a pun on hōtō musuko (放蕩息子), meaning "prodigal son".
Shimura mainly found her characters' names by looking through name dictionaries, although she also took the names of acquaintances and slightly changed them, and even used train station names for side characters appearing only once. Out of all the characters, Shimura is most pleased with Kanako Sasa. For the designs of clothes for the female characters, Shimura consulted various fashion magazines for girls in their early teens, especially Nicola. Shimura commented self-deprecatingly in the afterword of volume one that, like her other series, her characters do not look very different from each other, her panels are too white, and there is much pathos.
## Media
### Manga
The manga Wandering Son is written and illustrated by Takako Shimura. It was serialized in the monthly seinen (aimed at younger adult men) manga magazine Comic Beam from the December 2002 to August 2013 issue. The individual chapters were collected and published in 15 tankōbon volumes by Enterbrain from July 25, 2003 to August 28, 2013. Wandering Son was one of several manga titles included with the launch in December 2009 of the manga distribution service of the PlayStation Store for the Japanese PlayStation Portable handheld game console.
The series is licensed in English by Fantagraphics Books, which began releasing the series in North America in hardcover format starting with the first volume on July 5, 2011. Gary Groth of Fantagraphics Books said in an interview he licensed Wandering Son because "it's not a typical choice for a manga title published in the U.S. and it's not typical subject matter for comics in general," saying that the subject is "perfectly legitimate ... for literature—or comics." Although Fantagraphics Books released eight volumes by June 2015, the release of further volumes was hampered by low sales. The series is also licensed by Ever Glory Publishing in Taiwan and by Haksan Culture Company in Korea.
### Anime
A 12-episode anime television series adaptation produced by AIC Classic and Aniplex aired in Japan between January 13 and March 31, 2011 on Fuji TV's Noitamina programming block. Crunchyroll simulcasted the anime on their streaming website. However, it was removed from Crunchyroll on April 21, 2021. Aniplex released the anime on six Blu-ray and DVD compilation volumes in Japan between April 27 and September 21, 2011. Of the 11 episodes to be aired on TV, episodes 10 and 11 were edited into a single episode, and were released individually on their respective BD/DVD volumes. Following the arrest of Ai Takabe, the voice actress who played Maiko, for drug possession in October 2015, Bandai Channel removed the series from its streaming catalog. The anime adapts the story from the point where the characters enter junior high school.
The anime is directed by Ei Aoki and the screenplay was written by Mari Okada. Chief animator Ryūichi Makino based the character design used in the anime on Takako Shimura's original concept and the main animator is Michio Satō. The music was produced by Satoru Kosaki and Keiichi Okabe, both from Monaca, and the sound director is Jin Aketagawa. The anime's opening theme song is "Itsudatte." (いつだって。) by Daisuke and the single was released on March 2, 2011. The ending theme is "For You" by Rie fu and the single was released on February 16, 2011. The original soundtrack was released on August 24, 2011.
## Reception
It was reported in June 2013 that approximately 1.05 million copies of the manga are in print in Japan. Wandering Son was selected as a recommended work by the awards jury of the tenth Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006. The Young Adult Library Services Association nominated Wandering Son for its 2012 Great Graphic Novels for Teens list. The anime was awarded the honorable mention prize for technical achievement in broadcast animation at the 65th Motion Picture and Television Engineering Society of Japan Awards in 2012.
In a review of the first volume by Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network (ANN), she praised the slow pace of the storytelling, which "gives it a more realistic feel." Silverman praises Takako Shimura for making Shuichi into a "human protagonist", but notes that "most of the children act much older than they are." The second volume was featured in ANN's Right Turn Only column in March 2007 as the Import of the Month, where Carlo Santos lauded the series for using gender reversal as the "actual heart of the story" in contrast to "every other series" involving cross-dressing, which use "gender reversal as a goofy plot device." The art was praised as "simple [with] few lines, but incredibly expressive" which Santos claimed is a "style that's the most difficult and beautiful of all." Santos criticized the "emotional realism" of the work for having the young characters' "unrealistically mature attitude" towards "issues above their grade level."
Rachel Matt Thorn, the English translator of the manga, wrote that fans of Anne of Green Gables or The Rose of Versailles would also enjoy Wandering Son, and Silverman compared Wandering Son to Mizuiro Jidai. Thorn described the art as "clean and lovely" and went on to cite Wandering Son as "sweet, thought-provoking, funny, and moving, and I think it will resonate with readers regardless of their gender identity or sexual orientation." The first manga volume as translated by Fantagraphics Books had an early debut at the May 2011 Toronto Comic Arts Festival and sold out within the first two hours of the event.
In a 2019 Forbes's article about the best anime of the 2010s decade, Lauren Orsini considered it to be one of the five best anime of 2011 and called it "A breakout show in the transgender drama genre". Orsini praised the "delicate, watercolor-like art" and how the story is "treated with empathy and kindness", but "at the same time, it's far from a lecture; its focus on characters keeps it as entertaining as it is enlightening". Additionally, Beatrice Viri of CBR stated that the manga's ending is "rather controversial due to the treatment of the character Yoshino," but is still considered a popular LGBTQ manga. |
8,224,307 | One Breath (The X-Files) | 1,171,607,266 | null | [
"1994 American television episodes",
"The X-Files (season 2) episodes"
]
| "One Breath" is the eighth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network on November 11, 1994. It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong, directed by R. W. Goodwin, and featured guest appearances by Melinda McGraw, Sheila Larken and Don S. Davis. The episode helped to explore the series' overarching mythology. "One Breath" earned a Nielsen household rating of 9.5, being watched by 9.1 million households in its initial broadcast. The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics.
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In the episode, Scully is found comatose in hospital after her abduction in the earlier episode "Ascension". Mulder attempts to investigate what has happened to her, but finds himself hindered by a man he had believed to be an ally.
Anderson returned to the series only days after having given birth, missing the previous episode due to her pregnancy. Morgan and Wong attempted to create a version of the earlier episode "Beyond the Sea", this time centered on Duchovny's character Mulder. The episode also introduced the character of Melissa Scully, an attempt to provide a romantic lead for Mulder which was later dropped.
## Plot
### Background
FBI special agent Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) is currently missing, having disappeared after being kidnapped by a deranged multiple-abductee in the two-part episodes "Duane Barry" and "Ascension". Her partner Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) has continued his work without her, but is still investigating her disappearance, believing her to have been abducted by aliens. His investigations into similar abductions in the past have been aided by The Lone Gunmen, a trio of conspiracy theorists made up of John Byers (Bruce Harwood), Melvin Frohike (Tom Braidwood) and Richard Langly (Dean Haglund).
### Events
Scully's mother, Margaret (Sheila Larken), tells Mulder a story about Dana shooting a snake with her brothers as a child and regretting what she did. She indicates that she is ready to let go of Dana and shows Mulder Scully's gravestone. Mulder, however, refuses to give up.
Scully then turns up mysteriously at a hospital in a coma. An out-of-control Mulder demands to know how she got there and is escorted out by security but calms down and meets with Dr. Daly (Jay Brazeau), who reveals that no one can figure out how she got there or what's wrong with her. At Scully's bedside, Mulder meets her older sister Melissa (Melinda McGraw).
Scully has a vision of sitting in a boat, attached by rope to a dock where Mulder and Melissa stand with the mysterious Nurse Owens behind them. Frohike visits Scully and sneaks out her medical chart, which the Lone Gunmen investigate. Byers finds that Scully's blood contains branched DNA that may have been used for identification but now is inactive and a poisonous waste product in her system.
Later, Mulder visits Scully while another nurse takes her blood. A mysterious man steals Scully's blood sample and runs. Mulder chases him to the parking lot where he is confronted by X, who demands that he stop pursuing what happened to Scully and let her die. He then executes the man who stole her blood. When Assistant Director Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) calls Mulder to his office regarding the incident, Mulder denies any involvement and claims that The Smoking Man is responsible for what happened to Scully. Mulder demands to know where he is, but Skinner refuses to tell him.
In another vision, Scully lies on a table and is visited by her deceased father. Mulder, with Melissa in the hospital cafeteria, is asked by a woman for change for the cigarette machine. When she says that a pack of Morleys is already there and leaves, Mulder opens it and finds the Smoking Man's address inside. Mulder bursts into the Smoking Man's home and holds him at gunpoint, demanding to know why Scully was taken instead of him. The Smoking Man claims he likes both of them, which is why she was returned; he reveals that he told Skinner that Mulder shot the man in the parking lot, although he didn't believe this to be true, incidentally revealing himself as being unaware of who did, namely X. He tells Mulder that he'll never know the truth if he kills him, and Mulder decides not to.
Mulder returns to FBI headquarters and types a resignation letter that he hands to Skinner. Skinner visits his office as Mulder is packing and relates an out-of-body experience he had in Vietnam. He refuses to accept Mulder's resignation, and Mulder realizes that he was the one who provided him with the Smoking Man's location. Heading to the parking garage, Mulder is met by X, telling him that he'll have a chance for revenge that night when men, believing him to have information on Scully, will search his apartment. Mulder is waiting with his gun at his apartment when Melissa arrives. Although he initially refuses to leave, Melissa convinces Mulder to see Scully. While with Scully, Mulder holds her hand and talks to her. Returning home to find his apartment trashed, he sits on the floor and cries.
Scully awakens the following day, and Mulder is called to the hospital to see her, where she indicates that she heard his voice while in her coma, and he returns her cross necklace. Scully tells him she doesn't remember anything after being kidnapped by Duane Barry. Later, Scully asks one of the nurses if she can see Nurse Owens, but the nurse tells Scully that no nurse named Owens has ever worked at that hospital.
## Production
The episode title, "One Breath" comes from a line from Scully's father when he talks to her during the episode. The character 'The Thinker', who later appears in person in the episode "Anasazi" was named after online X-Files fan 'DuhThinker'. The episode introduces Melinda McGraw as Scully's sister Melissa. McGraw had previously worked with writers Glen Morgan and James Wong, who specifically wrote the part with her in mind. Thoughts were given to having a romantic interest between Mulder and Melissa, but the concept never came to pass.
Writer Glen Morgan said of the episode, "Duchovny challenged us to do a "Beyond the Sea" for him. The show had been so dark and bleak, and Jim and I feel that there is a side to the paranormal that's very hopeful. We wanted to do that side of it. I thought it would be a great opportunity for Duchovny, but then the situation came up with Gillian's pregnancy. We needed to get her off her feet anyway." Consequently, Gillian Anderson, who had just given birth to her daughter Piper days before this episode spent the majority of the episode in a hospital bed.
Chris Carter described the opening scene—in which Scully discovers the truth about death, sadness, and sorrow—as "a way he would never imagined an X-Files episode to begin with", and that the related scene with Scully's tombstone was "a soft but beautiful opening" that "sets up the episode in a frightening way". The image of Scully in the boat was meant to symbolize "being tethered to something very tenuously, and that there was a chance for you to be cut adrift and slip into the unknown". Skinner facing the Smoking Man placed the character as "both an antagonistic and institutional figure" that tries to be both an FBI agent and an ally of Mulder and Scully—his refusal to allow the Smoking Man to smoke in his office "speaks of [Skinner's] alliances and allegiances to Agent Scully and his hatred of this man he cannot vanquish, he cannot get rid of, but he has to tolerate".
## Reception
### Ratings
"One Breath" premiered on the Fox network on November 11, 1994, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 16, 1995. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9.5 with a 16 share, meaning that roughly 9.5 percent of all television-equipped households, and 16 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. A total of 9.1 million households watched this episode during its original airing.
### Reviews
"One Breath" received mostly positive reviews from critics. The Munchkyn Zone reviewer Sarah Stegall gave the episode a glowing review and rated it 6 sunflower seeds out of 5. Stegall stated the episode "works on several levels" and called it the "best yet". John Keegan, writing for Critical Myth, gave the episode a favorable review and rated it a 10 out of 10. Keegan stated "this is easily one of the best episodes of the series, if not the best" and concluded it is "truly a masterpiece". Nina Sordi, writing for Den of Geek, ranked the episode as the eighth best in the series' run, calling it "just too unforgettable". Sordi added that "verbal sparring matches between Mulder and Scully's equally feisty sister, Melissa, created an interesting dynamic in the absence of Scully's perspective". Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the fifteenth "greatest" episode of the series, considering it a "testament to the X-Files writing staff's ability to turn the temporary loss of one of the stars into a compelling, suspenseful and worthwhile piece of the overall mythology". In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly, the episode was rated a B. Its "absurd symbolism and the introduction of Scully's dopey New Age sister" were criticized, but it was felt that these elements did not prevent "One Breath" from being a "richly layered installment". It was also felt that the episode featured "arguably Duchovny's best performance". Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club hailed "One Breath" as an essential episode of the show. He felt that there was a "sloppiness to the mythology" and that "the resolution of the whole coma situation is weak". However, the "incredibly moving moments" and highlights such as Mulder attacking the Smoking Man and Skinner's speech about Vietnam turned it into an episode "more about the moments than the big picture".
In 1996, Chris Carter declared "One Breath" to be one of the series' most popular episodes. Co-writer James Wong also enjoyed the episode, saying "I really love that show". Director R. W. Goodwin said of the episode, "What's so unusual about "One Breath" is that it had very little to do with our usual X-File stuff. It was more about human emotions, drama, relationships".
### Awards
"One Breath" earned a nomination for an Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Cinematography - Series. |
41,100,772 | Battle of Kupres (1992) | 1,150,566,982 | Part of the Bosnian War | [
"April 1992 events in Europe",
"Battles involving Croatia",
"Battles of the Bosnian War",
"Bosnian War",
"Conflicts in 1992"
]
| The Battle of Kupres (Serbo-Croatian: Bitka za Kupres / Битка за Купрес) was a battle of the Bosnian War, fought between the Bosnian Croat Territorial Defence Force (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) supported by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) troops on one side and the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA), augmented by the Bosnian Serb TO on the other at the Kupres Plateau, on 3–11 April 1992. During the fighting on 8 April, the Bosnian Croat TO was reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council (Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO). The objective of the battle was to control the strategic Kupres Plateau, a major supply route.
The opposing sides began bringing in reinforcements to the Kupres Plateau on 5 March to strengthen positions held around individual settlements populated by different ethnic groups, communications between those positions, and roads leading away from the plateau to the north and south. Different parts of the town of Kupres were controlled by the opposing forces, while the adjacent territory surrounding the town was controlled by the Bosnian Croat TO. In turn, that territory was surrounded by Bosnian Serb TO-held territory. By the end of the month, the bulk of the civilians living in the area were evacuated. On 2 April, negotiations to defuse the situation failed while the reinforcements continued to arrive. The battle commenced the next day. In Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO achieved minor territorial gains on 4–5 April, before the JNA managed to advance to the outskirts of the town the next day. The JNA entered Kupres in the afternoon of 7 April and in the next few days, it successfully drove the Croatian forces from the plateau. The breakthrough came about after the infantry originally deployed to the battle was reinforced by an armoured battalion deployed from Knin.
Croatian forces were hampered by an inadequate command structure, poor coordination and lack heavy weapons. The battle resulted in more than 200 combat deaths, and established lines of control which would remain unchanged until 1994, when the plateau was recaptured by the HVO. In 2012, Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Croats with war crimes committed at the plateau against civilians and prisoners of war. The next year, Croatian authorities charged 21 former JNA members with war crimes against HVO prisoners captured at the Kupres Plateau.
## Background
As the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA) withdrew from Croatia following the implementation of the Vance plan, it was reorganised into a new Bosnian Serb army. This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This declaration was later cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War. Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital, Sarajevo, and other areas on 1 March. On the following day, the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj. On 27 March, Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery, drawing a border crossing by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) 108th Brigade in response.
Control of the Kupres area was contested by Bosnian Serbs and Croats. Before the war, the former represented the majority of the population on the Kupres Plateau, comprising a total of 51 percent of its inhabitants, while Croats accounted for 39 percent. The JNA deployed an armoured unit based in Mostar to the plateau in May 1991. The bulk of the force moved to Knin three months later, while a tactical group of the 30th Partisan Division redeployed to the general area as it withdrew from Slovenia after the Ten-Day War. In September, the Bosnian Croats established the Territorial Defence Force (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) headquarters which set up armed volunteer units. By November, these units had been organised as the Kupres Battalion. The battalion consisted of five companies and an independent platoon. A Central Intelligence Agency report described the unit as a "barely organized collection of mostly local villagers and townspeople". The arming of the various forces was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991. In early 1992, the 30th Partisan Division was subordinated to the JNA 5th (Banja Luka) Corps and assigned Kupres as its area of responsibility (AOR). The division, likely comprising only 2,000 troops, was under the command of Colonel Stanislav Galić. As of 19 March, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps was under command of Lieutenant General Momir Talić.
In April, the Bosnian Serbs were able to deploy 200,000 troops, hundreds of tanks, armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and artillery pieces. The Bosnian Croats could field approximately 25,000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons, while the Bosniaks were largely unprepared for combat with nearly 100,000 troops, but small arms for less than half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons.
## Prelude
On 5 March, the Bosnian Serb TO requested equipment for two companies mobilised in villages around Kupres—Malovan, Rilić and Ravno. The mobilisation was motivated by poor military intelligence provided by the 30th Partisan Division. It indicated the presence of thousands of HV and Bosnian Croat troops in the vicinity of Kupres, supported by Leopard 1 tanks drawn from a contingent of approximately 100 Leopards that the JNA believed had been delivered to Croatia. In response, the division was tasked to deploy its elements to Kupres, Ključ, Mrkonjić Grad, Šipovo, Jajce and the Mount Vlašić, take command of the Bosnian Serb TO and repel the expected Croatian attack. In order to achieve this, the division mobilised the 1st, 13th and 19th Partisan Brigades—assigning Kupres to the 19th Brigade as its AOR. By 23 March, the brigade received mobilised troops sufficient to set up three companies. Their immediate task was to block the Malovan and Kupreška Vrata mountain passes. The next day, the divisional commander toured the plateau and was informed that the Bosnian Croat forces were in control of the villages of Olovo, Osmanlije and Zlosela, in addition to Kupreška Vrata. On 26 March, the Bosnian Serb TO battalion based in Malovan was subordinated to the 19th Partisan Brigade. At this time, both sides had a relatively small portion of their force inside Kupres, while the Bosnian Croat TO held the area adjacently surrounding the town. The Bosnian Serb TO and the JNA completely controlled the areas surrounding the Bosnian Croat TO force.
The Malovan-based battalion set up its first roadblock on 26 March, and the Kupres Battalion established its own checkpoints in response the following day. On 27 March, an attempt to reach a negotiated settlement failed and the commanding officer of the 19th Partisan Brigade announced that armed combat might start at a moment's notice. The news prompted the evacuation of civilians of all ethnicities on 27–28 March. According to the daily report of the 30th Partisan Division of 29 March, the Kupres Plateau was deserted except for able bodied and armed men. The same report noted that the JNA could not deploy to Kupres itself without a fight. The JNA was convinced that the HV had intervened at Kupres to threaten the Bosnian Serbs. Kupres had a high strategic value, because it sat astride a road linking the towns of Bugojno and Tomislavgrad from the central Bosnia region to western Herzegovina and further on to Croatia.
### Reinforcements
On 29 March, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps of the JNA decided took the initiative around Kupres, redeploying elements of the 1st Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade to the Kupres Plateau, along with units drawn from the 9th (Knin) Corps, and the 293rd Engineer Regiment. A company of the 3rd Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade was also moved to the plateau on the following day, while the rest of the brigade was ordered to be ready to move to Kupres. The Kupres Battalion of the Bosnian Croat TO mobilised an additional 200 troops in Kupres the same day. On 31 March, the strengthened 1st Motorised Battalion of the 11th Motorised Infantry Brigade, drawn from the 9th (Knin) Corps, arrived at the Kupres Plateau. The battalion was strengthened by the addition of a battery of five 120-millimetre (4.7 in) mortars, six 105-millimetre (4.1 in) howitzers, three 76-millimetre (3.0 in) ZiS-3 guns and a platoon of 82-millimetre (3.2 in) recoilless rifles.
In the afternoon of 2 April, a five-hour meeting of local political leaders took place in Kupres, at the request of JNA. The purpose of the meeting, attended by members of Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Biljana Plavšić and Franjo Boras, was to defuse the situation. While there was an agreement to establish an ethnically balanced police force in Kupres and remove the roadblocks, the opposing sides could not agree on the role of the JNA. The Bosnian Serbs wanted the JNA to deploy to Kupres itself to ensure their protection, while the Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks wanted it to leave. During that same day, the 30th Partisan Division ordered the forces under its command, as well as the recent reinforcements, to capture Kupres and Kupreška Vrata and then hold their ground against anticipated Croatian counterattacks. Bosnian Croat authorities ordered the mobilisation of TO units in the nearby towns of Tomislavgrad and Posušje, with an armoured force at their disposal consisting of two T-55 tanks, two M36 tank destroyers, and one BVP M-80 infantry fighting vehicle.
There were 100–200 HV troops in Kupres during the battle. Those included a group drawn from the 204th Brigade, led by Robert Zadro (son of late Blago Zadro, former commander of the 3rd Battalion of the brigade). During the fighting, elements of the Zrinski Battalion reached Kupres, while relatively small groups of soldiers drawn from the Frankopan Battalion and the 4th Guards Brigade arrived when the battle was nearly over. A company drawn from the 126th Infantry Brigade was deployed in Šuica, but it is unclear if it actively took part in the battle. There were also Croatian Defence Forces (Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS) units raised in Tomislavgrad and Posušje, which were involved in the fighting around Kupres. At the time, overall command of the Bosnian Croat forces was held by Brigadier Milivoj Petković.
## Timeline
### 3 April
According to the JNA, the Bosnian Croat TO attacked in the morning of 3 April, reached the village of Donji Malovan and blockaded the Kupreška Vrata Tunnel by 7:30 a.m. The village was captured by Croats after three hours of combat, and the fighting shifted towards the village of Gornji Malovan and Kupres. By the end of the day, the Bosnian Serb TO force in Gornji Malovan was besieged. The JNA instructed the Yugoslav Air Force to attack after it received reports that 15 HV tanks had appeared on the battlefield. The 30th Partisan Division staff amended the plans formulated the previous day and advanced with elements of the 11th Motorised Brigade towards Kupres via Zlosela, against positions held by the Kupres Battalion at 1:15 p.m. The change of plans enabled elements of the 13th Partisan Brigade to catch up to them by 6:00 p.m. and caused the attack to fail.
Following news of the fighting, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps called on its troops deployed in western Slavonia to reinforce the 30th Partisan Division. The corps felt it could weaken its positions in western Slavonia because the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) peacekeepers were expected to deploy there by the end of the month based on the Vance plan. Those troops consisted of the Volunteer Battalion of the 5th Corps, and they were augmented by the 2nd Howitzer Battalion of the 5th Mixed Artillery Regiment. The 1st Battery of the 5th Light Anti-Aircraft Defence Regiment was also added to the battalion.
### 4–5 April
On 4 April, the Bosnian Croat TO captured Gornji Malovan. At the same time, the Bosnian Croat TO received reinforcements from Posušje, as well as a company from Bugojno and Uskoplje each. Fighting intensified as the JNA reinforcements arrived. A part of the Croatian reinforcements, which had just arrived from Bugojno and Uskoplje, fled after coming under attack near Zlosela. However, the JNA failed to achieve a breakthrough—even with five attack helicopters deployed in support of its advance towards Zlosela and Kupreška Vrata at 1:30 p.m.
The forces attacking towards Kupreška Vrata were redeployed the next day to assist in the advance towards Zlosela. In Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO secured the western part of the town, as well as Gornji Malovan. Regardless, no significant territory changed hands. Although the 9th (Knin) Corps dispatched ten tanks to Kupres from its 9th Tank Company, commanded by Colonel Slavko Lisica, only four of them reached Kupres, as six broke down along the way. In the town of Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO was reinforced by the arrival of a group drawn from the HV special forces Zrinski Battalion. The 30th Partisan Division lost contact with the JNA troops (1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade) in Kupres at 1:00 p.m.
### 6 April
At dawn on 6 April, the JNA launched a fresh attack towards Kupres and Kupreška Vrata, leaving the bulk of the 13th Partisan Brigade in reserve and employing the rest of the force at the plateau. The artillery was used so intensely that the 30th Partisan Division had to request resupply of its depleted stocks. The most effective part of the advance was the 9th Tank Company, which quickly pushed through the defensive positions, bypassed Zlosela and reached Olovo. In contrast, the Bosnian Croat TO command in Kupres was overwhelmed by the complexity of the situation and could not track which units it had at its disposal—even losing track of units physically near the command post.
The JNA further reinforced its position at the Kupres Plateau by ordering the redeployment of the 9th Armoured Battalion of the 9th (Knin) Corps to the area. It also established the Operational Group 11 (OG-11) which was to take over the operation on 7 April, when the AOR of the 9th Corps was extended to the region. At the same time, the armoured and mechanised assets of the force were organised into the Tactical Group 1 (TG-1), commanded by Lisica. By the end of the day, the divisional reserve was committed to the battle, and the JNA claimed that they had captured Zlosela, Olovo and Osmanlije, as well as reaching the outskirts of Kupres. The Bosnian Croat TO captured the centre of Kupres and brought the 1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade into a difficult position, only to begin withdrawing towards Tomislavgrad after the main JNA force reached the town in the night of 6/7 April. Likewise, the Bosnian Croat TO started to pull back from Kupreška Vrata.
### 7 April
On 7 April, the bulk of the 9th Armoured Battalion arrived on the battlefield, adding 17 T-55s, eight M-60 APCs and five BVP M-80s. The unit entered Kupres in the late afternoon, followed by two battalions of the 13th Partisan Brigade. A battalion of the 11th Motorised Brigade performed mopping up operations in the Zlosela area. A part of the Bosnian Croat TO force was retreating in disarray, while a portion of the force was trapped in Kupres and Zlosela, trying to break out. In the evening, as the mop-up of the Olovo and Osmanlije area was completed, the OG-11 ordered attacks against Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan. The next day, the TG-1 received a commendation by the commander of the 9th (Knin) Corps, Major General Ratko Mladić.
### Final operations
After it captured Kupres, the OG-11 turned south, in the direction of Gornji Malovan, Donji Malovan and Šuica. The attack, spearheaded by the 9th Armoured Battalion, reached Gornji Malovan on 10 April, the day Robert Zadro was killed. Fighting continued around Kupres until 11 April. Most of the Bosnian Croat TO troops, formally reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council (Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO) on 8 April, withdrew from the Kupres Plateau towards Šuica, while a small portion of the troops was forced to retreat via the Mount Cincar towards Livno.
## Aftermath
Sources disagree on the number of Bosnian Croat and HV casualties. Their number is variously reported as 160 or 177 killed. The Bosnian Serbs and the JNA sustained losses of 85 killed and 154 taken prisoner of war. The JNA also captured 23 Bosnian Croat TO troops. The figures are reported to include 19 civilian deaths on each side. Even though the Serbian media initially reported that the villages of Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan had been torched and razed to the ground, the information proved to be incorrect—the settlements sustained relatively minor damage. Conversely, Croat- or Bosniak-inhabited villages were looted and torched. Zlosela suffered extensive damage—the village school was the only structure with a roof left in place.
Command and coordination of the Bosnian Croat forces had been particularly poor throughout the battle. HV General Janko Bobetko arrived in Tomislavgrad on 11 April to find that a company of the HV 126th Infantry Brigade, deployed to Šuica, had left its positions on its own accord. The move was followed by preparations for the evacuation of Šuica in expectation of a JNA advance south from Kupres. Bobetko managed to turn the 126th Brigade back to Šuica, persuading them to defend the town overnight in order to defend the entire region. It is not clear if the OG-11 intended to continue its advance towards Šuica though. Soon after the Battle of Kupres, a portion of the 9th Armoured Battalion was transferred to Glamoč to support the Bosnian Serb TO attack towards Livno there. The lines of control stabilised and would not shift in the area for more than two years, until the 1994 Battle of Kupres. By mid-May 1992, Bosnian Serb forces controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
### War crime charges
In 2012, Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Bosnian Croat officials and HVO officers with the killings of 19 Serb civilians and 20 members of the Bosnian Serb TO in the area of Kupres in 1992. The charges also pertained to the abuse of 18 prisoners of war captured in the Battle of Kupres. In 2013, Croatian authorities in Šibenik charged 21 former members of the JNA with the abuse of 23 HVO prisoners of war. The charges specify that the prisoners were detained and abused in Knin prison between 24 April and 14 May. The abuse is alleged to have caused the deaths of two of the prisoners and grave injuries to three others. |
23,618,210 | Utah State Route 143 | 1,127,119,702 | Highway in Utah | [
"Dixie National Forest",
"National Forest Scenic Byways",
"National Scenic Byways",
"State highways in Utah",
"Utah Scenic Byways",
"Utah State Routes in Garfield County, Utah",
"Utah State Routes in Iron County, Utah"
]
| State Route 143 (SR-143) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Utah. The entire highway has been designated the Brian Head-Panguitch Lake Scenic Byway as part of the Utah Scenic Byways program. This road has also been designated as Utah's Patchwork Parkway as part of the National Forest Scenic Byway and National Scenic Byway programs.
At just over 51 miles (82 km) long, it connects Parowan to Panguitch while providing access to Brian Head, Cedar Breaks National Monument, and Panguitch Lake. It is also the second-highest paved road in the state at 10,626 feet (3,239 m) above sea level.
The western section of the road from Parowan started as a logging road for nineteenth century Mormon pioneers and was designated a state highway in 1933. Twenty years later, the route was extended to Cedar Breaks National Monument, and again in 1985 to its present-day eastern end in Panguitch.
## Route description
State Route 143 begins at Interstate 15 in Iron County just west of Parowan as 200 South and travels through the center of town before turning south into Parowan Canyon. From here, the route climbs past the Vermillion Cliffs, named for their reddish color produced by iron oxides. Farther up the canyon, the highway passes by the White Cliffs as it enters Dixie National Forest, and begins a steep climb up to Brian Head. The grade reaches 13% in some places, precipitous enough that travel by RVs or semi trucks is not recommended.
As the route climbs onto the Markagunt Plateau at an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet (3,000 m), it enters the town of Brian Head, Utah's highest incorporated city and the home of Utah's highest ski resort, Brian Head Ski Resort. From the top of this plateau, vistas open up allowing for views of over 100 miles (160 km) in every direction. The area is populated with Engelmann spruces, aspens, and alpine meadows full of wildflowers. SR-143 continues climbing southward, passing the northern edge of Cedar Breaks National Monument, a natural amphitheater canyon eroded out of the western edge of the plateau similarly to Bryce Canyon. Here, the route reaches its highest point at 10,626 feet (3,239 m) above sea level, the second-highest paved road in Utah behind the Mirror Lake Highway at 10,715 feet (3,266 m). The route turns to the east here, while continuing south leads to the rest of Cedar Breaks National Monument and State Route 148 (the Cedar Breaks Scenic Byway).
As the highway heads east, it descends through thick aspen forests interspersed with ancient lava fields. Distant views to the Escalante Mountains, Sevier Plateau, and the Pink Cliffs of Paunsaugunt Plateau are visible to the south and east. On this leg of the route, it passes around the south and east sides of Panguitch Lake, which is popular for summertime fishing as well as winter ice fishing. SR-143 continues its descent, heading northeast alongside Panguitch Creek as it enters Garfield County and exits Dixie National Forest. The route ends at U.S. Route 89 in the city of Panguitch, 25 miles (40 km) from Bryce Canyon National Park and just east of the Paunsaugunt Plateau.
## History
### Early roads
Archaic hunter-gatherers used this route as far back as the Fremont culture (AD 700 – 1300). Evidence of their passage is found along the roadway in the form of rock art. More recently, around the time of European settlement, the area was inhabited by the Southern Paiute people who used much of the Markagunt Plateau for hunting and gathering.
The town of Parowan was settled in 1851 by Mormon pioneers, who built a wagon road up Parowan Canyon to access timber for buildings. Eventually, this road extended south to Cedar Breaks. In 1919, S. A. Halterman took the first automobile to Cedar Breaks via Parowan Canyon. With improvements to the road completed by 1921, he was able to take visitors on weekly trips to the area.
### Parowan to Cedar Breaks
State Route 143 was first commissioned in 1933 as the road from Parowan to the Dixie National Forest boundary. The route was extended in 1953 to reach from U.S. Route 91 (former State Route 1) in Parowan (Main Street) to the north boundary of Cedar Breaks National Monument, increasing its length to over 17 miles (27 km).
The construction of Interstate 15 (I-15) in the Parowan area caused the state legislature to twice modify the alignment of SR-143. The first change came in 1968, due to I-15 being constructed to bypass Parowan west of town, rather than following the route of US-91/SR-1 through the center of town. As a result, the state legislature moved SR-1 west onto the interstate alignment while keeping the old alignment in the state highway system. This was accomplished by designating the former southwestern part of SR-1 from I-15 at Summit to Center street in Parowan as a new highway (SR-38) and extending SR-143 through north Parowan up to I-15, incorporating the northwestern part of the former SR-1 alignment.
In 1975, the construction of I-15 was complete, including a second Parowan interchange that had not been in the original plans. This interchange was located west of Parowan, between the Summit interchange to the southwest, and the Parowan interchange to the north. In response, the legislature rerouted SR-143 to connect to the west interchange. Instead of turning north on Main Street, SR-143 now turned south on Main Street for two blocks (coinciding with SR-38) and turned west to reach the new interchange. The two blocks of Main Street overlapping SR-38 were transferred to SR-143, with the remainder of that route deleted and withdrawn from the state highway system. The former route of SR-143 northerly through Parowan was re-designated SR-274.
### Cedar Breaks to Panguitch
The other end of SR-143 has undergone route changes as well. Prior to 1969, SR-55 connected SR-14 with the southern boundary of Cedar Breaks National Monument. That year, as part of a major realignment of state highways, SR-55 was deleted and its road was designated as part of SR-143. This left SR-143 as a non-contiguous highway, as the portion going through the national monument was not part of the highway designation.
In 1985, the southern portion of SR-143 between SR-14 and the southern Cedar Breaks National Monument boundary was re-designated SR-148, and Panguitch Lake Road from the eastern monument boundary to US-89 in Panguitch was added to SR-143. In this same legislative resolution, there was a provision that the portion of the route alignments inside the boundaries of the national monument would be included as part of the state highway system once the Utah Department of Transportation was granted a right-of-way easement from federal authorities. In 1994, the legislative description of SR-143 was updated to reflect that this easement had been granted. SR-148 still ends at the south boundary of the national monument.
The route was designated as a Utah Scenic Byway called Brian Head-Panguitch Lake Scenic Byway in 1989, and as a Forest Service Byway called Utah's Patchwork Parkway in 2000. It is also currently being considered for nomination as a federal All-American Road.
## Major intersections |
18,424,778 | Black Ice (album) | 1,172,568,389 | 2008 studio album by AC/DC | [
"2008 albums",
"AC/DC albums",
"ARIA Award-winning albums",
"Albums produced by Brendan O'Brien (record producer)",
"Albums recorded at The Warehouse Studio",
"Columbia Records albums",
"Sony Music Australia albums"
]
| Black Ice is the fifteenth studio album by Australian hard rock band AC/DC. Released internationally on 20 October 2008, it was produced by Brendan O'Brien. It marked the band's first original recordings since 2000's Stiff Upper Lip, with the eight-year gap being the longest between AC/DC's successive studio albums. Black Ice has the longest running time of any AC/DC studio album.
The album's development was delayed because bass guitarist Cliff Williams sustained an injury and the band changed labels from Elektra Records to Sony Music Entertainment. The first composing sessions between guitarists/brothers Angus and Malcolm Young were in London in 2003. Recording happened during March and April 2008 at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. O'Brien tried to recapture the rock sound of the band's early work, as opposed to the blues orientation of Ballbreaker and Stiff Upper Lip, with suggestions such as adding "soul crooning" to Brian Johnson's singing. The songs were mostly recorded live in the studio; engineer Mike Fraser used only sparse overdubs and effects to keep the tracks as close to the originals as possible.
Black Ice was released exclusively in physical formats, as the group did not sell its music digitally at the time. Walmart got exclusive rights to distribute the album in North America. Its release was promoted with an extensive marketing campaign, which included displays of AC/DC memorabilia. The four singles issued from the album were, "Rock 'n' Roll Train", "Big Jack", "Anything Goes", and "Money Made". Black Ice peaked at number one in 29 countries, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States. It was the second best-selling record of 2008, behind Coldplay's Viva La Vida or Death and All His Friends and had shipped 6 million copies worldwide by December. Critical reviews were generally positive, praising the music and its resemblance to the classic AC/DC sound, although some critics found the work too long and inconsistent. The track "War Machine" won the Best Hard Rock Performance category at the Grammys. The album itself was nominated for many awards, including the Grammy, Brit, Juno and ARIA Music Awards; and was supported by a world tour between 2008 and 2010.
Black Ice was the band's final studio release to feature founding rhythm guitarist Malcolm Young, who left the band in September 2014 after being diagnosed with dementia.
## Production
Black Ice is AC/DC's fifteenth studio album release in Australia and their fourteenth international release. The band took a break after finishing the Stiff Upper Lip World Tour in 2001, and resumed performing in 2003, with eight presentations that included AC/DC's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and they opened three concerts for The Rolling Stones' Licks Tour. During those two years, guitarists Angus Young and Malcolm Young wrote music separately, then met in a London studio to work on new songs.
The production of Black Ice was delayed for several reasons. AC/DC left their label Atlantic Records, signed a deal with Sony Music and changed labels within Sony from Epic Records to Columbia Records. Bass guitarist Cliff Williams suffered an injury to his hand in 2005 and was unable to play for 18 months. While Williams was recovering, the Young brothers perfected the songs they had written. Angus revealed that there was no pressure from Sony for the band to release a new album, as the label was releasing DVDs and remasters of the AC/DC catalogue, and thus the group "could afford to sit back and say we'll do another album when we think we've got all the goods." In a 2004 interview, vocalist Brian Johnson said that Angus had written harder riffs than those on Stiff Upper Lip and that he would be writing song lyrics for the first time since the band's 1988 album Blow Up Your Video, but his input would end up minimal, with all tracks on Black Ice credited to the Youngs. Johnson explained that the brothers had done most of the lyrical job, and his collaboration was that he "helped with melody and just filling in gaps that I thought needed filling in".
While producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange expressed an interest in working again with AC/DC, his schedule did not allow this. When the Young brothers called Columbia Records' president Steve Barnett to announce the making of a new album, Barnett recommended producer Brendan O'Brien. Angus said the band had considered talking to O'Brien since the 1990s, as "he seemed to us a very competent professional" and because he and the band would benefit from working with a producer they had not worked with before.
On 3 March 2008, recording started at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver, where Stiff Upper Lip was recorded, and lasted for eight weeks. Engineer Mike Fraser, who has mixed all AC/DC albums since The Razors Edge, said they recorded in batches of three songs to "keep things interesting" and to avoid overextended sessions. According to Fraser, the band had not rehearsed the songs before entering the studio. Despite "a couple of tweaks in the writing, sparkling up the choruses a bit better" during the recording, the compositions were mostly complete. Still, the Young brothers had new ideas during production, including the song "Anything Goes", which was written when the studio sessions were nearly finished. The songs were mostly recorded live in the studio; the instruments and backing vocals were recorded in the live room, and the lead vocals were recorded in both the control room and an overdubbing booth. The performances were first recorded with analogue equipment, as Fraser considers that tape conveys "the sound of rock & roll", and then digitised for mixing and overdubs. Fraser avoided altering the original recordings – "I used Pro-Tools purely as a tape machine" – with no effects on the bass and rhythm guitar, sparse delay and reverb effects on the vocals and other instruments, and overdubs only for the lead guitar and vocals.
The first title considered for the album was Runaway Train. Malcolm suggested using a photograph of a famous 1895 derailment for the cover, but reconsidered after he found that Mr. Big had used it for their album Lean into It. According to Angus, Runaway Train was rejected because it had been used by many musicians, including Elton John, Tom Petty and Eric Clapton, and he "wanted something unique, new, different". So he suggested Black Ice, which refers to gigs played during winter in Scotland. He said, "it rolled off the tongue" and it reminded him of "radio warnings up north of black ice." Angus was inspired to write the eponymous song by a similar warning heard on his car radio during production.
## Composition
With Black Ice, Brendan O'Brien tried to recapture the rock sound of AC/DC's early work on albums such as Highway to Hell and Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap. He thought the two previous studio albums, Ballbreaker and Stiff Upper Lip, were blues-influenced. O'Brien tried to focus on the choruses, which he felt were the best part of the AC/DC songs, and encouraged the band to emphasise the "hooky, melodic side" of its song-writing, which Angus complimented, since he had "never been great with harmonies". Mike Fraser said the band aimed "towards The Razors Edge era, a little bit more up-tempo stuff." O'Brien made suggestions about the band's performance, got Angus to play slide guitar on "Stormy May Day", and told Johnson to swap some screaming for "soul crooning" as Johnson was a soul singer. Johnson was worried that the rest of the band would think this did not suit the band's style of hard rock and roll, but the band was quite receptive. Because of the highly demanding singing style, Johnson only recorded his vocals for one hour a day. The rhythm section continues the basic structure from other AC/DC records; Cliff Williams played bass lines of eighth notes, and Phil Rudd's drumming was a consistent 4/4 time, mostly on his snare, kick drum and hi-hat cymbal. Both musicians expressed contentment with their roles in the band; Rudd said, "I'm not repressing skills. Most drummers are scared to try this", and Williams admitted he plays "the same thing in every song, for the most part", but added "in AC/DC's music, the song is more important than any individual's bit in it".
Angus said that when composing with Malcolm they share ideas to make each track "work together" to form a complete album, and Johnson added "these songs belong together. It's about five boys having a damn good time in a studio." With 15 songs and a running time of over 55 minutes, Black Ice has the longest running time of any AC/DC studio record. Malcolm said that "about 60 or 70 song ideas" were developed. Angus said that the first attempt to sequence the album resulted in a track list comprising eleven songs, "but as the days went by each band member voted for a new track, and then another, and other one" so they decided to include all the recorded tracks.
Most of the album's tracks are about rock and roll itself–Angus stated, "Certain songs just seem to come to life when you add that phrase". However, other themes served as inspiration. "Money Made" is a criticism on how, according to Angus, in the US "everything is money these days". "War Machine" was based on a documentary on Hannibal, which led to the conclusion that the military has not changed since Ancient Rome. "Wheels" tells about Johnson's passion for motorcars. He described the album's release as the "best one we've done", he felt that while Back in Black was great for its time, Black Ice shows the band's versatility. Angus also said he admired the album's diversity, saying "It is sufficiently varied to please people in varied moods".
## Release and promotion
On 18 August 2008, Columbia Records announced that Black Ice would be released on 20 October in the US, and began accepting pre-orders. "Rock 'n' Roll Train" was issued as the first single from the album on 28 August; "Big Jack" and "Anything Goes" followed in some markets, and "Money Made" was an airplay single in Australia and the United Kingdom. The track "Spoilin' for a Fight", was used by the WWE as the theme song for its 2008 Survivor Series event, and "War Machine" would later be included in both a trailer for 2010's Iron Man 2 and the film's soundtrack album in addition to serving as one of the theme songs for WrestleMania XXV.
The CD version was also available in a hardcover, deluxe edition with a 30-page booklet containing exclusive new illustrations, studio and live photographs of the group and lyrics. A limited edition steel-box version, containing the CD, a 20-page colour booklet, a DVD featuring the "Rock 'n' Roll Train" video and a making of documentary, a large AC/DC flag, five stickers and a Gibson guitar pick, was issued in Germany and the United Kingdom in December. The album was released as a double LP on two 180-gram discs in a gatefold package featuring the standard red lettering artwork on the front. The LP was sold through the official website and through independent record shops in the US. An unknown number of copies of the vinyl version were incorrectly pressed; side 1B had tracks from The Clash's Live at Shea Stadium. Black Ice was not issued digitally as the band refused to sell their tracks separately. Angus declared, "If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically." However, the entire album was leaked online a week before the official release. Rumours spread that Sony Music tried to control leaks by releasing fake tracks on peer-to-peer websites.
In North America, Walmart made a deal for the exclusive distribution of Black Ice, though a few independent music shops ordered copies of the album from foreign outlets. Angus declared that the band chose Walmart because the company is the biggest physical music retailer in America, which they believed to be "the best alternative to iTunes". He also said, "There aren't as many record stores these days, and Walmarts are all over America. New York and Los Angeles and Chicago may be covered, but in the heartland of America, Walmart may be the only gig in town." Walmart created over 3000 "Rock Again AC/DC Stores" with displays showcasing the band's albums, branded clothing, the No Bull DVD, the video game AC/DC Live: Rock Band, and products from sponsors. Gary Severson, a Walmart senior vice president, said that AC/DC was one of the rare artists whose loyal fan-base allowed them to display other merchandise along with the music. In October, MTV, Walmart and Columbia created "AC/DC Rock Band Stores" in cities without regular Walmart retail locations–New York's Times Square and Los Angeles. "Black Ice" trucks were dispatched on the streets of these cities after the release, playing tracks and making stops each day to sell merchandise. Advertising agency Arnold Worldwide was awarded both Best Activity Generating Brand Volume by the Marketing Agencies Association, and Best Retail/Co-Marketing Campaign by Promo Magazine for Black Ice's marketing campaign.
A digital version of Black Ice was made available on iTunes, along with the rest of AC/DC's catalogue, on 19 November 2012.
## Packaging
The cover art of Black Ice was drawn by Joshua Marc Levy, art director for Columbia and a longtime fan of the band who volunteered for the project among "many people at Sony who desired to work on it". There are four different covers; the standard edition has a red logo, the deluxe edition has a blue logo, and two variants to the regular design include yellow or white logos. Angus said the options were not to deliver the message that fans would need to purchase all covers. He said, "We know most people will only purchase the record once, in their colour of choice. For me, it's not relevant. What matters is that fans enjoy it. Music is the essence."
After working with the cover for the album, provisionally titled Runaway Train, Levy went on vacation and travelled with Pearl Jam on their 2008 tour. After a concert in Washington D.C., Levy came up with the idea "to do it all graphic black on black" and sketched what would become the yellow artwork. The record company liked it and requested he do two more in the same style, which became the red and white versions. During the promotional photography sessions, Levy made the deluxe edition art. The tracks on the album did not have much influence on the artwork as Levy had heard "maybe 5 songs at that point", but he found it curious that his artwork fit the title track "Black Ice", which was not among the tracks he had heard. Levy said that since the album had many similarities with Back in Black – "Black" in the title, dark covers, and AC/DC resurfacing with a sound based on the band's early work – the art was "like a time travel, which is why there are so many psychedelic drawings". The artwork's resemblance to a train, echoing lead single "Rock N' Roll Train", was a coincidence, given Levy "never thought of it that way". Atop the image there is a cog with an image of Angus with his fist in the air resembling the statue on Stiff Upper Lip, because Levy "just thought it was great as a continuing icon." The photographs for the booklet and promotional photography were taken by music photographer Guido Karp, in August 2008 in London.
## Reception
### Professional reviews
Critical reviews of Black Ice were generally favourable according to Metacritic, which provided a normalised rating of 69 out of 100 based on 24 reviews from mainstream critics. Most reviewers complimented the album's sound, with The Village Voice's Richard Bienstock considering that Brendan O'Brien's production restored a sonority closer to the Vanda and Young produced 1970s albums and effective choruses like those with "Mutt" Lange, and Aaron Burgess of The A.V. Club finding Black Ice the most inspired AC/DC album since The Razors Edge while sounding "harder, hungrier, and more relevant than anything on contemporary radio."
"There's a sense of purpose to this new album that far outstrips its predecessor, Stiff Upper Lip," wrote Paul Eliott in a 7/10 review for Classic Rock. "It sounds bigger and better. It has more energy, more vibe. There's more craft to it, stronger songs, catchier hooks. It is, in short, their best album since... well, the one after Back in Black."
A common argument was that Black Ice succeeded because AC/DC did not want to change the style that succeeded in previous albums. Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald declared that "almost all of [the tracklist] could have appeared on any AC/DC album of the past 28 years". Chris Jones of the BBC said the band's "almost platonic form of rock 'n' boogie that was hand built to last" remains because they "have no reason to tinker with a formula that was well-nigh perfect to begin with". Writers such as Spin's David Marchese and The Observer's Peter Kimpton complimented the band's attempts at "some new sonic tricks", such as the slide guitar of "Stormy May Day" and the quieter "Decibel".
However, some reviewers found the album inconsistent, overly long or formulaic. Black Ice was described as a retread of other AC/DC albums without the same inspiration, with Spence D. of IGN declaring that "the band sounds tight, but very few of the songs actually resonate with that sense of classicism found on much of their earlier efforts", The Austin Chronicles Austin Powell feeling that despite "a few cheap thrills" the album lacked "the urgent indecency and iron force that defined the Bon Scott era", and AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine considering that after "Big Jack" the tracks went into a "too-comfortable groove, fueled by too-tight rhythms and guitars that sound loud but not beefy". Many complained about the lack of variation, made more flagrant by the long track list. Entertainment Weekly's reviewer Clark Collis wrote that "even 2000's fairly monochromatic Stiff Upper Lip had more varied material", Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone felt that Black Ice "feels longer than its 55 minutes, thanks to a stretch of throwaway rockers", and Robert Forster of The Monthly thought that a shorter running time would "maximise the album's impact", given he found the first four songs and the title track the best for sounding more diverse, while the other tracks were let down by poor songwriting and a "numbing predictability".
### Chart performance and sales
Black Ice made history by debuting at number one on album charts of 29 countries, and is Columbia Records' biggest debut album since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales data for Billboard in March 1991. Black Ice was the second best-selling album worldwide in 2008, behind Coldplay's Viva La Vida or Death and All His Friends. As of December 2008, it had shipped six million copies worldwide, and earned sales certifications in 24 countries, with multi-platinum status in eight, platinum in twelve more, and gold in the four remaining.
On the first day of its US release, 20 October 2008, Black Ice sold over 193,000 units. By 28 October, Black Ice debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 albums chart, selling over 784,000 copies in its first week, the second highest one-week sales of an album in the US of 2008, behind Lil Wayne's Tha Carter III. It was AC/DC's second release to top the US charts, after For Those About to Rock We Salute You (1981) and became the biggest debut ever by a mainstream hard rock album. As of 31 December 2008, the album had sold 1.915 million copies in the US, according to Nielsen SoundScan, and was certified 2× Platinum by the RIAA. Black Ice also debuted at number one on the ARIA Album Charts, selling over 90,000 units, and the UK Album charts, with 110,000 copies sold. It was their first number one in the UK since Back in Black (1980). In Canada, Black Ice debuted at number one and sold 119,000 copies in its first week, making it the best-selling album debut in Canada in 2008. The album held the top spot in Canada for three consecutive weeks, with sales of over 200,000 copies. In Germany, Black Ice became the 14th best-selling album of the 2000s, with sales of 1 million copies and being certified 5 times platinum.
### Accolades
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2009, Black Ice won in the categories of Best Rock Album and Highest Selling Album; it was nominated for Album of the Year and AC/DC were nominated for Group of the Year.
It was nominated for Best International Album at the Juno Awards and the Brit Awards.
It won the 2009 Classic Rock Roll of Honour Award for Album of the Year.
At the APRA Awards of 2010 Angus and Malcolm won Songwriters of the Year, and "Rock 'n' Roll Train" won Most Played Australian Work Overseas.
At the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009, "Rock 'n' Roll Train" was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal, and at the 2010 ceremony, Black Ice was nominated for Best Rock Album and the track "War Machine" won the Best Hard Rock Performance category.
Black Ice was ranked 41st on Rolling Stone's Top 50 Albums of 2008 list, 29th on a similar list by Q magazine, 17th on Kerrang!'s Top 20 Albums of the Year and 3rd in UGO's list of the 11 Best Metal Albums of 2008.
## Tour
To promote Black Ice, AC/DC launched the Black Ice World Tour on 28 October 2008 in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. Two days earlier, they had held a dress rehearsal in the same city. The tour lasted for 168 shows in 11 legs, with the last in Bilbao, Spain, on 28 June 2010.
Mark Fisher, who had worked on the Stiff Upper Lip World Tour, designed the stage. The set's centrepiece was a full size locomotive, weighing 3500 kg, that was inspired by the working title Runaway Train and the track "Rock 'n' Roll Train". Five songs from Black Ice were included on the tour's set list; "Rock 'n' Roll Train", "Big Jack", "Black Ice", "War Machine", and "Anything Goes".
The Black Ice World Tour was AC/DC's most successful, grossing \$441.6 million, making it the fourth highest-grossing concert tour of all-time. Three concerts in December 2009 at the River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires were released as the DVD Live at River Plate on 10 May 2011.
## Track listing
## Personnel
AC/DC
- Brian Johnson – lead vocals
- Phil Rudd – drums, percussion
- Cliff Williams – bass guitar, backing vocals
- Angus Young – lead guitar
- Malcolm Young – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
Additional personnel'
- Billy Bowers – additional engineering
- Mike Fraser – engineering, mixing
- Alvin Handwerker (Prager and Fenton LLP) – management
- Richard Jones, Geoff Banks, Rick St. Pierre – equipment technicians
- Guido Karp – photography
- Joshua Marc Levy – art direction, design, illustrations (containing vector graphics by You Work For Them, LLC)
- George Marino – mastering
- Brendan O'Brien – production
- Eric Mosher – engineering assistance
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Decade-end chart
## Certifications and sales
## Release history |
15,208,539 | Campylocephalus | 1,164,433,792 | Extinct genus of arthropods | [
"Carboniferous eurypterids",
"Eurypterids of Asia",
"Eurypterids of Europe",
"Fossils of Russia",
"Fossils of the Czech Republic",
"Permian eurypterids",
"Permian genus extinctions",
"Stylonurina"
]
| Campylocephalus is a genus of eurypterid, a group of extinct aquatic arthropods. Fossils of Campylocephalus have been discovered in deposits ranging from the Carboniferous period in the Czech Republic (the species C. salmi) to the Permian period of Russia (species C. oculatus and C. permianus). The generic name is composed of the Greek words καμπύλος (kampýlos), meaning "curved", and κεφαλή (kephalē), meaning "head".
It was a member of the hibbertopterid family of eurypterids and probably looked much the same as the other members of the family, Hibbertopterus and Vernonopterus, in that it was a large, broad and heavy animal quite different from the famous swimming eurypterids (such as Pterygotus and Eurypterus) which had been common during earlier periods. Like all other stylonurine eurypterids, Campylocephalus completely lacked swimming paddles.
Hibbertopterids such as Campylocephalus were, as many other families within the stylonurine suborder, sweep-feeders. Sweep-feeding food strategies involve specialized appendages with blades that could be used by the animals to rake through the substrate of their living environments in search for small prey items.
The species C. permianus, known from deposits of Late Permian age in Russia, is the only species of Campylocephalus preserved well enough to allow for size estimates, published estimates putting its size at potentially 1.4 metres (4.6 feet) in length. This species was among the last known surviving eurypterid, living just before or during the Permian–Triassic extinction event 251.9 million years ago. Before the extinction event, eurypterids had been declining in numbers and diversity for millions of years; Campylocephalus had been the only known genus of living eurypterids for more than 20 million years since the extinction of the related genus Hastimima.
## Description
Classified as a member of the hibbertopterid family of eurypterids, Campylocephalus was overall similar to the other members of the family. It was a large, broad and heavy creature quite unlike most earlier and more famous swimming eurypterids such as Pterygotus and Eurypterus. As a member of the stylonurine suborder, Campylocephalus completely lacked swimming paddles.
Several distinguishing features separate Campylocephalus from other genera in its family, in particular from the closely related Hibbertopterus. Campylocephalus had a subelliptical (almost elliptical) prosoma (head), which was subsemicircular (almost shaped like a semicircle) and strongly convex, being at its broadest in the midsection. The compound eyes of Campylocephalus were laterally placed (on the sides of the head) and were separated from each other by inflated lobes in the middle. Behind the eyes on the carapace (the exoskeleton segment covering the head) there were some further lobe-like structures referred to as palpebral lobes.
As with the prosoma, the tergites (segments on the upper side of the body) of the abdomen were convex in shape, and possessed articular processes (projecting structures that helped the segments to fit together). The appendages (limbs) of Campylocephalus are only very rarely preserved and are as such almost completely unknown.
Due to just how incomplete the fossil remains referred to Campylocephalus are, determining its size is difficult and as of yet, no formal published size estimates exist for either the type species C. oculatus or the species C. salmi. The sole known fossil remains of C. permianus, a massive incomplete carapace, suggests a very large eurypterid, potentially reaching lengths of 1.4 metres (4.6 feet).
In C. oculatus, the eyes were semilunar in shape (almost moon-shaped) and placed near the middle of the carapace, with small ocelli (light-sensitive simple eyes) between them. Its carapace had small irregular prominences, a rounded anterior edge and an indented posterior edge. The thoracic segments (segments of the thorax) of the species were straight and narrow. The eyes of C. salmi were similar, being placed very close together. The eyes were also a distinguishing feature in C. permianus, where they were placed more posteriorly than in the other species.
## History of research
Fossils today recognized as belonging to Campylocephalus were first described in 1838 as belonging to a species of the genus Limulus, the same genus as the modern atlantic horseshoe crab, by Russian paleontologist Stepan S. Kutorga. Citing similarities with members of the modern genus in the appearance and anatomy of the somewhat incomplete fossil, Kutorga named it Limulus oculatus.
Scottish naturalist John Scouler described the genus Eidothea in 1831 based on a single fossil prosoma from Scotland, but did grant it any specific name. Creating a genus with no species goes against orthodox zoological nomenclature, specifically conflicting for instance with Opinion 65 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature;
> If an author designates a certain species as genotype, it is to be assumed that his determination of the species is correct; if a case presents itself in which it appears that an author has based his genus on certain definite specimens, rather than upon a species, it would be well to submit the case, with full details, to the Commission. At the present moment, it is difficult to lay down a general rule.
Any taxonomical difficulties implied with Scouler's designation were easily avoided, however, by the discovery that the genus name was preoccupied by a genus of molluscs described in 1826. Nevertheless, the name Eidothea would be associated with the Scottish eurypterid species Eurypterus scouleri, with a near identical prosoma, described in 1836.
In 1860 French paleontologist Edouard D'Eichwald recognized that the carapace and thoracic segments which had been described by Kutorga were quite distinct from Limulus, and thus a new genus was named to contain Limulus oculatus, dubbed by D'Eichwald as Campylocephalus. This generic name is composed of the Greek words καμπύλος (kampýlos), meaning "curved", and κεφαλή (kephalē), meaning "head".
The second species of Campylocephalus to be described, C. salmi, was named as a species of the quite distantly related Eurypterus by the Slovak geologist and paleontologist Dionýs Štúr in 1877. Štúr's description was based on two incomplete fossil carapaces. The first fragmentary carapace only preserved the lower part of the head, ending in two pointed and concave arches. The eyes of this carapace were close together, in the middle of the carapace, and on a triangularly shaped elevated portion similar to some specimens of the related Hibbertopterus scouleri. In the second carapace specimen, the carapace began to stretch forward above the eyes. Both of these fossils also possessed protuberances of different sizes across the exoskeleton, showing vague forms and shapes not seen in other specimens of the genus.
Fossils of Eurypterus scouleri were compared to the carapace described by Kutorga in 1838 by Norwegian paleontologist Leif Størmer in 1951, who concluded that the two were clearly congeneric. At this point, D'Eichwald had already recognized the fossils designated as "Eidothea" by Scouler as representatives of Campylocephalus. As such, E. scouleri was classified as Campylocephalus scouleri. Though the legs of Campylocephalus were still unknown at the time, even with the addition of the Scottish species, any grouping with other genera would have to be made using features of the carapace. Comparing the ornamentation of the carapace to other eurypterids, Størmer found it to be similar to the genus Tarsopterella (where the legs were also more or less unknown) which allowed Campylocephalus to be firmly placed within the family Stylonuridae (which would later be raised to become the suborder Stylonurina, not to be confused with the presently recognized eurypterid family Stylonuridae).
English paleontologist Charles D. Waterston was the first to suggest that C. scouleri perhaps shouldn't be considered as congeneric with Campylocephalus, raising the issue in a 1958 paper. He posited that though the dorsal anatomy of the prosoma was quite similar between C. scouleri and C. oculatus, the designated type species, multiple well-preserved fossils had allowed for detailed research into the ventral anatomy and appendages of C. scouleri since the two had been placed in the same genus, whilst the ventral anatomy and appendages of C. oculatus remained unknown. A year later, in 1959, American paleontologist Erik Norman Kjellesvig-Waering created the new genus Hibbertopterus to contain C. scouleri (now Hibbertopterus scouleri) and placed both genera within the family Hibbertopteridae.
Described by Russian paleontologist Alexey G. Ponomarenko in 1985, C. permianus was originally named as a species of Hibbertopterus. The only known specimen of this species is the holotype, PIN N1209/2, an incomplete carapace, but Ponomarenko could list several features that distinguished it from other species referred to Hibbertopterus. Among these were most prominently the posterior position of the lateral eyes and said eyes not being circular in shape. In 2012, American paleontologist James C. Lamsdell could demonstrate that these unique features were actually diagnostic features of the genus Campylocephalus and thus reclassified it as its current combination. Though Ponomarenko had mentioned several features that also distinguished C. permianus from the then currently recognized species of Campylocephalus, including a different carapace shape and some thickening of the exoskeleton around the eyes, Lamsdell determined that these distinctions were not valid. In the view of Lamsdell, specimens of the type species C. oculatus are not well preserved enough to determine the precise structure of the eyes and because fossils of its carapace are either flattened or incomplete, its shape can not be ascertained with complete accuracy.
## Classification
Campylocephalus is classified as part of the family Hibbertopteridae, a family of eurypterids within the superfamily Mycteropoidea, alongside the genera Hibbertopterus and Vernonopterus. The genus contains three species; C. oculatus and C. permianus from the Permian of Russia and C. salmi from the Carboniferous of the Czech Republic. The classification of C. salmi is considered somewhat uncertain, with C. salmi being fragmentary (as all other species of the genus) and possessing some unique features (e.g. the differently sized protuberances around the carapace).
The hibbertopterids are united as a group by being large mycteropoids with broad prosomas, a hastate (e.g. shaped like a gladius, a Roman sword) telson (which was the posteriormost division of the body) with paired keels on the ventral side, ornamentation consisting of scales or other similar structures on the exoskeleton, the fourth pair of appendages possessing spines, the more posterior tergites of the abdomen possessing tongue-shaped scales near their edges and there being lobes positioned posterolaterally (posteriorly on both sides) on the prosoma.
The features of Campylocephalus and Vernonopterus makes it clear that both genera represent hibbertopterid eurypterids, but the incomplete nature of all fossil specimens referred to them make any further study of the precise phylogenetic relationships within the Hibbertopteridae difficult. Both genera could even represent synonyms of Hibbertopterus itself, though the highly incomplete nature of their remains again makes that hypothesis impossible to confirm.
The cladogram below is adapted from Lamsdell (2012), collapsed to only show the superfamily Mycteropoidea.
## Paleoecology
Hibbertopterids such as Campylocephalus were sweep-feeders, having modified spines on their forward-facing prosomal appendages that allowed them to rake through the substrate of their living environments. Though sweep-feeding was used as a strategy by many genera within the Stylonurina, it was most developed within the hibbertopterids, which possessed blades on the second, third and fourth pair of appendages. Some species of the closely related Hibbertopterus had specialized comb-like rachis (shafts) that were able to entrap small prey and other organic food particles.
Though they would have been slow owing to their massive size and robust form, studies on Hibbertopterus footprints discovered in Scotland have demonstrated that hibbertopterids would have been able to walk on land for at least short periods of time. The tracks discovered indicate that they would have utilized a lumbering, jerking and dragging movement and that the keeled belly and the telson left a central groove behind. Some studies suggest that eurypterids possessed a dual respiratory system, which would have allowed for this kind of occasional terrestrial movement.
C. salmi is known from the Ostrava Formation of the Czech Republic and would have lived during the Arnsbergian age (326.4–318.1 million years ago) of the Carboniferous period. The deposits were the eurypterid fossils were found are lacustrine, meaning that they formed on the bottom of an ancient lake. Spiders of the genus Eophrynus, part of the extinct arachnid order Trigonotarbida, are known from the same location and age, and numerous anthozoans (the group that contains animals such as corals and sea anemones) are known from the same age within the Ostrava Formation.
It is difficult to make any statements on the paleoecology of the type species, C. oculatus, as the precise location and dating of the fossil specimen remains somewhat unclear. Most accounts place the fossil as having been found at a location named Dourasovo in Russia and being from the Guadalupian epoch (272.3–259.8 million years ago) of the Permian period.
The species of C. permianus is one of the latest known surviving eurypterid species. The sole fossil representing the species was discovered in the Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union (the modern Komi Republic of Russia) in deposits of approximately the age of the Permian–Triassic extinction event 251.9 million years ago. In the Permian, Komi would have been a coastal region of the supercontinent Pangaea. Though no other fossils of the exact same age have been reported, other Permian-age life known from the region include bryozoans and bivalves.
By the beginning of the Permian, the eurypterids were already in decline relative to what their numbers and diversity had once been. The group was one of many heavily affected by the Late Devonian extinction, which rendered all but a single genus of eurypterine (those with swimming paddles) eurypterids extinct (Adelophthalmus). Of the 16 eurypterid families that had lived during the beginning of the Devonian period, three families survived and persisted into the Carboniferous period, all of which contained only non-marine species. By the Permian, only four genera were still alive; Adelophthalmus (a adelophthalmid), Hastimima and Woodwardopterus (mycteroptids), and Campylocephalus itself. Both Adelophthalmus and Hastimima went extinct during the Early Permian, which left Campylocephalus as one of only two living genera of eurypterids for more than 20 million years until its own extinction in the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Woodwardopterus also went extinct around this time.
## See also
- List of eurypterid genera
- Timeline of eurypterid research |
456,482 | Carnival of Carnage | 1,172,804,646 | null | [
"1992 debut albums",
"Albums produced by Esham",
"Albums produced by Mike E. Clark",
"Insane Clown Posse albums",
"Island Records albums",
"Psychopathic Records albums",
"Self-released albums"
]
| Carnival of Carnage is the debut studio album by American hip hop group Insane Clown Posse, released on October 18, 1992, by Psychopathic Records.
Recording sessions for the album took place from 1991 to 1992 at Miller Midi Productions and The Tempermill Studio. The album is the first Joker's Card in the group's Dark Carnival mythology. The album's lyrics describe the Carnival of Carnage as a representation of the violence that occurs within the ghettos, which takes the form of a traveling carnival to enact the same brutality on the upper class.
Carnival Of Carnage was the first album on which Insane Clown Posse collaborated with producer Mike E. Clark, who would work with the group throughout much of their career. It features guest appearances by popular Detroit rappers Esham and Kid Rock. The album features the only recorded appearances of member John Kickjazz, who left the group prior to the album's release. Although the album did not initially sell well, it became eligible for gold certification by the RIAA in 2010.
## Conception
### Background
Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler formed a hip hop group in 1990. Under the stage names Violent J, 2 Dope, and John Kickjazz, the group began performing at local night clubs under the name of their gang, Inner City Posse. By late 1991, the group had invested more money into production than was covered by returns. They decided that their gangsta rap style was the cause of the problem: Most emcees at the time used similar styles, making it difficult for Inner City Posse to distinguish itself stylistically. Bruce suggested the band instead adapt a style similar to the hallucinatory, surrealistic "acid rap" of fellow Detroit rapper Esham, in a bid to have Detroit represent acid rap, much as Los Angeles represented gangsta rap. The group agreed, but not to copying the style of Esham closely. Instead, they suggested using horror-themed lyrics as an emotional outlet for all their negative life experiences. They were also unanimous in deciding not to rap openly about Satan, which Esham often did.
After the change in musical style, the group decided that it needed a new name. Utsler suggested keeping the "I.C.P." initials to inform the community that Inner City Posse was not defunct, an idea to which the group agreed. Several names were considered before Bruce recalled his dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name Insane Clown Posse. The other members agreed, deciding that they would take on this new genre and name, and would all don face paint due to the success of their former clown-painted hype man.
### Recording
Carnival of Carnage began recording at Miller Midi Productions in Detroit, Michigan with Chuck Miller producing and mastering the album. Miller charged the group US\$6,000 to produce the songs "Red Neck Hoe," "Psychopathic," "Your Rebel Flag," and part of "Night of the Axe." Seeing that they were being overcharged, Alex Abbiss made his first major managerial move by finding another producer, Mike E. Clark. The group finished recording the album with Clark at The Tempermill Studio in Ferndale, Michigan. Clark mastered his part of the album at Rythmatic Studio, and continued to work with the group throughout their career.
Original group member John Kickjazz appeared on the songs "Your Rebel Flag", "Psychopathic", "Blacken' Your Eyes", "Wizard of the Hood", "Red Neck Hoe" and "Taste". "Carnival of Carnage" was originally recorded by Esham at Hells Doors Studio, but he pronounced "carnage" as "carnicks" and refused to redo it. The final version of the song was recorded by Joseph Bruce over a reversed recording of the original.
Awesome Dre was originally going to do a verse on "Taste." While Insane Clown Posse waited in the studio for him to arrive, Esham suggested that he appear on the track instead for the same amount of money, and the group allowed him to record a verse. Esham was paid \$500 for his appearance. Kid Rock demanded a hundred more than Esham, and was paid \$600 to appear on "Is That You?" He showed up to record the song intoxicated, but re-recorded his vocals and record scratching the following day.
### Joker's Cards
Carnival of Carnage is the first Joker's Card in Insane Clown Posse's Dark Carnival concept album series. The Dark Carnival is a concept of the afterlife in which souls are sent to a form of limbo while waiting to be sent to heaven or hell based on their individual actions. These concepts are related by Insane Clown Posse in a series of albums called the six Joker's Cards. Each of the six Joker's Cards relate to a specific character — an entity of the Dark Carnival — that tries to "save the human soul" by showing the wicked inside of one's self.
This Joker's Card is a representation of the ghettos and the violence that occurs within them. It takes the form of a traveling carnival which releases the same brutality on those who have ignored the inner cities' cries for help. The Card issues a warning against the upper-class and government's negligence toward the lower classes. The cover of Carnival of Carnage was drawn by Joseph Utsler, who would later create artwork for the rest of the albums in the Joker's Cards series.
### Samples
Mike Clark samples Johnny "Hammond" Smith's "Big Sur Suite", from Smith's 1974 album Higher Ground, Black Sabbath's "The Wizard", from their 1970 debut album, the Beastie Boys "Pass the Mic" from their 1992 album Check Your Head, and the drum beat from Champtown's "Do Da Dippity" off his 1991/2 12" single Do Da Dippity, in his production of "Never Had It Made." Joseph Bruce samples several clips from the film The Wizard of Oz in "Wizard of the Hood." The song "Psychopathic" features a sample of "More Bounce to the Ounce" by Zapp and "Halloween theme" from the Halloween film franchise. The song "Redneck Hoe" features a sample from "City, Country, City" by WAR. The song "Taste" samples Esham's "Word After Word" from Boomin' Words from Hell and "Ghetto Freak Show" samples "I'd Rather Be Dead" from Judgement Day.
"The Juggla" samples "Kiss" by Prince.
### Lyricism
Joseph Bruce uses elements of political hip hop throughout the album. Many of his lyrics were derived from his experiences of growing up in a poor family that was neglected by the government. He and his brother Robert used to escape from their impoverished reality by gathering themselves in a forest called "Picker Forest". Joe cites "Picker Forest" as a strong influence on the Dark Carnival mythology which began with this album. The themes of the Dark Carnival also derived from a dream Bruce had shortly after the group adopted its new name, in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him.
"Red Neck Hoe" and "Your Rebel Flag" stem from the group's anti-bigotry philosophy, based on various experiences witnessed by Bruce. As a teenager, he had briefly lived in Bonnie Doone, North Carolina, a trailer park town just outside Fort Bragg, where his brother Robert had been staying with the U.S. Army. There, Joseph witnessed firsthand the hatred and open racism directed toward African American citizens, as well as the minorities serving in the Army, and became disgusted and infuriated with the actions that took place. "Wizard of the Hood" was originally written by Bruce sometime in the late 1980s. The first recorded version of the song appeared on the Intelligence and Violence EP under the name "Wizard of Delray." The Carnival of Carnage version is derived from a 1991 recording which appeared on the EP Dog Beats.
## Release
Just weeks prior to the release of their album, John left the group because he felt that it was "taking up too much of [his] life." When Bruce and Utsler attempted to call a meeting to talk about the issues, John did not attend. Carnival of Carnage was released on October 18, 1992, with distribution within a 120-mile (190 km) radius of Detroit. Carnival of Carnage sold 17 copies on its release date. The number would become a reoccurring theme in Insane Clown Posse's work throughout much of the following decade. A condensed extended play featuring tracks from Carnival of Carnage was pressed on vinyl in hopes that DJs would play the songs in Detroit-area nightclubs.
## Reception
Although Carnival of Carnage was not reviewed at the time of its release, later reviews of the album have been unfavorable. AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three out of five stars, comparing the group's performance on the album to "a third-rate Beastie Boys supported by a cut-rate Faith No More, all tempered with the sensibility that made GWAR cult heroes—only with [...] more sexism and jokes that are supposed to be street, but wind up sounding racist", but stating that the album would appeal to fans of the group. In The Great Rock Discography, Martin Charles Strong gave the album four out of ten stars. The album received one star out of five in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, in which Ben Sisario panned it (along with the rest of the group's discography before The Great Milenko) as "gangsta-inspired wigga posturing".
## Legacy
During a live performance of the song "The Juggla" in 1993, Bruce addressed the audience as Juggalos, and the positive response resulted in the group using the word thereafter. The word has been the subject of criticism from both Sisario and Erlewine, who suggested the term is similar to the racial slur jigaboo. In 1997, Twiztid released a cover of the song "First Day Out" on the duo's debut album, Mostasteless. In 1998, the album was reissued by Island Records without the tracks "Blackin' Your Eyes" and "Night of the Axe." The original version continues to be sold by Psychopathic Records. By 2010, the album had sold well enough to become eligible for gold certification by the RIAA. In the Aqua Teen Hunger Force episode "Juggalo", Bruce and Utsler appear as themselves during a trial after Master Shake commits suicide. George Lowe asks "Mr. 2 Dope" to read lyrics from "Blackin' Your Eyes".
## 25th Anniversary
In mid 2017 it was announced that Insane Clown Posse was going to perform the album in its entirety at the "El Club" (which holds 600 people), located in southwest Detroit directly across the street from Clark Park right in the heart of ICP's stomping ground when they were younger. It was also announced that the performance would only be a one time thing, and tickets would be \$250, with all proceeds going directly to the people making the documentary about John Kickjazz titled "The Third Clown". It was also said that John and Shaggy 2 Dope's little brother Tre Pound of Chop Shop would fill in for John. Later on it was announced that for the first time in 25 years Inner City Posse would be performing, and they would wear no makeup. Also a 25th anniversary vinyl version will be available. On August 25, 2017, the lineup for the show was announced, including Rude Boys son DJ Carlito performing (playing music) in between sets, as well as an after party at "MJ's":
Carnival Of Carnage Show
- Doors Open: 2:00
- JCW - 3:30–6:00
- Inner City Posse - 7:30–7:50
- Dice - 8:10–8:40
- Champtown - 9:00–9:40
- Insane Clown Posse - 10:00–11:00
After Party
- Doors Open: 11:00
- Lyte - 11:30–12:00
- DJ Clay - 12:10–12:40
- Big Hoodoo - 12:50–1:20
- Anybody Killa - 1:30–2:00
## Track listing
## Personnel
- Violent J – vocals, production
- 2 Dope – vocals, scratching
- John Kickjazz – vocals
- Kid Villain - vocals on "Wizard of the Hood"
- Nate The Mack – guest vocals
- Kid Rock – guest vocals, scratching
- Capitol E – guest vocals
- Jumpsteady – guest vocals
- Esham – guest vocals, production
- Mike E. Clark – production
- Chuck Miller - production |
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