Datasets:

euirim
/

goodwiki

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 44.8k rows

pageid int64 12 74.6M	title stringlengths 2 102	revid int64 962M 1.17B	description stringlengths 4 100 ⌀	categories list	markdown stringlengths 1.22k 148k
1,821,980	California State Route 16	1,171,609,346	State highway in California, United States	[ "Roads in Amador County, California", "Roads in Colusa County, California", "Roads in Sacramento County, California", "Roads in Yolo County, California", "State highways in California", "U.S. Route 40", "U.S. Route 50" ]	State Route 16 (SR 16) is a state highway in the northern region of the U.S. state of California that runs from Route 20 in Colusa County to Route 49 just outside Plymouth in Amador County, primarily crossing the Sacramento Valley. Much of the route through the Sacramento area is unsigned as it runs on a concurrency with the I-5 and US 50 freeways. ## Route description SR 16 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and the eastern segment is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 16 is eligible to be included in the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation. It is known as the Stanley L. Van Vleck Memorial Highway from Dillard Road in Sacramento County to the Amador County line, honoring a former prominent leader in the state's agricultural organizations. State Route 16 begins in Colusa County near Wilbur Springs at the junction with State Route 20. SR 16 goes south alongside Bear Creek, which enters a narrow canyon and joins with Cache Creek near the Yolo County line. SR 16 continues in the canyon, running close to the river, passing Cache Creek Canyon Regional Park, and emerging from the canyon north of Rumsey. This section is so prone to rock slides that there are permanent gates at each end. SR 16 continues to parallel Cache Creek, at a greater distance, going south-east through Capay Valley, with Blue Ridge to its west and the Capay Hills (including Bald Mountain) to its east. It goes through Rumsey, Guinda, Brooks, Cache Creek Casino Resort, Capay, Esparto (intersecting with County Route E4 to Dunnigan), and Madison. East of Madison, and now in the Central Valley, SR 16 interchanges with Interstate 505 before heading east toward Woodland. In west Woodland it merges with County Road 22 and then turns north, concurrently with County Route E7 and Interstate 5 Business, until it meets its interchange with Interstate 5. SR 16 then runs on I-5 from Woodland towards Sacramento in an unsigned concurrency. At the junction with US 50 in the southeastern part of Downtown Sacramento, SR 16 turns eastward on an unsigned concurrency with US 50. It then diverges from US 50 via Howe Ave., goes southward on Howe Ave. for a short distance, then runs eastbound on Folsom Blvd. SR then peels off from Folsom Blvd, less than a mile later as Jackson Road. After it passes near Sloughhouse and Rancho Murieta, where it crosses the Cosumnes River, SR 16 enters Amador County. SR 16 then ascends into the Sierra Nevada foothills, leaving the Central Valley. In Amador County, SR 16 passes near Forest Home before intersecting with State Route 124 and terminating at State Route 49. ## History The two ends of SR 16 were added to the state highway system by the third bond issue, passed by the state's voters in 1919: Route 50 from Lower Lake east to Rumsey and Route 54 from the Sacramento-Amador County line east to Drytown. Each was connected to Sacramento by existing or planned paved county highways. Although the exact alignment of Route 50 was not specified, the state Department of Engineering had already surveyed a 35-mile (56 km) route through Cache Creek Canyon pursuant to a 1915 law, which defined the Yolo and Lake Highway "following generally, the meanderings of Cache creek" but did not make it a state highway. By 1924, the California Highway Commission's engineers had realized that building Route 50 through the canyon was impractical, and adopted a substitute plan for two highways connecting Lower Lake and Rumsey with the planned Route 15 (Tahoe-Ukiah Highway, now State Route 20) to the north in September 1925. The western connection, to Lower Lake, became part of Route 49 (now State Route 53 there), which continued south from Lower Lake to Calistoga. Each route was extended to Sacramento in 1933 over the aforementioned county highways, taking Route 50 southeast from Rumsey to Woodland near Cache Creek and then alongside the Sacramento River to the I Street Bridge, and Route 54 west from the county line to Route 11 just outside Sacramento. The entirety of both routes, from SR 20 near Wilbur Springs through Sacramento to State Route 49 just north of Drytown (and initially overlapping SR 49 to Jackson), was included in the initial state sign route system in 1934 as Sign Route 16. Through downtown Sacramento, SR 16 followed U.S. 40 (Legislative Route 6) and U.S. 50 (Legislative Route 11), mostly on Capitol Avenue, while Legislative Route 50 continued south on 5th Street (later a one-way pair of 3rd and 5th Streets) and turned east on Broadway, carrying Sign Route 24 most of the way to Freeport Boulevard. In the 1964 renumbering, Route 16 became the new legislative designation, and Sign Route 24 through Sacramento was replaced with State Route 99 and State Route 160. As neither of these used what had been Sign Route 24 along 3rd and 5th Streets and Broadway, part of Route 16's new definition ("Route 5 near Woodland to Sacramento") was used for several years on this alignment until it became part of State Route 99 later that decade. This left the western segment of SR 16 ending at Interstate 5 near the east end of the I Street Bridge until 1984, when the Woodland-Sacramento portion, which had become redundant with the parallel Interstate 5 complete, was deleted from the legislative definition. After this, SR 16 was rerouted from the intersection with County Route E7 to continue north on a bypass of Woodland instead of east to Interstate 5. On September 15, 2014, Assembly Bill No. 1957 was passed, authorizing relinquishment of the segment of SR 16 in Eastern Sacramento near US 50. ## Major intersections ## See also
31,861,697	Siege of Klis	1,163,209,300	Part of the Croatian–Ottoman wars and Ottoman–Habsburg wars	[ "1537 in Europe", "1537 in the Ottoman Empire", "16th century military history of Croatia", "Battles involving Habsburg Croatia", "Conflicts in 1537", "Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War", "Sieges involving Croatia", "Sieges involving the Ottoman Empire" ]	The siege of Klis or Battle of Klis (Croatian: Opsada Klisa, Bitka kod Klisa, Turkish: Klise Kuşatması) was a siege of Klis Fortress in the Kingdom of Croatia within Habsburg monarchy. The siege of the fortress, which lasted for more than two decades, and the final battle near Klis in 1537, were fought as a part of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars between the defending Croatian–Habsburg forces under the leadership of Croatian feudal lord Petar Kružić, and the attacking Ottoman army under the leadership of the Ottoman general Murat-beg Tardić. After the decisive Ottoman victory at the Battle of Krbava Field in 1493, and especially after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Croats continued defending themselves against the Ottoman attacks. The Ottoman conquest during the early years of the 16th century prompted the formation of the Uskoks, which were led by Croatian captain Petar Kružić, also called Prince of Klis. As a part of the Habsburg defensive system, Uskoks used the base at Klis as an important defensive position. They fought almost alone against the Ottomans, and for more than two decades defended the fortress against the Ottoman attacks. After the final battle, which resulted in an Ottoman victory and in Petar Kružić's death, the Klis defenders, who were lacking in water supplies, finally surrendered to the Ottomans in exchange for their freedom on 12 March 1537. Citizens fled the town, while the Uskoci retreated to the city of Senj, where they continued fighting the Ottoman army. Klis became an administrative centre or sanjak (Sanjak of Klis) of the Bosnia Eyalet, and would remain so for a century. ## Background After the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia into Ottoman hands in 1463, the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Croatia remained unprotected, the defense of which was left to Croatian gentry who kept smaller troops in the fortified border areas at their own expense. The decisive Ottoman victory at the Battle of Krbava Field in 1493 shook all of Croatia. However, it did not dissuade the Croats from making more decisive and persistent attempts at defending themselves against the attacks of the much larger enemy. A new wave of Ottoman conquest began in 1521, after which a good portion of Croatia was conquered or pillaged. On 29 August 1526, at the Battle of Mohács, the Christian forces led by King Louis II were defeated by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Louis was killed in the battle, which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary as he died without an heir. Both the Kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires. Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria, a member of the House of Habsburg, the brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and a future Holy Roman Emperor himself, married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia. Owing to its location, Klis Fortress was an important defensive position during the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. The fortress stands along the route by which the Ottomans could penetrate the mountain barrier separating the coastal lowlands from around Split, from Ottoman-held Bosnia. The Croat feudal lord Petar Kružić gathered together a garrison composed of Croat refugees, who used the base at Klis both to hold the Ottomans at bay, and to engage in marauding and piracy against coastal shipping. Although nominally accepting the sovereignty of the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand, who obtained the Croatian crown in 1527, Kružić and his freebooting Uskoks were a law unto themselves. ## Siege ### Failed attempts From 1513, Petar Kružić was one of the commanding officers of Klis Fortress. The Ottomans attempted to conquer the Klis Fortress on several occasions. The first major attempt was by Skender-beg Ornosović in 1515. The Ottomans captured Klis, a village just below the fortress bearing the same name, but the garrison in the fortress above held. Kružić was promoted to captain of the Klis Fortress by the ban Petar Berislavić in 1520. The second major attempt was in 1520, and a year later another attempt was made by Makut-paša, with additional 2,000 infantry, 50 horsemen, and siege equipment. Another unsuccessful attempt was made in 1522, by Hasan-paša from Mostar and Mehmed-beg Mihalbegović. Later that year, Mihalbegović made another attempt at a siege with 3,000 men, but failed again. During 1523, Klis Fortress was again under attack by the Sultan's army. Attempts were also made by Gazi Husrev-beg in 1526 and 1528, and later in 1531 and 1532. In 1534, the Ottomans under Mihalbegović laid a months-long siege with a constant concentrated cannonade. Ferdinand urged the Pope to send ships to relieve the Ottoman siege. Although the Ottomans eventually lifted the siege, Ferdinand was displeased that the Pope had provided no assistance in the defense of the fortress. In 1535, the Ottomans tried to seize the fortress by treachery, and again in 1536, but they failed on both occasions. During that year the Ottomans started a new siege which would last until the final fall of the fortress. When a large Ottoman force threatened the fortress, Kružić appealed to Ferdinand for help, but the Emperor's attention was diverted by an Ottoman attack in Slavonia. Kružić led the defense of Klis, and with his soldiers fought almost alone against the Ottomans, as they repeatedly hurled armies against the fortress. No troops from the Hungarian king arrived, as they were slaughtered by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, and the Venetians baulked at sending any help. Only the pope was willing to provide some men and money. ### Final battle Pope Paul III claimed some rights in Klis, and in September 1536, there was talk in the Curia of strengthening the defenses of the fortress. The Pope notified Ferdinand that he was willing to share the costs of maintaining a proper garrison in Klis. Ferdinand did send aid to Klis and was apparently hopeful of holding the fortress, when the Ottomans again laid siege to it. Ferdinand recruited men from Trieste and elsewhere in the Habsburg lands, and the Pope sent soldiers from Ancona. There were about 3,000 infantry in the reinforcements, which made a sizeable relief force, that were commanded by Petar Kružić, Niccolo dalla Torre, and a papal commissioner Jacomo Dalmoro d'Arbe. On 9 March 1537 they disembarked near Klis, at a place called S. Girolamo, with fourteen pieces of artillery. After Ibrahim's death, Suleiman sent 8,000 men under the command of Murat-beg Tardić (Amurat Vaivoda), a Croatian who had been born in Šibenik, to go and lay siege to Klis fortress (Clissa), and fight against Kružić. An initial encounter of the Christian relief force with the Ottomans was indecisive, but, on 12 March they were overwhelmed by the arrival of a great number of Ottomans. The attempts to relieve the citadel ended in farce. Badly-drilled reinforcements sent by the Habsburgs fled in fear of the Ottomans, and their attempts to re-board their boats at Solin Bay caused many vessels to sink. Niccolo dalla Torre and the papal commissioner managed to escape. Kružić himself – who had left the fortress to make contact with the reinforcements - was captured and executed; the sight of his head on a stick overwhelmed the remaining defenders of Klis, who were now willing to give up the fortress in return for safe passage north. After Kružić's death, and with a lack of water supplies, the Klis defenders finally surrendered to the Ottomans in exchange for their freedom, on 12 March 1537. Many of the citizens fled the town, while the Uskoci retreated to the city of Senj, where they continued fighting the Ottoman army. ## Aftermath During the Ottoman wars in Europe, Klis Fortress became an administrative centre or sanjak (Kilis Sancağı) of the Bosnia Eyalet, and would remain so for a century. As the first Sanjak-Beg of Klis, Murat-beg Tardić built a notable mosque inside the Klis Fortress. That same year, the Ottoman forces took Vrana, while Nadin and Perušić fell in 1538. Months after the fall of Klis, the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1537-1540 started, and in that war, as well as the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1570-1573, the Ottomans took much of the Dalmatian hinterland near Šibenik and Zadar. On 7 April 1596, Split noblemen Ivan Alberti and Nikola Cindro, along with Uskoci, Poljičani, and Kaštelani irregulars, organized a liberation of Klis. Assisted by dissident elements of the Ottoman garrison, they succeeded. Mustafa-beg responded by bringing more than 10,000 soldiers under the fortress. General Ivan Lenković, leading 1,000 Uskoci, came in relief of the 1,500 Klis defenders. During the battle, Ivan Lenković and his men retreated after he was wounded in battle, and the fortress was lost to the Ottomans on 31 May. Nevertheless, this temporary relief resounded in Europe and among the local population. The Venetians fought for decades before they finally managed to re-take Klis. During the Cretan War of 1645-1669, the Venetians in Dalmatia enjoyed the support of the local population, particularly the Morlachs (Morlacchi). Venetian commander Leonardo Foscolo seized several forts, retook Novigrad, temporarily captured the Knin Fortress, and managed to compel the garrison of Klis Fortress to surrender. ## See also - Timeline of Croatian history - Battle of Klis (1596)
47,275,528	Dorothy McKibbin	1,170,571,760	Manhattan Project project manager (1897–1985)	[ "1897 births", "1985 deaths", "Manhattan Project people", "People from Kansas City, Missouri", "People from Santa Fe, New Mexico", "Smith College alumni", "Women on the Manhattan Project" ]	Dorothy McKibbin (December 12, 1897 – December 17, 1985) worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. She ran the project's office at 109 East Palace in Santa Fe, through which staff moving to the Los Alamos Laboratory passed. She was known as the "first lady of Los Alamos", and was often the first point of contact for new arrivals. She retired when the Santa Fe office closed in 1963. ## Early life Dorothy Ann Scarritt was born in Kansas City, Missouri, on December 12, 1897, the fourth of five children of William Chick Scarritt, a corporate lawyer, and his wife Frances Virginia née Davis. She had two older brothers, William Hendrix (known as Bill) and Arthur Davis (known as A.D.), and an older sister, Frances. A younger sister, Virginia, died in 1907. Dorothy was known as Dink to her family and close friends. Her father was active in political and social life in Kansas City, serving as its police commissioner from 1896 to 1897, and president of the Board of Park Commissioners in 1922. The family believed strongly in the value of education. Scarritt attended The Barstow School, a small independent preparatory school in Kansas City, where she was editor of the school literary magazine, a member of the drama group, and played forward on the school basketball team. She graduated in 1915, and later that year entered Smith College, a liberal arts college in Northampton, Massachusetts. At the time it was the largest of the Women's colleges in the United States. She considered majoring in English and history, ultimately settling on the latter. She was elected class president in her first year. She participated in the Smith College Association for Christian Work, and the Sociology and Current Events Clubs, and helped raise \$25,000 for refugees from World War I. She enjoyed tennis, swimming, hiking and mountain climbing, and played on a class basketball team, and for the All-Smith baseball team. After graduating from Smith in 1919, Scarritt travelled to Europe with her father in 1921, and then to Alaska, western Canada and Yosemite National Park in 1923. In September 1923, she met Joseph Chambers McKibbin while visiting a Smith College friend in Dellwood, Minnesota. She toured Quebec, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Thousand Islands in 1924, and in 1925 went with her father to Cuba, Panama, Peru, Chile and Argentina. Scarritt and Joseph McKibbin became engaged, but after she returned from South America in 1925 she was diagnosed with tuberculosis, a disease from which her sister Frances had died in 1919, and she broke off their engagement. ## New Mexico As there were no effective drugs to treat the contagious disease, tuberculosis patients were sent to sanatoria, where they either recovered or died. The sunshine and dry climate of the southwestern states was considered conducive to recovery, and several sanatoria were located there. The family chose Sunmount near Santa Fe, New Mexico, a sanatorium that was more like a resort than a hospital. Scarritt arrived with her mother in November 1925 to find that Sunmount had a waiting list for admissions. After some lobbying, she was admitted on December 9, 1925. She fell in love with both the landscape and the culture of New Mexico. After a year, she was pronounced cured, and left on December 22, 1927. Scarritt and Joseph renewed their engagement, and were married in the garden of her family's home in Kansas City on October 5, 1927. After a honeymoon in Rio de Janeiro, they moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, where Joseph worked in his father's fur business, McKibbin, Driscoll and Dorsey. They had a son, Kevin, who was born on December 6, 1930, but Joseph was diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma, and died on October 27, 1931. Now a single mother, McKibbin chose to return to Santa Fe. She loaded her possessions into a Ford Model A, and accompanied by Kevin and Joseph's sister Maggie, drove there. It was almost a month before they arrived on June 11, 1932. Between the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl drought, jobs were hard to find, but McKibbin found employment as a bookkeeper for the Spanish and Indian Trading Company, a small firm that sold handicrafts and artworks. The owners, Norman McGee and Jim McMillan left the day-to-day running of the business in the hands of McKibbin, whom they paid 50c an hour. McKibbin gave up her job in May 1935 to spend more time with Kevin. Her father lost most of his money in the Great Depression, but he still had enough to help her buy a house. Instead of buying, McKibbin decided to build. On April 21, 1936, she purchased 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) not far from Sunmount. She designed her house with Katherine Stinson, an aviator that she had met as a fellow patient at Sunmount. They based the design on that of 19th-century Spanish farmhouses and ranches in the area. The house was furnished with antique fittings acquired through the Spanish and Indian Trading Company. Land and construction costs totalled \$10,000. Her father was a frequent visitor, overseeing various stages of construction. In 1937, Kevin was diagnosed with endocarditis, a potentially life-threatening disease. There was no treatment for it but bed rest, so he spent the entire 1937–38 school year in bed. Her father died from bronchial pneumonia on February 16, 1938. In 1938, she took Kevin to the Children's Hospital Los Angeles, along with her mother and her aunt Nana. The doctors there told them that Kevin had been misdiagnosed, and actually had tonsillitis. The tonsils were removed, and he left cured. When he started school again, McKibbin returned to her old job at the Spanish and Indian Trading Company. ## Manhattan Project After the outbreak of World War II, the owners of the Spanish and Indian Trading Company decided to switch to war-related opportunities, and in 1943 the company closed down, putting McKibbin out of a job. Then in March 1943, she was approached by three men from California seeking to establish a new office in Santa Fe, who offered to hire her as a secretary. She was particularly impressed by one of them. She later wrote: > I thought to be associated with that person, whoever he was, would be simply great! I never met a person with a magnetism that hit you so fast and so completely as his did. I didn't know what he did. I thought maybe if he were digging trenches to put in a new road, I would love to do that, or if he were soliciting ads for a magazine or something, I would love to do that. I just wanted to be allied and have something to do with a person of such vitality and radiant force. The man was Robert Oppenheimer, a professor from the University of California at Berkeley, establishing a new, secret laboratory for the Manhattan Project, the wartime effort to build an atomic bomb. McKibbin became the first permanent employee of the Manhattan Project's Santa Fe office, which opened at 109 East Palace Avenue on March 27, 1943. The office had just five rooms, all purposely small so they could be easily heated in winter with small fireplaces. Joe Stephenson handled housing; Duane Muncy, the comptroller from the University of California was business manager; Dana Mitchell, a chemistry professor from Columbia University was in charge of scientific supplies. Oppenheimer was in charge, assisted by his secretary, Priscilla Greene. When Edward Condon and his secretary Isabel Bemis arrived from Berkeley, they had to be squeezed in. Greene bought a typewriter in Santa Fe with her own money. McKibbin's salary was \$150 per month. Initially Stephenson paid it out of petty cash. She subsequently was made an employee of the University of California. At first, McKibbin was unsure what they wanted her to do. Her duties evolved over time. She became Oppenheimer's deputy in Santa Fe, and ran the housing office, which was nothing more than a front for the top secret laboratory under construction 35 miles (56 km) away. This became the Los Alamos Laboratory, but the name was never used in Santa Fe. It was simply "the Hill". She was acquainted with Los Alamos, being friends with the poet and author Peggy Pond Church, the daughter of Ashley Pond, the founder of the Los Alamos Ranch School there. McKibbin would meet new arrivals, and issue them with passes without which they would not get past the guards. She came to be known as "the gatekeeper to Los Alamos", and the "first lady of Los Alamos", Before she left work each night, she had to burn every scrap of paper produced during the day. McKibbin was on call 24 hours a day, and Oppenheimer would often phone her in the middle of the night. Frequently her house was overrun by guests. She later recalled that: > There was never a dull moment. The office was a madhouse. It was bedlam. We worked six days a week but even so I couldn't wait to get back to work in the morning. There were always people who needed attention — they were hungry, exhausted, in a hurry. By May 1943, there was a telephone line to Los Alamos, and enough facilities has been constructed to allow Oppenheimer and his staff to move there. He offered McKibbin a position at Los Alamos but she declined, and remained in Santa Fe, running the office at 109 East Palace. Her duties remained many and various. She looked after children and pets, guarded briefcases and secret papers. She was the one the residents of Los Alamos turned to when they needed a puppy, a goose for Oppenheimer's Christmas dinner, or a doctor who performed abortions. Laura Fermi recalled that: > Dorothy McKibbin stayed calm and unruffled surrounded by large boxes and crates to be hauled by truck to the mesa and by the piles of small parcels that shopping women dumped on the floor to make room for further purchases in their bags. All women brought their difficulties and their checks to Dorothy. She endorsed the latter so they could be cashed at the bank, and smoothed out the first: Yes, she knew of a boys' camp; Yes, she could recommend a good eating place; Yes, she could arrange for a ride to the mesa later in the evening; Yes, she would try to get reservations for a good hotel in Albuquerque; Yes, she could give them the key to the ladies' room. Marriages were performed at McKibbin's house. Greene married Robert Duffield in a ceremony there on September 5, 1943. McKibbin had a local judge conduct the ceremony, but due to the project's security, he was not allowed to know the surnames of the couple. It was the first of a series of weddings. Just three weeks later everyone assembled again for the wedding of Greene's bridesmaid, Marjorie Hall, to Hugh Bradner. About thirty weddings were held there, including that of Peter Oppenheimer, Robert's son. In May 1944, Oppenheimer gave McKibbin another assignment. The numbers of staff at Los Alamos had greatly expanded, and the dormitories intended to house them were unfinished. Another eighty people were expected to arrive over the summer. The Army had taken over the Frijoles Canyon Lodge in the Bandelier National Monument and McKibbin was asked to prepare it to receive them. She had no experience running a hotel but left the Santa Fe office in the hands of an assistant for six weeks and took up residence at the Lodge in June 1944. With help from the Army and women she brought in she was able to prepare it for occupation in five days. When the expected numbers did not arrive, she turned it into a rest resort for Los Alamos scientists. Perhaps her most unusual assignment though, was scanning the skies for signs of Japanese fire balloons. On July 15, 1945, two couples arrived at 109 East Palace and asked McKibbin to join them for an evening picnic on Sandia Peak near Albuquerque. At 5:30 am the next morning, she watched the sky light up from the Trinity nuclear test. ## Later life After the war ended in August 1945, there were doubts as to whether the Los Alamos Laboratory would remain, not to mention the Santa Fe office. Now McKibbin was arranging people's departures. No one was sadder to see Oppenheimer depart on October 16, 1945. His successor, Norris Bradbury, agreed to take over the director's position for six months. He would remain for 25 years. He kept the laboratory open, and retained the Santa Fe office, with McKibbin as its head. On June 7, 1949, McKibbin was in Washington, D.C., for a Smith College reunion, and went to watch Oppenheimer appear before the House Un-American Activities Committee, sitting beside Anne Wilson Marks, who had succeeded Priscilla Greene as Oppenheimer's secretary at the Los Alamos Laboratory. In May 1950, Sylvia Crouch alleged that Oppenheimer had conducted secret communist meetings at his home in Berkeley in July 1941. McKibbin conducted a meticulous investigation that produced a detailed paper trail demonstrating that Oppenheimer was in Santa Fe at the time. In April and May 1954, the Atomic Energy Commission conducted the Oppenheimer security hearing, which resulted in the loss of Oppenheimer's security clearance. When Edward Teller, who had testified against Oppenheimer, next appeared at Los Alamos, McKibbin gave him an icy reception. The Santa Fe office closed on June 28, 1963, and McKibbin retired. There was a brief ceremony conducted by Bradbury, who presented a memorial plaque. When Oppenheimer was awarded the Atomic Energy Commission's Enrico Fermi Award in 1963, he invited McKibbin to join him at the White House reception. She intended to do so, but the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, whom she had met when he toured Los Alamos on December 7, 1962, cast a pall over the event, and she decided not to attend. Oppenheimer received the award from the new President, Lyndon B. Johnson. McKibbin's eyesight began to fail in the 1950s. She had cataract operations in 1952, and thereafter needed to wear thick glasses. She died at her home in Santa Fe on December 17, 1985. She was buried in the Santa Fe Memorial Gardens. Dorothy McKibbin Hall at the Los Alamos Historical Museum is named after her. The entrance to the hall is the actual gate that was at 109 East Palace.
16,086,955	Kaine (manga)	1,080,853,342	Japanese manga by Kaoru Yuki	[ "1996 manga", "Hakusensha manga", "Kaori Yuki", "Shōjo manga", "Thriller anime and manga" ]	Kaine: Endorphins – Between Life and Death is a shōjo manga written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki. It consists of four short stories: the titular story revolves around a boy who assumes the role of his deceased, rockstar twin, while "Magical Mystery Tour" focuses on a girl who wins a trip to Los Angeles and finds herself entangled in a plot to steal an inheritance. "Orange Time Bomb" deals with the interpersonal struggles of the members of the band Orange Bombs, and its sequel, "Tokyo Top," focuses on the band's singer pursuing an acting career and the love triangle that ensues among the actors. The concept and characters for "Kaine" came together within a day, although page limitations later affected a few scenes and some character development. Yuki later expressed embarrassment at including "Orange Time Bomb," "Tokyo Top," and "Magical Mystery Tour" with "Kaine" because of their relative age: the three stories had variously appeared in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume and its sister magazine Bessatsu Hana to Yume from 1988 to 1990, while "Kaine" had been a two-part serial in Hana to Yume in 1996. Nevertheless, publishing company Hakusensha later compiled the four stories into a bound volume and published it in October 1996; a re-release followed in September 2009. The collection has been translated into other languages, including French, Italian, and German. Critics generally enjoyed "Kaine" for its rock-music-inspired storyline, while the other three stories were seen as interesting for their status as works from the beginning of her career. ## Plot "Kaine" follows Shinogu, the unassuming twin brother of the titular rockstar. Upon awakening, Shinogu discovers that the car accident that left him comatose killed Kaine, and he is thus forced by Kaine's manager, Oda, to assume Kaine's identity as a way for them to recoup the considerable costs associated with covering up Kaine's scandals. Shinogu comes to suspect that his twin was murdered, and with the help of Kaine's guitarist and high-school friend Die, he discovers that the band's success came not from hard work or talent, but a high induced in listeners by a secret message encoded in the CD, which eventually leads to suicide. The pair takes Oda to task over this revelation, and Shinogu agrees to one final concert for his brother's memory. Oda, however, schemes to have the two murdered to protect the company. Narrowly avoiding death, Die rescues Shinogu on stage, which triggers his repressed memories: "Shinogu" realizes that he has been Kaine the entire time. Unable to cope with his destructive upbringing and the demands of fame, he conspired to switch places with his twin, whom he envied for his carefree and innocent nature. Although Kaine was unable to go through with his plans to murder his twin, Shinogu died in the ensuing car accident and Kaine's body was mistaken for his. Kaine, finally remembering his past, then shoots himself on stage to Die's horror. The story ends with Kaine awakening in the hospital again to Die's presence: Die affirms that his past as Kaine was only a nightmare, while privately despairing that Kaine has always been able to control him. "Magical Mystery Tour" centers on Saya Morikawa, a teenager who wins a trip to Los Angeles, California. Together with her guide, Minobu Kishida, she stays at the home of Takako Tojo, the company president's widow. There, Saya is troubled by warnings from a mysterious woman and is repeatedly mistaken for Takako's absent daughter, Shoko. As the story progresses, it is revealed that Minobu and Takako conspired to kill Shoko, who had inherited all of her father's property. When they failed to find her corpse to use as proof of her death, they then decided to kill Saya and substitute her corpse instead. Plagued by guilt, Minobu rescues Saya, and Shoko confronts them, having enlisted Saya's help. Takako and Minobu are arrested, and Saya returns to Japan, dreaming of her return to Los Angeles and all the sightseeing to do there. "Orange Time Bomb" opens with Jam, a young girl who has collided with Tatsumi, the teenage guitarist and lyricist of the band Orange Bombs. In accidentally knocking off his sunglasses, she discovers his secret: without them, he blushes in the presence of women. While Tatsumi and Guy clash over their shared workload, Jam eventually tracks Tatsumi down and threatens to reveal his secret unless he goes out with her. They eventually bond over shared memories of their pasts, and later on, Guy embraces Jam, wishing to break the two of them apart; in doing so, he is photographed by a paparazzo. Guy and Tatsumi reconcile over their efforts to obtain the camera, which is eventually destroyed. "Tokyo Top," the sequel short story of "Orange Time Bomb," follows Guy as he acts along with Satsuki, a headstrong singer, on the set of a science-fiction film. Satsuki ends up in a love triangle with Guy and another actor, the womanizing, arrogant Ibe. When she learns about Ibe's scheme to have Guy beaten up during the filming of a scene, she rushes to intercede, fighting off his attackers. She confesses her love for him and her fears that he could never love her because she is strong-willed. The story closes with them attending a screening together. ## Development and publication The concept and characters for "Kaine" came together within a day. Due to page limitations and deadlines, manga artist Kaori Yuki was unable to flesh out some of the characters, something she regretted in the afterword. She thought that, because of this, some characters were unintentionally comedic. She also noted how the page limitations affected the scenes where Kaine escapes being murdered by Oda or when he sings at the concert in the climax. Die was her favorite character to draw, and in the original ending, she had intended for him to go mad. Although she visited a music studio to gather impressions for "Kaine," she did not use any of them, nor did she use a model for any of the characters. Yuki expressed her embarrassment at including the other three stories within the collection, due to their status as very early works. In her retrospective on "Magical Mystery Tour," she thought that the art was "amateurish." "Orange Time Bomb" is from the early point in her career when she wrote romantic-comedy manga. She had been having difficulty selling her manga stories, and an older colleague had advised her that she would not be successful with the particular stories and illustrations she had been pursuing. She then switched genres to romantic comedy, and although she had a few stories published, she was unhappy. It was not until she wrote a "dark, scary" miniseries with increasingly favorable reader responses that her editor told her to pursue similar stories. Her success with the next manga she wrote, The Cain Saga, convinced her that "dark" stories and the Gothic genre were most suitable for her style and potential. At the time she was writing "Tokyo Top," she was into European rock music and took inspiration from that. Cultural references to films and music can be found within the short story collection: the title of "Tokyo Top" comes from the film Tokyo Pop (1988), and visual allusions to The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1976) appear near the manga's ending. Additionally, the title of "Orange Time Bomb" has been suggested to be an allusion to the novel A Clockwork Orange (1962) and its related film, while "Magical Mystery Tour" might be a reference to the Beatles album of the same name (1967). "Tokyo Top" appeared in the first issue of the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume for 1989, while "Orange Time Bomb" and "Magical Mystery Tour" were published in its sister manga magazine Bessatsu Hana to Yume in 1988 and 1990, respectively. "Kaine" was serialized in the sixth and seventh issues of Hana to Yume in 1996. The stories were compiled into a bound volume by Hakusensha and published on 18 October 1996. It was later republished on 15 September 2009. It has been translated into other languages, including French by Tonkam, Italian by Panini Comics, and German by Carlsen Comics. ## Reception Critics generally singled out "Kaine" as the highlight of the collection, citing the intriguing narrative centered around rock music. One reviewer for Manga Sanctuary remarked that, despite the lack of depth in some characters, "Kaine" was among some of Yuki's best manga, complemented by her artwork and a "sublime ending." Planete BD's Faustine Lillaz enjoyed the story's premise, art, and character designs, but wrote that the resulting plot was unnecessarily convoluted and would have benefited from more pages to fully flesh the events out. Conversely, the other reviewer for Manga Sanctuary interpreted the narrative of Kaine as a cliché-filled caricature with art that, while better than the majority of other shōjo manga, was serviceable. The other three stories received a range of reactions, with their age relative to "Kaine" often remarked upon. Some critics wrote that they were interesting historical artifacts from Yuki's beginnings as a manga artist. According to the reviewer for Manga News, the short story format and artwork was reminiscent of The Cain Saga, and the stories themselves were "refreshing." Planete BD, however, regarded the stories as amateur and uninteresting.
17,716,596	Lana Lang (Smallville)	1,163,884,820	Fictional character from Smallville	[ "Adoptee characters in television", "DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds", "DC Comics characters with accelerated healing", "DC Comics characters with superhuman strength", "DC Comics martial artists", "Fictional cheerleaders", "Fictional female businesspeople", "Fictional waiting staff", "Smallville characters", "Superman in other media", "Television characters introduced in 2001" ]	Lana Lang is a fictional character on the television series Smallville. She has been a series regular since the pilot episode, and has been played continuously by Kristin Kreuk, with two other actresses having portrayed Lana Lang as a child and as an elderly woman. The character of Lana Lang, first created for comic books by Bill Finger and John Sikela in the 1950s as a romantic interest for Superboy, was adapted to television in 2001 by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar. The character has also appeared in various literature based on the Smallville television series, none of which directly continues from or into the television episodes. In Smallville, Lana is the first main love interest for Clark Kent, though, in the first season she is dating Whitney Fordman. By season two, with Whitney's departure, Lana and Clark begin to grow closer. Clark's dishonesty over the secrets he is hiding causes their relationship to end. Lana then grows closer to Lex Luthor, whom she marries and divorces in the sixth season. Eventually Lana learns the truth about Clark and they get back together. After stealing a kryptonite-powered suit from Lex, Lana absorbs an enormous amount of kryptonite radiation, which prohibits her from getting too close to Clark, and she leaves Smallville for good, but vowed to continue to use her powers to preserve life. Initially, Lana is characterized as the intelligent "girl next door". She eventually becomes a tragic figure in Smallville, as the decisions made by Clark and Lex change the character over the course of the show. As Gough explains, by the end of the sixth season, Lana has shown that she can beat Lex at his own game. Over the course of the show, Lana transitions from the girl next door to a more "self-reliant young woman". Kreuk has been nominated for various awards for her portrayal of Lana Lang. ## Role in Smallville In the first season, Lana and Clark Kent (Tom Welling) are just beginning their friendship, as she is a popular cheerleader dating star quarterback Whitney Fordman (Eric Johnson), and Clark cannot get near her without getting sick from the kryptonite necklace she wears. In the pilot episode, when her parents are killed in the first meteor shower, Lana (Jade Unterman) is adopted by her aunt Nell (Sarah-Jane Redmond). As the first season progresses, Lana grows closer to Clark, while Whitney begins to distance himself because of his father's medical ailments. In season two's episode "Heat" Lana sends Whitney, who left Smallville for the Marines in the season one finale, a video message breaking up with him. Lana's aunt Nell moves to Metropolis with her fiancé in the season two episode "Ryan", but Lana opts to move in with her friend Chloe Sullivan (Allison Mack) so that she may finish high school in Smallville. By the end of season two, Lana and Clark slowly try and start a romantic relationship, but fear backlash from Chloe because of her personal feelings for Clark. Just as the two give in to their feelings fully, Clark unexpectedly runs away from Smallville in the season two finale. At the start of season three, it is shown that Lana, alongside the Kents, has been spending her time searching for Clark; she ultimately finds him in Metropolis thanks to Chloe's help. Clark's actions in Metropolis force the two to rethink their relationship in the season three episode "Phoenix", and Lana eventually begins a new relationship with Adam Knight (Ian Somerhalder), a guy she met while in physical therapy after being trampled by a horse in season three's "Asylum". By the season three episode "Crisis", it is discovered that the relationship Adam attempted to form with Lana was just a ploy so that Adam could investigate Clark. Season three's "Forsaken" reveals that Lana, in order to move on with her life, applies and is admitted into a program to study in Paris, France. Season four shows that Lana, while in Paris, began a romantic relationship with Jason Teague (Jensen Ackles). At the beginning of season four, Lana returns to Smallville after receiving a mysterious tattoo on her lower back, which resembles a symbol on the local Kawatche cave walls, when she touched the tomb of Countess Margaret Isobel Theroux. In season four's "Spell" and "Sacred", the tattoo acts as a doorway for the spirit of Isobel to inhabit Lana's body; each time Isobel takes over Lana's body she sets out to find the three stones of knowledge, which are also being searched for by Clark and Lex Luthor (Michael Rosenbaum). In the season four finale "Commencement", Lana is confronted by Jason's mother Genevieve (Jane Seymour), who is also after the three stones of knowledge, and during a struggle Isobel comes forward and kills Genevieve. The resulting death of Genevieve, who was revealed to have been the cause for Isobel's death centuries prior in the episode "Bound", releases Isobel's control over Lana. During the second meteor shower, Lana witnesses the landing of an alien spacecraft, and two alien beings emerging and killing everyone in sight in the season five premiere. The spaceship becomes Lana's primary focus in season five, officially teaming up with Lex Luthor to discover the mystery behind the ship in the episode "Splinter". When her relationship with Clark hits a breaking point in season five's "Hypnotic", she begins to grow closer to Lex. The relationship with Lex eventually leads to marriage in the season six episode "Promise", but not before Lana discovers Clark's secret and realizes why he has been lying to her all these years. When she learns that Lex set up a fake pregnancy in order to get her to marry him in the season six finale "Phantom", Lana effectively ends the marriage and fakes her own death to escape Lex after he threatens her. She also frames Lex for her murder, to punish him for his betrayal. It is revealed at the start of season seven that her effort fails, but as part of the "settlement" of their divorce, Lex makes sure that Lana does not go to jail for her actions. With Clark's secret no longer an issue, the two begin a real relationship in the season seven episode "Fierce". Lana becomes obsessed with making Lex pay for all his crimes against humanity, which causes her to develop the Isis Foundation, using \$10 million she stole from Lex. The Isis Foundation is a counseling center for kryptonite-infected people, but it doubles as a front for Lana's surveillance on Lex. Her obsessions also begin to affect her relationship with Clark by the episode "Wrath". Eventually, Lana realizes that, even though she loves him, the only way for Clark to help the world to the best of his ability would be if she left Clark and Smallville for good, which she does in the season seven finale. In the season eight episode "Bride", Oliver Queen (Justin Hartley), believing he is tracking Lex Luthor who has been missing since the season seven finale, discovers Lana instead. Oliver convinces her to return to Smallville so that she can attend Chloe's wedding. In the season eight episode "Power", it is revealed that Lana really returned so that she could steal Lex's "Prometheus" technology for herself, which harnesses alien DNA into a nanite "super-suit" to give the wearer superhuman abilities. By the end of the episode, the procedure is complete, and Lana becomes just as strong and invulnerable as Clark. In the episode "Requiem", Lana discovers that her suit absorbs kryptonite, but also emits the radiation making her a potential danger to Clark. When Winslow Schott puts a kryptonite bomb on the roof of the Daily Planet under Lex's orders, Lana is forced to absorb all of the kryptonite to deactivate the bomb. As a result, she leaves Smallville to go on her own quest as Clark can no longer get near her without the kryptonite radiation hurting him. ## Portrayal Creators Alfred Gough and Miles Millar were initially trying to find someone for the role of Clark Kent, but Kristin Kreuk was the first to be cast, as Lana Lang. Casting director Coreen Mayrs sent David Nutter, the director of the pilot episode, a tape of 69 people and the second person on the tape was Kreuk. They loved her audition tape so much they immediately showed her to the network. For one of her auditions, she read the graveyard scene with Tom Welling; the network thought they had "great chemistry". Jade Unterman and Louise Grant portrayed the character as a child and an elderly woman, respectively. At the time she was cast as Lana, Kreuk had no idea who the character was in Superman lore. Her uncle, who owned a comic book shop, filled her in on the details and she learned more from the producers. Kreuk realized that the character in the comics and her character on the show were two different people. As a result, Kreuk learned about the development of Lana as Lana is learning in the show, just as Welling does with Clark Kent. When asked if her being cast as a traditionally red haired character caused outcry from fans, Kreuk believes that whoever did "got over it pretty fast". By season three, Kreuk had decided to "invest" herself less in her character, as she felt that her character's ultimate development was entirely in the hands of the producers. She no longer became frustrated when the producers had Lana doing things that Kreuk felt were out of character, instead trusting that they would find the right direction for the character. Kreuk enjoyed the fourth season because it gave her the chance to stretch her acting abilities with Lana's storyline involving the spirit of Countess Margaret Isobel Thoreaux. According to the actress: "That was a lot of fun; I thought it was funny as well [...] It really was wonderful to be able to stretch and play this driven woman who has a goal and is going to reach it, and in the meantime she's going to be sexy doing it. That was a lot of fun for me because the show sometimes isn't realistic so, as actors, we get to play with different types of things". Kreuk says her strangest moment on the show was playing a vampire in season five's "Thirst", an experience she remembers as "uncomfortable" due to the fake blood they covered her in. ## Character development ### Storyline progression One of the early turning points for the character came in season one's "X-Ray", when Lana discovers information about her parents that changes her perspective on them. It began with her mother's graduation speech, which showed that her mother was not as happy as her aunt had led her to believe. Lana's perception of her mother drove the way she led her own life, which was based on the idea of everyone perceiving her in a good light. In season two, Lana discovers that her mother had had an affair with a man named Henry Small, and that he was her biological father. This continued the idea established in season one that Lana's perception that her parents were this perfect couple was wrong. According to Kreuk, meeting her biological father allowed the character to realize that she had to create her own life, as the one she had envisioned did not actually exist. Season two also showed Lana's transition from the "girl next door" to a more "self-reliant young woman". At the beginning of the season Lana is forced to come to terms with her diminished feelings for Whitney, as well as her growing feelings for Clark. It takes time before Lana is strong enough to finally tell Whitney the truth, in a video message, about the way she feels. The Talon, a local coffee shop co-owned by Lana, becomes her new grounding force as Whitney and her aunt have left Smallville. Kreuk thinks that it can be hard to believe that a sixteen-year-old girl could become co-owner of a coffee shop, but she believes that it helps to provide more independence for the character and establish her more within the show. Eventually, in order to really get to know herself, and find her role in life, Lana leaves Smallville for Paris. In season four, Kristin Kreuk felt like Lana is "going a little crazy and is uncertain about her direction, and feels people aren't validating her beliefs". ### Characterization At the start of the show, Lana Lang is characterized as the girl next door. As Kreuk describes her, she is the "beautiful, popular girl who is really lonely". She has a "hole in her heart", because of the loss of her parents, and feels empathy for everyone. Kristin feels that deep down the character is a "tough girl", and that Lex manages to bring that side of her out more. For instance, he convinces her to fight back against a rival coffee shop that is spreading rumors about The Talon – the coffee shop that she joint owns with Lex. That tough side is not seen in the first season. According to Kreuk, the character was never placed in situations where she could show her outgoing side, because she was left to communicate primarily with Whitney and Clark. Kreuk thinks that Lana "lived in her head a little bit"; she was intelligent enough to read classical books, but would also read romantic novels "on the sly". As Alfred Gough sees it, Lana is a by-product of Clark and Lex's decisions. She will always love Clark, and Clark will always love her, but it was Clark's bad decisions, and Lex's "basest instincts" that make Lana the "receptacle of all of these bad decisions", marking her as a tragic figure on the show. While Lana was with Clark, Kreuk characterizes her as a "wimpy, whiny kind of girl"; with Lex, Lana is "strong, powerful, and doesn't have to question, 'What is going on? What does he think? Does he love me? I don't know where I stand'". To clarify, Lana's relationship with Lex brings out a darkness that had not been seen in the character. This is evident in "Nemesis" when Lana manipulates her way into seeing Lionel, only to interrogate him about why he forced her to marry Lex, as well as leaving Lex to die in the tunnels. As Gough explains, by the end of the sixth season, Lana has shown that she can beat Lex at his own games. Reviewer Jennifer Malkowski feels that Lana is one of the most gullible characters on television. According to Malkowski, Lana's strong feminist stance, and her request that people should stop protecting her and start telling her the truth, are diluted by her willingness to believe whatever pieces of information she gets, even if they are lies. After the series ended, Gough and Millar expressed regret with Lana's characterization throughout the course of the show, which they felt damaged Lana in the audiences' mind. Gough and Millar believed that Lana's behavior toward Clark (for refusing to reveal his secret) made her come across as cold and unsympathetic. ### Relationships When Smallville first began, Lana was in a romantic relationship with Whitney Fordman, the star quarterback of the football team. Kreuk believes that Lana truly was in love with Whitney when they first started dating, but by the time the audience first sees her in the pilot she is no longer in that same state of mind. Kreuk believes that by the time of the pilot Lana had grown "comfortable" with Whitney, and that was where their relationship ended. Though Lana had growing feelings for Clark, Kreuk feels that the producers rushed the coupling of Clark and Lana at the end of the second season. She believes that with everything that had happened throughout the season between the two characters, it seemed a bit of a stretch for Lana to just quickly fall into Clark's arms. The next season began to develop more of the relationship between Lex and Lana. Kreuk believes that Lana cares for Lex as a friend, and that she recognizes the "undertones" that Lex may be placing on their relationship, but that Lana tends to ignore them. Kreuk recognizes that Lex is a big part of Lana's life, and that Lana tries to pay more attention to the good that Lex does and focus less on the darker aspects of his life. The friendship that Lana shares with Chloe was deeply damaged at the start of season three, so much so that not even Kreuk realized how badly until the episode "Truth". Lana is aware that Chloe still has romantic feelings for Clark, but their friendship suffered the most when Chloe revealed that she had known where Clark had been hiding for months. The feelings of distrust for Chloe remained hidden until "Truth"—where Chloe gained the ability to have others speak the truth no matter what—when Lana finally revealed how much she cannot trust Chloe. This developing friendship between Lex and Lana puts a strain on Lana's relationship with Clark. Just as Clark is beginning to realize the truth about Lex and his lies, Lana is starting to trust Lex more. Ultimately, it is Clark's own lack of honesty that forces Lana to leave Smallville and go to Paris at the end of season three. In the end, Kreuk believes that Clark is Lana's only true friend, as Lex is more focused on bringing his father to justice and she and Chloe have a tense relationship based on their mutual feelings for Clark. While in Paris, Lana begins a new romantic relationship with Jason Teague. Kreuk believes that Lana did love Jason Teague, but she also still loved Clark at the same time. With Clark, it was the "first love" that she never had the chance to discover, and that lingered with her while she was in Paris during the space between seasons three and four. According to Kreuk, before Lana can experience successful relationships with other people she will need to know what it is like to truly be in a relationship with Clark, because of the "intense connection between [the] two". Allison Mack shares her insight into the relationship between Clark and Lana, believing that the pair should have remained apart until they could finally be honest with each other: "There's no honesty in their relationship, and there's no way that they could have a healthy relationship without that honesty [...] You can't be with someone if you're not honest with them". Kreuk echoes Mack's sentiments, acknowledging that Lana is not stupid, and if Clark wants a real relationship then he is going to have to be honest with her. The beginning of season five saw, for the first time, Clark and Lana in a happy relationship together, one that was void of dishonesty and secrets. The return of Clark's powers in "Hidden", as well as the secrets and lies that accompany them, caused stress on their relationship. In the series' 100th episode, Clark finally took a chance and told Lana the truth. When it resulted, indirectly, in her death and he was allowed to live the day over again Clark chose not to tell her his secret. In "Hypnotic", in an effort to stop hurting Lana emotionally, Clark told her that he no longer loved her. This drove Lana into Lex's arms. Writer Darren Swimmer explains that this was not something that just happened in the series, but something that had been hinted at for many seasons. Swimmer believes that Lana started dating Lex as a way of making Clark mad, but the relationship "turned into much more". Kreuk contends that Lana went to Lex because she knows that she will never really love him. Kreuk believes that Lana's relationship with the men in her life has been motivated by a desire to fill a void in her life that was left after her parents were killed. This need to fill that emptiness was fulfilled in "Void", when Lana took a drug to induce death so that she could see her parents in the afterlife. Upon meeting her parents, Kreuk believes that Lana realized that she no longer needed someone else to fill that hole in her. Kreuk sees this filled void as the reason why Lana would gravitate toward Lex. Although she did not truly love Lex, Kreuk argues that Lex was not a rebound guy and that Lana did have feelings for him. Even though Lana eventually marries Lex in season six, Al Gough argues that Lana still loved Clark and Clark still loved her. The only reason Lana was with Lex was because Clark forced her in that direction and she ended up getting in over her head. By contrast, writer Caroline Dries feels that Lana did love Lex, and that she did not make any hasty decisions when she agreed to marry him. Dries believes that the progression of the show demonstrates that Lex earned Lana's love. To answer viewers that hated to see Lana marry Lex, Dries contends that viewers are seeing all of Lex, including how evil he truly is, while Lana only sees the portion of Lex that appears good. ## Reception In 2001, Kristin Kreuk was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress, as well as Female Cinescape Genre Face of the Future. The following year, alongside co-star Tom Welling, Kreuk was nominated for a Best Actress Saturn Award again. She would receive two more nominations in that category, one in 2004 and one in 2006, before she departed from the show. In the 2003 Teen Choice Awards, Kristin Kreuk was nominated for Choice TV Actress: Drama/Action Adventure. She was nominated again in 2004, 2006, 2008 for the revised category Choice TV Actress: Action Adventure, and finally in 2009. Kreuk was also co-nominated with Welling at the 2006 Teen Choice Awards for Most Beautiful Couple (TV - Choice Chemistry). DVD Verdict's Brian Byun felt that the casting of the series was "pitch-perfect", noting that Kreuk is "painfully luminous" as Lana Lang, which makes it obvious why she is the object of Clark's obsession. ## Other media appearances ### Young adult novels Lana makes her first literary appearance in Smallville: Strange Visitors, published by Aspect. In Strange Visitors, Lana attempts to organize a fund raiser for the family of a school mate, Stewart, who was diagnosed with terminal cancer. Her effort is rendered moot when Lex Luthor and Dr. Donald Jacobi, a con artist that comes to Smallville, pick up Stewart's medical bills after a meteor rock removes all of the malignant cancer cells in his brain. In Smallville: Dragon, Lana visits an antiques dealer, Mrs. Mayfern, looking for a gift for her boyfriend, Whitney. When she leaves she breaks up with Whitney and starts dating Clark. It is eventually discovered that she was hypnotized by Mrs. Mayfern, whose homegrown herbal tea is fertilized by meteor rocks. ### Comic books Lana made a non-speaking cameo appearance in the ninth issue of the show's comic book continuation Smallville: Season Eleven, written by executive story editor Bryan Q. Miller. Though Clark and Bart Allen do not notice her, she watches them race over the coast of Cameroon. Lana returns in a parallel story arc Valkyrie in which she uses the superhero alias "Angel of the Plateau" and battles terrorists in Africa. Lana also saves Lois from one of their attacks. Lana reveals that she has been using her abilities to help and protect children from people who would exploit them after Lana had settled in Africa. However, Lois tries not to reveal her relationship with Clark to Lana. Elsewhere, the terrorists seek John Corben's aid in defeating Angel of the Plateau. Corben's new kryptonite heart (installed by Winslow Schott) has absorbed the nanites embedded in Lana's skin, rendering her powerless and no longer emitting the kryptonite radiation once more. After Lois helps Lana defeat Corben, Lana reveals that she had seen Lois's engagement ring, thus she already knows about Clark's relationship with Lois. Lana gives her blessing to Lois, and decides to remain in Africa as the Angel.
60,264,356	K-111 (Kansas highway)	1,054,633,089	Highway in Kansas	[ "State highways in Kansas", "Transportation in Ellsworth County, Kansas" ]	K-111 is an approximately 5.33-mile-long (8.58 km) state highway in the U.S. state of Kansas. Its southern terminus is at F Street at the Kanopolis city limits, and the northern terminus is at K-156 northeast of the city of Ellsworth. Along the way it intersects K-140 north of Kanopolis. K-111 travels through mostly flat rural farmlands south of K-140, and small rolling hills covered with grasslands north of K-140. It is a two-lane highway its entire length. Before state highways were numbered in Kansas, there were auto trails. The highway crosses the former Golden Belt at its junction with K-140. When K-111 was first designated a state highway on September 28, 1948, as a short spur between Kanopolis and U.S. Route 40 (US-40), which is modern K-140. On October 13, 1967, US-40 was rerouted to overlap the newly constructed section of I-70 from Dorrance to Salina. At that time K-111 was extended northward to US-156, which is modern K-156. Then on November 27, 1968, old US-40 from Ellsworth eastward to Salina was designated K-140. In an American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) meeting on October 13, 1979, it was approved to remove US-156 as a U.S. highway. Then on April 4, 1981, US-156 was redesignated as K-156. ## Route description K-111 begins at the Kanopolis city limits as a continuation of F Street. As the highway leaves the city it curves north and begins travelling through flat rural farmlands. It continues northward and soon crosses over an unnamed creek that is bordered by trees. The highway passes through more farmland for a little over 0.5 miles (0.80 km) before reaching an intersection with K-140, which heads west to Ellsworth and east to Salina. As K-111 advances north, the landscape transitions to rolling hills mixed with grasslands and some farmlands. After roughly 1.3 miles (2.1 km) the roadway begins to parallel to the east of East Spring Creek, a tributary of Spring Creek, which flows into Smoky Hill River. Roughly 0.7 miles (1.1 km) later the river then passes under the highway and continues to parallel it. K-111 continues north for roughly 1.4 miles (2.3 km) through rolling hills covered with grasslands then crosses East Spring Creek again. The highway continues another roughly 0.3 miles (0.48 km) before reaching its northern terminus at K-156, which heads west to Ellsworth and east to I-70 and US-40. The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) tracks the traffic levels on its highways, and in 2019, they determined that on average the traffic varied from 220 vehicles per day slightly north of the junction with K-140 to 495 vehicles per day slightly south of the junction with K-140. K-111 is not included in the National Highway System, but does connect to it at its northern terminus at K-156. The entire route is paved with partial design bituminous pavement. ## History ### Early roads Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails, which were an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century. K-111 intersects K-140, which follows the former Golden Belt, an auto trail that went from Denver east to Kansas City. ### Establishment and realignments K-111 was first designated a state highway by KDOT, at the time State Highway Commission of Kansas (SHC), on September 28, 1948. At that time it ran from US-40 (modern K-140) southward and ended at the Kannapolis city limits. In July 1963, the city of Kanopolis made a request to the SHC to extend K-111 north from US-40 to K-45, to provide a direct link to I-70. In an American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) meeting on July 4–5, 1966, it was approved to extend US-156 from Larned northwest through Great Bend and Ellsworth to I-70. By 1967, US-156 had been extended northeast from Larned along US-56 to Great Bend, then along K-45 to I-70 northeast of Ellsworth, at which time the K-45 designation was removed. On October 13, 1967, US-40 was rerouted to overlap the newly constructed section of I-70 from Dorrance to Salina. At that time K-111 was extended northward 3.8 miles (6.1 km) to US-156, now K-156. Later in October, the SHC announced that old US-40 from K-141 east to Salina will remain a state highway and the section from Ellsworth east to K-141 would be maintained by the county. Ellsworth County objected to this because the average daily traffic was the same on both sections. Then on November 27, 1968, old US-40 from Ellsworth eastward to Salina was designated K-140. In an AASHTO meeting on October 13, 1979, it was approved to remove US-156 as a U.S. highway. Then in a resolution on April 4, 1981, US-156 was redesignated as K-156 by KDOT. ## Major intersections
168,290	Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons)	1,161,875,117	null	[ "1990 American television episodes", "Television episodes about suicide", "The Simpsons (season 1) episodes" ]	"Homer's Odyssey" is the third episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox Network in the United States on January 21, 1990. In this episode, Homer becomes a crusader for safety in Springfield and is promoted to safety inspector at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and was the first Simpsons script to be completed, although it was the third episode produced. ## Plot Mrs. Krabappel takes Bart's class on a field trip to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. Distracted when Bart waves at him, Homer crashes an electric cart into a cooling vent and is fired. Homer searches for a new job without success. Feeling like a failure, he writes a note to his family and decides to commit suicide by tying a boulder to himself and jumping off a bridge. His family hurries to the bridge to save him, but they are almost run over by a speeding truck. Homer pulls them to safety just in time, and he is suddenly filled with a new reason to live: to place a stop sign at the dangerous intersection. After successfully petitioning the city council, Homer embarks on a public safety crusade that involves placing speed bumps and warning signs throughout the town. Inspired to use his new safety efforts in order to not give up on finding a new job, Homer takes on the biggest danger in Springfield, the nuclear power plant. After Homer rallies people to his cause, Mr. Burns decides to end the furor he is creating by offering him a new position as the plant safety inspector, along with a higher salary. Homer, torn between his principles and his livelihood, tearfully tells his followers that they must fight their battles alone from this point on, and takes the job. ## Cast - Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson, Barney Gumble, Mr. Winfield, City Council \#1 and City Council \#3 - Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson - Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson, Lewis and Actor - Yeardley Smith as Inanimate Carbon Rod \#2 and Lisa Simpson - Harry Shearer as Otto, Waylon Smithers, Smilin' Joe Fission, SNPP Supervisor, Loaftime Announcer, Jasper, City Council \#2, City Council \#1 (take 2) and Demonstrator - Marcia Wallace as Edna Krabappel - Hank Azaria as Moe Szyslak and Chief Wiggum - Christopher Collins as Mr. Burns - Pamela Hayden as Wendell - Sam McMurray as SNPP Employee and Duff Commercial VO - Russi Taylor as Sherri, Terri, Inanimate Carbon Road \#1 and Mrs. Winfield ## Production Waylon Smithers makes his first appearance in this episode, although he can be heard over a speaker in the series premiere. In his first visual appearance, he was mistakenly animated with the wrong color and was made an African American by Györgyi Peluce, the color stylist. David Silverman has claimed that Smithers was always intended to be Mr. Burns's "white sycophant", and the staff thought it "would be a bad idea to have a black subservient character" and so switched him to his intended color for his next episode. Smithers's skin tone was later explained as an "extreme tan". Blinky the Three-Eyed Fish makes a brief cameo in this episode; he later becomes of importance in episode four of the second season, "Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish". Also notable is that Marge was originally called Juliette in this script as a homage to Romeo and Juliet. Homer's middle initial, J, is mentioned for the first time in this episode. According to Matt Groening, it was a reference to Bullwinkle J. Moose. Additionally, the following characters made their first appearances in this episode: Otto Mann, Chief Wiggum, Jasper Beardley, Sam & Larry, Mr. & Mrs. Winfield and Sherri and Terri. The episode's title comes from the Greek epic poem Odyssey, traditionally attributed to the legendary poet Homer. On the bus, Bart sings "John Henry was a Steel Driving Man", an American folk-song about a 19th-century hero of the working-class, building railroads across the West Virginia mountains. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Homer's Odyssey" finished twenty-eight in ratings for the week of January 15–21, 1990, with a Nielsen rating of 14.9, equivalent to approximately 13.7 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, beating Married... with Children. Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said that "the story rather fizzles out at the end, but there are many good moments, especially in the power plant". Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is "possibly the best of the [first six] shows" and that it "suffers a little from an odd tone, as the characters hadn't become settled. Still, it seems surprisingly clever and witty." In September 2001, in a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode 1+1⁄2 (of 5) and called it "the first season at its worst", continuing that it was "notable for introducing Mr. Burns and (a strangely African-American) Smithers, but otherwise boring and preachy". ## Home media The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection, in which it was paired with the sixth episode of the season, "Moaning Lisa". In the United Kingdom, it was once re-released as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, released in November 1999. In the United States, the episode would finally see the home video release as a part of The Simpsons Season One DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Archer, Kogen, and Wolodarsky participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season was published December 20, 2010, in the United States containing the episode, through Amazon Video and iTunes.
69,697,113	Deli Mike	1,165,032,238	Airbus A340 aircraft with strange unreliability	[ "Airbus A340", "Individual aircraft", "Turkish Airlines" ]	Deli Mike or Deli Mayk (English: Crazy Mike) is a nickname given to an Airbus A340-300 operated by Turkish Airlines with civil registration TC-JDM. The aircraft joined the Turkish Airlines fleet in 1996 to replace the McDonnell Douglas DC-10s of the airline and was used to operate long-haul flights out of Turkey. During its operation, Deli Mike had a record of having minor and strange technical failures. This unreliability gave the aircraft its nickname, which is a wordplay on the ICAO spelling alphabet. In its late use, the aircraft operated both long-haul and short-haul flights. It was re-configured in 2016 to only have economy class seats and was solely used to carry pilgrims to Hajj. Deli Mike was removed from the Turkish Airlines fleet in early 2019 and was flown to O. R. Tambo International Airport later that year and re-registered as 2-AVRA. The aircraft was stored at Johannesburg for almost 4 years. In December 2022, it was flown to Mehrabad International Airport. ## History ### Background In the late 1980s, Turkish Airlines wanted to expand to North America and East Asia. The McDonnell Douglas DC-10s operated by the airline during that time were in the process of being phased out, leaving the Airbus A310 as the only option for these routes. However, the Airbus A310 did not have the range to fly to these destinations and would have had to make a stopover to refuel. In January 1990, after examining two possible aircraft types—the Airbus A340 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11—an internal commission unanimously voted to opt for the Airbus A340 due to its technical advantages and cost benefits. On 27 March 1990, Turkish Airlines ordered five Airbus A340-300 aircraft, which included an option for a further five. TC-JDM joined the fleet of Turkish Airlines in April 1996 and became the fourth A340 to do so. The aircraft was given the name "İzmir". ### Technical failures and nickname Shortly after delivery, the aircraft started to have "random" technical issues and failures. Sometimes, the aircraft would turn its external lights on by itself and then back off when someone tried to intervene. Occasionally, the lights of the emergency exits would turn on one by one from front to back "like a Mexican wave", not all at the same time, which according to the cabin crew meant that Deli Mike "was in a good mood". The aircraft also made "small jokes" to passengers and crew. On one occasion, the aircraft started sounding the master caution alarm in the cockpit, causing one of the inexperienced cabin crew members to panic. Frequent problems with the aircraft included the reading light of a completely different passenger turning on when the button is pressed, and the same issue also exists with the button used to call a crew member. One popular story among technical staff states that a senior employee fixed the faulty flight instruments of the aircraft simply by asking "what happened to you, big man?" and talking in the cockpit. In the ICAO spelling alphabet used in aviation, the spelling of D and M, the final two letters of the civil registration of the aircraft, is "Delta Mike". Following the technical problems surrounding the aircraft, technicians of Turkish Airlines have swapped "Delta" to "Deli"—meaning "crazy" in Turkish—to reflect the characteristics of the aircraft, which resulted in the nickname "Deli Mike". ### Subsequent history Despite their age, Airbus A340's were used as "jokers" in the 2010s, flying both short domestic and long-haul flights. In September 2011, Deli Mike had a runway excursion while landing at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport in Mumbai. None of the occupants were injured in the incident. Turkish Airlines pulled its Airbus A340 aircraft from scheduled flights in May 2016. From July 2016 onwards, TC-JDM and other A340 aircraft in the Turkish Airlines fleet were used on charter flights to carry passengers to Hajj. The aircraft was reconfigured to have an all-economy class layout, without any business class seats. During the winter period of 2016, a heavy downfall in traffic caused the airline to temporarily ground dozens of aircraft, including Deli Mike. In August 2017, Hürriyet reported that Turkish Airlines expected to maintain its Airbus A340 aircraft and use them for the Hajj flights until 2021 "thanks to good maintenance". Deli Mike was the oldest aircraft of the Turkish Airlines fleet as of September 2017. On 22 October 2018, Turkish Airlines grounded TC-JDM alongside her sister aircraft TC-JDN at Istanbul Atatürk Airport. The aircraft was retired from the fleet in early January 2019; the livery of the airline was removed from the aircraft later that month. There was initial speculation about the plane being turned into a restaurant, as had previously happened to three sister aircraft. In March 2019, the aircraft was ferried to O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg, South Africa. Subsequently, the aircraft was transferred to Avro Global, re-registered as 2-AVRA, and stored in Johannesburg. In December 2022, Deli Mike and three other former Turkish Airlines Airbus A340's flew again for the first time in years. The planes departed Johannesburg back to back on 24 December towards Uzbekistan, but made an emergency landing at Mehrabad International Airport in Tehran, reportedly to evade sanctions placed on Iran. ## Responses According to technicians of Turkish Technic, the aircraft maintenance subsidiary of Turkish Airlines, "Deli Mike can fly to the other side of the world without any problems if she wants to. If she doesn't feel like it, she won't move even one metre on the ground." The technicians also removed and reinstalled all systems on-board and reset the software of the aircraft in an attempt to solve the issues, without any success. While criticizing Turkish Airlines in February 2018 for ordering new aircraft while many others were grounded in the meantime, Bora Erdin of pro-opposition newspaper Sözcü also added that the airline made "no clarification as to why the problematic plane [Deli Mike] was used persistently while unproblematic ones were on the ground" and highlighted the frequent issue of the landing gear not retracting after takeoff, causing the aircraft to return to the origin airport.
54,044,038	Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018	1,143,717,165	null	[ "2018 in Greek television", "Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018", "Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest" ]	Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 with the song "Oniro mou" written by Aris Kalimeris, Dimitris Stamatiou, Yianna Terzi and Mihalis Papathanasiou and performed by Terzi. A national final was scheduled to be held in order to select the Greek entry for the 2018 contest in Lisbon, Portugal. Five entries were to compete in the final on 22 February 2018 where public voting would exclusively select the winner, however "Oniro mou" performed by Terzi was announced as the Greek entry on 16 February 2018 following the disqualification of four out of the five national final entries. To promote the entry, a music video for the song was released and Terzi performed the song at both the fashion music series MADwalk and the Eurovision Live Lounge series hosted by ESCToday. Greece was drawn to compete in the first semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest which took place on 8 May 2018. Performing fourteenth in the running order for the night, "Oniro mou" was not announced among the top 10 entries of the first semi-final and therefore did not qualify to compete in the final. It was later revealed that Greece placed fourteenth out of the 19 participating countries in its semi-final with 81 points. ## Background Prior to the 2018 contest, Greece had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 38 times since their debut in . The nation has won the contest on one occasion in with the song "My Number One" performed by Helena Paparizou. Following the introduction of semi-finals for the 2004 contest, Greece managed to qualify for the final with each of their entries for several years. Between 2004 and 2013, the nation achieved nine top ten placements in the final. To this point, Greece in with Argo's "Utopian Land" failed to qualify from the semi-finals for the first time ever, being absent from the final for the first time since 2000 and marking Greece's worst result at the contest. The Greek national broadcaster, Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), broadcasts the event within Greece and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. ERT had been in charge of Greece's participation in the contest since their debut in 1974 until 2013, when the broadcaster was shut down by a government directive and replaced with the interim Dimosia Tileorasi (DT) and later by the New Hellenic Radio, Internet and Television (NERIT) broadcaster. During this time, from 2013 through 2015, the Greek television station MAD TV organised the selection process. On 28 April 2015, a legislative proposal that resulted in the renaming of NERIT to ERT was approved and signed into law by the Hellenic Parliament; ERT began broadcasting once again on 11 June 2015, and shortly after confirmed their intentions to once again participate in the Eurovision Song Contest. The Greek broadcaster has used various methods to select the nation's entry in the past, such as internal selections and televised national finals, to choose the performer, song or both to compete at Eurovision. Despite its desire for a full national final for the previous year's entry, the broadcaster eventually went with an internally selected entrant and a song selected by a national final. For 2018, the broadcaster once again announced a national final to select their entry. ## Before Eurovision ### Cancelled national final plans On 1 October 2017, the ERT announced that they would be selecting their performer and song through a national final. A submission period was opened in early October 2017, where record labels were able to submit their proposed artists and composers until 20 October, a deadline which was later extended by one week to 27 October. Artists were required to be signed to record labels, while songs had to be performed in the Greek language and contain a native sound. If a suitable number of high quality entries were received, the broadcaster then planned to have the ultimate choice determined solely by a public vote. An eight-member artistic committee reviewed the entries and consisted of Anastasios Symeonidis (chairperson), Petros Dourdoubakis (songwriter and radio producer), Dimitris Ktistakis (conductor), Alexis Kostas, Mihalis Messinis (composer), Andreas Pylarinos (conductor), Giannis Spyropoulos (orchestrator) and Tsaras Pantazis (radio producer). Twenty entries were received by the submission deadline and the artistic committee selected five candidate entries to participate in the national final. These participants were announced on 8 November 2017. A week later on 14 November, "Idio tempo" performed by Duo Fina and "Baila jazz" performed by Tony Vlahos were disqualified from the national final as their songs did not contain a native sound. At this point, ERT continued to pursue a national final where the three remaining entries were to compete. The event was scheduled to take place on 22 February 2018 and be hosted by Panagiotis Kountouras and Nikos Pitanios. Each entrant would perform live with the winner selected exclusively by a public vote. As announced, the three record labels would also need to guarantee €90,000 to cover the expenses of the participation if their candidate was chosen. ### Internal selection On 15 February 2018, two of the three remaining selected entries "Min ksehnas ton ilio" performed by Areti Ketime and "Apo tin Thraki eos tin Kriti" performed by Chorostalites were disqualified as the artists' respective record labels did not pay the €20,000 requested by ERT to be used to finance the final itself. Ketime called out the broadcaster following the announcement, noting that her record label was unaware of the money required to participate until the last minute. With only one candidate remaining, ERT confirmed that "Oniro mou" performed by Yianna Terzi, would become the Greek entry for the 2018 contest on 16 February 2018. "Oniro mou" was written by Terzi, Aris Kalimeris, Dimitris Stamatiou and Mihalis Papathanasiou. ### Promotion To promote the entry, a music video of "Oniro mou" was presented on 8 March 2018 during the ERT1 programme Sto dromo gia ti Lisavona (Στο δρόμο για τη Λισαβόνα; "On the road to Lisbon"), hosted by Duo Fina and aired on ERT1, ERT HD, ERT World and through a live webcast. The video, produced by Panik Records in collaboration with ERT, was directed by Sherif Francis and featured a guest appearance by actor Dimitris Vlachos. Following the presentation of the video, Terzi along with the co-writers of the song spoke about their upcoming appearance at the contest. Further promotion of the entry found Terzi performing "Oniro mou" live at the MAD TV annual fashion music series MADwalk on 14 April where she was joined by fellow Eurovision 2018 entrants from Cyprus and Azerbaijan. The following week on 22 April, Terzi was a guest on the ESCToday webcast Eurovision Live Lounge where she was interviewed and sang an exclusive preview of the English version of "Oniro mou", which was titled "Eternity". ## At Eurovision The Eurovision Song Contest 2018 took place at the Altice Arena in Lisbon, Portugal. It consisted of two semi-finals held on 8 and 10 May, respectively, and the final on 12 May 2018. All nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big Five", consisting of , , , and the , were required to qualify from one of two semi-finals to compete for the final; the top 10 countries from each semi-final progress to the final. Semi-finalists were allocated into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests as determined by the contest's televoting partner Digame, with the aim of reducing the chance of neighbourly voting between countries while also increasing suspense during the voting process. On 29 January 2018, an allocation draw was held at Lisbon City Hall which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals and determined which half of the show they would perform in. Greece was placed into the first semi-final, to be held on 8 May 2018, and was scheduled to perform in the second half of the show. Once all the competing songs for the 2018 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Greece was set to perform fourteenth, following the entry from Austria and preceding the entry from Finland. The two semi-finals and the final were televised in Greece on ERT1, ERT HD and ERT World as well as broadcast via radio on ERA 2 and Voice of Greece with commentary by Alexandros Lizardos and Daphne Skalioni. ### Semi-final Yianna Terzi took part in technical rehearsals on 30 April and 3 May, followed by dress rehearsals on 7 and 8 May. This included the jury show on 7 May where the professional juries of each country watched and voted on the competing entries. The Greek performance was choreographed by Chali Jennings and featured Yianna Terzi dressed in a flowing white gown with wide sleeves and performing on stage with her hand painted blue. In regards to the blue hand, Terzi stated: "The song has a reference 'in the blue'; blue represents the blue sky of Greece, the ocean, what Greece is known for. And because it is a dialogue between Greece and Greeks, and devoted to the country, I wanted to symbolize the Greek blue." The stage lighting transitioned between blue, red and orange colours throughout the performance, which also featured the use of a wind machine. Terzi was joined by four off-stage backing vocalists: Evgenia Balafa, Giannis Lafis, Irini Psyhrami and Victoria Chalkitis. At the end of the show, Greece was not announced among the top 10 entries in the first semi-final and therefore failed to qualify to compete in the final. It was later revealed that Greece placed fourteenth in the semi-final, receiving a total of 81 points: 53 points from the televoting and 28 points from the juries. ### Voting Voting during the three shows involved each country awarding two sets of points from 1–8, 10 and 12: one from their expert jury and the other from televoting. Each nation's jury consisted of five music industry professionals who are citizens of the country they represent. The jury judged each entry based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. No member of a national jury was permitted to be connected in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently. Greece's jury consisted of Nikos Graigos, Yiannis Nikoletopoulos, Ares Anagnostopoulos, Ilenia Williams and Margo Enepekidi. The Greek spokesperson, who announced the top 12-point score awarded by the Greek jury during the final, was Olina Xenopoulou. Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Greece and awarded by Greece in the first semi-final and final of the contest, and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows: #### Points awarded to Greece #### Points awarded by Greece #### Detailed voting results The following members comprised the Greek jury: - Nikos Graigos (jury chairperson) – artist (performer), music producer - Yiannis Nikoletopoulos – artist (percussionist), author of lyrics, composer - Ares Anagnostopoulos – artist manager - Ilenia Williams [el] – music journalist, TV presenter, radio producer - Margo Enepekidi – performer, musician, composer
558,084	Wrigley Square	1,172,648,916	Public square in the Millennium Park in Chicago, Illinois, United States	[ "2002 establishments in Illinois", "Limestone sculptures in the United States", "Millennium Park", "Monuments and memorials in Chicago", "Parks in Chicago", "Wrigley Company" ]	Wrigley Square is a public square located in the northwest section of Millennium Park in the Historic Michigan Boulevard District of the Loop area of Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. The square is located at the southeast corner of the intersection of East Randolph Street and North Michigan Avenue. It contains the Millennium Monument, a nearly full-sized replica of the semicircle of paired Roman Doric-style columns (called a peristyle) that originally sat in this area of Grant Park, near Michigan Avenue and Randolph Street, between 1917 and 1953. The square also contains a large lawn and a public fountain. ## Detail Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west, Grant Park has been Chicago's front yard since the mid 19th century. Its northwest corner, north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute, east of Michigan Avenue, south of Randolph Street, and west of Columbus Drive, had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997, when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park. Today, Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction. The square is a tree-lined section of Millennium Park with a large lawn. The area broadcasts free Wi-Fi wireless technology. The square has earned a reputation as an outdoor culture spot by hosting a wide range of cultural events such as local and international art and photography exhibitions, as well as occasional live musical performances. This reputation is reminiscent of the earlier neo-classical meeting place. When Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley dedicated the square, it was dedicated to the donors, known as the Founders Group, who funded Millennium Park. In 2005, Millennium Park was marked for updates and improvements. Benches were to be added to the 56 original benches. Landscape architect Kathryn Gustafson designed 14 new 320-pound (145.1 kg), aluminum "Maggie benches" in Millennium Park, mostly in Wrigley square, in honor of Mayor Daley's wife. The square was intended to serve as an exhibit space for outdoor sculpture as well as small cultural performances, according to Christopher Perille, vice president of the Wrigley Square Foundation. The square's peristyle monument is in remembrance of the corporation, foundations, and individuals who made Millennium Park possible. An architectural model of Wrigley Square and Millennium Monument, designed by O'Donnell, Wicklund, Pigozzi and Peterson Architects, Inc. (OWP&P) in 2000, is on display at the Harold Washington Library Center. ### Original peristyle In 1917, the original peristyle was designed by renowned Chicago planner Edward H. Bennett, who was Daniel Burnham's partner in the Plan of Chicago and who was known for designing the nearby Buckingham Fountain. It was located in Grant Park in the same location as the current Wrigley Square. The original peristyle rose to 40 feet (12.2 m) and had a diameter of 100 feet (30.5 m). The original was made of concrete, which did not stand up to the Lake Michigan lakefront weather. In 1953 it was razed to make way for the Grant Park North Garage. The original peristyle was on a promenade with balustrades. ### Millennium Monument A gift from the William Wrigley, Jr. Company, the limestone replica peristyle rises to a height of nearly 40 feet (12.2 m) (one source says the columns were planned to rise to 36 feet (11.0 m)), restoring a classical elegance to Grant Park. The William Wrigley, Jr. Foundation contributed \$5 million to the monument, and the entire square, which cost \$5 million to build, was named in its honor. The Millennium Monument is a tribute to the individual, corporate and foundation benefactors of Millennium Park. The pedestal of the peristyle is inscribed with the names of the 115 financial donors (including Oprah Winfrey) who made the 91 contributions of at least \$1 million each to help pay for Millennium Park. The New York Times describes the pedestal as French marble, but other sources mention the use of French limestone. These 115 donors are referred to as the founders of Millennium Park in official park brochures published by the City of Chicago and distributed at the visitor's centers as well as in other press accounts. Their contributions not only paid for the construction of the park, but also provide for its ongoing conservation. The David Dillon and Michael Patrick Sullivan (of OWP&P) design is based on original drawings by Bennett found in the Chicago Park District's archive. The naming rights of the space belong to Wm. Wrigley Jr, the foundation that created the world's famous chewing gum. Wrigley Company officials, including William Wrigley, Jr. II, wanted to contribute to Millennium Park, and the historic aspect of the peristyle was attractive to them partly because the original peristyle was constructed around the same time as the Wrigley Building, the corporate headquarters located a few blocks to the north, and because the classical architectural styles of both are similar. The 24 paired, fluted columns are the same height as the original peristyle. However, the structure was scaled down to an 80-foot (24.4 m) diameter in order to accommodate the accessible ramp that runs behind the monument. Each of the limestone columns is cut from an Indiana quarry and made of five 2,200 pounds (997.9 kg; 157.1 st) sections reinforced by steel rods and plates. The fountain in front of the monument is a bronze-cast replica of the finials that adorn the Wrigley Building. The brass spout was made from a mold of a terra cotta finail on the Wrigley Building. The front of the monument has a dedication plaque (pictured left). In addition, on the reverse side in approximately the same location, the monument has a special plaque commemorating John H. Bryan's contribution as the head of fundraising for the Park. The original model of the Millennium Monument was the starting point of the Peristyle appearance in Chicago. To this day, it is said to not compare to the once "commanding presence" that once stood in its place, before being demolished and replaced with an underground parking garage. The new monument was downsized by approximately 15% to accommodate a wheel-chair ramp for the disabled in a tight space. It also includes a "classical" take on the original, incorporating a fountain at the base of the limestone, Doric, column monument. The monument, despite being relatively small in comparison to the rest of Grant Park, makes its presence known as the central focus to shape Wrigley Square and the surrounding landscape. Wrigley Square is unique for its fountain that, unlike Buckingham Fountain, which is fenced off, remains open with a circular ledge to allow park-goers the freedom to sit next to the open water to enjoy the atmosphere.
2,079,078	Joseph Calleia	1,168,810,058	American actor and singer	[ "1897 births", "1975 deaths", "20th-century Maltese male singers", "20th-century Maltese singers", "Burials at Addolorata Cemetery, Paola", "Maltese emigrants to the United States", "Maltese male film actors", "Maltese male stage actors", "Maltese male television actors", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players", "People from Mdina" ]	Joseph Calleia (/kəˈleɪə/ kə-LAY-ə; born Joseph Alexander Caesar Herstall Vincent Calleja, August 4, 1897 – October 31, 1975) was a Maltese-born American actor and singer on the stage and in films, radio and television. After serving in the British Transport Service during World War I, he travelled to the United States and began his career on the stage, initially in musical comedy, but later in original Broadway productions such as Broadway (1926), The Front Page (1928), The Last Mile (1930), and Grand Hotel (1930). Calleia became a star with the play Small Miracle (1934), his first real role as a villain, and he was put under contract by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Calleia excelled as the villain in Hollywood films, but he fought against typecasting and created a succession of darkly mysterious characters edged with humor in films such as Algiers (1938), Five Came Back (1939), Golden Boy (1939), The Glass Key (1942) and Gilda (1946). During World War II, Calleia led the Malta War Relief organization in the United States, and toured for the USO and the Hollywood Victory Committee. After the war, he continued to work steadily in motion pictures and television, and he starred in the 1948 London stage premiere of Arthur Miller's Tony Award-winning play All My Sons. Calleia's performance in Orson Welles's 1958 film Touch of Evil is regarded as one of the better in his career. ## Biography Joseph Alexander Caesar Herstall Vincent Calleja was born on August 4, 1897, in Notabile (now called Mdina), in the administrative area of Saqqajja, in the Crown Colony of Malta. His parents were Pasquale and Eleonore Calleja; his father was an architect. Calleia studied at St. Julian's and St. Aloysius Colleges. At age 12, he used the English pound given to him for Christmas to buy two dozen harmonicas, and organized a local band whose performances were soon netting £100 a week. Sent by his father to London to study engineering, Calleia employed his good tenor voice in music halls, performing ballads of the Scottish Highlands in traditional dress. He worked as Joseph Spurin, using his mother's maiden name due to his father's disapproval. In 1914 Calleia joined the British Transport Service. After cruising the world for two-and-a-half years, his ship was torpedoed in the English Channel. Hospitalized for three months, Calleia was awarded a campaign medal and honorably discharged. He traveled to the United States in 1917. Unemployed, he sang for the Red Cross and armed services, and volunteered for the American Tank Corps. Calleia began his stage career on Armistice Day. After World War I, he had only limited success in vaudeville. He earned his living stoking the furnace at a department store, and got a night job washing and repairing New York City streetcars. By day, he haunted theatrical booking offices. The Henry W. Savage agency sent Calleia to Denver, where he made his stage debut singing in the chorus of Jerome Kern's musical comedy Have a Heart. The following season, he had a bit part in Pietro (1920), an Otis Skinner vehicle that played six weeks on Broadway and 40 weeks on tour. Calleia supplemented his salary by working as assistant stage manager and repairing trunks at \$3 each. Calleia's first speaking role on the stage was in The Broken Wing (1920), a Broadway comedy starring George Abbott and Louis Wolheim. He understudied all of the parts and appeared as a Mexican peon who played the guitar and sang a song called "Adelai". Calleia composed the tune, and asked Abbott to write the lyrics; the song was published and eventually brought each of them royalties of as much as \$2,000 a year. The Broken Wing was a hit, and after the play's New York run, Calleia and Thurston Hall were carried over in a London production. After four months, the show closed, and Calleia visited Malta, where he and his father reconciled. At his father's request he began using his real surname, and he was billed as Joseph Spurin-Calleia. On February 14, 1925, Calleia made his concert debut at Town Hall in New York City, accompanied by pianist Ferdinand Greenwald. "He proved to be the possessor of an agreeable high voice, which he used with much skill in Italian airs," wrote New York Times music critic Olin Downes, "including that of Rodolfo from Puccini's La Boheme and others from Verdi's Trovatore and Rigoletto." In recital at New York's Steinway Hall on February 21, 1926, Calleia "displayed a voice of pleasant and attractive timbre" in a program that included works by Scarlatti, Paisiello, Schumann, Gounod and Leoncavallo, as well as two of his own compositions. Calleia was cast as the Spanish ambassador in the Broadway production of Princess Flavia (1925), Sigmund Romberg's musical adaptation of The Prisoner of Zenda. While he was waiting for the elaborate production to be mounted, he sold pianos with such success that the store owner offered him a store of his own if he would stay. In 1926, Calleia landed his first prominent stage role, in George Abbott and Philip Dunning's smash hit Broadway. He played a shuffling, coin-jingling waiter in the melodrama that New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson later called a "noisy, bustling cyclorama of backstage life [that] remains a landmark in the American theater." Calleia also acted as the company's stage manager and, working for producer Jed Harris, he supervised some 10 duplicate productions of Broadway in the U.S. and abroad. A succession of acclaimed performances in successful Broadway plays followed, including as a shiftless newspaper reporter in The Front Page (1928), a convicted murderer in The Last Mile (1930), and the sinister chauffeur in Grand Hotel (1930). Calleia became a star with Small Miracle (1934), a Broadway production described by The New Yorker as "a very satisfactory melodrama with Joseph Spurin-Calleia as the pleasantest murderer you ever saw." "What an actor—Joseph Calleia", said Orson Welles, who directed and performed with Calleia in Touch of Evil (1958): > I fell in love with him as a ten-year-old boy. I saw him in a play in New York ... a very well-staged melodrama which was an enormous hit for about a year—it was made as a movie later with somebody else. He had the leading role, and I never forgot him. And through the years I'd seen him in movies—little things. And I could never forget that performance of his. He's always played very stereotyped parts in pictures but is one of the best actors I've ever known. I have such respect for him. You play next to him and you just feel the thing that you do with a big actor—this dynamo going on. Naming the theatre's villain of the year for 1934, nationally syndicated columnist Paul Harrison of the Newspaper Enterprise Association selected "Joseph Spurin-Calleia, whose gangster role in Small Miracle provided one of the finest of all performances on Broadway." Calleia had his first real role as a villain in Small Miracle, and his success in the play was responsible for his move to Hollywood. Calleia's contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer permitted him a hiatus of six months a year, to continue his stage work. He was not new to motion pictures—he had made three feature films on the East Coast—but when MGM put Calleia under contract, they promoted his first film, Public Hero No. 1 (1935), as his screen debut. Calleia's portrayal of the gunman was listed by film critic Andre Sennwald of The New York Times as one of the year's 10 best male performances. Calleia excelled as the bad guy in films, but he wanted to create characters with some sympathy. "I'd like to get away from straight villain roles," he said in a 1936 interview. "But I have no wish to be a hero. I enjoy roles where I get slapped around a bit. It's far more stimulating to play a character that isn't all one thing—not all bad and not all good." He created a series of darkly mysterious characters edged with humor in films including Algiers (1938), Five Came Back (1939), Golden Boy (1939), The Glass Key (1942) and Gilda (1946). In June 1935, Calleia was announced to star as Joaquin Murrieta in I Am Joaquin (later titled Robin Hood of El Dorado), a film for which he had written the screenplay. MGM replaced him with Warner Baxter, ostensibly because Calleia was too old, although Baxter was six years older. Calleia did star in Man of the People (1937), a political drama about a young lawyer fighting corporate racketeers. Calleia continued to battle typecasting, turning down well-paying villainous roles to develop more complex characters. His performance as Police Inspector Slimane in Walter Wanger's Algiers (1938) was recognized by the National Board of Review. Working with director John Farrow at RKO Pictures in 1939, he created a fine character study as the condemned anarchist in Five Came Back, and portrayed a heroic priest in Full Confession. Calleia was announced to star as Father Damien in an RKO picture to be written and directed by Farrow, but the project was not realized. Calleia became a naturalized American citizen in November 1941. During World War II, Calleia led the Malta War Relief organization in the United States. The house where he was born was destroyed in 1942; his family took refuge underground in ancient catacombs during the near-constant aerial bombing of Malta by the Axis powers that lasted for more than two years. Under the auspices of the Motion Picture Division of USO Camp Shows, he made personal appearances at American military facilities in 1943. He also accepted an invitation from the Hollywood Victory Committee to make a tour of military camps in North Africa, particularly because the tentative itinerary included Malta. On the 20,000-mile (32,000 km) trip, Calleia and his small troupe entertained service personnel in Natal, Dakar, along the coast to Casablanca and across to Tunis, then went to Malta, which Calleia had not visited since 1922. They gave two shows per day and visited all of the hospitals at each stop; and they presented six shows in Malta as part of the exchange program between American and British entertainment units. In addition to working steadily in motion pictures for another 20 years, Calleia also starred in the 1948 London stage premiere of Arthur Miller's Tony Award-winning play All My Sons, receiving unanimous critical acclaim. His performance in Touch of Evil (1958)—as Pete Menzies, longtime partner of corrupt Police Captain Hank Quinlan (Orson Welles)—is regarded as one of the best of his career. "It is not rare in Welles's films for one actor to break away from the overall gesture of the film to embody a distilled human truth," wrote Welles biographer Simon Callow. "In Touch of Evil there are two actors who do this—Dietrich and Joseph Calleia, playing Quinlan's deceived colleague, Menzies. Calleia's haunted features figure more and more prominently on screen as the truth about Quinlan increasingly dawns on him, along with the knowledge that he must betray him. ... Calleia's abundant inner life casts a growing spell over the film as it comes to its climax, bringing to vividly personal life Welles's sempiternal subject: betrayal." Calleia retired in 1963 to Sliema, Malta. His wife, Eleanor Vassallo Calleia, whom he had married in 1929, died there in 1967. Calleia died on October 31, 1975, aged 78, in St. Julian's. ## Theatre credits ## Filmography ## Select radio credits ## Legacy Calleia was posthumously honored by the Malta postal authority with a set of two commemorative stamps issued in 1997. In 2005, a bust of Calleia by sculptor Anton Agius was installed at his birthplace in Malta on the initiative of then 15-year-old Eman Bonnici.
65,352,366	Subtropical Storm Alpha (2020)	1,167,515,830	Atlantic subtropical storm in 2020	[ "2020 Atlantic hurricane season", "Subtropical storms", "Tropical cyclones in 2020" ]	Subtropical Storm Alpha was the first subtropical or tropical cyclone ever observed to make landfall in mainland Portugal. The twenty-second tropical or subtropical cyclone and twenty-first named storm of the extremely active and record-breaking 2020 Atlantic hurricane season, Alpha originated from a large non-tropical low that was first monitored by the National Hurricane Center on 15 September. Initially not anticipated to transition into a tropical cyclone, the low gradually tracked south-southeastward for several days with little development. By early on 17 September, the low had separated from its frontal features and exhibited sufficient organization to be classified as a subtropical cyclone, as it approached the Iberian Peninsula, becoming a subtropical storm around that time. Alpha then made landfall just south of Figueira da Foz, Portugal during the evening of 18 September, then rapidly weakened as it moved over the mountainous terrain of Northeastern Portugal. The system degenerated into a remnant low on 19 September, when it was last noted. At least two EF1 tornadoes were confirmed in Portugal, and one person was killed due to strong winds in Spain. Impacts from Alpha were rather minor as a subtropical cyclone, although Alpha produced some significant rainfall and gusty winds in both Portugal and Spain as a remnant low. Total damages from the storm were estimated to be greater than €20 million (US\$24.2 million), with a majority of the damage occurring in Portugal. ## Meteorological history Alpha originated from a large, extratropical low-pressure area, which developed over the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean on 14 September. As a strong upper-level trough dug southeastward and became a cut-off low about 500 nmi (580 mi; 930 km) north of the Azores, the interaction between the low and a surface front promoted the formation of a strong frontal low, which rapidly deepened and reached its extratropical peak that day, with maximum 1-minute sustained winds as high as 112 km/h (70 mph) and a minimum central atmospheric pressure of 992 mbar (29.3 inHg). By this time, the extratropical cyclone had a very large radius of gale-force winds expanding over 500 km (270 nmi; 310 mi) from its center of circulation. The low was initially very slow-moving, but began to dip southeastward and weaken by 15 September when the National Hurricane Center (NHC) first began to monitor the system for possible development into a tropical or subtropical cyclone. This was because the system was expected to track close to a region of unusually-warm sea surface temperatures to the west of Portugal of around 22 °C (72 °F), though these temperatures would still typically be too cold to support tropical cyclogenesis. The size of the low's wind field continued gradually decreasing on 16 September, as some of its frontal features gradually became less defined, although the NHC only highlighted a low (20%) chance of development at this time, operationally. Nonetheless, convection, or thunderstorm activity, became more concentrated and organized near the center of the low, and a newly formed central low soon became the dominant feature within the larger extratropical system. In post-season analysis, the NHC estimated that Alpha had developed as a subtropical storm at 06:00 UTC on 17 September, as the thunderstorm activity associated with the smaller low feature became well-organized. Alpha accelerated to the northeast, and a combination of radar imagery from Portugal, scatterometer passes, and satellite-derived wind data revealed Subtropical Storm Alpha had peaked around 00:00 UTC on 18 September, just about 417 km (225 nmi; 259 mi) off the coast of Portugal, while the storm was producing 1-minute sustained winds up to 80 km/h (50 mph). Alpha maintained its intensity up to its landfall about 17 km (11 mi) south of Figueira da Foz, Portugal, around 18:40 UTC that day. The storm's final minimum central pressure estimate of 996 mbar (29.4 inHg) was based on a surface pressure of 999 mbar (29.5 inHg) being recorded in Monte Real, Portugal, well north of the cyclone's landfall point. After landfall, the small low-level circulation associated with Alpha began to quickly decay, as the storm moved inland, and the cyclone weakened to a subtropical depression at 0:00 UTC on 19 September. Alpha degenerated into a remnant low later that day, as it moved over the mountainous terrain of Northeastern Portugal. ## Preparations and impact In preparation for Alpha in Portugal on 18 September, orange warnings were raised by the Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA), due to the threat of high wind and heavy rain in the Coimbra and Leiria districts of Portugal. Winds due to Alpha caused widespread power outages, uprooted trees, and damaged dozens of vehicles. A squall line producing gusts as high as 80 km/h (50 mph) associated with the system spawned at least two confirmed tornadoes of EF1 intensity; one near the town of Palmela, which caused no reported damage, and one in Beja, which uprooted around 100 trees and damaged 30–40 vehicles. There were some reports of minor roof damage to some structures as well, deemed to be related to the Beja tornado. Street flash flooding, as a result of heavy rainfall became prominent in some cities in western Portugal; the flooding was most severe in Setúbal. 68.2 mm (2.69 in) of rain fell in Porto, while wind gusts reached as high as 90 km/h (56 mph) in Monte Real. High surf caused by Alpha in Carcavelos Beach (Portuguese: Praia de Carcavelos) caused minor coastal erosion. Winds brought down a radio tower in Leiria, where it was reported to have been damaged beyond repair. Throughout the country, there were 203 reports of trees uprooted, 174 reports of minor flooding, 88 structures damaged and 82 roads blocked by debris. Of these reports, 143 were in Leiria District and 135 were in Lisbon District. Alpha caused an estimated €20 million (US\$24.2 million) in damage in Portugal before the region would later be hit by another significant storm, Windstorm Barbara, in late October. In Spain, orange warnings were also raised by the State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) for the Spanish autonomous communities of Madrid, Extremadura, Aragon, and Catalonia as Alpha moved into Portugal late on 18 September, citing a risk of heavy rain, hail, and strong wind gusts. Yellow alerts were also issued in Castile and León and Castilla–La Mancha. Rain and windy conditions spread further inland into Spain, while the remnants moved eastward. Castilla–La Mancha's news agency reported that uprooted trees and minor floods had occurred in the community during Alpha, while several water rescues were carried out around midday of 19 September. The fast-moving cluster of thunderstorms associated with the remnants of Alpha produced 38 mm (1.5 in) of rain in half an hour in Valencia before the remnants exited into the Mediterranean Sea. Wind gusts of up to 94 km/h (58 mph) were reported in the town of Coria, Cáceres. The remnants of Alpha caused a train with 25 passengers to derail in Madrid, although no one was seriously injured. A woman died in Calzadilla after the roof of a cattle shed collapsed on top of her. Alpha also caused lightning on Ons Island, which led to an isolated forest fire. ## Distinctions and naming Alpha was the earliest 22nd Atlantic tropical or subtropical storm on record, surpassing the old mark of October 17, set by Hurricane Wilma in 2005. It developed at an unusually eastern longitude – 18.0°W; only Tropical Storm Christine in 1973 developed farther to the east, at 14.0°W. Upon landfall, Alpha became the first recorded tropical or subtropical cyclone known to have made landfall in Portugal. Additionally, Cyclone Ianos was approaching its first landfall in Greece at the time; this marked the first time in recorded history that two storms of subtropical or tropical nature impacted continental Europe simultaneously. The 2020 season was the second (along with 2005) in which an alphabetic list of 21 storm names had been exhausted, necessitating use of the Greek alphabet auxiliary list. In March 2021, the World Meteorological Organization replaced that auxiliary list with a new 21-name supplemental list. As a result, the name Alpha will not be used to name another Atlantic hurricane. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in 2020 - Timeline of the 2020 Atlantic hurricane season - Other storms of the same name - 1842 Spain hurricane – only storm known to have made landfall in the Iberian Peninsula at hurricane strength - Hurricane Leslie (2018) – long-lived Atlantic hurricane whose extratropical remnant made landfall in Portugal - Hurricane Vince – made landfall in Spain as a tropical depression - Hurricane Pablo – similar track and location
58,266,340	Rose Street Club	1,156,552,068	Radical 19th-century London political society	[ "1877 establishments in England", "Anarchist communities", "Anarchist organisations in the United Kingdom", "Anarchist publishing companies", "English socialists", "Publishing companies based in London", "Radical parties", "Socialist organisations in the United Kingdom" ]	The Rose Street Club (sometimes the International Rose Street Club and earlier the Local Rights Association for Rental and Sanitary Reform) was a far-left, anarchist organisation based in what is now Manette Street, London. Originally centred around London's German community, and acting as a meeting point for new immigrants, it became one of the leading radical clubs of Victorian London in the late-nineteenth century. Although its roots went back to the 1840s, it was properly formed in 1877 by members of a German émigré workers' education group, which soon became frequented by London radicals, and within a few years had led to the formation of similar clubs, sometimes in support and sometimes in rivalry. The Rose Street Club provided a platform for the radical speakers and agitators of the day and produced its own paper, Freiheit—which was distributed over Europe, and especially Germany—and pamphlets for other groups and individuals. Although radical, the club initially focused as much on providing a social service to its members as on activism. With the arrival of the anarchist Johann Most in London in the early 1880s, and his increasing influence within the club, it became increasingly aligned with anarchism. ## Background The late-19th century saw the growth of several political organisations in London, many of which formed themselves into clubs. For a while, the literary critic Robert Sampson said, the city was the epicentre of European radicalism during the last decades of the period. At the same time, radicals were being expelled from European cites, particularly Germany, in what the modern historian Faith Hillis has termed "a tsunami of illiberalism". London, partly due to Britain one of the few countries to still maintain the semblance a free press, became an attractive place of exile for many of them. Thus clubs such as Rose Street were often majoritively composed of refugees, yet they also attracted English adherents. Rose Street itself was a poor area of London in the mid-19th century and was occupied by brothels and frequently infected by cholera outbreaks. A contemporary, George Godwin, reported that the locality was "thickly inhabited by a poor, and in some instances bad class of people". This half-square mile area contained one of the highest concentrations of foreign immigrants than any other part of London. According to Davide Turcato, "anarchist cosmopolitanism [in the area] was markedly international", yet blended into a local tradition of club life. The street also housed many artisan workers, which reflected the mixed demographic make-up of what Stan Shipley has termed "metropolitan clubland". The club was very near to the Eclectic Hall on Charing Cross Road, and was both the headquarters for a multitude of London political organisations. The economic historian George Cole has argued that, by the 1870s, clubs such as these were the "only definitely socialist organisations" in the country, with Rose Street being chief among them. The historian Sarah Wise wrote that the clubs "provided a popular platform for various other reform-minded and progressive groups and individuals". Similar clubs were based in Fitzrovia, at the Autonomie Club, the Berner Street Club, and the Jubilee Street Club on Commercial Road. The clubs were primarily hubs for organised social networks, but they performed other roles. For example, they linked immigrant politics with domestic English radicalism beneath the clubs' roofs. The latter ranged from national organisations such as the O'Brienite Nationalists to local London groups, including the Stratford Dialectical and Radical Club. The origins of the Rose Street Club lay in the late-19th century European reaction to radical ideas. Particularly formative were the German Anti-Socialist Laws of 1878, and, more broadly, the Paris Commune of 1871 and the collapse of the First International. Anarchists, persecuted by authoritarian states in continental Europe, especially Imperial Germany, fled to Britain and many settled in London. However, Jonathan Moses has suggested that "their political ideals – the destruction of hierarchy, collective decision making, hostility to the state and capitalism, atheism and free love – did little to ingratiate them to Victorian England." In order to overcome the political isolation of these immigrants, they formed clubs such as the Rose Street Club. The Rose Street Club succeeded from the 1840s German Communist League. Founded in 1877, the Rose Street Club was a section of the CABV (German Communist Workers' Educational Union, previously known as the German Educational Association for Workers), which split into three connected groups in 1879. Apart from Rose Street—the First Section—there was one based in nearby Tottenham Street (Second Section), and another (the Third section) in Whitechapel. The CABV then merged with the Blue Post group, and the resultant merge was to create the Rose Street Club. Originally founded by members of the German diaspora—for which reason it was called the German society by contemporary Londoners—membership swelled during German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's repression of social democracy with a wave of younger exiles from Germany. In London, radical clubs such as in Rose Street were a predecessor to the plethora of Marxist clubs that developed later in the 1880s, a period that Wise described as being between "the death of Chartism and the rise of the 'New Socialism'". Although Marx himself died in 1883, his close compatriot and co-author Friedrich Engels waxed somewhat sardonic about the new radical clubs. In a letter to Karl Kautsky he described them as > Some 20–30 little societies which, under various names (always the same people), [who] have been persistently trying to look important for the past twenty years at least and always with the same lack of success ... One’s best course is to do justice to the aspirations without identifying oneself with the persons. Although Engels called them "very motley" societies, in keeping with the tendency of the time to propagandize the existence of political organisations by bestowing them with "high-sounding titles which the old guard employed in the hope of attracting public interest", in the words of E. P. Thompson, the Club was occasionally known as the "Local Rights Association for Rental and Sanitary Reform". ### Name Originally based in Great Windmill Street, and called The Great Windmill Street Club as a result, the club took its eventual name in July 1878 when it moved to number six Rose Street, in Soho, which was just off the Charing Cross Road in Soho Square West. This had previously been occupied by the St James and Soho Working Men's Club, although the building by now was almost derelict. They were much larger premises, however, and membership increased proportionately, while at the same time the umbrella organisation were diminishing in popularity. Therefore, working-class leftists formed or joined local clubs. ## Origins, organisation and activities The Rose Street Club was an umbrella term for a number of individual societies. Although originally formed within London's German community, it expanded to include a variety of socialist, social-democratic, and radical groups. It also expanded into other languages, and by the time it arrived in Rose Street the club had several distinct language sections: English, French, German, Polish and Russian, reflecting the main countries from which the refugees were arriving. The club—described by Tom Goyens as a "storehouse of revolutionary ideas"—became a model for other clubs for political exiles, in its provision for both refugees and their political organisations, and the most important of them. The Rose Street Club was a firm backer of the radical, anarchist German-language newspaper Freiheit and its political position. The paper was published on the Rose Street premises, which also housed the editorial and composition offices, and was the heart of a complex smuggling operation for European-wide distribution. This political allegiance position was shared by the Whitechapel club, but not by that in Tottenham Street, which by 1880 had become an offshoot of the Rose Street Club for those members who leant towards Marxism rather than anarchism, which, under the leadership of Johann Most, Rose Street was realigning towards. This was as a result of a bitter internal factional struggle. The political scientist, Mark Bevir, has argued that > Much of the membership of Britain's early Marxist organizations came from the popular radicals of the London clubs and the British associates of the European exiles ... But at least in the early 1880s, their politics were either republican or vaguely anarchist forms of radicalism. The Rose Street Club was not only a political organisation for gatherings of like-minded people, but a social one which provided succour for newly arrived refugees. Originally dedicated to political propaganda, Frank Kitz later recalled how the Rose Street Club gave hospitality, food, shelter, and advice on what the near future might bring their newly arrived compatriots. According to Mark Bevir, the club was a mixture of "fun, education and politics"; for example, at Rose Street, members may arrive to listen to a lecture on Percy Shelley, but end up discussing his politics and that of his circle. Between 14 and 20 July 1881, the Rose Street club was the setting for a series of conferences organised by a chapter of the International Working People's Association, the International Workingman's Association, although the IWA's activities were very little increased by these meetings. Other speakers and organisations that visited the Club included brothers Charles and James Murray, who led a discussion of the poetry of Shelley, with reference to his views on the Irish, and Henry Hyndman. At one point, Hyndman expressed interest in the Rose Street Club forming the basis of an official Democratic Party, and a meeting to discuss that proposal was held on 2 March 1881, which comprised a significant cross-section of radical thinkers of the age. Although a resolution was passed which emphasised the importance of forming of a new, broader, party, the proposal came to nothing, and no minutes or other records of how the discussions proceeded have survived. Also in regular attendance at the club were the members of the Manhood Suffrage League, (MSL) from which the London clubs drew many members. Membership was often symbiotic, and in this way, as Kitz later said, the MSL "were the chief actors in bringing about the revival of socialism" in the new clubs. In 1882 the French Section of the Rose Street Club split off and moved to new premises. In 1881 the Club held a joint mass-meeting with the Labour Emancipation League on Mile End Waste condemning the government's policy of providing financial assistance to encourage the unemployed to emigrate. In July 1883, it was a signatory to the Manifesto of the World, issued by the Social Democratic club. The club also organised, and became the headquarters of, the defence committee—called the English Revolutionary Society—supporting Johann Most against his prosecution in April 1881, led by radicals F. W. Soutter and Dr G. B. Clark. The committee New-York Tribune described how Most had been "locked up promptly at the time of his arrest", and had subsequently been charged with publishing what they called "a scandalous, malicious and immoral libel, justifying assassination and murder, inciting persons to conspire against the lives of the sovereigns and rulers of Europe". Although the campaign failed and Most imprisoned, it has been identified as the catalyst for the swift spread of anarchist ideas in Britain, and the growth of organised anarchist groups. The Rose Street Club published John Sketchley's pamphlet Principles of Social Democracy in 1879. ### Notable members Little is known as to the precise composition of the Rose Street Club, and no membership lists are known to survive. Its first president was John Lord of the English Section. Frank Kitz, the Section's secretary and a London dyer, had been instrumental with Lord in forming the English Section in 1879, and would go on to found the Homerton club. Kitz, who was half-English and half-German, had been in London since 1873. Neither the Rose Street Club nor Kitz was anarchist in 1877, and probably would never have been if not for the arrival of Johann Most in London the following year. The club's gradual drift into anarchist politics has been identified, from that point on, as correlating with Kitz' own political shift in that direction during his tenure as part of the club's leadership. Described by Thompson as "the only Socialist in London", he was a "bluff, breezy chap, fond of his beer and jolly company". Johann Most was one of the radicals who fled Bismark's legislative program in the late 1870s. Soon after joining Rose Street, he began publishing the radical newspaper Freiheit (English: Freedom). The first issue was January 1879, and it saw immediate popularity; by December that year, it had a relatively large readership in Germany. Most was an advocate of the propaganda of the deed, and in one of his most famous articles he approved of the assassination of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, for which he was prosecuted in the British courts. Even though he was sentenced to 16-months' hard labour, Freiheit survived, and continued a similar editorial line. The following year Irish Fenian radicals assassinated Lord Cavendish and Thomas Burke in Dublin. The paper stated that the assassination was "the unavoidable result of English tyranny in Ireland". Frank Kitz took over as editor before production was transferred from Rose Street to Switzerland on a temporary basis. One of Most's confederates was Andreas Scheu, a leading Austrian anarchist, tried for his politics by the government in 1880 and arriving in London four years later, when he joined the Rose Street Club. However, he soon became disillusioned with the Club's internal factionalism and left for the DF. Along with Kitz, another of the club's co-founders had been Victor Dave, and anarchists Errico Malatesta, an Italian, and the Russian Peter Kropotkin were also members during their stays in London. Jack Williams regularly spoke at the Rose Street Club on matters ranging from Irish nationalism to British republicanism, popular at the time among lower-class Londoners. With Williams there were other English militants based at the club, including Joseph Lane and Edwin Dunn. Lane was an "intensely earnest" agitator (according to his colleague Ambrose Barker, and a "tireless propagandist" according to Harry Lee) for the Rose Street Club from the late 1870s. Originally a carter, he arrived in London in 1865 or 1866. He joined the Freiheit Defence Committee and was active in producing the English edition. Dunn played a leading role in convening the meetings surrounding discussion of the creation of a new democratic party in early 1881. In 1880, Louise Michel, a leading French anarchist who had fought with and lived through the Commune, stayed at the Rose Street Club during her sojourn in London following her exile in New Caledonia. The club was instrumental in raising the funds required for her return to Paris following the 1880 amnesty for those who had taken part. ## Legacy Although its membership was dominated by refugees, the Rose Street Club has been described as overseeing a transition between the previous, older generation of political radicals—such as Chartists, English republicans and O'Brienites—and the younger socialists and anarchists. The street has been described by Nick Heath as having "probably more long-term associations with anarchism –and radicalism in general than any other street in Britain"; it was still actively connected to anarchism in the 1950s when the London Anarchist Group held open-air meetings in what by then was Manette Street. Henry James' novel The Princess Casamassima is set against the backdrop of the anarchist politics of working-class London in the 1880s, and a scene is set at the Rose Street Club itself; although a twentieth-century commentator has "questioned whether to praise or to blame James for meddling in a subject he himself admits he knew next to nothing about".
26,691,266	Hadong Ambush	1,153,299,245	Battle during Korean War	[ "Ambushes", "Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving South Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "History of South Gyeongsang Province", "July 1950 events in Asia" ]	The Hadong Ambush was an engagement between United States and North Korean forces, occurring on July 27, 1950, in the village of Hadong in southern South Korea, early in the Korean War. The fight ended in a North Korean victory following a successful ambush of US forces which resulted in heavy American casualties. The US Army's 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment, a newly formed unit consisting mostly of inexperienced new arrivals, was ordered to move to the South Korean village of Hadong to hold the pass there against advancing forces of the North Korean Korean People's Army (KPA). Unprepared for combat, the American forces walked into an ambush in which most of the battalion's command staff was killed in the pass, leaving lower-ranking soldiers to mount a disorganized defence against North Korean troops occupying prepared positions on higher ground. For three hours the battalion fought, pinned in a crossfire by North Korean soldiers on higher ground. North Korean forces were able to divide the American force and kill most of its commanders, further disorganizing the men. Following the failed operation, the wounded US commander ordered a withdrawal, which quickly became disorganized, resulting in hundreds of casualties. Destroyed after its first engagement, the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment was disbanded and merged with other units as the North Korean forces advanced through the pass and attacked US positions to the east. ## Background ### Outbreak of war Following the invasion of South Korea by North Korea, and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War as a result, the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea. The United States subsequently sent ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing. However, US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II in 1945, and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army, which was headquartered in Japan. The division was understrength, and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending. Regardless, the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea. The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial "shock" of North Korean advances, delaying much larger KPA units to buy time to allow follow-on forces to arrive. The division was consequently outnumbered and outgunned for several weeks as it attempted to delay the KPA, making time for the 7th Infantry Division, 25th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and other Eighth Army supporting units to move into position. Republic of Korea Army (ROK) forces in the meantime were systematically defeated and forced south along Korea's east coast, with entire divisions being overrun by the KPA's superior firepower and equipment. Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5, during the first battle between American and North Korean forces. For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith, 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the KPA's superior numbers and equipment. The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon, Chonan, and Pyongtaek. The 24th Infantry Division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon, being almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces from advancing until July 20. By that time, the Eighth Army's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region at around 70,000 for each side, with new UN units arriving every day. ### Replacements arrive On July 20, 400 hastily assembled US Army recruits arrived in Okinawa aboard the USS Walker. The inexperienced soldiers were assigned to the 29th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division, a command that was preparing other battalions to move into Korea and to relieve the other units of the 24th Infantry Division. The new formations, now consisting mostly of soldiers who had no combat experience and grouped into two battalions, were immediately sent into Pusan. The headquarters of the regiment remained behind to form a new regiment. This regiment would originally be in charge of the defense of Okinawa but would later be rushed into Korea. The two battalions landed in Pusan on July 21 and were assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division, but they retained their designations as the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the 29th Infantry Regiment. Instead of being given time to train and prepare to enter the front lines, the battalions were immediately sent to the regiment's sector at Chinju. By July 22 the units were on the front lines with new equipment. The equipment, fresh from production lines, was not prepared for combat, despite promises from several commanders that the unit would be given time to do so. ## Battle American planners believed that the Hadong area was under attack from elements of the KPA 4th Division, having just received replacements following its victory at Taejon. However, the soldiers in the area were actually from the KPA 6th Division under the command of General Pang Ho San. The two divisions were coordinating to envelop the UN's left flank and were extremely spread out. Therefore, only groups of a few hundred were advancing through the region, some with small numbers of tanks. ### Arrival Immediately after arrival, the commanding officer of the 19th Infantry Regiment, Colonel Ned D. Moore, ordered the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry to move out and seize the Hadong pass, a road junction 35 miles (56 km) southwest of Chinju, where about 500 North Korean soldiers were reported to be moving. Eighth Army had also received reports that the KPA had been fighting South Korean police who were resisting in the village of Hadong, 1 mile (1.6 km) west of the pass. The battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Harold W. Mott, alerted his troops, and at 00:30 on July 26, the battalion departed alone on its mission. It had a strength of 925 men. The battalion was to hold the pass, a southern route into Pusan, from any advancing North Korean forces. Hadong was seen as a significant path into Chinju, despite its lack of defenses. The North Koreans, in the meantime, advanced to Hadong and captured the village which was lightly defended by a group of South Korean police, as no military was available due to manpower shortages. The KPA 6th Division set up in roads east of the village and began sending probes and scout parties to the east. The move was part of a larger coordinated operation by the 6th Division to take Chinju, and then Masan, in hopes of flanking the UN lines at their vulnerable southern limit. Thinking the UN units were disorganized and suffering low morale, KPA 6th Division commander General Pang Ho San ordered his forces to aggressively advance to Chinju as quickly as possible. Accompanying the 3rd Battalion was South Korean Major General Chae Byong-duk, South Korea's Army Chief of Staff who had been relieved after the fall of Seoul. Having fallen out of favor with the South Korean command, Chae was to be an interpreter and guide for 3rd Battalion on its mission. He accompanied the battalion with only a few of his aides. The battalion was forced to take several detours through Konyang because of impassable roads, and it was delayed in its arrival to Hadong. Shortly before dawn, the troops encountered a truck of 15 South Korean militia who claimed they were the remains of a 400-man unit that had been wiped out by KPA forces in the area. Mott sent his executive officer back to the command post to ask Moore for further instructions, and Moore ordered them to proceed with the mission. Because the battalion had no radio equipment it was forced to send a runner to relay this information, and he returned by nightfall, forcing the battalion to encamp in the village of Hoengchon, 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Hadong, for the night. ### Ambush At 08:45 on July 27 the battalion moved out towards the Hadong pass, arriving within an hour. When it was within 1,000 yards (910 m) of the pass, L Company at the head of the formation spotted a North Korean patrol. The company's heavy weapons were fired at the patrol, forcing it to withdraw but causing no casualties. L Company then rushed the pass and dug in at 09:30, waiting for a scheduled airstrike on the village of Hadong 1 mile (1.6 km) to the west at 09:45. Behind L Company was the battalion command group, followed by K and M Companies, with I Company covering the rear. The battalion's command group, including Mott, Chae and most of the senior officers, approached the pass as L Company took cover on the left side of the road. As they approached the pass, a company of KPA soldiers was spotted up the road, part of a scouting party looking to probe further east. L Company was preparing to ambush the North Koreans when they got closer, but before this could happen, Chae called out to the Koreans demanding they identify themselves. The North Koreans immediately ducked for cover in the ditches on the side of the road, and L Company opened fire on them. Immediately the American forces were hit with machine gun and mortar fire from the north ridge, where North Korean troops had been dug in. The first burst of machine gun fire killed Chae and wounded most of the other commanders, including Mott. Mott managed to make it to the ditch where American forces dug him a foxhole, but soon after all the Americans in his vicinity were killed or withdrew and he was left alone and unable to communicate with the rest of the battalion. The KPA had the US battalion in a crossfire on higher ground, both from the pass and from the ridge. Mortar fire knocked out many parked vehicles, including the radio jeep of a US Air Force tactical air-control party which was to direct airstrikes. During the fight two flights of US aircraft flew over the area trying in vain to contact the party, and when unable to do so, left the area without making any strikes. The 3rd Battalion had walked into a prepared North Korean ambush, suffering a bombardment of mortar and machine gun fire from prepared and hidden positions, and almost its entire command group was eliminated within a minute of the first shot being fired. L Company, at the pass, was heavily engaged with the KPA forces higher on the hill. The company's 1st Platoon sustained a direct assault on its foxholes, with two members of the company killed by bayonets. L Company was separated from the rest of the battalion by KPA forces advancing on its position further up the ridge. K Company attempted to move up to relieve it but was unable to do so. However, the company held in place. Meanwhile, I Company began moving up the hill to provide support. KPA forces were able to cut the battalion into disorganized groups, with L Company engaging forces in the pass and I Company under attack from forces on the north ridge behind them. By noon, the North Korean forces on the higher ground had enveloped the American forces. ### American withdrawal At 12:00, Mott was brought to the position of L Company commander Captain George F. Sharra. Mott ordered Sharra to take command and organize a retreat. Sharra ordered his three platoons to withdraw. A KPA battalion began moving down the pass towards the American positions. Men of I Company were forced to withdraw through rice paddies south of the pass, being strafed by mortar and machine gun fire in the process. They also had to cross a 20-foot (6.1 m)-wide stream in the retreat, and some drowned in the process. Most of the Americans were forced to discard weapons, equipment and clothing in the retreat. Many of the men of L Company, as well as some of the wounded, were able to evacuate by truck. Survivors from 3rd Battalion disengaged from the battle in groups. The largest group of 97 survivors moved 5 miles (8.0 km) south to the small port of Noryangjin where a fishing vessel carried them out to a Republic of Korea Navy patrol boat. Other groups of soldiers escaped into the hills while some had to fight their way back to Chinju. Most of the battalion's officers were casualties in the fight, and the scattered and disorganized retreat destroyed the battalion. Stragglers continued to wander into the 19th Infantry's lines throughout the rest of the day. ## Aftermath More than half of the American battalion was lost during its first engagement. Only 354 members of the battalion, including some walking wounded, were able to report for duty the next day. A captured North Korean soldier reported that around 100 men had been captured at Hadong. A later search uncovered 313 American bodies, most along the river and in the rice paddies south of the pass. Official casualties for the Americans in the battle were 242 killed, 135 wounded, 51 captured, and 67 missing, for a total of 495 casualties. However, two of the prisoners died in captivity and all but four of the missing were found dead, leaving the total number killed during the battle at 307. Over 30 vehicles and practically all of the soldiers' weapons used by 3rd Battalion were lost. Casualties of North Korean forces could not be estimated by the American units. The shattered 3rd Battalion traveled back to Chinju to join the 19th Infantry Regiment. There it was disbanded and its remaining men were assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment, which itself had suffered heavy losses. Meanwhile, the 1st Battalion, 29th Infantry was sent to Anui to the north, where it was attacked and pushed back repeatedly by the KPA 4th Division. On July 31, the KPA 6th Division struck Chinju, pushing back the 19th Infantry Regiment and the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry, forcing them to withdraw east. This left the southern entries to Pusan open, but the KPA 6th Division was unable to exploit it due to its extended supply line. The 6th Division eventually advanced further east, attempting to capture the city of Masan, but newly reorganized troops of the US Army repulsed them and inflicted heavy casualties on them less than a week later during the Battle of the Notch.
44,029,501	Development of Red Dead Redemption	1,172,217,915	Development of 2010 video game	[ "Development of specific video games", "Red Dead Redemption", "Rockstar Games" ]	A team of approximately 1,000 people developed Red Dead Redemption over five years. Rockstar Games published the action-adventure game in May 2010 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, and in August 2023 for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4. A spiritual successor to the 2004 game Red Dead Revolver, its development was led by Rockstar San Diego's core 180-person team, who collaborated with Rockstar's Leeds, New England, North, and Toronto teams to assist development; Rockstar North, developer of the Grand Theft Auto series, consulted in the creation of the open world. After its announcement in 2009, the game was fervently promoted with press showings, cinematic trailers, and viral marketing strategies. Its release date, though subject to several delays, was widely anticipated. The working hours and managerial style of the studio during development was met with public complaints from staff members. The open world setting constituted much of the development effort; its three main areas each represent iconic features of the American frontier. Key team members conducted field trips to Washington, D.C. to capture a multitude of photographs, and several classic Western films, television shows, and novels were analyzed for research. Rockstar improved its proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine to increase its animation and draw distance rendering capabilities; the team felt the seventh generation of video game consoles were necessary to achieve their ideal vision, having exhausted the use of older hardware on previous projects. The game was envisioned to improve the core mechanics of Red Dead Revolver by scaling it up to the standard of other Rockstar games, maintaining key gameplay elements like the Dead Eye and dueling mechanics but majorly overhauling the experience otherwise. Red Dead Redemption's 1,500-page script was written in two years. The game's setting in 1911 was chosen to demonstrate the transformation of the old West into a modern civilization. The developers underwent a secretive audition process to cast its characters. Performance capture was used to record the actors' movements and voices simultaneously. Rod Edge directed the actors' performances in a studio in Santa Monica, California. The game features around 450 characters, and required a large amount of dialogue for the world to feel alive, comparable to Rockstar's previous game Grand Theft Auto IV (2008). Researchers at Rockstar developed a style guide based on real phrases of the time period. Red Dead Redemption features an original score composed over fifteen months by Bill Elm and Woody Jackson, who engaged several other musicians to create approximately 200 tracks. ## History and overview Publisher Rockstar Games acquired the Western-themed video game Red Dead Revolver from Capcom in 2003 after years of development—partly because it wanted the rights to the franchise for its own Western game—and Rockstar San Diego completed development within nine months. After its May 2004 release, Rockstar wanted to create its own Western game from scratch as it felt Revolver "didn't fundamentally play like a Rockstar game". The studio's work on Revolver and Bully (2006) helped the development team understand the important elements of open world games and blending different genres with the core gameplay of its flagship series Grand Theft Auto. However, the team understood it would require the seventh generation of video game consoles—namely the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360—to achieve their ideal vision. Preliminary work on Red Dead Redemption began by 2005, with a small team at Rockstar San Diego working on the first teaser shown during Sony's E3 conference in May as an early technology demonstration for the PlayStation 3. Full development commenced in 2006, following the formation of a core development team led by lead designer and co-writer Christian Cantamessa, technical director Ted Carson, and art directors Josh Bass and Daren Bader; Cantamessa had worked with Rockstar on Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004), while Carson, Bass, and Bader had worked on Revolver. Rockstar San Diego's core 180-person team co-opted studios around the world owned by Rockstar Games to facilitate the five-year development between a full team of over 1,000. Rockstar Leeds and Rockstar North assisted with development; Rockstar co-founder and vice president for creativity Dan Houser felt the studio collaboration had become successful by 2009. Some staffers from Rockstar Leeds, including studio head Gordon Hall, spent one year in the United States to work on the game on-site. Rockstar New England was contracted to assist with development, an experience several former employees later lamented due to "endless" crunch and the fact it contributed to the indefinite hold put on the development of a sequel to Bully. According to environment artist Matt Kazan, Rockstar Toronto worked on the game in 2008, upgrading visual assets for seventh generation consoles from those intended for sixth generation consoles, PlayStation 2 and Xbox, for which Kazan claimed the game was originally planned. Analyst estimations place the game's development budget between and , making it one of the most expensive video games to develop. The wives of several Rockstar San Diego employees, under the pseudonym "", published an open letter in January 2010, alleging executives had imposed poor working conditions on studio developers since March 2009. The letter outlined unethical working practices in place at Rockstar San Diego during the game's development, including twelve-hour work days and six-day weeks, with lower-than-industry-average salary increases. Other former employees described the project as "an organic disaster of the most epic proportions"; it was reported key employees decided to quit rather than work on Red Dead Redemption and mismanagement led to delays and increased development costs. This was followed by several former employees anonymously and publicly describing similar experiences. While a former Rockstar staffer confirmed the claims, Rockstar denied them and said it was "saddened if any former members of any studio did not find their time here enjoyable or creatively fulfilling". The International Game Developers Association described the alleged working conditions as "deceptive, exploitative, and ultimately harmful". Less than two months after the game's release, about 40 of Rockstar San Diego's 180 staff members were laid off, which Rockstar described as "typical with game development" as it realigned its resources for future development projects. In the wake of Red Dead Redemption 2's own overtime controversy in 2018, Rockstar's head of publishing Jennifer Kolbe admitted the Rockstar Spouse letter represented a problematic time for the company's work practices but emphasized changes to its workflow to avoid similar situations in the future. As part his lawsuit against Rockstar in April 2016, producer Leslie Benzies released emails he received from Rockstar president and co-founder Sam Houser in October 2009 claiming the game was a "nightmare" and he needed Benzies's assistance in preparing to demonstrate the game to partners like Microsoft and Sony. According to the lawsuit, work on the game was completed "within a few months" after Benzies stepped in. ## Story and setting Dan Houser, Michael Unsworth, and Christian Cantamessa wrote Red Dead Redemption's 1,500-page script in two years. Taking inspiration from films like The Wild Bunch (1969), High Plains Drifter (1973), Unforgiven (1992) and The Proposition (2005), the team felt most Western fiction takes place between 1840 and 1880 and Red Dead Redemption's setting in 1911 allowed a more intriguing analysis of the transformation from "the old West" into the modern world. Cantamessa described the overarching theme as "the 'Death of the West' rather than the more conventional 'Myth of the West' that is often seen in the classic John Wayne films". Houser found "a classical 'we are conquering this wilderness' story" to be less interesting, and the time period had the added benefit of allowing strong images of the West—horses, stagecoaches, and lassoes—alongside modern technology like trains and explosives. Lead mission designer Silas Morse felt the limitations set by the time period—weapons, methods of travel, types of enemies—ultimately immersed the player and set the game apart from others. While the game is not an intentional satire on contemporary America, Houser admitted parallels were inevitable. Houser wanted the game to have a serious tone akin to The Wild Bunch, though avoiding topics like existentialism as in the work of Ingmar Bergman. While Houser admitted to having seen several Western films, he tried to avoid considering them in writing the story, wanting it instead to develop naturally. The game's Mexico section was inspired by The Wild Bunch and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), while the action sequences borrowed visual elements from classic shoot-out scenes, including from non-Western films like Heat (1995). The allusions to politics throughout the narrative are supposed to represent the darker undertones surrounding the foundations of the American Dream. In addition, the game itself exhibits qualities relating to the movement from a "violent freedom" to a situation of "overt state control", told through a story of innocence and freedom. Houser, expressed the difficulty in maintaining realism while balancing the game's narrative to avoid feeling both "pompous" and "camp", citing Blazing Saddles (1974) as an example of the latter. Houser felt the story does not fully represent the racial attitudes commonly associated with the game's era, a choice made by the developers to avoid language that "is insanely offensive to modern ears". The team focused more on the combination of old and modern America and the change experienced during this period. Regarding the game's depiction of violence, the team wanted it to "feel slightly raw and unpleasant"—more like Cormac McCarthy's Blood Meridian (1985) than Little House on the Prairie (1974–1983)—attempting realism without exaggeration. The team hoped for an "emotional response" from players, with immersion in the game world and time period. The game's world was a critical element of development; the team sought a sense of scale, immersion, and discovery for the player. To make the world feel alive, the team developed schedules for the non-player characters (NPCs), giving them tasks to complete and locations to attend instead of repeating basic tasks. Each NPC has specific outfits and dialogue to ensure each encounter felt fresh to the player. When designing the game's fictional locations, the team tried to represent iconic features of the time period, gradually revealing them to provide more visual and sociological variety to the player: New Austin features small towns and outposts, representing the final elements of wilderness and lawlessness before the development of modern America; Nuevo Paraíso includes rebel outposts and Mexican army forts, run by political and rebellious leaders amidst a civil war; and West Elizabeth is a verdant land representing the civilized and advanced areas of the world. The American frontier was extensively researched for the game; the team organized field trips to Washington, D.C., visiting the Library of Congress and the National Archives Building, captured a multitude of photographs, and analyzed various classic Western films, television shows, and novels. A challenge the team faced as a direct result of the world's size was to include enough content to interest players. Using this challenge as a strength and a major part of the design process, the team tried to make the countryside wild, with a variety of potential events to occur. They initially considered using the open world formula of Grand Theft Auto IV (2008)—a large variety of mission styles with different activities and objectives—but soon realized the emptiness of the world forced the direction elsewhere, instead filling the world with a realistic ecosystem with over 40 animals. The initial placement of animals throughout the game world felt "fake" to the team, prompting them to develop a system in which the animals had rules and specific behaviors, leading to more unpredictable encounters. ## Character development Red Dead Redemption features around 450 characters, with a cast of approximately 100 incidental and 50 main performers. The game required a large amount of character dialogue in order to feel alive, due in part to the improved technology. Houser compared the amount of dialogue required to Grand Theft Auto IV and felt the team was "halfway there" with its prior work on San Andreas and Bully. Several employees across the company worked on different parts of the script, such as the main story and pedestrian dialogue, a process Rockstar began with Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (2002). Researchers at Rockstar developed a style guide based on real sayings of the time period, which was used to write all dialogue; Houser was originally worried he had never written dialogue that was not in a contemporary setting, but felt they eventually found a "sweet spot". He found the time period lent itself to humorous dialogue, particularly due to items like drugs, patented medicine, and Sears catalogs. The team wanted to create a story that mixed with the game's mechanics to result in a fun and organic experience. As the story developed, a range of characters were organically created based on the period. The character of Edgar Ross was partly inspired by lawyer and political activist Charles Joseph Bonaparte, while other characters were inspired by historical figures of the 20th century including Frank James, Pearl Hart, and Tom Horn. In terms of the random NPC dialogue, Houser felt Red Dead Redemption sits between Bully, in which NPCs remember the protagonist, and Grand Theft Auto, in which NPCs are unaware of the protagonist's identity; in Red Dead Redemption, some NPCs remember the player's action, but less precisely than in Bully. To cast the characters, the team held auditions; until actors were officially signed to the project, it was only known as an "untitled video game project", for secrecy. Rockstar hired Rod Edge as the full-time director to handle the game's performances, recorded using motion capture technology, with additional dialogue and sound effects recorded in a studio; the performance capture was recorded in Santa Monica, California. Actor Rob Wiethoff auditioned for the role of protagonist John Marston by folding laundry while reading his lines. He felt the audition was a waste of time, but received the role a few days later. He worked on the game for almost two years, with principal production lasting around six weeks. The first scene to be recorded was John meeting Nigel West Dickens. Recording would take place over a few weeks, before taking a break of a month or two. Wiethoff estimated around 12–15 scenes were recorded each day. The recording crew often referred to scenes from Grand Theft Auto IV during production; Wiethoff pretended to understand before eventually admitting he had not played the game. John was developed to be a nuanced character, as opposed to an explicit villain or hero, and a "family man". Carson said Marston "has a foot in both the old world and the world that was to come", and felt the character became interesting due to the combination of cynicism and realism. Wiethoff felt the early decisions in John's life were a direct result of his need for acceptance and he may not have been aware of his actions. John's physical appearance took "quite a while" for the team to achieve but they felt it allowed them to develop an emotional connection to the character. Steve J. Palmer, who portrayed Bill Williamson, felt John and Bill represented siblings in their former gang, while Dutch van der Linde was more of a parental figure. He stated Williamson is envious of Marston, despite Marston being his "moral anchor", and after Marston left the gang, Williamson's life began to "tailspin" uncontrollably. Palmer auditioned for the role in December 2008, and was cast the following month. Palmer felt his similarity in appearance to Bill contributed to his casting. Benjamin Byron Davis, who portrayed Dutch and Nastas, recorded his scenes for the game in two week-long sessions several months apart. For his audition, Davis read lines ultimately used for Drew MacFarlane. Davis based Dutch's voice on Osbourne Crawl, a character he had played in a short film. The team told Davis that Dutch was a well-read, charismatic former gang leader who had "lost his mind". The team considered allowing Dutch's fate to be left to the player's choice; Davis felt the decision to avoid this was a demonstration of Dutch always being in control of his own fate. For his role as Nastas, Davis believed he was simply portraying the character's motion capture performance due to his height and the voice work would be re-dubbed; ultimately, his voice was included in the game. When auditioning for Luisa Fortuna, actress Francesca Galeas recalled the role being described as "a Salma Hayek bad ass chick with an accent". ## Technical and gameplay development Like other projects since Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis (2006), the game uses the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE) to perform animation and rendering tasks, and the Euphoria and Bullet engines for further animation and environment rendering tasks. Carson said Euphoria provides "a physically based character performance system" that is "tightly integrated into RAGE's proprietary physics engine". Overhauling the potential processing power of RAGE allowed the game to create a high level of detail, including realistic animations and detailed textures. The potential power of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 experienced through the development kits motivated the team to begin development, and to create a game that could fully render the countryside, which was difficult to achieve on previous hardware; Houser wanted to make "a game that was to the countryside as [Grand Theft Auto] was to the city". He felt that primitive technology of the past had prevented game developers from creating a game that "really did justice" to the Wild West, such as the animation of a lasso. Houser felt previous Western games represented one specific aspect of the period, while Red Dead Redemption attempts to represent all features; he described it as "a complete nightmare" and "a massive headache to make fun and look right". Though the scope of the open world was initially a large challenge from a technical viewpoint, the team used it to their advantage. The developers at San Diego sought guidance from other Rockstar studios experienced with developing open worlds, particularly Grand Theft Auto developer Rockstar North, namely art director Aaron Garbut and producer Leslie Benzies. Early in development, the team looked at Grand Theft Auto as the inspiration for the level of enjoyment they wanted to achieve; senior ambient designer Ghyan Koehne found the experience daunting, noting while Grand Theft Auto "had fast cars, helicopters, rocket launchers, and radio stations to listen to", Red Dead Redemption "had a guy on his horse and endless hills with close to nothing in the world". In developing the objects and surfaces of the game's world, the team utilized a variety of textures and lighting effects. They encountered difficulty in creating a realistic representation of nature; while locations like cities primarily use straight lines, "nature is all about curves", which is more difficult to make believable. For much of the game's development, the world was largely barren, lacking the road networks, animals, and foliage that would eventually populate it; the team was motivated by an "understanding of what it was all going to become", knowing the atmosphere they were trying to achieve. The game was envisioned to improve the core mechanics of Red Dead Revolver by scaling it up to the standard of other Rockstar games. The fundamental goal for the game was to maintain the shooting mechanic and expand on other game features; like Revolver, the game's weapons were inspired by real weaponry. Carson explained the team attempted to achieve realism with every feature of the game, including the horses, lassos, animal ecosystem, and the open world. To ensure the horse movements were as realistic as possible, the team motion captured a stunt horse, recording all movement. This created various problems; a gesture used by the stunt rider to communicate with the production team while on the horse was the same command that made the horse rear, while creating the horse's skeletal and muscular systems presented a problem and took several years to overcome. Several gameplay features evolved over time; when the team added flying birds and realized most players would inevitably shoot them, they added gameplay and mechanics to track it, eventually leading to the in-game challenge system. In the early stages of development, Rockstar decided which elements from Red Dead Revolver could be carried over; beyond the Dead Eye and dueling features, very few other elements remained. While Revolver represented many myths and iconic images of the American frontier, in Redemption the team tried to represent the reality of the time period. They avoided linking the narratives as they felt it would make little sense. The tone of Redemption was aimed to be a combination of the primitive Wild West and early 20th century America; with the latter, America was developing into a modern and contemporary society, which the team tried to portray. In addition, while they felt Revolver was constrained by its level-based structure, the team saw potential in creating a game similar to Rockstar's Grand Theft Auto series, in terms of quality, scope and detail. The game's Honor system—intended to keep in line with "the idea of morality and notoriety" associated with the West—was a further development of concepts previously explored by Rockstar, intended to provide the player with more choice in their play style. ## Music production Red Dead Redemption is one of the first games by Rockstar to use an original score. Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich cited the large scale of the game as one of the largest difficulties when producing the score; to achieve an effective gaming experience, the game could not solely feature licensed music, like previous Rockstar games. In 2008, Rockstar engaged musicians Bill Elm and Woody Jackson, who collaborated to compose approximately 200 tracks for the game over 15 months. The original score and subsequent album were both recorded and mixed at Jackson's studio, Electro-Vox Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and mastered at Capitol Studios. Jackson worked with David Holmes—with whom he had worked on films like Ocean's Twelve (2004) and Ocean's Thirteen (2007)—to produce the soundtrack. The game features vocal performances by Ashtar Command, José González, Jamie Lidell, and William Elliott Whitmore. Recorded at 130 beats per minute in A minor, most of songs featured are constructed from stems in the game's dynamic soundtrack. A mix of modern instruments and those featured in traditional Western films, such as the jaw harp, were used. Unique sounds were created through creative uses of instruments, such as playing a trumpet onto the surface of a timpani drum. Rockstar consulted musicians who played traditional Western instruments; harmonica player Tommy Morgan, who had been featured on several films over his 60-year career, provided traditional harmonica segments for the game. Beyond trumpets, nylon guitars and accordions, the composers incorporated other instruments, such as flutes and ocarinas. When researching music for inspiration, Jackson found there was no "Western sound" in 1911; he felt the soundtracks of 1960s Western films, such as Ennio Morricone's work on the Dollars Trilogy, was more representative of Western music. In appropriating the score to the game's setting, Elm commented the process was initially "daunting", taking a long time to discover how the music was to work in an interactive way. Shortly after finding a German guitar in Los Angeles with the appropriate sound and "a perfect tremolo", Jackson returned home and wrote the game's main theme. While experimenting for the game's northern region, Jackson recorded the heartbeat of his preborn daughter using his iPhone. ## Sound design From the beginning of development, the sound development team wished to achieve authenticity in the game's sounds. After the art department sent artwork to the sound department, the latter were inspired to achieve realism, researching all sounds to be used in the game. Throughout development, sound editors often presented ideas, which would then be achieved by the audio programmers. The three main areas of the game world contain unique ambiences; these are broken down into smaller sounds, such as bugs and animals, which are further refined to reflect the weather and time. The sound department was given specific instructions for the tone of game locations; for example, Thieves' Landing was to feel "creepy" and "off-putting". The sounds of the game's weapons were intricately developed; in order to feel as realistic as possible, each weapon has a variety of similar firing sounds. The development of the game's Foley began with a week-long session, where two Foley artists from Los Angeles were sent to record thousands of sounds relating to the game's setting. The sound department spent time on specific gameplay elements; Dead Eye was meant to sound "organic" as opposed to "sci-fi or electronic", while animals—a feature the team found challenging—was to immerse players in the experience. For the final sound mix, audio director Jeffrey Whitcher and lead sound designer Matthew Smith worked together to balance and blend the three main aspects of the soundtrack: dialogue, sound effects, and music. Smith coded systems to blend the three aspects, in order to keep the mix "dynamic". ## Release An early trailer for an untitled Western project by Rockstar Games for PlayStation 3 was shown at Sony's E3 conference in May 2005; it was a technology demonstrate of RAGE, and theorized to be a sequel to Red Dead Revolver. Rockstar officially announced Red Dead Redemption on February 3, 2009, with a release date set for late 2009 for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The April 2009 edition of Game Informer noted the game would be released for Windows in addition to consoles, though Rockstar later confirmed it had "no current plans" for a Windows release; according to lead multiplayer designer Kris Roberts, a Windows version was never seriously considered. In May 2009, the game was pushed to a 2010 release. In November 2009, Rockstar confirmed Red Dead Redemption would be released on April 27, 2010, and April 30 internationally. In March 2010, Rockstar announced the game would miss its original projected date, pushed back to May 18, 2010 in North America, and May 21 internationally, citing the "optimal time frame" for release. The game was released in Japan on October 7, 2010. Downloadable content (DLC) for the game was released following its launch, with focus on maps and game types suggested by the community. According to Strauss Zelnick, chief executive officer of Rockstar's parent company Take-Two Interactive, the game's DLC releases were an effort to slow used game sales, providing an incentive for players to keep the game after completion. Rockstar wanted to be able to publish DLC relatively quickly after the game's launch, as opposed to the lengthy development required for Grand Theft Auto IV's episodic DLC. Outlaws to the End, released on June 22, 2010, added six cooperative side missions for multiplayer. Legends and Killers was released on August 10, 2010, and added multiplayer characters from Red Dead Revolver, as well as new map locations and a Tomahawk weapon. On September 21, 2010, Liars and Cheats added competitive multiplayer modes, minigames, characters, and a weapon. Hunting and Trading, released on October 12, 2010, added a jackalope to the game's world, and some additional outfits. Undead Nightmare adds a single-player campaign, set in a non-canonical, zombie apocalypse-themed alternate reality with ghost towns and cemeteries full of zombies, wherein John searches for a cure to the zombie outbreak. It was released on October 26, 2010 as DLC and in late November as a standalone expansion pack. Myths and Maverick released for free on September 13, 2011, adding additional characters and locations to the multiplayer. A Game of the Year Edition containing all downloadable content was released for both PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on October 11, 2011, in North America and on October 14, 2011, internationally. According to industry sources, Rockstar shelved a Red Dead Redemption remaster after the poor reception of Grand Theft Auto: The Trilogy – The Definitive Edition (2021), instead increasing focus on development for the next entry in the Grand Theft Auto series. Media speculation restarted in June 2023 after the Game Rating and Administration Committee in South Korea gave Red Dead Redemption a new game rating, and in July after updates to Rockstar's website included minor changes to the game's logos and achievements. In August, Rockstar announced the single-player modes of Red Dead Redemption and Undead Nightmare would release for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 on August 17, developed by Double Eleven Studios. Physical versions are scheduled for release on October 13. Reactions to the announcement were mixed, with the trailer receiving mostly dislikes on YouTube; some journalists and players appreciated the game becoming available on modern consoles, but lamented the lack of visual and frame rate upgrades, absence of a Windows release, omission of multiplayer, and price point. ## Promotion Red Dead Redemption received an extensive and expensive marketing campaign, during which Rockstar partnered with several companies and media outlets, including IGN, GameSpot, LoveFilm, Microsoft, and YouTube. The game's debut trailer was released on May 6, 2009, introducing its concept and world, as well as the first information about its characters. In the week that followed, IGN extensively previewed the game, including gameplay screenshots and interviews with Houser. A trailer titled "My Name is John Marston" was released on December 1, 2009, having leaked the previous week before being pulled from Rockstar; the trailer introduced John Marston and his story, as well as some of the game's supporting characters. Kotaku's Jason Schreier cited the trailer as among the best of the game's generation. The first in a series of gameplay videos was released on December 15, 2009; titled "Introduction", it was the first footage to showcase Red Dead Redemption's gameplay. The second in this series, titled "Weapons & Death", was released on January 28, 2010, demonstrating the game's Dead Eye mechanic and weaponry. A trailer titled "The Law" was released on February 11, 2010, introducing characters Marshal Leigh Johnson and Edgar Ross. This was followed by "The Women: Sinners, Saints & Survivors" on February 24, focusing on the game's female characters, and the third gameplay video, "Life in the West", on March 17, introducing some open world activities. A trio of trailers announcing the game's exclusive pre-order content was released on March 19. The game's cover art was revealed on March 22, 2010, followed by a video titled "Gentlemen & Vagabonds" on March 24, focusing on some of the male characters of the game, including Seth Briars, Harold MacDougal, and Nigel West Dickens. The game was exhibited at PAX East in late March, with a 15–30 minute playable demonstration. The fourth gameplay video, titled "Life in the West Part II", was released on April 2, further showcasing activities available in the open world. This was followed by two trailers demonstrating the first footage of the game's online multiplayer modes, on April 8 and April 22. From April 27, a GameStop trailer for the game was aired as a television commercial in the United States; Rockstar spent a larger proportion of its budget on television marketing than it had previously. A trailer titled "Revolution" was released on May 6, focusing on the game's Mexican missions and characters. Red Dead Redemption was the focus of the May 8, 2010 episode of GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley, featuring new gameplay footage. The final pre-launch trailer was released on May 13, 2010. Rockstar announced trailers would be shown at some cinemas, specifically targeting audiences of films like Iron Man 2, Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, and Robin Hood (all 2010), and cinema posters would allow consumers to download content from the game through Bluetooth. Rockstar released merchandise for the game after its release in May 2010, including candles, playing cards, and soap, and a vinyl record of the soundtrack in collaboration with Wax Poetics in November. Viral marketing strategies were used to market the game. For Movember in November 2009, Rockstar hosted a competition in which it chose the most impressive moustache from a fan, who would be added as a character in the game. The official Red Dead Redemption website was redesigned and updated in the months prior to release with new information. To encourage pre-order sales, Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets in the United Kingdom and United States—including Amazon, Best Buy, Game, and HMV—to provide pre-order bonuses, including exclusive in-game horses, outfits, and weapons; GameStop hosted a public poll for which outfit would be included with its exclusive pre-order edition. All pre-order content later became available for purchase in April 2011. Rockstar released a special edition of the game in special packaging, with a copy of the soundtrack. Rockstar partnered with LoveFilm for the game's marketing push, with a run of 300,000 branded envelopes and newsletters; the LoveFilm Player allowed all users to watch The Proposition for free. Pieces of artwork from the game was painted on a mural in New York City in February 2010, and depicted on NASCAR driver Joey Logano's GameStop car in April and June 2010. On April 12, Rockstar released '' in open beta as a Facebook application: a role-playing social game that allowed players to duel their friends. The game was no longer playable by 2012, as updates to the Facebook platform required a full re-coding. A machinima short film, titled Red Dead Redemption: The Man from Blackwater, aired in the United States on the television network Fox on May 29, 2010, and in the United Kingdom on Five USA on June 5; IGN released the exclusive extended cut online on June 7. The 30-minute film, retelling several of the game's earlier missions in which John attempts to find Bill, was directed by John Hillcoat, whose film The Proposition'' had inspired the developers. Hillcoat's music video company was contracted to produce a three-minute trailer for the company; after Hillcoat looked at the material, it eventually expanded into a half-hour film. The production team were granted tools allowing them to reframe shots in the game world, and manipulate the lighting, weather, and time of day; they were able to reframe pre-existing cutscenes. They were limited in their ability to show too many characters to avoid spoiling the story, choosing to focus on the introduction of John, as well as some of the "flamboyant characters" in the early story. Some of the game's actors reprised their roles in bridging scenes for smoother transitions, including Palmer as Bill Williamson. The film was well-received as an introduction of the story for the uninitiated, but described as useless for those familiar with the game.
26,752,151	1994 Progress Party national convention	1,054,455,581	None	[ "1994 conferences", "1994 in Norway", "Political party assemblies", "Politics of Norway", "Progress Party (Norway)" ]	The 1994 national convention of the Progress Party of Norway was held from 15 April to 17 April at the hotel Bolkesjø Turisthotell in Bolkesjø, Telemark. It was originally set up to be a normal convention with 157 delegates in a non-election year, but because of mounting antagonism between a traditionalist and a libertarian faction, it became clear some months before the conventions that personal positions could be at stake. The party leader seat, held by Carl I. Hagen since 1978, was up for re-election. The deputy leaders Ellen Wibe and Hans J. Røsjorde was not up for election until 1995, but there were talks about forming a motion of no confidence against Wibe. The political disagreements roughly corresponded to a cleavage between two factions. The traditionalist (also called populist) faction was represented by party leader Carl I. Hagen, Jan Simonsen, Fridtjof Frank Gundersen, Vidar Kleppe, Øystein Hedstrøm, Lodve Solholm and Eli Hagen. The libertarians of the party were first and foremost the deputy leader Ellen Wibe and four members of Parliament (by some called the "band of four"), Ellen Christine Christiansen, Oscar D. Hillgaar, Roy N. Wetterstad and Stephen Bråthen. Buskerud county leader Geir Thoresen, Akershus county leader Per Aage Pleym Christensen and Youth of the Progress Party leader Lars Erik Grønntun were other prominent libertarians. Both during the preceding months and on the opening day, resolutions were passed which ensured full dominance for Carl I. Hagen and the policies of his faction. Wibe resigned as deputy leader, and Carl I. Hagen's men (there were no women left in the leadership) also dominated the new central committee. The personal issues totally overshadowed the regular political debate, and as early as on 17 April the convention was famously dubbed as the "national convention at Dolkesjø"—derived from dolk, the Norwegian word for dagger. In April and May, the Progress Party lost several members, including former members of Parliament and four current members of Parliament. In July the Youth of the Progress Party dissolved itself in protest of the events; however, a new, loyal organization immediately surfaced. Some of the withdrawn members joined the Conservative Party of Norway, others joined an entirely new organization (originally with the narrow intention to support the four parliamentarians), the quasi-political party Free Democrats. ## Run-up ### Before 1994 The 1993 national convention was harmonic. The newspaper Verdens Gang remarked that both "the libertarians and the populists cheered" after Carl I. Hagen's speeches. Jan Simonsen stepped down as deputy leader, and Ellen Wibe succeeded him, being one of the very few women in the Progress Party's leadership. There were some tensions, however. Finn Thoresen left the party in November 1992, and later formed New Future Coalition Party. More importantly, because of disagreements in 1992 and 1993, pertaining to libertarianism in general and especially the European Union question, several libertarians that had entered the Progress Party in the 1980s ceased their activity in the party. MPs Tor Mikkel Wara and Petter Bjørheim announced their intentions to leave politics after the end of their terms, as did Pål Atle Skjervengen. Jan Erik Fåne tried to win renomination, but the nomination meeting in Akershus put traditionalist Fridtjof Frank Gundersen on top of the ballot. Fåne was offered the second spot, but pulled out. Eight months later it turned out that holding the second spot on the ballot did indeed give a Parliament seat. The issue of libertarianism became more pressing in the campaign for the 1993 Norwegian parliamentary election, when Carl I. Hagen said to Verdens Gang that he did not support cutting the income tax. This was not in line with official party policy, and Hagen did not confer with the party, stating that "I had to take an independent initiative". Ellen Wibe openly criticized the statement, so did former MP and tax spokesperson Steinar Maribo. The tax statement was later seen as the most important factor contributing to the growing Hagen—liberalist schism. In the election the Progress Party won ten seats, down from 22 in the 1989 election. <sup>1</sup> = Left the Progress Party as a result of the convention. ### 1994 The year 1994 started with annual conventions in each county, scheduled between 15 January and 6 April. These conventions elected delegates to the national convention. Tension had mounted between party leader Carl I. Hagen and other factions in the party. Parts of the central committee were skeptical to Hagen's position and policies. In addition, the youth wing, Youth of the Progress Party, had experienced disagreements with the Hagen-led Progress Party. The leader of the Youth of the Progress Party, Lars Erik Grønntun, had been on the verge of stepping down, but was persuaded around the end of 1993 to run for re-election. Before the county conventions, Grønntun stated a desire for an extraordinary meeting between the party and its youth wing, where he wanted to "contribute to gathering the party and avoid any signs of a split". On 3 January, Hagen presented a ten-point plan of action. It was to be sent to each county chapter, and supported or rejected at the county conventions. On 7 January, Ellen Wibe presented a competing plan of action together with Oscar Hillgaar, Ellen Christine Christiansen and Geir Thoresen. Wibe's plan criticized the party's organizational culture, communication and institutions. In an interview, Wibe said that the party was too similar to a "charismatic movement", and that she wanted more power to the central board (Norwegian: sentralstyre). Øystein Hedstrøm announced a possible motion of no confidence regarding Ellen Wibe's position as deputy party leader, even though she was not really up for election until 1995. Wibe replied that her intention was to gather the party. ### County conventions and national board meeting In the weekend from 4 to 6 February, county conventions were held in eleven counties, including Hagen's native Oslo, and Buskerud, Finnmark, Telemark, Vest-Agder, Hordaland, Nordland, Østfold, Troms, Nord-Trøndelag and Møre og Romsdal. Hagen belonged to the Oslo chapter, but the leader of the chapter, Peter N. Myhre, stated beforehand that Hagen's proposal would probably be rejected. It was speculated that rejections could come from the Buskerud and Finnmark's conventions as well. On 7 February, Hagen confirmed his leadership candidacy for the electoral committee. On 19 February, the party held a national board (Norwegian: landsstyre) meeting at Bolkesjø. Here, Hagen proposed to close the debate on "the party profile and choice of values", a motion which gained support from 11 of the 24 board members. Ellen Wibe was among the minority, but conceded for the time being. That way, the question was put down before reaching the national convention. By then, fifteen county conventions had signalized support for Hagen. After the last convention, it was clear that one-third of the delegates had expressed support of Wibe. Before the national convention, Hagen stated in an interview that one "never can know what will happen during a Progress Party national convention". ### Further preparations The next two months was a quiet period, and Øystein Hedstrøm stated that Wibe had taken a more responsible role, and thus there was no need for a motion of no confidence. News commentator Aslak Bonde remarked that the compromise reached by the factions was "unclear" and that antagonism could surface at the national convention. Wibe stated that her faction still intended to submit a resolution, a "constructive" proposal regarding tactical and organizational issues. Two days before the national convention, this resolution text had not been submitted to the county delegates. On the next day, the resolution text was commented in newspapers. Aftenposten remarked that Wibe's proposal was a "thorough criticism of Carl I. Hagen", among others in that it called for "a renewal of the party". It was signed by Oscar D. Hillgaar, Ellen Chr. Christiansen, Stephen Bråthen and Roy Wetterstad together with Wibe. Verdens Gang reported that Wibe would resign if not given a clear confidence as deputy leader. Wibe refuted this in Aftenposten on the next day; the newspaper believed that no party split would occur. Another question of contention was the Progress Party's policy on Norwegian membership in the European Union. Reportedly, Carl I. Hagen wanted to postpone a decision on European Union policy from the national convention to a national board meeting in June. Others were not in favor of this. In an interview, Hagen stated that political parties should not agitate officially for one opinion or the other. He stated an indifference towards EU membership, and that if accessing the Union, Norway could always use a veto against EU policies when needed. Central board member Terje Sæbø submitted a competing resolution which opposed Norwegian membership. ## Meeting Carl I. Hagen held the opening speech of the convention. The speech was interrupted by extensive applause nineteen times. In it, he stated: > In case one wants a label, that would, in accordance with our ideological basis, be a Christian-Libertarian party. The New Testament is packed with libertarian ideas of freedom and emphasizes voluntarity and personal responsibility. For those who criticize our values, I warmly recommend some Bible reading. ### Resolutions and withdrawals One of the first questions which was voted over, was the EU issue. Hagen formally submitted a proposal that the factual aspects of this issue should not be debated, and this was passed with 113 against 44 votes. The EU vote directly caused Ellen Wibe to step down as deputy party leader, stating that she did "not fully understand the new profile of the party". If not stepping down, she would compromise "values and principles" that were essential in order to "live with [her]self as a human being". The announcement followed a private meeting between Wibe, Hagen, Røsjorde and Grønntun. Allegedly, Tor Mikkel Wara had advised her to resign. Ellen Christine Christiansen stepped down from her position in the central board, leaving Grønntun as the only clear libertarian. Grønntun stated that young party members would not tolerate to be "stepped on and hectored with [sic]" forever. More generally, the losing faction signalized a desire to continue promoting a liberal political profile, but in a less dramatic way. Immediately after Wibe's announcement, Jan Simonsen entered the chair and spoke strongly in favor of Hagen. Fridtjof Frank Gundersen applauded the end of "women's bickering" in the party leadership. Hagen's main resolution proposal, titled En fremtid med rot i fortiden, was passed with 94 against 50 votes. He also received support for prioritizing anti-immigration higher in the following period. In his closing speech, Hagen stated that "disloyal" behavior would be considered as "active withdrawal" from the party. From the rostrum, the "band of four" was even asked to withdraw by several delegates, including Bjørn Andreassen, Gustav Hareide and Frøydis Lange. Andreassen exclaimed that "we don't want you", while Lange asked the band of four to form a new party called the Anarchist Party. The central board held an extraordinary meeting on 17 April, during a pre-scheduled break in the convention. The central board of the Youth of the Progress Party also met, and agreed to support the "band of four". Their decision was not final until an extraordinary national board meeting could be held. It was speculated that members of the youth wing could leave the Progress Party en masse. ### New deputy leader After Wibe's resignation, Jan Simonsen was mentioned as an, albeit unlikely, candidate to succeed Wibe. Vidar Kleppe was also mentioned, while traditionalist John Alvheim was regarded by newspapers as a more likely candidate. On Saturday 16 April, it became clear that the vote stood between the Peter N. Myhre and Lodve Solholm. Myhre was the candidate put forward by the electoral committee, and had support among the libertarians, who did not field their own candidate. On 17 April, Solholm won the vote with 90 against 58; 8 ballots were blank. Carl I. Hagen was re-elected with 113 against 0 votes, and with 44 blank ballots. One libertarian, former MP Terje Nyberget, who described the convention as a "genocide", was elected to the national board. ## Aftermath Political scientist Frank Aarebrot summed up the convention turmoil in the following way: > This is one of the most peculiar things to happen in Norwegian political history. ### Band of four defect Already on the second day of the convention it was speculated that the "band of four", four libertarian-leaning members of Parliament, considered leaving the party. The four were Oscar D. Hillgaar, Roy Wetterstad, Ellen Christine Christiansen and Stephen Bråthen. The alternative to leaving the party was to mark themselves as dissenting party members. On the third day, news surfaced that the four had talked together. In the news program Dagsrevyen on 17 April, the band of four stated a desire to follow the 1993 party platform and not later resolutions. They were met by a demand from Carl I. Hagen that they continue on the "terms laid down by the national convention or find something else to do". He later added that if the band of four left the parliamentary group, they should "scram". To sum up, he said that the libertarians, which were known to be a minority, had gained too much influence, and was set back by the national convention. Øystein Hedstrøm demanded that the four leave the party. Because of the fierce personal antagonism at the convention, it was dubbed as the "national convention at Dolkesjø"—derived from dolk, the Norwegian word for dagger. Wibe encouraged people to stay in the Progress Party, although her active participation was over. Wetterstad stated in an interview that withdrawing his party membership was out of question, whereas Hillgaar was described as the least conciliatory. Hillgaar publicly lamented the "Moscow processes" of the 1994 national convention, and also the views on women and the "extreme xenophobia" which he felt was conveyed by the party program. The Progress Party county leader in Akershus, Per Aage Pleym Christensen, also reconsidered his position, leaving on 4 May. Oscar Hillgaar left the party on 22 April. The other three libertarian parliamentarians postponed their decision, attending meetings with county leaders on 17 and 22 April. A leading figure in these talks was Henning Holstad from Oslo. Hagen replied that such talks had no grounds in the Progress Party by-laws. The meeting on 22 April went well for the three parliamentarians, but on 30 April the central committee met, and Øystein Hedstrøm put forward a proposal for a "loyalty declaration" to Hagen and the policies agreed to on the national convention. The proposal of a written declaration was not passed, but the central committee decided to demand loyalty. It also removed Lars Erik Grønntun from the executive board (Norwegian: arbeidsutvalg). The three parliamentarians finally left the party on 3 May. It was speculated that the deputy representatives for Bråthen and Wetterstad, Per Aage Pleym Christensen in Akershus and Geir Thoresen in Buskerud, would follow. Wetterstad drew the lines to Hagen's own withdrawal from the Anders Lange Party to form the short-lived Reform Party. Coincidentally, Hagen celebrated his 50th birthday on 6 May. ### Youth wing defects With four of ten having resigned from the parliamentary group, the Youth of the Progress Party was the next institution to experience turmoil. In May Verdens Gang announced that a forthcoming extraordinary national convention, spearheaded by Lars Erik Grønntun, would cut its ties with the Progress Party. The county leader in Oslo, Kim M. Høistad, formally proposed such a move. A straightforward dissolution of the Youth of the Progress Party would, however, most likely be followed by an immediate resurrection of the youth wing by Hagen-loyal members. Høistad's proposal was quickly co-signed by the Akershus branch, through its leader Trine Beate Samuelsen, and the Buskerud branch through its leader Per Magne Pedersen. The county chapters in Telemark, Aust-Agder, Vest-Agder, Oppland and Rogaland also voiced support. Hordaland had considered it. National deputy Ole Tom Nomeland was reluctant to comment, but at the national convention he called Ellen Wibe "one of the finest people in Norwegian politics". He was threatened with exclusion in June, ahead of the convention. Two days before the national convention, the central committee convened and supported a dissolution of the Youth of the Progress Party. Lars Erik Grønntun even announced plans to cooperate more with the Norwegian Young Conservatives and the Young Liberals of Norway. Young Conservatives leader André Støylen was not negative. The national convention agreed on dissolving the Youth of the Progress Party, with 63 against 21 votes. Hagen-loyal members summoned the Progress Party national board, which overruled the decision, allowing the remaining members to continue with Ulf Leirstein as leader. ### Other defections Already before the national convention, the entire local party chapter in Osterøy was disestablished, but mainly due to the European Union controversy. The party had one representative in Osterøy municipal council at the time. One day after the national convention, delegate Kristian Eidesvik announced his withdrawal from the party, though he would sit through his tenure as member of Hordaland county council, which lasted until 1995. Eidesvik was a former member of the central board, and also a former deputy member of Parliament. The same day former MP and youth wing leader Pål Atle Skjervengen withdrew, commenting that the libertarians "are asked by the party leadership to go to hell". Skjervengen had been criticized by Carl I. Hagen from the rostrum at the national convention. Many years down the road Skjervengen joined the Conservative Party. Harald Eide Ellingsen, member of Stavanger city council, also left. In Røyken municipal council, three of five representatives left the party, and a fourth, former MP Steinar Maribo, considered doing the same. As did Odd Magnar Brubæk, and former deputy MP Paal Bjørnestad. Terje Nyberget withdrew from the central committee in early May. The leader in the chapters in Finnmark and Nordkapp, Bjørn Magne Solvik, withdrew on 13 May. He cited a lack of liberalism, especially with regards to gay rights and immigration, as the reason. He was the only Progress Party member of a municipal council in Finnmark. Maribo withdrew some time in May. In late May, party secretary Hans Andreas Limi had counted 270 withdrawals, but also 76 new members. Municipal and county council member Liv Skrede left after the youth wing's national convention in July, so did Tor Mikkel Wara, Ellen Wibe, Jan Erik Fåne and Petter Bjørheim. Hordaland county council member Lene C. Møgster Løtvedt left and joined the Conservative Party in October. ### New party Already during the national convention, the Youth of the Progress Party agreed to form an informal "thinking group" for disenfranchised members. Pål Atle Skjervengen was early in declaring an interest in forming a new, libertarian party. Those who resigned from the parliamentary group initially declared a lack of motivation to form a new party, and they also rejected the possibility of joining another party. They would instead vote according to the 1993 party program. Either way, in a parliamentary context they were known as independents for the remainder of their term. They did discuss the possibility of forming a "support group" which would help the four parliamentarians with practical issues. Odd Magnar Brubæk contributed advice on an informal basis from time to time. With some time passed since the Bolkesjø convention, it was decided to hold a formal conference to form a support group in mid-June. Organizations in Akershus and Buskerud already existed, under the names of Fridemokratene Akershus and Buskerud Liberale Forum. At the conference, the name Free Democrats (Norwegian: Fridemokratene) was adopted, and the band of four were chosen as leaders. Two hundred people joined, and it had four county leaders; Per Aage Pleym Christensen for Akershus, Geir Thoresen for Buskerud, the former city council secretary Roy Venge Tollefsen in Oslo and Thor Simonsen in Østfold. Wibe, on the other hand, left politics, as did Lars Erik Grønntun. The board members of Aust-Agder Youth of the Progress Party joined the Free Democrats in August. Ellen Christine Christiansen stated that "time will tell whether we become a political party". The issue was discussed again at a national convention in September 1994. The Vestfold chapter wanted to field in the 1997 Norwegian parliamentary election with Oscar Hillgaar on the ballot, but this did not happen. ## See also - Progress Party (Norway)#Turmoil and new schism — a period of turmoil resulted in the Democrats splitting from the Progress Party. - 1972 Liberal Party national convention — another famous convention, where the Liberal Party split into two.
72,414,169	Angel Down (song)	1,169,220,834	2016 song by Lady Gaga	[ "2010s ballads", "2016 songs", "Black Lives Matter art", "Killing of Trayvon Martin", "Lady Gaga songs", "Song recordings produced by BloodPop", "Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga", "Song recordings produced by Mark Ronson", "Song recordings produced by RedOne", "Songs against racism and xenophobia", "Songs based on American history", "Songs written by Lady Gaga", "Songs written by RedOne", "Torch songs" ]	"Angel Down" is a song by American singer-songwriter Lady Gaga. It serves as the concluding track on the standard edition of her fifth studio album, Joanne (2016). Influenced by the killing of Trayvon Martin in 2012, it was written by Gaga and her long-time collaborator RedOne, during initial recording sessions of the album in 2015; he also produced its work tape version. In late 2015, she played "Angel Down" to Mark Ronson, who later produced the official rendition of the track, along with BloodPop. It is a torch song, as well as protest song against shootings involving African Americans in the United States. The piano ballad also touches on topics of social media. Critical reception towards "Angel Down" was mixed – some journalists found the track a beautiful end to the album and appreciated its message, while others deemed it well-intentioned but otherwise a weak offering. After debuting the song on the New York Times/T Gala, Gaga performed it during her two concert series in support of Joanne, the Dive Bar Tour (2016) and the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018). In 2022, she added "Angel Down" to the setlist for select dates of The Chromatica Ball, interpolating political statements to the performance. ## Background and development In the first few months of the Joanne's (2016) inception, Lady Gaga was seen collaborating with longtime producer RedOne, as well as new collaborators like Giorgio Moroder and Nile Rodgers. "Angel Down" is the only song featured on the album that was penned with RedOne. Its acoustic version, officially released with the moniker "work tape", was written and produced in 2015, with Lady Gaga handling piano and vocals, while RedOne played on guitar and also programmed the track. This rendition of the song was recorded in Woodshed Studios in Malibu, California by Trevor Muzzy and Alekes Von Korff. When looking for more collaborators for the project, Gaga encountered Mark Ronson in a London studio, where she played him "Angel Down", which was described by him as "quite moving". They finished the new version's production alongside BloodPop, who played keyboards and drums. Ronson added Mellotron strings to the song. It was recorded by David "Squirell" Covell and Joshua Blair in Shangri-La, while the Pink Duck Studios session was taken by Blair and assisted by Justin Smith. Another take, done in Electric Lady Studios, was recorded by Blair with the help of Barry McCready. ## Inspiration and composition "Angel Down" was influenced by the killing of Trayvon Martin in 2012. During the interview with New Zealand DJ Zane Lowe, she compared murders of young African-Americans to an epidemic, saying she is overwhelmed by the apathy of society on the issue. The singer asked "How can I not say something?", since making "an album about twerking [her] ass off in the club" felt "empty" and "irrelevant" to her. During her 2022 tour, The Chromatica Ball, Gaga further referred to "Angel Down" as a "song about America". Its final version is the concluding track of Joanne's standard edition. It is a torch song with a "lush sonic pallet", and also a piano-driven ballad touching on subjects of religion and the US shootings, featuring "backward loops and dreamy psychedelic flourishes". The Daily Telegraph's Neil McCormick wrote that it has "mournfully elegant melody and quasi-religious save-the-nation sentiments", referring to the lyric "I'm a believer / Where are leaders?" It includes Gaga's "vulnerable" vocals compliemented by a "gentle" production and "sadly" played Mellotron. A protest song, "Angel Down" beggins with Gaga stating "I confess I am lost / In the age of the social / On our knees, take a test / To be lovin' and grateful", alluding to the on-going indifference towards racism issues to social media. As the song progresses, she reveals her confusion to the people's apathy to the death of an "angel" as she sings in the chorus "Shots were fired on the street / By the church where we used to meet / Angel down, angel down / But the people just stood around". The song was compared to the work of Elvis Presley, Celine Dion, and Jewel. ## Critical reception Writing for The Observer, Michael Cragg found "Angel Down" an "intoxicating lament that twinkles and wheezes in equal measure". Richard S. He of Vulture wrote that the song is "a far cry from the fearless optimism of Gaga's past albums. But it carries an important message: to not turn away from suffering." NME's Emily Mackay also praised the song for its "simple, warm and vital message", urging "to take care of each other in a cruel world". Daniel Welsh from HuffPost opined that "Angel Down" is a better way to end the album than "Just Another Day", hence it "forc[es] the listener to end thinking about something important". Luke Winstanley of Clash described it as a "beautifully sombre closer", while Kevin Fallon from The Daily Beast said it is a "solid torch song to wind down the album". For Digital Spy's Lewis Corner, it is "a beautiful ending to the album, hearing a vulnerable vocal from Gaga over a gentle production." At Contactmusic.com, Eoin Hanlon thought that "Angel Down" is one of the "moment[s] where her vocals are at their best" on the album. Writing for Los Angeles Times, Mikael Wood labeled the song as "lugubrious". In a review published by Spin, Rich Juzwiak contemplated that the track is an "oblique enough to avoid revealing itself as the Trayvon Martin tribute that it was conceived as", however according to him, it "could have been much heavier handed". On a more critical note, Pitchfork writer Amanda Petrusich described Gaga's attempt of talking about "serious concerns" in "Angel Down" as "clumsy if not performative". Adam White of The Independent found it a "well-intentioned if forgettable ode to political confusion". Similarly, Billboard's Andrew Unterberger felt along with another Joanne track, "Come to Mama", Gaga's "well-intentioned anthems of social conscience [...] land somewhat flat". Chicago Tribune's Greg Kot also criticized the social commentary-filled lyrics on "Come to Mama" and "Angel Down". Jezebel writer Bobby Finger called "Angel Down" the "album's biggest problem", saying: "it's hard to listen to Gaga scorn those who did nothing after Martin's death four years after the fact. It all feels like a vigil held too late — one populated by cardboard cutouts and battery-operated flickering lights, not grieving humans holding candles. I don't doubt her compassion, just her intentions." The Atlantic's Spencer Kornhaber was more keen of the "work tape" version, calling it "by far the best product of this Gaga era"; he however heavily criticized the album version by Ronson and BloodPop, thinking "the song has become strangely mannered, gilded in harps and forfeiting the original's searing vocals". ## Live performances Gaga debuted "Angel Down" live on New York Times/T Gala on October 19, 2016, where she was honored for her contribution to the world of fashion. The following day, she performed the song at The Bitter End, in New York City, as part of her Dive Bar Tour, a promotional concert tour in support of Joanne. After her main set was over, she climbed on the bar's roof to sing "Angel Down" and "Joanne" to the crowd who gathered outside, as they were unable to get in due to the limited capacity of the venue. Before singing the track at the Los Angeles stop of the tour, Gaga called for peace at a "tumultuous" time in American politics, referring to the 2016 United States presidential election. She added the line "Trayvon Angel" to the song's outro. The track was performed alongside "Come to Mama" at presidential candidate Hillary Clinton's final campaign stop in Raleigh, North Carolina. "Angel Down" was part the set list of Gaga's fifth headlining concert tour, the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018). She performed it while wearing a fringe blazer and a wide-brimmed hat. For the duration of the song, Gaga was lift up into the air on a mobile platform, which was slowly descended from the ceiling. She dedicated "Angel Down" to "everyone we lost this year." Jonathan Dean of The Times found the performance "incredibly moving". Because of the prior song of the setlist, "Paparazzi", Alex Stedman of Variety thought the sequence had an "almost dizzying tonal change". In 2022, Gaga embarked on The Chromatica Ball, where she sang "Angel Down" on select dates in North America and Japan, as the sole track from Joanne on the setlist. She performed it on the piano while wearing a black and lavender latex bodysuit. Her piano was covered in tree branches, appearing "as something growing organically out of gnarly forest limbs and trunks", according to Variety. Preceding the song, she addressed different topics which were under debate in the United States, including gun violence and abortion rights. Gaga's piano was illuminated by blue lights for "Angel Down" at her Texas show, where she expressed hope that the "purple [state] is gonna go blue". ## Credits and personnel These credits are adapted from the liner notes of Joanne. ### Official version Recording locations - Recorded at Shangri-La Studios (Malibu, California), Pink Duck Studios (Burbank, California), and Electric Lady Studios (New York City) - Mixed at Atomic Studios (New York City) - Mastered at Sterling Sound Studios (New York City) Personnel - Lady Gaga – vocals, piano, songwriting, production - RedOne – songwriting - Mark Ronson – Mellotron strings, production - BloodPop – drums, keyboards, production - David "Squirell" Covell – recording - Joshua Blair – recording - Justin Smith – recording assistance - Barry McCrady – recording assistance - Ben Babtie – mixing - Tom Coyne – mastering - Randy Merrill – mastering ### Work tape version Recording locations - Recorded at Woodshed (Malibu, California) - Mixed at RedOne Studios (Los Angeles) - Mastered at Sterling Sound Studios (New York City) Personnel - Lady Gaga – vocals, piano, songwriting, production - RedOne – guitar, songwriting, production, programming, mixing - Trevor Muzzy – recording - Alekes Von Korff – recording - T.I Jakke – mixing - Tom Coyne – mastering - Randy Merrill – mastering ## Charts
28,030,196	Donkey Kong Country Returns	1,170,846,729	2010 platform video game	[ "2010 video games", "Cooperative video games", "Donkey Kong Country", "Donkey Kong platform games", "Fiction about hypnosis", "Monster Games games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo 3DS eShop games", "Nintendo 3DS games", "Retro Studios games", "Side-scrolling video games", "Video game sequels", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games produced by Kensuke Tanabe", "Video games scored by Kenji Yamamoto (composer, born 1964)", "Video games set on fictional islands", "Video games with 2.5D graphics", "Video games with silhouette graphics", "Wii games", "Wii games re-released on the Nintendo eShop" ]	Donkey Kong Country Returns is a 2010 side-scrolling platform game developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the Wii console. The game was released first in North America in November 2010, and in PAL regions and Japan the following month. The game's story focuses on an evil group of Tiki-like creatures known as the Tiki Tak Tribe that are unleashed on Donkey Kong Island and hypnotize the island's animals to stealing Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong's banana hoard, prompting the two to traverse the island to reclaim it. Donkey Kong Country Returns was the first installment of the Donkey Kong Country series to not involve the original series developer Rare. The game was a critical and commercial success; it has sold over 6.53 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling titles on the Wii and received positive reviews for its graphics, level design, and gameplay, although its motion controls and high difficulty received more mixed responses. A Nintendo 3DS port developed by Monster Games, titled Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D, was released in North America and PAL regions in May 2013 and in Japan the following month. A sequel, Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze, was released for the Wii U in February 2014 and ported for the Nintendo Switch in May 2018. ## Gameplay Players take control of the series's protagonist Donkey Kong, as well as his friend Diddy Kong in certain situations, with many traditional elements of the Donkey Kong Country series returning, including mine cart levels, the ability to swing between vines and collect bananas, the golden "KONG" letters and puzzle pieces. New gameplay elements include levels in which the characters and foreground environments appear as silhouettes, spawning several new gameplay mechanics. In single-player mode, players can only play as Donkey Kong, although Diddy Kong rides on Donkey Kong's back, and Donkey Kong can use Diddy's jetpack to jump further. Multiplayer mode enables a second player to control Diddy Kong. If a player's character dies in two-player mode, it can be brought back by using the other character to hit a "DK Barrel" that floats into view, a mechanic similar to the one used in New Super Mario Bros. Wii. To avoid problems arising from differences in the players' skills, Diddy can hop on Donkey's back to take on a more passive role, while his jetpack can be used to make his partner's jumps easier. Both Donkey and Diddy can pound the ground to defeat enemies and unveil secret items. The game has two control schemes, with the standard system using the Wii Remote in conjunction with the Nunchuk, while a more classical approach requires that the Wii Remote be held sideways. Both methods use motion controls for the "Ground Pound" move. In addition to common series elements like secrets and unlockables, there is also an optional time attack mode. Two animal buddies, Rambi and Squawks, appear and assist Donkey Kong at certain points in the game. The game also utilises the "Super Guide" feature that previously appeared in New Super Mario Bros. Wii and Super Mario Galaxy 2. If the player loses eight lives in a single level, they will be given the option to allow a white-colored Donkey Kong named Super Kong to take over and complete the level for them. However, Super Kong will not look for collectible items, nor will he show the player where they are. He also keeps anything he happens to collect, so the player is not rewarded for these items. After beating Tiki Tong, an additional stage called "The Golden Temple" is unlocked. In order to play the stage, the player has to find objects called "Rare orbs" hidden in each world's temple. Upon competing the Golden Temple, a new mode is unlocked known as the Mirror Mode. In this mode, the stages are flipped, Donkey Kong only has one unit of health, he cannot use items bought from Cranky Kong, and he cannot get any help from Diddy Kong. ## Plot The game's story revolves around creatures known as Tikis, which are new to the series. The different types of Tikis fill the role of the antagonists in the story, replacing the Kremlings from Donkey Kong Country. Cranky Kong, who owns shops throughout the island, is the only Kong family member that appears other than Donkey and Diddy. The story begins when a group of evil Tikis known as the Tiki Tak Tribe arrive on Donkey Kong Island after being awoken by a volcanic eruption, and play music to hypnotize the animals, mostly elephants, zebras, giraffes, and squirrels on the island into stealing Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong's bananas. Since Donkey Kong is resistant to the Tikis' music, he works with Diddy Kong to retrieve their hoard of bananas from the Tikis. Throughout the game, the pair travel through nine worlds to recover their stolen bananas: the Golden Temple, the Volcano, the Factory, the Cliff, the Forest, the Cave, the Ruins, the Beach, and the Jungle. In each world, they must defeat a Tiki Tak Tribe leader: Kalimba, the Maraca Gang, Gong-Oh, Banjo Bottom, Wacky Pipes, Xylobone, Cordian (who hypnotizes other inhabitants on the island to fight the Kongs), and Tiki Tong, the king of the Tiki Tak Tribe. After Tiki Tong is defeated, the Kongs are launched into space where they punch and headbutt down on the Moon, crushing Tiki Tong's base and sending bananas flying everywhere. ## Development ### Conception The idea for Donkey Kong Country Returns originated at Retro Studios following the completion of Metroid Prime 2: Echoes in 2004, when Retro president and CEO Michael Kelbaugh told Nintendo producer Kensuke Tanabe that Retro was interested in developing a Donkey Kong game. Kelbaugh had worked as a tester on the Donkey Kong Country series for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), which had been on a hiatus following Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! (1996). Its developer, the British studio Rare, was acquired by Nintendo's competitor Microsoft in 2002. Retro was directed to develop Metroid Prime 3: Corruption (2007) instead, Tanabe noting that Nintendo depended on Retro to make games that could not be developed in Japan. After the completion of Corruption, Retro began experimenting for potential projects, but in April 2008, three core staff—design director Mark Pacini, art director Todd Keller, and principal technology engineer Jack Matthews—left, and those experiments had to be discarded. Tanabe was unsure what Retro's next project would be until Donkey Kong creator Shigeru Miyamoto, "totally by chance", expressed interest in a Donkey Kong Country revival. Miyamoto said that Nintendo had been receiving requests from the North American audience for a new Donkey Kong Country, and Tanabe suggested that Retro would be a suitable developer for such a project. Retro staff flew to Nintendo's headquarters in Kyoto to meet with Miyamoto and Nintendo president Satoru Iwata, where they determined Returns' direction. Miyamoto told Retro, "Donkey Kong is my baby and you better get it right!" Iwata was confident in Retro's ability to develop the game, given that many staff were avid fans of the original Donkey Kong Country. He felt they dispelled any concerns that it was possible for a studio besides Rare to continue Donkey Kong Country. Iwata referred to the set of circumstances that led to Retro taking on Returns as goen ("fate"), so Retro chose F8 as the project's codename. Retro was excited to work on a series different from Metroid; senior designer Mike Wikan noted that Donkey Kong's light tone was a contrast from Metroid's somber one. Iwata said their passion for Donkey Kong Country "generated an energy that was poured into [Returns]". ### Design Returns was designed for Donkey Kong Country fans, and the team spent the first week of development playing the SNES games to gather inspiration. Retro sought to carry memorable elements—such as side-scrolling gameplay, barrel cannons, and minecart sequences—while refining them to create a new experience, and continue the series' broad appeal and accessibility. The team felt a lot of responsibility because they did not want to disappoint fans. The assistant producer, Risa Tabata, had never played Donkey Kong Country, so she saw herself as the one who conceived new ideas. Similar to the role he played during the development of Donkey Kong Country and Donkey Kong Jungle Beat (2004), Miyamoto supervised Retro and reviewed Returns' content throughout development. He wanted Retro to keep Donkey Kong Country's unique visuals and feel in mind, and emphasized elements he felt should be retained from prior games. He also mandated which characters could return. The staff worked with Miyamoto for hours to perfect Donkey Kong's movement and referred to him as "Yoda" for his input. Miyamoto suggested the blowing mechanic after playing a prototype and noticing that one of Diddy Kong's animations resembled blowing. The team was initially baffled by the suggestion, but found it added interactivity and whimsy. Miyamoto wanted players to move similarly to Donkey Kong when he slaps the terrain, so Retro designed Returns around the Wii Remote and Nunchuk. Retro introduced the option to play without the Nunchuk following the release of New Super Mario Bros. Wii, which allowed players to hold the Wii Remote horizontally like a Nintendo Entertainment System controller. Unlike Rare's games, which allowed players to swap between the two Kongs at will, Retro designed Donkey and Diddy as a combined character. They introduced surface-clinging to expand gameplay to walls and ceilings, and chose not to include underwater levels because they did not fit the pace. Team members competed and asked each other for input, with Ivey noting coworkers sought to surprise each other. Retro felt they were able to incorporate more ideas than they were in the Metroid Prime series. Kelbaugh decided that Returns needed to be difficult to appease Donkey Kong Country fans, but still be fair enough for inexperienced players. Pearson and Wikan wanted it to challenge players in a way that would encourage them to learn from their mistakes and keep trying. They introduced Diddy's jetpack and pop gun to ease the difficulty for inexperienced players and distinguish him from previous games. Retro was aware that the difficulty would be tough for some players to manage, so the team integrated the Super Guide system from New Super Mario Bros. Wii. Since the Metroid Prime and Donkey Kong Country series were popular among speedrunners and hardcore gamers, Retro added the time trial mode late in development. When development began, Tanabe and Tabata discussed how they could distinguish Returns from the previous Donkey Kong game, Jungle Beat. Tanabe felt that simultaneous multiplayer was one way Returns should differ, since previous Donkey Kong games only let players take turns. Miyamoto advised Tanabe to only focus on single-player gameplay before considering multiplayer, but Tanabe still told Retro to incorporate multiplayer early in development. To distinguish Returns' multiplayer from New Super Mario Bros. Wii's and allow skilled gamers to play swiftly, Retro removed the collision detection between Donkey and Diddy. Retro refrained from lowering the difficulty for multiplayer, though the team did discuss making it easier to obtain lives and allowed Diddy to ride Donkey's back if one player was having trouble. ### Art and programming Retro wanted Returns to look "fun and whimsical" and discarded many initial designs for being too similar to Metroid's darker aesthetic. Impactful visuals were a primary focus since the original Donkey Kong Country was famous for its graphics, though Kelbaugh and director Bryan Walker said developing the silhouette levels "taught us not to rely so much on graphics". Retro retained the previous Donkey Kong Country games' art style, but developed environments using polygons rather than the pre-rendering technique that Rare used to create the SNES trilogy. Tanabe noted that unlike the SNES games, which featured static backgrounds due to technical limitations, Retro could incorporate real time animation into Returns and allow characters and backgrounds to interact. Retro drew inspiration from Virtual Boy Wario Land (1995), which allows the player to jump between the background and the foreground. Unlike most Western game developers, Retro spent a considerable amount of time developing prototypes. For Metroid Prime, Retro based the development on its design documents, but learned from Tanabe that it was more efficient to develop prototypes first and create design documents after the gameplay had been polished. Returns was developed using the Metroid Prime game engine, but required far more detail in polygons and textures. The team noted that while audiences often perceive side-scrolling games as simple and archaic, they are actually quite difficult to develop due to the amount of care that goes into each level. They tried to adapt the Prime games' Morph Ball virtual camera system to create the side-scrolling effect. However, the player character's movements were too fast and complicated for it, so a new camera system had to be developed. Retro updated approximately two-thirds of its technology for Returns, including its renderers, animation tools, and collision detection systems. Kelbaugh and Walker estimated that every level required around three times the amount of detail that Metroid Prime 3: Corruption's did. It took around six months to shift from the Prime development environment, and Kelbaugh and Walker said that the artists had to be retrained to design a Donkey Kong game. The player character has over 2,000 animations in single-player and 6,000 in multiplayer, far greater than Samus Aran's in the Metroid Prime games, and Retro drew inspiration from Jungle Beat to develop Donkey Kong's movements. To incorporate Super Guide, the programmers rewrote the engine to remove possible randomness arising from button inputs. Retro used Super Guide to playtest and find bugs. ### Music Kenji Yamamoto, who worked with Retro on the Metroid Prime series, composed most of Donkey Kong Country Returns' soundtrack, alongside Minako Hamano, Masaru Tajima, Shinji Ushiroda, and Daisuke Matsuoka. The soundtrack mostly comprises rearrangements of tracks from the original Donkey Kong Country, composed by David Wise and Eveline Novakovic. This was at the request of Miyamoto and Iwata, who did not want Retro to change the music. Iwata considered the soundtrack a large part of Donkey Kong Country's appeal and told Tanabe to handle it with care during the first Returns meeting. Alongside rearrangements, Yamamoto composed new material to fit Returns' atmosphere. Due to the constant tweaking of the levels, he sometimes had to recompose his tracks. Retro wanted Yamamoto to blend the classic Donkey Kong Country tracks with modern sound. He did not use a full orchestra, but focused on what Tanabe felt made Donkey Kong Country's music iconic, such as piano arrangements and the bassline. Because Rare was uninvolved, Wise, Donkey Kong Country's original composer, was unable to contribute. Wise left Rare in 2009 because he disagreed with the company's direction under Microsoft and got in contact with Kelbaugh. In 2019, Wise said that it was too late for him to contribute to Returns by the time he connected with Kelbaugh, but they stayed in contact in case Retro decided to develop a sequel. Wise felt Yamamoto "did a wonderful job" rearranging his past work, though he said he would have relied more on new compositions than past material. ### Completion The development did not begin smoothly; Tanabe described early development as "floundering around" and said that the team often disagreed as to what would be fun. Retro struggled to make a game that reflected Nintendo's values and designing the bosses. The amount of effort it took to create the level playable for a game demo at E3 2010 made the team concerned that Returns would not be ready for its deadline, and the team still had to complete around 70 levels after E3. E3 2010 proved to be a turning point for the development; Iwata observed that "the game rapidly bloomed once [Retro] entered the final stretch", with more ideas and elements introduced. Pearson attributed the turnaround to correspondence between Nintendo and Retro: "We had come to share a certain philosophy with regards to how to make the game's levels and had achieved a common understanding of what makes a level fun. We learned the tempo necessary for a fun level and the kinds of elements to put in". Towards the end of development, Tanabe had to take a week off due to lower back pain and Tabata filled in for him. The team worked overnight during the final stages. ## Release ### Context Following Microsoft's acquisition of Rare, the Donkey Kong franchise's prominence faded. With no studio to develop major Donkey Kong platform games, Donkey Kong became relegated to spin-offs—such as the Donkey Konga and Mario vs. Donkey Kong series—and guest appearances in other Nintendo franchises. Jungle Beat, the only major Donkey Kong game since Rare's Donkey Kong 64 (1999), was a commercial disappointment despite positive reviews. Hardcore Gaming 101 wrote that Jungle Beat was seen as "merely an aside to the Donkey Kong platforming saga. Seething underneath the surface of every gamer who cut their teeth on 16-bit platformers was a longing for a return to form for the wayward gorilla and his adventures... Donkey Kong Country was a brand that had a growing sense of latent desire associated with it". Donkey Kong Country Returns was kept a secret for much of its development. In August 2009, IGN reported that Retro was known to be working on a new Wii game but was going great lengths to conceal its identity, including restricting access to parts of its headquarters. When IGN interviewer Matt Casamassina visited Retro to discuss Metroid Prime: Trilogy (2009), he was required to sign a non-disclosure agreement stipulating that if he managed to learn what the new project was, he would be unable to discuss it. Reports that the project was Donkey Kong-related surfaced shortly before Nintendo's E3 conference in June 2010. ### Marketing Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils-Aimé announced Donkey Kong Country Returns during his keynote address at E3 on June 15, 2010, when he introduced a trailer showcasing various levels and set pieces. Video game journalists considered Nintendo's showing its strongest in years and singled out Returns as one of the most significant announcements. They characterized the announcement as a surprise; a new Country game had been considered unlikely following Microsoft's acquisition of Rare. GameSpot said that the trailer sparked cheers from the crowd, with Hardcore Gaming 101 writing that Nintendo's use of the Country branding promised fans a return to form for the franchise. Alongside Kirby's Epic Yarn, Metroid: Other M, and Wii Party, Nintendo positioned Returns to rejuvenate Wii sales in response to rising PlayStation 3 sales. It promoted the game with a series of trailers, which journalists said showcased a hardcore difficulty. One advertisement featured British comedians Ant & Dec searching for bananas in the jungle. Nintendo of America partnered with the produce distributor Chiquita to label its bananas with Donkey Kong stickers and host a contest in which customers could submit pictures of themselves dancing. Participants could win one of 31 prizes, including a Wii, a copy of Returns, and a trip to the Chichen Itza ruins in Cancún. Customers who preordered Returns through GameStop received a banana-shaped Wii Remote pouch. On December 1, Nintendo Australia piled a five-meter (16.4 feet) stash of around 10,000 bananas, weighing two tons, at the Circular Quay in Sydney. Visitors could play Returns on an inflatable movie screen and take bananas from the stash; leftover bananas were donated to the food rescue charity OzHarvest. In the UK, Nintendo partnered with the video game retailer GAME for a promotion in which customers were asked to bring bunches of bananas to participating stores on December 3. The first 20 customers could exchange their bananas for a free copy of Returns. For another launch event, Nintendo hosted Japanese competitive eater Takeru Kobayashi, who ate 16 bananas in a minute. ### Sales Donkey Kong Country Returns was released in North America on November 21, 2010—the 16th anniversary of Donkey Kong Country's release—in Europe on December 3, and in Japan on December 9. The game sold strongly: in its opening week in Japan, it sold 163,310 copies—56.63% of its initial shipment of 288,380 copies—and over 970,000 copies by December 2012. In North America, it debuted in sixth place on the NPD Group's sales charts, with sales of 430,470. Worldwide sales reached 4.21 million in less than a month. ## Re-releases ### Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D A Nintendo 3DS port, titled Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D, was released on May 24, 2013. The game was ported by Monster Games and is rendered with stereoscopic 3D graphics. The 3DS version includes two game modes, "Original Mode" which plays the same as the original Wii version, and "New Mode" which introduces a handful of new items to make the game easier, including extra health. This version also includes an extra world with eight new levels which are not present in the original Wii version. ### Wii U re-release The Wii version of Donkey Kong Country Returns was released for download on Wii U via Nintendo eShop. Donkey Kong Country Returns was made available on Nintendo eShop on January 21, 2015, in Japan, January 22 in Europe, and January 23 in Australia and New Zealand. Between March 31 and June 30, 2016, inclusively, the digital re-release of Donkey Kong Country Returns was made available for North American Wii U users exclusively as a My Nintendo reward. The title has since been made commercially available on the North American Nintendo eShop starting September 22 the same year. ### Nvidia Shield release Donkey Kong Country Returns was released on Nvidia Shield for the Chinese market on July 4, 2019. The Nvidia Shield version of the game is in HD unlike the Wii and Nintendo 3DS versions. ## Reception Donkey Kong Country Returns received generally favorable reviews. For its awards for games released in 2010, IGN gave Returns awards for "Best Retro Design" and "Most Challenging", then selected the game as the 5th best on the console. Game Informer named it Game of the Month for December 2010, with reviewer Dan Ryckert hailing it as "one of the best platformers [they'd] ever played". The publication later picked it as the "Best Platformer" and "Best Wii Exclusive" of 2010. Critics lauded its graphics, level design, and fast-paced platforming and gameplay, which they saw as a return to form for the Donkey Kong Country games. However, its motion controls and difficulty curve received a variety of opinions. IGN's Craig Harris awarded the game an Editor's Choice award, calling it a challenging, old-school throwback to the original Country games. Video game talk show Good Game's two presenters gave the game a 9 and 8.5 out of 10, praising how true the music kept to the style of the original tracks, and that it managed to keep from becoming too complex while still avoiding being over-simplified. X-Play praised the similarity of Returns to the previous games in the series, the game's replay value, and its graphics, but the review criticized the motion controls and the co-op game play. GamesRadar complimented the title for its standout levels and fan service, while criticizing it the levels for being frustrating, unclear and often misleading, and motion controls that make them "question the controls in a platformer". GameTrailers praised the game's gameplay and the diversity of the levels, while Giant Bomb stated that "Retro recaptures most of Donkey Kong's venerated platforming roots in this fine Wii sequel". ### Sales The game debuted third on the Japanese video game charts, with 163,310 units sold, and it has sold 638,305 copies in Japan as of January 2, 2011. In North America, the game debuted at sixth place on the charts, with 430,470 units sold. By the end of March 2011, the game had sold 4.98 million copies worldwide. As September 2013, the 3DS version has sold 268,000 units in the United States. As of March 2014, Donkey Kong Country Returns 3D has worldwide sales of 1.52 million units. Both versions of this game, along with its sequel, were added to the Nintendo Selects label on March 11, 2016, in North America.
34,319,029	Antarctic scallop	1,109,090,067	Genus of bivalves	[ "Fauna of Antarctica", "Molluscs described in 1902", "Pectinidae" ]	The Antarctic scallop (Adamussium colbecki) is a species of bivalve mollusc in the large family of scallops, the Pectinidae. It was thought to be the only species in the genus Adamussium until an extinct Pliocene species was described in 2016. Its exact relationship to other members of the Pectinidae is unclear. It is found in the ice-cold seas surrounding Antarctica, sometimes at great depths. Adamussium colbecki is a large, slow-growing scallop that lives on the seabed. The shell consists of a pair of ribbed calcareous valves which enclose the soft body and are joined by a ligament at a hinge. It feeds on microscopic green algae and is sometimes present in great numbers. It is able to move around by flapping its valves and to dart backwards to escape threats. The species is an important member of the Antarctic seabed community as the upper valve often acts as a substrate for seaweeds, sponges and other organisms. In addition, juveniles bind themselves by threads to the upper valve of older shells, using these as a base for several years as they grow. The adult scallops have been used in research to study the accumulation of heavy metals in marine organisms. ## Taxonomy The Antarctic scallop was first described by the British zoologist Edgar Albert Smith in 1902 as Pecten colbecki. He worked at the British Museum and was responsible for examining and describing shells from collections made over the years that had been deposited there. The German malacologist Johannes Thiele determined in 1934 that the characteristics of the Antarctic scallop were sufficiently different from those of other members of the genus Pecten to warrant its inclusion in a separate genus, Adamussium. More recently, examinations of the chromosome structure and of the mitochondrial DNA of A. colbecki have been undertaken, but the exact phylogenetic relationship it has with other pectinids is still unclear. The specific name most likely honours William Colbeck, the cartographer and magnetic observer on the British Southern Cross Antarctic Expedition (1898–1900). ## Description The Antarctic scallop's shell grows to about 7 centimetres (2.8 in) long and 7 centimetres wide and has a nearly circular outline. The two purplish-red valves are paper thin and only slightly convex and are attached by a long, slightly sinuous, hinge. Near the hinge there is an umbo or beak on each valve, a raised hump from which the ribs radiate. The umbones are not very prominent and on either side of them are irregular winged processes, the auricles. In smaller specimens there are around 12 shallow ribs diverging from the umbones and further low ridges appear between these as the shell grows larger. There is a fine sculpturing of concentric lines on the outside of the valves. The auricles are also finely sculpted with the annual growth lines visible. The interior of the valves is pink. A fringe of numerous small tentacles project from the mantle between the two valves and there are a number of simple eyes in a row around the rim. The valves are held closed by powerful adductor muscles which work in opposition to an elastic ligament that lies just behind the umbones and which tends to open the valves. The flanges of the auricles provide a wide attachment for this ligament. The Antarctic scallop could be confused with other scallops, other bivalves or lamp shells. ## Distribution and habitat The Antarctic scallop is endemic to the waters surrounding Antarctica. These are mostly within the Antarctic Circle and include the Ross Sea, the Weddell Sea, the Davis Sea, McMurdo Sound and the Southern Ocean. Although it is commonly found at depths of less than 100 metres (330 ft), remotely operated underwater vehicles armed with lights and cameras have recorded the scallop at much greater depths, including one recording at 4,840 metres (15,880 ft). It is found on many different substrates including sand, gravel and silt, either on the surface or semi-submerged in the sediment. It can flap its gills slightly to create a hollow in which to settle. In shallow waters it is usually attached by byssus threads to hard surfaces so as not to be swept away by water movement. At greater depths it is usually free living. Although the Antarctic scallop has a circum-polar distribution, this is very disjunct, and overall it is not common. In some places it is found at densities of up to 90 per square metre and in Terra Nova Bay in the Ross Sea, at depths between 40 metres (130 ft) and 80 metres (260 ft), some scallop beds were found to be so crowded that adult individuals were lying on top of others. In other locations that seem eminently suitable in many ways, it was entirely absent. A possible explanation for this lies in the fact that its paper thin shell is characteristic of bivalves living in stable, deep water areas with little water movement. The shallower locations in which it now thrives are characterised by being protected bays or by having extensive sea ice coverage, each of which provides a stable environment unaffected by storm waves and where iceberg scouring does not normally occur. It is also absent from habitats dominated by other benthic suspension feeding communities whereas it is found in habitats with soft sediments and no dominant cnidarian and sponge communities. This might be because its larvae face such heavy predation in these locations that it is unable to establish itself. ## Behaviour ### Locomotion The Antarctic scallop can swim rather slowly by opening and closing its valves. It advances in this way with the rim of the shell to the front. It can detect the movement of nearby objects with its rudimentary eyes and, in order to escape predators, can move much more swiftly umbones first, by clapping its valves shut. A remotely controlled camera stationed on the sea bed is apt to find that all the scallops that were originally in its field of view have moved off to other locations. ### Feeding Like other members of the family Pectinidae, the Antarctic scallop is a suspension feeder, extracting its nourishment from the sea water that surrounds it. Bands of cilia on the velum, a curtain-like fold of the mantle, waft particles towards the gills. Oxygen is absorbed by the gills and food particles, mostly microscopic algae, are trapped in mucous and transported to the mouth by cilia. There is a seasonal increase in microscopic ice algae which become available to suspension feeders when the sea ice melts in the summer, and most of the annual growth takes place at this time. Research has shown that this is as a result of the rise in sea temperature and not the greater availability of food. ### Reproduction The rate of growth of the Antarctic scallop is very slow compared to that of scallops living in warmer seas. It matures at 5 to 7 years old and spawning takes place in late summer. Little is known about the development of the veliger larvae but they may be planktonic for 4 or 5 months. Besides feeding on phytoplankton and small zooplankton, they may absorb dissolved organic matter and consume bacterioplankton. When they settle, metamorphosis takes place and the juveniles attach themselves with byssus threads, often attaching these to the upper valves of scallops, and remain attached for 3 to 5 years. While attached to the adult shell, the juveniles benefit from food particles in the fine detritus thrown up into the water column by movements of the adult. While studying the sizes and growth rates of adults, researchers came to realize that there were gaps in their records which were due to the fact that, in some years, no juveniles had survived. ## Ecology The Antarctic scallop is monitored in connection with the Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VME) classification set up by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). As such, notification is required to be made by vessels that land the scallop as by-catch during their fishing activities. The Antarctic scallop is often found living in association with the Antarctic sea urchin, Sterechinus neumayeri, and Odontaster validus, a species of sea star. Predatory invertebrates found in the vicinity of the Antarctic scallop include the gastropod Neobuccinum eatoni, and the ribbon worm Parborlasia corrugatus. The foraging techniques of the emerald rockcod (Trematomus bernacchii) enable to be one of the main predators of the medium-sized Antarctic scallops. Otherwise the Antarctic scallop does not itself have many predators and large individuals are adept at jumping and swimming to escape attackers. Any attached juveniles benefit from this. However, the scallops are intolerant of low salinity levels, and mortality sometimes occurs as a result of a pool of relatively fresh water that sometimes forms during the summer months under the sea ice as it melts. There are a large number of epifaunal organisms living on the shells of Antarctic scallops, which may represent 90% of the hard substrate available in a region where rocky surfaces are not common and much of the seabed consists of sediment. Because a diverse community of invertebrates and algae use its shell as a base, the Antarctic scallop is considered to be a "foundation species"; a species of great importance in its habitat. The fact that the scallops can swim and move to other locations aids in the dispersal of these organisms. The epiphytes include benthic diatoms, forams, bacteria, bryozoans, sponges and algae. The foram Cibicides refulgens lives parasitically on the scallop's shell and also grazes on the algae and bacteria growing there. In a research study, 10 different species of demosponge were found growing on a single Antarctic scallop. The demosponge Homaxinella balfourensis was one of the commonest epibionts growing harmlessly on the scallop's shell. The relationship between sponge and scallop may be symbiotic; the sponge avoids being engulfed in sediment while the scallop benefits from the protection provided by the sponge, which is distasteful to many predators. The hydroid Hydractinia angusta has a mutualistic relationship with the scallop. A study showed that its larvae preferentially settled in the vicinity of other epibionts, usually on scallop shells, and that the scallop larvae were deterred from settling in the vicinity of colonies of the hydroid. It is surmised that the hydroid benefits from a solid substrate on which to live, and although the scallop benefits from the protection from predators provided by the stinging cells of the hydroid, it is disadvantaged by the failure of its larvae to establish themselves in their preferred location, on the shells of mature scallops. ## Research A laboratory study examined the effects on the Antarctic scallop of an increase in lead, copper and mercury content in the water. It was found that a rise in levels of heavy metals led to quite severe morphological changes in the scallop and a reduction in lysosomal membrane stability. Another experiment involved transplanting scallops from a clean water area to a bay where effluent from an Antarctic base was released. It was found that the scallops were relatively unaffected by the outflows and this resulted in the belief that benthic marine communities were unlikely to be severely affected by such discharges. Another study analysed the tissues of Adamussium colbecki and compared them with those of Pecten jacobaeus, a temperate water species of scallop. It was found that copper, iron, cadmium and chromium were concentrated in the digestive organ of the Antarctic scallop. Cadmium levels in particular were higher in the Antarctic scallop than in P. jacobaeus and other pectinids, but zinc and manganese, found in the kidney, were considerably lower.
253,340	Peking Man	1,170,327,002	Subspecies of the genus Homo (fossil)	[ "1927 archaeological discoveries", "Archaeology of China", "Early species of Homo", "Fossil taxa described in 1927", "History of Beijing", "Homo erectus fossils", "Mammals of China", "Pleistocene", "Pleistocene mammals of Asia", "Prehistoric China", "Taxa named by Davidson Black" ]	Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis) is a subspecies of H. erectus which inhabited the Zhoukoudian cave site in modern northern China during the Chibanian. The first fossil, a tooth, was discovered in 1921, and the Zhoukoudian Cave has since then become the most productive H. erectus site in the world. Peking Man was instrumental in the foundation of Chinese anthropology, and fostered an important dialogue between Western and Eastern science for decades to come. The fossils became the centre of anthropological discussion, and were classified as a direct human ancestor, propping up the Out of Asia hypothesis that humans evolved in Asia. Peking Man also played a vital role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity following the Chinese Communist Revolution, and was intensively communicated to working class and peasant communities to introduce them to Marxism and science (overturning deeply-rooted superstitions and creation myths). Early models of Peking Man society strongly leaned towards communist or nationalist ideals, leading to discussions on primitive communism and polygenism. This produced a strong schism between Western and Eastern interpretations, especially as the West adopted the Out of Africa hypothesis by late 1967, and Peking Man's role in human evolution diminished as merely an offshoot of the human line. Though Out of Africa is now the consensus, Peking Man interbreeding with human ancestors is frequently discussed especially in Chinese circles. Peking Man is characterised by a long and heavily fortified skull, featuring an inflated bar of bone circumscribing the crown, crossing along the brow ridge, over the ears, and connecting at the back of the skull, as well as a sagittal keel running across the midline. The bone of the skull and long bones is exorbitantly thickened. The face was protrusive (midfacial prognathism), eye sockets wide, jaws robust and chinless, and teeth large. Brain volume ranged from 850 to 1,225 cc, for an average of just over 1,000 cc (compared to an average of 1,270 cc for present-day modern males and 1,130 for present-day modern females). The limbs are broadly anatomically comparable to those of modern humans. H. erectus in such northerly latitudes may have averaged roughly 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) in height, compared to 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) for more tropical populations. Peking Man lived in a cool, predominantly steppe, partially forested environment, alongside deer, rhinos, elephants, bison, buffalo, bears, wolves, big cats, and a menagerie of other creatures. Peking Man intermittently inhabited the Zhoukoudian Cave, but the exact chronology is unclear, with estimates as far back as 780,000 years ago and as recent as 230,000 years ago. This spans several cold glacial and warm interglacial periods. The cultural complexity of Peking Man is fiercely debated. If the inhabitants were capable of hunting (as opposed to predominantly scavenging), making clothes, and controlling fire, they would have been well-equipped to survive frigid glacial periods. If not, they would have had to retreat southward and return later. It is further disputed how the Peking Man fossils were predominantly deposited in the cave, either because they lived and died there, or they were killed by giant hyaenas (Pachycrocuta) and dumped there, in addition to other natural processes. Over 100,000 pieces of stone tools were recovered, mainly small and inconsistently shaped flakes no more than 5 cm (2.0 in) long, but they were sometimes refined into scrapers, choppers, and, towards the later end of occupation, points, burins, and awls. ## Taxonomy ### Research history #### Discovery In 1921, Fangshan County, 47 kilometres (29 mi) southwest of Beijing (then known as Peking), Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson was teaching Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky and American archaeologist Walter Granger on the Zhoukoudian site. At the Chi Ku Shan ("Chicken Bone Hill") locality, they were advised by local quarrymen to dig at the nearby Longgushan ("Dragon Bone Hill") locality. Zdansky found the first human tooth in the site that year, specimen PMU M3550, but only reported it in 1926. On 16 October 1927, Swedish archaeological student Anders Birger Bohlin extracted another tooth, specimen K11337: 3, which Davidson Black made the holotype of a new taxon, Sinanthropus pekinensis. That year, Chinese geologist Wēng Wénhào drafted an agreement with all the Zhoukoudian scientists at the time that the Zhoukoudian remains remain in China. In 1928, the Chinese government similarly clamped down on the exportation of Chinese artefacts and other archaeologically relevant materials to the West for study, as this was viewed as an imperialistic attack; foreign scientists were instead encouraged to research these materials within China. In 1929, Canadian palaeoanthropologist Davidson Black persuaded the Peking Union Medical College (his employer), the Geological Survey of China (headed by Wēng), and the Rockefeller Foundation to found and fund the Cenozoic Research Laboratory and continue excavation. On 2 December 1929, Chinese anthropologist Péi Wénzhōng discovered a surprisingly complete skullcap, and the Zhoukoudian proved to be a valuable site, with a preponderance of human remains, stone tools, and potential evidence of early fire use, becoming the most productive Homo erectus site in the world. An additional four rather complete skullcaps were discovered by 1936, three of which were unearthed over an 11-day period in November 1936, overseen by Chinese palaeoanthropologist Jiǎ Lánpō. Excavation employed 10 to over 100 local labourers depending on the stage, who were paid five or six jiao per day, in contrast to local coal miners who only received a pittance of 40 to 50 yuan annually. The Zhoukoudian also employed some of the biggest names in Western and Chinese geology, palaeontology, palaeoanthropology, and archaeology, and facilitated an important discourse and collaboration between these two civilisations. After Black's sudden death in 1934, Jewish anatomist Franz Weidenreich, who fled Nazi Germany, carried on Black's study of the Zhoukoudian. #### Loss of specimens In 1941, to safeguard them during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Zhoukoudian human fossils—representing at least 40 different individuals—and artefacts were deposited into two wooden footlockers and were to be transported by the United States Marine Corps from the Peking Union Medical College to the SS President Harrison which was to dock at Qinhuangdao Port (near the Marine basecamp Camp Holcomb), and eventually arrive at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. En route to Qinhuangdao, the ship was attacked by Japanese warships, and ran aground. Though there have been many attempts to locate the crates—including offering large cash rewards—it is unknown what happened to them after they left the college. Rumours about the fate of the fossils range from their having been on board a Japanese ship (the Awa Maru) or an American ship that was sunk, to being ground up for traditional Chinese medicine. The affair also provoked allegations of robbery against Japanese or American groups, especially during the Resist America, Aid Korea Campaign in 1950 and 1951 to promote anti-American sentiment during the Korean War. Marine Richard Bowen recalled finding a box filled with bones while digging a foxhole one night next to some stone barracks in Qinhuangdao. This happened in 1947 while the city was under siege by the CCP Eighth Route Army, who were under fire from Nationalist gunboats (a conflict of the Chinese Civil War). According to Mr. Wang Qingpu who had written a report for the Chinese government on the history of the port, if Bowen's story is accurate, the most probable location of the bones is underneath roads, a warehouse, or a parking lot. Four of the teeth from the original excavation period are still in the possession of the Paleontological Museum of Uppsala University in Sweden. #### Further excavation Excavation of the Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site had halted from 1941 until the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Field work took place in 1949, 1951, 1958–1960, 1966, and 1978–1981. Given the meticulousness of the dig teams, going so far as to sieve out unidentifiable fragments as small as 1 cm (0.39 in) long, excavation of the Zhoukoudian is generally considered to be more or less complete. > Every bone, bone fragment or tooth, however small, is picked up and put aside in a basket which each technician has ready for this purpose. A group of technicians always works together, so that practically each lump of earth will be scrutinized. Nevertheless, the loose earth, too, is afterwards transported to a special place and passed through a fine sieve. Through the Mao era, but most especially in 1950 and 1951, Peking Man took on a central role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity under the new government, specifically to link socialist ideologies with human evolution. Peking Man was taught in educational books for all levels, pop science magazines and articles, museums, and lectures given in workspaces, including factories. This campaign was primarily to introduce the general populace (including those without advanced education) to Marxism, as well as to overturn widespread superstitions, traditions, and creation myths. Nonetheless, research was constricted as scientists were compelled to fit new discoveries within the frame of communism. In 1960, the lab was converted into an independent organisation as the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP), a division of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and was headed by Péi, Jiǎ, and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Yang Zhongjian. During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, all intellectuals, including scientists, came under much persecution, and among other things were conscripted into manual labour as part of a campaign to turn "intellectuals into labourers and labourers into intellectuals", which impeded research. Though palaeoanthropology was still able to continue, the field became much less important to the Chinese government with its new resolve to become economically independent, and popular science topics switched from human evolution to production-related matters. As the Revolution's policies relaxed after 1970, palaeoanthropology and academia resurged, especially with the rise of Deng Xiaoping in 1978 (renowned as a "springtime for science"). The Zhoukoudian had been threatened several times by nearby mining operations or acid rain from air pollution, but the post-Mao China also witnessed budding environmentalist actions. To this extent, the United Nations declared the Zhoukoudian to be a World Heritage Site in 1987, and custody of the site was handed over from the IVPP to the city of Beijing (which has greater resources) in 2002. The productivity of the Zhoukoudian elicited strong palaeoanthropological interest in China, and 14 other fossil-bearing sites have since been discovered across the country as of 2016 in the Yuanmou, Tiandong, Jianshi, Yunxian, Lantian, Luonan, Yiyuan, Nanzhao, Nanjing, Hexian, and Dongzhi counties. ### Age and taphonomy The Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site currently sits 128 m (420 ft) above sea level. The fossil-bearing sediments are divided into 27 localities, and Peking Man is known from Locality 1 ("Dragon Bone Hill"). This 40 m (130 ft) deep locality is further divided into 17 layers, of which fossils are found above Layer 13, and Peking Man from Layers 10–3. The fossil-bearing regions can also be organised into Loci A–O. Major stone tool accumulations occur in Layers 3 and 4, and the tops of Layers 8 and 10. The animal fossils in the locality suggest it dates to the Middle Pleistocene. There have been a myriad of attempts and methodologies to more finely tune the date of each layer, starting in the late 1970s. In 1985, Chinese scientist Zhao Shusen proposed the chronology: 700,000 years ago for Layer 13; 500,000 years ago for Layer 10; and 230,000 years ago for Layers 3. Though these general timeframes are normally agreed upon, the exact date of each layer is subject to intense discussion. In 2004, Shen Chengde and colleagues argued Layer 3 was deposited 400 to 500 thousand years ago, and Layer 10 as far back as about 600 to 800 thousand year ago, during a mild glacial period. The earliest H. erectus fossils in all of China, Yuanmou Man, may date to 1.7 million years ago, though stone tools from the Shangchen site in Lantian, central China, extend the occupation of the region to as far back as 2.12 million years ago. Because human remains (encompassing males, females, and children), tools, and evidence of fire were found in so many layers, it has often been assumed Peking Man lived in the cave for hundreds of thousands of years. In 1929, French archaeologist Henri Breuil suggested the overabundance of skulls compared to body remains is conspicuous, and hypothesised the remains represent the trophies of cannibalistic headhunters, either a band of H. erectus or a more "advanced" species of human. In 1937, French palaeoanthropologist Marcellin Boule believed the Peking Man brain was insufficiently developed for such behaviour, based on its small size, and suggested the skulls belonged to a primitive species and the limbs to a more evolved one, the latter manufacturing stone tools and cannibalising the former. Weidenreich did not believe brain size could be a dependable measure of cultural complexity, but, in 1939, he detailed the pathology of the Peking Man fossils and came to the conclusion of cannibalism or headhunting. The majority of the remains bear evidence of scars or injuries which he ascribed to attacks from clubs or stone tools; all the skulls have broken-in bases which he believed was done to extract the brain; and the femora (thigh bones) have lengthwise splits, which he supposed was done to harvest the bone marrow. Weidenreich's sentiments became widely popular. Another school of thought, proposed by Péi in 1929, held that individuals were dragged in by hyenas. In 1939, pioneering the field of taphonomy (the study of fossilisation), German palaeontologist Helmuth Zapfe [de] highlighted parallels between the Zhoukoudian fossils and cow bones gnawed by hyaenas he studied at Vienna Zoo. Weidenreich subsequently conceded in 1941 that the breaking-off of the epiphyses of long bones is most likely due to hyena activity, but he was unconvinced that hyenas broke open the skull base or were capable of creating the long splits in the robust femora, still ascribing those to stone-tool-wielding cannibals. After World War II, the hypothesis that Peking Man inhabited the cave once again became the mainstay, modeled around Jiǎ's 1975 book The Cave Home of Peking Man. In 1985, American archaeologist Lewis Binford and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Ho Chuan Kun instead hypothesised that Zhoukoudian was a "trap" which humans and animals fell into. They further proposed deer remains, earlier assumed to have been Peking Man's prey, were, in fact, predominantly carried in by the giant hyaena Pachycrocuta, and ash was deposited by naturally occurring wildfires, fueled by bat guano, as they did not believe any human species had yet mastered hunting or fire at this time. In 2001, American geologist Paul Goldberg, Israeli archaeologist Steve Weiner, and colleagues determined Layer 4 was primarily deposited with loess (wind-blown dust), and Layer 3 with travertine (water-lain limestone). They also concluded that supposed evidence of fire is actually a result of completely different depositional circumstances related to water. In 2000, American anthropologist Noel T. Boaz and colleagues argued the state of the bones is consistent with general hyena biting, gnawing, and bone-crunching, and suggested Pachycrocuta, the largest known hyena to have ever lived, was more than capable of splitting robust bones, contrary to Weidenreich. They identified bite marks on 67% of the Peking Man fossils (28 specimens), and attributed this and all other perimortem (around the time of death) damage to hyenas. Boaz and colleagues conceded that stone tools must indicate human activity in (or at least near) the cave, but, with few exceptions, tools were randomly scattered across the layers (as mentioned by several previous scientists), which Goldberg and colleagues ascribed to bioturbation . This means that the distribution of the tools gives no indication of the duration of human habitation. In 2016, Shuangquan Zhang and colleagues were unable to detect significant evidence of animal, human, or water damage to the few deer bones collected from Layer 3, and concluded they simply fell into the cave from above. They noted taphonomic debates are nonetheless still ongoing. Indeed, the fire debate is still heated, with Chinese palaeoanthropologist Xing Gao and colleagues declaring "clear-cut evidence for intentional fire use" in 2017. ### Classification #### Background Despite what Charles Darwin had hypothesised in his 1871 Descent of Man, many late-19th century evolutionary naturalists postulated that Asia (instead of Africa) was the birthplace of humankind as it is midway between all continents via land routes or short sea crossings, providing optimal dispersal routes throughout the world. Among these was Ernst Haeckel who argued that the first human species (which he proactively named "Homo primigenius") evolved on the now-disproven hypothetical continent "Lemuria" in what is now Southeast Asia, from a genus he termed "Pithecanthropus" ("ape-man"). "Lemuria" had supposedly sunk below the Indian Ocean, so no fossils could be found to prove this. Nevertheless, Haeckel's model inspired Dutch scientist Eugène Dubois to join the Dutch East India Company and search for his "missing link" in Java. He found a skullcap and a femur (Java Man) which he named "P. erectus" (using Haeckel's hypothetical genus name) and unfruitfully attempted to convince the European scientific community that he had found an upright-walking ape-man dating to the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene; they dismissed his findings as some kind of malformed non-human ape. Dejected, Dubois fully withdrew from anthropology by the turn of the century. Instead, in regard to the ancestry of Far Eastern peoples, racial anthropologists had long placed the origin of Chinese civilisation in the Near East, namely Babylon as suggested by French archaeologist Terrien de Lacouperie in 1894, whereby the Chinese peoples regressed compared to the superior races of Europe (degeneration theory). This came under fire by the time Peking Man was discovered, when China was in the midst of the New Culture Movement and surging nationalism subsequent to the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. These ideologies not only aimed to remove imperialistic influences, but also to replace ancient Chinese traditions and superstitions with western science to modernise the country, and lift its standing on the world stage to that of Europe. Consequently, unlike previously discovered extinct human species, notably the Neanderthal and Java Man, the Peking Man was readily accepted into the human family tree. In the West, this was aided by a popularising hypothesis for the origin of humanity in Central Asia, championed primarily by American palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn and his apprentice William Diller Matthew. They believed that Asia was the "mother of continents" and the rising of the Himalayas and Tibet and subsequent drying of the region forced human ancestors to become terrestrial and bipedal. They also believed that populations which retreated to the tropics – namely Dubois' Java Man and the "Negroid race" — substantially regressed (again, degeneration theory). This required them to reject Raymond Dart's far more ancient South African Taung child (Australopithecus africanus) as a human ancestor, favouring the hoax Piltdown Man from Britain. #### "Out of Asia" theory In 1927, Black classified newly discovered human remains from the Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site into a new genus and species as "Sinanthropus pekinensis". The Peking Man, with a brain volume much larger than living apes, was used to further invalidate African or European origin models. Peking Man's importance in human evolution was championed by geologist Amadeus William Grabau in the 1930s, who pushed that the lifting of the Himalayas caused the emergence of proto-humans ("Protanthropus") in the Miocene, who then dispersed during the Pliocene into the Tarim Basin in Northwest China where they learned to control fire and make stone tools, and then went out to colonise the rest of the Old World where they evolved into "Pithecanthropus" in Southeast Asia, "Sinanthropus" in China, "Eoanthropus" (Piltdown Man) in Europe, and "Homo" in Africa (again abiding by degeneration theory). To explain the paucity of stone tools in Asia compared to Europe (an apparent contradiction if humans had occupied Asia for longer), he also stated that Pleistocene Central Asia was too cold to permit back-migration by early modern humans or Neanderthals until the Neolithic. The Central Asia model was the leading consensus of the time. Peking Man became an important matter of national pride, and was used to extend the antiquity of the Chinese people and the occupation of the region to 500,000 years ago, with discussions of human evolution becoming progressively Sinocentric even in Europe. In the 1930s, Weidenreich already began arguing that Peking Man was ancestral to the "Mongoloid race", forwarding his multiregional theory where local populations of archaic humans evolved into the local modern humans (polygenism), though other scientists working on the site made no such claims. This sentiment, that all Chinese ethnic groups—including the Han, Tibetan, and Mongols—were indigenous to the area for such a long time, became more popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the occupation of China by Japan. By the Maoist era, Peking Man was ubiquitously heralded as a human ancestor in China. In the 1950s, Ernst Mayr had entered the field of anthropology, and, surveying a "bewildering diversity of names," decided to subsume human fossils into three species of Homo: "H. transvaalensis" (the australopithecines), H. erectus (including "Sinanthropus", "Pithecanthropus", and various other putative Asian, African, and European taxa), and Homo sapiens (including anything younger than H. erectus, such as modern humans and Neanderthals), as had been broadly recommended by various priors. Mayr defined them as a sequential lineage, with each species evolving into the next (chronospecies). Though later Mayr changed his opinion on the australopithecines (recognising Australopithecus), his more conservative view of archaic human diversity became widely adopted in the subsequent decades. Thus, Peking Man was considered a human ancestor in both Western and Eastern thought. Nonetheless, Chinese and Soviet scientists wholly denounced polygenism, viewing it as scientific racism propagated by Western capitalist scholars. They instead argued all modern human races are closely related to each other. #### "Out of Africa" theory The contributions of Chinese scientists during the Mao era were under much suspicion in the West for fears of propagandic contamination. In the 60s and 70s, the position of the more ancient Australopithecus in human evolution once again became a centre of debate; in China, Wú Rǔkāng argued that Australopithecus was the "missing link" between apes and humans, but was met with much derision from Chinese peers, most notably soldier Lài Jīnliáng. Following the "opening" of China with the rise of Dèng Xiǎopíng in 1978, Western works contradictory to Maoist ideology disseminated through China, radically altering Eastern anthropological discussions. By the late 20th century, human evolution had become Afrocentric with the gradual acceptance of Australopithecus as human ancestors, and consequent marginalisation of Peking Man. To counter this, many Chinese scientists commonly pushed Sinocentric and often polygenic arguments, forwarding the antiquity of racial distinctness before the evolution and dispersal of modern humans, and racial continuity between local H. erectus and modern descendent races (for example, the "typically 'Mongoloid' features" of a flat face and shovel-like incisors carried over from Peking Man to modern Chinese). They often cited the 2 million year old Wushan Man from central China, which is no longer classified as a human, and asserted several Chinese apes millions of years old were human ancestors. Jiǎ proposed the earliest human species evolved on the Tibetan Plateau, and the adjacent Guizhou Province was another popularly proposed genesis point. Various late Middle Pleistocene Chinese specimens have been argued, namely by Chinese palaeoanthropologist Wu Xinzhi, to represent hybrid populations between Peking Man and the ancestors of modern humans, such as the Dali Man or the Jinniushan Man. Peking Man's ancestral position is still widely maintained among especially Chinese scientists using the assimilation model, wherein archaic humans such as Peking Man interbred with and were effectively absorbed into modern humans in their respective locations (so according to this, Peking Man has lent some ancestry to modern Chinese populations). On this matter, palaeogenetic analyses — the first in 2010 — have reported that all humans whose ancestry lies beyond Subsaharan Africa contain genes from the archaic Neanderthals and Denisovans indicating early modern humans interbred with archaic humans. The common ancestor of Neanderthals and Denisovans in turn interbred with another archaic species even farther removed from modern humans. ## Anatomy Peking Man is known from 13 skull and cranial fragments, 15 mandibles (lower jawbone), 157 isolated and in situ teeth, an atlas (the first neck vertebra), a clavicle, 3 humeri (upper arm bones), potentially 2 iliac fragments (the hip), 7 femora, a tibia (shinbone), and a lunate bone (a wrist bone). The material may represent as many as 40 individuals. Peking Man and anatomically similar East Asian contemporaries are sometimes referred to as "classic" H. erectus. ### Skull In 1937, Weidenreich and his assistant Lucille Swan attempted to reconstruct a complete skull, though only considered a skullcap (Skull XI), a left maxillary (upper jawbone) fragment (Skull XII/III), and a right mandibular fragment, which are the presumed-female specimens based on relatively smaller size. Though larger presumed-male specimens are much more numerous, they probably chose female specimens because a presumed-male maxilla would not be discovered until 1943. In 1996, anthropologists Ian Tattersall and Gary Sawyer revised the skull with high-quality casts of six presumed-male specimens and three additional isolated tooth specimens (as the original fossils were lost). With this extended sample, virtually the entire skull could be more accurately restored, except the bottom margin of the piriform aperture (the nose hole). They deflated the cheeks and inflated the lateral margins (towards the side of the head) of the brow ridge, which caused the nose to project out even farther (increased midfacial prognathism), though they reduced subnasal prognathism. Overall, their reconstruction aligns more closely with other Asian H. erectus and African H. ergaster specimens. #### Shape Weidenreich characterised the Peking Man skull as being relatively low and long; consequently, the breadth is widest at the ear level, and sharply reduces especially at the strongly receding forehead. There is marked post-orbital constriction, and behind the skull has an ellipsoid shape. Most strikingly, the skull is circumscribed by a torus (a strongly projecting bar of bone) most prominently at the brow ridge (supraorbital torus) and at the back of the skull (occipital torus). All have an eminence projecting just above the supraorbital torus, developed to varying degrees, which is not exhibited in any other population. The frontal sinuses are restricted to the nasal area below the brows, ergo the supraorbital torus is completely solid, unlike that of Java Man. The eye sockets are wide. The superior orbital fissure in the eye socket was probably a small opening like in non-human apes rather than a long slit like in modern humans. The nasal bones between the eyes are double the width of that of the average modern human, though not as wide as those of Neanderthals. Weidenreich suggested Peking Man had a short, broad nose. Peking Man also features a sagittal keel running across the midline, highest when it intersects the coronal suture halfway across, and recedes around the obelion (near the base of the parietal bones at the level of the parietal foramina). All skulls feature an equally developed keel (proportionally), including subadult and presumed-female specimens (there are no infant specimens). The keel produces a depression on either side, which accentuates the parietal eminence. The temporal lines arcing in pairs across either side of the skull often merge into a single ridge near the midline of the skull. The squamous part of temporal bone (the flat region) is positioned quite low, and the temporal fossa (the depression between the temporal lines and cheek) is relatively narrow. The mastoid part of the temporal bone features a high crest above which overshadows the ear canal. The crest accentuates the mastoid process, which bends inwards as opposed to the modern human condition of vertical; bending is much more pronounced in presumed-male specimens. Peking Man lacks a true postglenoid process behind the jaw hinge, only a broad-based, triangular projection. The zygomatic bones (cheekbones) project far off the face, and would have been visible when viewing the skull from the top. The zygomatics are also quite high, as much as 65 mm (2.6 in), whereas modern humans do not exceed 60 mm (2.4 in). At the back of the skull, the occipital torus extends in a relatively straight line, though laterally curves downward at termination (at the sides of the head). The occipital torus can be bordered by furrows (sulci) on the top and bottom margins, though these only indicate muscle attachment, and the bottom margin of the torus actually gradually fades. The midpoint of the torus features an additional prominence, the occipital bun. The foramen magnum (where the spine connects with the skull) appears to have been positioned near the centre like in humans, though was proportionally narrower. The strongly developed tori and crests greatly fortify the skull, and the braincase is additionally exceptionally thickened like in other H. erectus. Similar thickening can also rarely occur in modern humans when the diploë (the spongy layer between the two hard layers of bone in the skull) abnormally expands, but for Peking Man, all three layers of cranial bone have equally thickened. #### Mouth Peking Man has remarkably defined canine juga (a bony ridge corresponding to the tooth root). There is subnasal prognathism (the area between the nose and mouth juts out). The upper jaw commonly features exostoses (bony lumps) in the molar region, which infrequently occurs in modern humans (\>6%). Like modern humans and Neanderthals but unlike Java Man, Peking Man has a long, rugose palate (roof of the mouth). The mandibles are rather big and, like other archaic humans, lack chins. The extramolar sulci bordering the cheek side of the molars are broad. Some mandibles feature a torus on the tongue side, or multiple mental foramina. The dental arches (tooth rows) are U-shaped. The incisors feature an eminence at the base, finger-like ridges on the tongue-side, and for the upper ones marked shovelling (the tooth strongly bends in). Modern human incisors can exhibit shovelling, quite frequently in Chinese populations. The mandibular incisors are narrow. Weidenreich originally restored the teeth as peg-like, but Tattersall and Sawyer found the teeth to be much larger and obtrusive. Like other H. erectus, the premolars are ellipse-shaped and asymmetrical, but the first premolar (P<sub>3</sub>) frequently has three roots instead of the more common two. The molar crowns exhibit several extraneous ridges in addition to the essential cusps, which produced a "dendrite-like" enamel-dentine junction, typical of "classic" H. erectus. M<sub>1</sub> is rather long, and M<sub>2</sub> is round. #### Brain The brain capacities of the seven Peking Man skulls for which the metric is measurable range from 850 to 1,225 cc, with an average of about 1,029 cc. For comparison, present-day modern humans average 1,270 cc for males and 1,130 cc for females, with a standard deviation of roughly 115 and 100 cc, and Asian H. erectus overall are rather big-brained, averaging roughly 1,000 cc. Encephalisation quotients (the ratio between observed to predicted brain mass for an animal of a given size, cautiously used as an indicator of intelligence) typically score from three to four for "classic" H. erectus assuming a body weight on the whereabouts of 50 kg (110 lb). The endocast (the cast of the inside of the braincase) is ovoid in top-view. The frontal lobe is narrowed like in other H. erectus, the parietal lobes are depressed unlike Javan and African H. erectus or modern humans (though this seems to be somewhat variable among the Peking Man material), the temporal lobes are narrow and slender unlike most other human species, the occipital lobes are flattened dorsoventrally (from top to bottom) and strongly project backwards which is a rather variable trait among archaic human populations, and the cerebellum compared to that of modern humans is not as globular and the lobes diverge more strongly from the midline like other archaic humans. ### Postcranium Aside from the skull, most of the anatomy of H. erectus is based on the adolescent H. e? ergaster specimen Turkana Boy from Africa, as well as a few other isolated skeletons from Africa and Western Eurasia. This is because the archaeological record of East Asia is quite scanty. The long bones of all H. erectus have thickened cortical bone (hard exterior bone) and consequently narrowed medullary cavities (where the bone marrow is stored). Peking Man appears to have much more robust humeri than H. e? ergaster. At maximum constriction at the mid-shaft, the femoral walls of Peking Man take up about 90% of the interior space, as opposed to only 75% in modern humans. For the lateral walls (towards the sides), the exorbitant thickness sharply reduces above the greater trochanter, whereas the medial walls (towards the middle) are three times as thick as those of modern humans at that point. In modern humans, the femoral heads feature two main strips of cancellous bone (spongy interior bone) that converge into a triangle (Ward's triangle), which is absent in Peking Man, likely due to the intense thickening of the cortical bone. Externally, the humerus is like that of a modern human, and exhibits exceptionally developed muscle attachments, but the shaft is more slender. The lunate bone (in the wrist) is modern humanlike, though proportionally small and broad. The femur is also mostly consistent with that of a modern human externally, except it is much stouter, flatter, slenderer, straighter (and maximum curvature occurs nearer the knee joint instead of at the mid-shaft), the femoral neck was probably truncated like in other archaic humans and non-human apes, the subtrochanteric crest terminates up at the greater trochanter with a bony growth like in Neanderthals, and the anteposterior (from front to back) diameter is smaller than the transverse (from left to right) diameter. These traits are not outside the range of variation for modern humans, though are quite rare. The torso is poorly known, but because the limbs and clavicle are proportionally like those of modern humans, it is typically assumed the rest of the body was as well. In 1938, Weidenreich reconstructed a presumed-female femur to be 400 mm (1 ft 4 in) in length in life, which would equate to a female height of 152 cm (5 ft). He speculated males averaged 164 cm (5 ft 5 in). In 1944, Weidenreich reconstructed a presumed-male femur to be 407 mm (16.0 in) long, equating a male height of 156 cm (5 ft 1 in). He speculated an average female height of 144 cm (4 ft 9 in). In 2018, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Song Xing estimated the living weight for Humeri II and III as about 53.6 kg (118 lb), Femur I 54.8 kg (121 lb), Femur IV 54.3 kg (120 lb), and Femur VI 51.6 kg (114 lb). Weidenreich assumed all these represent males. Overall, northerly H. erectus populations tend to be shorter than tropical populations, with colder climate populations including Zhoukoudian and Dmanisi averaging roughly 150 cm (4 ft 11 in), and hotter climate populations including African and Javan H. erectus 160 cm (5 ft 3 in). ## Culture ### Palaeoenvironment Stone tools are strewn throughout Layers 10–1 with a few notable clusters, which has variously been interpreted as either short-lived occupation of the cave except intervals corresponding to those clusters, or occupation only during cluster intervals with the strays being randomly mixed throughout the layers by digging creatures. In 1985, Péi and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Zhang Shenshui identified one in Layers 9–8 right next to the supposed ash layer by Locus G, near what would have been the east cave entrance. Locus K (in about the same location and time interval) similarly yielded a cluster of tools. Occupation of the eastern side seems to end in Layer 6 coinciding with the cave-in of that entrance. The other cluster is in the southwestern region of Layer 3 by Locus H, which either indicates a new cave entrance or ceiling opening there. The mammal assemblage indicates Layers 11–10 represent a mixed warm forest and cool/dry grassland environment, Layers 9–8 a warmer and more forested environment, Layers 7–6 a similar environment but wetter climate, Layers 5–4 a cooling trend, and Layers 3–1 a warm and wet predominantly steppeland environment. These can be broadly stratified into three major environmental units: Layers 11–10 a cold and dry, predominantly grassland environment; Layers 9–5 a warm, predominantly forested environment; and Layers 4–1 another cold and dry, predominantly grassland environment. The mammal assemblage and oxygen isotope analyses of Layers 9–8 are consistent with a cool steppe environment, gradually encroaching forested areas despite later layers indicating a general warming trend. The mammal assemblage includes macaques, the Zhoukoudian wolf, the Asian black bear, brown bear, the rhino Dicerorhinus choukoutienensis, the woolly rhinoceros, the horse Equus sanmeniensis, the Siberian musk deer, the giant deer Sinomegaceros pachyosteus, sheep, bison, the Asian straight-tusked elephant, bats, pika, rodents, and shrews. The mammal assemblage of Layers 4–3 is broadly similar to that of Layers 9–8, in addition to several warm-to-mild climate steppe and forest creatures, including the raccoon dog Nyctereutes sinensis, the dhole Cuon antiquus, the corsac fox, the Asian badger, wolverines, the giant hyena Pachycrocuta, the saber-toothed cat Machairodus inexpectatus, the tiger, the leopard, sika deer, the antelope Spirocerus peii, and the water buffalo Bubalus teilhardi. The Zhoukoudian fauna are not entirely exclusive to either glacial or interglacial periods. H. erectus seems to have typically favoured open environments. It is debated if Peking Man occupied the region during colder glacial periods or only took residence during warmer interglacials, tied to the uncertain chronology of the Zhoukoudian, as well as arguments regarding fire usage, clothing technology, and hunting ability. Given the abundance of deer remains, it was quite early on assumed Peking Man was a prolific deer hunter, but since the establishment of non-human carnivores as a major depositional agent, the dependence on hunting has become a controversial topic. Indeed, most of the Peking Man fossils were at least fed upon by likely hyenas. Nonetheless, some of the animal fossils seem to have been modified by humans. In 1986, Binford and colleagues reported a few horse fossils with cutmarks left by stone tools, and two upper premolars from Layer 4 appearing to him to have been burned while still fresh, which he ascribed to horse-head roasting (but he believed Peking Man was simply scavenging from hyenas because all tool cuts he analysed were always overlapping hyena gnaw marks instead of vice versa.) The Zhoukoudian also preserves the remains of edible plants, nuts, and seeds which Peking Man may have been eating: Chinese hackberry, walnut, hazelnut, pine, elm, and rambler rose. H. erectus, a specialist in woodland and savannah biomes, likely went extinct with the takeover of tropical rainforests. Peking Man's final stay at Zhoukoudian may have taken place sometime between 400,000 and 230,000 years ago, though a more exact time interval is difficult to arrive at. The Hualongdong site is among the youngest Chinese H. erectus sites at roughly 150,000 years old. ### Society During the Mao era, the dissemination of communist ideology among the general populace was imperative. The prospect of "labour created humanity" created by prominent communist Friedrich Engels in his 1876 essay "The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man" became central to Chinese anthropology, and was included in almost any discussion regarding human evolution — including educational media for laypersons. Engels supposed that walking upright instead of on all-fours as other apes do freed the hands for labour, facilitating the evolution of all characteristically human traits, such as language, cooperation, and most importantly the growth of brain size to "perfection," stating, "the hand is not only the organ of labour, it is also the product of labour." Therefore, labour stimulates intelligence, detected in the archaeological record with stone tools. As for the society of these ancient humans, including Peking Man, Engel's 1884 book The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State and his concept of primitive communism became the mainstay. Engels had largely based it on American ethnologist Lewis H. Morgan's 1877 book Ancient Society detailing Morgan's studies on "primitive" hunter-gatherer societies, namely the Iroquois. In the Mao era, Peking Man was consequently often painted as leading a dangerous life in the struggle against nature, organised into simple, peaceful tribes which foraged, hunted, and made stone tools in cooperative and amiable groups; a classless, stateless, and strong society in which all members laboured for the common good. As for gender roles, Peking Man society was most often described as "men hunt and women gather." > Stone tools, and, later, the bow and arrow, precluded the possibility of men individually combating the forces of nature and beasts of prey. In order to gather the fruits of the forest, to catch fish, to build some sort of habitation, men were obliged to work in common if they did not want to die of starvation, or fall victim to beasts of prey or to neighbouring societies. Labour in common led to the common ownership of the means of production, as well as of the fruits of production. Here the conception of private ownership of the means of production did not yet exist... Here there was no exploitation, no classes These concepts were mostly compatible with Maoist ideology, but restrictive for scientists especially when interpreting new discoveries. Most notable was Chinese anthropologist Liú Xián who, in his 1950 book The History of Development from Ape to Human, was unable to reconcile "labour created humanity" with what he was taught while studying under Arthur Keith in London, instead arguing human ancestors came down from the trees by sheer bravery rather than learning to labour (essentially voluntarism vs materialism), which was met with much derision from peers. The frustrations of Chinese scientists with such alternate views came out during the Hundred Flowers Campaign from 1956 to 1957, which encouraged people to speak honestly of their opinions of communism and the government. To the West, emphasis was usually placed on intelligence rather than labour, especially after English primatologist Jane Goodall discovered chimpanzees could make tools in 1960 (i.e., the labour of tool manufacturing is not unique to humans). Nonetheless, popular Western and Eastern interpretations of ancient humans at this time converged greatly. In China, the influence of "labour created humanity" as well as Engel's rhetoric waned after the rise of Deng with the dissemination throughout China of Western research and theories contradictory to Maoist ideology, particularly after 1985, though labour was still regarded as an important adaption. By this time, the concept of labour had expanded from purely manual to also intellectual work; a sense of aesthetics was instead heralded as a uniquely human trait. Consistent with other prehistoric human populations, Peking Man had a rather short average lifespan. Out of a sample of 38 individuals, 15 died under the age of 14 years (39.5%), 3 died around 30 years (7%), 3 died from 40 to 50 years (7%), and 1 at 50 to 60 years (2.6%). The ages of the remaining 16 individuals (43%) could not be determined. ### Stone tools Despite the Zhoukoudian being one of the most productive sites for East Asian stone tools, the IVPP prioritised human and animal fossils, and archaeological research has stalled. This strongly contrasts with the rest of the world, especially Europe, where tools and manufacturing techniques have been categorised even on regional levels. Consequently, China's archaeological record has generally been viewed as stagnant. Nonetheless, markers of broader periods to the west are conspicuously rare in the East, most notably bifaces characteristic of the Acheulean culture (typically associated with western H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis) or the Levallois technique of the Mousterian culture (Neanderthals). The apparent technological divide inspired American archaeologist Hallam L. Movius to draw the "Movius Line" dividing the East and West in 1944. Though this is not well supported anymore with the discovery of some bifacial technology in Middle Pleistocene East Asia, bifaces are still conspicuously rare and crude compared to western contemporaries. This has been variously explained as: the Acheulean was invented in Africa after human dispersal through East Asia (but this would require that the two populations remained separated for nearly two million years); East Asia had poorer quality raw materials, namely quartz and quartzite (but some Chinese localities yielded bifaces made of these materials, and East Asia is not completely void of higher-quality minerals); East Asian H. erectus used biodegradable bamboo instead of stone for chopping tools (but this is difficult to test); or East Asia had a lower population density, leaving few tools behind in general (though demography is difficult to approximate in the fossil record). The Zhoukoudian Locality 1 has produced more than 100,000 lithic pieces. In 1979, to highlight technological evolution, Péi and Zhang partitioned the Zhoukoudian industry into three stages: the early stage typified by the simple hammer and anvil technique (slamming the core against a rock) which produced large flakes namely from soft minerals such as sandstone, weighing up to 50 g (1.8 oz) and measuring 60 mm (2.4 in) from Layer 11; the middle stage typified by the bipolar technique (smashing the core into several flakes with a hammerstone, out of which at least a few should be the correct size and shape) which made smaller flakes up to 20 g (0.71 oz) in weight and 40 mm (1.6 in) in length; and the late stage above Layer 5 typified by even smaller flakes made with harder and higher quality quartz and flint among other cobble. Quartz had to be collected some distance from the cave from local granite outcrops by the hills and riverbed. In addition to simple flakes, they also manufactured scrapers, choppers, and, towards the later end of occupation, points, burins, and awls. Nonetheless, these techniques produced highly ununiform tools, and Binford was skeptical of any evidence of cultural evolution at all. There is scanty and indefinite evidence for the modification of bones into tools. Productive contemporaneous Chinese stone tool sites include Xiǎochángliáng (similar to Zhoukoudian), Jīgōng Shān, Bose Basin (which produced large tools often in excess of 10 cm, or 4 in), Jinniushan, Dingcun, and Panxian Dadong. The debate as to whether Peking Man was the first human species to manufacture tools fleshed out in the early 1960s in the period of relative stability between the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. The argument centered around whether the Zhoukoudian tools were the most primitive and therefore the earliest tools (i. e., Peking Man is the most ancient human) championed by Péi, or if there were even more primitive and as of yet undiscovered tools (i. e., Peking Man is not the most ancient human) championed by Jiǎ. In Western circles, Louis Leakey had already reported an apparent pebble industry in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, in 1931, the first hard (albeit, controversial) evidence of a culture more primitive than the Acheulean. Radiometric dating in the 1960s established the Oldowan as the oldest known culture at 1.8 million years old. ### Fire In 1929, Péi oversaw the excavation of Quartz Horizon 2 of the Zhoukoudian, and reported burned bones and stones, ash, and redbud charcoal, which they interpreted as evidence of early fire use by Peking Man. The evidence was widely accepted. Further excavation in 1935 of Locality 1 Layers 4–5 revealed more burned stones, ash, and hackberry seeds. Ash was deposited in horizontal and vertical patches, reminiscent of hearths. In 1985, Binford and Ho doubted Peking Man actually inhabited Zhoukoudian, and asserted the material was burned by naturally occurring fires fueled by guano; though, the next year, Binford interpreted burned horse teeth as evidence of horse-head roasting. In 1998, Weiner, Goldberg, and colleagues found no evidence of hearths or siliceous aggregates (silicon particles, which form during combustion) in Layers 1 or 10; they therefore concluded the burned material was simply washed into the cave rather than being burned in the cave. The IVPP immediately responded, and, in 1999, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Wu Xinzhi argued Weiner's data was too limited to reach such conclusions. In 2001, Goldberg, Weiner, and colleagues concluded the ash layers are reworked loessic silts, and blackened carbon-rich sediments traditionally interpreted as charcoal are instead deposits of organic matter left to decompose in standing water. That is, there is no evidence of ash or fire at all. Nonetheless, in 2004, Shen and colleagues reported evidence of a massive fire at Layer 10 — ostensibly as old as 770,000 years ago, during a glacial period — and asserted Peking Man needed to control fire so far back in time in order to survive such cold conditions. In 2014, Chinese anthropologist Maohua Zhong and colleagues reported elements associated with siliceous aggregates in Layers 4 and 6, and they also doubted the validity of Weiner's analysis of Layer 10. The question of fire usage at the Zhoukoudian remains an open debate. Worldwide, evidence of fire usage is scarce in the archaeological record until 400 to 300 thousand years ago, which is generally interpreted as fire not being an integral part of life until this time, either because they could not create or well-maintain it. ## Gallery ## See also - Gigantopithecus - Lantian Man - Nanjing Man - Peopling of China - Yuanmou Man
1,682,665	Miss Independent (Kelly Clarkson song)	1,167,797,226	2003 single by Kelly Clarkson	[ "2003 singles", "2003 songs", "Kelly Clarkson songs", "Music videos directed by Liz Friedlander", "RCA Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Rhett Lawrence", "Songs with feminist themes", "Songs written by Christina Aguilera", "Songs written by Kelly Clarkson", "Songs written by Matt Morris (musician)", "Songs written by Rhett Lawrence" ]	"Miss Independent" is a song by American singer Kelly Clarkson from her debut studio album Thankful (2003). Written by Clarkson, Christina Aguilera, Rhett Lawrence, and Matt Morris, with Lawrence serving as producer, it was released as the album's lead single by RCA Records on April 10, 2003, preceding its release by five days. The track was initially intended for Aguilera's fourth album, Stripped (2002), but was left half-finished. Lawrence later continued writing the song with Clarkson, who eventually recorded it. "Miss Independent" is a R&B-styled pop song, whose lyrics tell of a story of an independent woman who finally allows herself to lower her emotional and communication barriers in order to fall in love. Its theme of self-sufficiency would later serve as a template for Clarkson's subsequent releases. The song generally received positive response from music critics, while criticism targeted the song's similarity to Aguilera's material. "Miss Independent" gave Clarkson her first Grammy nomination in the Best Female Pop Vocal Performance category at the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004. The song's commercial success helped in presenting Clarkson's "girl next door" image to the public and contributed in eliminating her American Idol persona. In the United States, "Miss Independent" peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Pop Songs chart. Internationally, the song attained top-10 positions in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The song's accompanying music video was directed by Liz Friedlander, and featured Clarkson singing at a house party. Clarkson premiered the song during the second season of American Idol, and has included it in set lists in most of her concert tours. ## Background and release American record producer Rhett Lawrence first offered the early work of the song, titled "Miss Independence", to American R&B trio Destiny's Child, who turned down the offer to record the song. Lawrence then collaborated with Christina Aguilera and Matt Morris to record "Miss Independence" for Aguilera's fourth studio album Stripped (2002). However, the track was only half-recorded and without a bridge before Aguilera finished production on Stripped. The song was handed over to Clive Davis and Clarkson's then-manager Simon Fuller, who were looking for material for Clarkson's debut album Thankful (2003). Clarkson helped rewrite the song with Lawrence, during which time one of her A&R managers, Keith Naftaly, suggested the song be re-titled "Miss Independent". The song was one of four songs on Thankful that Clarkson co-wrote; the others were "The Trouble With Love Is", "You Thought Wrong", and the title track "Thankful". There are conflicting reports of how the song was given to Clarkson. Davis said in The Soundtrack of My Life that it was Lawrence who passed the track without Aguilera's knowledge or approval. Clarkson—who was unaware of Aguilera or Morris' involvement until receiving the liner notes for Thankful—stated it was an A&R manager, who purposefully kept the information from her so she would not turn down the song; she said this to be the first example of "how people flat out lie or omit", and that what bothered her was that she had given interviews which made it look like she had written the song solely with Lawrence. Clarkson also claimed to Bournemouth Daily Echo that RCA did not want the song on the album, and she argued with the label "to the point of literally crying" to get the song on the record. In The Soundtrack of My Life, Davis claimed Aguilera was "distinctly miffed" Lawrence passed on the song without her knowledge, and only subsided when both "Miss Independent" and Aguilera's own song "Beautiful" were both nominated Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, and "Beautiful" won. Though Davis says Aguilera was mad at Clarkson, Aguilera had earlier clarified she was not, and on Total Request Live, said the song was "a good choice for her... If the song was to go to anyone, I'm glad it went to you because you gave it justice." "Miss Independent" was released to mainstream radio in the United States by RCA Records on April 10, 2003, five days ahead of Thankful's release. It was later released as a separate CD single on May 25, before being released as a 7-inch single, a 12-inch single, and a digital download on September 23. In the United Kingdom, the song was released as a CD single on August 25; a maxi single was released in Austria and Germany by BMG on August 12. Most of the singles contained Clarkson's renditions of the songs "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman", which was included on Thankful, and "Respect". In 2009, the song was made available for purchase as downloadable content for the Rock Band, Rock Band 2, and Lego Rock Band video games. ## Composition "Miss Independent" is a funk and R&B-influenced pop song. Katherine St. Asaph of Popdust noted that "it's the closest Kelly Clarkson's come to R&B." Clarkson said that Aguilera's rhythmic style heavily influenced the song. She remarked, "You can hear a lot of her influence in 'Miss Independent', especially the hook. And once you hear the song, it's constantly in your head. Believe me, I cannot get it out!" Rachell Kipp of the Associated Press wrote that "Miss Independent" "sounds like a half-baked remake of Aguilera's 'Dirrty' (2002)" The song has a length of three minutes and 35 seconds and is written in the key of B minor, Clarkson's vocal range spans from F<sub>3</sub> to F<sub>5</sub>. The lyrics tells the story of an independent woman who was apprehensive about being in a relationship in fears of being rejected, she finally allows herself to break her emotional and communication barriers when she begins to fall in love. Clarkson revealed that she finds herself similar to the titular "Miss Independent". She said, "It's very funny when the song came into play with me ... 'cause at that certain time of my life, I was actually going through that kind of thing," Clarkson said. "I've always been real guarded about work and career. It wasn't even with, like, guy relationships, it was just, like, friends and just letting people in, you know? And so it was kinda weird 'cause I was going through that same thing at the same time, so it was very easy for me to write the bridge to the song." ## Critical reception "Miss Independent" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics, who lauded Clarkson for distancing herself from her American Idol persona, but criticized the song's resemblance to some of the songs on Stripped—particularly "Dirrty" and "Fighter" (2002). Upon its release, Brian Hiatt of Entertainment Weekly noted that "its hard R&B sound may shock fans who embraced the mellow 'A Moment Like This'. 'Miss Independent' begins with Clarkson singing in a throaty moan over a bangin' hip-hop beat, then bursts into a power-chord-propelled, disco-diva chorus that's not unlike Britney Spears' 'Stronger'". Rolling Stone wrote, "'A Moment Like This' was exactly the sort of treacly by-the-numbers ballad critics expected of a TV-contest winner; that's probably why its assertive follow-up, 'Miss Independent', was such a surprise". AllMusic's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that it "managed to make Kelly Clarkson seem younger and hipper without slutting her up like Christina Aguilera (who, ironically, co-wrote 'Miss Independent' the first single from Thankful) while retaining a strong sense of melodic songcraft". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the song "gives Clarkson the youthful edge she desperately needs to balance out the Adult Contemporary goo of songs like 'Anytime' and 'A Moment Like This'. Cinquemani also added, "'Miss Independent' is no 'Dirrty', but it proves that if anyone can out-sing Aguilera, it's Clarkson". On March 5, 2013, Billboard ranked the song number sixteen in its list of "Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time". Howard Cohen of The Baltimore Sun wrote, "The R&B-styled stomper 'Miss Independent', sounds like the fat removed from Aguilera's meatier 'Fighter' – which could well be the case, since she co-wrote both tunes". Elysa Gardner of USA Today was more critical of the song, calling it "breathless" and "colorless". She also added that the song "sounds less like the edgy, strong-but-vulnerable-woman number it purports to be than the Christina Aguilera throwaway it basically is". The song received a nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 Grammy Awards, but lost out to Aguilera's "Beautiful". It was also nominated for Choice Summer Song at the 2003 Teen Choice Awards. ## Commercial performance "Miss Independent" debuted at the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 23 on the week ending May 3, 2003. It then debuted on the Pop Songs chart for the week ending May 10, 2003, eventually topping the chart for six weeks beginning on the week ending June 28, 2003. The song debuted on the main Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending May 17, 2003, at number 61, eventually peaking at number nine for two consecutive weeks starting in its tenth week, becoming her second top ten single in the United States. It was present on the chart for a total of twenty weeks, spending its final week on the chart at number 43 on the week ending September 27, 2003, before going recurrent the following week. It also charted on Adult Pop Songs and Adult Contemporary charts at number 14 and number 28, respectively. The single's success came at the time when the Billboard charts were relying to more R&B and rhythmic stations than pop stations. As of September 2017, "Miss Independent" has sold over 1,035,000 digital downloads in the United States. It was certified Gold by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2006. Internationally, the song also became a commercial success, becoming Clarkson's first single to chart outside of North America. In Australia, it debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 17 in August 2003, eventually peaking at number four after Clarkson performed it at the 2003 NRL Grand Final at the Stadium Australia on October 5, 2003. It eventually became her highest-charting single in Australia along with "Since U Been Gone" (2004) before being overtaken by "Mr. Know It All", which topped the chart in 2011. In the United Kingdom, "Miss Independent" debuted and peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart in August 2003. It the Netherlands, the song debuted on the Dutch Top 40 at number 27, eventually peaking at number nine. The song also charted in Austria, Germany, Ireland, Sweden, and Switzerland. ## Music video The song's accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles by Liz Friedlander, who didn't know Clarkson at the time. Friedlander remarked, "Honestly, I never watched American Idol, so I didn't have a preconceived notion of her." She said about the video, "The song is explosive and young and has some cool electronic beats, so we took the visual style from the music." Clarkson added "It's gonna be more Kelly Clarkson the artist, not [Kelly Clarkson] from 'American Idol." The video features Clarkson performing at a house party in reverse, starting from the morning after and working its way back to the previous night, where she appears attracted to a "surfer" whom she keeps seeing in mirrors. Friedlander adds, "And in the end — maybe — they get together." It premiered on MTV on June 2, 2003. The video received three nominations at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards—Best New Artist in a Video, Best Pop Video, and Viewer's Choice Award. ## Live performances Clarkson premiered "Miss Independent" on the second season of American Idol in May 2003. Throughout 2003, she performed it on various television events, including the inaugural season of Australian Idol, The Late Show with David Letterman, and The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn. She also performed the song in sports events, notably at the 2003 NRL Grand Final at the Stadium Australia on October 5, 2003. Since then, she has included the song in her set lists on tour, even naming her first co-headlining tour, the Independent Tour (2004, after the song. In 2012, she performed a medley of her songs at the 40th Anniversary American Music Awards, beginning with "Miss Independent", continuing to "Since U Been Gone", "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)", and "Catch My Breath". ## Formats and track listing ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of Mainstream Top 40 number-one hits of 2003 (U.S.)
6,693,166	Alma Mater (New York sculpture)	1,170,841,770	Sculpture by Daniel Chester French in Manhattan, New York, U.S.	[ "1903 sculptures", "Allegorical sculptures in New York City", "Animal sculptures in New York City", "Bronze sculptures in Manhattan", "Columbia University campus", "Monuments and memorials in Manhattan", "Outdoor sculptures in Manhattan", "Owls in art", "Sculptures by Daniel Chester French", "Sculptures of birds in New York (state)", "Sculptures of books", "Sculptures of women in New York City", "Statues in New York City", "Vandalized works of art in New York City" ]	Alma Mater is a bronze sculpture by Daniel Chester French which is located on the steps of the Low Memorial Library on the campus of Columbia University, in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. French designed the statue in 1901, and it was installed in September 1903. It is a personification of the alma mater, which represents Columbia in its role as an educational institution; since its installation, the statue has become closely associated with the image of the university. ## History ### Commission and installation Plans for a statue in front of Low Memorial Library began upon the completion of the building in 1897. When Charles Follen McKim, the building's main architect, designed a set of stairs that would lead up to the building, he included an empty granite pedestal in the middle on which a statue might sit. Only three years later, Harriette W. Goelet offered the Trustees of Columbia, on behalf of herself and her children, up to \$25,000 to install "a bronze statue representing 'Alma Mater,' to be placed upon [said] pedestal" in memory of her husband, Columbia College alumnus Robert Goelet, who had died in 1899. The Trustees accepted her proposition, and with McKim's recommendation commissioned Daniel Chester French to create the statue. Until this point, notable works of French's had included The Minute Man (1874) in Concord, Massachusetts and John Harvard (1884) at Harvard University. He also sculpted The Republic for the World's Columbian Exposition, a statue which would come to bear a strong resemblance to Alma Mater. It has been speculated that Audrey Munson, who was a prolific artist's model during the early 20th century, may have been the basis for the statue, though it is more likely that the model for Alma Mater was actually Mary Lawton, an actress and a friend of French. Given the commission, French's stated aim was to create "a figure that should be gracious in the impression that it should make, with an attitude of welcome to the youths who should choose Columbia as their College." French went through several designs: the original plaster model he made for Alma Mater showed her with her hands in her lap, with her left hand holding the book that lay on it, and her heels touching. Though Goelet and President Seth Low were "greatly delighted" by French's first draft, their critiques led French to change her arms to be outstretched and holding a scepter. His final design for the statue was approved on March 4, 1901, by the Trustees, and the price to be paid by the Goelets was determined to be \$20,000. McKim, who was greatly worried about the quality of the statue given its prominent location in front of Low Library, was reportedly "delighted", describing the statue as "dignified, classic and stately... exhibiting as much perception of the spirit and freedom of the Greek as any modern can." Despite expectations that the statue might be completed in time for the university's 1902 commencement ceremony, delays in French's work (in part due to critiques from Augustus Saint-Gaudens, but largely due to strikes at the Jno. Williams, Inc. foundry) postponed the unveiling until September 23, 1903, the first day of classes for the 1903–1904 school year. At the ceremony, a prayer was given by Henry C. Potter, the 7th Bishop of New York and a trustee of the university, before the statue was formally presented to President Nicholas Murray Butler by Dean John Howard Van Amringe. The Goelets were not in attendance, having departed for Europe earlier. In 1904, a four-foot plaster reproduction of Alma Mater was borrowed by the university from French to be displayed at the Grand Sculpture Court of the St. Louis World's Fair. However, the university neglected to return it until it was rediscovered in the basement of Low Library and sent to French's daughter, Margaret French Cresson, in 1950. ### Later history Alma Mater, given its symbolic connection with the university, has been at the center of many protests at Columbia. During the student protests in 1970 in reaction to the Cambodian campaign and the Kent State shootings, the statue came to represent the failures of the university's administration, which included the continued gentrification of the Morningside Heights neighborhood. In the early morning hours of May 15, 1970, a bomb was planted on the statue. The resulting explosion caused significant damage to Alma Mater's throne. The damage remained until 1978, when the statue was removed from Columbia, the throne was recast, and the sculpture was cleaned, refinished with a new patina, and returned to the Low steps. Other noteworthy instances of protest involving Alma Mater include during the Columbia University protests of 1968, when the statue was routinely vandalized and a sign which read "Raped by the cops" was placed on Alma Mater's lap, and during the protests against the Iraq War, when students draped a black shroud over Alma Mater's head and connected wires from her hands to the ground in reference to the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Alma Mater has also been at the center of many pranks, including one instance in 1928 when the crown atop her scepter was stolen (and later returned), as well as in October 1984, when the scepter was removed in its entirety by Cornell students. It appeared on the doorstep of the Dean of Students of Cornell in a shoebox two months later, and was returned to the university by hand by a Cornell professor the next day. In retaliation for the theft, the Ezra Cornell statue on Cornell's campus was doused in Columbia blue paint soon after the return of the scepter. ## Reception Alma Mater was largely praised upon its unveiling. The Columbia Daily Spectator described the statue as "characterized by a queenly dignity and repose", and stated that it "expresses the highest type of intellectual womanhood. In pose and gesture she invites the student of the University and gives him the welcome of Alma Mater." The New York Times, though it did not comment directly on the artistic merits of the work, recognized that the sculpture was "for technical reasons an extraordinarily difficult piece of work." Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper called the work "French's masterpiece of sculpture", while The Catholic Union compared the figure of Alma Mater to the Virgin Mary, incorrectly claiming that the work was an imitation of a "Mother of Christ" statue in Bonn, Germany, exclaiming, "How closely is not the Catholic Church associated with all that is noble and tender in the mind and heart of man!" However, French was reportedly unsatisfied with the amount of attention the sculpture initially received, stating that it did not make a "ripple on the surface of New York". In 1903, Charles Henry Caffin praised Alma Mater as "beautiful... unquestionably", though not necessarily one of French's best works. He described her as follows: > The face is of a familiar type of American beauty, corresponding with the very modern suggestion of the whole figure. Yet the sculptor has invested the head with an air of dispassionate refinement which gives it a certain aloofness; scarcely more, however, than the self-possession, consciously unconscious, with which the American woman can carry her beauty. It is almost as if one of them had mounted the pedestal and, with a ready wit embracing the situation, were enacting the part of patroness to the university. Every student will love her and her influence will be altogether one of sweet nobility... [Alma Mater] is distinguished by a pure and poignant serenity, by a monumental feeling penetrated with a sort of gentle sprightliness; for the expression which he puts into the modeling of the limbs can scarcely be characterized by a word of more sensitive application. More recently, The New York Times has dubbed Alma Mater the "grand old lady" of Columbia University, who "reigns in queenly splendor in front of Low Library." The AIA Guide to New York City described it as "an evocative statue" where "the enthroned figure extends her hand in welcome as she looks up from the mighty tome of knowledge lying open in her lap." Alma Mater's placement in front of Low Library in particular has been praised for its role in welcoming students to the university and highlighting the university's relationship with the city of New York. As Professor of Historic Preservation Andrew Dolkart notes: > After passing Alma Mater and reaching the campus level, the seeker must climb an even longer stairway, symbolically a "stairway to knowledge," to reach the entrance to the library. From the top of the stairs, members of the select Columbia community could turn and look out over New York, secure in the belief that they were contributing to the rapid transformation of their city into a world center of intellectual and professional endeavor. ## Design The statue represents a personification of the traditional image of the university as an alma mater, or "nourishing mother", draped in an academic gown and seated on a throne. She wears a laurel wreath on her head and holds in her right hand a scepter made of four sprays of wheat which are capped by a King's Crown, a traditional symbol of the university. A book, representing learning, rests on her lap. The arms of her throne end in lamps, representing "Sapientia et Doctrina", or "Wisdom and Learning"; on the back of the throne is embossed an image of the seal of the university. An owl, a symbol of knowledge and learning, is hidden in the folds of Alma Mater's cloak near her left leg. There has been some speculation on the exact meaning of the owl, including by history professor Dwight C. Miner, who believed that the owl was a reference to the Psi Upsilon fraternity, of which Miner believed French to have been a member. In 1953, French's daughter, Margaret French Cresson, clarified in a letter to The New York Times that it "represents no fraternity and poses no labyrinthine riddle. The owl is the age-old symbol of wisdom and was used by the sculptor to convey that interpretation." She also clarified that the statue was not a depiction of Pallas Athena or Minerva, but simply a personification of the university. When Alma Mater was originally installed it was gilded, although the original gilding wore away with time. In the late 1920s, French suggested re-gilding the statue, though this was not done; the few remaining flakes of gold were removed in 1950 in order to catalyze the statue's patina. In 1962, the university made the decision to apply a new bronze veneer. However, after protests, including by President Grayson L. Kirk, the new finish was removed and the patina restored. The design of Alma Mater inspired a 1919 statue of the same name at the University of Havana in Cuba by Mario Korbel, who had lived in New York City from 1913 to 1917. Additionally, the Alma Mater statue at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign may have been inspired by Columbia's Alma Mater, according to its sculptor, Lorado Taft. ## See also - Public sculptures by Daniel Chester French
37,541,039	Blank Page	1,164,940,691	Song	[ "2010s ballads", "2012 songs", "Christina Aguilera songs", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Chris Braide", "Songs written by Chris Braide", "Songs written by Christina Aguilera", "Songs written by Sia (musician)" ]	"Blank Page" is a song recorded by American singer-songwriter Christina Aguilera, taken from her seventh studio album, Lotus (2012). It was written by Aguilera, Chris Braide and Sia, with production done by Braide. Aguilera had worked with Furler on her previous two albums Bionic and Burlesque, both released in 2010. Following the release of Lotus, Aguilera revealed that Furler is one of her favorite people to work with and that she is very inspiring. "Blank Page" is a minimalist piano-driven ballad that received frequent comparisons to Aguilera's 2002 single "Beautiful". It garnered strong critical acclaim from music critics, who praised its simplistic arrangement as well as Aguilera's raw and strong vocal performance on the song. Following the release of Lotus, it peaked at number 53 on the South Korea international singles chart. Aguilera performed the song live for the first time at the 39th People's Choice Awards, where she was awarded with the People's Voice Award. ## Background and recording Following the release of her sixth studio to an album, Bionic (2010), Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman, starred in the film Burlesque, and recorded the accompanying soundtrack. She then became a coach on NBC's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5's single "Moves Like Jagger" (2011), which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. Following these events, Aguilera announced that had plans to begin production of her seventh album, stating that she wanted high quality and "personal" songs for the record. Regarding the creative direction, she revealed that the album would be a "culmination of everything I've experienced up until this point ... I've been through a lot since the release of my last album, being on ('The Voice'), having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me." She further said "I'm embracing many different things, but it's all feel-good, super-expressive [and] super-vulnerable." Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about "self–expression and freedom" because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years. Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012, Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because "I don't like to just get songs from producers. I like them to come from a personal place ... I'm very excited. It's fun, exciting, introspective, it's going to be great". "Blank Page" was written by Aguilera, Sia and Chris Braide, the latter of whom also produced the song. Aguilera's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills in California. Braide provided the programming, string arrangement, piano and keyboards. ## Development Lotus is the third album in which Aguilera and Furler have collaborated on material together for. They first worked together on Aguilera's sixth studio album, Bionic (2010), on the songs "You Lost Me" and "I Am", along with Samuel Dixon. "You Lost Me" was released as the final single from Bionic, and peaked at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart and number 28 on the Adult Contemporary. Later that year, they reunited to create a song to be included on the Burlesque soundtrack, which is called "Bound to You". It was nominated in the category of Award for Best Original Song at the 68th Golden Globe Awards in January 2011. In an interview with VEVO, Aguilera explained the collaborative process between Furler and herself, and why she likes to work with her: Sia and I always done amazing collaborations, she worked with me on the movie soundtrack 'Burlesque,' which we got a Golden Globe nomination for, we also did a lot of work on my 'Bionic' record, that was so sentimental, intimate and vulnerable feeling, and that's what I love about working with her". Aguilera was interviewed by Billboard when she attended the Billboard Film & TV Music Conference. She revealed that she views "Blank Page" as a more "vulnerable" version of her 2002 song, "Beautiful". When she was asked by the interviewer who her favorite people were to collaborate with, she responded by solely mentioning Furler and explained what led to her to enjoy working with her: > Sia is one of them. She comes in, singer-songwriter, she just writes the most beautiful amazing ballads. Now she is making a name for herself on a more broad commercial scale with a lot of more dance-driven stuff, and she is just an incredible singer. She came in and she just writes such serious songs, I was like 'Oh she is gunna [sic] be such a serious person, and I'm nervous to meet her, and I just want her to get me and understand that I'm not a cheesy pop star'. She comes in and she was all nervous, and she is the most bubbliest person in the world, but once she starts singing and getting into her thing, you're just sucked into this world of 'wow' and it's inspiring to be around people with such creative energy. I love that, that's the best experience. ## Composition and lyrics "Blank Page" is a simplistic piano arranged ballad, which lasts for a duration of (four minutes and four seconds). It was written in the key of B flat major with a tempo of 115 beats per minute. Her vocal range spans from F<sub>3</sub> to G<sub>5</sub>. Lyrically, the song is about how Aguilera wishes to "wipe the slate clean" with a former lover and "reconcile an old romance". She knows that she has wronged him, but is asking to be given a second chance. Andrew Hampp for Billboard noted that this sentiment is revealed by Aguilera in the lyrics "If I could do undo that I hurt you/ I would do anything for us to make it through". The song begins with the chords of a piano as Aguilera sings "I know there's hurt/ I know there's pain/ But people change/ Lord, knows I've been no saint/ In my own way/ Regret choices I've made/ How I do I say I'm sorry?/ How do I say I'm sorry?." On the chorus, the lyrics are hopeful that she can right any wrongs she may have committed: "Draw me a smile, and save me tonight/ I'll be your blank page waiting for you to bring me to life/ Paint me a heart, let me be your art/ I am a blank page waiting for life to start/ Let our hearts start and beat as one together/ Let our hearts start and beat as one forever". The arrangement of the minimalist piano composition is "fiery" yet "spare". Aside from garnering innumerable comparisons to Aguilera's own song "Beautiful", the composition of "Blank Page" was subject to critique by Jim Farber writing for New York Daily News. He criticised the song for replicating the structure and lyrical content of "Someone Like You", a song performed by English singer-songwriter Adele: > Only two of the disc's 11 tracks attempt a genuine expression of vulnerability. Just one, 'Blank Page,' finds her looking inside and taking some blame. It's a pretty song, if one that blatantly rides Adele's coattails. Not only does 'Page' employ the same piano/voice arrangement as that star's 'Someone Like You,' Aguilera apes the precise length of Adele's notes. ## Critical reception "Blank Page" garnered strong critical acclaim from music critics, many of whom praised its simplicity. Writing on behalf of 4Music, Chris Younie wrote that although "Blank Page" is followed by "Sing for Me", another ballad, the former is "utterly brilliant" and is "ten times better" than the latter. He continued to describe "Blank Page" as being "elegant and confessional". He praised her raw vocal performance and thought that should it be released as a single, it would have no problem matching the success of "Beautiful". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic complimented the simplicity of the song, writing that Aguilera "seizes the spotlight" and is accompanied by a "spare" piano arrangement. PopCrush critic Michael Gallucci described the song as a "showstopper" and compared it to "Beautiful" due to its minimalist structure. He further that it is a "classic Aguilera performance" as she employs vocal acrobatics. Writing for Billboard, Andrew Hampp thought that "Blank Page" is more likely to reach a wider audience rather than the songs Aguilera wrote with Furler on Bionic ("You Lost Me" and "I Am", which he described as "underrated"), because of how both of their celebrity profiles have been raised since Bionic's release in 2010. Mesfin Fekadu for The Huffington Post concurred with Hampp in the respect that she also thought that "Blank Page" was reminiscent of the songs co-written by Furler on Bionic, which she also described "that album's highlight". Jon Caramanica of The New York Times thought that "Blank Page", along with "Sing for Me", depicted "flashes of the old Aguilera" and that her "voice veers volcanic" on the songs as she raise the key as the songs progress. Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club praised 'Blank Page' and 'Sing for Me', writing that "they are minimal piano ballads on which Aguilera discusses working through regret and reclaiming her sense of self, respectively. The spare music lets her still-powerful voice dominate, and her impassioned delivery conveys how meaningful these songs are to her." Sarah Godfrey of The Washington Post commented that the song "is about hackneyed metaphors and big notes — just the sort of combination that will appeal to fans of Aguilera's signature song 'Beautiful'". Idolator critic Mike Wass complimented Aguilera's ability to "tone it down" on the song, but he was surprised at the level of simplicity considering Furler's "alternative leanings". He did, however, describe it as the album's most straightforward ballad and as a song which could have been written in 1972, "with its yearning lyrics and sparse production". That Grape Juice praised the song and noted: "Rousing, resonant, and lyrically astute, this has etched itself onto the list of Xtina’s most moving musical moments." ## Live performance Aguilera performed "Blank Page" for the first time live at the 39th People's Choice Awards on January 9, 2013. She was surrounded by white candles, and she wore a white blaze with black leggings. According to reports published by Us Weekly, Aguilera was very emotional prior to her performance, and that the audience was in tears during her rehearsals of the song. Lauren Moraski of CBS News called it a "heart-wrenching performance." Amy Sciarretto for PopCrush wrote that it was a "simple and unfettered" performance that allowed her to "show off" her vocals. She continued to write that although she occasionally sounded strained, she sounded better than most singers on their good day. After her performance, she was presented with the People's Voice Award, where she also gave an acceptance speech. ## Credits and personnel Recording - Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room, Beverly Hills, CA; Human Feel, Los Angeles, CA. Personnel - Songwriting – Christina Aguilera, Chris Braide, Sia Furler - Production – Chris Braide - Vocal recording – Oscar Ramirez - Programming, string arrangement, piano and keyboards – Chris Braide Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus, RCA Records. ## Charts Following the release of Lotus, "Blank Page" debuted on the South Korea International Singles Chart at number 53 during the week of November 11 to 17, 2012, with digital download sales of 4,299.
5,372,935	National Popular Vote Interstate Compact	1,173,219,387	U.S. agreement on presidential elections	[ "Electoral reform in the United States", "United States Electoral College", "United States interstate compacts" ]	The National Popular Vote Interstate Compact (NPVIC) is an agreement among a group of U.S. states and the District of Columbia to award all their electoral votes to whichever presidential ticket wins the overall popular vote in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The compact is designed to ensure that the candidate who receives the most votes nationwide is elected president, and it would come into effect only when it would guarantee that outcome. Introduced in 2006, it has been adopted by states and the District of Columbia. These jurisdictions have electoral votes, which is of the Electoral College and of the 270 votes needed to give the compact legal force. Certain legal questions may affect implementation of the compact. Some legal observers believe states have plenary power to appoint electors as prescribed by the compact; others believe that the compact will require congressional consent under the Constitution's Compact Clause or that the presidential election process cannot be altered except by a constitutional amendment. ## Mechanism Taking the form of an interstate compact, the agreement would go into effect among participating states only after they collectively represent an absolute majority of votes (currently at least 270) in the Electoral College. Once in effect, in each presidential election the participating states would award all of their electoral votes to the candidate with the largest national popular vote total across the 50 states and the District of Columbia. As a result, that candidate would win the presidency by securing a majority of votes in the Electoral College. Until the compact's conditions are met, all states award electoral votes in their current manner. The compact would modify the way participating states implement Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution, which requires each state legislature to define a method to appoint its electors to vote in the Electoral College. The Constitution does not mandate any particular legislative scheme for selecting electors, and instead vests state legislatures with the exclusive power to choose how to allocate their states' electors (although systems that violate the 14th Amendment, which mandates equal protection of the law and prohibits racial discrimination, are prohibited). States have chosen various methods of allocation over the years, with regular changes in the nation's early decades. Today, all but two states (Maine and Nebraska) award all their electoral votes to the single candidate with the most votes statewide (the so-called "winner-take-all" system). Maine and Nebraska currently award one electoral vote to the winner in each congressional district and their remaining two electoral votes to the statewide winner. The compact would no longer be in effect should the total number of electoral votes held by the participating states fall below the threshold required, which could occur due to withdrawal of one or more states, changes due to the decennial congressional re-apportionment or an increase in the size of Congress, for example by admittance of a 51st state. The compact mandates a July 20 deadline in presidential election years, six months before Inauguration Day, to determine whether the agreement is in effect for that particular election. Any withdrawal by a participating state after that deadline will not become effective until the next President is confirmed. ## Motivation Reasons given for the compact include: $1$ State winner-take-all laws encourage candidates to focus disproportionately on a limited set of swing states (and in the case of Maine and Nebraska, swing districts), as small changes in the popular vote in those areas produce large changes in the electoral college vote. For example, in the 2016 election, a shift of 2,736 votes (or less than 0.4% of all votes cast) toward Donald Trump in New Hampshire would have produced a four electoral vote gain for his campaign. A similar shift in any other state would have produced no change in the electoral vote, thus encouraging the campaign to focus on New Hampshire above other states. A study by FairVote reported that the 2004 candidates devoted three-quarters of their peak season campaign resources to just five states, while the other 45 states received very little attention. The report also stated that 18 states received no candidate visits and no TV advertising. This means that swing state issues receive more attention, while issues important to other states are largely ignored. $2$ State winner-take-all laws tend to decrease voter turnout in states without close races. Voters living outside the swing states have a greater certainty of which candidate is likely to win their state. This knowledge of the probable outcome decreases their incentive to vote. A report by The Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE) found that turnout among eligible voters under age 30 was 64.4% in the ten closest battleground states and only 47.6% in the rest of the country – a 17% gap. $3$ The current Electoral College system allows a candidate to win the Presidency while losing the popular vote, an outcome seen as counter to the one person, one vote principle of democracy. This happened in the elections of 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016. (The 1960 election is also a disputed example.) In the 2000 election, for instance, Al Gore won 543,895 more votes nationally than George W. Bush, but Bush secured five more electors than Gore, in part due to a narrow Bush victory in Florida; in the 2016 election, Hillary Clinton won 2,868,691 more votes nationally than Donald Trump, but Trump secured 77 more electors than Clinton, in part due to narrow Trump victories in Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin (a cumulative 77,744 votes). Whether these splits suggest an advantage for one major party or the other in the Electoral College is discussed in below. ## Debate over effects The project has been supported by editorials in newspapers, including The New York Times, the Chicago Sun-Times, the Los Angeles Times, The Boston Globe, and the Minneapolis Star Tribune, arguing that the existing system discourages voter turnout and leaves emphasis on only a few states and a few issues, while a popular election would equalize voting power. Others have argued against it, including the Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Pete du Pont, a former governor of Delaware, in an opinion piece in The Wall Street Journal, called the project an "urban power grab" that would shift politics entirely to urban issues in high population states and allow lower caliber candidates to run. A collection of readings pro and con has been assembled by the League of Women Voters. Some of the most common points of debate are detailed below: ### Protective function of the Electoral College Certain founders, notably Alexander Hamilton, conceived of the Electoral College as a deliberative body which would weigh the inputs of the states, but not be bound by them, in selecting the president, and would therefore serve to protect the country from the election of a person who is unfit to be president. However, the Electoral College has never served such a role in practice. From 1796 onward, presidential electors have acted as "rubber stamps" for their parties' nominees. As of 2020, no election outcome has been determined by an elector deviating from the will of their state. Journalist and commentator Peter Beinart has cited the election of Donald Trump, whom some, he notes, view as unfit, as evidence that the Electoral College does not perform a protective function. Furthermore, thirty-two states and the District of Columbia have laws to prevent such "faithless electors", and such laws were upheld as constitutional by the Supreme Court in 2020 in Chiafalo v. Washington. The National Popular Vote Interstate Compact does not eliminate the Electoral College or affect faithless elector laws; it merely changes how electors are pledged by the participating states. ### Campaign focus on swing states Under the current system, campaign focus – as measured by spending, visits, and attention paid to regional or state issues – is largely limited to the few swing states whose electoral outcomes are competitive, with politically "solid" states mostly ignored by the campaigns. The adjacent maps illustrate the amount spent on advertising and the number of visits to each state, relative to population, by the two major-party candidates in the last stretch of the 2004 presidential campaign. Supporters of the compact contend that a national popular vote would encourage candidates to campaign with equal effort for votes in competitive and non-competitive states alike. Critics of the compact argue that candidates would have less incentive to focus on states with smaller populations or fewer urban areas, and would thus be less motivated to address rural issues. ### Disputed results and electoral fraud Opponents of the compact have raised concerns about the handling of close or disputed outcomes. National Popular Vote contends that an election being decided based on a disputed tally is far less likely under the NPVIC, which creates one large nationwide pool of voters, than under the current system, in which the national winner may be determined by an extremely small margin in any one of the fifty-one smaller statewide tallies. However, the national popular vote can be closer than the vote tally within any one state. In the event of an exact tie in the nationwide tally, NPVIC member states will award their electors to the winner of the popular vote in their state. Under the NPVIC, each state will continue to handle disputes and statewide recounts as governed by their own laws. The NPVIC does not include any provision for a nationwide recount, though Congress has the authority to create such a provision. Pete du Pont argues that "Mr. Gore's 540,000-vote margin [in the 2000 election] amounted to 3.1 votes in each of the country's 175,000 precincts. 'Finding' three votes per precinct in urban areas is not a difficult thing...". However, National Popular Vote contends that altering the outcome via electoral fraud would be more difficult under a national popular vote than under the current system, due to the greater number of total votes that would likely need to be changed: currently, a close election may be determined by the outcome in just one "tipping-point state", and the margin in that state is likely to be far smaller than the nationwide margin, due to the smaller pool of voters at the state level, and the fact that several states may have close results. ### Suggested partisan advantage Some supporters and opponents of the NPVIC believe it gives one party an advantage relative to the current Electoral College system. Former Delaware Governor Pete du Pont, a Republican, has argued that the compact would be an "urban power grab" and benefit Democrats. However, Saul Anuzis, former chairman of the Michigan Republican Party, wrote that Republicans "need" the compact, citing what he believes to be the center-right nature of the American electorate. A statistical analysis by FiveThirtyEight's Nate Silver of all presidential elections from 1864 to 2016 (see adjacent chart) found that the Electoral College has not consistently favored one major party or the other, and that any advantage in the Electoral College does not tend to last long, noting that "there's almost no correlation between which party has the Electoral College advantage in one election and which has it four years later." Although in all four elections since 1876 in which the winner lost the popular vote, the Republican became president, Silver's analysis shows that such splits are about equally likely to favor either major party. A popular vote-Electoral College split favoring the Democrat John Kerry nearly occurred in 2004. New Yorker essayist Hendrik Hertzberg also concluded that the NPVIC would benefit neither party, noting that historically both Republicans and Democrats have been successful in winning the popular vote in presidential elections. ### State power relative to population There is some debate over whether the Electoral College favors small- or large-population states. Those who argue that the College favors low-population states point out that such states have proportionally more electoral votes relative to their populations. In the least-populous states, with three electors, this results in voters having 143% greater voting power than they would under purely proportional allocation, while in the most populous state, California, voters' power is 16% smaller than under proportional allocation. In contrast, the NPVIC would give equal weight to each voter's ballot, regardless of what state they live in. Others, however, believe that since most states award electoral votes on a winner-takes-all system (the "unit rule"), the potential of populous states to shift greater numbers of electoral votes gives them more clout than would be expected from their electoral vote count alone. Opponents of a national popular vote contend that the Electoral College is a fundamental component of the federal system established by the Constitutional Convention. Specifically, the Connecticut Compromise established a bicameral legislature – with proportional representation of the states in the House of Representatives and equal representation of the states in the Senate – as a compromise between less populous states fearful of having their interests dominated and voices drowned out by larger states, and larger states which viewed anything other than proportional representation as an affront to principles of democratic representation. The ratio of the populations of the most and least populous states is far greater currently (68.50 as of the 2020 census) than when the Connecticut Compromise was adopted (7.35 as of the 1790 census), exaggerating the non-proportional component of the compromise allocation. ### Irrelevance of state-level majorities Three governors who have vetoed NPVIC legislation—Arnold Schwarzenegger of California, Linda Lingle of Hawaii, and Steve Sisolak of Nevada—objected to the compact on the grounds that it could require their states' electoral votes to be awarded to a candidate who did not win a majority in their state. (California and Hawaii have since enacted laws joining the compact.) Supporters of the compact counter that under a national popular vote system, state-level majorities are irrelevant; in all states, votes contribute to the nationwide tally, which determines the winner. Individual votes combine to directly determine the outcome, while the intermediary measure of state-level majorities is rendered obsolete. ### Proliferation of candidates Some opponents of the compact contend that it would lead to a proliferation of third-party candidates, such that an election could be won with a plurality of as little as 15% of the vote. However, evidence from U.S. gubernatorial and other races in which a plurality results in a win do not bear out this suggestion. In the 975 general elections for Governor in the U.S. between 1948 and 2011, 90% of winners received more than 50% of the vote, 99% received more than 40%, and all received more than 35%. Duverger's law supports the contention that plurality elections do not generally create a proliferation of minor candidacies with significant vote shares. ### State voting law differences Each state sets its own rules for voting, including registration deadlines, voter ID laws, poll closing times, conditions for early and absentee voting, and disenfranchisement of felons. Parties in power have an incentive to create state rules meant to skew the relative turnout for each party in their favor. Under NPVIC, this incentive may be less than in the current system, as the awarding of electoral votes will no longer be determined solely by the votes cast within a given state. Under the compact, however, there may be an incentive for states to create rules that increase their total turnout, and thus their impact on the nationwide vote totals. In either system, the voting rules of each state have the potential to affect the election outcome for the rest of the country. ## Constitutionality There is ongoing legal debate about the constitutionality of the NPVIC. At issue are interpretations of the Compact Clause of Article I, Section X, and states' plenary power under the Elections Clause of Article II, Section I. ### Compact clause A 2019 report by the Congressional Research Service examined whether the NPVIC should be considered an interstate compact, and as such, whether it would require congressional approval to take effect. At issue is whether the NPVIC would affect the vertical balance of power between the federal government and state governments, and the horizontal balance of power between the states. With respect to vertical balance of power, the NPVIC removes the possibility of contingent elections for President conducted by the U.S. House of Representatives. Whether this would be a de minimis diminishment of federal power is unresolved. The Supreme Court has also held that congressional consent is required for interstate compacts that alter the horizontal balance of power among the states. There is debate over whether the NPVIC affects the power of non-compacting states with regard to Presidential elections. One law professor has argued that Congress cannot consent to the NPVIC, because Congress has no power to alter the functioning of the Electoral College under Article I, Section VIII. However, a report by the General Accounting Office suggests congressional authority is not limited in this way. The CRS report concluded that the NPVIC would likely become the source of considerable litigation, and it is likely that the Supreme Court will be involved in any resolution of the constitutional issues surrounding it. NPV Inc. has stated that they plan to seek congressional approval if the compact is approved by a sufficient number of states. ### Plenary power doctrine Proponents of the compact have argued that states have the plenary power to appoint electors in accordance with the national popular vote under the Elections Clause of Article II, Section I. However, the Supreme Court has found limits on the manner in which states may appoint their electors, under several Constitutional amendments. One law professor has argued that the NPVIC would violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, because it does not require uniform election laws across both compacting and non-compacting states; however, NPVIC Inc. argues that there is no precedent for claims of interstate violations of the Equal Protection Clause. Another legal scholar has argued that by de facto eliminating the disproportionate weight that less populous states have in selecting the President, the NPVIC is not compatible "in a substantive sense" with the Elections Clause of Article I, Section IV. The Supreme Court has held that states may bind their electors to the state's popular vote, enforceable by penalty or removal and replacement. This has been interpreted by some legal observers as a precedent that states may likewise choose to bind their electors to the national popular vote, while other legal observers cautioned against reading the opinion too broadly. Due to a lack of a precedent and case law, the CRS report concludes that whether states are allowed to appoint their electors in accordance with the national popular vote is an open question. ## History ### Public support for Electoral College reform Public opinion surveys suggest that a majority or plurality of Americans support a popular vote for President. Gallup polls dating back to 1944 showed consistent majorities of the public supporting a direct vote. A 2007 Washington Post and Kaiser Family Foundation poll found that 72% favored replacing the Electoral College with a direct election, including 78% of Democrats, 60% of Republicans, and 73% of independent voters. A November 2016 Gallup poll following the 2016 U.S. presidential election showed that Americans' support for amending the U.S. Constitution to replace the Electoral College with a national popular vote fell to 49%, with 47% opposed. Republican support for replacing the Electoral College with a national popular vote dropped significantly, from 54% in 2011 to 19% in 2016, which Gallup attributed to a partisan response to the 2016 result, where the Republican candidate Donald Trump won the Electoral College despite losing the popular vote. In March 2018, a Pew Research Center poll showed that 55% of Americans supported replacing the Electoral College with a national popular vote, with 41% opposed, but that a partisan divide remained in that support, as 75% of self-identified Democrats supported replacing the Electoral College with a national popular vote, while only 32% of self-identified Republicans did. A September 2020 Gallup poll showed support for amending the U.S. Constitution to replace the Electoral College with a national popular vote rose to 61% with 38% opposed, similar to levels prior to the 2016 election, although the partisan divide continued with support from 89% of Democrats and 68% of independents, but only 23% of Republicans. An August 2022 Pew Research Center poll showed 63% support for a national popular vote versus 35% opposed, with support from 80% of Democrats and 42% of Republicans. ### Proposals for constitutional amendment The Electoral College system was established by Article II, Section 1 of the US Constitution, drafted in 1787. It "has been a source of discontent for more than 200 years." Over 700 proposals to reform or eliminate the system have been introduced in Congress, making it one of the most popular topics of constitutional reform. Electoral College reform and abolition has been advocated "by a long roster of mainstream political leaders with disparate political interests and ideologies." Proponents of these proposals argued that the electoral college system does not provide for direct democratic election, affords less-populous states an advantage, and allows a candidate to win the presidency without winning the most votes. Reform amendments were approved by two-thirds majorities in one branch of Congress six times in history. However, other than the 12th Amendment in 1804, none of these proposals have received the approval of two-thirds of both branches of Congress and three-fourths of the states required to amend the Constitution. The difficulty of amending the Constitution has always been the "most prominent structural obstacle" to reform efforts. Since the 1940s, when modern scientific polling on the subject began, a majority of Americans have preferred changing the electoral college system. Between 1948 and 1979, Congress debated electoral college reform extensively, and hundreds of reform proposals were introduced in the House and Senate. During this period, Senate and House Judiciary Committees held hearings on 17 different occasions. Proposals were debated five times in the Senate and twice in the House, and approved by two-thirds majorities twice in the Senate and once in the House, but never at the same time. In the late 1960s and 1970s, over 65% of voters supported amending the Constitution to replace the Electoral College with a national popular vote, with support peaking at 80% in 1968, after Richard Nixon almost lost the popular vote while winning the Electoral College vote. A similar situation occurred again with Jimmy Carter's election in 1976; a poll taken weeks after the election found 73% support for eliminating the Electoral College by amendment. Carter himself proposed a Constitutional amendment that would include the abolition of the electoral college shortly after taking office in 1977. After a direct popular election amendment failed to pass the Senate in 1979 and prominent congressional advocates retired or were defeated in elections, electoral college reform subsided from public attention and the number of reform proposals in Congress dwindled. ### Interstate compact plan The 2000 US presidential election produced the first "wrong winner" since 1888, with Al Gore winning the popular vote but losing the Electoral College vote to George W. Bush. This "electoral misfire" sparked new studies and proposals from scholars and activists on electoral college reform, ultimately leading to the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact (NPVIC). In 2001, "two provocative articles" were published by law professors suggesting paths to a national popular vote through state legislative action rather than constitutional amendment. The first, a paper by Northwestern University law professor Robert W. Bennett, suggested states could pressure Congress to pass a constitutional amendment by acting together to pledge their electoral votes to the winner of the national popular vote. Bennett noted that the 17th Amendment was passed only after states had enacted state-level reform measures unilaterally. A few months later, Yale Law School professor Akhil Amar and his brother, University of California Hastings School of Law professor Vikram Amar, wrote a paper suggesting states could coordinate their efforts by passing uniform legislation under the Presidential Electors Clause and Compact Clause of the Constitution. The legislation could be structured to take effect only once enough states to control a majority of the Electoral College (270 votes) joined the compact, thereby guaranteeing that the national popular vote winner would also win the electoral college. Bennett and the Amar brothers "are generally credited as the intellectual godparents" of NPVIC. ### Organization and advocacy Building on the work of Bennett and the Amar brothers, in 2006, John Koza, a computer scientist, former elector, and "longtime critic of the Electoral College", created the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact (NPVIC), a formal interstate compact that linked and unified individual states' pledges to commit their electoral votes to the winner of the national popular vote. NPVIC offered "a framework for building support one state at a time as well as a legal mechanism for enforcing states' commitments after the threshold of 270 had been reached." Compacts of this type had long existed to regulate interstate issues such as water rights, ports, and nuclear waste. Koza, who had earned "substantial wealth" by co-inventing the scratchcard, had worked on lottery compacts such as the Tri-State Lottery with an election lawyer, Barry Fadem. To promote NPVIC, Koza, Fadem, and a group of former Democratic and Republican Senators and Representatives, formed a California 501(c)(4) non-profit, National Popular Vote Inc. (NPV, Inc.). NPV, Inc. published Every Vote Equal, a detailed, "600-page tome" explaining and advocating for NPVIC, and a regular newsletter reporting on activities and encouraging readers to petition their governors and state legislators to pass NPVIC. NPV, Inc. also commissioned statewide opinion polls, organized educational seminars for legislators and "opinion makers", and hired lobbyists in almost every state seriously considering NPVIC legislation. NPVIC was announced at a press conference in Washington, D.C., on February 23, 2006, with the endorsement of former US Senator Birch Bayh; Chellie Pingree, president of Common Cause; Rob Richie, executive director of FairVote; and former US Representatives John Anderson and John Buchanan. NPV, Inc. announced it planned to introduce legislation in all 50 states and had already done so in Illinois. "To many observers, the NPVIC looked initially to be an implausible, long-shot approach to reform", but within months of the campaign's launch, several major newspapers including The New York Times and Los Angeles Times, published favorable editorials. Shortly after the press conference, NPVIC legislation was introduced in five additional state legislatures, "most with bipartisan support". It passed in the Colorado Senate, and in both houses of the California legislature before being vetoed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. ### Adoption In 2007, NPVIC legislation was introduced in 42 states. It was passed by at least one legislative chamber in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, New Jersey, North Carolina, Maryland, and Hawaii. Maryland became the first state to join the compact when Governor Martin O'Malley signed it into law on April 10, 2007. NPVIC legislation has been introduced in all 50 states. , the NPVIC has been adopted by states and the District of Columbia; notably, no Republican governor has yet signed it into law. Together, they have electoral votes, which is of the Electoral College and of the 270 votes needed to give the compact legal force. In Nevada, the legislation passed both chambers in 2019, but was vetoed by Gov. Steve Sisolak (D) on May 30, 2019. In Maine, the legislation also passed both chambers in 2019, but failed the additional enactment vote in the House. States where only one chamber has passed the legislation are Arizona, Arkansas, Michigan, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and Virginia. Bills seeking to repeal the compact in Connecticut, Maryland, New Jersey, and Washington have failed. #### Initiatives and referendums In Maine, an initiative to join the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact began collecting signatures on April 17, 2016. It failed to collect enough signatures to appear on the ballot. In Arizona, a similar initiative began collecting signatures on December 19, 2016, but failed to collect the required 150,642 signatures by July 5, 2018. In Missouri, an initiative did not collect the required number of signatures before the deadline of May 6, 2018. Colorado Proposition 113, a ballot measure seeking to overturn Colorado's adoption of the compact, was on the November 3, 2020 ballot; Colorado's membership was affirmed by a vote of 52.3% to 47.7% in the referendum. ### Prospects Political analyst Nate Silver noted in 2014 that all jurisdictions that had adopted the compact at that time were blue states (all of the states who have joined the compact then and since have given all of their electoral college votes to the Democratic candidate in every Presidential election since the compact's inception), and that there were not enough electoral votes from the remaining blue states to achieve the required majority. He concluded that, as swing states were unlikely to support a compact that reduces their influence, the compact could not succeed without adoption by some red states as well. Republican-led chambers have adopted the measure in New York (2011), Oklahoma (2014), and Arizona (2016), and the measure has been unanimously approved by Republican-led committees in Georgia and Missouri, prior to the 2016 election. On March 15, 2019, Colorado became the most "purple" state to join the compact, though no Republican legislators supported the bill and Colorado had a state government trifecta under Democrats. It was later submitted to a referendum, approved by 52% of voters. In April 2021, reapportionment following the 2020 census caused NPVIC members California, Illinois and New York to each lose one electoral vote, and Colorado and Oregon to each gain one, causing the total electoral votes represented by members to fall from 196 to 195. #### Novel opposing action by North Dakota On February 17, 2021, the North Dakota Senate passed SB 2271, "to amend and reenact sections ... relating to procedures for canvassing and counting votes for presidential electors" in a deliberate—albeit indirect—effort to stymie the efficacy of the NPVIC by prohibiting disclosure of the state's popular vote until after the Electoral College meets. Later the bill was entirely rewritten as only a statement of intent and ordering a study for future recommendations, and this version was signed into law. ## Bills and referendums ### Bills in latest session The table below lists all state bills to join the NPVIC introduced in a state's current or most recent legislative session. This includes all bills that are law, pending or have failed. The "EVs" column indicates the number of electoral votes each state has. ### Bills receiving floor votes in previous sessions The table below lists past bills that received a floor vote (a vote by the full chamber) in at least one chamber of the state's legislature. Bills that failed without a floor vote are not listed. The "EVs" column indicates the number of electoral votes the state had at the time of the latest vote on the bill. This number may have changed since then due to reapportionment after the 2010 and 2020 census. ### Referendums ## See also - Electoral reform in the United States - Every Vote Counts Amendment - Ranked-choice voting in the United States
431,813	Jack and Jill	1,152,455,456	English nursery rhyme	[ "English nursery rhymes", "Jack tales", "Literary duos", "Songs about fictional female characters", "Songs about fictional male characters" ]	"Jack and Jill" (sometimes "Jack and Gill", particularly in earlier versions) is a traditional English nursery rhyme. The Roud Folk Song Index classifies the commonest tune and its variations as number 10266, although it has been set to several others. The original rhyme dates back to the 18th century and different numbers of verses were later added, each with variations in the wording. Throughout the 19th century new versions of the story were written featuring different incidents. A number of theories continue to be advanced to explain the rhyme’s historical origin. ## Text The earliest version of the rhyme was in a reprint of John Newbery's Mother Goose's Melody, thought to have been first published in London around 1765. The rhyming of "water" with "after" was taken by Iona and Peter Opie to suggest that the first verse might date from the 17th century.[^1] Jill was originally spelled Gill in the earliest version of the rhyme and the accompanying woodcut showed two boys at the foot of the hill. > > Jack and Gill went up the hill To fetch a pail of water; Jack fell down and broke his crown And Gill came tumbling after. Later the spelling was changed to Jill and more verses were added to carry the story further, of which the commonest are: > > Up Jack got and home did trot, As fast as he could caper; Went to bed to mend his head With vinegar and brown paper. > > > > Jill came in and she did grin To see his paper plaster; Mother, vex’d, did whip her next For causing Jack's disaster. As presented over the following century, the rhyming scheme of the six-line stanzas is AABCCB and they are trochaic in rhythm. Alternatively, when given the form of internally rhymed quatrains, this would be an example of the ballad form commonly used for nursery rhymes. The phrase "Jack and Jill" existed earlier in England to indicate a boy and girl as a generic pair. It is so used, for example, in the proverb "Every Jack (shall/must) have his Jill", to which there are references in two plays by William Shakespeare dating from the 1590s. The compress of vinegar and brown paper to which Jack resorted after his fall was a common home cure used to heal bruises. ## New versions Though approximately the words above are what have survived of the nursery rhyme to the present, their sense is preserved at the start of a 15-stanza chapbook, Jack & Jill and Old Dame Gill, published in 1806. The work dates from the period when children’s literature was beginning to shift from instruction to fun in the wake of the success of Old Mother Hubbard and kindred works. This change of emphasis was signalled by the book's coloured illustrations and introductory epigraph: "Read it who will, They’ll laugh their fill". In this version the trio of Jack, Jill, and their mother Dame Gill experience further mishaps involving the dog Ball, an attack from a goat, falls from a see-saw, a swing and a pig, followed by a parental whipping for getting dirty. Many pirated editions of the work followed from both London and provincial presses, accompanied by black and white as well as coloured woodcuts. Sometimes there were several different editions from the same press, such as, for example, the Banbury editions of John Golby Rusher (1784–1877) between 1835–1845. The wording also varied in these, and there were multiplications of the creatures involved in the adventures of the three protagonists – a donkey, a reindeer, a bull, a goose and a camel. As the decades advanced there were changes in form as well as wording. An 1840s edition from Otley, titled The adventures of Jack & Jill and old Dame Jill, was written in longer and more circumstantial quatrains of between ten and twelve syllables, rhymed AABB. Among other changes in the poem, Jack's injuries are treated, not with vinegar and brown paper, but "spread all over with sugar and rum". There were also radical changes in the telling of the story in America. Among the Juvenile Songs rewritten and set to music by Fanny E. Lacy (Boston 1852) was a six-stanza version of Jack and Jill. Having related their climb and fall from the hill, the rest of the poem is devoted to a warning against social climbing: "By this we see that folks should be/ Contented with their station,/ And never try to look so high/ Above their situation." There is a similar tendency to moral instruction in the three "chapters" of Jack and Jill, for old and young by Lawrence Augustus Gobright (1816–1879), published in Philadelphia in 1873. There the pair have grown up to be a devoted and industrious married couple; the fall is circumstantially explained and the cure afterwards drawn out over many, many quatrains. In the introduction to his work, Gobright makes the claim that the two-stanza version of the original nursery rhyme was, in earlier editions, followed by two more: > > Little Jane ran up the lane To hang her clothes a-drying; She called for Nell to ring the bell, For Jack and Jill were dying. Nimble Dick ran up so quick, He tumbled over a timber, And bent his bow to shoot a crow, And killed a cat in the window. No such verses are found in English editions, although they do appear in a later American edition of Mother Goose's nursery rhymes, tales and jingles (New York 1902). Yet another American variation on the story appeared in the Saint Nicholas Magazine. This was Margaret Johnson's "A New Jack and Jill", in which the brother and sister constantly return with an empty bucket because they have not noticed that there is a hole in it. Clifton Bingham (1859–1913) followed it with "The New Jack and Jill", which appeared in the children’s album Fun and Frolic (London and New York, 1900), illustrated by Louis Wain. Here there is a return to the six-line stanza form: > > Jack and Jill Went up the hill To fetch a pail of milk, oh! Jack was drest In his Sunday best, And Jill in her gown of silk, oh! But the cow objects and chases them down again. The exclamatory style used in all three stanzas replicates that used only in the sixth stanza of the popular Jack and Jill and Old Dame Gill. ## Musical settings A musical arrangement of the rhyme as a catch by Charles Burney was published in 1777, at a date earlier than any still existing copy of Mother Goose's Melody. But the melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded with the three stanza version by the composer and nursery lore collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs (1870), which was published in America as Mother Goose Set to Music the following year. And in 1877 the single-stanza version illustrated by Walter Crane appeared in The Baby's Opera (London 1877), which described itself as "a book of old rhymes in new dresses, the music by the earliest masters". The Victorian composer Alfred James Caldicott, who distinguished himself by setting several nursery rhymes as ingenious part songs, adapted "Jack and Jill" as one in 1878. These works were described by the Dictionary of National Biography as a "humorous admixture of childish words and very complicated music...with full use of contrast and the opportunities afforded by individual words". Among American adaptations of his work for female voices, there were settings by E. M. Bowman (New York, 1883) and Charles R. Ford (Boston, 1885). In Canada, Spencer Percival was responsible for a part-song of his own for four voices, first performed in 1882. Sigmund Spaeth was eventually to have fun with the rhyme by adapting it to a number of bygone musical styles as The musical adventures of Jack & Jill in Words & Music: A Book of Burlesques, (Simon and Schuster, 1926). These included a Handel aria, Italian operatic and Wagnerian versions. Later on the English composer Geoffrey Hartley (1906–1992) set the original as a chamber piece for horn and two bassoons, or for wind trio (1975), and later reset it as a bassoon trio. ## Interpretations There are several theories concerning the origin of the rhyme. Most such explanations postdate the first publication of the rhyme and have no corroborating evidence. S. Baring-Gould suggested that the rhyme is related to a story in the 13th-century Icelandic Gylfaginning'' in which the brother and sister Hjuki and Bil were stolen by the Moon while drawing water from a well, to be seen there to this day. Other suggestions rooted in history include a reference to the executions of Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley in 1510, or to a marriage negotiation conducted by Thomas Wolsey in 1514. Alternatively it has been taken to satirise the attempt by King Charles I of England to raise extra revenue by ordering that the volume of a Jack (1/8 pint) be reduced, while the tax remained the same. In consequence of this, the Gill (a quarter pint in liquid measure) "came tumbling after". There is also a belief in Somerset that the rhyme records events in the village of Kilmersdon when a local girl became pregnant; the putative father is said to have died from a rockfall and the woman afterwards died in childbirth. The local surname of Gilson is therefore taken to derive from Gill's son. A more prosaic origin of the rhyme is suggested by historian Edward A. Martin, who notes that pails of water may readily have been collected from dew ponds, which were located on the tops of hills. ## See also - List of nursery rhymes [^1]: The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, OUP 1997, pp.265-7
67,809,292	Borocera cajani	1,170,426,192	Species of moth	[ "Endemic fauna of Madagascar", "Lasiocampidae", "Malagasy cuisine", "Moths described in 1863", "Moths of Madagascar", "Sericulture" ]	Borocera cajani, also known as landibe in Malagasy, is a species of silk-producing lasiocampid moth endemic to Madagascar. It is often confused with the similar Borocera madagascariensis, which has the same Malagasy name. However, B. cajani is the species associated with silk production in highland Madagascar, while B. madagascariensis is found in the coastal portion of the island. Landibe moths are distributed throughout the highland tapia forests of inland Madagascar, including the zones of Imamo [fr] and Itremo massif, Isalo National Park, and the Col des Tapia. It flies all year within the tapia forest. B. cajani produces a form of wild silk which has been harvested by the indigenous Malagasy people of the Madagascar highlands for hundreds of years. Silk production and weaving take place in different communities. A local center for the production of landibe silk is the central Madagascar town of Sahatsiho Ambohimanjaka. Wild landibe silk is thicker than that of the common silkworm Bombyx mori. ## Life history B. cajani is bivoltine, and its life history is synchronous with that of the related Europtera punctillata moth. There have been suggestions that the species is trivoltine, and lacks a pupal diapause phase. It has been observed to have asynchronous life cycles depending on the location, with the likely reason being that the Imamo region being slightly more warm and wet compared to the Itremo region. The first generation of eggs is laid during November to January, and the second generation from March to April. Larvae are active from November to February, and March to June/July. Pupae are found in February to March, and July to November. There are five larval stages. Pupae of the second generation are more numerous than the first. The entire life cycle takes between 102 and 192 days to complete. B. cajani feeds on the following plants: Uapaca bojeri, Aphloia theiformis, Erica baroniana, Psychotria retiphlebia, Aristida rufescens, Saccharum viguieri, Imperata cylindrica, Dodonaea madagascariensis, Schizolaena microphylla, Sarcolaena oblongifolia, and Loudetia madagascariensis. Of these host plants, Uapaca bojeri, the tapia tree, forms the overwhelming majority of B. cajani's food. However, it has been raised experimentally to prefer another tree, voafotsy (Aphloia theaeformis). B. cajani is preyed upon by a large variety of birds, bats, reptiles, preying mantids, ants, and spiders. They are subject to parasitism by Ichneumonid and Braconid wasps, as well as the tachinid fly Synthesiomyia nudiseta. It is subject to diseases such as Pébrine, Muscardine, and Flacherie. ## Human interactions ### As food B. cajani is considered a delicacy to the Malagasy people. They eat it in the pupal stage either fried or mixed with chicken and rice. Only pupae are eaten, not the larvae. The Malagasy people call the larvae zana-dandy. ### As a resource The Malagasy people regularly harvest the cocoons of B. cajani, which they call soherina. Landibe silk is harvested by women, who dye the silks using plant dye, mud, and charcoal to give the silk earthy colors. An estimated 10,000 families work within the silk industry within Madagascar. Due to its rarity, landibe silk can sell for high prices, ranging from 100 to 200 American dollars for a few meters. During the colonial period, French authorities attempted to control the landibe industry, with a landibe research center being created by colonial authorities. Joseph Gallieni wrote of landibe silk as an "important issue which directly affects the economic future of Madagascar," with district boundaries planned out according to expected silk revenues within the tapia woodlands. It was later deemed of inferior quality to Bombyx mori silk, locally known as landilikely. The Malagasy buried the deceased in shrouds of silk made from B. cajani cocoons, and they would regularly exhume bodies every 5–10 years to be rewrapped in landibe silk in a practice known as Famadihana or famonosan-drazana. Red-dyed Landibe shrouds are known as lambamena in the Malagasy language, while lighter shades of cloth are known as lambalandy which is wrapped over the initial lambamena layer. The practice of Famadihana is of importance, constituting a form of razana worship. Where beings in a parallel spiritual world constantly interact with the world of the living. The practice is one of simultaneously clothing the corpse, as well as honoring them. While refusing to shroud a corpse is viewed as stripping the body of its status as a human and veneration. Along with funerary shrouds, landibe silk is used to make lamba garments. The lamba is often seen as an iconic Malagasy symbol to the diaspora population, which wear it to represent their cultural heritage. During the rule of Radama I, landibe silk was used to create Western attire such as suits and in the present day, can be used to make high-end fashion. Some elder individuals hold the silk in high regard, and believe that only nobility and elders can wear it, due to its association with the practices of Famadihana. ## Conservation B. cajani is currently unlisted on the IUCN Red List. However a local study noted that the species was "critically endangered" in its local habitat of tapia woodland. From a yield of 100 tons in 1902, landibe silk has fallen to a yield of 43 tons in 2009. Historically, the drop was attributed to zavadolo or spiritual matters, as well as the lack of soron-dandy, a ritual to ensure a large yield of silk. An indirect threat to the silkworms have been bush fires caused by doro tanety, bandits who burn the tapia woodland where the moths are native to cover their tracks during theft, along with deforestation for firewood. ## Gallery
489,505	California State Polytechnic University, Pomona	1,172,453,060	Public university in Pomona, California	[ "1938 establishments in California", "Buildings and structures in Pomona, California", "California State Polytechnic University, Pomona", "California State University campuses", "Education in Pomona, California", "Pomona, California", "Public universities and colleges in California", "Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges", "Technological universities in the United States", "Universities and colleges established in 1938", "Universities and colleges in Los Angeles County, California" ]	California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona, CPP, or Cal Poly), is a public polytechnic university partially in Pomona, California. It has the largest student body of the three polytechnic universities in the California State University system. Cal Poly Pomona began as the southern campus of the California Polytechnic School (today known as Cal Poly San Luis Obispo) in 1938 when the Voorhis School for Boys and its adjacent farm in the city of San Dimas were donated by Charles Voorhis and his son Jerry Voorhis. Cal Poly's southern campus grew further in 1949 when it acquired the University of California, W.K. Kellogg Institute of Animal Husbandry from the University of California. UC's W.K. Kellogg Institute of Animal Husbandry was located in the neighboring city of Pomona, California and had previously belonged to Will Keith Kellogg. Cal Poly Pomona, then known as Cal Poly Kellogg-Voorhis, and Cal Poly San Luis Obispo continued operations under a unified administrative control until they became independent from one another in 1966. Cal Poly Pomona currently offers bachelor's degrees in 94 majors, 39 master's degree programs, 13 teaching credentials, and a doctorate across 9 distinct academic colleges. The university is one among a small group of polytechnic universities in the United States which tend to be primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences. Cal Poly, Pomona is an Hispanic-serving institution (HSI) and is eligible to be designated as an Asian American Native American Pacific Islander serving institution (AANAPISI). Its sports teams are known as the Cal Poly Pomona Broncos and play in the NCAA Division II as part of the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA). The Broncos sponsor 10 varsity sports and have won 14 NCAA national championships. Current and former Cal Poly Pomona athletes have won 7 Olympic medals (3 gold, 1 silver, and 3 bronze). Past and present faculty and alumni include 43 Fulbright Scholars, 2 Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2 Academy Award winners, 2 Olympic medalists, 2 members of the U.S. House of Representatives, a U.S. Secretary of Labor, a Pritzker Prize laureate, a Heisman Trophy winner, a member of the National Academies, and an Emmy Award winner. ## History Events leading to the foundation of present-day Cal Poly at Pomona began with the ending of the Voorhis School for Boys near Walnut Creek in San Dimas, California and its acquisition by the San Luis Obispo-based California Polytechnic School in 1938. The California Polytechnic School was founded as a vocational high school when California Governor Henry Gage signed the Polytechnic School Bill on March 8, 1901, after its drafting by school founder Myron Angel. Voorhis School, on the other hand, had been established in 1928 as a private vocational school which provided elementary schooling for underprivileged boys and operated under the Christian religious principle, "education coupled with the Kingdom of God". Its founder Charles B. Voorhis and headmaster Jerry Voorhis maintained the school opened throughout the worst years of the Great Depression but persistent economic pressures forced them to transfer control to Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in 1938. Voorhis School became the Cal Poly-Voorhis Unit and its educational offerings were raised to the same level as Cal Poly San Luis Obispo's, then a two-year college. The horticulture program was moved to the new satellite campus and the two units operated as one institution spanning two locations under the leadership of president Julian McPhee. During World War II most of the student body was called to active military duty; enrollment declined and the campus closed in 1943. Reopening after the war, Cal Poly-Voorhis Unit operated in San Dimas until 1956 when it moved to Will Keith Kellogg’s former horse ranch in the neighboring city of Pomona, California. Acknowledging its Kellogg legacy, Cal Poly-Voorhis Unit changed its name to Cal Poly Kellogg-Voorhis Unit and offered six programs in agriculture. The inaugural class of 1957 at the new campus consisted of 57 students graduating with bachelor’s degrees in a ceremony held at the Rose Garden in Pomona and religious services at Voorhis Chapel in San Dimas. Also in 1957, Cal Poly Kellogg-Voorhis introduced the College of Engineering, the second academic unit after the College of Agriculture. The California Master Plan for Higher Education added the two Cal Poly campuses to the new California State College system in 1961 and Cal Poly Kellogg-Voorhis Unit opened its doors for the first time to 329 female students. President McPhee retired in 1966, and Cal Poly split into two different and independent universities. The partnership between the two campuses remains with their involvement in the annual Cal Poly Universities Rose Float. To better reflect its new ties to the California State College system, Cal Poly Kellogg-Voorhis changed its name to "California State Polytechnic College, Kellogg-Voorhis" in 1966 and became the 16th campus to officially join the CSC system. Robert C. Kramer assumed presidency of the independent campus in 1966 (second overall as the university recognizes McPhee as its first) and California State Polytechnic College, Kellogg-Voorhis finally adopted its present-day name California State Polytechnic University, Pomona on June 1, 1972. In 1998, Cal Poly Pomona received criticism when it planned to grant an honorary degree to Robert Mugabe. Mugabe's negative humanitarian record as president of Zimbabwe lead to protests from staff, faculty and students, ultimately forcing the university to rescind the plan. Cal Poly Pomona underwent further growth in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with the construction of the CLA Building (demolished in 2022), academic facilities, expansion to the Cal Poly Pomona University Library and the addition of programs such as the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies, the I-Poly High School and the U.R. Bronco undergraduate research program. Under then-president J. Michael Ortiz, Cal Poly Pomona launched its first comprehensive capital campaign in fall of 2008 to increase its permanent endowment. Nevertheless, the negative economic effects caused by the late-2000s recession resulted in increased student fees, reduced enrollment availability, eliminated two athletic programs and introduced a mandatory furlough calendar for most of its employees. ### Name The campus office of public affairs recognizes two official names for the university: "California State Polytechnic University, Pomona" and "Cal Poly Pomona". However, "Cal Poly" has also been used to refer to Cal Poly at Pomona, as both itself and California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo, California were one institution spanning two locations from 1938 to 1966. Cal Poly's office of public affairs recommends not to abbreviate the university's name merely as "Cal Poly". In the years when the University of California was in charge of Kellogg's donated estate in Pomona (1932–1943), the names "University of California, W.K. Kellogg Institute" and "W.K. Kellogg Institute of Animal Husbandry University of California, Pomona", came into use to describe the site. Although Cal Poly Pomona is now part of the California State University, its naming convention does not follow that of most campuses within the system (for example, the CSU campus in San Diego bears the full official name "San Diego State University" and the CSU campus in Fullerton uses the name "California State University, Fullerton"). "Pomona State University" and "California State University, Pomona" are seldom used and are not in the university's graphic standard's manual. ### Former seals and logos ## Campus Cal Poly Pomona is located partially within the limits of Pomona, a largely suburban city that is part of the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The city of Pomona is located in the eastern portion of Los Angeles County and borders the neighboring county of San Bernardino to the east. The university's 1,725 acres (698 ha) campus make it the second largest in the California State University system, a figure which includes various facilities scattered throughout Southern California such as a 53-acre (21 ha) ranch in Santa Paula, California, 25-acre (10 ha) campus at the former Spadra Landfill (now known as "Spadra Ranch"), and the Neutra VDL Studio and Residences in Silver Lake, Los Angeles. The university is currently negotiating the transfer of the 302 acre Lanterman Developmental Center from the State of California. The land is to be used for academic purposes and expansion of the Innovation Village and also shared by the California Highway Patrol, the California Air Resources Board and the California Conservation Corps. The transfer of the land is part of the Governor's 2015–2016 Proposed Budget. Although part of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the university is in close proximity to two other large metropolitan and culturally-defined regions, the Inland Empire and Orange County. The university has a tier 1 area, defined as a geographical admissions region surrounding the campus, roughly bounded by the San Gabriel Mountains to the north, the city of Chino Hills to the south, Interstate 605 to the west, and Interstate 15 to the east. Cal Poly Pomona's campus buildings vary in age and style from the Mission Revival Kellogg Horse Stables and the Kellogg House (suggesting the Spanish colonial architectural heritage of Southern California) built in the 1920s; the modernist box-like portion of the library completed in 1969; to contemporary dormitories, engineering, science and library-expansion facilities completed in the early 21st century. Leisure and recreational locations include a rose garden which dates back to the Kellogg horse ranch years; the Kellogg House designed by Los Angeles-based architects Charles Gibbs Adams, Myron Hunt and Harold Coulson Chambers in the 1920s; and a 1.3 acres (0.53 ha) Japanese garden built in 2003 and designed by Takeo Uesugi. Kellogg's House features grounds which were initially landscaped by Charles Gibbs Adams but were later completed by Florence Yoch & Lucile Council. Cal Poly Pomona's George and Sakaye Aratani Japanese Garden is one among three under management by institutions of higher education in the County of Los Angeles, the others being the Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden at Cal State Long Beach, and the Shinwa-En Garden at Cal State Dominguez Hills. At the center of the campus and atop Horsehill are the buildings of the Collins College of Hospitality Management and Kellogg West, a hotel and conference center and home of the student/faculty-run Restaurant at Kellogg Ranch. At the northwest part of the campus is the Voorhis Ecological Reserve, which serves as a 31 hectares (77 acres) wildlife corridor containing Coastal Sage Scrub and Coast Live Oak trees among others. Contrasting some of these architecturally prominent facilities, there are various portable buildings on campus which are used to accommodate the growing enrollment of recent decades. Cal Poly Pomona operates the International Polytechnic High School, a college preparatory high school located on campus. The letters "CPP" made of concrete are located on Colt Hill overlooking the campus. The letters "CP" were initially added in 1959, with the second "P" added in 2004 to distinguish it from the Cal Poly campus in San Luis Obispo. Between 1993 and 2022, Cal Poly Pomona's dominant landmark was a futurist-styled administrative facility known as the CLA Building which was designed by Antoine Predock and opened in 1993. The building's peculiar shape (standing out by a triangular-shaped "skyroom" atop its eight-story tower) became a symbol of the university; in addition, its close location to film studios based in the Hollywood borough of Los Angeles have prompted its inclusion in motion pictures such as Gattaca and Impostor. In 2013, the California State University Board of Trustees voted to demolish the building and replace it with a new academic/faculty complex because of severe seismic risks, as determined when now reviewed in the context of more recent seismic research than was required by building codes at the time of its original design and building permit. Despite the fact that numerous other buildings on the CPP campus are much older, which brings into question their adequacy as they too sit on the same presumed fault line, only the CLA building was to be completely demolished by the end of summer 2022. Noted modernist architect James Pulliam once served as campus architect and instructor and designed the Bookstore, W. Keith and Janet Kellogg Art Gallery, Interim Design Center (IDC) and Student Union building which architectural historian David Gebhard regarded as the best building on campus. ### Academic and research facilities The W. K. Kellogg Arabian Horse Center is an academic and research facility serving one of the 22 terms and conditions to the donation of the Kellogg ranch by maintaining Kellogg's purebred Arabian horses and their breeding program. Another academic facility highlighting the Kellogg legacy is the Horse Stables (also known as University Plaza) which contains a small research library specializing in equine studies along with offices for student services and various campus organizations. Conceived in 1995 by then university president, Bob H. Suzuki, and initially financed by NASA and the Economic Development Administration, the Innovation Village is a 65-acre (26 ha) public/private partnership research and business facility at the southern edge of the campus. Major tenants include the American Red Cross, Southern California Edison, and the NASA Commercialization Center. The project is currently at the halfway mark of building and leasing 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of the projected total building space. Once complete, it is estimated that the project would employ 2000 to 3000 people and provide half a billion dollars of economic benefits to the local, regional and state economies. ### Campus sustainability and transportation The university has actively sought to reduce carbon emissions and energy usage on campus. In November 2007, Cal Poly Pomona became a signatory member of the American College & University Presidents Climate Commitment. Among other things, this committed the university to ensure that within one year, it would purchase or produce at least 15% of the institution's electric consumption from renewable sources. The university, along with other members in the CSU, is also a member of the California Climate Action Registry. and lists on The Princeton Review's Guide to 375 Green Colleges. As a part of the campus' Climate Action Plan to reduce its carbon footprint, the campus offers incentive parking for students and faculty participating in its Rideshare program. The carpooling initiative gives users the opportunity to park in reserved spaces located closer to campus buildings. Cal Poly Pomona's institute for sustainability education is the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies. The center was built adjacent to an old landfill and conducts research in the areas of sustainable technology and agriculture. As an example of Cradle to Cradle Design, it uses solar-powered dormitories, aquaculture ponds, and organic gardens while providing environmentally-sustainable housing accommodation for 22 graduate students. In 2010, with the installation of a 210,000 kW hours CPV system by Amonix, the center became the first carbon neutral facility in the California State University system. The center is part of Agriscapes, a 40-acre (16 ha) research project that showcases environmental and agricultural sustainable practices including methods to grow food, conserve water and energy and recycle urban waste. Agriscapes is home of the Farm Store at Kellogg Ranch which sells locally and campus-grown foods and products. Cal Poly Pomona campus also contains a rainforest greenhouse, a California ethnobotany garden, and an aquatic biology center collectively known as BioTrek, which provides environmental education to all academic levels. The entire campus community is served by a free campus shuttle system known as "Bronco Express". The shuttle system has 3 lines and is run by the office of Transportation Services. In addition, PTS also offers a shuttle service known as "Metrolink" which provides both students and faculty a direct connection from the Pomona North and Downtown Pomona Metrolink stations to the CLA Building. Foothill Transit lines 190, 194, 195, 289, 480, 482, and 486 serve the campus daily. ### Seismic risks and other challenges of campus development Although it is believed that the San Jose Fault as indicated by USGS having a presumed period of 130,000 years runs through campus, and geotechnical investigations have been conducted, there is uncertainty regarding its precise type and location. The CLA Building has been said to suffer from "structural flaws" that do not seem to have been clearly publicized, except that they had been "most notably, water intrusion", which continues to be portrayed inaccurately as a "structural flaw". In 2005, the university filed a lawsuit against a contractor, for which it was compensated \$13.3 million in an out-of-court settlement. Amid these concerns, in September 2010, CSU's board of trustees approved a proposal to have the building razed. Hideo Sasaki's architectural firm, Sasaki Associates, Inc., found in the February 2010 master plan that the campus's seismic risk, uneven terrain, lack of parking spaces, small classrooms, and pedestrian-unfriendly roads are major constraints for future campus development. It also indicated the lack of identity, an undefined sense of arrival, and a desire to build a stronger on-campus community, among others, as recurrent themes among campus's users. Nonetheless, the firm highlights campus ethnic diversity, its location-climate, and the natural beauty of campus, among others, as positive aspects of the physical campus as well as the campus life experience. It may be appropriate for the CSU ## Organization and administration Cal Poly at Pomona is one of three polytechnics in the 23-member California State University system. The CSU system is governed by a 25-member board of trustees, including one faculty trustee, one alumni trustee, and two student trustees, and has authority over curricular development, campus planning, and fiscal management. The university system is currently governed by Chancellor Jolene Koester, who assumed the office on an interim basis in 2022. The chief executive of the Cal Poly Pomona campus is President Soraya M. Coley. Cal Poly Pomona is a member of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU) ### University Educational Trust (UET) The University Educational Trust (UET) was a 501 (c)(3) tax-exempt organization serving as a source of external fund-raising, funds-management and revenue-distribution at Cal Poly Pomona. According to meeting minutes from 2011, the "Cal Poly Pomona University Educational Trust (UET) Board of Directors, the Chancellor's Office and University Administration made the decision to dissolve the UET and transfer all of its net assets to the Cal Poly Pomona Foundation, Inc." ### Endowment Cal Poly Pomona financial endowment was valued at \$85.6 million as of 30 June 2016. In fall 2010, Cal Poly Pomona embarked on its first comprehensive fundraising campaign. Early major donors helped raise more than half of the campaign's goal of \$150 million before its formal launch. They included an anonymous benefactor who pledged \$12 million, and \$2 million from 1980 alumni Mickey and Lee Segal. Just before the campaign launch, on July 26, 2010, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation awarded a \$42 million challenge grant to the university to increase educational access to underrepresented communities, making it the largest cash gift in the history of the CSU system. On February 28, 2011, Panda Express founders Andrew and Peggy Cherng announced a \$2.5 million pledge to Cal Poly Pomona's Collins College of Hospitality Management. The university expects that its permanent endowment at the conclusion of its first comprehensive campaign will top \$100 million. On June 15, 2021, philanthropist MacKenzie Scott made a \$40 million cash gift to Cal Poly Pomona, making it the largest donation or grant to Cal Poly Pomona given by an individual. ## Academics Cal Poly Pomona's academic offerings have evolved throughout the years. Prior to the ownership shift to Cal Poly SLO in 1938, the Voorhis School for Boys in San Dimas had been providing educational offerings in "music, bookkeeping, agriculture, library work, carpentry, nature study, machine shop, and printing" coupled with Christian religious fundamentals to an all-male student body with poor, underage boys. In 1938, the campus became the agricultural branch of Cal Poly SLO when a small staff was transfer from San Luis Obispo along with group of agricultural inspection students. Thus, Cal Poly at Pomona (then just Cal Poly) began offering Associate's degrees in 1938 and Bachelor's degrees in 1940 when, despite legislative opposition from pro-University of California members in Sacramento, president Julian McPhee asked allied members Armistead B. Carter and Daniel C. Murphy to introduce the bill when two opposing members were not present to vote. Following the governance breakup with the San Luis Obispo in 1966, and as outlined by the 1960 California Master Plan for Higher Education, Cal Poly Pomona continued "offer[ing] undergraduate and graduate instruction through the master's degree in the liberal arts and sciences and professional education, including teacher education." Currently, Cal Poly Pomona promotes a "learn by doing" philosophy, where an essential part of the curriculum is hands-on application of knowledge. Merriam-Webster mentions that "polytechnic", a word first known to have been used in 1798, is derived from the French polytechnique which contains the Greek-roots "poly" (English:many) and "technē" (art). Thus, Merriam-Webster defines "polytechnic" as, "relating to or devoted to instruction in many technical arts or applied sciences". Cal Poly Pomona's polytechnic approach, and learn-by-doing philosophy, encourages students in all programs to get real-world experience and skills necessary to join the workforce upon graduation. In addition, the university is among six other institutions of higher education in California that have been designated a "Center of Academic Excellence" by the Department of Homeland Security and the National Security Agency (NSA). While all majors are encouraged to participate in co-op opportunities and internships, all students must do a senior research project. The 300,000 sq ft (28,000 m<sup>2</sup>) Cal Poly Pomona University Library serves "as the central intellectual and cultural resource of the campus community" and contains 2.4 million items and serves as an important center for academic research. Built in 1969 for \$4.2 million, the library underwent a major renovation and expansion completed in the summer of 2008 at a cost of over \$46 million. The library participates in the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) Enhance program which allows it to correct or add information to bibliographic records in WorldCat. ### Distinctions The university boasts many nationally acclaimed academic colleges and programs. With approximately 5,000 students, its college of Engineering is the second largest in the California State University system. The university has the largest Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Civil Engineering, and Construction Engineering programs in the CSU, and is the only campus to offer an Engineering Technology focus. Just behind Cal State Fullerton, the university has the second largest Business Administration major in the CSU with nearly 5,000 students. Its Hospitality program is the largest in the CSU and one of the largest in all of the US, with approximately 1,000 students enrolled. Overall, the university holds the fourth largest business college in the CSU. ### Rankings According to U.S. News & World Reports 2023 "Best Regional Universities West Rankings," Cal Poly Pomona is ranked 14th in the western United States for regional public schools whose highest degree is a Master's, 3rd in Top Public Schools, 4th for Most Innovative School, 6 in Best Undergraduate Teaching, 7 in Top Performers on Social Mobility (tie) and 26 in Best Value School. The same report ranked the College of Engineering for 10th out of undergraduate engineering schools in the U.S. where doctorates are not offered, with national program rankings of: - Computer Engineering: 2nd - Civil Engineering: 3rd - Aerospace Engineering: 5th - Electrical Engineering: 8th - Mechanical Engineering: 8th According to U.S. News & World Report'''s 2022 "Best Regional Universities West Rankings," Cal Poly Pomona is ranked 14th in the western United States for regional public schools whose highest degree is a Master's, 3rd in Top Public Schools, 3rd for Most Innovative School, 6 in Best Undergraduate Teaching (tie), 7 in Top Performers on Social Mobility (tie) and 37 in Best Value School. The same report ranked the College of Engineering tied for 11th out of undergraduate engineering schools in the U.S. where doctorates are not offered, with national program rankings of: - Civil Engineering: 4th - Computer Engineering: 3rd - Electrical Engineering: 4th (tied) - Mechanical Engineering: 9th According to U.S. News & World Reports 2021 "Best Regional Universities West Rankings," Cal Poly Pomona is ranked 2nd in the western United States for regional public schools whose highest degree is a Master's, 3rd for Most Innovative School, and tied for 10th overall (including private schools). The same report ranked the College of Engineering tied for 11th out of undergraduate engineering schools in the U.S. where doctorates are not offered, with national program rankings of: - Aerospace Engineering: 3rd (tied) - Civil Engineering: 6th - Computer Engineering: 4th (tied) - Electrical Engineering: 8th (tied) - Industrial Engineering: 2nd - Mechanical Engineering: 8th Money Magazine ranked Cal Poly Pomona 15th in the country out of more than 700 schools it evaluated for its 2020 Best Colleges ranking. The Daily Beast ranked Cal Poly Pomona 159th in the country out of the nearly 2000 schools it evaluated for its 2014 Best Colleges ranking. In Forbes magazine's 2019 list of "America's Best Colleges", Cal Poly Pomona was ranked number 273 among the 650 best public and private colleges and universities in the nation. In the 2012 "PayScale College Salary Report" conducted by PayScale of bachelor's graduates without higher degrees, Cal Poly Pomona ranked 19th among public universities in the country with a starting median salary of \$46,800 and a mid-career median salary of \$93,000. This places Cal Poly Pomona the fourth highest in California and the second highest in the CSU, while besting every UC with the exception of Berkeley and San Diego. In December 2014 Kiplinger ranked Cal Poly Pomona 94th out of the top 100 best-value public schools in the nation, and 11th in California. Furthermore, Cal Poly Pomona is considered one of the top investments for educational value, with a 2013 net 30-year return on investment (ROI) of \$917,100 according to PayScale. This ROI is the third highest in the CSU and 113th highest of the 1,511 US colleges and universities that were ranked, besting most UC campuses. ### Admissions The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and U.S. News & World Report describe Cal Poly Pomona's admissions process as "selective". The CSU system lists Cal Poly Pomona among 16 of its institutions with higher admission standards for first-time freshmen. For the Fall of 2016 there were 32,917 first-time, first year applicants: 19,474 were admitted (51.9%) and 4,204 enrolled (an admissions yield of 21.6%). The middle 50% range of SAT scores was 440-560 for reading and 460–600 for math, while the middle 50% ACT Composite range was 20–27. Of the enrolled freshmen, 25.6% had a high school GPA of 3.75 or higher, while the average GPA was 3.45. Freshmen applicants who graduate high school outside Cal Poly Pomona's Tier 1 area (known as Tier 2 applicants) are rank ordered by eligibility index and granted admission based on a year-specific cutoff score. Since academic year 2010–2011, Tier 1 applicants may no longer be guaranteed admissions based on the CSU Eligibility Index and may be subject to similar criteria as Tier 2 applicants. #### Demographics Cal Poly Pomona is an ethnically and culturally diverse university, self-described as "Champions of Diversity", College Prowler states that "Cal Poly is the melting pot of the Cal States". As of 2018 Cal Poly Pomona has the third largest enrollment percentage of Asian Americans in the Cal State System. Cal Poly Pomona has over 1,000 visa-bearing international students. #### Impaction During the fall admissions filing period, the CSU designates academic programs where more applications are received than can be accommodated by the campus, and designates them as "impacted". At Cal Poly Pomona, impacted academic programs include: Animal Health Science, Animal Science, Aerospace Engineering, Chemical and Materials Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Architecture, Psychology, Sociology, Communication, Biology, Biotechnology, and undeclared programs. As such, applicants are rank ordered by eligibility index regardless of local admissions area and are accepted as space permits. Cal Poly Pomona students who wish to change majors to an impacted program must meet supplemental requirements required for that major. Requesting a change to an impacted major must be received by the end of the initial filing period for the term for which new majors are being accepted (i.e. By February 28, 2010, for summer 2011; November 30, 2010 for fall 2011; June 30, 2011 for winter 2012; or August 31, 2011 for spring 2012). ## Student life ### Housing With an on-campus housing capacity of 3,519 students, Cal Poly Pomona has the fifth largest housing system in the California State University. In 2016, 39% of first-year students and 10% of all students live in college housing. There are three residential styles on the Pomona campus. The oldest housing facilities consist of six residential halls, known as the Traditional Halls, located on University Drive. The four older red-brick halls are named Alamitos, Aliso, Encinitas, and Montecito, each providing accommodation for up to 212 residents. The other two housing halls (Cedritos and Palmitas), were the result of a 1968 development and each has room to accommodate up to 185 residents. These two halls were described as eligible for the California Historic Register as "a significant example of the work of highly noted Southern California architectural firm, Smith and Williams". Newer residential complexes include the University Village and the Suites which offer apartment-style living to non-freshman students. The Residence Halls, Traditional Halls, and the Suites are managed by the Division of Student Affairs, whereas the University Village is managed by the Cal Poly Pomona Foundation. Phase I of the construction of the Suites, housing 420 students, was completed in 2004 and Phase II, housing 622 students, opened in 2010. In an effort to reduce commuting and raise academic performance and retention, starting with the 2010–2011 academic year, freshmen from outside the Tier 1 Local Admissions area (the area roughly bounded by the San Gabriel Mountains and Chino Hills to the north and south and the 15 and 605 freeways to the east and west), will be required to live on campus. Currently, there have been ongoing efforts to grow the residential community on campus. In 2017, construction began on two new residential halls (Sicomoro and Secoya) along with a new dining hall (Centerpointe Dining Commons), which are intended to replace the aging and seismically unfit residential community along University Drive. The new Residence Halls opened to select first-year residents in January 2020. The Residence Halls can house 980 residents and are only open to first-year students. ### Bronco Student Center The Bronco Student Center is a student activity center for meetings, conferences, meals, recreation, and shopping for students and alumni on the campus of Cal Poly Pomona in Pomona, California. This is where ASI student government offices are located, as well as other various student run departments like facilities and operations, Recreation, Programming and Marketing (RPM), Business Services, Games Room Etc. (GRE). ### LGBT-Friendly campus According to the Advocate College Guide for LGBT Students, Cal Poly Pomona is one of the nation's best campuses for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender students. The university offers gender-neutral housing, a pride center for LGBT students, the club oSTEM (out in STEM) and Pride Alliance for faculty and staff members. ### Campus media Campus events are covered by the student newspaper, the Poly Post. The Bronco Sports Show is a quarterly television broadcast capturing the highlights and statistics from Bronco Athletics along with other featured events around the campus. PolyCentric'' is the university's official online magazine. PolyCentric features news, announcements of campus events, spotlights on various departments, and resources for faculty and staff. A web site also provides a comprehensive archival search for past articles and photos. ### Bronco Pep Band The Bronco Pep Band is a student-run band at Cal Poly Pomona. The band is a group within the athletic department. It follows the tradition of other student-run bands in the sense that it focuses on its members' individuality. The band attends athletic events during the year to encourage the school's athletic teams and audience support/involvement. The pep band is entirely voluntary and all students at Cal Poly Pomona or anyone else in the area are free to join. ### Greek life Greek Life at Cal Poly Pomona consists of 16 fraternities and 11 sororities governed by the Greek Council. From the total male undergraduate population, 2% are enrolled in fraternities and 1% of women in sororities respectively. In 2005, Lambda Phi Epsilon pledge Kenny Luong died from injuries suffered during a brutal football game between members of the fraternity and those pledging to join it. ### Rose Parade float Cal Poly Pomona together with Cal Poly San Luis Obispo has participated in the Tournament of Roses parade since 1949; winning the Award of Merit in their first year. From 1949 to 2005, the floats have won 44 awards. This joint program is one of the longest consecutive running self-built entries in the parade, as well as the only "self built" floats designed and constructed entirely by students year-round on both campuses. The Rose Float tradition continues today and marks the partnership between the two Cal Poly campuses. ## Athletics ### Voorhis Vikings Before the university moved from San Dimas to Pomona, the college had a handful of athletic teams named the "Voorhis Vikings". They were composed mostly of homeless and orphaned boys of all races who were cared for at the Voorhis School during the ten-year period it operated. Despite this historical background, the university's current athletic programs are named the Broncos. ### Cal Poly Pomona Broncos Cal Poly Pomona varsity teams compete in the California Collegiate Athletic Association of NCAA Division II. Teams are known as the Cal Poly Pomona Broncos and field 10 sports for men and women for the fall, winter, and spring quarters. Cal Poly Pomona's most recent national championship came in 2010 Division II basketball tournament when the university's men's basketball team defeated Indiana University of Pennsylvania 65–53 in the title game. The Broncos are currently the most successful program in the CCAA having achieved 60 CCAA and 14 NCAA National Championships. University athletes have also claimed individual championships in women's tennis (1980, 1981, 1991, and 1992). Besides being located in close proximity to each other, Cal State LA and Cal Poly Pomona have competed heavily as conference rivals. The Broncos excels in Women's basketball in the California Collegiate Athletic Association. Team national championships for the Broncos include the following: - Baseball: 1976, 1980, 1983 - Men's cross country: 1983 - Men's basketball: 2010 - Women's basketball: 1982, 1985, 1986, 2001, 2002 ## Notable people ## See also - California Master Plan for Higher Education
56,864,754	Florence (video game)	1,173,831,308	2018 interactive story and video game	[ "2018 video games", "Adventure games", "Android (operating system) games", "Annapurna Interactive games", "BAFTA winners (video games)", "D.I.C.E. Award for Mobile Game of the Year winners", "IOS games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Puzzle video games", "Romance video games", "Single-player video games", "The Game Awards winners", "Video games developed in Australia", "Video games featuring female protagonists", "Video games scored by Kevin Penkin", "Windows games", "macOS games" ]	Florence is an interactive story and video game developed by the Australian studio Mountains and published by Annapurna Interactive. The game was released on February 14, 2018 (Valentine's Day) for iOS, on March 14, 2018 for Android, and for macOS, Nintendo Switch, and Windows on February 13, 2020. In Florence, the player follows the story of 25-year-old Florence Yeoh as she lives her daily routine and meets Krish, a cellist she sees in the park. The game features little written dialogue and tells Florence's story through a series of brief chapters. Puzzles are used to reinforce pieces of Florence's life as players progress through her story. Lead designer Ken Wong wanted to create games that eschewed violence and was inspired by his work on Monument Valley to have a more narrative-focused experience that included puzzles. The game received critical acclaim that praised the game's art-style, music, and narrative structure, but received some criticism for its ending. ## Gameplay Florence is divided into 20 chapters, each featuring a different portion of Florence Yeoh's life. The chapters are separated into six acts, which represent different portions of Florence's growth and change. The game plays out linearly, requiring input from the player in the form of short minigames which help mimic or reveal Florence's thoughts and actions. These games include: Florence brushing her teeth, Florence following the sound of a cello to find Krish, Krish cleaning his room before Florence visits, and Florence packing up her things when Krish moves in—and giving Krish's things back to him when he moves out—among others. A single play-through of Florence takes approximately 30 minutes. ## Plot The game follows Florence Yeoh, a 25-year-old woman who lives alone and is settled into a monotonous routine of working at her job and mindlessly interacting with social media on her commute. One morning, her phone dies and she follows the sound of a cello and sees Krish, a street performer, for the first time. Krish befriends her and they go out on some dates. They kiss for the first time and begin to take their relationship more seriously. Krish moves in with Florence and is pushed by her to follow his dreams of being a great cellist. As a thank you, Krish gives Florence a painting set and Florence fantasizes about following her passion of being an artist. The couple have their first fight six months later at a grocery store. After a year, the two have fallen into a routine and begin to drift apart. After another fight, Krish moves out. Florence decides to quit her job and follow her painting passion, where she finds success. ## Development After his success with Monument Valley, game designer Ken Wong felt that he had done what he could at his development studio, Ustwo, and wanted to create his own studio. He chose to move back to his native Australia after seeing the game development scene in Melbourne grow. Wong founded a new company, Mountains, in Melbourne. After hiring staff, Mountains had no direction on what kind of game they wanted to create. Wong's approach was to first hire the team and then come up with a solid game. The staff discussed how film and books regularly explored love and human emotions, but that it was missing from game design and it would be a "good challenge." They opted to move forward and create Florence. It was the first game Wong had worked on since Monument Valley. Wong and the rest of the team wanted to create a game that eschewed violence. Wong said, "I wanted to explore what kind of stories and what kind of dynamics we can get without resorting to violence." Mountains decided to make the game on mobile so it could be as accessible as possible. The team's goal was to create a game where players focus on exploring emotions instead of achieving goals. In contrast to Wong's previous game, Monument Valley, Wong wanted to create an experience that was similar to a comic book or silent movie with a focus on narrative. Wong and the team were inspired by film in creating Florence, and specifically cited 500 Days of Summer, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, and Titanic. The developers wanted to make the game a linear experience early on in the process because of a concern that people with more life experience would make the "correct" choices and avoid the moral of the game. Mountains was inspired by the way people consume other media for the emotional connections they bring, and wanted to bring that feeling to video games. The team decided to use music as a substitute for dialogue throughout the game, with the cello representing Krish while the piano follows Florence. Mountains used musical themes for the characters after accidentally creating them during development of the "Groceries" chapter, where Krish and Florence have their first fight. Wong chose the name Florence as she was designed to be a Chinese Australian whose parents picked an "old fashioned name" for their daughter when they immigrated. ### Staff abuse allegations After Florence's release, lead developer Ken Wong was accused of being verbally abusive by one of Mountains's staffers during the development of Florence. One staffer, who served as a lead developer on Florence, accused Wong of abusing him emotionally "to the point of depression and suicide." Another staff member described Wong during this period as "a very cruel person in a position of power who liked to make people feel bad to make himself feel better." Wong publicly apologized for his behavior in a statement, saying, "There are a lot of things I should have done better or differently during that time." The abuse by Wong and its impact on Mountains along with abuse by auteur developers at two other development studios that had publishing contracts with Annapurna Interactive were featured in a March 2022 People Make Games video. A policy was implemented after Florence's development that allowed staff to decline one-on-one meetings with Wong if they thought he was overstepping and to use a safeword that would immediately end any conversation with him. ## Reception ### Critical reception Florence was announced on October 24, 2017. A demo shown publicly at PAX Australia 2017 focused on the first 15 minutes of the game, where it received positive marks from Australian video game journalists. Kotaku Australia's Rae Johnston called Florence her "stand-out game" and felt that the game's minigames succeeded in making her invested in the characters. PC Authority's Alayna Cole praised the game for standing out with a story about love and diversity, describing it as feeling "like a rarity" in modern video game culture. Florence was well received by critics. CJ Andriessen of Destructoid described the game as "a truly beautiful product" and felt that the game was one of the most imaginative storytelling devices he had ever seen. Tim Biggs of The Sydney Morning Herald felt that the minigames made Florence "truly special" and that it was "breathtaking and emotionally affirming". Jordan Erica Webber of The Guardian praised Florence's ability to capture "what it's like to fall in love for the first time." Eurogamer's Christian Donlan noted that the game's puzzle format to life doesn't "quite work" but still loved the journey the game provided. The Hollywood Reporter's Patrick Shanley praised Wong and his team for nailing the "getting to know you" aspect of dating. IGN Japan's Esra Krabbe called it a "universal work of art" and praised it as a game that anyone could play. The Guardian's Simon Parkin listed Florence as his "Game of the Month" and noted that the game never felt trite and was well executed. Many reviewers compared the game to the WarioWare series. The Verge's Andrew Webster compared the game to a "webcomic crossed with Warioware," and Polygon's Allegra Frank praised the game's minigames as making the emotional component of the game resonate with the player. Destructoid's Andriessen echoed Frank on the effectiveness of the minigames and felt that the game was a "beautiful product". Criticism focused on some story elements, specifically its ending. Destructoid's Andriessen stated that the game left him with a "pessimistic opinion" about love and noted that "it's the narcissistic pursuit of their real passion, art, that wins out in the end." Eurogamer's Donlan felt that the ending traded "one easy cliché for another", although concluding that the ending's disappointment may have been the point. ### Sales Florence made its development costs back, but did not make enough money to fund Mountains' next project. Ken Wong, Florence's lead designer, described the game's sales as "okay" and stated that "Premium mobile is tough." At a panel discussion, Wong mentioned that half of the sales for Florence were from China, and noted that more people had played the game in Mandarin than in English. Wong reported at Game Developers Conference 2019 that 88% of sales were on iOS, with 41% of those iOS sales coming from China. ### Accolades The game was a runner-up for "Best Moment or Sequence" with "Trying to Piece the Relationship Back Together" in Giant Bomb's Game of the Year Awards 2018. Polygon named the game among the decade's best.
442,362	Sonic Advance 2	1,172,757,368	2002 video game	[ "2002 video games", "Dimps games", "Game Boy Advance games", "Infogrames games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Sega video games", "Side-scrolling platform games", "Side-scrolling video games", "Sonic Team games", "Sonic the Hedgehog video games", "THQ games", "Video game sequels", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games produced by Yuji Naka", "Video games scored by Tatsuyuki Maeda", "Video games scored by Yutaka Minobe", "Virtual Console games", "Virtual Console games for Wii U", "Windows games" ]	is a 2002 side-scrolling platform video game developed by Dimps for the Game Boy Advance. It is an installment in the Sonic the Hedgehog series and the sequel to 2001's Sonic Advance. The story follows Sonic as he sets out to save his friends and retrieve the seven magical Chaos Emeralds from Dr. Eggman. Gameplay consists of the player completing various levels as one of five characters, each with their own unique attributes. After each zone is completed, the player faces Dr. Eggman in a boss battle. Development began in February 2002 and lasted eight months. Sonic Advance 2 was programmed using an updated version of the original's game engine and the team aimed to make the game larger and faster-paced than the original. Sonic Advance 2 was released to positive reviews; critics praised the updates made over the original Advance and its improved replay value in comparison to past games. Some journalists, however, disliked its high difficulty level. A sequel, Sonic Advance 3, was released in 2004. Sonic Advance 2 was re-released for the Wii U's Virtual Console in February 2016. ## Gameplay Sonic Advance 2 is a side-scrolling platformer similar in gameplay and style to the original Sonic Advance. The player controls Sonic the Hedgehog, who can unlock three other playable characters: Cream the Rabbit and her Chao named Cheese, Tails, and Knuckles the Echidna after defeating Doctor Eggman in specific boss battles. A fifth character, Amy Rose, can be unlocked after completing the game with each character once each of them has all seven Chaos Emeralds. Each character has their own unique moves and abilities. Sonic can perform an "insta-shield" that protects him for a brief moment; Cream and Tails can fly; Knuckles can glide and climb; and Amy can destroy enemies using a hammer. In the tradition of Sonic games, gameplay consists of moving quickly through levels. Levels in the game are divided into seven "zones", each consisting of two acts of normal gameplay then a boss battle, where the player fights Doctor Eggman in order to stop him from taking over the world. The player collects rings as a form of health; when the player is hit by an enemy or obstacle, their rings bounce in all directions, and can be recollected before they disappear. Each character starts the game with three lives, and will lose one if they are hit without carrying any rings, fall into a bottomless pit, crushed, drown, or fail to finish the act within 10 minutes. If the player loses their last life, the game ends prematurely. The player can also collect seven "special rings" to access special stages, where Chaos Emeralds are found. Special stages are on a 3D plane, where the character tries to obtain a set number of rings before time runs out in order to collect a Chaos Emerald. After beating all zones and finding all seven Chaos Emeralds with Sonic, an alternate final act is unlocked. When all of the Chaos Emeralds are collected with the other characters, a sound test feature (where the player can listen to music) and a boss time-attack feature are unlocked, along with the Tiny Chao Garden, where toys for Cheese, can be purchased with rings earned in-game. Various mini-games can also be played in the Tiny Chao Garden. Other game modes include a "time-attack" mode where the player tries to beat a specific act in the shortest amount of time, and a multiplayer mode, where players can race each other through unlocked acts. ## Development and release Sonic Advance 2 was developed by the video game studio Dimps, with assistance from Sonic Team. According to producer Yuji Naka, the developers began designing the concept of the game immediately after the completion of the original Sonic Advance, and full development began in February 2002. The design team decided to increase the speed of the original greatly; thus, the levels were made six times larger. The main development period lasted eight months; it was programmed using an updated version of the original Sonic Advance engine. The developers also refined the graphics and sought to make the game feel more "mechanical". The game also marks the first appearance of Cream the Rabbit in the Sonic series; the character was originally designed for 2003's Sonic Heroes, though she was added to Advance 2 before the release of Heroes to help make the game easier for beginning players. The game's musical score was composed by Yutaka Minobe, Tatsuyuki Maeda and Teruhiko Nakagawa. Sega announced Sonic Advance 2 on July 1, 2002, and showcased it at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2002. It was released in Japan on December 19, 2002, followed by a North American release on March 10, 2003, and in Europe on March 21, 2003. The game was published by Sega in Japan and Europe (with Infogrames as distributor for the latter) and THQ in North America. The game was re-released on the Wii U's Virtual Console in Japan on February 24, 2016. ## Reception Sonic Advance 2 received "generally favorable reviews", according to review aggregator Metacritic. The game was also commercially successful, selling approximately 176,541 copies in Japan, 740,000 copies in the United States, and 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom, for a total of 1.016 million copies. The visuals and presentation were one of the most praised aspects of the game. GameSpot considered the game's graphics to be a major advance from the previous game, feeling that it took more advantage of the Game Boy Advance's capabilities and praised the improved character animations, favorably comparing them to that of a cartoon. IGN offered similar praise, calling its visuals more vibrant, bright, and vivid, and also spoke positively of its "peppy" soundtrack. This sentiment was echoed by AllGame. Nintendo World Report called the music catchy and enjoyable, though they criticized the re-use of certain themes from the original Sonic Advance. Reviewers commended the game's replay value and large level design in comparison to older titles. IGN admired the "massive" designs and felt the levels were much more balanced compared to prior games. They also praised the "crafty" paths for encouraging multiple playthroughs. GameSpot agreed, praising the method of collecting special rings to access special stages and unlock special features for being fun and rewarding. 1UP.com considered this addition interesting and called it "not bad" for the technical limitations of the Game Boy Advance. AllGame, however, felt that the main acts were unoriginal and too short. The game's difficulty polarized critics. Nintendo World Report began their review by warning players of the difficulty, and felt it spoiled an otherwise-good game. GameSpot described Sonic Advance 2 as the hardest game in the entire series, calling its auto-scrolling boss fights "positively cutthroat", though they did believe that the game's amount of playable characters helped reduce this difficulty. The difficulty was cited as the game's only problem by IGN. 1UP, however, considered it a positive aspect, calling it "a welcome breath of fresh difficulty in this modern age of gaming." Of the game as a whole, GameSpot felt Sega's risks to deviate from past Sonic games in terms of difficulty and size paid off handsomely. Nintendo Power stated that, while Sonic Advance 2 did not present significant advances beyond the first game, it was still a "solid action title". Despite this, AllGame called it a boring, unoriginal retread, and "more subsonic than supersonic". ## Legacy Cream the Rabbit, who was introduced in Sonic Advance 2, would feature predominantly in future Sonic games. A direct sequel, Sonic Advance 3, was released in 2004; it is the final entry in the Sonic Advance trilogy.
15,339,103	Cyclone Gamede	1,161,725,195	South-West Indian cyclone in 2007	[ "2006–07 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season", "Intense Tropical Cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2007", "Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands" ]	Intense Tropical Cyclone Gamede was among the wettest tropical cyclones on record, dropping more than 5.5 m (18 ft) of rain in a nine-day period on Réunion island in the southwest Indian Ocean. The seventh named storm of the 2006–07 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season, Gamede formed south of Diego Garcia on February 19 as a tropical disturbance. It tracked generally westward and steadily intensified, reaching tropical cyclone status on February 23. For two days, Gamede stalled northwest of the Mascarene Islands as an intense tropical cyclone, during which it reached 10 minute maximum sustained winds of winds of 165 km/h (105 mph), according to the Météo-France meteorological office in Réunion (MFR). The American-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) estimated peak 1 minute winds of 195 km/h (120 mph), equivalent to a Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson scale. For four days, Gamede remained within 400 km (250 mi) of Réunion before accelerating southward. On March 2, Gamede transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the southeast of Madagascar. The MFR tracked the storm for four more days. Cyclone Gamede first passed near St. Brandon, where its 160 km/h (100 mph) wind gusts damaged a few windows. When the storm stalled for a few days, it resulted in a prolonged period of heavy rainfall and high tides for the Mascarene Islands. A pluviometer at Commerson Crater recorded worldwide record rainfall amounts over a period of 3–9 days, with a total of 5,512 mm (217.0 in). Only Cyclone Hyacinthe in 1980 had a higher recorded rainfall total. The deluge from Gamede caused flooding damage across Réunion, washing out a bridge in the southern portion of the island. Monetary damage on Réunion was estimated at over €165 million (US\$120 million). Two people each were killed on Réunion and nearby Mauritius. The storm's outer rainbands affected southeastern Madagascar, becoming the fourth tropical cyclone to affect the country in two months. Later, high waves from Gamede flooded coastal portions of the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. ## Meteorological history The Intertropical Convergence Zone was active across the Indian Ocean in the middle of February 2007, which spawned a low-pressure area southeast of Diego Garcia on February 18. The system developed convection, or thunderstorms, over a weak, but well-defined low-level circulation. The MFR first began tracking the system as a tropical disturbance on February 19. An anticyclone over the nascent system provided weak wind shear and outflow to the north and east, both favorable conditions for development. With a subtropical ridge to its south, the disturbance tracked generally westward for the first few days of its duration. By late on February 20, the system had organized enough for the MFR to upgrade the disturbance to a tropical depression, and for the JTWC to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert. On the next day, the MFR upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Gamede, and the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 15S. At that time, the storm was located about 785 km (488 mi) south-southwest of Diego Garcia, or about 995 km (618 mi) northeast of Rodrigues. As Gamede continued to intensify, its track shifted to the west-southwest. On February 22, the MFR upgraded the system to a severe tropical storm, and the JTWC upgraded Gamede to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane. An eye became evident on satellite imagery, a sign of the storm's development. The MFR upgraded Gamede to tropical cyclone status on February 23, noting that the system was "very broad". Soon after, the cyclone moved over St. Brandon, one of the Outer Islands of Mauritius; the island recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 955 mbar (28.2 inHg), and estimated the eyewall diameter at 50 km (31 mi). On February 24, Gamede passed north of Mauritius and Réunion, approaching within 300 km (190 mi) of the latter island. The storm later slowed and stalled, trapped between the subtropical ridge to the south and a ridge to its northeast. For over 90 hours, the cyclone remained within 400 km (250 mi) of Réunion, resulting in torrential rainfall in the island's mountainous region. During this time, Gamede executed a small loop, and the cyclone attained its peak intensity. The MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 165 km/h (105 mph) late on February 25. At the same time, the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 195 km/h (120 mph). While remaining nearly stationary northwest of the Mascarene Islands, Gamede lost some of its deep convection due to upwelling, the process in which a stationary storm causes the water temperatures to decrease by bringing the cooler, deeper waters to the surface. Early forecasts suggested the possibility that the cyclone would turn westward and strike Madagascar near Toamasina. Instead, a passing trough steered the system to the south-southwest. On February 27, Gamede passed west of Réunion, about halfway between the island and Madagascar. On the next day, the convection near the eye increased slightly. This trend was temporary, as cooler waters and stronger wind shear began affecting Gamede on March 1, leaving the center exposed from the convection. That day, the MFR downgraded Gamede to a severe tropical storm. On March 2, the JTWC discontinued advisories, and the MFR reclassified the storm as an extratropical cyclone. A ridge to its south caused the remnants of Gamede to slow again and execute a small loop southeast of Madagascar. The MFR discontinued advisories on March 4, and the agency tracked the weakening low for two more days at it drifted westward. ## Preparations On St. Brandon, the meteorological staff on the island rode out the storm in the Coast Guard office. In Mauritius, a total of 200 people evacuated to storm shelters due to the cyclone. The Mauritius Meteorological Service issued various tropical cyclone warnings for 66 hours, ultimately raising it to a Class IV warning for 6 hours, the highest warning in which gusts of 120 km/h were recorded and expected to continue. Officials in Réunion closed schools and also issued a temporary driving ban. Due to the threat of the storm, several flights in and out of Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues were canceled. Fishermen were banned from sailing out to sea. ## Impact With its large circulation, Cyclone Gamede's rainbands affected islands in the south-west Indian Ocean for several days. The storm first affected St. Brandon, where its high tides caused severe beach erosion. The cyclone produced wind gusts of over 160 km/h (100 mph), strong enough to damage window panes and part of an anemometer. Rainfall on the island reached 208 mm (8.2 in). Gamede passed south of Agaléga, dropping 99 mm (3.9 in) of rainfall over a four-day period. The storm's rainfall reached 71 mm (2.8 in) on Rodrigues. Rough waves and strong winds affected a cruise ship to the east of Madagascar; several windows were broken, though no serious injuries were reported. Gamede lashed Madagascar's east coast with squalls of heavy rainfall and gusty winds, affecting areas struck by Tropical Storm Clovis two months earlier. Gamede had followed shortly after Tropical Cyclones Bondo, Clovis, and Favio, being the fourth tropical cyclone to impact Madagascar in two months. High waves also struck the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal, forcing the temporary closure of beaches, roads, and the Port of Durban. ### Mauritius Remaining near the Mascarene Islands for several days, Gamede dropped heavy rainfall on Mauritius, reaching 464 mm (18.3 in). Winds on the island reached 158 km/h (98 mph) at Fort Williams in Port Louis. Gamede killed two on Mauritius, one of whom drowned in high waves. The storm damaged crops and infrastructure, with power knocked out to 70% of the island's population. Despite warnings to remain inside, several people ventured outside during the storm. ### Réunion The large size of the cyclone resulted in several days of very heavy, continuous rainfall in the mountainous region on Réunion island. The heaviest totals occurred from February 24 through February 28, with a nine-day total of 5,512 mm (217.0 in) at Commerson Crater. Several locations on the island reported great totals. In a 24‐hour period, Hell-Bourg reported 1,489 mm (58.6 in), and in a 72-hour period, Cilaos reported 2,321 mm (91.4 in). A peak wind gust of 205 km/h (125 mph) was reported on the island. Gamede produced the highest waves along the north and west coast of Réunion in 50 years, with a maximum wave heights of 11.7 m (38 ft) at Pointe du Gouffre. The prolonged high waves eroded beaches and washed away the promenade at Le Port. Monetary damage on Réunion from Gamede was at least €165 million (US\$120 million). Two people died on the island after attempting to cross rivers during the storm. At least 90 people were injured due to the storm, including two who were seriously injured. The passage of the cyclone left about 100,000 homes without power or water on Réunion. High floodwaters damaged a dyke along the north bank of the Rivière des Galets. Gamede caused heavy crop damage, including to the sugar cane and banana crops. Several roads and bridges were damaged on the island. Floods damaged roads in Saint-André and Salazie, and washed out a 520 m (1,710 ft) bridge over the Saint Etienne River, part of Route nationale 1 connecting Saint-Louis and Saint-Pierre. The bridge outage left the two towns temporarily isolated. ## Aftermath and records On June 13, 2007, the government of France provided a relief fund to Réunion of €17.6 million (2007 EUR) in aid, including €9.6 million for farmers affected by the cyclone. The assistance provided €7.7 million for repairing roads and infrastructure, including rebuilding the destroyed bridge over the Saint Etienne River. In the immediate aftermath of the storm, officials deployed army resources to establish a temporary aerial bridge while a new bridge was built. The replacement bridge was opened in June 2013. Réunion island is the location for several tropical cyclone rainfall records; due to the orography of the island, tropical moisture will travel upward to the volcanic peaks, where it cools and codifies into rainfall. Commerson Crater, located at an elevation of 2.3 km (1.4 mi), recorded historic rainfall accumulations during the passage of Gamede. The location reported 2,463 mm (97.0 in) in 48 hours, which is just short of the worldwide record set by an unnamed tropical cyclone in April 1958. Over 72 hours, Commerson Crater recorded 3,929 mm (154.7 in), which surpassed the previous worldwide record for that duration, set by Cyclone Hyacinthe in 1980. The station also broke rainfall records for precipitation totals between four and nine days, with a storm total of 5,512 mm (217.0 in) in Commerson Crater. Hyacinthe in 1980 dropped 6,083 mm (239.5 in) over 14 days, also at Commerson Crater. ## See also - List of wettest tropical cyclones - List of wettest tropical cyclones by country - Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands - Cyclone Dina
30,244,679	Elmer Wilkens	1,173,437,273	American football player (1901–1967)	[ "1901 births", "1967 deaths", "American football ends", "Green Bay Packers players", "Indiana Hoosiers football players", "Players of American football from Fort Wayne, Indiana" ]	Elmer Sutter Wilkens (June 25, 1901 – March 18, 1967) was an American football end and quarterback. He played college football for the Indiana Hoosiers from 1920 to 1923 and later coached their freshman team in 1924. Afterwards, he played with the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL) in 1925. ## Early life and education Wilkens was born on June 25, 1901, in Fort Wayne, Indiana. He attended Fort Wayne High School and became one of only three of their alumni ever to make it to the NFL. He also played basketball at Fort Wayne. In 1920, he enrolled at Indiana University Bloomington, playing for the freshman football squad that year and captaining it. Wilkens earned a spot on the varsity football team in 1921 as a sophomore, earning his first letter. The team's starting quarterback from the prior season, Charlie Mathys, had graduated, and Wilkens was moved to fill in his spot. According to the Journal and Courier, many fans asked questions about the quarterback position for the 1921 season, and Wilkens "answered the query." He reportedly surprised even those who were critical of him during the year, and in November coach Ewald O. Stiehm said that "Wilkens has not made a single tactical blunder in any of the games thus far." The Journal and Courier said of Wilkens that in addition to his quarterbacking skills, he "is a good open-field runner and a sure tackler. He lacks some of Mathys' experience in defensive play, but is improving right along in this respect." The Indianapolis News reported that he "runs the team nicely, runs well in the open, appears to be of solid judgement ... it is admitted that Sti[e]hm has chosen wisely and well." The 1921 Indiana Hoosiers finished with a record of 3–4. Wilkens continued playing quarterback for Indiana in 1922, earning another letter as the team finished with a record of 1–4–2. As a senior in 1923, he played quarterback and as an end, being credited as one of the best receivers in the conference. He was one of only two seniors on the team. In November, the Hoosiers played what was dedicated as the last game at their long-time stadium Jordan Field. University president William Lowe Bryan held a celebration and called for "the men of 1923 ... to win the last game at Jordan Field." In the game, against rival Purdue, Wilkens successfully attempted a 44-yard field goal through a drop kick, winning what would be his last college game 3–0. The length of his kick set a team record that would stand for 41 years. Wilkens remained at Indiana in 1924 to complete his education, but did not play for the football team due to the rules stating that players could only have three years of eligibility for the varsity team. During this time, he served as the head coach of the freshman football team. According to the News-Record, he had "great success" as a coach and "turned out a great [freshman] team." ## Professional career In July 1925, Wilkens signed with the Green Bay Packers of the NFL to play end. He made his NFL debut in the Packers' 31–0 win over the Milwaukee Badgers on October 11. He finished the season having played in between six and seven games, four of which he started, helping the Packers compile a record of 8–5. The Quad-City Times reported that his play with the team was "sensational." He wore number 18 with Green Bay, being the first player in team history with the number. Wilkens did not return to the team in 1926. ## Later life and death Wilkens lived all of his life in Fort Wayne, Indiana. As of 1930, he worked at a bank as a bond salesman. He married Pearl Koegel in June 1933. He owned a business, the Wilkens Meat Market, in the early 1940s, prior to enlisting in the military for World War II in 1942. He was working as an inspector at a piston manufacturing plant by 1950. Wilkens died on March 18, 1967, at the age of 65.
34,041,128	Hurricane Uleki	1,171,668,142	Category 3 Pacific hurricane in 1988	[ "1988 Pacific hurricane season", "1988 in Hawaii", "Category 3 Pacific hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Hawaii", "Tropical cyclones in 1988" ]	Hurricane Uleki, also referred as Typhoon Uleki, was a long-lived tropical cyclone in August–September 1988 that had minimal effects on land. Originating from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone in late-August, Uleki was identified as a tropical depression well to the southeast of Hawaii on August 28. Steady organization ensued as it moved west, becoming a tropical storm on August 30 and a hurricane on August 31. Rapid intensification took place thereafter and the storm reached its peak intensity on September 2 as a Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. hurricane hunters investigating the cyclone found peak winds of 125 mph (201 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 957 mbar (hPa; 28.26 inHg). Thereafter, Uleki stalled for two days to the southwest of Hawaii, resulting in heavy surf across the state. The dangerous swells killed two people on Oahu. Unfavorable environmental conditions caused weakening of the hurricane by September 4 as it resumed a west-northwest course away from Hawaii. Conditions later became favorable and Uleki acquired winds of 105 mph (165 mph) on September 7, constituting its secondary peak. The hurricane crossed the International Date Line on September 8 and was reclassified as typhoon. Remaining well away from land, the cyclone steadily weakened to a tropical storm by September 12. Gradually turning north and later east, the degrading cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone four days later and ultimately dissipated on September 17 near the International Date Line. ## Meteorological history In late-August 1988, increased convective activity was noted along the Intertropical Convergence Zone by forecasters at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC). An area of low pressure subsequently developed within this disturbance and was designated as Tropical Depression One-C at 12:00 UTC on August 28. Upon classification, the depression was situated roughly 800 mi (1,300 km) southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii and moving west-northwest. Steady intensification ensued over the following day with the system attaining gale-force winds by 18:00 UTC on August 29, at which time it was assigned the name Uleki. The storm later attained winds of 75 mph (121 km/h) on August 31 and was dubbed a hurricane as it passed 350 mi (560 km) south of Hilo. Thereafter, Uleki underwent a sudden period of rapid intensification and achieved major hurricane status later that day. After reaching this strength, Uleki's forward motion gradually lessened and eventually almost ceased altogether on September 1 as upper-level steering currents collapsed. With the hurricane situated to the southwest of the Hawaiian Islands, Hurricane Hunters conducted several weather reconnaissance missions into the storm. On September 2, they found maximum surface winds of 125 mph (201 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 957 mbar (hPa; 28.26 inHg); this corresponded to the peak intensity of Uleki. At the time, Uleki displayed a well-organized, tight circulation. The hurricane meandered in the same general area over the next two days, executing several small loops, with a slight northward drift. During this time, its circulation increased in coverage but became less-organized as weakening ensued. Increased wind shear and restricted outflow took their toll on the hurricane. The cyclone's winds dropped to 80 mph (130 km/h) by 12:00 UTC on September 4 as it resumed its west-northwest track under the influence of a subtropical ridge away from the Hawaiian Islands. Uleki passed roughly halfway between Johnston Atoll and the French Frigate Shoals on September 5. By September 7, the weakened trend halted and environmental conditions favored reintensification. As Uleki neared the International Date Line, it regained winds of 105 mph (169 km/h). At 00:00 UTC on September 8, the CPHC transferred warning responsibility of Uleki to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and the storm was subsequently referred to as a typhoon. Transfer of warnings occurred when the storm was at 178°W rather than at the dateline, where the boundary between the Central and West Pacific basins exists, for unknown reasons. Three hours later Uleki made its closest approach to Midway Atoll, passing 200 mi (320 km) to the south. Shortly thereafter the system crossed the International Date Line and the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) also began advising on the system. The JMA estimated Uleki to have had a pressure of 945 mbar (945 hPa; 27.9 inHg) at this time; however, this value was derived from satellite estimates rather than direct measurements. Uleki maintained this strength through September 10 as it continued on its west-northwest course. On that day, the typhoon again entered a region of weak steering currents between two anticyclones within the subtropical ridge. A trough approaching from the west was forecast to prompt Uleki to turn east; however, the typhoon maintained a general northwest motion in a stair-stepped fashion. Increasing wind shear and cooler air soon imparted weakening, and Uleki degraded to a tropical storm by September 12. Continued effects from shear stripped the cyclone of all deep convection, and by September 14 only a band of cirrus clouds remained in association with Uleki. The JTWC issued their final warning on the system at 00:00 UTC that day accordingly. The JMA maintained the system as a tropical depression as the former typhoon began turning to the east. Uleki later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 16 as it accelerated to the east. The system dissipated the following day near the International Date Line, far from any major landmasses. ## Preparations and impact As the hurricane stalled to the southwest of Hawaii on September 3, tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau. High surf advisories were raised for all islands as well. Following Uleki's turn to the west on September 5, the tropical storm watches were discontinued. The storm's erratic movement proved to be troublesome for forecasters and they continuously warned residents to be cautious and alert should the storm double-back to the state. On September 4, lifeguards at Waikiki Beach and Ala Moana Beach rescued 19 people caught in 5 to 6 ft (1.5 to 1.8 m) swells. Further north in Oahu, two people drowned after being caught in rough waters. The storm moved roughly halfway between the French Frigate Shoals and Johnston Island on September 5 with no adverse effects in either region due to its weakened state. On September 7, the 300 residents of Midway Atoll and United States Coast Guard personnel stationed on Kure Atoll prepared for possible hurricane-force winds from the storm. Hurricane Uleki ultimately passed 200 mi (320 km) south of Midway Atoll and produced some coastal flooding from increased surf. Some breaking waves spilled onto the runway at Henderson Field. ## See also - Hurricane Keoni (1993) – A similarly long-lasting and intense hurricane that also took a similar track - List of Hawaii hurricanes - 1988 Pacific hurricane season
403,933	USS Attu	1,122,905,163	Casablanca-class escort carrier of the US Navy	[ "1944 ships", "Casablanca-class escort carriers", "S4-S2-BB3 ships", "Ships built in Vancouver, Washington", "World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States" ]	USS Attu (CVE-102) was a Casablanca-class escort carrier of the United States Navy. She was named after the Battle of Attu in the Aleutian Islands and was built for service during World War II. Launched in May 1944, and commissioned in June, she served as a transport carrier, ferrying aircraft, and as a replenishment carrier, supporting the Invasion of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet. She was decommissioned in June 1946, and sold for scrapping in January 1947. After a failed acquisition attempt by the Jewish Agency, she was ultimately scrapped in 1949. ## Design and description Attu was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was 512 ft 3 in (156.13 m) long overall, had a beam of 65 ft 2 in (19.86 m), and a draft of 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m). She displaced 8,188 long tons (8,319 t) standard, 10,902 long tons (11,077 t) with a full load. She had a 257 ft (78 m) long hangar deck and a 477 ft (145 m) long flight deck. She was powered with two Skinner Unaflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing 9,000 horsepower (6,700 kW), thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of 10,240 nautical miles (18,960 km; 11,780 mi) at a speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Her compact size necessitated the installment of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft. One 5-inch (127 mm)/38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight 40-millimeter (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as twelve 20-millimeter (0.79 in) Oerlikon cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20-mm cannons, and the amount of 40-mm guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more. ## Construction Her construction was awarded to Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington under a Maritime Commission contract, on 18 June 1942. She was ordered under the name Elbour Bay (a misspelling of "Elbow Bay"), as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds in Alaska. She was renamed Attu, after the Battle of Attu, on 6 November 1943, as part of a new naval policy which named subsequent Casablanca-class carriers after naval or land engagements. The escort carrier was laid down on 16 March 1944, MC hull 1139, the forty-seventh of a series of fifty Casablanca-class escort carriers. She was launched on 27 May 1944; sponsored by Mrs. George W. Steele; transferred to the United States Navy and commissioned on 30 June 1944, with Captain Henry Fahnestock MacComsey in command. ## Service history ### World War II Upon being commissioned, Attu underwent a shakedown cruise down the West Coast to San Diego. On 7 August, she departed San Diego, transporting aircraft and passengers to Pearl Harbor. She then took on another load of aircraft and personnel, and proceeded west, making stops at Guadalcanal and Espiritu Santo. Upon finishing her transport run, she got underway on her return trip on 31 August. She arrived at San Diego on 13 September, where overhaul was conducted. On 28 September, she sailed north to Alameda, California, where she loaded fuel, supplies, and replenishment aircraft. She departed the West Coast on 1 October, bound for Finschhafen, New Guinea, arriving there on 18 October. She then stopped at Seeadler Harbor in Manus Island, before returning via Pearl Harbor back to Alameda. She departed yet again on 23 November, bound for Pearl Harbor. Upon arriving, she began ferrying supplies and troops between Pearl Harbor and Guam. She finished her duties and returned to San Diego on 4 January 1945. After a short period of rest, she sailed again on 20 January, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 27 January. There, she conducted gunnery exercises in the waters off of Oahu. She concluded her exercises and steamed for Enewetak Atoll on 1 February. Pausing briefly, she proceeded onwards to Ulithi. On 16 February, she departed Ulithi, and was assigned to Task Group 50.8.4 (Logistics Support Group), along with the escort carriers Admiralty Islands, Bougainville, and Windham Bay. This task group was responsible for ferrying and transferring replenishment aircraft to the frontline Fifth Fleet and its carriers, which were supporting the Invasion of Iwo Jima. After transferring all of her aircraft, Attu returned to Guam for replacement of her aircraft and supplies. She then sailed westwards again, and served as a replenishment carrier again, this time in support of the landings on Okinawa. This time, her task group was responsible for resupplying both the escort carriers and the fleet carriers operating over the island. On 4 June, were being refueled by tankers, east of Okinawa. Throughout the day, winds began to pick up, and refueling operations had ceased by the time tropical storm force winds were reported in the late afternoon. In fact, Attu's task group was directly in the path of Typhoon Connie, which was proceeding northwards. As Admiral William Halsey Jr., the commander of the Third Fleet, got word of the typhoon, his orders ended up driving a large part of his fleet directly into the path of the incoming storm. Amazingly, Halsey had previously blundered his way into Typhoon Cobra, with much damage and loss of life, in December 1944. As part of the Logistics Support Group, Attu witnessed the worst of the damage, weathering the eyewall of the storm. As night fell, it became evident that the task group could not avoid encountering the typhoon. The storm's eyewall struck on the early morning of 5 June, and by 3:30, hurricane-force winds had already been reported. At around 4:00, some flags tore off Attu, and wrapped around her radarscope, rendering her blind to the location of the other ships around her. Consequently, she only narrowly avoided, with careful manipulation of the engines, a collision with the tankers. Her crew noted that the bow once came as close as 50 ft (15 m) to a catastrophic collision with a tanker's stern. The typhoon's winds blew several aircraft on board her flight deck off her side, and rendered inoperational or otherwise damaged many more. As she passed through the eye of the storm, the crew managed to unfurl the flags blocking her radar, enabling her to pass through the second half of the storm without much further damage. On 10 June, Captain Paul Hubert Ramsey took over command of the vessel. In early July, she retired back to San Diego for much belayed repairs of her typhoon damage. On 24 July, with repairs quickly concluded, she steamed westwards. She was sailing through a fueling area in the West Pacific when news of the Japanese surrender broke. ### Post-war Following the end of the war, she sailed back to California, arriving on 11 November. On 25 November, she joined the "Magic Carpet" fleet, which repatriated U.S. servicemen from throughout the Pacific. She cruised around the Pacific, making stops and returning U.S. servicemen back to the mainland. She completed her "Magic Carpet" duties, and was discharged in early 1946. By May 1946, Attu was slated for disposal by the Navy. She sailed for Norfolk, Virginia, passing through the Panama Canal and making a stop at Jacksonville, Florida. She was decommissioned on 8 June, and she was struck from the Navy list on 3 July. After Attu was decommissioned, she was acquired by representatives of the Jewish Agency in New York. The representatives, led by Yehuda Arazi, planned to use the ship to transport up to 10,000 Jews to Palestine, where they wanted to establish a Jewish state. In addition, they planned to utilize the carrier to ferry a large quantity of armaments for the Haganah, the paramilitary precursor of what would become the Israeli Defense Forces in 1948. An initial payment of about \$10,000 () was arranged, and a refit was scheduled to prepare the ship. However, the United States Department of State discovered the plan and cancelled the deal; this allowed Attu to be scrapped in 1949. Attu received two battle stars for her World War II service.
10,412,122	Mystery Dungeon: Shiren the Wanderer	1,171,464,885	null	[ "1995 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "Chunsoft games", "IOS games", "Mystery Dungeon", "Nintendo DS games", "Roguelike video games", "Sega video games", "Single-player video games", "Spike Chunsoft video games", "Super Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Video games about samurai", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Koichi Sugiyama", "Virtual Console games" ]	Mystery Dungeon: Shiren the Wanderer, originally released in Japan as is a roguelike video game developed and published by Chunsoft. It is the second entry in the Mystery Dungeon series, following 1993's Torneko no Daibōken. It was originally released for the Super Famicom in 1995 in Japan. Sega published a Nintendo DS remake in 2006 in Japan and in 2008 internationally. The remake was later ported to iOS and Android and published by Spike Chunsoft in 2019. The player takes the role of the rōnin Shiren, who travels through thirty areas on his way to the Land of the Golden Condor. The game is turn-based, with all enemies and characters in an area moving whenever the player performs an action, such as attacking or moving. If the player falls in battle, they lose all their progress and are forced to restart from the beginning of the game: to counter-act this, they can choose to store powerful items in warehouses, and pick them up again on further playthroughs; the Nintendo DS release also adds rescue quests, where a player can save other players who have fallen, allowing them to continue from where they left off. The game was developed with the core concept of repeated play, with players having to improve their items through multiple playthroughs, and was seen as a way for the developers to more fully express the Mystery Dungeon series than had already been done in previous series games which are based pre-existing game worlds that Chunsoft cannot change. The game was released to mixed reviews upon release, with reviewers criticizing the high difficulty and visuals, but praising how the game creates deep gameplay experiences through simple core gameplay concepts. Later, some publications called Shiren the Wanderer among the best in its genre and platform. ## Gameplay Shiren the Wanderer is a roguelike game in which the player traverses thirty randomly generated grid-based, top-down areas – referred to as floors – in which they fight enemies and find items. The player can move in eight directions, attack with melee weapons and arrows, and use a wide range of items with different effects: for example, some heal the player, some fling away enemies, and some allow the player to swap positions with an enemy. The items are kept in the player's inventory, which only has a limited amount of space. For every step the player takes, their health regenerates, but their fullness counter also decreases; because of this, the player needs to carry food items with them, which also take up inventory space. The gameplay is turn-based: every time the player performs an action, such as moving, attacking, or using items, all enemies and characters in the area perform one action as well. In addition to the enemy characters, there are friendly characters, three of which can join the player's party and help them with things such as healing. If the player's character falls in battle, they are forced to restart from the beginning, with all their items and experience points gone; to avoid this, the player can store items in warehouses found in towns they travel through. Because of this, the player makes long-term progress by upgrading powerful items at village blacksmiths and storing them in warehouses, while upgrading their character is more of a temporary improvement. In the Nintendo DS version of the game, the player can avoid having to start over by getting rescued by another player: this is done by giving the other player a rescue quest, either through a password or the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. When a player embarks on a rescue mission, they start from level 1 and have to reach the fallen character without stopping at towns on their way. If they succeed, the rescued player can proceed from where they left off, and keep their items and experience points. After the player has finished the thirty floors that make up the main game, a fourth companion character and additional, optional dungeons become available. These dungeons are harder than the main game, but include highly powerful items as a reward for their completion. A puzzle-based dungeon called Fay's Puzzles is also available from the start, in the first town, hosting fifty puzzles about avoiding enemies, using items and moving carefully. ## Plot The game takes place in a fantasy version of feudal Japan, and follows a rōnin named Shiren and his companion, the talking weasel Koppa, on a quest for the Land of the Golden Condor. They travel through forests, towns, mountains and caves, and are joined by three people they meet during the journey: Kechi the Masseur, a man who pretends to be blind; Oryu the Blinder, a travelling woman who has the power to blind people and monsters; and Pekeji, a man who claims to be Shiren's brother, separated at birth. Shiren eventually reaches the land, where he frees the golden condor from an ancient insect-like creature. He and Koppa ride away on the condor, flying across the towns he had passed, and the townspeople look up at the condor and make a wish. The condor lands, letting Shiren and Koppa jump off, before flying away. The game ends with Shiren and Koppa walking away into the night. ## Development Shiren the Wanderer was developed by Chunsoft for the Super Famicom, with the core concept of repeated play, with the player improving their equipment and items each time they play, making progress through several playthroughs. The developers noted that Shiren the Wanderer differed from other Mystery Dungeon games in that the Chunsoft staff create characters themselves, allowing them to express the Mystery Dungeon series more fully than with the other games, which are set in already created worlds which Chunsoft cannot change. The game was developed in parallel with the Game Boy game Shiren the Wanderer GB, which used modified source code from the Super Famicom game. In an interview talking about the Mystery Dungeon series in 2016, both Koichi Nakamura and Seiichiro Nagahata talked about the development of this game. The project was handled with one goal in mind: being different from the 1980 video game Rogue by making it easier to play for anyone, from changing the user interface to upgrade the gameplay while staying true to the roguelike genre. Content from the previous game, Torneko's Great Adventure: Mystery Dungeon, were recycled such as the semi-transparent map and unidentified items, while other content that were not featured from the aforementioned game were added, such as stores in dungeons and jars that let the player put and take off items inside. These jars were balanced so players can have additional spaces in their inventory, but also accidentally break them if they were caught by a trap, which drops the stored items from the broken jars to the floor. Like in the previous game, Nagahata used spreadsheets with Microsoft Excel for managing data of monsters and items in order to balance the game more efficiently. The music was composed by Koichi Sugiyama, who made use of East Asian elements compared to his more European-styled Dragon Quest compositions, using instruments such as a shakuhachi flute. The scenario was written by Shin-ichiro Tomie and edited by Emiko Tanaka. In addition to the main story, Tomie wrote another scenario for the game, which the developers were unable to implement in the Super Famicom version. When creating the graphics, the development team faced challenges with the technical restrictions of the Super Famicom console: they were only able to use a limited number of colors, and were restricted to a 32×32 resolution for all graphics and actions. Later games in the series feature two programs – one for the story and one for dungeons – but the first Shiren the Wanderer only uses a dungeon program. This led to difficulties in portraying certain scenes, such as one where several townspeople are meant to appear, but the limitations of the dungeon program meant that only two non-player characters could be generated. ### Nintendo DS version The Nintendo DS version was directed by Hironori Ishigami and planned and supervised by Tomie, while Hiroyoshi Umetani was the main planner and in charge of game balance, Shin-ichiro Tomie created the scenario and events, Tanaka worked on the presentation and assisted with the scenario, and Masayasu Yamamoto programmed the dungeons. In addition to Sugiyama, the Nintendo DS version's music was worked on by Hayato Matsuo. The idea of developing a Nintendo DS version started when Chunsoft was considering creating a series of Mystery Dungeon games for the Nintendo DS. Previous Mystery Dungeon games came up in conversation: they considered doing something with the Game Boy games, but decided against it as it would have required them to redraw all the art, leaving them to decide between working on the Super Famicom or the Nintendo 64 games; they eventually settled on working on the Super Famicom title Shiren the Wanderer. The idea of it being a simpler project due to the original art being reusable turned out to be untrue: because so much time had passed since the original's release, there were multiple parts that had to be reworked, leading to a process similar to creating a whole new game from scratch. All character graphics were redone, special effects were changed, and certain animations were added, such as sleeping animations. Some item placements were changed, the overall difficulty was adjusted, and some characters' battle statistics were altered; one such instance was making Kechi stronger than Oryu, due to it being perceived as illogical that a person with a sword would be weaker than a person fighting with her bare hands. The unused scenario Tomie had written for the original version was included in the Nintendo DS version in the form of a bonus dungeon, playable after completion of the main game. It was altered slightly from the original plan due to technical restrictions: the scenario originally involved a nest with several large Tainted Insect enemies, but it was not possible to have so many large enemies appear at once. The developers considered using smaller Tainted Insects, but eventually decided to change the nest into a path with insects appearing every ten floors, and renamed the dungeon "The Tainted Path". Ishigami played a large role in the implementation of the Wi-Fi rescue quests, and it went smoother than anticipated, something the developers attributed to their experience with developing mobile games. They were initially concerned about how the player loses all their items if they die during a rescue mission, but realized that it had to be that way to avoid people abusing rescue missions to get new items. Due to programming changes between the Japanese and the English versions of the game, rescue quests from the North American and European versions are only compatible with each other, and not with the Japanese release. ### Smartphone version The smartphone version was released first on iOS on March 12, 2019 and two days later on Android, both published by Spike Chunsoft. It was first announced with a hint from the company, three weeks prior to its initial release, then confirmed a few days later to be a port based on the Nintendo DS remake. ## Release The Super Famicom version of the game was originally released on December 1, 1995 by Chunsoft, and re-released through the Nintendo Power flash memory service on August 1, 2000. The re-release version was also ported to the Wii Virtual Console on July 24, 2007 exclusively in Japan. The Nintendo DS version was released by Sega on December 14, 2006 in Japan, on March 1, 2008 in Australia, on March 4, 2008 in North America and on March 31, 2008 in Europe; outside of an earlier fan translation, this was the first time the game was made available in English. The remake would receive a Bargain Edition later in Japan on August 21, 2008. The Nintendo DS version was later published by Spike Chunsoft for iOS on March 12, 2019, and for Android on March 14. A music album featuring arranged songs from the Super Famicom version and an orchestrated medley was published by Kitty Records on December 20, 1995. Sega decided to localize the game due to them having a good relationship with Chunsoft, and wanting to "test the waters" for an American release of a Chunsoft game; they chose Shiren the Wanderer specifically because they felt it was a high-quality title that had been well adapted to the Nintendo DS platform. The localization was produced by Keith Dwyer at Sega, who said that, although there were some changes between the Japanese and the English versions to accommodate the change in language, they wanted the game to be fundamentally the same, as making it too different would lose the original's flavor. Dwyer noted that while some situations and words were difficult to recreate in English, the elements of Japanese culture present in the game were not a hindrance during the localization. The box art was changed for the localization, both to appeal to American players and to better communicate the tough journey the player goes on in the game. ## Reception Shiren the Wanderer received "mixed or average reviews" upon release, according to the review aggregator Metacritic, but has later received more praise: in 2011, 1UP.com ranked it as the fifteenth best Nintendo DS game; in 2014, Hardcore Gamer called it "one of the finest roguelikes ever created"; and in 2016, IGN ranked it as the eighth best dungeon crawler of all time. Additionally, Gamasutra ranked it as the third best handheld game of the year in their "Best of 2008" list. Several reviewers criticized the high difficulty and "permanent death" for being too much and making the game not accessible to players. Patrick Joynt of GameSpy saw this as both a positive and negative, calling it "punishingly, unrelentingly hardcore". He noted that the game uses simple core gameplay concepts to successfully create a "satisfyingly deep and responsive system" and depth in the combat encounters. RPGFan's Patrick Gann similarly enjoyed the game's depth, calling the gameplay concepts "nearly perfect". IGN's Jack DeVries, however, thought that the turn-based gameplay made combat feel too "stop-and-go", and said that he felt wary of trying certain risky things, such as attempting to steal from merchants, due to how punishing the game was. Meanwhile, Gann said that the knowledge that one would likely fall in battle eventually regardless of what happens made it possible to play the game without fear. Austin Shau at GameSpot liked the large variety of items for players to experiment with. Joynt and Famitsu enjoyed the game balance; the latter also appreciated the improved item storage system of the Nintendo DS version. Shau enjoyed the game's presentation, praising the music and visuals, but wished that there had been a larger visual variety for the levels. Joynt, however, found the graphics unimpressive, while noting that they were unimportant compared to the gameplay. DeVries thought the animations were underwhelming for a Super Famicom game, noting situations such as lighting undead soldiers on fire as examples of when further visual spectacle would have added to the experience. Gann said that the graphics were "simple and functional" and, while improved in the Nintendo DS version, still had plenty of room for improvement; he also wished that there had been character art accompanying the dialogue boxes, and more cutscenes. He called the music and sound effects excellent, calling the sound impressive and fitting, causing him to start searching for all soundtrack releases from the Mystery Dungeon series. Few video game developers liked the game since its release, most notably for its content that were new for a Super Famicom game. In Famistu Column \#631, Masahiro Sakurai, of Kirby and Super Smash Bros. fame, contemplate for the permadeath gameplay of the genre but also never completing them due to that. He mentioned the infinite amount of time players can play the game, stating "there are a lot of random elements so each playthrough is a different experience". In a video from Sakurai's own YouTube channel, he also found the use of a translucent map interesting, stating it "won't work in every genre, but it was groundbreaking at the time". ### Appearances in other games The main protagonist of the eponymous series, Shiren, has appeared in numerous video games that were developed or published by Spike Chunsoft. A costume based on him can be worn in the action-adventure sandbox game Terraria, though limited to a few hardware in Japan, in the Etrian Mystery Dungeon sub-series labeled as the Wanderer class, and in Katana Kami: A Way of the Samurai Story as a pre-order bonus. Shiren, along with Koppa, and with their design and side characters sourced from Shiren the Wanderer: The Tower of Fortune and the Dice of Fate, appear in Mystery Chronicle: One Way Heroics. Shiren, along with Asuka and her design sourced from Shiren the Wanderer Side Story: Swordswoman Asuka Arrives!, appear in RPG Maker MV, and as alternative costumes for Cadence in Crypt of the NecroDancer with characters from series developed by Spike Chunsoft such as Danganronpa and Kenka Bancho. Shiren alone appears in the defunct game Seikimatsu Days: Our Era’s End, as a pre-registration character, and as a summoning card in a side game of AI: The Somnium Files – Nirvana Initiative. In 428: Shibuya Scramble, a plush based on the recurrent monster, Mamel, can be seen in the background throughout numerous cutscenes from Tama's path. Likewise in its sequel anime adaptation, Canaan, some characters can be seen wearing hats based on various monsters from the Shiren the Wanderer series. The Mamel is also mentioned a few time in AI: The Somnium Files – Nirvana Initiative, including a moment where they refer the Pit Mamel as its Super Famicom fan translation's name, "Subterranean Mamul". In Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony, a replica of this game is present as an unlockable bonus content, titled Despair Dungeon: Monokuma's Test. Monsters from the Shiren the Wanderer series would appear as a mix of their original design and Monokuma, the franchise's main antagonist, in this mini game. They appear later in 2021 along with more monsters in Danganronpa S: Ultimate Summer Camp, the enhanced version of the boardgame Ultimate Talent Development Plan from Danganronpa V3.
86,346	James Naismith	1,173,694,885	Inventor of basketball (1861–1939)	[ "1861 births", "1939 deaths", "Academic staff of McGill University", "American Presbyterian ministers", "American inventors", "Basketball people from Ontario", "British emigrants to the United States", "Burials in Kansas", "Canadian Freemasons", "Canadian Presbyterian ministers", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Canadian inventors", "Canadian men's basketball coaches", "Canadian people of Scottish descent", "College men's basketball head coaches in the United States", "Creators of sports", "FIBA Hall of Fame inductees", "History of basketball", "Kansas Jayhawks athletic directors", "Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball coaches", "Kansas Jayhawks track and field coaches", "McGill University Faculty of Education alumni", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees", "People from Almonte, Ontario", "Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)", "Springfield College alumni", "University of Kansas faculty", "YMCA leaders" ]	James Naismith (NAY-smith; November 6, 1861 – November 28, 1939) was a Canadian-American physical educator, physician, Christian chaplain, and sports coach, best known as the inventor of the game of basketball. After moving to the United States, he wrote the original basketball rule book and founded the University of Kansas basketball program. Naismith lived to see basketball adopted as an Olympic demonstration sport in 1904 and as an official event at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, as well as the birth of the National Invitation Tournament (1938) and the NCAA Tournament (1939). Naismith studied and taught physical education at McGill University in Montreal until 1890 before moving to Springfield, Massachusetts, United States later that year, where in 1891 he designed the game of basketball while he was teaching at the International YMCA Training School. Seven years after inventing basketball, Naismith received his medical degree in Denver in 1898. He then arrived at the University of Kansas, later becoming the Kansas Jayhawks' athletic director and coach. While a coach at Kansas, Naismith coached Phog Allen, who later became the coach at Kansas for 39 seasons, beginning a lengthy and prestigious coaching tree. Allen then went on to coach legends including Adolph Rupp and Dean Smith, among others, who themselves coached many notable players and future coaches. ## Early years Naismith was born on November 6, 1861, in Almonte, Canada West, Province of Canada (now part of Mississippi Mills, Ontario, Canada) to Scottish parents. Despite some sources to the contrary Naismith never had a middle name and never signed his name with an "A" initial. The "A" was added by someone in administration at the University of Kansas. Gifted in farm labor, Naismith spent his days outside playing catch, hide-and-seek, or duck on a rock, a medieval game in which a person guards a large drake stone from opposing players, who try to knock it down by throwing smaller stones at it. To play duck on a rock most effectively, Naismith soon found that a soft lobbing shot was far more effective than a straight hard throw, a thought that later proved essential for the invention of basketball. Orphaned early in his life, Naismith lived with his aunt and uncle for many years and attended grade school at Bennies Corners near Almonte. Then, he enrolled in Almonte High School, in Almonte, Ontario, from which he graduated in 1883. In the same year, Naismith entered McGill University in Montreal. Although described as a slight figure, standing 5 feet 10+1⁄2 inches (1.791 m) and listed at 178 pounds (81 kg) he was a talented and versatile athlete, representing McGill in football, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, and gymnastics. He played centre on the football team, and made himself some padding to protect his ears. It was for personal use, not team use. He won multiple Wicksteed medals for outstanding gymnastics performances. Naismith earned a BA in physical education (1888) and a diploma at the Presbyterian College in Montreal (1890). At the end of his career, in 1938 and 1939, he would receive honorary doctorates from both institutions. From 1888 to 1890, Naismith taught physical education and became the first McGill director of athletics, but then left Montreal to study at the YMCA International Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. Naismith played football during his one year as a student at Springfield, where he was coached by Amos Alonzo Stagg and scored a touchdown in the first exhibition of indoor college football at Madison Square Garden. ## Springfield College: invention of basketball After completing the YMCA Physical Director training program that had brought him to Springfield, Naismith was hired as a full-time faculty member in 1891. At the Springfield YMCA, Naismith struggled with a rowdy class that was confined to indoor games throughout the harsh New England winter, thus was perpetually short-tempered. Under orders from Luther Gulick, head of physical education there, Naismith was given 14 days to create an indoor game that would provide an "athletic distraction"; Gulick demanded that it would not take up much room, could help its track athletes to keep in shape and explicitly emphasized to "make it fair for all players and not too rough". In his attempt to think up a new game, Naismith was guided by three main thoughts. Firstly, he analyzed the most popular games of those times (rugby, lacrosse, soccer, football, hockey, and baseball); Naismith noticed the hazards of a ball and concluded that the big, soft soccer ball was safest. Secondly, he saw that most physical contacts occurred while running with the ball, dribbling, or hitting it, so he decided that passing was the only legal option. Finally, Naismith further reduced body contact by making the goal unguardable by placing it high above the player's heads with the plane of the goal's opening parallel to the floor. This placement forced the players to score goals by throwing a soft, lobbing shot like that which had proven effective in his old favorite game duck on a rock. For this purpose, Naismith asked a janitor to find a pair of boxes, but the janitor brought him peach baskets instead. Naismith christened this new game "Basket Ball" and put his thoughts together in 13 basic rules. The first game of "Basket Ball" was played in December 1891. In a handwritten report, Naismith described the circumstances of the inaugural match; in contrast to modern basketball, the players played nine versus nine, handled a soccer ball, not a basketball, and instead of shooting at two hoops, the goals were a pair of peach baskets: "When Mr. Stubbins brot [sic] up the peach baskets to the gym I secured them on the inside of the railing of the gallery. This was about 10 feet [3.0 meters] from the floor, one at each end of the gymnasium. I then put the 13 rules on the bulletin board just behind the instructor's platform, secured a soccer ball, and awaited the arrival of the class ... The class did not show much enthusiasm, but followed my lead ... I then explained what they had to do to make goals, tossed the ball up between the two center men and tried to keep them somewhat near the rules. Most of the fouls were called for running with the ball, though tackling the man with the ball was not uncommon." In contrast to modern basketball, the original rules did not include what is known today as the dribble. Since the ball could only be moved up the court by a pass early players tossed the ball over their heads as they ran up court. Also following each "goal", a jump ball was taken in the middle of the court. Both practices are obsolete in the rules of modern basketball. In a radio interview in January 1939, Naismith gave more details of the first game and the initial rules that were used: > I showed them two peach baskets I'd nailed up at each end of the gym, and I told them the idea was to throw the ball into the opposing team's peach basket. I blew a whistle, and the first game of basketball began. ... The boys began tackling, kicking, and punching in the clinches. They ended up in a free-for-all in the middle of the gym floor. [The injury toll: several black eyes, one separated shoulder, and one player knocked unconscious.] "It certainly was murder." [Naismith changed some of the rules as part of his quest to develop a clean sport.] The most important one was that there should be no running with the ball. That stopped tackling and slugging. We tried out the game with those [new] rules (fouls), and we didn't have one casualty. Naismith was a classmate of Amos Alonzo Stagg at the YMCA School, where Stagg coached the football team. They became close friends and Naismith played on the football team and Stagg played on the basketball team. Naismith invited Stagg to play in the first public basketball game on March 12, 1892. The students defeated the faculty 5–1 and Stagg scored the only basket for the faculty. The Springfield Republican reported on the same: "Over 200 spectators crammed their necks over the gallery railing of the Christian Workers gymnasium while they watched the game of 'basket ball' between the teachers and the students. The most conspicuous figure on the floor was Stagg in the blue Yale uniform who managed to have a hand in every scrimmage." By 1892, basketball had grown so popular on campus that Dennis Horkenbach (editor-in-chief of The Triangle, the Springfield college newspaper) featured it in an article called "A New Game", and there were calls to call this new game "Naismith Ball", but Naismith refused. By 1893, basketball was introduced internationally by the YMCA movement. From Springfield, Naismith went to Denver, where he acquired a medical degree, and in 1898, he joined the University of Kansas faculty at Lawrence. The family of Lambert G. Will, disputing Naismith's sole creation of the game, has claimed that Naismith borrowed components for the game of basketball from Will, citing alleged photos and letters. In an interview, the family did give Naismith credit for the general idea of the sport, but they claimed Will changed aspects of Naismith's original plans for the game and Naismith took credit for the changes. Spalding worked with Naismith to develop the official basketball and the Spalding Athletic Library official basketball rule book for 1893–1894. ## University of Kansas The University of Kansas men's basketball program officially began following Naismith's arrival in 1898, seven years after Naismith drafted the sport's first official rules. Naismith was not initially hired to coach basketball, but rather as a chapel director and physical-education instructor. In those early days, the majority of the basketball games were played against nearby YMCA teams, with YMCAs across the nation having played an integral part in the birth of basketball. Other common opponents were Haskell Indian Nations University and William Jewell College. Under Naismith, the team played only one current Big 12 school: Kansas State (once). Naismith is, ironically, the only coach in the program's history to have a losing record (55–60). However, Naismith coached Forrest "Phog" Allen, his eventual successor at Kansas, who went on to join his mentor in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. When Allen became a coach himself and told him that he was going to coach basketball at Baker University in 1904, Naismith discouraged him: "You can't coach basketball; you just play it." Instead, Allen embarked on a coaching career that would lead him to be known as "the Father of Basketball Coaching". During his time at Kansas, Allen coached Dean Smith (1952 National Championship team) and Adolph Rupp (1922 Helms Foundation National Championship team). Smith and Rupp have joined Naismith and Allen as members of the Basketball Hall of Fame. By the turn of the century, enough college teams were in the East that the first intercollegiate competitions could be played out. Although the sport continued to grow, Naismith long regarded the game as a curiosity and preferred gymnastics and wrestling as better forms of physical activity. However, basketball became a demonstration sport at the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis. As the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame reports, Naismith was not interested in self-promotion nor was he interested in the glory of competitive sports. Instead, he was more interested in his physical-education career; he received an honorary PE master's degree in 1910, patrolled the Mexican border for four months in 1916, traveled to France, and published two books (A Modern College in 1911 and Essence of a Healthy Life in 1918). He took American citizenship on May 4, 1925. In 1909, Naismith's duties at Kansas were redefined as a professorship; he served as the de facto athletic director at Kansas for much of the early 20th century. Naismith had "strong feelings against segregation," dating back to his World War I-era service in France and his service on the United States-Mexico border, and he strove for progress in race relations through modest steps. During the 1930s, he would not or could not get African-Americans onto Kansas' varsity Jayhawks, but he did help engineer the admission of black students to the university's swimming pool. Until then, they had been given automatic passing grades on a required swimming test without entering the pool, so it could remain all-white. Through Naismith's association with Baker University Basketball Coach Emil Liston, he became familiar and impressed with Emil Liston's fraternity at Baker University, Sigma Phi Epsilon (SigEp). As a result, he started the effort to bring a Sigma Phi Epsilon chapter to his University of Kansas (KU). On February 18, 1923, Naismith, intending to bring a SigEp Chapter to KU, was initiated as a SigEp member by national office of the fraternity. Under Naismith's leadership, the University of Kansas Sigma Phi Epsilon Chapter was founded and officially Charted on April 28, 1923, with Naismith leading the new 40-member fraternity as "Chapter Counselor." Naismith was deeply involved with the members, serving as Chapter Counselor for 16 years, from 1923 until his death in 1939. During those 16 years as Chapter Counselor, he married SigEp's housemother, Mrs. Florence Kincaid. Members who were interviewed during that era remembered Naismith: "He was deeply religious", "He listened more than he spoke", "He thought sports were nothing but an avenue to keep young people involved so they could do their studies and relate to their community", and "It was really nice having someone with the caliber of Dr. Naismith, he helped many a SigEp" In 1935, the National Association of Basketball Coaches (founded by Naismith's pupil Phog Allen) collected money so the 74-year-old Naismith could witness the introduction of basketball into the official Olympic sports program of the 1936 Summer Olympic Games in Berlin. There, Naismith handed out the medals to three North American teams: the United States, for the gold medal, Canada, for the silver medal, and Mexico, for their bronze medal. During the Olympics, he was named the honorary president of the International Basketball Federation. When Naismith returned, he commented that seeing the game played by many nations was the greatest compensation he could have received for his invention. In 1937, Naismith played a role in the formation of the National Association of Intercollegiate Basketball, which later became the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). Naismith became professor emeritus at Kansas when he retired in 1937 at the age of 76. In addition to his years as a coach, for a total of almost 40 years, Naismith worked at the school and during those years, he also served as its athletic director and was also a faculty member at the school. In 1939, Naismith suffered a fatal brain hemorrhage. He was interred at Memorial Park Cemetery in Lawrence, Kansas. His masterwork "Basketball — its Origins and Development" was published posthumously in 1941. In Lawrence, Naismith has a road named in his honor, Naismith Drive, which runs in front of Allen Fieldhouse and James Naismith Court therein are named in his honor, despite Naismith's having the worst record in school history. Naismith Valley Park, located at the south end of Naismith Drive in Lawrence is also named in his honor. Naismith Hall, a dormitory, is located on the northeast corner of the intersection of 19th Street with Naismith Drive on the KU campus is also named for him. ## Head-coaching record ### Basketball In 1898, Naismith became the first basketball coach of University of Kansas. He compiled a record of 55–60 and is ironically the only losing coach in Kansas history. Naismith is at the beginning of a massive and prestigious coaching tree, as he coached Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame coach Phog Allen, who himself coached Hall of Fame coaches Dean Smith, Adolph Rupp, and Ralph Miller who all coached future coaches as well. In addition to Allen, Naismith also can be seen as a mentor and therefore beginning for the coaching tree branches of John McLendon who wasn't permitted to play at Kansas but was close to Naismith during his time as an athletic director. Amos Alonzo Stagg, was primarily a football coach, but he did play basketball for Naismith in Springfield, coached a year of basketball at Chicago and had several football players who also coached basketball such as Jesse Harper, Fred Walker and Tony Hinkle. ## Legacy Naismith invented the game of basketball and wrote the original 13 rules of this sport; for comparison, the NBA rule book today features 66 pages. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, is named in his honor, and he was an inaugural inductee in 1959. The National Collegiate Athletic Association rewards its best players and coaches annually with the Naismith Awards, among them the Naismith College Player of the Year, the Naismith College Coach of the Year, and the Naismith Prep Player of the Year. After the Olympic introduction to men's basketball in 1936, women's basketball became an Olympic event in Montreal during the 1976 Summer Olympics. Naismith was also inducted into the Canadian Basketball Hall of Fame, the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame, the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame, the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame, the Ottawa Sports Hall of Fame, the McGill University Sports Hall of Fame, the Kansas State Sports Hall of Fame, FIBA Hall of Fame. The FIBA Basketball World Cup trophy is named the "James Naismith Trophy" in his honor. On June 21, 2013, Naismith was inducted into the Kansas Hall of Fame during ceremonies in Topeka. Naismith's home town of Almonte, Ontario, hosts an annual 3-on-3 tournament for all ages and skill levels in his honor. Every year, this event attracts hundreds of participants and involves over 20 half-court games along the main street of the town. All proceeds of the event go to youth basketball programs in the area. Today basketball is played by more than 300 million people worldwide, making it one of the most popular team sports. In North America, basketball has produced some of the most-admired athletes of the 20th century. ESPN and the Associated Press both conducted polls to name the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century. Basketball player Michael Jordan came in first in the ESPN poll and second (behind Babe Ruth) in the AP poll. Both polls featured fellow basketball players Wilt Chamberlain (of KU, like Naismith) and Bill Russell in the top 20. The original rules of basketball written by James Naismith in 1891, considered to be basketball's founding document, was auctioned at Sotheby's, New York, in December 2010. Josh Swade, a University of Kansas alumnus and basketball enthusiast, went on a crusade in 2010 to persuade moneyed alumni to consider bidding on and hopefully winning the document at auction to give it to the University of Kansas. Swade eventually persuaded David G. Booth, a billionaire investment banker and KU alumnus, and his wife Suzanne Booth, to commit to bidding at the auction. The Booths won the bidding and purchased the document for a record US\$4,338,500, the most ever paid for a sports memorabilia item, and gave the document to the University of Kansas. Swade's project and eventual success are chronicled in a 2012 ESPN 30 for 30 documentary "There's No Place Like Home" and in a corresponding book, The Holy Grail of Hoops: One Fan's Quest to Buy the Original Rules of Basketball. The University of Kansas constructed an \$18 million building named the Debruce Center, which houses the rules and opened in March 2016. Naismith was designated a National Historic Person in 1976, on the advice of the national Historic Sites and Monuments Board In 1991, postage stamps commemorated the centennial of basketball's invention: four stamps were issued by Canada Post, including one with Naismith's name; one stamp was issued by the US Postal Service. Another Canadian stamp, in 2009, honored the game's invention. In July 2019, Naismith was inducted into Toronto's Walk of Fame. On January 15, 2021, Google placed a Google Doodle celebrating James Naismith on its home page in 18 countries, on five continents. ## Personal life Naismith was the second child of two Scottish immigrants. His father, John Naismith, was born in 1833, left Europe when he was 18, and also settled down in Lanark County. On June 20, 1894, Naismith married his wife, Maude E. Sherman (1870–1937) in Springfield, Massachusetts. The couple had five children. He was a member of the Pi Gamma Mu and Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternities. Naismith was a Presbyterian minister and was also a Freemason. His first wife died in 1937, and on June 11, 1939, he married his second wife, Florence Kincaid. On November 19 of that year, Naismith suffered a major brain hemorrhage and died nine days later in his home in Lawrence. He was 78 years old. Naismith died eight months after the birth of the NCAA Basketball Championship, which today has evolved to one of the biggest sports events in North America. Naismith is buried with his first wife in Memorial Park Cemetery in Lawrence. Florence Kincaid died in 1977 at the age of 98 and is buried with her first husband, Frank B. Kincaid, in Elmwood Cemetery in Beloit, Kansas. During his lifetime, Naismith held these educational and academic positions: ## See also - James Naismith's Original Rules of Basketball
55,659,427	Emilie Widemann Macfarlane	1,167,022,797	Native Hawaiian activist (1859–1947)	[ "1859 births", "1947 deaths", "American people of German descent", "Burials at Oahu Cemetery", "Hawaii suffragists", "Hawaiian Kingdom people", "Native Hawaiian people", "People from Honolulu", "People from Lihue, Hawaii" ]	Emilie Kekāuluohi Widemann Macfarlane (October 3, 1859 – March 13, 1947) was a Native Hawaiian activist and civic organizer during the late 19th and early 20th centuries She was known for her charitable work and civic involvement in Honolulu, including women's suffrage, public health, education, and the preservation of Hawaii's historical legacy. Macfarlane was born of German and Native Hawaiian descent, and her family were connected to the aliʻi (nobility) class of the Hawaiian Kingdom. She married Hawaiian-born British businessman Frederick W. Macfarlane and had three children. In 1893, shortly after the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Macfarlane was elected the first president of Hui Aloha ʻĀina for Women, an organization formed in opposition to the deposition of Queen Liliʻuokalani and efforts to annex the islands to the United States. Macfarlane resigned after a few weeks in office after a subsequent rift with members of the organization. In 1895, she co-founded the Hawaiian Relief Society to assist the victims of a cholera epidemic in Honolulu. After Hawaii's annexation to the United States in 1898, Macfarlane led knitting circles for Hawaiian servicemen during World War I and supported her sister Wilhelmine Dowsett's campaign for women's suffrage in the Territory of Hawaii. ## Early life and family Macfarlane was born on October 3, 1859, in Lihue on the island of Kauai to German immigrant and businessman Hermann A. Widemann and his Hawaiian wife, Mary Kaumana Pilahiuilani. Her mother was descended from the aliʻi (nobility) class of the Hawaiian Kingdom, and her mother's grandfather, Kalawa, was a retainer and close associate of the aliʻi of Kauai. Macfarlane's father was a prominent politician in the Hawaiian Kingdom and a cabinet minister of the last queen, Liliʻuokalani. On April 5, 1879, Emilie and Hawaiian-born British businessman Frederick Washington Macfarlane (1854–1929) married in Waikiki. The Macfarlanes, like the Widemanns, were well connected in Hawaiian society. Frederick Macfarlane was a younger brother of George W. Macfarlane (the last chamberlain of King Kalākaua) and Edward C. Macfarlane, who was Queen Liliʻuokalani's cabinet minister in 1892. They had three children: Frederick Walter Kalaninuikukailimoku Macfarlane (1882–1953), Guy E. Kalanimalokuloku-i-kepoookalani Macfarlane (1889–1961) and Hawaii Territorial legislator Walter James Macfarlane (1907–1943). Frederick married Alice Kamokilaikawai Campbell, and they had five children. Her daughter-in-law, Alice Kamokilaikawai Campbell, became a Hawaii Territorial senator and was active in the opposition to Hawaiian statehood. Macfarlane was known as Auntie Mela by her extended family. Her eldest sister, Emma Kalanikauleleiwinuiamamao Widemann (1852–1931), was married to Frederick's eldest brother, Henry R. Macfarlane. Their younger sister, Wilhelmine Kekelaokalaninui Widemann Dowsett, was a suffragist who helped organize the National Women's Equal Suffrage Association of Hawaii in 1912—the first women's suffrage club in the Territory of Hawaii. ## Civic engagement Macfarlane was known for her charitable work and civic involvement in Honolulu, including women's suffrage, public health, education, and the preservation of Hawaii's historical legacy. ### Opposition to annexation In the wake of native opposition to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom on January 17, 1893, Macfarlane and other Hawaiian women with royalist sympathies formed Ka Hui Hawaiʻi Aloha ʻĀina o Na Wahine (the Hawaiian Women's Patriotic League, also known as Hui Aloha ʻĀina for Women). The group was founded on March 27, 1893, shortly after its male counterpart (Hui Aloha ʻĀina for Men) was formed to support deposed Queen Liliʻuokalani and oppose the overthrow and related plans to annex the islands to the United States. Macfarlane was elected the first president of the organization; her sister, Martha Widemann Berger, and Abigail Kuaihelani Campbell were vice-presidents. When US President Grover Cleveland sent James H. Blount to investigate the overthrow, both Hui Aloha ʻĀina groups drafted resolutions to restore the monarchy. The drafting of the resolution for the Hui Aloha ʻĀina for Women was particularly contentious. The version drafted by Macfarlane and the group's leaders was rejected; Macfarlane resigned the presidency on April 17, 1893, and was replaced by Campbell. The sisters' great-granddaughter, Alice Flanders Guild, said that they remained lifelong friends despite the rift. According to contemporary newspaper reports, the rift in the group stemmed from suspicions by its older Hawaiian members that the younger, better-educated members wanted to replace Liliʻuokalani with Queen Kapiʻolani or Princess Kaʻiulani. Below is the resolution by Macfarlane and the earlier leadership. The use of the word "Queen" and the absence of Liliʻuokalani's name were the reasons for suspicion by the older women: > Greeting: We, the members of the Hawaiian Women's Patriotic League, formed for the sole purpose of perpetrating the independence of Hawaii, a kingdom for whom our ancestors fought and bled in war, do hereby implore Your Excellency to recommend to your Government the restoration of our beloved Queen on the throne of Hawaii, and that the present stage should be brought to an end. The people of Hawaii have received you with a warm welcome, and it would be a deed of humanity on your part to grant the earnest and humble supplications of the patriotic women subjects of the sovereign of Hawaii nei. ### Hawaiian Relief Society On August 9, 1895, cholera arrived in Honolulu aboard the ship Belgic, carrying 500 Chinese immigrants from Yokohama to Hawaii. Three crew members had died en route and the first local cases were reported on August 20. Efforts were enacted by the Republic of Hawaii's Board of Health to quarantine the sick, restrict large gatherings to lower contact transmissions and enhance hygiene measures in the countryside. The Board also banned the consumption of fish from Nuʻuanu Stream and Honolulu Harbor and the production of poi, a staple food for Hawaiians, in certain areas of Honolulu. The disease disproportionately affected Native Hawaiians and a subsequent report written by the Board of Health on September 25 indicated that certain taro and rice fields were connected to contaminated water sources. The epidemic, contained to Honolulu, resulted in a total of 87 cases and 64 deaths and negatively impacted the Hawaiian economy. This was the first incident of cholera in the Hawaiian Islands. In the wake of the epidemic, Macfarlane cofounded the Hawaiian Relief Society on September 6, 1895, with fellow Hawaiian civic leaders Bathsheba Robinson Allen, Emma Kaili Metcalf Beckley Nakuina, Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau and Abigail Kuaihelani Campbell to assist the victims of the cholera. She served as the organization's first treasurer. The organization raised funds for the care of patients and provided Hawaiians with food, firewood, clothing and other supplies including sanitized poi boiled in hot water. The organization also hosted luau and bazaars to raise funds after the end of the epidemic. The monarchy's former heir presumptive, Princess Kaʻiulani, was also an active member of the society. ### Involvements after annexation Macfarlane became a supporter of the women's-suffrage movement with her sister, Wilhelmine, in 1912. Native Hawaiian women of high societal rank like Macfarlane were key early campaigners for this cause. Her sister became president of the National Women's Equal Suffrage Association of Hawaii, the islands' first women's suffrage club. The major obstacle to female enfranchisement was the Organic Act, which established the Territory of Hawaii. Unlike the United States constitution and most state constitutions, it specifically forbade the territorial legislature from granting suffrage. With the assistance of suffragist leaders on the mainland such as Almira Hollander Pitman and Carrie Chapman Catt, Hawaiian suffragists and their allies were able to push an act (ignored until then) through Congress granting Hawaii the power to decide the issue. In 1919, a local bill to enfranchise the women of Hawaii was proposed. Although the Macfarlane sisters were among the leading Hawaiian women to speak at mass meetings in favor of the legislation, the bill stalled. The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed by the United States House of Representatives on May 21, 1919, however, and by the Senate on June 4. The amendment was ratified by 36 states (a two-thirds majority) on August 18, 1920, granting all female citizens of the United States and its territories the right to vote. On August 30, Macfarlane became one of the first twelve women to register to vote in Honolulu. Macfarlane and her friend, Emma Ahuena Taylor, organized knitting units on behalf of Native Hawaiian soldiers who were fighting in World War I; her sister was president of the Hawaiian Knitting Unit, which was formed in March 1918. According to historian Rumi Yasutake, Native Hawaiians of German descent (such as Macfarlane and her sisters) felt political pressure from their paternal connections to the German Empire—the wartime enemy of the United States—and their past anti-annexation activities. Regardless, they channeled their wartime efforts into helping Native Hawaiian servicemen. During the war, Macfarlane was a member of the Women's Committee of the Territorial Food Commission and Federal Food Administration. Macfarlane was also a member of the Daughters of Hawaii, which was founded in 1903 to preserve the islands' historic legacy. Macfarlane generated interest from 1913 to 1914 in the preservation of Hānaiakamalama, the former summer palace of Queen Emma now managed by the Daughters of Hawaii: > This building is the only thing which now stands as a landmark to old Hawaii. The palace has been turned into an executive building, the old associations there have been done away with. This old landmark we are now pleading for, this former home of a former queen, is the only place we can now show a tourist as representative of the days gone by. Macfarlane was a founding member of the Kapiolani Maternity Home and Kaʻiulani Home for Girls, and was involved with the board of an industrial school which helped rehabilitate youths of the Territory of Hawaii. She and her husband were founding members of Saint Augustine by the Sea Catholic Church in Waikiki. ## Death Macfarlane lived in ʻĀhuimanu, Koʻolaupoko, on the windward side of Oahu. She died on March 13, 1947, at the Queen's Hospital in Honolulu after a two-month illness. Obituaries in local newspapers, including The Honolulu Advertiser and the Honolulu Star-Bulletin, detailed her civic activities and family relationships. Macfarlane is buried at the Oahu Cemetery in Honolulu.
45,519,035	Robert Dirks	1,140,130,345	American computational chemist killed in 2015 train wreck	[ "1978 births", "2015 deaths", "21st-century American chemists", "Accidental deaths in New York (state)", "American people of Chinese descent", "American people of Thai descent", "California Institute of Technology alumni", "Computational chemists", "DNA nanotechnology people", "People from Bangkok", "People from Chappaqua, New York", "People from Spokane, Washington", "Railway accident deaths in the United States", "Scientists from New York (state)", "Wabash College alumni" ]	Robert Dirks (May 29, 1978 – February 3, 2015) was an American chemist known for his theoretical and experimental work in DNA nanotechnology. Born in Thailand to a Thai Chinese mother and American father, he moved to Spokane, Washington at a young age. Dirks was the first graduate student in Niles Pierce's research group at the California Institute of Technology, where his dissertation work was on algorithms and computational tools to analyze nucleic acid thermodynamics and predict their structure. He also performed experimental work developing a biochemical chain reaction to self-assemble nucleic acid devices. Dirks later worked at D. E. Shaw Research on algorithms for protein folding that could be used to design new pharmaceuticals. In February 2015, Dirks died in the Valhalla train crash, the deadliest accident in the history of Metro-North Railroad. An award for early-career achievement in molecular programming research was established in his honor. ## Early life Dirks was born in Bangkok, Thailand, in 1978. His mother Suree, a Thai Chinese woman who worked in a bank at the time, his father, Michael Dirks, was a mathematics teacher at the International School Bangkok recruited from the United States. After about a year, the family, including older brother William, moved back to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada so that his father could pursue doctoral studies in mathematics education at the University of British Columbia. Four years later the family settled in Michael's hometown of Spokane, Washington, where he took a job teaching math at North Central High School and Spokane Falls Community College. Robert attended Lewis and Clark High School, where he excelled academically, entering and winning many math competitions. He was selected to do cardiovascular research at the University of Washington over the summer before his senior year. During that year, he received the top score of 5 on every Advanced Placement exam he took, and was chosen as class valedictorian in 1996. Shortly after graduation Robert and three of his classmates were one of three high school winners of the ExploraVision national scientific contest, earning them and their families a trip to Washington, D.C. The topic of their project was the future of nanotechnology. Although he had been accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he chose instead to attend Wabash College in Crawfordsville, Indiana. He graduated summa cum laude and with Phi Beta Kappa honors, from Wabash in 2000 with a double major in chemistry and math. He also did a two minors in biology and music, playing the bassoon, clarinet and piano. He then began graduate studies in chemistry at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. He received his Ph.D. in 2005 and remained at Caltech for a postdoctoral fellowship. During his years there he met Christine Ueda, another doctoral student who became his wife. ## Research Dirks was the first graduate student in the laboratory of Niles Pierce at Caltech. His dissertation was entitled "Analysis, design, and construction of nucleic acid devices". Dirks' work in computational chemistry involved creating algorithms and computational tools for the analysis of nucleic acid thermodynamics and nucleic acid structure prediction. Dirks wrote the initial code for the NUPACK suite of nucleic acid design and analysis tools, which generates base pairing probabilities through calculation of the statistical partition function. Unlike other structure prediction tools, NUPACK is capable of handling an arbitrary number of interacting strands rather than being limited to one or two. Dirks also developed an algorithm capable of efficiently handling certain types of pseudoknots, a class of structure that is more computationally intensive to analyze, although NUPACK only implements this ability for single RNA strands. His experimental work pioneered the hybridization chain reaction method, the first demonstration of the self-assembly of nucleic acid structures conditional on a molecular input. The method arose from attempts to use DNA hairpins as "fuel" for DNA machines, but Dirks and Pierce realized that they could instead be used for signal amplification, and when used in conjunction with an aptamer, as a biosensor. As an enzyme-free, isothermal method, it later found application as the basis of an immunoassay method, for in situ hybridization imaging of gene expression, and as the basis for catalytic, isothermal self-assembly of DNA nanostructures. Dirks then worked at D. E. Shaw Research in Manhattan to develop methods for computational protein structure prediction for the design of new drugs, beginning in 2006. ## Later life and death Dirks and Ueda married in 2007. She initially also worked at D. E. Shaw Research, but stopped in 2010 to raise the first of two children. The couple settled in the Westchester County suburb of Chappaqua, New York. He rose early to commute to his job via Metro-North Railroad's Harlem Line, and returned late but devoted as much time as possible on evenings and weekends to his children. On February 3, 2015, Dirks died in the Valhalla train crash. He was riding home in the front car of his train, which his brother says he likely did to take advantage of the quieter atmosphere, when it struck an SUV at a grade crossing north of Valhalla, 5 miles (8.0 km) south of the Chappaqua station. The train dragged the SUV while it came to a stop, loosening segments of the third rail that accumulated in the front car. Dirks, the SUV driver, and four other passengers were killed, making it the deadliest accident in Metro-North's history. Reactions to his death came from many quarters, many paying tribute to his scientific prowess. His father recalled that "he always got everything the first time. He always excelled." Greg Sampson, Dirks' math teacher at Lewis and Clark, remembered when his student had finished an advanced class in trigonometry in just two weeks, something no other student of his has ever done, saying "he was just an amazing, amazing student." Niles Pierce recalled how Dirks was willing to take a chance on working with a younger professor. His former postdoc was, he said, "an unusual student, even for Caltech... He did remarkable things." D. E. Shaw Research, his employer, called him "a brilliant scientist who made tremendous contributions to our own research, and to the broader scientific community." In April 2015, the International Society for Nanoscale Science, Computation, and Engineering (ISNCSE), the main scientific society for DNA nanotechnology and DNA computing, established the Robert Dirks Molecular Programming Prize to recognize early-career scientists for molecular programming research. The first prize was awarded in 2016. As of June 2016, fundraising to establish a \$100,000 endowment was ongoing. ## Notable works ## See also - List of computational chemists - List of people from Spokane, Washington - List of Wabash College people - List of California Institute of Technology people
40,223,440	Mountain Grove Campground	1,160,318,301	Campground in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania	[ "1872 establishments in Pennsylvania", "1902 disestablishments in Pennsylvania", "Buildings and structures in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania", "Camp meeting grounds", "Campgrounds in Pennsylvania", "History of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania", "Methodism in Pennsylvania" ]	The Mountain Grove Campground was a campground, active between 1872 and 1901, that formed part of the 19th- to early 20th-century camp meeting movement, where camping was combined with worshiping and listening to preachers. These meetings were often held by Protestants, in this case, Methodists. Mountain Grove Campground was a site and resort on the Danville, Hazleton and Wilkes-Barre Railroad in Black Creek Township, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It existed for approximately 30 years and was run by the Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association. A businessman named G.M. Shoop was the original owner of the campground's land. Many prominent citizens of the surrounding area were in the association. During the campground's operation between 1872 and 1901, it was renovated and expanded several times. While the camp meetings that were held there were intended for Methodists, non-Methodists occasionally attended them. ## Location and description The Mountain Grove Campground was located approximately halfway between Bloomsburg and Hazleton. It was adjacent to the historical community of Mountain Grove, which had a population of 65 in 1880, and was located on the Danville, Hazleton and Wilkes-Barre Railroad. Most attenders came by railroad came from stations in Catawissa or Hazleton. The campground had its own railroad station and post office. The campground's elevation was more than 1,000 feet (300 m) above sea level and it was situated in a wooded grove immediately east of McCauley Mountain and in close proximity to Scotch Valley. McCauley Mountain protected the site from strong west winds. Mountain Grove Campground was designed with a layout similar to a miniaturized version of Washington, D.C. It had a center avenue and five other avenues called A, B, C, D, and E. The center avenue ran from a large tabernacle to a living area for the preachers. There were also many tents and sites of cottages in the campground and a large administration building on the site housed a number of offices. The campground had outdoor fireplaces, which encouraged picnics. The main hall, which was constructed in 1887, was 26 by 60 feet (7.9 m × 18.3 m) and had two stories. According to a local atlas, Mountain Grove Campground was semicircular in shape, with avenues radiating out towards the sides. An open space for worshiping was on the camp meeting site, and it was surrounded by more tents. When this area was filled up, more people would set up tents along the avenues that radiated outward from the camp. The location of the Mountain Grove Campground was chosen was selected for several reasons. One of these was its proximity to the communities of Hazleton and Bloomsburg. By road, Bloomsburg and Hazleton were both 17 miles (27 km) from the campground. The campground was approachable by road from three directions. ## Establishment and history ### Early history In June 1872, G.M. Shoop, a businessman from Danville bought 28 acres of land on the site that would become the Mountain Grove Campground. He reported this purchase in a meeting held on June 20, 1872, in Columbia County with a group of Methodists, including several ministers. In this meeting, an executive committee was appointed to arrange the camp meeting. The executive committee included Reverend S. Creighton, Reverend S. Barnes (the chairman), H.E. Sutherland (the secretary), Reverend B.P. King, Reverend E.T. Schwartz, M. Hartman, J.W. Cleaver, J.W. Eyer, and G.M. Shoop himself. Shoop intended to give the land to a local camp meeting organization once one existed. This idea was well received by the district superintendent of the Methodist Church. A committee consisting of four pastors and five lay leaders was subsequently created for the camp meeting site. Craig Newton, a history professor at what would become the Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, stated that the site purchased by Shoop would be an ideal location for a camp meeting site. The Danville District's presiding elder, Reverend S. Barnes, went to the Central Pennsylvania Conference in 1872 to make a report on opening the Mountain Grove Campground. He stated that the managers of the campground intended to "make it, perhaps, the best adapted and most attractive resort of its kind in all our Conference territory." Camp meeting sites had long been supported by the Central Pennsylvania Conference. The Pennsylvania legislature chartered the campground in 1873. A professional architect was hired to design the Mountain Grove Campground. Major financial contributors to the campground included a Colonel Jackson from Berwick and the Low family from Lime Ridge. It was under the auspices of the Pennsylvania Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church's Danville District. The campground was initially laid out hurriedly, being constructed in less than two months. It opened for the first time on August 14, 1872. By this point, approximately 70 small and hastily constructed cottages (referred to as tents) had been built. Between the 1872 camp meeting season and the 1873 camp meeting season, the buildings of the campground were significantly renovated. Three more acres and a hotel were also added to the campground during this time, on land bought from George W. Klase. The purpose of the purchase was to stop the sale of alcoholic drinks within two miles of the campground. Between 1873 and 1874, further additions were made to the campground. In 1875, a special train started to run past the campground three times a week during the camp meeting season. By 1881, the special train ran past the campground once per day. In 1884, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Philadelphia and Reading Railway began selling special fair excursion tickets for the campground. The campground was extended to 34 acres by 1885. The Lehigh Valley Railroad began doing so as well in 1887. In the beginning of the operation of Mountain Grove Campground, the majority of people traveling there were worshipers. In the 1870s and 1880s, the campground was one of the three largest camp meeting sites that residents of Columbia County attended. In 1875, approximately 2500 people attended the camp meeting. In 1881, it was decided that all the profit generated from the campground would be dedicated to expansion and improvement of it. In 1891, the duration of the camp meeting was increased from seven to thirteen days. However, some people traveled there for a vacation. Within 20 years of the campground's opening, the majority of the people going there were there for a vacation, and trains carried bands and other entertainment-related items to the campground. However, people still continued to go there in large numbers for camp meeting. Local newspapers also began to advertise the campground as a resort instead of a camp meeting site. This began with an advertisement written by John R. Rote, secretary of the Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association, in the Columbia County Republican on July 9, 1891. The Mountain Grove Campground was affected relatively little by storms, as compared to other camp meeting sites in the area. However, in 1889, attendance of the camp meeting was significantly affected by inclement weather. ### Expansions and renovations Between the 1872 and 1873 camp meeting seasons, the cottages, also known as tents, in the Mountain Grove Campground were renovated. The renovations included enlarging the tents to dimensions of 9 by 18 feet (2.7 m × 5.5 m). Roofs with singled combs were also installed during this renovation. The stairways on the cottages were also improved during this time. Between the 1873 and the 1874 camp meeting seasons, the Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association added more tents to the campground, increasing their number to almost 200. They also built a boarding house above the dining hall and a tabernacle was constructed across from the auditorium. Several more expansions and renovations were made to the Mountain Grove Campground in the 1880s. In 1883, the boarding house was expanded and in 1885, a number of water pipes were renovated and some buildings were repaired and repainted. The main office of the campground was built in 1887. More renovations were done in 1889 and 1892, by which time there were 240 tents. In the 1900, a final attempt to increase the attendance of the camp meetings at Mountain Grove Campground was made by the Board of Managers. As well as general renovation, this included an addition of a building called the Preacher's Home, which was situated behind the auditorium. The purpose of this was to attract preachers to attend, thus inspiring locals to attend as well. This plan was not successful. ### Decline and later history As railroads began to become more common, attendance of the Mountain Grove Campground began to decline. The attendance of the campground dropped severely in 1891. On July 9, 1891, the campground placed an unusually large advertisement in a local newspaper. Attendance continued to drop in 1892. The decline continued, despite efforts by the campground directors to increase the number of Chautauqua speakers and religious speakers. Attempts were made throughout the 1890s to stave off the impending failure of the campground, but were largely unsuccessful. Later, the Board of Managers decided that they would open the campground specifically for special events, such as the Bloomsburg Methodist Church's plans for an eleven-car special train to carry picnickers and a band there. By the mid-1890s, it was permitted for visitors to bring their own supplies, rent multiple tents, and decide whether to stay for one or two weeks. A short branch line of the Danville, Hazleton, and Wilkes-Barre Railroad was then built to allow easier transport of visitors' baggage to the campground. Baggage carrying was also done for free and the attendance fee was also reduced. Only one of the twenty-five prominent local families who attended the camp meeting in the 1880s still attended it in the 1890s. However, one of the last camp meetings there, in 1900, was referred to as "interesting and profitable", although attendance had significantly dropped between 1898 and 1899. When the campground closed for the season in 1901, no plans were made to reopen it in 1902. The campground directors then attempted to sell the land to the Pennsylvania Railroad, but they were unsuccessful. In 1903, a farmer bought the land and the tents, buildings, and platforms were all purchased by various individuals. These items had all been sold within 18 months of the abandonment of the campground. The last sign of the campground's existence was its boardwalk, which eventually rotted away. The area where the Mountain Grove Campground used to be currently contains sump holes and scrub. The Mountain Grove Campground was stated in the 1950s by Charles A. Johnson to be a "new-fashioned camp meeting". The newspaper editor James C. Brown stated that it was "one of the most delightful resorts in Pennsylvania". ### Campground visits and attendance Camp meetings at the Mountain Grove Campground was held for seven to ten days each August. Several thousand people would attend the camp each year. By 1878, campground attendance on Saturdays had reached 4000 to 5000 people. The percentage of attendees who stayed for the whole duration of the camp meeting, as opposed to only part of it, also decreased during the 1890s. ## The camp meetings Camp meetings at the Mountain Grove Campground began at 7:30 p.m. on a Wednesday night with a bell that summoned the attendees to a welcome sermon. From Thursday through Saturday, days of camp meeting consisted of a prayer period at 8:30 a.m., a sermon at 10:30 a.m., a service for children at 1:30 p.m., and a second sermon at 3:30 p.m. A third sermon would be delivered by a minister from another district at 7:30 p.m. On Sundays, the day began with an "experience day" at 8:20 a.m. Other than that, Sundays were similar to other days, except that an acclaimed visitor would give a sermon at 3:00 p.m. The three days after that followed the same schedule as Thursdays through Saturdays. The camp meetings were closed at 12:30 p.m. on Thursday. Following the increase in the length of the camp meeting to 13 days, the schedule was adjusted. Thursday was designated as a temperance day. The following days were, in chronological order, designated as a Chautauqua Day, a missionary day, a Sunday School and Epworth League day, and eight days of other religious events. The meetings concluded in the campground's auditorium. The Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association added a Chautauqua Day to the camp meeting in 1885, and it became highly popular. It occurred on the first Thursday of the meeting. A number of people, including Lyman Abbot, frequented the Chautauqua Days as a speaker. To keep them from interfering with other camp meeting activities, the day was moved to the Tuesday before the official start of the meeting in 1886, but in 1889, it was moved to the first Wednesday. ## Financial information and leadership The Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association was formed after a decision by a nine-man committee. It was decided on August 19, 1872, that the company would be a joint-stock company. Its capital stock in 1873 was \$14,000. G.M. Shoop was a significant stockholder in the company. He was the manager of the campground and the association secretary during the 1870s. High-ranking members of the Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association during the 1870s included Presiding Elder Barnes, Reverend S. Creighton, and the businessmen and politicians B.G. Welch, Mordecai W. Jackson, and A.J. Ammerman. The newspaper editor E.M. Wardin was also prominent within the association. In the early 1880s, the businessmen E.M.M. Low, Z.T. Fowler, and Lloyd T. Sharpless also became prominent in the association. The campground typically grossed approximately \$4,000 per year during the 1880s. In 1885, the Mountain Grove Camp Meeting Association created a Chautauqua department. W.M. Gearhart was the initial president of this department and S.C. Jayne was the initial secretary. ## See also - 1872 in the United States
61,394,890	Napoleonic looting of art	1,169,490,161	First French Empire's seizure of art from conquered territory	[ "Art and cultural repatriation", "Cultural heritage", "French Revolutionary Wars", "Looting" ]	The Napoleonic looting of art (French: Spoliations napoléoniennes) was a series of confiscations of artworks and precious objects carried out by the French army or French officials in the conquered territories of the French Republic and Empire, including the Italian peninsula, Spain, Portugal, the Low Countries, and Central Europe. The looting began around 1794 and continued through Napoleon's rule of France, until the Congress of Vienna in 1815 ordered the restitution of the works. During the Napoleonic era, an unknown but immense quantity of art was acquired, destroyed, or lost through treaties, public auctions, and unsanctioned seizures. Coins and objects made of precious metals, such as the Jewel of Vicenza and the bucentaur, the Venetian state barge, were melted down for easier sale and transport, to finance French military wages. In the confusion, many artworks and manuscripts were lost in transit or broken into pieces, which were often never reunited, as occurred with the marble columns of the Aachen Cathedral. French officials justified taking art and other objects of value as both a right of conquest and as an advancement of public education, encyclopedism, and Enlightenment ideals. These seizures redefined the right of conquest in Europe and caused a surge of interest in art and art conservation. During the Congress of Vienna, Austria, Spain, the German states, and the United Kingdom ordered the restitution of all the removed artworks. Many works were returned, but many remained in France, due to resistance from the French administration, the high costs of transportation, or the risk of damage to fragile works. As not all of the artwork was returned, this campaign of French looting continues to affect European politics, museology, and national cultural identity today. ## History ### Background After the French Revolution, the new government had to decide whether or how to nationalize artworks from churches, the fleeing nobility of the Ancien Régime, and the royal collections. In some cases, French iconoclasts destroyed artworks, particularly those that represented royalty or feudalism. Other works were put up for public auction to replenish the Republic's empty coffers and were bought and transported to other European collections. With the intervention of abbot Henri Gregoire in 1794, the French revolutionary government moved to stop the vandalism and destruction of artworks by claiming them as a source of national heritage. All around France, works were placed in storage or for display in museums, like the Louvre, and enormous inventories of the confiscated works were attempted. Regional French museums resisted attempts at centralized control of their collections, but the newly instituted French Directorate created commissions to encourage compliance. In many cases, this saved works of medieval or Gothic art from destruction, often through the intervention of experts like architect Alexandre Lenoir, abbot Nicolas Bergeat, and artist Louis Watteau. From the start of the 18th century, the French people had clamored for more public exhibitions, creating a need for new artworks and their display. And the increased collections needed new institutions to manage them. The Musée des Monuments Français, whose collection would later be transferred to the Louvre, and the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon are two prominent examples of art museums. Science museums were also founded, including the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers and the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. The previously disorganized Louvre collection was cataloged and structured through the work of the scholars Ennio Quirino Visconti and Alexandre Lenoir. In November 1802, the First Consul Napoleon appointed Vivant Denon director of the Louvre, the museums of Versailles, and the royal castle collections due to his successes in the Egyptian campaign. Denon, known as "Napoleon's eye", continued to travel with French military expeditions to Italy, Germany, Austria, and Spain to select artworks for France. He also improved the Louvre's layout and lighting to encourage holistic comparisons of the plundered artworks, reflecting new ideas in museology and countering the objections that the artworks lacked meaningful context in France. Denon "deployed flattery and duplicity" to gain further acquisitions, even against Napoleon's wishes. As a result of the Chaptal Decree in 1801, works of greater merit were selected for the Louvre, while less important works were distributed among new French provincial museums like those in Lyon or Marseille, and then to smaller museums like those in Reims, Tours or Arles. At the same time, some Italian fine arts academies were transformed into public museums like the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan. The influx of paintings also coincided with renewed interest in art restoration methods, under the influence of the restorers Robert Picault and François-Toussaint Hacquin. Many of the works had never been cleaned and needed repair from transportation. Some paintings were restored or altered, such as Raphael's Madonna of Foligno, which was transferred from its original panel to a canvas support in c. 1800. In 1798, the Louvre actually exhibited a painting by Pietro Perugino that was only half restored to demonstrate the repairs to the public. These new cultural preservation methods were then used to justify the seizure and alterations of foreign cultural objects. The French army's removal of murals and frescoes was related to French conservators' tradition of transferring paintings onto new supports. They saw the detachment of wall paintings as no different than moving a wooden altarpiece from its place. Some of the radical treatments were difficult to execute successfully. In 1800, French officials tried to remove the Deposition, by Daniele da Volterra, from the Orsini chapel of Rome's Trinità dei Monti church. The stacco a massello technique—which removed part of the mural's plaster support—undermined the walls of the chapel, and the removal had to be halted to prevent the chapel from caving in. The mural itself had to be extensively restored by Pietro Palmaroli and was never sent to Paris. ### Justifications for seizures The French government planned to increase museum collections through the confiscation of foreign artworks as a show of national strength. Its appropriations were at first indiscriminate, but by 1794, the French government developed structured programs for art acquisition through its wars. With its "savant" system, exemplified by the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, experts would select which works should be taken—the system tried to reconcile imperial tribute with the French values of encyclopedism and public education. Its work was supported by peace treaties designed to legitimize their acquisitions: some treaty clauses required the delivery of artworks, and others imposed art acquisitions as tribute from foreign nobility. In European history, the plundering of artworks had been a common, accepted way for conquerors to exhibit power over their new subjects. In the late 18th century, however, the increased national control of artworks led to regulations that restricted the movement and sale of artworks; and the ideals of enlightened monarchs discouraged treating art as mere plunder. Still, the French justified their seizures by appealing to the right of conquest and republican ideals of artistic appreciation, as well as the advancement of scientific knowledge and the "scientific cosmopolitanism" of the Republic of Letters. Nord Jean-Luc Barbier, a lieutenant of the Hussars, proclaimed before the national assembly that the works had remained "soiled too long by slavery", and that "these immortal works are no longer on foreign soil. They are brought to the homeland of arts and genius, to the homeland of liberty and sacred equality: the French Republic." Bishop Henri Gregoire said before the Convention in 1794: "If our victorious armies have entered Italy, the removal of the Apollo Belvedere and the Farnese Hercules should be the most brilliant conquest. It is Greece that decorated Rome: why should the masterpieces of the Greek republic decorate a country of slaves? The French Republic should be their final resting place." This rhetoric contrasted the republican values of revolutionary France against the European monarchies that relied on serfdom, feudalism and exploitative colonialism to argue that other countries were incapable of properly caring for their own culture (Although, the French republic still held Haiti as a slave colony at this time.). Quatremère de Quincy, a student of Winckelmann, and others like him, believed artworks should not be removed from their original context. Beginning in 1796, Quatremère argued against art appropriation. To rediscover the art of the past, he said it would be necessary to "turn to the ruins of Provence, investigate the ruins of Arles, Orange, and restore the beautiful amphitheater of Nimes", instead of looting Rome. Although Quatremère supported centralized cultural knowledge, he believed that uprooting art from its original context as French officials were doing would hopelessly compromise its authentic meaning, creating new meanings instead. Quatremère's views were in the minority in France, but the conquered nations made appeals along similar lines. In occupied Belgium, there were popular protests against art expropriation, and the Central and Superior Administration of Belgium tried to block French acquisitions. The administration argued that Belgians shouldn't be treated as conquered subjects but "children of the Republic". In Florence, the director of the Uffizi argued that the galleries' collection was already owned by the people of Tuscany, rather than the Grand Duke who signed a treaty with the French. These appeals were sometimes supported by French officials. For example, Charles Nicolas Lacretelle argued that taking Italian art in excess would push Italians to support Hapsburg rule. ### The Low Countries and the Rhineland During and after their successful war against the First Coalition (1792–97), the French armies destroyed monuments, supported iconoclasm, and held art auctions of confiscated property in the Low Countries of northwestern Europe. French armies began claiming property from within the newly formed Batavian Republic, including from the collection of the House of Orange at The Hague. Their efforts were led by Hussar lieutenant Nord Jean-Luc Barbier, under the advice of artist and collector Jean-Baptiste Wicar. In 1794, three paintings by Peter Paul Rubens, along with around 5,000 books from the University of Leuven, were sent from Antwerp to Paris, and the first shipment arrived in that September. The Louvre received around 200 Flemish old-master paintings: they included 55 paintings by Rubens and 18 by Rembrandt, as well as the Proserpina sarcophagus and several marble columns from Aachen Cathedral. Despite the anti-clericalism of France at the time, Flemish artwork with religious subjects were welcomed by Parisian authorities. In early 1795, France conquered Holland, and one of the "savant" commissions—comprising botanist André Thouin, geologist Barthélemy Faujas de St-Fond, antiquarian Michel Le Blond, and architect Charles de Wailly—accessed the collection of Stadholder William V, who had fled. However, the status of the Batavian Republic as a "sister republic" of France made acquisitions difficult to justify. In March 1795, French officials exempted all Batavian private property from seizure, except for the Stadholder's, because he had been so unpopular. With the Stadholder's collection designated as private property and eligible for appropriation, four shipments of natural history artifacts (minerals, stuffed animals, books, etc.) and 24 paintings were sent to Paris in the late spring of 1795. As Thouin described the selection works both as tribute and as a way to enforce cultural dependence upon France: > This tribute by a vanquished power will contribute much to perpetuate the glory of the victors, and make the neighboring powers tributary of France by forcing its subjects to draw on France for useful knowledge. It is undoubtedly the least expensive tribute to extract from the conquered, the most dignifying for the great people who impose it, the most fruitful for the goodness of humanity, a goal which any good government should never lose sight of. The commission process set a pattern for the systematic appropriations to come, and the French use of experts explains how they could select important Old Master artworks and discern them from copies and pieces made by artists' workshops. The first French exhibitions of the Low Country artworks took place in 1799, and included 56 works by Rubens, 18 by Rembrandt, Van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece, and 12 portraits by Hans Holbein the Younger. From 1801 on, the French officials in charge of the new Belgian art institutions tried to resist any further export of the artworks. ### Italy In Italy, the practice of using special commissions to select art for appropriation was expanded and made more systematic. The librarians of the Bibliothèque Nationale had compiled extensive lists of the Italian books they desired. The commission included the scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Pierre Claude François Daunou, and Gaspard Monge; and the artists Jacques-Pierre Tinet, Jean-Baptiste Wicar, Andrea Appiani, and Jean-Baptiste Moitte. In Lombardy, the Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna, commission members had the authority to select and acquire works at their own discretion. On May 7, 1796, the French Directorate ordered Napoleon to transfer goods from the occupied territories in Italy to France: > General citizen, the executive directorate is convinced that the glory of art and that of the army under your orders are inseparable. Italy owes art the greater part of its riches and its fame, but the time of French rule has come, to consolidate and beautify the kingdom of liberty. The national museum should hold all celebrated artistic monuments, and you will not fail to enrich it with what awaits it from the armed conquest of Italy and those that the future still holds. This glorious campaign, as well as allowing the Republic to offer peace to its enemies, should repair the devastating vandalisms by adding to the splendor of military victories the enchantment of consoling and beneficial art. Napoleon himself had close ties to Italy, which inspired both his imperial ambitions and his appreciation for its art. French rule was also more welcomed than it had been in the Low Countries, especially among Italian intellectuals, which gave the appropriations some popular support. Regions that were either favorable to French rule—such as those that eventually formed the Cisalpine Republic,—or were geographically hard to reach, had fewer works of art taken from them. Regions that actively fought the French, such as Parma and Venice, had the transfer of artworks written as a condition of their surrender. The French armies also dissolved monasteries and convents as they went, often taking artworks that had been abandoned or sold in haste. From the spring of 1796, the first Napoleonic campaign in Italy removed art objects of all kinds, which were sanctioned in provisions of the Treaty of Leoben, the Armistice of Cherasco, the Armistice of Bologna, and the Treaty of Tolentino, culminating with clauses in the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio that transferred artworks from the Austrian Empire and the former Venetian Republic. Over 110 artworks were brought to France in 1796 alone. The early appropriations were organized by Jean-Baptiste Wicar. Drawing on his experience of cataloging the art collections of Italian duchies, Wicar selected which paintings would be sent to Paris from 1797 to 1800. His work was continued later by Vivant Denon. Local nobles, like Giovanni Battista Sommariva, used the opportunity of the tumult to enrich their own personal collections. During the occupations, Napoleonic officials continued to plunder artwork beyond that agreed to in the treaties—the commission had permission to amend the agreed number of artworks. Resistance to these appropriations was decentralized, or sometimes nonexistent, because Italy did not yet exist as a single nation. #### Kingdom of Sardinia With the Armistice of Cherasco in May 1796, more than 67 Italian and Flemish artworks fell to France. Turin was made a part of French territory, and the negotiations were particularly cordial. Fewer works were taken from Sardinia (which was ruled by the House of Savoy from Turin at the time), although French attention turned to the documents, the codices of the Regal Archive, and Flemish paintings in the Galleria Sabauda. #### Austrian Lombardy The French entered Milan in 1796, as part of the first Italian campaign of Napoleon in Lombardy. In May 1796, while there was still fighting at Castello Sforzesco, Tinet traveled to the Biblioteca Ambrosiana as a member of the French commission. There, Tinet took Raphael's preparatory drawings for the School of Athens fresco at the Vatican; 12 drawings and the Codex Atlanticus of Leonardo da Vinci; the precious manuscripts of the Bucolics of the Virgin, with illuminations by Simone Martini; and five landscapes of Jan Brueghel for Carlo Borromeo that had been placed in the Ambrosiana of Milan in 1673. The Coronation of Thorns, by a follower of Titian between 1542 and 1543, commissioned by the monks of the Church of Santa Maria delle Graces, was sent to the Louvre. Many works were also taken from the Pinacoteca di Brera and the cathedral of Mantua. From the Mantuan church of Santa Trinità, three Rubens works, The Baptism of Christ, The Gonzaga Trinity, and the Transfiguration were taken to Paris. The Codex Atlanticus was eventually returned, in pieces, to the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. In fact, many folios of the Codex are stored in Nantes and Basilea, while all the other notebooks and writings of Leonardo are at the national library of France, in Paris. #### Modena The armistice between Napoleon and the Duke of Modena was signed in May 1796, in Milan by San Romano Federico d'Este, representative of Duke Ercole III. France demanded 20 paintings from the Este Collection and a monetary sum triple that of the Parma armistice. The first shipment was sent by Giuseppe Maria Soli, director of the Accademia Atestina di Belle Arti [it]. On 14 October 1796, Napoleon entered Modena with two new commissioners, Pierre-Anselme Garrau and Antoine Christophe Saliceti, to sift through Modena's galleries of medals, and the ducal palace for collections of cameos and engraved semi-precious stones. On 17 October, after taking many manuscripts and antique books from the ducal library, they shipped 1213 items: 900 bronze imperial Roman coins, 124 coins from Roman colonies, 10 silver coins, 31 shaped medals, 44 coins from the Greek cities, and 103 Papal coins. All were sent to the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris, where they still reside. In February 1797, Napoleon's wife Josephine took up residence at the Ducal Palace of Modena and wished to see the collection of cameos and precious stones. She took around 200 of them, in addition to those taken by her husband. French officials also sent 1300 drawings found in the Este collections to the Louvre, as well as 16 agate cameos, 51 precious stones, and many crystal vases. #### Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla With the armistice of 9 May 1796, the duke of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla was forced to send 20 paintings, later reduced to 16, selected by French officials. In Piacenza, the officials chose two canvases from the Cathedral of Parma—The Funeral of the Virgin and The Apostles at the Tomb of the Virgin, by Ludovico Carracci—to be sent to the Louvre. In 1803, by order of the administrator Moreau de Saint Mery, the carvings and decorations of the Palazzo Farnese, as well as the painting The Spanish Coronation, were removed. Two paintings were taken from the Duomo, those by Giovanni Lanfranco of saints Alessio and Corrado. Ettore Rota published tables of all the art taken: 55 works from the Duke of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, and 8 bronze objects of Veleja, of which 30 works and the 8 bronzes were eventually returned. Saint Corrado by Lanfranco and The Spanish Coronation remain in France, where they are on display. The remaining works are missing. In Parma, after the 1803 orders and the creation of the French Taro department in 1808, more precious objects were stripped from the Ducal archaeological museum, such as Tabula Alimentaria Traianea and Lex Rubria de Gallia Cisalpina [it]. One department prefect complained, after the departure of Vivant Denon, that "there remains nothing to serve as models for the schools of painting in Parma." #### Venetian Republic The French search for Venetian artworks was led by Monge, Berthollet, the artist Berthélemy, and Tinet, who had previously been in Modena. After the defeat of the Venetian Republic, there were several revolts against the occupying French armies. The resulting reprisals and confiscations were particularly harsh. Gold and silver works from the Zecca of Venice and the Basilica di San Marco were melted down and sent to France or used to pay soldiers' salaries. Religious orders were abolished, and some 70 churches were demolished. Around 30,000 works of art were sold or went missing. The Bucintoro, the Venetian state barge, was taken apart along with all its sculptures, much of which was then burned on the island of San Giorgio Maggiore to extract their gold leaf; the Arsenal of Venice was dismantled, and the most beautiful arms, armor, and firearms were sent to France, with the rest (including more than 5,000 cannons) being melted down. The weapons shipped to France were mostly placed in the collection of the Musée de l'Armée, including a bronze cannon made to celebrate an alliance between the Republic of Venice and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. The Wedding at Cana, by Veronese, was cut in two and sent to the Louvre (where it remains). The San Zeno Altarpiece, by Mantegna, was cut apart and sent as well. Its platforms remain in the Louvre while the principal panel was returned to Verona, thus destroying the work's integrity. Giovanni Battista Gazola's renowned collection of fossils from Mount Bolca was confiscated in May 1797 and deposited in the Museum of Natural History in Paris that September. Gazola was retrospectively compensated with an annuity from 1797 and a pension from 1803. He created a second collection of fossils, which were also confiscated and brought to Paris in 1806. In April 1797, the French removed the Lion of Saint Mark and famous bronze Horses of Saint Mark. When Napoleon decided to commemorate his victories of 1805 and 1807, he ordered the construction of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and that the horses be placed on top as its only ornamentation. #### Rome and the Papal States After the Armistice of Bologna, the Papal States sent over 500 manuscripts and 100 artworks to France on the condition that the French army would not occupy Rome. The Pope had to pay the costs of transporting the manuscripts and artworks to Paris. Commission member Jacques-Pierre Tinet took the Raphael altarpieces ceded by the armistice of Bologna, but also an additional 31 paintings, a number of which were by Raphael and Pietro Perugino. Tensions ran high between the French and the Romans. In August 1796, Roman rioters attacked French commissioners to protest the appropriations, and a French legate was assassinated. The Pope himself worked to undermine the clauses of the peace treaty and to delay the actual shipment of the works. When the French government sent him an ultimatum on September 8, 1797, the Pope declared the treaty and Armistice of Bologna null and void. When the Papal armies were defeated, Roman emissaries agreed to the harsher conditions of the Treaty of Tolentino. French officials seized art collections in Ravenna, Rimini, Pesaro, Ancona, and Perugia. After the French general Mathurin-Léonard Duphot was accidentally shot and killed outside the French embassy in December 1797, French armies occupied Rome, exiled Pope Pius VI, and establishing the short-lived Roman Republic. Although the public was assured that their monuments wouldn't be taken, Napoleonic officials began systematically sacking the city after compiling an inventory of the Vatican's treasures. Officials opened the Pope's rooms and fused Vatican medals of gold and silver for easier transportation. They tried to devise a way to remove the frescoes in the Vatican's Raphael Rooms. The artworks were chosen by Joseph de la Porte du Theil, a French intellectual who knew the Vatican library well. He took, among other things, the Fons Regina, the library of Queen Cristina of Switzerland. Seizures also took place in the Vatican Library, the Biblioteca Estense of Modena, the libraries of Bologna, Monza, Pavia, and Brera. The private library of Pope Pius VI was seized by Pierre Daunou after it was put up for sale. General Pommereul planned to remove Trajan's Column from Rome and send it to France, probably in pieces. This proposal was not acted on, however, due to the cost of transportation and the administrative obstacles created by the Church to slow the process. For their anti-French advocacy, the cardinals Albani and Braschi had their collections seized, from the Villa Albani and the Palazzo Braschi, respectively. In May, Daunou wrote that the classical sculptures from Villa Albani filled over 280 crates, all to be sent to Paris. The Swiss sculptor Heinrich Keller described the chaotic scene in Rome: > The destruction here is awful; the most beautiful pictures are sold for a song [...] The holier the subject, the lower the price. Yesterday I went to the Capitol, where the situation is dire. Marc Antony stands in a kitchen dressed with a heavy wooden neckpiece and straw gloves; the Dying Gaul is packed in straw and sack cloth to his toes; the beautiful Venus de' Medici is buried to her bosom in hay; while Flora waits buried in a wooden crate. In 1809, collections of marbles were sold to Napoleon by Prince Camillo Borghese, who was under significant financial strain due to the heavy taxation imposed by the French. The prince didn't receive the promised sum, but was paid in land requisitioned from the Church and with mineral rights in Lazio. (Following the Congress of Vienna, the prince had to return all such compensation to their legitimate owners.) #### Tuscany From March 1799, after Florence was occupied by the Napoleonic armies, Jean-Baptiste Wicar chose which paintings would be taken from the Palazzo Pitti and sent to Paris. In total, 63 paintings and 25 pieces of pietre dure were taken from Florence. In 1803, the Venus de' Medici was exported to France at the express order of Napoleon. The later looting of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was led out by the director of the Louvre himself, Vivant Denon. Through the summer and winter of 1811, after the Kingdom of Etruria had been annexed by the French empire, Denon took artworks from dissolved churches and convents in Genoa, Massa, Carrara, Pisa, Volterra, and Florence. In Arezzo, Denon took The Annunciation of the Virgin, by Giorgio Vasari, from the Church of Santa Maria Novella d'Arezzo. His choice of these "primitive" Italian artworks was odd for the time: the work of the "primitive", or Gothic Italian, artists of c. 1180–1400 was widely disliked. In Florence, Denon searched the convent of Saint Catherine, the churches of Santa Maria Maddalena de' Pazzi and Santo Spirito, and the Accademia delle Belle Arti di Firenze, and sent back works to the Louvre, such as the Fra Filippo Lippi's Barbadori Altarpiece from Santo Spirito, Cimabue's Maestà, and Michelangelo's unfinished sculptures for the tomb of Pope Julius II were sent to the Louvre.. #### Naples In January 1799 and after the occupation of Naples, General Jean-Étienne Championnet began seizing and shipping artwork in the Kingdom of Naples. In a missive he sent on February 25, he said: > I announce to you with pleasure that we have found the riches we had thought lost. In addition to the Gessi of Ercolano that are at Portici, there are two equestrian statues of Nonius, father and son, in marble for you; the Venus Callipyge will not go alone to Paris, because we have found in the porcelain manufactory, the superb Agrippina that awaits death; the life-size marble statues of Caligula, of Marcus Aurelius, and a beautiful Mercury in bronze and ancient marble busts of great merit, among which one of Homer. The convoy will leave in a few days. Paintings, sculpture, books, and gold were all taken by the French during the rule of the short-lived Repubblica Napoletana. The previous year, fearing the worst, Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies had transferred 14 masterpieces to Palermo, but the French soldiers plundered many works from nearby collections like the Gallerie di Capodimonte and the Palace of Capodimonte. #### The catalog of Canova As a papal diplomat, the sculptor Antonio Canova made a list of Italian paintings that were sent to France. Below is the list, as reported by French sources, which also notes how many works were subsequently repatriated or lost. Canova was primarily concerned with figurative works and sculptures, omitting minor or merely decorative artworks. ### Victory celebrations of 1798 On 27 and 28 July 1798, there was a grand celebration of Napoleonic military victories, which coincided with the arrival in Paris of a third convoy carrying artworks from Rome and Venice. The triumphal parade was planned months ahead of time. As seen in commemorative prints, its motto was, La Grèce les ceda; Rome les a perdus; leur sort changea deux fois, il ne changera plus (Greece has fallen; Rome is lost; their luck changed twice, it won't change again). The procession contained the Horses of Saint Mark, Apollo Belvedere, the Venus de' Medici, the Discobolus, the Laocoön group, and sixty other works, among which were nine Raphaels, two Correggios, collections of antiques and minerals, exotic animals, and Vatican manuscripts. Popular attention was also drawn to the exotic animals and the Black Madonna of the Basilica della Santa Casa, believed to be the work of Saint Luke. ### Egypt and Syria After Italy, the Napoleonic army began its campaign in Egypt Eyalet and Ottoman Syria (both under rule by the Ottoman Empire at the time). The army brought a contingent of 167 scholars with it, including Denon, scientist Gaspard Monge, and mathematician Jean Fourier. Their scientific expedition undertook excavations and scientific studies to study Egypt's pyramids, temples, and Pharaonic statues, like the tomb of Amenhotep III. Looting from the area was not considered a violation of international norms by Europeans, due to the influence of orientalism and European countries' tense relations with the Ottoman Empire. Most of objects taken by the French army were lost to the British, including the sarcophagus of Nectanebo II and the Rosetta Stone, after the Battle of the Nile in 1798, and were sent to the British Museum instead. The French scholars' studies culminated in the Mémoires sur l'Égypte and the monumental Description de l'Égypte encyclopedia, which was finished in 1822. ### Northern Europe Following the Treaty of Lunéville between France and the Holy Roman Empire in 1801, manuscripts, codices, and paintings began to flow from northern and central Europe into Paris. In Bavaria, the works were selected by a Parisian professor, Neveu. Neveu delivered a list of the confiscated artworks to the Bavarian government, which later allowed them to make requisition requests. However, the Holy Roman Empire imperial collections remained mostly untouched. With the Peace of Pressburg in December 1805 and the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt shortly after, Denon and his aides Daru and Stendhal began to systematically appropriate art from regions of the Holy Roman Empire, Westphalia, and Prussia. With Berlin, Charlottenburg, and Sanssouci combed through, Denon went on to relieve the gallery of Cassel of 48 paintings. En route, the paintings were directed to Mainz, where the Empress Josephine saw them and convinced Napoleon to have them sent to Malmaison as a gift to her. In the end, Denon selected over 299 paintings to take from the Cassel collection. Additionally, nearly 78 paintings were taken from the Duke of Brunswick, and Stendhall collected over 500 illuminated manuscripts and the famous art collection of the deceased Cardinal Mazarin. In all, over a thousand paintings were taken from German and Austrian cities, including Berlin, Vienna, Nuremberg, and Potsdam—400 art objects came from Vienna alone. As in Italy, many works were melted down for easy transport and sale, and two large auctions were held in 1804 and 1811 to fund further French military expeditions. ### Spain During and after the Peninsular War, hundreds of artworks were seized from Spain, continuing until the first abdication of Napoleon in 1814. Denon again selected works, including some by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Francisco de Zurbarán, and Diego Velázquez, to send to Paris for display. With Joseph Bonaparte enthroned in Spain, most of the works came from the Spanish royal collection and were stored at the Prado in Madrid, although the Spanish administration was able to delay their shipment until 1813. From El Escorial palace, Horace Sébastiani and Jean-de-Dieu Soult claimed many Spanish paintings, particularly Murillos, while the general Armagnac claimed mostly Dutch works from the collection. Soult took so many Spanish paintings for himself that his collection eventually made up a significant portion of the Louvre's "Spanish gallery" after his death. In 1812, French control of Spain began to collapse following the Battle of Salamanca. Joseph Bonaparte tried to flee, and his first attempt at flight included an enormous baggage train of looted objects from the Spanish royal collection. After the 1813 Battle of Vitoria, Joseph abandoned the artworks and fled with his cavalry. British troops captured almost 250 of the abandoned paintings, and held a public auction to disperse some of the captured art. The Duke of Wellington himself sent around 165 to England. The Duke apparently offered to return the paintings to Ferdinand VII after the wars. Ferdinand declined the offer and allowed the Duke keep the paintings, most of which are now on display at Apsley House. ### Restitutions #### Initial negotiations During the First Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France under Louis XVIII (1814–15), the nations of the Sixth Coalition did not initially stipulate the return of artworks from France. They were to be treated as "inalienable property of the Crown." On 8 May 1814, however, Louis declared that works not yet hung in French museums would be returned, which led to the return of many of the Spanish works. Manuscripts were returned to Austria and Prussia by the end of 1814, and Prussia recovered all its statues, as well as 10 paintings by Cranach, and 3 by Correggio. The Duke of Brunswick recovered 85 paintings, 174 Limoges porcelains, and 980 majolica vases. But most of the works remained in France. After Napoleon's second abdication in June 1815, followed by another restoration of Louis XVIII, the return of art became a part of negotiations, although the lack of historical precedent made it a messy affair. Some nations did not wait for agreements from the Congress of Vienna, in order to act. In July 1815, the Prussians began to force restitutions. Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the diplomat von Ribbentropp, art expert Jacobi, and reserve officer Eberhardt de Groote to deal with the returns. On 8 July, they demanded Denon return all the Prussian treasures; but he refused, claiming that the returns weren't authorized by Louis XVIII. Von Ribbentropp then threatened to have Prussian soldiers seize the works and imprison and extradite Denon to Prussia. By 13 July, all the key Prussian works were out of the Louvre and packed up for travel. When the Dutch consul arrived at the Louvre to make similar requests, Denon denied him access and wrote to Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord and the Congress of Vienna: > If we give up all the requests of the Netherlands and Belgium, we deny to the museum one of the most important assets, the Flemings ... Russia is not against, Austria has just received everything, and practically also Prussia. There is only England, that has nothing to ask from the museum, but that has since stolen the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon, and now thinks to make competition with the Louvre, and wishes to loot this museum to collect the crumbs. French museum officials tried to hold onto any objects they had seized, arguing that keeping the artworks in France was a gesture of generosity towards their countries of origin and a tribute to their cultural or scientific importance. In 1815, for example, the French National Museum of Natural History refused the return of artifacts to the Netherlands, claiming that such would necessarily break up the museum's complete collections. The natural historians offered to select and send an "equivalent" collection instead. In the end, with the aid of the Prussians, the delegates from the Low Countries grew so impatient that they took their works back by force. On 20 September 1815, Austria, the United Kingdom, and Prussia agreed that the remaining artworks should be returned, and affirmed that there was no principle of conquest that would permit France to retain its spoils. Exceptionally, Napoleon's Egyptian spoils which had been ceded to the United Kingdom a few years earlier were not part of the negotiations. The Russian tsar Alexander I of Russia was not part of this agreement, and preferred to compromise with the French government, having just acquired for the Hermitage Museum 38 artworks sold by descendants of Josephine Bonaparte to discharge her debts. The tsar had also received a gift from her shortly before her death in 1814—the Gonzaga Cameo from the Vatican. After the Vienna agreement was completed, the occupying forces of Paris continued to remove and send artworks to Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, and some Italian cities. French representatives protested the returns and argued that they were illegal, as they lacked the force of treaty. Writing about a shipment of paintings to Milan, Stendhal said, "The allies took 150 paintings. I hope to be authorized to observe that we have taken them through the Treaty of Tolentino. The allies took our paintings without a treaty." On the repatriation of Giulio Romano's The Stoning of Saint Stephen [it] to Genoa, Denon maintained that the work "was offered as tribute to the French government from the city council of Genoa" and that transportation would endanger the work, due to its fragility. In comparison to the other nations, the Italian cities were disorganized and without the support of a national army or diplomatic corps to make official requests. The sculptor Antonio Canova was sent by the Vatican on a diplomatic mission to the peace conference for the second Treaty of Paris in August 1815. Canova sent letters asking Wilhelm von Humboldt and Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh to support the return of Italian artworks and annul the conditions of the Treaty of Tolentino. In September, Canova also met with Louis XVIII, and that audience lessened French resistance to the repatriations. By October, Austria, Prussia, and England had agreed to support Canova's efforts, which led to the return of many statues and other sculptures. The Vatican manuscripts were restored by Marino Marini, the nephew of a Vatican librarian, as well as lead type that had been seized from the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples. English public opinion was generally against the French, and the Duke of Wellington wrote to Robert Stewart to intervene on behalf of the Low Countries. Not satisfied, he sent his troops to join the Prussians in the Louvre to remove the Flemish and Dutch paintings from the walls. As the Courier described it in October 1815: > The Duke of Wellington came to the diplomatic conferences with a note in his hand, by which he expressly required all works of Art should be restored to their respective owners. This excited great attention, and the Belgians, who have immense claims to make, had been hitherto obstinately refused, did not wait to be told that they could begin to take back what was theirs. ... The brave Belgians are even now on the way to returning their Potters and their Rubens. #### Treaty agreements and shipments The conditions of the 1815 Treaty of Paris, signed in November required that any artworks to be returned had to be properly identified and returned to the nations they originated from. These conditions made it difficult to determine where some of the paintings should be sent. For example, some Flemish paintings were mistakenly returned to the Netherlands, rather than Belgium. The treaty also required effort on the part of the conquered nations for their art to be returned. The situation was only partially resolved when the British offered to finance the costs of repatriating some artworks to Italy, with the offer of 200,000 lire to Pope Pius VII. For various reasons, including lack of money, knowledge of the theft, or appreciation for the value of the works taken, the restored allied governments did not always pursue the return of the appropriated paintings. The Austrian governor of Lombardy did not request the Lombardic artworks taken from churches, such as The Crowning with Thorns by Titian. Ferdinand VII of Spain refused the return of several old master paintings when they were offered by the Duke of Wellington. They were taken to London instead. The Tuscan government, under the Hapsburg-Lorraines, did not request works such as the Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata by Giotto, Maestà by Cimabue, or the Coronation of the Virgin by Beato Angelico. The ceiling paintings of the ducal palace in Venice were never requested, although Titian's Martyrdom of Saint Peter was. Canova never asked for 23 paintings dispersed throughout the French provincial museums, as a gesture of good will. The Horses of Saint Mark were returned to Venice (not Constantinople, from where they were originally taken by the Venetians) in 1815, after it took workers over a week to remove them from the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel; the streets around the Arc were blocked by Austrian dragoons to prevent any interference with the removal. The Lion of Saint Mark was dropped and broke while it was being removed from the Esplanade des Invalides before being returned to its original piazza. On 24 October 1815, during negotiations of the treaty, a convoy of 41 carriages was organized that, escorted by Prussian soldiers, traveled to Milan. From there, the artworks were distributed to their legitimate owners throughout Europe. In November, French general Athenase Lavallée reported that Spain had received 248 paintings, Austria 325, and Berlin 258 bronzes. ## Legacy Between 1814 and 1815, the Musée Napoleon (the Louvre's name at the time) was dissolved. From its opening in 1793, artists and scholars had flocked to the museum to see its expansive, exhaustive collections, including Charles Lock Eastlake, Henry Fuseli, Benjamin West, Maria Cosway, and J. M. W. Turner. One English artist, Thomas Lawrence, expressed sorrow at its dissolution, despite the injustices that had led to its creation. Still, the museum's impact remained: > The great museum of Napoleon did not end with the dispersion of its materials and masterpieces. Its example outlived him, contributing decisively to the formation of all the European museums. The Louvre, the national museum of France, had shown for the first time that the artworks of the past, even if collected by princes, belonged in relation to their people. And this principle (with the exception of the British royal collection) inspired the great public museums of the 1800s. Art historian Wescher also pointed out that, "[The return of the looted artworks] contributed to the creation [of an] awareness of national artistic heritages, an awareness that did not exist in the 1700s." The circulation of artworks during the Napoleonic era had actually increased the renown of artists that were otherwise unknown internationally. Similarly, aristocrats like Charles-François Lebrun created vast private collections by buying up or requisitioning artworks that had been put into circulation by the French armies. After 1815, European museums were no longer just a hoard of artifacts but had become an expression of political and cultural power. The Prado in Madrid, the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, and the National Gallery in London were all founded following the Louvre's example. The conditions of the 1815 Treaty of Paris set a nationalist precedent for future repatriations in Europe, such as that of Nazi plunder in the 20th century. The repatriations took a long time and were incomplete; almost half of the looted works of art remained in France. As a condition for the return of the artworks, many of the works were required to be shown in a public gallery and were not necessarily returned to their original locations. For example, Perugino's Decemviri Altarpiece was not reinstalled in its chapel in Perugia until October 2019, and remains incomplete. The long time it has taken to return some appropriated works in turn has become an argument against their restitution, particularly with museums' adoption of "retention policies" in the 19th century. Attempts at reacquisition have continued, however, up to and including the present day. During the Franco-Prussian War, the German Bismarck's Germany asked the France of Napoleon III to return works of art still held from the time of the looting but never repatriated. Vincenzo Peruggia described his 1911 theft of the Mona Lisa as an attempt to restore the painting to Italy, claiming incorrectly that the painting had been stolen by Napoleon. In 1994, the then-general director of the Italian ministry of culture, Francesco Sisinni [it] believed the conditions were right for the return of The Wedding at Cana of Veronese. In 2010, the historian and Veneto official Estore Beggiatto wrote a letter to French presidential spouse Carla Bruni, urging the painting's return; the painting is still at the Louvre. Egypt has requested the repatriation of the Rosetta Stone, which was discovered by French soldiers in 1799 during their campaign in Egypt, then captured by British forces two years later; it was then brought to the British Museum, where it remains. Additionally, Zahi Hawass, then the antiquities minister of Egypt, launched a campaign in 2019 to have the Dendera zodiac returned to Egypt. It had been removed in 1822 from the Dendera Temple complex by Sébastien Louis Saulnier after being identified by Vivant Denon in 1799, and is on display in the Louvre. ## Artworks taken ## See also - Looted art - Art repatriation - List of artworks with contested provenance
315,526	A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia	1,167,329,695	1989 NES video game	[ "1989 video games", "Absolute Entertainment games", "Cancelled Game Boy Advance games", "Cancelled Nintendo DS games", "Imagineering (company) games", "Jaleco games", "Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Nintendo games", "Puzzle-platform games", "Single-player video games", "Video games designed by David Crane (programmer)", "Video games designed by Garry Kitchen", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games scored by Mark Van Hecke", "Video games set on fictional planets", "Virtual Console games" ]	A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia is a puzzle-platform game developed by Imagineering and published by Absolute Entertainment for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). The video game was released in North America in 1989, in Europe by Nintendo in 1991 and in Japan by Jaleco in 1991. A Boy and His Blob follows an unnamed male protagonist and his shapeshifting blob friend on their adventure to save the planet of Blobolonia from the clutches of an evil emperor. A Boy and His Blob is a puzzle-platform game that puts the player in control of the boy; its gameplay revolves around feeding his blob companion different flavored jelly beans to alter its shape into various tools in order to overcome obstacles and traverse the game's world. A Boy and His Blob was designed and programmed by David Crane. Licensed by Nintendo in the summer of 1989, development began and was completed in an intense six-week period. Crane has described the game's overall concept of a boy accompanied by a morphing blob as unconventional and wanted to try his own hand at implementing useful tools for the player. Critical reception for A Boy and His Blob has been mixed. Though most reviewers agreed the gameplay was original, some felt it was poorly executed. The game won the 1989 Consumer Electronics Show (CES) "Best of Show" and a 1990 Parents' Choice Award. A Boy and His Blob was followed by a sequel on the Game Boy titled The Rescue of Princess Blobette. After two failed attempts to bring the series to Nintendo's other handhelds over the years, a re-imagining of Trouble on Blobolonia was developed by WayForward Technologies and released by Majesco Entertainment on the Wii in 2009. That same year, the original NES game was re-released on the Wii Virtual Console service in North America and PAL regions. ## Gameplay A Boy and His Blob is a puzzle-platform game. The plot involves a young boy and his alien blob friend, Blobert, on a quest to save the latter's home planet of Blobolonia, which has been taken over by an evil emperor who only allows his subjects a diet of sweets. The boy and Blobert must traverse the subways and caves beneath the Earth and gain the necessary items before traveling to Blobolonia and defeating the emperor. They must evade dangerous obstacles like falling rocks, stalactites, and stalagmites, as well as deadly snake enemies. A Boy and His Blob is not a side-scrolling game, but presents the player with a series of interconnected screens. The player-controlled boy is limited to running left or right. The player cannot jump or swim, and if the boy falls too long of a distance, he dies on impact. Though the player directly controls the boy, Blobert is controlled by the computer AI. The player must rely on the shapeshifting blob to cross gaps, reach higher platforms, and overcome the obstacles and enemies. Blobert can change into several different tools when the player feeds him flavored jelly beans. A licorice jelly bean, for instance, will change Blobert into a ladder, while an apple jelly bean will turn him into a jack. Whistling at Blobert causes him to revert to his original shape and continue following the boy. The player is encouraged to experiment with the jelly beans and their effects to navigate the puzzling game world. Scattered throughout Earth's caverns are various treasures and diamonds that increase the player's score and can be used to purchase vitamins at a drugstore located within the game world. Vitamins can be used in conjunction with a special "VitaBlaster" gun, which is in turn used on Blobolonia to complete certain tasks. Also found on the map are extra jelly beans and peppermints, which increase the player's lives. ## Plot The game focuses on a teenage-looking boy discovering a Blob who needs help freeing his planet Blobolonia from the clutches of the evil emperor. On their way, the teenage boy discovers that the Blob can shape-shift when it eats certain jellybeans. He and the Blob partner up to stop the evil emperor. ## Development A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia was developed by Imagineering, the in-house developer of Absolute Entertainment. The game was chiefly designed and programmed by David Crane with help from his former Activision colleague Garry Kitchen. Kitchen was the president of the Activision spin-off company Absolute, which began self-publishing in 1988; Crane joined Kitchen at Absolute around the same time. Crane described the concept of a boy accompanied by a shapeshifting blob as "an off-the-wall idea". Crane stated that Blobert's design was heavily influenced by the characters Gloop and Gleep from the Hanna-Barbera cartoon The Herculoids. In terms of gameplay, Crane's goal was to advance the adventure genre as he had done with the Atari 2600 game Pitfall!. Since the release of the sequel Pitfall II: Lost Caverns, adventure games on the market had grown to include useful tools for players to collect and utilize in their environments. However, Crane found displayed tool inventories "not very elegant" and decided to implement tools in a different way. After coming up with the game's premise, a wishlist of the blob's object transformations was written and brainstormed with artists, who then converted them into computer graphics. Transformations were chosen based on how they would appear on screen due to the NES's graphical resolution. According to Crane, objects such as the bridge and ladder were "a must", but many ideas were scrapped because their nature would not be immediately obvious to the player. Puzzles that could be solved using the objects were created after the various shapes were finalized. A total of 14 jellybean flavors were implemented in the game. To ease the game's difficulty level, the flavors were named specifically as either puns or alliteration to help the player remember them. For instance, the punch-flavored jelly bean transforms Blobert into a hole, a play on the term "hole punch". A grape-flavored bean listed in the game's manual was only present in the version submitted to Nintendo. This flavor transformed the blob into a wall ("grape wall", a pun of Great Wall of China) which would repel enemies. A Boy and His Blob proved to be "one of the most played games at Nintendo" once it was submitted to the company. In this earlier version, the player character could potentially become separated from the blob, thus making it impossible to proceed. A senior management member of Nintendo viewed this as a bug, so Crane substituted the grape bean for a ketchup-flavored bean that would instead summon the blob (catch up) to the boy's location. A Boy and His Blob was officially licensed by Nintendo in the summer of 1989. Though standard NES games took six to eight months to develop, Imagineering completed A Boy and His Blob in a mere six weeks. Crane himself rented a room in a flophouse near his office and put in several 16- to 20-hour days of the work on the project. After going without sleep for 48 hours in its last two days of earnest development, Crane flew to the CES in Chicago for trade demonstrations, then spent nights at his hotel fixing bugs. The game was released just prior to Christmas in 1989 as Absolute's first game on the NES. Crane recalled the development process for Absolute's early games to be enjoyable, but explained that "under the rule of Nintendo, the publishing side of the game business was really tough", emphasizing how frequently game publishers went out of business in those years. The team was originally in talks with a writer-producer of the Transformers animated features to simultaneously launch the A Boy and His Blob video game with a tie-in toy and a film, but the plans never came to fruition due to deadlines and difficulty in dividing production resources into three ways between a game, toy, and movie. When A Boy and His Blob was released in Japan by Jaleco in November 1990, it was retitled Fushigi na Blobby: Blobania no Kiki (ふしぎなブロビーブロバニアの危機, lit. "Mysterious Blobby: The Crisis of Blobania"). ## Reception Critical reception for A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia has been mixed. Many reviews published during the game's original release positively regarded the game's premise of a boy advancing by using a blob companion as a tool-set. Staff for the magazines Mean Machines and Dragon and Edward J. Semrad of The Milwaukee Journal all remarked the game as having fun, challenging gameplay and being a creative and original idea. The two reviewers of Mean Machines gave praise to the graphical quality of A Boy and His Blob, commenting: "Some of the backdrops are digitized and superbly coloured. The boy moves smoothly [and] realistically and the Blob himself is a masterpiece of animation". Simrad, who labeled the game as an updated version of Crane's previous work Pitfall!, was not as impressed by the graphics, claiming that the programmer always preferred to use the available memory for the size of the maze. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly found A Boy and His Blob to be strictly average due to its few enemies and a lack of scrolling screens. Although they made similar, positive comments about its unique gameplay formula, one of the writers felt it "never fully realizes its potential". This opinion was echoed by Lucas M. Thomas of IGN, who gave a more negative review of the game: "While the idea behind A Boy and His Blob was certainly unique, even praiseworthy, the execution of the concept didn't exactly make for a very fun game". Thomas faulted the game's controls; its vast, empty environments; and a limited number of essential jelly beans to advance, leaving the player with "just the core gameplay gimmick of the blob's different transformations". 1UP.com contributor Jeremy Parish predicted that the game's potentially frustrating, trial-and-error mechanics could subside once the player is over the learning curve and masters the limited toolset and simple interface. As reported by Stuart Hunt of Retro Gamer, "A Boy and His Blob proved to be a phenomenal success for Absolute Entertainment, going on to become one of the company's biggest hits and exceeding all the team's expectations". The game won "Best of Show" award for its debut at the 1989 CES. The advocacy group Parents' Choice Foundation awarded A Boy and His Blob with a Parents' Choice Award in 1990 for "portraying 'Positive human values', 'High quality software', 'Intelligent design', and the 'Ability to hold the player's interest'". Designer David Crane was particularly proud of the latter honor, which he appreciated both before and after becoming a parent himself. ## Legacy Since the original release of the game, A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia has received scattered recognition from the media. In 2005, University of Houston newspaper columnist Jason Poland attributed the inspiration of the game's premise, in which a young boy befriends an outerspace being, to the central theme found in a slew of 1980s films including E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and The Last Starfighter. The writer found this especially true for the former of the two features, in which the earthling protagonist supplies his alien cohort with candy. Poland explained that "although free from any Jelly Belly product placement, A Boy and His Blob encompasses plot devices from every '80s buddy sci-fi film and acts as an end cap to the entire film genre". The website GamesRadar noted A Boy and His Blob as a milestone in video games for having the first recognizable instance of an AI-controlled partner. Despite giving it such a low review score, IGN listed A Boy and His Blob as the 74th-best game on the NES, owing its inclusion to creative gameplay mechanics and a healthy mixture of action-adventure and platforming. A sequel to A Boy and His Blob was released for the Game Boy under the name The Rescue of Princess Blobette. The game once again follows the title characters as they attempt to save a princess jailed within a castle tower. Majesco Entertainment bought the rights to A Boy and His Blob after Absolute's closure. A Game Boy Advance incarnation of the series titled A Boy and His Blob: Jelly's Cosmic Adventure was announced by Majesco in 2001. The game was ultimately cancelled. Majesco announced another sequel in 2005 as being in development for the Nintendo DS by Skyworks Technologies, a company formed by Crane and Kitchen in 1995. The game's story was to take place six years after the conclusion of the NES release. It was to feature 3D models, between 15 and 20 differently colored jelly beans, 15 levels, and a DS touchscreen feature for managing a jelly bean inventory. However, Majesco's financial troubles delayed the game's release indefinitely. In 2022, an anonymous developer of this unreleased DS version, in concert with gaming preservation organization Gaming Alexandria and YouTube channel Did You Know Gaming?, released 2 builds of the game, one of which being the final build received by Majesco. A Wii re-imagining of A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia simply titled A Boy and His Blob was developed by WayForward Technologies and published by Majesco in 2009. Crane was not involved in the new game's creation. That same year, A Boy and His Blob: Trouble on Blobolonia was re-released on the Wii Virtual Console service in both North America and PAL regions. Another new title in the series was listed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 2010 as being in development for the Nintendo 3DS. WayForward later issued a statement that the listing was a mistake and that no new A Boy and His Blob was in production. A high-definition port of A Boy and His Blob was released on Xbox One, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux on January 20, 2016. A PlayStation 3 version was made available on June 28 of the same year as a cross-purchase with the PS4 and Vita versions. Mobile ports for iOS and Android were later released worldwide on November 17 and September 26 of 2017 respectively.
12,197,230	Hurricane Carlotta (2000)	1,169,039,713	Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 2000	[ "2000 Pacific hurricane season", "2000 in Mexico", "Category 4 Pacific hurricanes", "Maritime incidents in 2000", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 2000" ]	Hurricane Carlotta was the most powerful hurricane of the 2000 Pacific hurricane season. The third tropical cyclone of the season, Carlotta developed from a tropical wave on June 18 about 270 miles (430 km) southeast off the coast of Mexico. With favorable conditions for development, it strengthened steadily at first, followed by a period of rapid deepening to peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) on June 22. Cooler waters caused Carlotta to gradually weaken, and on June 25 it degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure while located about 260 miles (420 km) west-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. The hurricane produced heavy rainfall and rough surf along the southwest coast of Mexico, though no serious damage was reported. A Lithuanian freighter traversing through the peak of the hurricane was lost after experiencing an engine failure; its crew of 18 was presumed killed. ## Meteorological history A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on June 3. It tracked westward across the unfavorable Atlantic Ocean, and on June 15 it crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean. The system continued westward, and late on June 16 a low pressure area developed about 300 miles (480 km) southwest of San José, Costa Rica. At around 1200 UTC on June 17, Dvorak classifications began on the disturbance, though initially its convection was broadly distributed and disorganized. The next day, however, an area of concentrated convection developed just south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Ships in the vicinity confirmed the development of a surface circulation within the system, while satellite imagery showed the development of a central dense overcast. Based on its organization, it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Three-E late on June 18 while located about 270 miles (430 km) southeast of Puerto Angel, Oaxaca in Mexico. Initially, the convection of the depression was displaced to the west of the circulation due to some easterly wind shear, though as it tracked west-northwestward parallel to the coast of Mexico, it maintained and developed deep convection near and over the center. With favorable conditions, the cyclone strengthened and became Tropical Storm Carlotta early on June 19. The storm initially maintained a track toward the Mexican coastline, though a mid-level ridge turned it to the west; its closest point of approach was about 140 miles (230 km) at 1200 UTC on June 19. Late that day, a ragged banding-eye feature developed on satellite imagery, while at the same time it maintained an area of strong convection and well-defined outflow to its south. The storm continued to intensify, and at 0600 UTC on June 20 Carlotta attained hurricane status while located about 155 miles (249 km) south of Acapulco. Operationally, it was upgraded to hurricane status six hours earlier. With a large anticyclone centered near Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Carlotta turned more to the west. Deep convection increased in coverage and intensity as the system maintained impressive upper-level outflow over its southern semicircle. Late on June 20, Hurricane Carlotta began a period of rapid deepening, with warm waters and a very favorable upper-level environment, and in a twelve-hour period the pressure dropped 49 mbar to an estimated minimum central pressure of 932 mbar at 0600 UTC on June 21; at the same time, Carlotta attained peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) while located about 285 miles (459 km) southwest of Acapulco. At the time of its peak intensity, Carlotta maintained a well-defined central dense overcast around an eye of 20 miles (32 km) in diameter. Satellite intensity estimates indicated winds of 160 mph (260 km/h), though through much of its duration there was a sizable discrepancy between the estimated winds and that of winds reported by Hurricane Hunters. Hurricane Carlotta maintained peak winds for about twelve hours before weakening as it curved around the periphery of the mid-level ridge over Mexico. Late on June 21, the eye had become less distinct while its surrounding ring of convection eroded and warmed. Early on June 22, northeasterly wind shear increased, and shortly thereafter the weakening trend was temporarily halted with some oscillations in the convective intensity and eye definition. Weakening continued on June 23 as the hurricane tracked over increasingly cooler waters, and shortly after 0000 UTC on June 24 Carlotta weakened to a tropical storm about 260 miles (420 km) west-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. Overall convection continued to diminish, and early on June 25 the winds dropped to tropical depression status. Deep convection ceased to exist by 0600 UTC on June 25, and Carlotta degenerated into a remnant low pressure area. The low-level circulation of Carlotta persisted for several days as it continued northwestward. ## Impact Shortly after first developing, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Salina Cruz to Acapulco, and later was extended to Zihuatanejo. Though the National Hurricane Center never forecast it to make landfall, one computer model predicted Carlotta to move ashore; due to the threat, the Mexican government also issued a hurricane watch from Puerto Angel to Zihuatanejo. Outer rainbands and rough surf affected the southwestern coast of Mexico for an extended duration; officials evacuated about 100 families in potentially flooded areas of Acapulco as a precaution. Precipitation and clouds were reported in every Mexican state along the Pacific Ocean, resulting in flooding in some areas. No stations in Mexico reported sustained tropical storm force winds; however, Bahías de Huatulco International Airport in Oaxaca reported a wind gust of 44 mph (71 km/h). Heavy rainfall and rough seas were also reported on Socorro Island. Seven ships reported tropical storm force winds in association with Carlotta, peaking at 46 mph (74 km/h); the lowest pressure recorded by ship was 1,008 mbar. Offshore, waves reached 40 feet (12 m) in height. The Lithuanian freighter Linkuva, en route to Long Beach, California, encountered the waves and strong winds as the hurricane was undergoing its period of rapid intensification. After an engine failure, the freighter was lost about 220 miles (350 km) southwest of Acapulco. A naval vessel from both the United States Navy and the Mexican Navy searched for the freighter for three days, though the crew was lost and presumed killed. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes
41,693,541	HDMS Niels Juel (1918)	1,136,843,749	Royal Danish Navy training cruiser, 1923–1943	[ "1918 ships", "Coastal defence ships of the Royal Danish Navy", "Maritime incidents in August 1943", "Maritime incidents in May 1945", "Naval ships of Denmark captured by Germany during World War II", "Scuttled vessels", "Ships built in Copenhagen", "World War II coastal defence ships" ]	HDMS Niels Juel was a training ship built for the Royal Danish Navy between 1914 and 1923. Originally designed before World War I as a monitor, construction was slowed by the war and she was redesigned as a training cruiser. Completed in 1923 she made training cruises to the Black and Mediterranean Seas, South America and numerous shorter visits to ports in northern Europe. The ship often served as a flagship and occasionally was used as a royal yacht for visits to overseas possessions and other countries. Niels Juel was extensively modernized in the mid-1930s and remained operational after Nazi Germany occupied Denmark in 1940. When the Germans attempted to seize the Danish Fleet in August 1943, the ship attempted to escape to Sweden, but was attacked and damaged by German bombers. She was deliberately run aground by her crew to deny the ship to the Germans, but Niels Juel was not badly damaged. The ship was refloated several months later and repaired by the Germans. They renamed her Nordland and used her as a training ship. She was scuttled by them in May 1945 and her wreck was salvaged in 1952. ## Background Niels Juel was originally intended to be an improved version of Peder Skram, a Herluf Trolle-class coastal defence ship. Like that class, she had a very low freeboard, and was intended to be armed with two 30.5-centimeter (12 in) guns in single gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure and a secondary armament of eight 10.5-centimeter (4.1 in) guns. The Danes ordered the main guns and their turrets from Krupp of Germany in July, a month before the start of World War I, but the order was suspended when the war began. After being laid down in September 1914, construction of the ship was severely delayed by shortages of labor and material and she was not launched until 1918. Reports from battles between the British and the Germans caused the Danes to change her secondary armament to 120-millimeter (4.7 in) guns in 1917, but work stopped completely when the war ended on 11 November 1918. Danish politicians believed that the 30.5-centimeter guns could be viewed as provocative by their neighbors and they decided to convert the ship into an innocuous training ship by adding an extra deck to the existing hull and changing the main armament to 15-centimeter (5.9 in) guns. The new design was approved in 1920 and the ship was completed in 1923. ## Description Niels Juel had an overall length of 90 meters (295 ft 3 in) and was 87 meters (285 ft 5 in) long at the waterline. The ship had a beam of 16.3 meters (53 ft 6 in), and a mean draft of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in). She displaced 3,800 long tons (3,900 t) at standard load and 4,100 long tons (4,200 t) at deep load. Niels Juel's crew numbered between 310 and 369 officers and sailors. Her hull was divided into 10 watertight compartments and it was fitted with a double bottom. The ship had a pair of vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single three-bladed 3.35-meter (11 ft 0 in) propeller, using steam provided by four Yarrow boilers with superheaters that operated at a temperature of 275 °C (527 °F). The forward pair of boilers were oil fired and the after pair were coal burning. The engines were designed to produce 6,000 indicated horsepower (4,500 kW) for a speed of 14.5 knots (26.9 km/h; 16.7 mph). During her sea trials, they produced 6,061 ihp (4,520 kW) and Niels Juel reached a maximum speed of 16.1 knots (29.8 km/h; 18.5 mph). The ship carried 223 metric tons (219 long tons) of fuel oil and 244 metric tons (240 long tons) of coal which gave a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km; 6,900 mi) at 9 knots (17 km/h; 10 mph). ### Armament and fire control The Navy had difficulties procuring the 15-centimeter guns that it wanted for the ship's main battery, rejecting proposals from French, British and Swedish manufacturers as unsatisfactory. Although Krupp was not allowed to deliver finished guns by the terms of the Versailles Treaty, it worked out a deal with the Swedish Bofors company, which would finish and deliver the guns to the Danes. Niels Juel mounted ten 15-centimeter P.K. L/45 guns, a pair side-by-side on the forecastle forward of the superstructure, three on each broadside amidships, and a superfiring pair aft of the superstructure, all protected by gun shields. The mounts had a range of elevation from -10° to +30° and the guns fired 46-kilogram (101 lb) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 835 m/s (2,740 ft/s) at a rate of five to seven rounds per minute. The guns had a range of 17,800 meters (19,500 yd). A pair of 57-millimeter (2.2 in) A.B.K. L/30 anti-aircraft guns were mounted on a platform abaft the funnel. The mounts had a maximum elevation of 70° and the gun had an effective rate of fire of about 16 rounds per minute. Its projectiles were fired at a muzzle velocity of 500 to 530 m/s (1,600 to 1,700 ft/s), which gave it a range of 7,500 meters (8,200 yd). The ship was fitted with a pair of submerged 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, one on each broadside. The Type H torpedo had a 121.5-kilogram (268 lb) warhead and a range of 8,000 meters (8,700 yd) at 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph). The ship was provided with a pair of 3-meter (9 ft 10 in) Zeiss stereoscopic rangefinders, one on the roof of the conning tower and the other on a platform abaft the mainmast. Data from the rangefinders was sent to the transmitting station located on the main deck beneath the conning tower, where it was converted into elevation and deflection data for use by the guns. ### Protection Niels Juel was protected by Krupp cemented armor (KCA) made by Bethlehem Steel. Her waterline belt was 195 millimeters (7.7 in) thick amidships and thinned to 155 millimeters (6.1 in) towards the ship's ends, but did not reach either the bow or the stern. The armor plates were 2.1 meters (6 ft 11 in) high with the lower edge 1.1 meters (3 ft 7 in) below the waterline. Two transverse bulkheads 175 millimeters (6.9 in) (forward) and 165 millimeters (6.5 in) (aft) closed off the ends of the armored citadel. The shields of the 15-centimeter guns had 50-millimeter (2.0 in) faces and 10–20-millimeter (0.4–0.8 in) sides. The 55-millimeter (2.2 in) deck plates rested on the top edge of the belt armor and were not made from KCA. The conning tower had 170-millimeter (6.7 in) of armor on the sides with a 40-millimeter (1.6 in) roof. ### Modifications and modernization In 1929 the three-meter rangefinders were transferred to the sister ships Peder Skram and and Niels Juel received a Barr & Stroud 3.66-meter (12 ft 0 in) coincidence rangefinder in return. The following year it was replaced by a Zeiss 5-meter (16 ft 5 in) coincidence rangefinder. When Niels Juel was modernized in 1935 and 1936, the first priority was to upgrade her fire-control systems. Her tripod mast was replaced by a pole mast surmounted by a two-story director-control tower that was fitted with a Dutch Hazemeyer gunnery director that fed information to the analog gunnery computer in the transmitting station below. The Navy purchased three 6-meter (19 ft 8 in) rangefinders from Zeiss to re-equip the ship, replaced the obsolete 57-millimeter AA guns with ten Madsen 20-millimeter (0.79 in) RK M/31 autocannon in five twin-gun mounts, and added tanks for a chemical smoke screen at the ship's stern. In April 1937, her anti-aircraft armament was augmented with fourteen 8-millimeter (0.3 in) Madsen R.K. L/75 M/37 machine guns in twin mounts. In early 1941 a pair of 40-millimeter Bofors light AA guns in single mounts that had been removed from a pair of submarines were added. A year later the existing 8 and 20 mm weapons were replaced by 10 faster-firing Madsen 20-millimeter L/60 M/41 autocannon in single mounts. ## Construction and career Niels Juel, named after the Danish admiral of the same name, was laid down on 21 September 1914 at the Orlogsværftet (Royal Danish Naval Shipyard) in Copenhagen. The ship was launched on 3 July 1918, but she was stuck on the slipway for over an hour before she could be freed to slide into the water. Construction halted a few months later as her design was reconsidered. Construction began again in 1920 to a new design and she was commissioned in May 1923 and began a working up cruise on 28 May, with Crown Prince Frederick aboard, visiting the Faeroe Islands, Bergen, Norway, Leith, Scotland and Gothenburg, Sweden, before returning home on 6 August. On 21 October Niels Juel made her first training cruise, visiting Dartmouth, United Kingdom, Cadiz, Spain, Madeira, Portugal, and the Cape Verde Islands, en route to South America. On her return voyage, she encountered a severe storm after leaving the Azores that broke her rudder chains and she had to be steered using only her propellers until emergency steering could be rigged. The ship returned home on 23 February 1924, after getting repairs in Plymouth, United Kingdom. Niels Juel became the flagship of the gunnery training squadron later that year and then later flagship of the general training squadron. In 1925, she made brief visits to Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Germany. The following year the ship made a cruise to the Faeroe Islands and Iceland with the royal family aboard. Niels Juel served as the royal yacht for a state visit to Finland in 1928, during which she was escorted by the cruiser . The ship made a training cruise to the Mediterranean in 1929, where she visited ports in France, Spain, Italy and Libya as well as Lisbon, Portugal. She resumed her position as flagship of the training squadron on her return. Beginning on 22 May 1930, Niels Juel served as a royal yacht for a royal tour of the Faeroes and Iceland as well as serving as a training ship for naval cadets. The following year, she became the first Danish warship to visit the Black Sea when she visited Istanbul, Turkey, Odessa in the Soviet Union, and ports in Greece, Italy, Algeria, and France on her way home. Niels Juel was decommissioned on 3 September 1931 after her return. The ship was modernized in 1935 and 1936 and recommissioned on 9 July and then spent the rest of 1936 working up. Niels Juel was present at the Fleet review in Spithead for George VI of the United Kingdom on 20 May 1937 and later participated in a fleet exercise that culminated in a visit to Helsingborg, Sweden. In 1938 she accompanied the torpedo boat flotilla on a visit to Turku, Finland in August, and visited Sønderborg, Denmark, the following month with the rest of the training squadron. A planned training cruise to the United States to visit the 1939 New York World's Fair in May was cancelled as a result of rising tensions in Europe and Niels Juel trained with the mobilized Peder Skram from May to July. In late August the ship was preparing for a visit to Oslo, Norway, but that was cancelled when she was ordered to fuze all her shells in preparation for war. Her crew was filled out as the Navy mobilized and Niels Juel joined the rest of the fleet near Aarhus. Winter ice forced the ship to return to Copenhagen in January 1940, even though that port was ice-bound as well. With little possibility of action, her crew was given leave. Her crew was recalled on 8 April, but Niels Juel was not ready for war when the Germans invaded the following day. The Germans permitted the Danes to keep their ships and allowed them to train in Danish waters. ### Operation Safari Following increasing Danish resistance to German rule and the institution of martial law on 28 August 1943, the German army moved to seize the Danish fleet in Copenhagen harbour the following morning, an action codenamed Operation Safari. Niels Juel was in Holbæk when her captain, Commander Carl Westermann, was ordered take his ship to be interned in Sweden. The Germans spotted her after she raised steam and departed. Before the ship could exit the Isefjord, Westermann was informed that the Germans had claimed they had mined the exit, and he spotted three German ships in the distance, the torpedo boat T17 and two E-boats. German aircraft attacked the ship with bombs and by strafing. None of the bombs hit Niels Juel, but shock damage from near misses knocked out electrical power and deformed some of the hull plating and bulkheads. Realising there was little hope of reaching Sweden, Westermann decided to run the ship aground near Nykøbing Sjælland. The crew then tried to scuttle the ship, but an initial attempt to blow up the ship failed. The crew settled for flooding the magazine, opening the sea-cocks to flood the rest of the hull as well as systematically destroying the equipment before the Germans could take over the ship. ### 1944 to 1952 A Danish salvage company inspected the grounded ship a few days later and did not see any damage to the hull, rudder or propellers, but noted that the ship was flooded with water up to a height of 1.5 meters (4 ft 11 in) below the armored deck. The Germans used a German company to salvage the ship in October and towed it to Kiel, Germany, for repair. She was disarmed, renamed Nordland, and commissioned into the Kriegsmarine in September 1944 after which she became a stationary training ship at Stolpmünde (modern Ustka, Poland). On 18 February 1945 the ship steamed to Kiel to avoid the advancing Russian forces. On 3 May, she was scuttled for the second time in the Eckernførde inlet. The wreck was partially dismantled by unauthorized salvagers before the Danes sold it to a German firm in 1952 for scrap. They removed everything above the sea bed, but its remains lie under 28 meters (92 ft) of water.
88,901	Ýdalir	1,170,503,985	Mythological location	[ "Locations in Norse mythology" ]	In Norse mythology, Ýdalir ("yew-dales") is a location containing a dwelling owned by the god Ullr. Ýdalir is solely attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources. Scholarly theories have been proposed about the implications of the location. ## Attestations Ýdalir is solely attested in stanza 5 of the poem Grímnismál (collected in the Poetic Edda), where Odin (disguised as Grímnir) tells the young Agnar that Ullr owns a dwelling in Ýdalir. The stanza reads (Ýdalir is here translated as Ydalir): > > Ydalir it is called, where Ullr > > has himself a dwelling made. > > Alfheim the gods Frey gave > > in days of yore for a tooth-gift. ## Theories Discussing Ýdalir, Henry Adams Bellows comments that "the wood of the yew-tree was used for bows in the North just as it was long afterwards for England." Rudolf Simek says that "this connexion of the god with the yew-tree, of whose wood bows were made (cf. ON ýbogi 'yew bow'), has led to Ullr being seen as a bow-god." Andy Orchard comments that Ýdalir is an "aptly named dwelling-place [for the] archer-god, Ull." According to Hilda Ellis Davidson, while Valhalla "is well known because it plays so large a part in images of warfare and death," the significance of other halls in Norse mythology such as Ýdalir, and the goddess Freyja's afterlife location Fólkvangr has been lost. Udale, located in Cromarty, Scotland, is first recorded in 1578, and is thought to derive from Old Norse y-dalr. Robert Bevan-Jones proposes a connection between veneration of Ullr and Ýdalir among the settling pagan Norse in Scotland and their bestowment of the name ydalr to the location.
371,272	Thrips	1,171,228,212	Order of insects	[ "Agricultural pest insects", "Condylognatha", "Extant Permian first appearances", "Taxa named by Alexander Henry Haliday", "Thrips" ]	Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly 1 mm (0.039 in) long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Entomologists have described approximately 7,700 species. They fly only weakly and their feathery wings are unsuitable for conventional flight; instead, thrips exploit an unusual mechanism, clap and fling, to create lift using an unsteady circulation pattern with transient vortices near the wings. Thrips are a functionally diverse group, with nearly half of the known species being fungivorous. A small proportion of species of thrips are serious pests of commercially important crops. Some of these serve as vectors for over 20 viruses that cause plant disease, especially the Tospoviruses. Many flower-dwelling species bring benefits as pollinators, with some predatory thrips feeding on small insects or mites. In the right conditions, such as in greenhouses, invasive species can exponentially increase in population size and form large swarms because of a lack of natural predators coupled with their ability to reproduce asexually, making them destructive to crops. Due to their cryptic nature, thrips may aggregate in household objects such as furniture, bedding and computer monitors – in the latter case by forcing their way in between the LCD and its glass covering. Their identification to species by standard morphological characteristics is often challenging. ## Naming and etymology The first recorded mention of thrips dates from the 17th century, and a sketch was made by Philippo Bonanni, a Catholic priest, in 1691. Swedish entomologist Baron Charles De Geer described two species in the genus Physapus in 1744, and Linnaeus in 1746 added a third species and named this group of insects Thrips. In 1836 the Irish entomologist Alexander Henry Haliday described 41 species in 11 genera and proposed the order name of Thysanoptera. The first monograph on the group was published in 1895 by Heinrich Uzel, who is regarded by Fedor et al. as the father of Thysanoptera studies. The generic and English name thrips is a direct transliteration of the Ancient Greek word θρίψ, thrips, meaning "woodworm". Like some other animal-names (such as sheep, deer, and moose) in English the word "thrips" expresses both the singular and plural, so there may be many thrips or a single thrips. Other common names for thrips include thunderflies, thunderbugs, storm flies, thunderblights, storm bugs, corn fleas, corn flies, corn lice, freckle bugs, harvest bugs, and physopods. The older group name "physopoda" references the bladder-like tips to the tarsi of the legs. The name of the order, Thysanoptera, is constructed from the ancient Greek words θύσανος, thysanos, "tassel or fringe", and πτερόν, pteron, "wing", with reference to the insects' fringed wings. ## Morphology Thrips are small hemimetabolic insects with a distinctive cigar-shaped body plan. They are elongated with transversely constricted bodies. They range in size from 0.5 to 14 mm (0.02 to 0.55 in) in length for the larger predatory thrips, but most thrips are about 1 mm in length. Flight-capable thrips have two similar, strap-like pairs of wings with a fringe of bristles. The wings are folded back over the body at rest. Their legs usually end in two tarsal segments with a bladder-like structure known as an "arolium" at the pretarsus. This structure can be everted by means of hemolymph pressure, enabling the insect to walk on vertical surfaces. They have compound eyes consisting of a small number of ommatidia and three ocelli or simple eyes on the head. Thrips have asymmetrical mouthparts unique to the group. Unlike the Hemiptera (true bugs), the right mandible of thrips is reduced and vestigial – and in some species completely absent. The left mandible is used briefly to cut into the food plant; saliva is injected and the maxillary stylets, which form a tube, are then inserted and the semi-digested food pumped from ruptured cells. This process leaves cells destroyed or collapsed, and a distinctive silvery or bronze scarring on the surfaces of the stems or leaves where the thrips have fed. Thysanoptera is divided into two suborders, Terebrantia and Tubulifera; these can be distinguished by morphological, behavioral, and developmental characteristics. Tubulifera consists of a single family, Phlaeothripidae; members can be identified by their characteristic tube-shaped apical abdominal segment, egg-laying atop the surface of leaves, and three "pupal" stages. In the Phlaeothripidae, the males are often larger than females and a range of sizes may be found within a population. The largest recorded phlaeothripid species is about 14 mm long. Females of the eight families of the Terebrantia all possess the eponymous saw-like (see terebra) ovipositor on the anteapical abdominal segment, lay eggs singly within plant tissue, and have two "pupal" stages. In most Terebrantia, the males are smaller than females. The family Uzelothripidae has a single species and it is unique in having a whip-like terminal antennal segment. ## Evolution The earliest fossils of thrips date back to the Permian (Permothrips longipennis). By the Early Cretaceous, true thrips became much more abundant. The extant family Merothripidae most resembles these ancestral Thysanoptera, and is probably basal to the order. There are currently over six thousand species of thrips recognized, grouped into 777 extant and sixty fossil genera. ### Phylogeny Thrips are generally considered to be the sister group to Hemiptera (bugs). The phylogeny of thrips families has been little studied. A preliminary analysis in 2013 of 37 species using 3 genes, as well as a phylogeny based on ribosomal DNA and three proteins in 2012, supports the monophyly of the two suborders, Tubulifera and Terebrantia. In Terebrantia, Melanothripidae may be sister to all other families, but other relationships remain unclear. In Tubulifera, the Phlaeothripidae and its subfamily Idolothripinae are monophyletic. The two largest thrips subfamilies, Phlaeothripinae and Thripinae, are paraphyletic and need further work to determine their structure. The internal relationships from these analyses are shown in the cladogram. ### Taxonomy The following families are currently (2013) recognized: - Suborder Terebrantia \* Adiheterothripidae Shumsher, 1946 (11 genera) \* Aeolothripidae Uzel, 1895 (29 genera) – banded thrips and broad-winged thrips \* Fauriellidae Priesner, 1949 (four genera) \* †Hemithripidae Bagnall, 1923 (one fossil genus, Hemithrips with 15 species) \* Heterothripidae Bagnall, 1912 (seven genera, restricted to the New World) \* †Jezzinothripidae zur Strassen, 1973 (included by some authors in Merothripidae) \* †Karataothripidae Sharov, 1972 (one fossil species, Karataothrips jurassicus) \* Melanthripidae Bagnall, 1913 (six genera of flower feeders) \* Merothripidae Hood, 1914 (five genera, mostly Neotropical and feeding on dry-wood fungi) – large-legged thrips \* †Scudderothripidae zur Strassen, 1973 (included by some authors in Stenurothripidae) \* Thripidae Stephens, 1829 (292 genera in four subfamilies, flower living) – common thrips \* †Triassothripidae Grimaldi & Shmakov, 2004 (two fossil genera) \* Uzelothripidae Hood, 1952 (one species, Uzelothrips scabrosus) - Suborder Tubulifera \* Phlaeothripidae Uzel, 1895 (447 genera in two subfamilies, fungal hyphae and spore feeders) The identification of thrips to species is challenging as types are maintained as slide preparations of varying quality over time. There is also considerable variability leading to many species being misidentified. Molecular sequence based approaches have increasingly been applied to their identification. ## Biology ### Feeding Thrips are believed to have descended from a fungus-feeding ancestor during the Mesozoic, and many groups still feed upon and inadvertently redistribute fungal spores. These live among leaf litter or on dead wood and are important members of the ecosystem, their diet often being supplemented with pollen. Other species are primitively eusocial and form plant galls and still others are predatory on mites and other thrips. Two species of Aulacothrips, A. tenuis and A. levinotus, have been found to be ectoparasites on aetalionid and membracid plant-hoppers in Brazil. Mirothrips arbiter has been found in paper wasp nests in Brazil. The eggs of the hosts including Mischocyttarus atramentarius, Mischocyttarus cassununga and Polistes versicolor are eaten by the thrips. Thrips, especially in the family Aeolothripidae, are also predators, and are considered beneficial in the management of pests like the codling moths. Most research has focused on thrips species that feed on economically significant crops. Some species are predatory, but most of them feed on pollen and the chloroplasts harvested from the outer layer of plant epidermal and mesophyll cells. They prefer tender parts of the plant, such as buds, flowers and new leaves. Besides feeding on plant tissues, the common blossom thrips feeds on pollen grains and on the eggs of mites. When the larva supplements its diet in this way, its development time and mortality is reduced, and adult females that consume mite eggs increase their fecundity and longevity. ### Pollination Some flower-feeding thrips pollinate the flowers they are feeding on, and some authors suspect that they may have been among the first insects to evolve a pollinating relationship with their host plants. Scirtothrips dorsalis carries pollen of commercially important chili peppers. Darwin found that thrips could not be kept out by any netting when he conducted experiments by keeping away larger pollinators. Thrips setipennis is the sole pollinator of Wilkiea huegeliana, a small, unisexual annually flowering tree or shrub in the rainforests of eastern Australia. T. setipennis serves as an obligate pollinator for other Australian rainforest plant species, including Myrsine howittiana and M. variabilis. The genus Cycadothrips is a specialist pollinator of cycads, the cones of which are adapted for pollination by small insects. Thrips are likewise the primary pollinators of heathers in the family Ericaceae, and play a significant role in the pollination of pointleaf manzanita. Electron microscopy has shown thrips carrying pollen grains adhering to their backs, and their fringed wings are perfectly capable of allowing them to fly from plant to plant. ### Damage to plants Thrips can cause damage during feeding. This impact may fall across a broad selection of prey items, as there is considerable breadth in host affinity across the order, and even within a species, varying degrees of fidelity to a host. Family Thripidae in particular is notorious for members with broad host ranges, and the majority of pest thrips come from this family. For example, Thrips tabaci damages crops of onions, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton. Some species of thrips create galls, almost always in leaf tissue. These may occur as curls, rolls or folds, or as alterations to the expansion of tissues causing distortion to leaf blades. More complex examples cause rosettes, pouches and horns. Most of these species occur in the tropics and sub-tropics, and the structures of the galls are diagnostic of the species involved. A radiation of thrips species seems to have taken place on Acacia trees in Australia; some of these species cause galls in the petioles, sometimes fixing two leaf stalks together, while other species live in every available crevice in the bark. In Casuarina in the same country, some species have invaded stems, creating long-lasting woody galls. ### Social behaviour While poorly documented, chemical communication is believed to be important to the group. Anal secretions are produced in the hindgut, and released along the posterior setae as predator deterrents In Australia, aggregations of male common blossom thrips have been observed on the petals of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Gossypium hirsutum; females were attracted to these groups so it seems likely that the males were producing pheromones. In the phlaeothripids that feed on fungi, males compete to protect and mate with females, and then defend the egg-mass. Males fight by flicking their rivals away with their abdomen, and may kill with their foretarsal teeth. Small males may sneak in to mate while the larger males are busy fighting. In the Merothripidae and in the Aeolothripidae, males are again polymorphic with large and small forms, and probably also compete for mates, so the strategy may well be ancestral among the Thysanoptera. Many thrips form galls on plants when feeding or laying their eggs. Some of the gall-forming Phlaeothripidae, such as genera Kladothrips and Oncothrips, form eusocial groups similar to ant colonies, with reproductive queens and nonreproductive soldier castes. ### Flight Most insects create lift by the stiff-winged mechanism of insect flight with steady state aerodynamics; this creates a leading edge vortex continuously as the wing moves. The feathery wings of thrips, however, generate lift by clap and fling, a mechanism discovered by the Danish zoologist Torkel Weis-Fogh in 1973. In the clap part of the cycle, the wings approach each other over the insect's back, creating a circulation of air which sets up vortices and generates useful forces on the wings. The leading edges of the wings touch, and the wings rotate around their leading edges, bringing them together in the "clap". The wings close, expelling air from between them, giving more useful thrust. The wings rotate around their trailing edges to begin the "fling", creating useful forces. The leading edges move apart, making air rush in between them and setting up new vortices, generating more force on the wings. The trailing edge vortices, however, cancel each other out with opposing flows. Weis-Fogh suggested that this cancellation might help the circulation of air to grow more rapidly, by shutting down the Wagner effect which would otherwise counteract the growth of the circulation. Apart from active flight, thrips, even wingless ones, can also be picked up by winds and transferred long distances. During warm and humid weather, adults may climb to the tips of plants to leap and catch air current. Wind-aided dispersal of species has been recorded over 1600 km of sea between Australia and South Island of New Zealand. It has been suggested that some bird species may also be involved in the dispersal of thrips. Thrips are picked up along with grass in the nests of birds and can be transported by the birds. A hazard of flight for very small insects such as thrips is the possibility of being trapped by water. Thrips have non-wetting bodies and have the ability to ascend a meniscus by arching their bodies and working their way head-first and upwards along the water surface in order to escape. ### Life cycle Thrips lay extremely small eggs, about 0.2 mm long. Females of the suborder Terebrantia cut slits in plant tissue with their ovipositor, and insert their eggs, one per slit. Females of the suborder Tubulifera lay their eggs singly or in small groups on the outside surfaces of plants. Thrips are hemimetabolous, metamorphosing gradually to the adult form. The first two instars, called larvae or nymphs, are like small wingless adults (often confused with springtails) without genitalia; these feed on plant tissue. In the Terebrantia, the third and fourth instars, and in the Tubulifera also a fifth instar, are non-feeding resting stages similar to pupae: in these stages, the body's organs are reshaped, and wing-buds and genitalia are formed. The adult stage can be reached in around 8–15 days; adults can live for around 45 days. Adults have both winged and wingless forms; in the grass thrips Anaphothrips obscurus, for example, the winged form makes up 90% of the population in spring (in temperate zones), while the wingless form makes up 98% of the population late in the summer. Thrips can survive the winter as adults or through egg or pupal diapause. Thrips are haplodiploid with haploid males (from unfertilised eggs, as in Hymenoptera) and diploid females capable of parthenogenesis (reproducing without fertilisation), many species using arrhenotoky, a few using thelytoky. In Pezothrips kellyanus females hatch from larger eggs than males, possibly because they are more likely to be fertilized. The sex-determining bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia is a factor that affects the reproductive mode. Several normally bisexual species have become established in the United States with only females present. ## Human impact ### As pests Many thrips are pests of commercial crops due to the damage they cause by feeding on developing flowers or vegetables, causing discoloration, deformities, and reduced marketability of the crop. Some thrips serve as vectors for plant diseases, such as tospoviruses. Over 20 plant-infecting viruses are known to be transmitted by thrips, but perversely, less than a dozen of the described species are known to vector tospoviruses. These enveloped viruses are considered among some of the most damaging of emerging plant pathogens around the world, with those vector species having an outsized impact on human agriculture. Virus members include the tomato spotted wilt virus and the impatiens necrotic spot viruses. The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis, has spread until it now has a worldwide distribution, and is the primary vector of plant diseases caused by tospoviruses. Other viruses that they spread include the genera Ilarvirus, (Alpha\\|Beta\\|Gamma)carmovirus, Sobemovirus and Machlomovirus. Their small size and predisposition towards enclosed places makes them difficult to detect by phytosanitary inspection, while their eggs, laid inside plant tissue, are well-protected from pesticide sprays. When coupled with the increasing globalization of trade and the growth of greenhouse agriculture, thrips, unsurprisingly, are among the fastest growing group of invasive species in the world. Examples include F. occidentalis, Thrips simplex, and Thrips palmi. Flower-feeding thrips are routinely attracted to bright floral colors (including white, blue, and especially yellow), and will land and attempt to feed. It is not uncommon for some species (e.g., Frankliniella tritici and Limothrips cerealium) to "bite" humans under such circumstances. Although no species feed on blood and no known animal disease is transmitted by thrips, some skin irritation has been described. ### Management Thrips develop resistance to insecticides easily and there is constant research on how to control them. This makes thrips ideal as models for testing the effectiveness of new pesticides and methods. Due to their small sizes and high rates of reproduction, thrips are difficult to control using classical biological control. Suitable predators must be small and slender enough to penetrate the crevices where thrips hide while feeding, and they must also prey extensively on eggs and larvae to be effective. Only two families of parasitoid Hymenoptera parasitize eggs and larvae, the Eulophidae and the Trichogrammatidae. Other biocontrol agents of adults and larvae include anthocorid bugs of genus Orius, and phytoseiid mites. Biological insecticides such as the fungi Beauveria bassiana and Verticillium lecanii can kill thrips at all life-cycle stages. Insecticidal soap spray is effective against thrips. It is commercially available or can be made of certain types of household soap. Scientists in Japan report that significant reductions in larva and adult melon thrips occur when plants are illuminated with red light.
4,521,681	Sinclair Sovereign	1,126,908,739	Calculator produced by Sinclair Radionics	[ "Computer-related introductions in 1976", "Sinclair calculators" ]	The Sinclair Sovereign was a high-end calculator introduced by Clive Sinclair's company Sinclair Radionics in 1976. It was an attempt to escape from the unprofitable low end of the market, and one of the last calculators Sinclair produced. Made with a case of pressed steel that a variety of finishes, it cost between and at a time when other calculators could be purchased for under . A number of factors meant that the Sovereign was not a commercial success, including the cost, high import levies on components, competition from cheaper calculators manufactured abroad, and the development of more power-efficient designs using liquid-crystal displays. Though it came with a five-year guarantee, issues such as short battery life limited its usefulness. The company moved on to producing computers soon afterwards. The design by John Pemberton won a Design Council award, and there are examples of the Sovereign in the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It had a Mostek MK50321N main integrated circuit and a small memory register, a LED display, and could perform a variety of a number of basic mathematical operations besides four-function arithmetic. ## History The Sovereign was one of the last calculators produced during Sinclair's foray into the calculator market that had started with the Sinclair Executive in September 1972. The Executive had retailed for when introduced, but in little over a year it was possible to purchase a Sinclair calculator for and by November 1976 a model was available for . Cheaper calculators with liquid-crystal displays instead of light-emitting diodes were becoming more popular, and had much longer battery lives of months or years. Such calculators were available for well under , with all the functionality of the more expensive models. The impossibility of selling "simple" calculators profitably led Sinclair to introduce models such as the Cambridge Scientific, introduced in August 1975 at a price of . The Sovereign, released in 1976, represented an attempt to move upmarket in an increasingly saturated market. In December 1976, the chrome plated version of the Sovereign cost and the gold-plated version , including VAT, but profit margins on the Sovereign were so small that Sinclair ended up selling the Sovereign at a loss, and it was not a commercial success. The Sovereign was made in England, like every other Sinclair calculator except the President. Sinclair would shortly stop producing calculators and instead focus on computers, starting with the MK14 in 1977. The loss of the calculator market was due in part to technological development leading to smaller and cheaper components, which put heavy pressure on profit margins. An import levy of up to 17.5% was placed on components, but the duty for calculators imported from Japan or Hong Kong could be as little as 5%, making it unprofitable to produce calculators in the UK. Sinclair also had some problems with the reliability of earlier calculators that had adversely affected its reputation, but the Sovereign was sold with a "full and unconditional" five year guarantee. ## Design The Sovereign came in satin chrome and gold-plated models, with leather pouches and fitted wooden cases. It had an 8-digit seven-segment display that used red light-emitting diodes, with a decimal point to the right of each digit that could be illuminated as necessary. Power was provided by two 1.35 mercury button cells. The Sovereign measured 36 by 141 by 12 millimetres (1.42 in × 5.55 in × 0.47 in), which made it small and sleek compared to other calculators of the time. The Sovereign was unusual because the casing was made from pressed steel, which gave it a much higher quality feel compared to injection moulded plastic. This allowed a variety of paint and plating options, including black painted, chrome-plated, silver-plated, and gold-plated, and a limited edition silver-plated version, inscribed to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 1977, were also produced. Asprey of London was rumoured to have produced two Sovereigns in solid gold, costing each. The design, by John Pemberton, won the Design Council Award in 1977, as the Executive had in 1973, and there are examples in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Sovereigns are highly collectible, and used models command high prices. ### Functions As well as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, it had reciprocal and square-root functions, and the ability to multiply by a fixed constant. With an eight-digit display, the calculator could display positive numbers between 0.0000001 and 99,999,999, and negative numbers between -0.000001 and -9,999,999. Calculators of the time tended to have displays of between 3 and 12 digits, as reducing the number of digits was an effective way of reducing the cost of the calculator. A number outside that range leads to an overflow, and the screen flashes and all keys except the clear key are rendered inoperable to inform the user of the error. An independent memory register could read information from the screen, and information could only be taken from the memory onto the screen. Five keys were used for memory operations. The Sovereign used a Mostek MK50321N main integrated circuit, the same as the Sinclair Wrist Calculator and some variants of the Sinclair Cambridge. Clive Sinclair had assumed that people would prefer attractive illuminated LED displays to LCD displays, which incidentally also required more expensive CMOS chips. However, his calculators were designed with the assumption they would be turned off between calculations, which did not prove to be the case. Advertisements suggested that the batteries would last "about a year" under normal use, but in reality the small button cell batteries and comparatively high power consumption meant a short battery life compared to the competition.
40,030,121	Typhoon Cimaron (2006)	1,169,804,191	Pacific typhoon in 2006	[ "2006 Pacific typhoon season", "2006 disasters in the Philippines", "2006 in China", "2006 in Hong Kong", "2006 in Vietnam", "Tropical cyclones in 2006", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in China", "Typhoons in Hong Kong", "Typhoons in Vietnam", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Cimaron, known in the Philippines as Super Typhoon Paeng, was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the Philippine island of Luzon since Typhoon Zeb in 1998. Originating from a tropical depression on October 25, Cimaron developed within an environment strongly favoring tropical cyclogenesis east of the Philippines. On October 28, the system underwent rapid intensification, culminating in attaining its peak strength with winds of 185 km/h (115 mph). Estimates from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ranked the system as a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon with one-minute sustained winds of 260 km/h (160 mph), though this is argued to have underrepresented the typhoon's strength. The system moved ashore near Casiguran, Aurora in northern Luzon at peak strength. Crossing the island, Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea where conditions allowed for temporary reorganization. After becoming nearly stationary on November 1, the typhoon executed a tight anti-cyclonic loop and rapidly weakened. The storm degenerated into a tropical depression on November 4, before dissipating three days later off the coast of Vietnam. Prior to impacting the Philippines, Public Storm Warning Signals \#3 and \#4, the two highest levels, were raised for several provinces in Luzon. Thousands of residents were urged to evacuate while local authorities prepared services for quick recovery efforts. With Cimaron initially expected to strike Vietnam, officials planned to evacuate 218,000 people; however, Cimaron's slow motion and demise over open waters resulted in these plans being suspended. Officials in Thailand and southern China also advised residents of possible effects from the storm. In contrast to the typhoon's extreme intensity, damage was somewhat limited in the Philippines due to the lower population density of the affected areas. Widespread flooding and landslides caused substantial disruptions to travel and isolated some communities. Thirty-four people were killed in various incidents, mostly from flooding. Nearly 365,000 people were affected by the storm and losses amounted to 1.21 billion PHP (US\$31 million). Winds along the periphery of Cimaron fanned a large wildfire near Hong Kong, and moisture from it fueled record-breaking rains in British Columbia, Canada. Relief efforts in the Philippines began soon after the storm's passage; however, two other storms struck the country in November, with one resulting in far greater damage. Following a request for international assistance in early December, more than US\$10 million was provided in relief aid to the Philippines. ## Meteorological history On October 24, 2006, an area of disturbed weather, characterized by flaring convection around a low-level circulation, developed approximately 595 km (370 mi) east of Guam. Situated within a region favoring tropical cyclogenesis, the system consolidated as it tracked generally westward. Late on October 25, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) classified the low as a tropical depression. With poleward outflow improving, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert the following day before initiating advisories on Tropical Depression 22W. Several hours later, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration assigned the storm the local name Paeng as was within their area of responsibility. Situated south of a strong subtropical ridge, the system maintained a general west-northwest track. On October 27, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was assigned the name Cimaron by the JMA. The small storm subsequently underwent a period of rapid intensification as dual outflow channels developed; the storm reached typhoon status early on October 28. At the end of this phase on October 29, Cimaron attained its peak intensity with winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) and a barometric pressure of 920 mbar (hPa; 27.17 inHg). The JTWC estimated Cimaron to have been a stronger system, attaining its peak intensity as a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon with one-minute winds of 260 km/h (160 mph). However, satellite estimates from forecasters within the agency itself, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), the Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA), and Dr. Karl Hoarau of Cergy-Pontoise University stated Cimaron to have been an even stronger system. Using the Dvorak technique – a method of determining a tropical cyclone's intensity based on satellite appearance – AFWA and SAB yielded a peak value of T7.5, 285 km/h (177 mph), while advanced operational values from the JTWC peaked at T7.8, 305 km/h (190 mph). Additionally, a forecaster at SAB noted that the lower estimates were likely due to restrictions on the Dvorak technique stemming from Cimaron's rapid intensification. The forecaster also noted that a second type of estimate gave a maximum value of T8.0, 315 km/h (196 mph), the highest rating on the scale. While at its peak strength, Cimaron displayed two small concentric eyewalls, separated by a few kilometres. The storm later made landfall near Casiguran, Aurora in northern Luzon shortly after 1200 UTC on October 29; it became one of the strongest storms to ever hit the region. Interaction with the island's mountainous terrain caused substantial weakening, though Cimaron maintained typhoon status during its 12‐hour crossing. After emerging over the South China Sea on October 30, the system initially maintained its west-northwest course. However, the following day, a weakness developed within the ridge previously steering the typhoon, and Cimaron briefly turned north before essentially stalling. During this time, the system reorganized somewhat and reached a secondary peak intensity with winds of 165 km/h (103 mph) on November 2. While executing a tight clockwise loop, increased wind shear and entrainment of dry air soon caused Cimaron to dramatically weaken. With a new ridge becoming established over China, the weakening system acquired a general southwestward track. Cimaron weakened to a tropical depression on November 4 and ultimately dissipated three days later, just off the coast of southeastern Vietnam. ## Preparations By October 28, Isabela, southern Cagayan, Quirino, and northern Aurora provinces were placed under Public Storm Warning Signal (PSWS) \#3, the second-highest level. More than 20 provinces overall were placed under varying PSWS levels. Residents living along the coast were urged to evacuate. Early on October 29, several provinces along Luzon's east coast were placed under PSWS \#4, the highest level of alert. During a national radio broadcast President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo urged residents to heed warnings and not to venture out during the storm. Throughout Luzon, schools and government offices were closed on October 29 while residents in mountainous areas were urged to evacuate due to threat of mudslides. The National Transmission Corporation deployed power restoration crews across the region to allow for quick post-storm response. Hospitals in Cimaron's projected path requested employees to be present in anticipation of an influx of patients. Quick response teams from the Department of Social Welfare and Development were placed on standby for possible deployment. Within evacuation areas, the Philippine National Police was dispatched to prevent people from returning to these areas. Bus companies suspended all services north of Tarlac City and San Jose. As Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea, officials in Vietnam began preparing for possible effects from the storm. Authorities began evacuating residents in flood-prone areas along the coast from Quảng Bình Khánh Hòa, including 12,500 in Thừa Thiên-Huế Province. Fishermen were urged to seek shelter at nearby ports until the storm subsided. The Vietnamese Government also requested the deployment of the nation's Army, Coast Guard, and Navy to assist in evacuation efforts. Residents still recovering from Typhoon Xangsane in early October were forced to secure their homes and evacuate once again. An estimated 218,000 people were planned to be relocated across Vietnam: 68,000 in Quảng Nam, 60,000 in Quảng Trị, 50,000 in Thừa Thiên-Huế, and 40,000 in Quảng Bình. Appeals were made to roughly 3,500 vessels, with a collective crew count of 32,285, to return to port. The Navy deployed 42 ships for possible search and rescue missions. Following Cimaron's change in course and cessation of movement, the Vietnamese Government suspended all evacuation plans on November 2; however, fishermen were urged to remain at port in fears of repeating the incidents during Typhoon Chanchu in May of that year where over 200 fishermen died. Officials in Thailand also monitored the storm as a potential flood threat. Many reservoirs in the nation were above 80 percent capacity and further heavy rains would lead to a major flood event; the main concerns were for the Bhumibol and Sirikit dams in Tak and Uttaradit provinces, respectively. Authorities in Hainan province, China, warned of possible effects from the storm as well beginning on October 31. Heavy squalls, with winds of 50 to 100 km/h (31 to 62 mph) were forecast for eastern areas of the island and areas offshore. By November 1, approximately 20,000 fishing vessels returned to port as conditions over the South China Sea deteriorated; shipping over the Qiongzhou Strait remained unaffected. ## Impact ### Philippines Typhoon Cimaron struck the Philippines with winds estimated at 195 km/h (121 mph) and gusts in excess of 230 km/h (140 mph). Along coastal Aurora Province, a mother and daughter were killed when strong winds destroyed their home. Numerous trees and power lines were felled by the winds as well, causing widespread blackouts in Luzon. The majority of Aurora and Isabela provinces were left without power and telecommunications for more than two weeks. Approximately 90 percent of the homes in Dinapigue were damaged. Heavy rains across the region swelled many rivers, flooding low-lying areas along their banks. Several bridges became impassable and officials had to release water from two major dams to prevent them from overflowing. The most significant flooding occurred along the Allied-Sinocalan and Tagamusing rivers in Pangasinan. Low-lying areas along the Cagayan, Chico, Magat, Pinacanauan, Tuguegarao Pared rivers throughout Cagayan province were also affected by flooding. Numerous roads were blocked off by landslides or washed away by flooding, severely limiting travel. A landslide temporarily isolated four barangays in Nueva Vizcaya. A Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council search and rescue team was later deployed to Kasibu where at least four people were killed by flooding. Fatal landslides took place in Benguet and Kalinga provinces. A traffic accident blamed on the storm in La Union resulted in one death and seven injuries. Throughout the Philippines, damage amounted to roughly 1.21 billion PHP (US\$31 million), of which 664 million PHP (US\$17 million) was attributed to agriculture. Approximately eight percent of the corn and rice harvest was destroyed. A total of 2,605 homes were destroyed while another 18,181 were damaged. Across seven provinces, 364,733 people were affected by the typhoon, 65,585 of whom were significantly impacted. A total of 34 people died as a result of Cimaron. Additionally, 65 people sustained injuries. ### Elsewhere Though the storm remained over open waters after moving over the South China Sea, strong winds stemming from it fanned a large wildfire in Tai Lam Country Park, Hong Kong. At least 136 fires ignited on October 30 during the Chung Yeung Festival. The Tai Lam fire grew to be the largest in over a decade, ultimately charring 450 hectares (1,100 acres) and 66,000 trees. The storm's winds coupled with seasonally low humidity made conditions difficult for firefighters trying to suppress the fire. Over the South China Sea, the 128 m (420 ft) long Chinese cargo ship, Tongda 998, became stranded amid 5 m (16 ft) swells and 75-to-88 km/h (47-to-55 mph) winds after its engine failed. All 18 crewmen were unharmed after the vessel was towed to port in Zhuhai by the rescue ship Dejin. Moisture from the typhoon also fed an extratropical cyclone, in an atmospheric river known as the Pineapple Express, that brought heavy rains to southern British Columbia, Canada, prompting flood watches for the region Southern areas of the province were deluged by the storm, with some areas receiving 250 to 300 mm (9.8 to 11.8 in) of rain. The daily rainfall record for November 6 of 20.6 mm (0.81 in) at Victoria International Airport was shattered with 50.4 mm (1.98 in) falling. Widespread flooding occurred as rivers over-topped their banks; hundreds of homes were inundated, prompting numerous evacuations. The Vedder River reached a 25-year high and forced the evacuation 200 residences. ## Aftermath Damage assessments in the Philippines began on October 31, with aerial surveys being utilized for isolated areas. With numerous roads blocked off or washed away, clearing operations were a priority. The Philippine Red Cross assisted in the immediate aftermath of Typhoon Cimaron, evacuating people in La Union and providing relief goods to more than 16,000 people in Aurora. The majority of relief work was handled by local governments, though some assistance from the National Disaster Coordinating Council was received. By November 1, the estimated cost of humanitarian assistance reached 3.2 million PHP (US\$81,000). Teams from the Red Cross were already deployed in the Philippines due to Typhoon Xangsane in September and were able to quickly respond in Cimaron's aftermath. Relief efforts for Cimaron were cut short as just two weeks later, Typhoon Chebi struck nearly the same areas. A weaker, though still powerful typhoon, damage from Chebi was relatively limited. In late November, Typhoon Durian brought even greater devastation to the Philippines and prompted greater need for international assistance. On December 11, President Arroyo declared a national state of calamity and released 1 billion PHP (US\$25.6 million) in relief and rehabilitation funds. Throughout 2006 as a whole, the Philippines was devastated by multiple natural disasters that collectively killed well over 1,000 people and left more than US\$1.6 billion in damage. Consequently, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs appealed for emergency assistance to the nation, in the form of US\$46 million in funds for the most severely affected areas. The European Commission Humanitarian Aid department also provided €2 million (US\$1.9 million) in emergency funds in relation to the four major typhoons that struck the country, with a focus on areas affected by Typhoon Durian. The Red Cross ultimately provided US\$9.67 million in assistance to the nation in relation to the four typhoons as well as Typhoon Fengshen in June 2008 which struck while relief efforts from the 2006 storms were still ongoing. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Cimaron - Other tropical cyclones named Paeng - Typhoons in the Philippines - Other typhoons that impacted the Philippines in 2006: - Typhoon Chanchu - Typhoon Xangsane - Typhoon Chebi - Typhoon Durian - Typhoon Utor - Typhoon Krosa (2013) - Another typhoon that made landfall in Luzon then stalled over the South China Sea - Tropical Storm Aere (2016) - Also had slow movement in the South China Sea before impacting Vietnam
72,489,034	Tomb of Aegisthus	1,170,366,980	Mycenaean tholos tomb built c. 1450 BCE	[ "1892 archaeological discoveries", "Archaeological discoveries in Greece", "Buildings and structures completed in the 15th century BC", "Mycenae", "Mycenaean Greece", "Mycenaean tholos tombs", "Mycenaean tombs", "Tombs in Greece" ]	The Tomb of Aegisthus is a Mycenaean tholos tomb located near the citadel of Mycenae, Greece. It was constructed in the Late Helladic IIA period, approximately 1510–1450 BCE, and rediscovered in the 19th century. It was first excavated by Winifred Lamb in 1922, as part of a project led by Alan Wace. The Tomb of Aegisthus is the third-largest tholos tomb at Mycenae and the fourth-largest in the Aegean. Its architecture shows various transitional features between the architectural style of the oldest and later tholoi at Mycenae, such as the incorporation of ashlar masonry into the dromos and the use of a relieving triangle, though this latter feature was not recognised until the 1990s. Scholars have debated whether the tomb was constructed in a single phase, or whether some of these features represent later modifications to the tomb. The tomb's traditional name comes from Greek mythology, in which Aegisthus was a king of Mycenae and the murderer of both Atreus and Agamemnon. No burials were found inside the tomb and the identity of the person or people who may have constructed it remains a mystery: the name likely dates to the late 19<sup>th</sup> or early 20<sup>th</sup> centuries, by association with the nearby tholoi conventionally known as the Treasury of Atreus and the Tomb of Clytemnestra. At the time of its construction, the tomb was the largest in the Aegean region. The dating of the tomb was important in the 1920s in settling the so-called 'Helladic Heresy', and clarifying the relationship between Mycenaean Greece and Minoan Crete. ## The tomb ### Description The tomb is located to the west of the citadel of Mycenae, approximately 70m from the Lion Gate, in an area used for burial since the Middle Helladic period (c. 2000–1600 BCE). Its structure follows the typical tripartite division of Mycenaean tholos tombs into a narrow rectangular passageway (dromos), joined by a deep doorway (stomion) to a burial chamber (thalamos) surmounted by a corbelled dome. The dromos is approximately 22.45m long by 4.65m wide, while the thalamos is 13.96m in diameter and would originally have stood around 13m tall. Like most tholoi at Mycenae, it is cut into the slope, facing downhill. A 'relieving triangle' was built above the tomb's lintel, helping to direct the stress from the weight of the masonry towards the supported ends of the lintel-stone and therefore to reduce the torque applied to the stone. Such a feature would become universal in later tholos tombs at Mycenae, but the Tomb of Aegisthus is the earliest tholos to feature it. Other innovations include the lining of the dromos with rubble and the use of poros ashlar masonry for the façade, both of which foreshadow architectural conventions common in later tombs. None of the tholoi at Mycenae were discovered intact, having been looted in antiquity, probably during the Iron Age. A likely burial pit was discovered in the floor of the thalamos, but no human remains were recovered to indicate who, if anyone, might have been buried in it. ### Construction James Wright has described the construction of tholos tombs, using the Tomb of Aegisthus as an example, as a 'monumental expression of power'. Digging out the thalamos alone required the excavation of 1,810m<sup>3</sup> of earth, added to 585m<sup>3</sup> for the dromos — a total project which Wright estimates would require a ten-person team to work for 240 days, on top of additional labour for the procurement, preparation and arrangement of the rubble and ashlar masonry used in the dromos and stomion. He considers that the total construction of the tomb would have taken over a year, and required a large workforce including skilled stoneworkers. During the excavation, Wace incorrectly concluded that the Tomb of Aegisthus had no relieving triangle, a judgement which remained the scholarly consensus until 1997, when the area above the lintel was cleared during conservation work. The work revealed that the interior of the triangle, photographed by Wace in 1922, had been filled with a blocking wall some time after its initial construction, though the intrusion of much-later ceramic material into the space, partly as the result of an earthquake, made it impossible to ascertain the precise date. The façade of the stomion is faced with large blocks of poros limestone ashlar, behind which the structure is built from rubble masonry like that which lines the dromos. Wace believed that the ashlar façade was a later addition to the tomb, and that the monument had been constructed in two phases — firstly, the tomb was built in its entirety using rubble masonry, and later, 'with the object of making its entrance more imposing', a new ashlar façade was added. In support of this conclusion, he noted that the rubble masonry is bonded by mortar to that of the stomion, but that the ashlar masonry of the stomion is not bonded to the rubble masonry behind it; in addition, the ashlar façade seems to play little role in supporting the structural weight of the thalamos'''s corbelled dome. However, Wace's two-phase model has been questioned since the late 20th century: Clare Loader argued in 1998 that the ashlar façade may have played a structural role in buttressing the rubble one behind it, and so been added either during or immediately after the initial construction of the tomb, while Yannis Galanakis has argued that the tomb's unusual features may represent a single coherent plan, the result of 'architectural experimentation', perhaps influenced by the contemporaneous building of the tholos tomb at Berbati, and that the evidence is insufficient to tell whether the tomb was built in a single phase or in two. ### Name The tomb is named for Aegisthus, the mythological lover of Clytemnestra, wife of king Agamemnon of Mycenae. In Greek mythology, Aegisthus first murdered Atreus, Agamemnon's father, in order to restore his own father Thyestes to the throne; then, after Agamemnon drove him from power and departed for the Trojan War, Aegisthus became the lover of Clytemnestra and, on Agamemnon's return from Troy, assisted her in murdering the king. He then ruled Mycenae for seven years until he was killed in turn by Orestes, Agamemnon's son, alongside Clytemnestra. The nearby Treasury of Atreus or 'Tomb of Agamemnon' was traditionally known by that name long before the renewal of archaeological interest in it in the 19th century. The Tomb of Aegisthus is so named because it is positioned adjacent to another tholos, known as the 'Tomb of Clytemnestra'. The precise origin of its name is uncertain: Christos Tsountas, who first published the rediscovery of the tomb in 1892, did not name it, only referring to it as 'another [tomb] not far from the Lions' Gate', nor did he assign it a name in his 1897 publication of The Mycenaean Age. Alan Wace mentioned that the tomb is 'now christened the Tomb of Aegisthus' in his 1923 write-up of his excavations, and had previously referred to it by that name in the excavation daybook of 1922. ### Post-Mycenaean history The dome collapsed some time after the tomb's construction: from an original height of c. 13m, only about 8m of height remains. Wace noted finds of Geometric, Classical and Hellenistic pottery, particularly in the dromos, which he interpreted as the remains of post-Mycenaean tomb-robbers. However, it has since been suggested that they may represent the use of the tomb for 'hero cult' from the Iron Age onward, a practice observed at many of the Mycenaean chamber tombs at Mycenae and other sites in the Argolid, such as Prosymna. The tomb may have played an ideological role for the short-lived Argive colony at Mycenae, established in the 3rd century BCE but abandoned within a century, which restored the so-called 'Agamemnonion' (shrine of Agamemnon) between Mycenae and Prosymna and may have used the Mycenaean tombs now known as 'Aegisthus', 'Epano Phournos' and 'Clytemnestra' as a focus for the commemoration of Mycenae's heroes, in doing so asserting its status and prestige vis-à-vis Argos.The 1922 excavations also found a layer of ash inside the thalamos, with the remains of several olive kernels, on top of the traces of the collapsed dome. Wace hypothesised that this reflected the use of the tomb, after the end of the Mycenaean period, as a shelter for 'shepherds, outlaws or others having work in the neighbourhood', and that the kernels represented the remains of food, particularly bread and olives, that they ate around campfires while sheltering from the wind. ## Excavation The tomb was first formally described by Christos Tsountas in 1892, though it may have been noticed by Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker during his travels through Greece in 1843. Tsountas' excavations of 1892 found the tomb in the course of clearing the adjacent Tomb of Clytemnestra, but did not excavate as the tomb was only discovered towards the end of the digging season, and Tsountas considered that he did not have sufficient time. He returned and partially explored the tomb in 1893. ### Wace's excavations (1922) The British School at Athens began excavations at Mycenae in 1920, encouraged by Arthur Evans, whose excavations of Knossos on Crete between 1900 and 1905 had introduced the concept of 'Minoan Civilisation'. Evans' work on Crete raised questions as to the origins and development of the 'Mycenaean' civilisation, labelled as such after Heinrich Schliemann's 1876 excavations of the Shaft Graves at Mycenae. In Evans' mind, his discoveries at Knossos proved that Crete was the centre of the dominant power of the Bronze-Age Aegean, in line with the Classical myths of a Cretan 'thalassocracy' under King Minos. With some assistance from Evans, the British School at Athens persuaded both the Greek government and Christos Tsountas, who held the permit, to allow them to excavate with Alan Wace as field director. Evans had been particularly keen for the excavation of the Tomb of Aegisthus, and donated towards that project, believing that the exercise would provide confirmatory evidence that 'Minoans' had risen to dominance at Mycenae between the Shaft Grave period (c.1600–1450 BCE) and the construction of the tholoi. Wace, meanwhile, had previously co-authored a 1918 article with Carl Blegen, arguing instead for an essential continuity between 'Helladic' culture through the Shaft Graves until the end of the Bronze Age, and that the character of Middle Helladic and later mainland culture was 'Mycenaean as opposed to Cretan'. Where Evans believed that the Shaft Graves and tholoi were broadly contemporary, both representing the burials of Minoan rulers of Mycenae, Wace and Blegen correctly believed that the tholoi were considerably later. Excavations of the then-unexplored tholoi (all except the Treasury of Atreus and the Tomb of Clytemnestra) were intended to settle the question of their chronology, and so, in Wace's mind, to disprove the chronological assumptions on which Evans' argument rested. John Percival Droop later called Wace and Blegen's ideas the 'Helladic Heresy'. The tomb was excavated between 15 June and 8 July 1922 by Winifred Lamb, who was serving as second-in-charge of the Mycenae excavations under Wace. While the tomb was not intact, and appeared to have been largely emptied since the Mycenaean period, the excavation found the partial remains of a boar's tusk helmet at a level approximately 1m above the dromos floor, as well as gold, ivory, obsidian and carnelian objects on the original floor level of the dromos, which Wace took to belong to the original contents of the tomb. Among the finds were small fragments of an ivory carving, which Wace reconstructed as being similar in design to the relief of the Lion Gate, approximately 20cm wide. Several Palace-style piriform (pear-shaped) jars, made on Crete during the LM II period (c. 1440–1400 BCE), were found in fragments trodden into the floor of both the dromos and the thalamos, providing strong evidence that they were part of the earliest burial assemblages in the tomb, and therefore helping both to date the monument and to provide evidence of connections between Mycenae and Minoan Crete in this period. Wace and Lamb had planned to excavate the tomb in its entirety between 1922 and 1923, but were unable to return in 1923 due to safety concerns about the partially-collapsed dome roof. They therefore left the tomb with the dromos and stomion entirely excavated, but about a third of the thalamos uncleared. While the project had intended to fully excavate all seven of the thus-far unexcavated tholoi at Mycenae between 1920 and 1923, the Tomb of Aegisthus would be the only one excavated in this period: the others were, however, re-examined and their first architectural plans drawn up by Piet de Jong. Wace's team also undertook conservation work on the monument, including the digging of a drain around the tomb to prevent rain damage. #### Importance to the 'Helladic Heresy' By May 1923, Wace and Lamb had constructed the outline of a three-phase chronological model for the tholoi at Mycenae, in which they argued for a progressive increase in the scale and monumentality of the tombs. The features of the Tomb of Aegisthus (see table below), while mostly belonging to the 'first group' dated to early LH IIA (c. 1510–1480 BCE), included attributes common to early tombs in the 'second group', dated later in LH IIA (c. 1480–1450 BCE). The large quantity of diagnostic pottery found in the Aegisthus tomb, including broken LH II vessels found partly in the dromos and partly in the thalamos, allowed Wace to confidently date the tomb to early LH IIA, and so to argue that it represented the transition between the 'first group' and the 'second group' — in particular, that the supposed second phase of construction had been intended to bring the tomb into line with the innovations employed by the 'second group'. The Tomb of Aegisthus' transitional status, between the 'first group' and 'second group' of tholoi, as well the fact that its date could be securely ascertained from ceramic remains, provided strong evidence for the validity of Wace's chronology. This was important to the 'Helladic Heresy' for two reasons. Firstly, it demonstrated that the grandest examples of tholoi at Mycenae, particularly the Treasury of Atreus (c. 1350 BCE) and the Tomb of Clytemnestra (c. 1300 BCE), were indeed considerably later in date than both the Shaft Graves (c. 1600–1450 BCE) and the apogee of Neopalatial Minoan civilisation on Crete, which ended around 1500 BCE. Secondly, the apparent 'crescendo' of monumentality and elaboration in Mycenae's tholoi did not fit with Evans' view that Mycenae had become subjected and subordinated to Crete during the period of their construction, which Evans argued would have produced a 'diminuendo' in the site's wealth and ostentation. ### Later excavations As part of Wace's Mycenae excavations of 1939–1954, William Taylour excavated the area around the outside of the Tomb of Aegisthus, finding a thick layer of clay which had been used in the construction of the tholos to augment and waterproof the corbelled dome. Further excavations were carried out by the Archaeological Society of Athens in 1955, under the direction of Ioannis Papadimitriou. These excavations cleared the part of the thalamos left unexcavated by the British excavations of 1922, revealing more pottery from the Neopalatial and Hellenistic periods and providing confirmatory evidence for Wace's dating of the tomb. ### Conservation In 1915, the Greek Archaeological Service reinforced the lintel stone of the inner rubble façade, which had cracked, with concrete. In addition to the digging of a drain in 1923, conservation work was carried out by Alan Wace's team during the 1920–1923 seasons. This included the use of cement and fresh stone to reinforce the tomb's inner doorway, and the replacement of missing pieces of masonry around the tomb with new ones, which were sometimes cemented into place. By the 1990s, the tholos had been severely damaged by erosion from the ingress of rain water, particularly in the stomion''. Further conservation work was carried out by the Greek Archaeological Service in 1997–1998 to reinforce the internal structure of the tomb, which also revealed the existence of the small relieving triangle above the lintel.
9,425,847	Emily (The X-Files)	1,168,142,223	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Television episodes directed by Kim Manners", "Television episodes set in San Diego", "Television episodes set in hospitals", "Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz", "Television episodes written by Vince Gilligan", "The X-Files (season 5) episodes" ]	"Emily" is the seventh episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X-Files. It was written by Vince Gilligan, John Shiban and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners. The episode explores the series' overarching mythology. The episode premiered in the United States on December 14, 1997, on the Fox network, earning a Nielsen household rating of 12.4 and being watched by 20.94 million people in its initial broadcast. It received mixed reviews from television critics. The show centers on FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. Mulder is a believer in the paranormal, while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work. In this episode, Scully fights to protect her daughter’s life, while Mulder discovers her true origins. It is eventually discovered that Emily was created during Scully's abduction. Emily suffers from a tumorous infection and subsequently dies. "Emily" is the second of a two-part story that began with episode six, "Christmas Carol". The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in "Emily", and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her. Filming for the episode was also disrupted when angry demonstrators protested at one of the show's filming sites. ## Plot In a dream-like sequence, Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) walks through a desert and picks up a gold cross necklace on the ground. Continuing from the previous episode, agent Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) arrives at San Diego County Children's Center, where Scully introduces him to Emily. Mulder tells Scully that Emily's surrogate mother is named Anna Fugazzi, but that fugazzi is slang for fake, and there are no true records of how Emily came into the world. Mulder is interviewed by a judge, regarding Scully adopting Emily. Mulder explains that Emily was conceived from Scully's ova, which were taken from her during her abduction; the judge is skeptical. Later, Scully and Mulder find that Emily has a fever, and they discover a green cyst on the back of her neck. In a hospital, a nurse pierces the cyst with a needle, and green liquid oozes from the wound. The nurse collapses from exposure to the liquid, but Emily appears unaffected. Mulder believes that Emily has the same body chemistry that they have seen before with alien-human hybrids. At Prangen Pharmaceuticals, Mulder tries to get Dr. Calderon, Emily's doctor, to grant access to Emily's medical records; Calderon refuses. Mulder beats him up and threatens him with a gun. Calderon hurriedly leaves the building; Mulder follows, surreptitiously. Scully has imaging tests conducted on Emily. Calderon goes to a large house to see the two Dark Suited Men, one of whom kills him by stabbing him in the back of the neck with an alien stiletto. Calderon's wound bleeds the same green liquid. Both men then morph into Calderon look-alikes. Mulder follows one of the look-alikes as he leaves the house. The results of Emily's tests show her to be suffering from a rapidly-growing neoplastic mass in her central nervous system. The second Calderon look-alike injects Emily with an unknown dark green substance, then escapes by changing his appearance again. Scully believes that Calderon is continuing the treatments, and that the Sims were murdered because they were trying to stop him. Mulder returns to the large house, which turns out to be a nursing home. There, he stumbles upon the real Anna Fugazzi, an innocent elderly lady. The hospital doctor tells Scully that Emily is getting worse. A woman from the adoption agency wants to stop Scully from making decisions for Emily. Mulder connects the names of the women in the nursing home to recent births and finds that Dr. Calderon was treating them. Emily reacts badly to being placed in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber. Mulder finds medical records with Scully's name on them at the nursing home, along with a live fetus in a refrigerated chamber. Mulder finds Calderon entering soon after, and Detective Kresge arrives as well. Mulder and Kresge confront Calderon, who attacks Kresge. Despite Mulder's warning, Kresge shoots Calderon, whose wounds cause him to spew green blood which incapacitates Kresge. Mulder quickly leaves the building to avoid being affected by the blood. Calderon morphs into Kresge, deceives Mulder, and escapes. Mulder returns to the hospital, where Emily has gone into a coma. Days later Emily dies. Mulder visits Scully at the funeral chapel, telling her that Kresge is recovering and all evidence at the nursing home and Prangen is gone. The only evidence left is Emily's body, but the agents instead find sand bags in her coffin along with Scully's cross necklace, which she had previously given to Emily. ## Production The young actress who had originally been cast to play Emily had severe nosocomephobia, which necessitated the show's producers recasting the role and reshooting all footage featuring Emily in the previous episode "Christmas Carol". Director Kim Manners recalls, "I called Bob Goodwin and said, 'We're dead in the water here, pal. This little actress is not cooperating at all'. We recast that role and started up again the next day." The show's casting crew eventually replaced her with Lauren Diewold, who had previously appeared on an episode of Millennium. The building used for the nursing home in this episode was occupied by squatters "a few days before shooting" in protest, as the building was slated to be converted into a condominium high-rise. While these squatters eventually left, anti-redevelopment protesters soon arrived and began picketing. The producers of The X-Files did not want to let the activists know they were filming, so they kept a "low profile" by removing any information from their clothing that would indicate that they worked on The X-Files. Although the crew hoped that the activists would disperse on their own, a few were still protesting when production on this episode began, resulting in the police getting involved. ## Reception "Emily" premiered on the Fox network on December 14, 1997. This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12.4, with a 19 share, meaning that roughly 12.4 percent of all television-equipped households, and 19 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 20.94 million viewers. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics; many were more critical of the episode than "Christmas Carol". Emily VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B and wrote that she did not "totally buy “Emily” [...] even though I like large portions of" the episode. VanDerWerff wrote positively of "most of the Scully scenes", noting that Anderson "found some of the raw sense of hope and loss" that the shots required. However, she was critical of the episode's plot, arguing that it only "goes through the motions" and "is about everybody getting really worked up over a little girl we’ve just met." She concluded that "two-parter is strongest when it grabs hold of this notion. But it’s at its weakest when it turns into just another episode of The X-Files." Other reviews were decidedly more mixed to negative. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode three stars out of five. The two wrote that "Mulder catches up with the store and immediately this all becomes a little more formulaic." The two praised the episode's teaser, referring to it as "deathless prose", but were more critical of the plot, arguing that the episode "feels too soon to see yet more sequences of people standing around emoting as they watch the dying in the hospital", a reference to the show's earlier arc involving Scully's cancer. Shearman and Pearson, however, did compliment the performance of both Diewold and Anderson, and called the finale scene "wonderful". Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique, on the other hand, gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four. She heavily criticized the episode's characterization, noting that the episode's opening sequence was "ludicrous" and its revelations were "out of the blue". Vitaris reasoned that, because Scully had spent time with her mother, remembered fondly her sister, and reconnected her faith in God in "Redux II", "this development just doesn't track." Vitaris also criticized Mulder's antics, calling him a "thug" for beating up "an unarmed man and kicking him while he's down."
42,103,530	Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster	1,148,325,440	Remastered video game	[ "2013 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "Final Fantasy X", "Final Fantasy video games", "IOS games", "Nintendo Switch games", "PhyreEngine games", "PlayStation 3 games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation Vita games", "Role-playing video games", "Single-player video games", "Square Enix video game compilations", "Video game remasters", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Junya Nakano", "Video games scored by Masashi Hamauzu", "Video games set on fictional planets", "Virtuos games", "Windows games", "Xbox One games" ]	is a high-definition remaster of the role-playing video games Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X-2, originally developed by Square (now Square Enix) on the PlayStation 2 in the early 2000s. It also features story content previously only found in the International versions, and a new audio drama set a year after the events of X-2. The collection saw graphical and musical revisions and is based on the international versions of both games, making certain content accessible to players outside of Japan for the first time. The Chinese studio Virtuos handled large parts of its development, while Square Enix assisted the process and published the collection. It was released for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in Japan in December 2013 and worldwide in March 2014, for the PlayStation 4 in May 2015, for Windows in May 2016, and for the Nintendo Switch and Xbox One in April 2019. The collection sold favorably, and received positive reviews. Many critics praised the graphical upgrade and the chance to play through the games on the new platforms. The collection did receive criticism for a few minor upgrade faults and uneven quality between the two, while some of the collection's added content drew mixed opinions. As of September 2021, the Final Fantasy X series had sold over 20.8 million units worldwide, and at the end of March 2022 had surpassed 21.1 million. ## Content The HD remaster covers both Final Fantasy X and its sequel X-2. The first game follows the journey of the teenager Tidus who is transported to the world of Spira after an encounter with a creature known as Sin. He becomes one of the guardians of the summoner Yuna, protecting her on a pilgrimage to defeat Sin and finding out how the creature is linked to Tidus' and Yuna's late fathers. Gameplay relies on the Conditional Turn-Based Battle system that allows for swapping party members in mid-combat. Characters are leveled up by means of the Sphere Grid on which the player may choose a specific skill to learn or attribute to improve. The second game is set two years after the events of X and features Yuna as a treasure hunter in search of spheres leading her to Tidus. It reintroduces the series' classic job system in the form of the Garment Grid: jobs can be acquired as dresspheres, costumes that give the player characters different abilities, throughout the game and may be changed in battle. X-2 includes multiple minigames such as Sphere Break and blitzball, the latter of which also featured prominently in X. While the majority of the gameplay for X and X-2 remains unchanged, the games have undergone an extensive graphical update and a large amount of the music for X has been rearranged. All regional releases contain content from the International versions: X has the expert Sphere Grid and several optional bosses, while X-2 comes with extra dresspheres and new minigames. The Creature Creator system was added, whereby players can capture enemy monsters and certain non-player characters (NPCs) to train them and to have them fight alongside the party in battle, similar to the Pokémon series: these captured allies can also be fought and strengthened in a coliseum. Lastly, X-2 includes the "Last Mission" extra dungeon that plays in the style of a roguelike 3D game, having a grid-based layout across which the characters move and take on enemies. Layouts are generated randomly and each opponent is allowed as many turns as the player has taken. As in the main game, the player characters can equip jobs in the form of dresspheres. The Eternal Calm movie that bridges the gap between X and X-2 is included in the collection as well. The collection allows for cross-platform saving between the PlayStation 3 (PS3), PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 versions and both games have their own trophy lists which are shared across the three platforms. Final Fantasy X: Will is an original audio drama included in the release, playing during the credits. It features multiple characters from the games, alongside two new characters: the narrator Chuami and her companion Kurgum. In the story, the two are sent to summon Yuna to investigate a mysterious phenomenon known as "Beckoning", where the dead are being called back into existence. On their journey, they encounter a beckoned version of Sin. Over the course of the story, it is revealed that Tidus is suffering from some kind of weakness, and that Yuna and he appear to have broken up and Yuna is seeing someone else. The drama ends with Yuna preparing to face Sin again and Tidus, despite his weakness, deciding to follow her; Chuami and Kurgum decide to accompany them. ## Development The idea for a remaster originated from a reunion of the games' original development team and voice cast during the making of Final Fantasy Type-0. Character designer Tetsuya Nomura, associate producer Hideki Imaizumi and a voice actor thought that they should create something to celebrate the tenth anniversary of X. Producer Yoshinori Kitase's personal motivation was to have people too young to have played the games experience them, as his son was only old enough to know the characters of Tidus and Yuna from Dissidia Final Fantasy and its prequel. Another reason was that many did not have an opportunity to play the games since they were not compatible with the majority of PlayStation 3 models and neither available on the PlayStation Network unlike games from the original PlayStation like Final Fantasy VII and IX. Nomura entered negotiations with other old members of staff and got a remaster of X and X-2 approved, but the actual development process was delayed because much of the team was still busy with the creation of Final Fantasy XIII. The remaster was first announced at Tokyo Game Show 2011, where it was assumed that the game would release to commemorate X's tenth anniversary. The bulk of the remastering work was outsourced to the Shanghai-based studio Virtuos. Square Enix's internal staff was responsible for reassembling the original assets, and helped with a part of redoing the high-definition data. Among the returning original team members were Motomu Toriyama, Yusuke Naora, Toshitaka Matsuda and Masaki Kobayashi who supervised the production. X-2 art director Shintaro Takai remained in the same role for both remastered games. The Chinese side of development was headed by managing director Pan Feng. The team encountered problems in porting the games to PlayStation 3 and Vita as their graphics used many functionalities unique to the PlayStation 2 hardware. The loss and repair of some of the original assets posed another hurdle, with Kitase commenting that it might have been easier to recreate the data from the ground up. The PlayStation 3 version supports display resolutions of 720p and 1080p – the former with and the latter without anti-aliasing – while the Vita version runs at 720x408 pixels. Graphical features such as the water effects and lighting were improved. Other changes include the addition of bloom, the move from circular to dynamic shadows and tweaks to environmental geometry and texturing. The developers revised the 3D models for both games: most models merely received new textures but those of the playable characters were rebuilt completely with noticeable changes to their faces. The cutscenes and prerendered environments needed to be adjusted from a 4:3 to a 16:9 screen ratio, the process of which required lots of art and programming readjustments. For example, the widescreen display led to character models being visible in a cutscene although they were to appear only in a later shot; these instances had to be corrected. Both the prerendered background images and cutscenes were cropped at the top and bottom to fit the new screen ratio. However, they received a bump in resolution to appear much clearer than in the PlayStation 2 version. The gameplay also needed to be duplicated while bringing it up to the standard of a high definition game, which was harder than the team thought. Sixty tracks of the original Final Fantasy X soundtrack by Nobuo Uematsu, Masashi Hamauzu and Junya Nakano were rearranged. Hamauzu and Nakano took charge of most of the revised music, with Tsutomu Narita and Ryo Yamazaki also making select arrangements. The soundtrack for X-2 by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi was carried over from the original PlayStation 2 version. For the credits of the HD remaster, scenario writer Kazushige Nojima wrote the audio drama Final Fantasy X: Will as an appendix taking place two years after X-2. Nojima and Nomura felt that it was a good opportunity to expand upon the universe of X. They opted for the audio drama format as the team did not want to create a solid visual impression, instead intending to leave it up to interpretation. The team wanted the audio drama to be the "direct opposite" to the upbeat feel and happy ending of X-2. This wish for a more melancholy atmosphere resulted in them bringing Sin, the main antagonist of X, back into the story, as the team wanted to keep it involved in a similar fashion to Sephiroth, the main antagonist of Final Fantasy VII and its companion media. The drama's open ending was also intentional, as Kitase "wanted to leave something up to the player's imagination". ## Release Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster was released as a collection for the PlayStation 3 and as separate releases of each game for the PlayStation Vita. Alongside the standard PlayStation Vita releases in Japan, there was a Twin Pack that bundled both games and a Resolution Box collection which additionally contained the handheld console. A dual release was decided against for the Vita versions due to the limited storage capacity of the cartridges. Play Arts Kai figurines of Tidus and Yuna were produced and the original soundtracks were re-released. Two new Ultimania guide books were published for each game. Nojima wrote the tie-in novel Final Fantasy X-2.5: Eien no Daishō that bridges the gap between Last Mission and Final Fantasy X: Will. A Collector's Edition of the PlayStation 3 version was exclusively released in North America via Square Enix's online store. It contained both games, an artwork book, a Blu-ray disc for the rearranged soundtrack and five artwork lithographs. A special launch event was held at Gallery Nucleus in Alhambra, California during March 2014. It included a signing event with Kitase and Naora, and an artwork auction with all profits going to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan. The PlayStation 4 port of the remaster, which supports save transfers from the PS3 and Vita versions and remote play on the Vita, was released worldwide on PS4 in May 2015. It was later released on Windows via Steam one year later on May 12. In addition, versions for the Nintendo Switch and Xbox One were released on April 16, 2019. ## Reception The remaster has received favorable reviews. On Metacritic, the Vita version holds a score of 86/100, the PS3 version an 85/100, the PS4 version an 84/100, and the PC version an 83/100. Reaction to the quality of the remaster was mostly positive. IGN's Meghan Sullivan said that despite the game showing its roots, it "looks and sounds dramatically better", though critiqued some textures, off-putting facial close-ups and lip-synching problems carried over from the original. GameSpot's Josiah Renaudin was generally positive, calling the visual upgrades "compelling reasons to revisit one of the most poignant entries in the long-running series", although he found the uneven graphical upgrade comparisons between player characters and NPCs jarring. Reviewing the PlayStation 3 version, Destructoid's Dale North generally praised the upgrade, but also said that the fixed camera had not aged well and some of the smaller, more detailed aspects of environments and models had not received a thorough HD treatment. Game Informer's Kimberley Wallace generally praised the upgrade, but noted that character movements betrayed the game's age. GamesRadar's Ashley Reed called the environments better-looking, but found the characters "oddly doll-like" and noted graphical limitations carried over from the original. She found less of these problems in X-2. Digital Spy's Mark Langshaw praised the upgrade, but noted framerate dips and "ropey" animations. He also noted that the character models in X-2 were updated better than those in X. Reviewing the PS3 version, VideoGamer.com's Daniel Cairns was highly positive, despite noting some lingering awkward moments. In his review of the Vita version, Ryan King of NowGamer generally praised the updates and polishing the game received. While the Vita version was similarly praised by the majority of reviewers, Renaudin and Wallace noted that some dated textures stood out more. The remastered soundtrack received mixed to positive reviews. North noted that the revamped music "might be less agreeable to fans of the original score", while praising the general improvement in the sound. Wallace found the soundtrack a mixed bag, with some tracks being improved by the remastering and others feeling uneven or losing their impact. Renaudin said that, while the soundtrack was crisper, fans of the original "might not immediately notice the acoustic alterations". Eternal Calm, Last Mission and Will received mixed responses. Caires called Last Mission "a good little distraction", but called Will "incomprehensible". Sullivan didn't enjoy Eternal Calm or Last Mission, while finding Will "incredibly weird and confusing", recommending players to stay clear of it. Wallace called Last Mission "a nice diversion, but not incredibly engaging", while North noted that it "may not have as much appeal to fans of your typical Final Fantasy game". Opinions for the original gameplay and story remained generally unchanged from the original games: the stories for X and X-2 received positive and mixed to positive reviews respectively, while the gameplay was generally praised. The new gameplay features for X and X-2 received mixed to positive reviews. Sullivan called the extra content "[her] favorite thing about this remastered version", while Langshaw called the extra features, including Last Mission, "welcome inclusions". ### Sales During its first week on sale in Japan, the PlayStation 3 and Vita versions of the game sold 185,918 and 149,132 copies respectively. The total sales for PS3 and Vita versions in its first week was over 339,000 copies in Japan. The individual PlayStation Vita versions of X and X-2 sold 31,775 and 16,355 copies respectively during their first two weeks in Japan. The two versions of HD Remaster were also successful in North America, selling 206,000 copies within a month of its release. The game was the 7th best-selling game for PS3 and the top-selling title for Vita on the PlayStation Network for the month of February 2014. The title's overall sales were cited by Square Enix as a reason for its improved financial situation at the end of the 2013/14 fiscal year. As of April 2018, the PC version of the game has sold over 584,000 copies on Steam. ## Legacy The audio drama sparked speculation of a second sequel to X. In a February 2014 interview, Shinji Hashimoto said that the audio drama was simply meant to expand on the universe and did not mean a sequel was in development. Prior to this, Nojima stated that if there was enough demand, there could be developments, and that he would like to write the story for a second sequel. Nojima later revealed to Famitsu: "For the record, there's a plot from start to finish, and if there's some way we can have it show up elsewhere... well, so I've said to Square Enix". Later, speaking with Famitsu in a feature concerning industry rumors, Kitase denied that a second sequel was in development, and that both Eien no Daishō and the audio drama were simply intended as standalone continuations of the games' universe. Shinji Hashimoto revealed in October 2016 that Final Fantasy X-3 is possible but Square Enix is currently busy with other projects and he also confirmed that the audio drama is the basis for it. In July 2021, Tetsuya Nomura revealed that a story for the potential sequel has been written by Final Fantasy X writer Kazushige Nojima. Final Fantasy X director Motomu Toriyama similarly expressed interest in returning to the world of Spira and said that it could potentially happen after finishing Final Fantasy VII Remake.
30,031,218	Hurricane Epsilon (2005)	1,167,014,349	Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 2005	[ "2005 Atlantic hurricane season", "Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes", "Off-season Atlantic tropical cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2005" ]	Hurricane Epsilon was the twenty-seventh named tropical or subtropical storm and the final of 15 hurricanes in the record-breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. Originating from a cold front beneath an upper-level low, Epsilon formed on November 29 about 915 mi (1470 km) east of Bermuda, becoming the second tropical storm to do so in that area of the Atlantic within the span of a week. Initially, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) forecast the storm to transition into an extratropical cyclone within five days, due to conditions unfavorable for significant intensification. Epsilon continually defied forecasts, at first due to an unexpected loop to the southwest, and later due to retaining its strength despite cold waters and strong wind shear. Epsilon persisted into December, extending the 2005 season beyond its stated November 30 end date. On December 1, it began a northeast motion due to an approaching trough, and the next day it attained hurricane status. After turning to the east, it developed characteristics of an annular hurricane, meaning it had a circular eye, a ring of intense convection, and had few fluctuations in its intensity. On December 5 Epsilon attained peak winds of 85 mph (140 km/h), and the next day it turned to the south and southwest. Late on December 7, the winds dropped below hurricane status for the first time in five days, making Epsilon the longest-lasting December hurricane on record. Stronger wind shear caused rapid weakening, and the storm could no longer be classified as a tropical cyclone late on December 8. The next day the remnant circulation of Epsilon dissipated. Since Epsilon stayed well out to sea and never approached land, no warnings or watches were issued. No ships reported tropical storm force winds from Epsilon and there were no damages or fatalities. ## Meteorological history On November 27, a surface storm with gale-force winds developed beneath an upper-level low pressure area, about 1150 mi (1850 km) east of Bermuda. At the time, a cold front extended eastward from the surface storm toward the eastern Atlantic Ocean, north of Tropical Storm Delta. By that time, tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated the possible development of a subtropical cyclone, and although they were inconsistent, National Hurricane Center (NHC) specialist Eric Blake stated, "blocking at high latitudes seems to favor another subtropical cyclone effort." The blocking referred to a ridge stretching across the northern Atlantic. The surface storm gradually separated from the frontal zone, but initially its convection, or thunderstorm activity, was sparse and poorly organized. The NHC introduced the system in its tropical weather outlook on November 28, with the possibility of subtropical or tropical development noted. It moved slowly westward, becoming better organized, and by late that day resembled a subtropical cyclone; however, as it was still connected to the cold front, it could not have been classified as such. Early on November 29, an area of deep convection developed and organized over the surface center when it was about 915 mi (1470 km) east of Bermuda. The NHC accordingly assessed the system as developing into a tropical storm, designating it with the Greek letter Epsilon. Operationally, the NHC did not initiate advisories until 1500 UTC on November 29, about nine hours after it actually developed. By that time, the convection had wrapped into a ring 45 mi (72 km) in diameter. In the first advisory on Epsilon, the NHC forecast steady strengthening to near hurricane status due to marginally favorable conditions, followed by extratropical transition within five days; an alternate possibility was Epsilon being absorbed by a larger extratropical storm. Epsilon moved westward after its development, steered by a ridge to its north. Initially, Epsilon was embedded beneath an upper-level low that provided an area of low wind shear and instability. An eye-like feature briefly developed in the center of the convection, although the thunderstorms waned late on November 28 due to restricted inflow. However, banding features and outflow improved at the same time. By November 30, the NHC anticipated extratropical transition to occur within two days, although some strengthening was still expected. That day, there was an increase in convection over the center of a ragged eye-feature. The winds briefly increased to 65 mph (105 km/h), although the intensity of the thunderstorms diminished. Initially Epsilon was predicted to continue westward and eventually turn to the north and northeast. Instead, it turned toward the southwest and executed a cyclonic loop; the unexpected motion caused larger than normal errors in the extended track forecast. As it moved to the south, the storm crossed over an area of warmer water temperatures, and the NHC remarked that "just a modest increase in convection [would be] needed to make Epsilon a hurricane." At the time, forecasters assessed the winds in Epsilon to be around 70 mph (115 km/h), although in a post-season re-analysis it was found to have been 10 mph (15 km/h) weaker. Late on November 30, Epsilon made its closest approach to Bermuda, passing about 645 miles (1045 km) east-southeast of the island. Tropical Storm Epsilon began its motion to the east and northeast on December 1, due to an approaching trough. Its structure became that of a "shallow hybrid-type tropical cyclone", and an eye-feature again developed within the convection. At the time, the NHC and several computer models anticipated extratropical transition within 36 hours as it accelerated northeastward near the Azores. However, four computer models predicted an alternate scenario, and forecaster Stacy Stewart stated such transition would only occur "barring any southward motion over warmer water that would prolong both the lifetime of Epsilon and the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season." As it continued northeastward, the storm separated from upper-level low it was previously beneath. After a decrease in convection, the thunderstorm activity again increased over the center, and there were more banding features. Despite moving over slightly cooler water temperatures, Epsilon attained hurricane status late on December 2, following the development of a well-defined eye 29 miles (46 km) in diameter. A few hours after reaching hurricane status, the NHC thought Epsilon reached peak winds, as the storm was about to move over cooler water temperatures. Additionally, the hurricane was expected to stall near the Azores, in contrast to the original forecast of continued acceleration to the northeast. On December 3 it turned due eastward, still maintaining an eye, modest amounts of convection, and outflow. Despite moving into an area of cooler waters and generally unfavorable atmospheric conditions, Epsilon retained its hurricane status; the only entity supporting its intensity was its warm upper-level temperature. By late on December 3, its presentation was described as "remarkably well-organized for a hurricane at high latitude in December... embedded in a strong upper-level westerly wind environment and moving over [70–72 °F (21–22 °C)] water." As it continued eastward, Epsilon developed characteristics of an annular hurricane; such cyclones, more often found in the deep tropics with greater intensity, have circular eyes, surrounded by a nearly uniform ring of convection and a general lack of thunderstorms outside the ring. For several days, the intensity fluctuated in a narrow range, and although Epsilon was briefly downgraded to tropical storm status on December 4, the NHC assessed it as remaining a hurricane. After it was thought to have weakened, the eye became more symmetric as the ring of convection became stronger. The hurricane remained difficult to forecast, as NHC forecaster Lixion Avila remarked, "There are no clear reasons... and I am not going to make one up... to explain the recent strengthening of Epsilon." By late on December 4, the NHC was no longer anticipating extratropical transition, after a front passed north of the storm and there was no interaction. At 0600 UTC on December 5, the hurricane's appearance generated 4.7 on the Dvorak technique, a system used to estimate intensity from satellite imagery. This was the highest rating during Epsilon's duration, and suggested winds of 85 mph (140 km/h), its peak intensity. Around that time, the hurricane began a turn to the east-southeast, as the ridge to its north built behind the passage of a cold front. Despite the cold water temperatures and unfavorable strong upper-level winds, Epsilon maintained its intensity, and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) model predicted it would remain a hurricane for nearly three days. On December 6 the hurricane turned to the south and southwest. As it did so, Epsilon passed beneath a mid-level trough that sheltered it from the wind shear. After weakening during the evening, the convection redeveloped around the large and distinct eye in the daytime, a process Epsilon had done repeatedly in its duration. However, late on December 7, an approaching trough began increasing wind shear over the system, displacing the convection from the center and causing the eye to dissipate. After maintaining hurricane status for five days, Epsilon weakened to tropical storm status about 920 mi (1480 km) southwest of the Azores. Once weakened to a tropical storm, Epsilon began rapidly deteriorating. On December 8, it was downgraded to a tropical depression as the convection had totally dissipated. The NHC issued their final advisory on Epsilon at 1500 UTC that day, after the cyclone consisted of a tight swirl of low clouds with no convection. On issuing the last advisory, Lixion Avila remarked, "I hope this is the end of the long lasting 2005 hurricane season." There was ultimately one more tropical storm – Zeta. Late on December 8, Epsilon transitioned into a remnant low pressure area. The remnant circulation elongated in advance of a frontal zone, and it dissipated late on December 9. The front absorbed the remnants the next day. ## Records - Epsilon established a record formation date for the season's 27th tropical or subtropical storm, a mark that stood until 2020, when Hurricane Zeta formed on October 25. - Epsilon is one of only four Atlantic storms since 1851 that have attained hurricane status in December, along with an unnamed storm in 1887, Alice in 1954, and Lili in 1984. - Epsilon maintained hurricane status for five days, longer than any other Atlantic hurricane in December. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in 2005 - List of off-season Atlantic hurricanes - List of Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes - Timeline of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season
1,894,570	Metroid Prime Pinball	1,158,873,009	2005 video game	[ "2005 video games", "Metroid Prime", "Metroid games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo DS games", "Nintendo DS-only games", "Pinball video games", "Silverball Studios games", "Video game remakes", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games produced by Kensuke Tanabe", "Video games scored by Kenji Yamamoto (composer, born 1964)" ]	Metroid Prime Pinball is a pinball video game themed after the Metroid series. The game uses the graphical style and various story elements from Metroid Prime. It was developed by Fuse Games and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in North America and Australia in 2005, in Japan in 2006, and in Europe in 2007. Metroid Prime Pinball uses the basic mechanics of pinball, along with typical pinball items. New mechanics are introduced, such as wall jumping and the ability to fire weapons. The Nintendo DS's touchscreen can be nudged with a finger to alter the pinball's trajectory while in motion. The initial idea for a video game that presented the Metroid series in a pinball setting came to Kensuke Tanabe after he learned that Fuse Games had previously worked on Mario Pinball Land, another pinball video game. Recalling that the series' protagonist, Samus, can morph into a ball, Tanabe was convinced that the Metroid universe could be adapted to a pinball setting. The game was sold with a Rumble Pak accessory for the Nintendo DS, marking the first time the accessory was available for the Nintendo DS. Metroid Prime Pinball received generally positive reviews. Critics praised the game's transposition of the Metroid series into a pinball video game, but criticized its lack of variety. Metroid Prime Pinball sold 6,228 copies during its debut month of October 2005 in the United States, and over 15,000 units in Japan as of May 2008. ## Gameplay Metroid Prime Pinball uses the basic mechanics of pinball, complete with an assortment of typical pinball items including flippers, spinners, bumpers, and ramps. In addition, new mechanics are introduced, such as enemies that wander around the table, wall jumping, and the ability to fire weapons. The Nintendo DS's touchscreen can be used to nudge the pinball table and alter the ball's trajectory. The game consists of six pinball tables, each inspired by a different area of Metroid Prime. Each table is shown across both screens of the Nintendo DS. Only two tables are initially available for play: Pirate Frigate and Tallon Overworld. After playing either of the first two tables, the player unlocks two more tables: Phendrana Drifts and Phazon Mines. In either table, the player must battle a boss to complete it. During the course of the game, the player must acquire twelve Artifacts, which are prizes that are awarded after completing objectives such as winning minigames or beating bosses. Once having acquired twelve Artifacts, the player is granted access to a table called the Artifact Temple, which places six balls on the table at the same time. To complete the table, twelve different targets must be hit with the balls while they are bombarded by attacks from Meta Ridley, one of the antagonists of the Metroid Prime series. If all of the balls are lost, the table ends; the player does not lose any of the twelve Artifacts already collected but is forced to revisit another table and complete it before being allowed a second attempt at the Artifact Temple. Upon completing the Artifact Temple, access is granted to the final table, Impact Crater. After the player defeats the Metroid Prime creature on the Impact Crater table, the game unlocks a higher difficulty level, Expert mode. The game also features a "Single Mission" mode which confines players to a single board. The Pirate Frigate and Tallon Overworld boards challenge players to earn a high point score, as in real pinball; on the other tables players are ranked by the time taken to complete a mission. In addition to the single-player mode, the game features a multiplayer mode, which requires only one copy of the game and allows up to eight players to compete in a race to reach a target score. The mode uses a seventh table, Magmoor Caverns, that does not appear in the single-player mode. ## Development While making Metroid Prime Hunters, a Metroid first-person shooter video game for the Nintendo DS, Nintendo producer Kensuke Tanabe came up with the idea to make a pinball game based on the Metroid series as Fuse Games finished Mario Pinball Land, another pinball simulator based on a Nintendo property. Tanabe felt like the Metroid universe fit into such a setting due to series protagonist Samus being able to morph into a ball, and Fuse agreed that the license was "a great fit for pinball", accepting to work on the game. Fuse Games then received some assets from Metroid Prime developers Retro Studios, and collaborated with the Hunters team at Nintendo Software Technology to elaborate on specific aspects of Metroid Prime Pinball, such as Samus's wall climbing and shooting abilities. Head of development Adrian Barritt said that in Metroid Prime Pinball the team tried to fix criticisms raised about the difficulty of Mario Pinball Land, creating a "more beginner friendly" game. Named Project Code: Metroid Pinball while in development, the first gameplay footage from the game was released in May 2005, at the E3 convention. Nintendo of America revealed in August that the game, by then titled Metroid Prime Pinball, would be sold with the Rumble Pak accessory, which can be plugged into the Game Boy Advance slot of the Nintendo DS. When the Rumble Pak is installed, the Nintendo DS shakes whenever the pinball in the game hits an object. This was the first time that the Nintendo DS version of the Rumble Pak was introduced. It was first sold exclusively with Metroid Prime Pinball before becoming available as a standalone product from Nintendo. Nintendo DS games that use the device's top and bottom screens as one continuous screen are harder to control because of a gap in the middle, sometimes called a visual "dead zone"; objects in this area are not visible. The developers of Metroid Prime Pinball, a game which takes advantage of both screens, resolved this problem by placing a second set of pinball flippers at the bottom of the upper screen to give players a reference to work with. The tabletops in the game use pre-rendered artwork for graphical effects, including Samus's Morph Ball, which uses renderings of images at several different angles to provide a smooth animation. To simulate the appearance of a real pinball game from a player's point of view, the tabletop in Metroid Prime Pinball was tipped back. The game offers players the ability to nudge the table, a technique used in pinball games to influence the ball's movement. This is achieved by touching the Nintendo DS's bottom touchscreen with a finger and pushing it in the direction that the player wants to nudge the tabletop. The game's soundtrack was composed by Kenji Yamamoto and Masaru Tajima, with audio effects from the Metroid Prime series are borrowed by the game to provide a "CD-like" music experience. The voice of the Power Suit was provided by Lorelei King. ## Reception Metroid Prime Pinball was released by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in North America on October 24, 2005, in Australia on December 1, in Japan on January 19, 2006, and in Europe on June 22, 2007. 6,228 copies were sold during its debut month of October 2005 in the United States, and over 15,000 units were sold in Japan as of May 2008. It was given "generally favorable reviews", according to the review aggregator website Metacritic. Despite early skepticism over the quality of a pinball video game themed after the Metroid series, reviews praised the integration of the two in Metroid Prime Pinball. Nintendo Power called the game a "fully realized and well-tuned hybrid of pinball play and Metroid Prime atmosphere", and the Official Nintendo Magazine named it one of the better recently released pinball games. GameZone believed that the game appeals to anyone who is a fan of pinball games or the Metroid Prime franchise, to which Play magazine attested, adding that the game embodies the Metroid Prime series well. Appreciating the game's pinball gameplay, 1UP.com thought that its Metroid motif did not add much more to the game. Nintendo World Report felt differently; they were impressed with the game's "top-notch graphics and sound that believably invoke the Metroid series". They also appreciated the pinball innovations introduced in the game that incorporate features from the series and called it a seamless merging between classic arcade pinball and Metroid Prime series. The sentiment was shared by GameSpot's Greg Kasavin, who was convinced that pinball was an excellent medium to simulate the challenging struggles found in the Metroid series, noting that the game "pulls it off very well" by being faithful to the main series. Bryn Williams of GameSpy was impressed after playing the game; he noted that it was one of the more interesting gaming sessions that anyone can have on the Nintendo DS. Metroid Prime Pinball's gameplay was lauded by reviewers. Craig Harris of IGN appreciated Fuse Games' work on the game, praising the graphics, audio, and gameplay, along with its "pick-up-and-play" element that made it easy for people with varying levels of skill to play. X-Play felt the same way, noting that the simple controls and "short bursts of gameplay" make Metroid Prime Pinball a perfect handheld video game. In addition, they asserted that the game has great value because of the included wireless multiplayer mode, which allows up to eight players to play the game with just one game card. A few critics were negative about Metroid Prime Pinball. The reviewer from the Electronic Gaming Monthly video game magazine found it hard to see the pinball while playing the game, especially when it was in the area between the top and bottom Nintendo DS screens. With a limited selection of game modes, GamePro's Rice Burner was disappointed with the game, and concluded that because every game mode features the same tabletops, Metroid Prime Pinball lacked variety, which Game Informer's reviewer agreed with, noting that he would have had more fun with the game if he "had access to a little more content". The minigames were criticized by Game Revolution, which claimed that there were too many minigames that were only of average quality. Furthermore, it asked the game's developer, Fuse Games, to spend more time making a great pinball game rather than several minor minigames, requesting "a character-based game that's great at pinball rather than a fence-riding jack of all trades that is master of none". Eurogamer had a different experience, finding that the minigames provided more entertainment than the main game, which they remarked was a "cardinal sin in pinball". They also criticized the tilt feature for being unintuitive and difficult to use. The reviewer for GamesMaster felt that Metroid Prime Pinball was directed more towards Metroid fans than pinball aficionados, calling it a "flashy but insipid" game.
222,231	There's No Disgrace Like Home	1,167,597,948	null	[ "1990 American television episodes", "Family therapy", "Television episodes written by Al Jean", "The Simpsons (season 1) episodes" ]	"There's No Disgrace Like Home" is the fourth episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 28, 1990. In the episode, Homer is ashamed of his family's behavior at a catastrophic company picnic and enrolls them in therapy. The therapist, Dr. Marvin Monroe, struggles to solve their problems − culminating in a shock therapy-based showdown between the family members − before eventually giving up and refunding their money. One of the first-produced episodes of the season, it is known for showcasing early designs and different characterizations for several members of the show's cast. The episode is inspired by the comedy of Laurel and Hardy and features cultural references to films such as Citizen Kane and Freaks as well as the Batman and Twilight Zone television series. When the BBC began airing The Simpsons in November 1996, this episode was the first to be shown. ## Plot Homer takes his family to a company picnic, where he is embarrassed by the behavior of Bart, Lisa and Marge. Mr. Burns, Homer's cruel and tyrannical boss, fires any employee whose family members are not enjoying themselves. When Homer notices that Mr. Burns approves of a "normal", well-mannered family who treat one another with respect, he wonders why his own family is so dysfunctional. The entire picnic is a catastrophe when Bart chases and tortures the swans, Lisa swims in the fountain, and Marge gets drunk and performs a musical number. Homer tries to prove his point to Bart, Lisa, and Marge by taking them on a tour of the neighborhood and peeking in windows to observe other families. The excursion makes the others uncomfortable for invading these families' privacy, and one homeowner shoots at them for trespassing. A depressed Homer visits Moe's Tavern, where he sees a television advertisement for Dr. Marvin Monroe's Family Therapy Center. Enticed by Monroe's guarantee of "family bliss or double your money back", Homer decides to sign the Simpsons up for an appointment. To his family's chagrin, Homer pawns their television to pay for the \$250 therapy. When Monroe asks the Simpsons to draw pictures of the source of their problems, Bart, Lisa, and Marge draw Homer. Distracted, Homer draws an airplane in flight and Monroe scolds him for being a bad father figure. After Homer gets angry with Bart and tries to attack him with a lamp, Monroe gives the Simpsons padded mallets to work out their aggression without harming each other. The exercise fails when Bart removes the padding from his mallet and hits Monroe in the knee with the hard inner core. In frustration, Monroe resorts to aversion therapy by wiring the family members to an electric generator, so they can deliver shocks to one another to deter misbehavior. However, they shock each other so many times that the generator becomes damaged (which leads to all of Monroe's other patients leaving his office) and the entire city suffers a brownout, delighting Burns. Realizing he cannot help the Simpsons, Monroe unplugs the generator and begs them to leave. After Homer reminds him of the double-money-back guarantee, Monroe angrily pays him \$500 on the condition that they never tell anyone of their visit to the center. With a fresh sense of unity and pride, the Simpsons decide to buy a new television. ## Cast - Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson, Barney Gumble and Son in Monroe ad - Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson - Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson, Tom Gammil, Mother \#2 and Receptionist - Yeardley Smith as Lisa Simpson - Harry Shearer as Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, Father \#1, Documentation voice, Father \#2, Boxing announcer, Eddie, Dr. Marvin Monroe, Voice in Monroe ad, Pawnbroker and Father \#3 - Hank Azaria as Moe Szyslak, Mr. Gammil, Lou and Father in Monroe ad - Maggie Roswell as Mother \#1, Daughter and Mother in Monroe ad - Pamela Hayden as Son \#1 and Son \#2 ## Production The episode shows signs of being one of the earliest produced. Several of the characters notably behave differently compared to the episodes surrounding it: akin to her portrayal in the Tracey Ullman Show shorts, Lisa is an undisciplined brat indistinguishable from Bart, Marge gets drunk and is inattentive, and Homer is the voice of reason. These roles were reversed in later episodes. It was an early episode for Mr. Burns (who was known as Mr. Meanie in the first draft), who had been voiced by Christopher Collins in the previous episode. Originally, the character was influenced by Ronald Reagan, a concept that was later dropped. The idea that he would greet his employees using index cards was inspired by the way Reagan greeted people. The episode marks the first time Burns refers to "releasing the hounds". The episode marked the first appearance of Dr. Marvin Monroe and Itchy & Scratchy; the latter had previously appeared in the shorts. It also marked the first appearance of yellow Smithers, who was drawn as an African-American in the previous episode. Eddie and Lou also appeared for the first time, although Lou was mistakenly animated with yellow instead of black, as he would later become. Lou was named after Lou Whitaker, a Major League Baseball player. The idea behind the shock therapy scene was based on Laurel and Hardy throwing pies at each other. The scene was rearranged in the editing room; it played out differently when first produced. The edits to this scene were preliminary, but well-received, and remained unchanged in the finished product. The episode's title is a parody of the famous phrase "There's no place like Home" from "Home! Sweet Home!", an 1823 song by Henry Bishop and John Howard Payne. The scene in which the family enters Burns' Manor contains two cultural references. The Manor resembles Charles Foster Kane's mansion from the 1941 film Citizen Kane. The characters refer to it as "stately Burns Manor", a reference to the Batman TV series. In addition, there is a reference to Freaks, the Tod Browning cult horror film, in the repetition of the line "one of us". While drunk at Mr. Burns' picnic, Marge sings a version of the song "Hey, Brother, Pour the Wine" which was popularised by Dean Martin. The shock therapy scene is reminiscent of the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange. The episode made a brief appearance as inflight entertainment in the 1990 action film Die Hard 2. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "There's No Disgrace Like Home" (which aired the same day as Super Bowl XXIV on rival network CBS) finished forty-fifth in ratings for the week of January 22–28, 1990, with a Nielsen rating of 11.2, equivalent to approximately 10.3 million viewing households. It was the second-highest-rated show on Fox that week, following Married... with Children. Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, note: "It's very strange to see Homer pawning the TV set in an attempt to save the family; if this episode had come later Marge would surely have taken this stance." They continue, "A neat swipe at family counseling with some great set pieces; we're especially fond of the perfect version of The Simpsons and the electric-shock aversion therapy." Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is "[his] least favorite episode of Season One" and further commented: "Homer feels embarrassed by the others? Marge acts poorly in public and doesn't care about the upkeep of the family? Lisa (Yeardley Smith) engages in pranks and silliness? This ain't the family we've grown to know and love." It was the first episode to be broadcast on terrestrial television by the BBC on November 23, 1996, on a Saturday at 5:30 pm, because the episodes were shown out of order. The episode was screened with five million viewers, slightly less than the show Dad's Army, which previously held the timeslot. The episode also faced competition from ITV's screening of Sabrina the Teenage Witch. ## Home media The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "Bart the General". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 1 (1997), paired with "Life on the Fast Lane". It was later re-released in the US in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections. It was re-released in the UK as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, released in November 1999. The episode's debut on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Jean, and Reiss participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season was published December 20, 2010 in the United States containing the episode, through Amazon Video and iTunes.
5,645	Cult film	1,170,207,636	Film that has acquired a cult following	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Cult following", "Film and video fandom", "Film and video terminology", "Film genres" ]	A cult film or cult movie, also commonly referred to as a cult classic, is a film that has acquired a cult following. Cult films are known for their dedicated, passionate fanbase which forms an elaborate subculture, members of which engage in repeated viewings, dialogue-quoting, and audience participation. Inclusive definitions allow for major studio productions, especially box-office bombs, while exclusive definitions focus more on obscure, transgressive films shunned by the mainstream. The difficulty in defining the term and subjectivity of what qualifies as a cult film mirror classificatory disputes about art. The term cult film itself was first used in the 1970s to describe the culture that surrounded underground films and midnight movies, though cult was in common use in film analysis for decades prior to that. Cult films trace their origin back to controversial and suppressed films kept alive by dedicated fans. In some cases, reclaimed or rediscovered films have acquired cult followings decades after their original release, occasionally for their camp value. Other cult films have since become well-respected or reassessed as classics; there is debate as to whether these popular and accepted films are still cult films. After failing at the cinema, some cult films have become regular fixtures on cable television or profitable sellers on home video. Others have inspired their own film festivals. Cult films can both appeal to specific subcultures and form their own subcultures. Other media that reference cult films can easily identify which demographics they desire to attract and offer savvy fans an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge. Cult films frequently break cultural taboos, and many feature excessive displays of violence, gore, sexuality, profanity, or combinations thereof. This can lead to controversy, censorship, and outright bans; less transgressive films may attract similar amounts of controversy when critics call them frivolous or incompetent. Films that fail to attract requisite amounts of controversy may face resistance when labeled as cult films. Mainstream films and big budget blockbusters have attracted cult followings similar to more underground and lesser known films; fans of these films often emphasize the films' niche appeal and reject the more popular aspects. Fans who like the films for the wrong reasons, such as perceived elements that represent mainstream appeal and marketing, will often be ostracized or ridiculed. Likewise, fans who stray from accepted subcultural scripts may experience similar rejection. Since the late 1970s, cult films have become increasingly popular. Films that once would have been limited to obscure cult followings are now capable of breaking into the mainstream, and showings of cult films have proved to be a profitable business venture. Overbroad usage of the term has resulted in controversy, as purists state it has become a meaningless descriptor applied to any film that is the slightest bit weird or unconventional; others accuse Hollywood studios of trying to artificially create cult films or use the term as a marketing tactic. Films are frequently stated to be an "instant cult classic" now, occasionally before they are released. Fickle fans on the Internet have latched on to unreleased films only to abandon them later on release. At the same time, other films have acquired massive, quick cult followings, owing to spreading virally through social media. Easy access to cult films via video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing has led some critics to pronounce the death of cult films. ## Definition A cult film is any film that has a cult following, although the term is not easily defined and can be applied to a wide variety of films. Some definitions exclude films that have been released by major studios or have big budgets, that try specifically to become cult films, or become accepted by mainstream audiences and critics. Cult films are defined by audience reaction as much as by their content. This may take the form of elaborate and ritualized audience participation, film festivals, or cosplay. Over time, the definition has become more vague and inclusive as it drifts away from earlier, stricter views. Increasing use of the term by mainstream publications has resulted in controversy, as cinephiles argue that the term has become meaningless or "elastic, a catchall for anything slightly maverick or strange". Academic Mark Shiel has criticized the term itself as being a weak concept, reliant on subjectivity; different groups can interpret films in their own terms. According to feminist scholar Joanne Hollows, this subjectivity causes films with large female cult followings to be perceived as too mainstream and not transgressive enough to qualify as a cult film. Academic Mike Chopra‐Gant says that cult films become decontextualized when studied as a group, and Shiel criticizes this recontextualization as cultural commodification. In 2008, Cineaste asked a range of academics for their definition of a cult film. Several people defined cult films primarily in terms of their opposition to mainstream films and conformism, explicitly requiring a transgressive element, though others disputed the transgressive potential, given the demographic appeal to conventional moviegoers and mainstreaming of cult films. Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock instead called them mainstream films with transgressive elements. Most definitions also required a strong community aspect, such as obsessed fans or ritualistic behavior. Citing misuse of the term, Mikel J. Koven took a self-described hard-line stance that rejected definitions that use any other criteria. Matt Hills instead stressed the need for an open-ended definition rooted in structuration, where the film and the audience reaction are interrelated and neither is prioritized. Ernest Mathijs focused on the accidental nature of cult followings, arguing that cult film fans consider themselves too savvy to be marketed to, while Jonathan Rosenbaum rejected the continued existence of cult films and called the term a marketing buzzword. Mathijs suggests that cult films help to understand ambiguity and incompleteness in life given the difficulty in even defining the term. That cult films can have opposing qualities – such as good and bad, failure and success, innovative and retro – helps to illustrate that art is subjective and never self-evident. This ambiguity leads critics of postmodernism to accuse cult films of being beyond criticism, as the emphasis is now on personal interpretation rather than critical analysis or metanarratives. These inherent dichotomies can lead audiences to be split between ironic and earnest fans. Writing in Defining Cult Movies, Jancovich et al. quote academic Jeffrey Sconce, who defines cult films in terms of paracinema, marginal films that exist outside critical and cultural acceptance: everything from exploitation to beach party musicals to softcore pornography. However, they reject cult films as having a single unifying feature; instead, they state that cult films are united in their "subcultural ideology" and opposition to mainstream tastes, itself a vague and undefinable term. Cult followings themselves can range from adoration to contempt, and they have little in common except for their celebration of nonconformity – even the bad films ridiculed by fans are artistically nonconformist, albeit unintentionally. At the same time, they state that bourgeois, masculine tastes are frequently reinforced, which makes cult films more of an internal conflict within the bourgeoisie, rather than a rebellion against it. This results in an anti-academic bias despite the use of formal methodologies, such as defamiliarization. This contradiction exists in many subcultures, especially those dependent on defining themselves in terms of opposition to the mainstream. This nonconformity is eventually co-opted by the dominant forces, such as Hollywood, and marketed to the mainstream. Academic Xavier Mendik also defines cult films as opposing the mainstream and further proposes that films can become cult by virtue of their genre or content, especially if it is transgressive. Due to their rejection of mainstream appeal, Mendik says cult films can be more creative and political; times of relative political instability produce more interesting films. ## General overview Cult films have existed since the early days of cinema. Film critic Harry Allan Potamkin traces them back to 1910s France and the reception of Pearl White, William S. Hart, and Charlie Chaplin, which he described as "a dissent from the popular ritual". Nosferatu (1922) was an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker's Dracula. Stoker's widow sued the production company and drove it to bankruptcy. All known copies of the film were destroyed, and Nosferatu become an early cult film, kept alive by a cult following that circulated illegal bootlegs. Academic Chuck Kleinhans identifies the Marx Brothers as making other early cult films. On their original release, some highly regarded classics from the Golden Age of Hollywood were panned by critics and audiences, relegated to cult status. The Night of the Hunter (1955) was a cult film for years, quoted often and championed by fans, before it was reassessed as an important and influential classic. During this time, American exploitation films and imported European art films were marketed similarly. Although critics Pauline Kael and Arthur Knight argued against arbitrary divisions into high and low culture, American films settled into rigid genres; European art films continued to push the boundaries of simple definitions, and these exploitative art films and artistic exploitation films would go on to influence American cult films. Much like later cult films, these early exploitation films encouraged audience participation, influenced by live theater and vaudeville. Modern cult films grew from 1960s counterculture and underground films, popular among those who rejected mainstream Hollywood films. These underground film festivals led to the creation of midnight movies, which attracted cult followings. The term cult film itself was an outgrowth of this movement and was first used in the 1970s, though cult had been in use for decades in film analysis with both positive and negative connotations. These films were more concerned with cultural significance than the social justice sought by earlier avant-garde films. Midnight movies became more popular and mainstream, peaking with the release of The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975), which finally found its audience several years after its release. Eventually, the rise of home video would marginalize midnight movies once again, after which many directors joined the burgeoning independent film scene or went back underground. Home video would give a second life to box-office flops, as positive word-of-mouth or excessive replay on cable television led these films to develop an appreciative audience, as well as obsessive replay and study. For example, The Beastmaster (1982), despite its failure at the box office, became one of the most played movies on American cable television and developed into a cult film. Home video and television broadcasts of cult films were initially greeted with hostility. Joanne Hollows states that they were seen as turning cult films mainstream – in effect, feminizing them by opening them to distracted, passive audiences. Releases from major studios – such as The Big Lebowski (1998), which was distributed by Universal Studios – can become cult films when they fail at the box office and develop a cult following through reissues, such as midnight movies, festivals, and home video. Hollywood films, due to their nature, are more likely to attract this kind of attention, which leads to a mainstreaming effect of cult culture. With major studios behind them, even financially unsuccessful films can be re-released multiple times, which plays into a trend to capture audiences through repetitious reissues. The constant use of profanity and drugs in otherwise mainstream, Hollywood films, such as The Big Lebowski, can alienate critics and audiences yet lead to a large cult following among more open-minded demographics not often associated with cult films, such as Wall Street bankers and professional soldiers. Thus, even comparatively mainstream films can satisfy the traditional demands of a cult film, perceived by fans as transgressive, niche, and uncommercial. Discussing his reputation for making cult films, Bollywood director Anurag Kashyap said, "I didn't set out to make cult films. I wanted to make box-office hits." Writing in Cult Cinema, academics Ernest Mathijs and Jamie Sexton state that this acceptance of mainstream culture and commercialism is not out of character, as cult audiences have a more complex relationship to these concepts: they are more opposed to mainstream values and excessive commercialism than they are anything else. In a global context, popularity can vary widely by territory, especially with regard to limited releases. Mad Max (1979) was an international hit – except in America where it became an obscure cult favorite, ignored by critics and available for years only in a dubbed version though it earned over \$100M internationally. Foreign cinema can put a different spin on popular genres, such as Japanese horror, which was initially a cult favorite in America. Asian imports to the West are often marketed as exotic cult films and of interchangeable national identity, which academic Chi-Yun Shin criticizes as reductive. Foreign influence can affect fan response, especially on genres tied to a national identity; when they become more global in scope, questions of authenticity may arise. Filmmakers and films ignored in their own country can become the objects of cult adoration in another, producing perplexed reactions in their native country. Cult films can also establish an early viability for more mainstream films both for filmmakers and national cinema. The early cult horror films of Peter Jackson were so strongly associated with his homeland that they affected the international reputation of New Zealand and its cinema. As more artistic films emerged, New Zealand was perceived as a legitimate competitor to Hollywood, which mirrored Jackson's career trajectory. Heavenly Creatures (1994) acquired its own cult following, became a part of New Zealand's national identity, and paved the way for big-budget, Hollywood-style epics, such as Jackson's The Lord of the Rings trilogy. Mathijs states that cult films and fandom frequently involve nontraditional elements of time and time management. Fans will often watch films obsessively, an activity that is viewed by the mainstream as wasting time yet can be seen as resisting the commodification of leisure time. They may also watch films idiosyncratically: sped up, slowed down, frequently paused, or at odd hours. Cult films themselves subvert traditional views of time – time travel, non-linear narratives, and ambiguous establishments of time are all popular. Mathijs also identifies specific cult film viewing habits, such as viewing horror films on Halloween, sentimental melodrama on Christmas, and romantic films on Valentine's Day. These films are often viewed as marathons where fans can gorge themselves on their favorites. Mathijs states that cult films broadcast on Christmas have a nostalgic factor. These films, ritually watched every season, give a sense of community and shared nostalgia to viewers. New films often have trouble making inroads against the institutions of It's A Wonderful Life (1946) and Miracle on 34th Street (1947). These films provide mild criticism of consumerism while encouraging family values. Halloween, on the other hand, allows flaunting society's taboos and testing one's fears. Horror films have appropriated the holiday, and many horror films debut on Halloween. Mathijs criticizes the over-cultified, commercialized nature of Halloween and horror films, which feed into each other so much that Halloween has turned into an image or product with no real community. Mathijs states that Halloween horror conventions can provide the missing community aspect. Despite their oppositional nature, cult films can produce celebrities. Like cult films themselves, authenticity is an important aspect of their popularity. Actors can become typecast as they become strongly associated with such iconic roles. Tim Curry, despite his acknowledged range as an actor, found casting difficult after he achieved fame in The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Even when discussing unrelated projects, interviewers frequently bring up the role, which causes him to tire of discussing it. Mary Woronov, known for her transgressive roles in cult films, eventually transitioned to mainstream films. She was expected to recreate the transgressive elements of her cult films within the confines of mainstream cinema. Instead of the complex gender deconstructions of her Andy Warhol films, she became typecast as a lesbian or domineering woman. Sylvia Kristel, after starring in Emmanuelle (1974), found herself highly associated with the film and the sexual liberation of the 1970s. Caught between the transgressive elements of her cult film and the mainstream appeal of soft-core pornography, she was unable to work in anything but exploitation films and Emmanuelle sequels. Despite her immense popularity and cult following, she would rate only a footnote in most histories of European cinema if she was even mentioned. Similarly, Chloë Sevigny has struggled with her reputation as a cult independent film star famous for her daring roles in transgressive films. Cult films can also trap directors. Leonard Kastle, who directed The Honeymoon Killers (1969), never directed another film again. Despite his cult following, which included François Truffaut, he was unable to find financing for any of his other screenplays. Qualities that bring cult films to prominence – such as an uncompromising, unorthodox vision – caused Alejandro Jodorowsky to languish in obscurity for years. ## Transgression and censorship Transgressive films as a distinct artistic movement began in the 1970s. Unconcerned with genre distinctions, they drew inspiration equally from the nonconformity of European art cinema and experimental film, the gritty subject matter of Italian neorealism, and the shocking images of 1960s exploitation. Some used hardcore pornography and horror, occasionally at the same time. In the 1980s, filmmaker Nick Zedd identified this movement as the Cinema of Transgression and later wrote a manifesto. Popular in midnight showings, they were mainly limited to large urban areas, which led academic Joan Hawkins to label them as "downtown culture". These films acquired a legendary reputation as they were discussed and debated in alternative weeklies, such as The Village Voice. Home video would finally allow general audiences to see them, which gave many people their first taste of underground film. Ernest Mathijs says that cult films often disrupt viewer expectations, such as giving characters transgressive motivations or focusing attention on elements outside the film. Cult films can also transgress national stereotypes and genre conventions, such as Battle Royale (2000), which broke many rules of teenage slasher films. The reverse – when films based on cult properties lose their transgressive edge – can result in derision and rejection by fans. Audience participation itself can be transgressive, such as breaking long-standing taboos against talking during films and throwing things at the screen. According to Mathijs, critical reception is important to a film's perception as cult, through topicality and controversy. Topicality, which can be regional (such as objection to government funding of the film) or critical (such as philosophical objections to the themes), enables attention and a contextual response. Cultural topics make the film relevant and can lead to controversy, such as a moral panic, which provides opposition. Cultural values transgressed in the film, such as sexual promiscuity, can be attacked by proxy, through attacks on the film. These concerns can vary from culture to culture, and they need not be at all similar. However, Mathijs says the film must invoke metacommentary for it to be more than simply culturally important. While referencing previous arguments, critics may attack its choice of genre or its very right to exist. Taking stances on these varied issues, critics assure their own relevance while helping to elevate the film to cult status. Perceived racist and reductive remarks by critics can rally fans and raise the profile of cult films, an example of which would be Rex Reed's comments about Korean culture in his review of Oldboy (2003). Critics can also polarize audiences and lead debates, such as how Joe Bob Briggs and Roger Ebert dueled over I Spit On Your Grave (1978). Briggs would later contribute a commentary track to the DVD release in which he describes it as a feminist film. Films which do not attract enough controversy may be ridiculed and rejected when suggested as cult films. Academic Peter Hutchings, noting the many definitions of a cult film that require transgressive elements, states that cult films are known in part for their excesses. Both subject matter and its depiction are portrayed in extreme ways that break taboos of good taste and aesthetic norms. Violence, gore, sexual perversity, and even the music can be pushed to stylistic excess far beyond that allowed by mainstream cinema. Film censorship can make these films obscure and difficult to find, common criteria used to define cult films. Despite this, these films remain well-known and prized among collectors. Fans will occasionally express frustration with dismissive critics and conventional analysis, which they believe marginalizes and misinterprets paracinema. In marketing these films, young men are predominantly targeted. Horror films in particular can draw fans who seek the most extreme films. Audiences can also ironically latch on to offensive themes, such as misogyny, using these films as catharsis for the things that they hate most in life. Exploitative, transgressive elements can be pushed to excessive extremes for both humor and satire. Frank Henenlotter faced censorship and ridicule, but he found acceptance among audiences receptive to themes that Hollywood was reluctant to touch, such as violence, drug addiction, and misogyny. Lloyd Kaufman sees his films' political statements as more populist and authentic than the hypocrisy of mainstream films and celebrities. Despite featuring an abundance of fake blood, vomit, and diarrhea, Kaufman's films have attracted positive attention from critics and academics. Excess can also exist as camp, such as films that highlight the excesses of 1980s fashion and commercialism. Films that are influenced by unpopular styles or genres can become cult films. Director Jean Rollin worked within cinéma fantastique, an unpopular genre in modern France. Influenced by American films and early French fantasists, he drifted between art, exploitation, and pornography. His films were reviled by critics, but he retained a cult following drawn by the nudity and eroticism. Similarly, Jess Franco chafed under fascist censorship in Spain but became influential in Spain's horror boom of the 1960s. These transgressive films that straddle the line between art and horror may have overlapping cult followings, each with their own interpretation and reasons for appreciating it. The films that followed Jess Franco were unique in their rejection of mainstream art. Popular among fans of European horror for their subversiveness and obscurity, these later Spanish films allowed political dissidents to criticize the fascist regime within the cloak of exploitation and horror. Unlike most exploitation directors, they were not trying to establish a reputation. They were already established in the art-house world and intentionally chose to work within paracinema as a reaction against the New Spanish Cinema, an artistic revival supported by the fascists. As late as the 1980s, critics still cited Pedro Almodóvar's anti-macho iconoclasm as a rebellion against fascist mores, as he grew from countercultural rebel to mainstream respectability. Transgressive elements that limit a director's appeal in one country can be celebrated or highlighted in another. Takashi Miike has been marketed in the West as a shocking and avant-garde filmmaker despite his many family-friendly comedies, which have not been imported. The transgressive nature of cult films can lead to their censorship. During the 1970s and early 1980s, a wave of explicit, graphic exploitation films caused controversy. Called "video nasties" within the UK, they ignited calls for censorship and stricter laws on home video releases, which were largely unregulated. Consequently, the British Board of Film Classification banned many popular cult films due to issues of sex, violence, and incitement to crime. Released during the cannibal boom, Cannibal Holocaust (1980) was banned in dozens of countries and caused the director to be briefly jailed over fears that it was a real snuff film. Although opposed to censorship, director Ruggero Deodato would later agree with cuts made by the BBFC which removed unsimulated animal killings, which limited the film's distribution. Frequently banned films may introduce questions of authenticity as fans question whether they have seen a truly uncensored cut. Cult films have been falsely claimed to have been banned to increase their transgressive reputation and explain their lack of mainstream penetration. Marketing campaigns have also used such claims to raise interest among curious audiences. Home video has allowed cult film fans to import rare or banned films, finally giving them a chance to complete their collection with imports and bootlegs. Cult films previously banned are sometimes released with much fanfare and the fans assumed to be already familiar with the controversy. Personal responsibility is often highlighted, and a strong anti-censorship message may be present. Previously lost scenes cut by studios can be re-added and restore a director's original vision, which draws similar fanfare and acclaim from fans. Imports are sometimes censored to remove elements that would be controversial, such as references to Islamic spirituality in Indonesian cult films. Academics have written of how transgressive themes in cult films can be regressive. David Church and Chuck Kleinhans describe an uncritical celebration of transgressive themes in cult films, including misogyny and racism. Church has also criticized gendered descriptions of transgressive content that celebrate masculinity. Joanne Hollows further identifies a gendered component to the celebration of transgressive themes in cult films, where male terms are used to describe films outside the mainstream while female terms are used to describe mainstream, conformist cinema. Jacinda Read's expansion states that cult films, despite their potential for empowerment of the marginalized, are more often used by politically incorrect males. Knowledgeable about feminism and multiculturalism, they seek a refuge from the academic acceptance of these progressive ideals. Their playful and ironic acceptance of regressive lad culture invites, and even dares, condemnation from academics and the uncool. Thus, cult films become a tool to reinforce mainstream values through transgressive content; Rebecca Feasy states that cultural hierarchies can also be reaffirmed through mockery of films perceived to be lacking masculinity. However, the sexploitation films of Doris Wishman took a feminist approach which avoids and subverts the male gaze and traditional goal-oriented methods. Wishman's subject matter, though exploitative and transgressive, was always framed in terms of female empowerment and the feminine spectator. Her use of common cult film motifs – female nudity and ambiguous gender – were repurposed to comment on feminist topics. Similarly, the films of Russ Meyer were a complicated combination of transgressive, mainstream, progressive, and regressive elements. They attracted both acclaim and denouncement from critics and progressives. Transgressive films imported from cultures that are recognizably different yet still relatable can be used to progressively examine issues in another culture. ## Subcultural appeal and fandom Cult films can be used to help define or create groups as a form of subcultural capital; knowledge of cult films proves that one is "authentic" or "non-mainstream". They can be used to provoke an outraged response from the mainstream, which further defines the subculture, as only members could possibly tolerate such deviant entertainment. More accessible films have less subcultural capital; among extremists, banned films will have the most. By referencing cult films, media can identify desired demographics, strengthen bonds with specific subcultures, and stand out among those who understand the intertextuality. Popular films from previous eras may be reclaimed by genre fans long after they have been forgotten by the original audiences. This can be done for authenticity, such as horror fans who seek out now-obscure titles from the 1950s instead of the modern, well-known remakes. Authenticity may also drive fans to deny genre categorization to films perceived as too mainstream or accessible. Authenticity in performance and expertise can drive fan acclaim. Authenticity can also drive fans to decry the mainstream in the form of hostile critics and censors. Especially when promoted by enthusiastic and knowledgeable programmers, choice of venue can be an important part of expressing individuality. Besides creating new communities, cult films can link formerly disparate groups, such as fans and critics. As these groups intermix, they can influence each other, though this may be resisted by older fans, unfamiliar with these new references. In extreme cases, cult films can lead to the creation of religions, such as Dudeism. For their avoidance of mainstream culture and audiences, enjoyment of irony, and celebration of obscure subcultures, academic Martin Roberts compares cult film fans to hipsters. A film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has unusual significance. For example, Norman Wisdom's films, friendly to Marxist interpretation, amassed a cult following in Albania, as they were among the few Western films allowed by the country's Communist rulers. The Wizard of Oz (1939) and its star, Judy Garland, hold special significance to American and British gay culture, although it is a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture. Similarly, James Dean and his brief film career have become icons of alienated youth. Cult films can have such niche appeal that they are only popular within certain subcultures, such as Reefer Madness (1936) and Hemp for Victory (1942) among the stoner subculture. Beach party musicals, popular among American surfers, failed to find an equivalent audience when imported to the United Kingdom. When films target subcultures like this, they may seem unintelligible without the proper cultural capital. Films which appeal to teenagers may offer subcultural identities that are easily recognized and differentiate various subcultural groups. Films which appeal to stereotypical male activities, such as sports, can easily gain strong male cult followings. Sports metaphors are often used in the marketing of cult films to males, such as emphasizing the "extreme" nature of the film, which increases the appeal to youth subcultures fond of extreme sports. Matt Hills' concept of the "cult blockbuster" involves cult followings inside larger, mainstream films. Although these are big budget, mainstream films, they still attract cult followings. The cult fans differentiate themselves from ordinary fans in several ways: longstanding devotion to the film, distinctive interpretations, and fan works. Hills identifies three different cult followings for The Lord of the Rings, each with their own fandom separate from the mainstream. Academic Emma Pett identifies Back to the Future (1985) as another example of a cult blockbuster. Although the film was an instant hit when released, it has also developed a nostalgic cult following over the years. The hammy acting by Christopher Lloyd and quotable dialogue have drawn a cult following, as they mimic traditional cult films. Blockbuster science fiction films that include philosophical subtexts, such as The Matrix, allow cult film fans to enjoy them on a higher level than the mainstream. Star Wars, with its large cult following in geek subculture, has been cited as both a cult blockbuster and a cult film. Although a mainstream epic, Star Wars has provided its fans with a spirituality and culture outside of the mainstream. Fans, in response to the popularity of these blockbusters, will claim elements for themselves while rejecting others. For example, in the Star Wars film series, mainstream criticism of Jar Jar Binks focused on racial stereotyping; although cult film fans will use that to bolster their arguments, he is rejected because he represents mainstream appeal and marketing. Also, instead of valuing textual rarity, fans of cult blockbusters will value repeat viewings. They may also engage in behaviors more traditional for fans of cult television and other serial media, as cult blockbusters are often franchised, preconceived as a film series, or both. To reduce mainstream accessibility, a film series can be self-reflexive and full of in-jokes that only longtime fans can understand. Mainstream critics may ridicule commercially successful directors of cult blockbusters, such as James Cameron, Michael Bay, and Luc Besson, whose films have been called simplistic. This critical backlash may serve to embellish the filmmakers' reception as cult auteurs. In the same way, critics may ridicule fans of cult blockbusters as immature or shallow. Cult films can create their own subculture. Rocky Horror, originally made to exploit the popularity of glam subculture, became what academic Gina Marchetti called a "sub-subculture", a variant that outlived its parent subculture. Although often described as primarily composed of obsessed fans, cult film fandom can include many newer, less experienced members. Familiar with the film's reputation and having watched clips on YouTube, these fans may take the next step and enter the film's fandom. If they are the majority, they may alter or ignore long-standing traditions, such as audience participation rituals; rituals which lack perceived authenticity may be criticized, but accepted rituals bring subcultural capital to veteran fans who introduce them to the newer members. Fans who flaunt their knowledge receive negative reactions. Newer fans may cite the film itself as their reason for attending a showing, but longtime fans often cite the community. Organized fandoms may spread and become popular as a way of introducing new people to the film, as well as theatrical screenings being privileged by the media and fandom itself. Fandom can also be used as a process of legitimation. Fans of cult films, as in media fandom, are frequently producers instead of mere consumers. Unconcerned with traditional views on intellectual property, these fan works are often unsanctioned, transformative, and ignore fictional canon. Like cult films themselves, magazines and websites dedicated to cult films revel in their self-conscious offensiveness. They maintain a sense of exclusivity by offending mainstream audiences with misogyny, gore, and racism. Obsessive trivia can be used to bore mainstream audiences while building up subcultural capital. Specialist stores on the fringes of society (or websites which prominently partner with hardcore pornographic sites) can be used to reinforce the outsider nature of cult film fandom, especially when they use erotic or gory imagery. By assuming a preexisting knowledge of trivia, non-fans can be excluded. Previous articles and controversies can also be alluded to without explanation. Casual readers and non-fans will thus be left out of discussions and debates, as they lack enough information to meaningfully contribute. When fans like a cult film for the wrong reasons, such as casting or characters aimed at mainstream appeal, they may be ridiculed. Thus, fandom can keep the mainstream at bay while defining themselves in terms of the "Other", a philosophical construct divergent from social norms. Commercial aspects of fandom (such as magazines or books) can also be defined in terms of "otherness" and thus valid to consume: consumers purchasing independent or niche publications are discerning consumers, but the mainstream is denigrated. Irony or self-deprecating humor can also be used. In online communities, different subcultures attracted to transgressive films can clash over values and criteria for subcultural capital. Even within subcultures, fans who break subcultural scripts, such as denying the affectivity of a disturbing film, will be ridiculed for their lack of authenticity. ## Types ### "So bad it's good" The critic Michael Medved characterized examples of the "so bad it's good" class of low-budget cult film through books such as The Golden Turkey Awards. These films include financially fruitless and critically scorned films that have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs, such as Plan 9 from Outer Space (1959), Mommie Dearest (1981), The Room (2003), and the Ugandan action comedy film Who Killed Captain Alex? (2010). Similarly, Paul Verhoeven's Showgirls (1995) bombed in theaters but developed a cult following on video. Catching on, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer capitalized on the film's ironic appeal and marketed it as a cult film. Sometimes, fans will impose their own interpretation of films which have attracted derision, such as reinterpreting an earnest melodrama as a comedy. Jacob deNobel of the Carroll County Times states that films can be perceived as nonsensical or inept when audiences misunderstand avant-garde filmmaking or misinterpret parody. Films such as Rocky Horror can be misinterpreted as "weird for weirdness' sake" by people unfamiliar with the cult films that it parodies. deNobel ultimately rejects the use of the label "so bad it's good" as mean-spirited and often misapplied. Alamo Drafthouse programmer Zack Carlson has further said that any film which succeeds in entertaining an audience is good, regardless of irony. In francophone culture, "so bad it's good" films, known as nanars [Fr], have given rise to a subculture with dedicated websites such as Nanarland, film festivals and viewings in theaters, as well as various books analyzing the phenomenon. The rise of the Internet and on-demand films has led critics to question whether "so bad it's good" films have a future now that people have such diverse options in both availability and catalog, though fans eager to experience the worst films ever made can lead to lucrative showings for local theaters and merchandisers. ### Camp and guilty pleasures Chuck Kleinhans states that the difference between a guilty pleasure and a cult film can be as simple as the number of fans; David Church raises the question of how many people it takes to form a cult following, especially now that home video makes fans difficult to count. As these cult films become more popular, they can bring varied responses from fans that depend on different interpretations, such as camp, irony, genuine affection, or combinations thereof. Earnest fans, who recognize and accept the film's faults, can make minor celebrities of the film's cast, though the benefits are not always clear. Cult film stars known for their camp can inject subtle parody or signal when films should not be taken seriously. Campy actors can also provide comic book supervillains for serious, artistic-minded films. This can draw fan acclaim and obsession more readily than subtle, method-inspired acting. Mark Chalon Smith of the Los Angeles Times says technical faults may be forgiven if a film makes up for them in other areas, such as camp or transgressive content. Smith states that the early films of John Waters are amateurish and less influential than claimed, but Waters' outrageous vision cements his place in cult cinema. Films such as Myra Breckinridge (1970) and Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (1970) can experience critical reappraisal later, once their camp excess and avant-garde filmmaking are better accepted, and films that are initially dismissed as frivolous are often reassessed as campy. Films that intentionally try to appeal to fans of camp may end up alienating them, as the films become perceived as trying too hard or not authentic. ### Nostalgia According to academic Brigid Cherry, nostalgia "is a strong element of certain kinds of cult appeal." When Veoh added many cult films to their site, they cited nostalgia as a factor for their popularity. Academic I. Q. Hunter describes cult films as "New Hollywood in extremis" and a form of nostalgia for that period. Ernest Mathijs instead states that cult films use nostalgia as a form of resistance against progress and capitalistic ideas of a time-based economy. By virtue of the time travel plot, Back to the Future permits nostalgia for both the 1950s and 1980s. Many members of its nostalgic cult following are too young to have been alive during those periods, which Emma Pett interprets as fondness for retro aesthetics, nostalgia for when they saw the film rather than when it was released, and looking to the past to find a better time period. Similarly, films directed by John Hughes have taken hold in midnight movie venues, trading off of nostalgia for the 1980s and an ironic appreciation for their optimism. Mathijs and Sexton describe Grease (1978) as a film nostalgic about an imagined past that has acquired a nostalgic cult following. Other cult films, such as Streets of Fire (1984), create a new fictional world based on nostalgic views of the past. Cult films may also subvert nostalgia, such as The Big Lebowski, which introduces many nostalgic elements and then reveals them as fake and hollow. Scott Pilgrim vs. the World is a recent example, containing extensive nostalgia for the music and video gaming culture of the 2000s. Nathan Lee of the New York Sun identifies the retro aesthetic and nostalgic pastiche in films such as Donnie Darko as factors in its popularity among midnight movie crowds. ### Midnight movies Author Tomas Crowder-Taraborrelli describes midnight movies as a reaction against the political and cultural conservatism in America, and Joan Hawkins identifies the movement as running the gamut from anarchist to libertarian, united in their anti-establishment attitude and punk aesthetic. These films are resistant to simple categorization and are defined by the fanaticism and ritualistic behaviors of their audiences. Midnight movies require a night life and an audience willing to invest themselves actively. Hawkins states that these films took a rather bleak point of view due to the living conditions of the artists and the economic prospects of the 1970s. Like the surrealists and dadaists, they not only satirically attacked society but also the very structure of film – a counter-cinema that deconstructs narrative and traditional processes. In the late 1980s and 1990s, midnight movies transitioned from underground showings to home video viewings; eventually, a desire for community brought a resurgence, and The Big Lebowski kick-started a new generation. Demographics shifted, and more hip and mainstream audiences were drawn to them. Although studios expressed skepticism, large audiences were drawn to box-office flops, such as Donnie Darko (2001), The Warriors (1979) and Office Space (1999). Modern midnight movies retain their popularity and have been strongly diverging from mainstream films shown at midnight. Mainstream cinemas, eager to disassociate themselves from negative associations and increase profits, have begun abandoning midnight screenings. Although classic midnight movies have dropped off in popularity, they still bring reliable crowds. ### Art and exploitation Although seemingly at odds with each other, art and exploitation films are frequently treated as equal and interchangeable in cult fandom, listed alongside each other and described in similar terms: their ability to provoke a response. The most exploitative aspects of art films are thus played up and their academic recognition ignored. This flattening of culture follows the popularity of post-structuralism, which rejects a hierarchy of artistic merit and equates exploitation and art. Mathijs and Sexton state that although cult films are not synonymous with exploitation, as is occasionally assumed, this is a key component; they write that exploitation, which exists on the fringes of the mainstream and deals with taboo subjects, is well-suited for cult followings. Academic David Andrews writes that cult softcore films are "the most masculinized, youth-oriented, populist, and openly pornographic softcore area." The sexploitation films of Russ Meyer were among the first to abandon all hypocritical pretenses of morality and were technically proficient enough to gain a cult following. His persistent vision saw him received as an auteur worthy of academic study; director John Waters attributes this to Meyer's ability to create complicated, sexually charged films without resorting to explicit sex. Myrna Oliver described Doris Wishman's exploitation films as "crass, coarse, and camp ... perfect fodder for a cult following." "Sick films", the most disturbing and graphically transgressive films, have their own distinct cult following; these films transcend their roots in exploitation, horror, and art films. In 1960s and 1970s America, exploitation and art films shared audiences and marketing, especially in New York City's grindhouse cinemas. ### B and genre films Mathijs and Sexton state that genre is an important part of cult films; cult films will often mix, mock, or exaggerate the tropes associated with traditional genres. Science fiction, fantasy, and horror are known for their large and dedicated cult followings; as science fiction films become more popular, fans emphasize non-mainstream and less commercial aspects of it. B films, which are often conflated with exploitation, are as important to cult films as exploitation. Teodor Reljic of Malta Today states that cult B films are a realistic goal for Malta's burgeoning film industry. Genre films, B films that strictly adhere to genre limitations, can appeal to cult film fans: given their transgressive excesses, horror films are likely to become to cult films; films like Galaxy Quest (1999) highlight the importance of cult followings and fandom to science fiction; and authentic martial arts skills in Hong Kong action films can drive them to become cult favorites. Cult musicals can range from the traditional, such as Singin' in the Rain (1952), which appeal to cult audiences through nostalgia, camp, and spectacle, to the more non-traditional, such as Cry-Baby (1990), which parodies musicals, and Rocky Horror, which uses a rock soundtrack. Romantic fairy tale The Princess Bride (1987) failed to attract audiences in its original release, as the studio did not know how to market it. The freedom and excitement associated with cars can be an important part of drawing cult film fans to genre films, and they can signify action and danger with more ambiguity than a gun. Ad Week writes that cult B films, when released on home video, market themselves and need only enough advertising to raise curiosity or nostalgia. ### Animation Animation can provide wide open vistas for stories. The French film Fantastic Planet (1973) explored ideas beyond the limits of traditional, live-action science fiction films. Ralph Bakshi's career has been marked with controversy: Fritz the Cat (1972), the first animated film to be rated "X" by the MPAA, provoked outrage for its racial caricatures and graphic depictions of sex, and Coonskin (1975) was decried as racist. Bakshi recalls that older animators had tired of "kid stuff" and desired edgier work, whereas younger animators hated his work for "destroying the Disney images". Eventually, his work would be reassessed and cult followings, which include Quentin Tarantino and Robert Rodriguez, developed around several of his films. Heavy Metal (1981) faced similar denunciations from critics. Donald Liebenson of the Los Angeles Times cites the violence and sexual imagery as alienating critics, who did not know what to make of the film. It would go on to become a popular midnight movie and frequently bootlegged by fans, as licensing issues kept it from being released on video for many years. Phil Hoad of The Guardian identifies Akira (1988) as introducing violent, adult Japanese animation (known as anime) to the West and paving the way for later works. Anime, according to academic Brian Ruh, is not a cult genre, but the lack of individual fandoms inside anime fandom itself lends itself to a bleeding over of cult attention and can help spread works internationally. Anime, which is frequently presented as a series (with movies either rising from existing series, or spinning off series based on the film), provides its fans with alternative fictional canons and points of view that can drive fan activity. The Ghost in the Shell films, for example, provided Japanese fans with enough bonus material and spinoffs that it encouraged cult tendencies. Markets that did not support the sale of these materials saw less cult activity. The claymation film Gumby: The Movie (1995), which made only \$57,100 at the box office against its \$2.8 million budget but sold a million copies on VHS alone, was subsequently released on DVD and remastered in high definition for Blu-ray due to its strong cult following. Like many cult films, RiffTrax made their own humorous audio commentary for Gumby: The Movie in 2021. ### Nonfiction Sensationalistic documentaries called mondo films replicate the most shocking and transgressive elements of exploitation films. They are usually modeled after "sick films" and cover similar subject matter. In The Cult Film Reader, academics Mathijs and Mendik write that these documentaries often present non-Western societies as "stereotypically mysterious, seductive, immoral, deceptive, barbaric or savage". Though they can be interpreted as racist, Mathijs and Mendik state that they also "exhibit a liberal attitude towards the breaking of cultural taboos". Mondo films like Faces of Death mix real and fake footage freely, and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results. Like "so bad it's good" cult films, old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats, such as drug use. Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra's Why We Fight World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult, because they are "slickly made and have proven their ability to persuade an audience." The sponsored film Mr. B Natural became a cult hit when it was broadcast on the satirical television show Mystery Science Theater 3000; cast member Trace Beaulieu cited these educational shorts as his favorite to mock on the show. Mark Jancovich states that cult audiences are drawn to these films because of their "very banality or incoherence of their political positions", unlike traditional cult films, which achieve popularity through auteurist radicalism. ## Mainstream popularity Mark Shiel explains the rising popularity of cult films as an attempt by cinephiles and scholars to escape the oppressive conformity and mainstream appeal of even independent film, as well as a lack of condescension in both critics and the films; Academic Donna de Ville says it is a chance to subvert the dominance of academics and cinephiles. According to Xavier Mendik, "academics have been really interested in cult movies for quite a while now." Mendik has sought to bring together academic interest and fandom through Cine-Excess, a film festival. I. Q. Hunter states that "it's much easier to be a cultist now, but it is also rather more inconsequential." Citing the mainstream availability of Cannibal Holocaust, Jeffrey Sconce rejects definitions of cult films based on controversy and excess, as they've now become meaningless. Cult films have influenced such diverse industries as cosmetics, music videos, and fashion. Cult films have shown up in less expected places; as a sign of his popularity, a bronze statue of Ed Wood has been proposed in his hometown, and L'Osservatore Romano, the official newspaper of the Holy See, has courted controversy for its endorsement of cult films and pop culture. When cities attempt to renovate neighborhoods, fans have called attempts to demolish iconic settings from cult films "cultural vandalism". Cult films can also drive tourism, even when it is unwanted. From Latin America, Alejandro Jodorowsky's film El Topo (1970) has attracted attention of rock musicians such as John Lennon, Mick Jagger, and Bob Dylan. As far back as the 1970s, Attack of the Killer Tomatoes (1978) was designed specifically to be a cult film, and The Rocky Horror Picture Show was produced by 20th Century Fox, a major Hollywood studio. Over its decades-long release, Rocky Horror became the seventh highest grossing R-rated film when adjusted for inflation; journalist Matt Singer has questioned whether Rocky Horror's popularity invalidates its cult status. Founded in 1974, Troma Entertainment, an independent studio, would become known for both its cult following and cult films. In the 1980s, Danny Peary's Cult Movies (1981) would influence director Edgar Wright and film critic Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club. The rise of home video would have a mainstreaming effect on cult films and cultish behavior, though some collectors would be unlikely to self-identify as cult film fans. Film critic Joe Bob Briggs began reviewing drive-in theater and cult films, though he faced much criticism as an early advocate of exploitation and cult films. Briggs highlights the mainstreaming of cult films by pointing out the respectful obituaries that cult directors have received from formerly hostile publications and acceptance of politically incorrect films at mainstream film festivals. This acceptance is not universal, though, and some critics have resisted this mainstreaming of paracinema. Beginning in the 1990s, director Quentin Tarantino would have the greatest success in turning cult films mainstream. Tarantino later used his fame to champion obscure cult films that had influenced him and set up the short-lived Rolling Thunder Pictures, which distributed several of his favorite cult films. Tarantino's clout led Phil Hoad of The Guardian to call Tarantino the world's most influential director. As major Hollywood studios and audiences both become savvy to cult films, productions once limited to cult appeal have instead become popular hits, and cult directors have become hot properties known for more mainstream and accessible films. Remarking on the popular trend of remaking cult films, Claude Brodesser-Akner of New York magazine states that Hollywood studios have been superstitiously hoping to recreate past successes rather than trading on nostalgia. Their popularity would bring some critics to proclaim the death of cult films now that they have finally become successful and mainstream, are too slick to attract a proper cult following, lack context, or are too easily found online. In response, David Church says that cult film fans have retreated to more obscure and difficult to find films, often using illegal distribution methods, which preserves the outlaw status of cult films. Virtual spaces, such as online forums and fan sites, replace the traditional fanzines and newsletters. Cult film fans consider themselves collectors, rather than consumers, as they associate consumers with mainstream, Hollywood audiences. This collecting can take the place of fetishization of a single film. Addressing concerns that DVDs have revoked the cult status of films like Rocky Horror, academic Mikel J. Koven states that small scale screenings with friends and family can replace midnight showings. Koven also identifies television shows, such as Twin Peaks, as retaining more traditional cult activities inside popular culture. David Lynch himself has not ruled out another television series, as studios have become reluctant to take chances on non-mainstream ideas. Despite this, the Alamo Drafthouse has capitalized on cult films and the surrounding culture through inspiration drawn from Rocky Horror and retro promotional gimmickry. They sell out their shows regularly and have acquired a cult following of their own. Academic Bob Batchelor, writing in Cult Pop Culture, states that the internet has democratized cult culture and destroyed the line between cult and mainstream. Fans of even the most obscure films can communicate online with each other in vibrant communities. Although known for their big-budget blockbusters, Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have criticized the current Hollywood system of gambling everything on the opening weekend of these productions. Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent instead suggests that Hollywood look to capitalize on cult films, which have exploded in popularity on the internet. The rise of social media has been a boon to cult films. Sites such as Twitter have displaced traditional venues for fandom and courted controversy from cultural critics who are unamused by campy cult films. After a clip from one of his films went viral, director-producer Roger Corman made a distribution deal with YouTube. Found footage which had originally been distributed as cult VHS collections eventually went viral on YouTube, which opened them to new generations of fans. Films such as Birdemic (2008) and The Room (2003) gained quick, massive popularity, as prominent members of social networking sites discussed them. Their rise as "instant cult classics" bypasses the years of obscurity that most cult films labor under. In response, critics have described the use of viral marketing as astroturfing and an attempt to manufacture cult films. I. Q. Hunter identifies a prefabricated cult film style which includes "deliberately, insulting bad films", "slick exercises in dysfunction and alienation", and mainstream films "that sell themselves as worth obsessing over". Writing for NPR, Scott Tobias states that Don Coscarelli, whose previous films effortlessly attracted cult followings, has drifted into this realm. Tobias criticizes Coscarelli as trying too hard to appeal to cult audiences and sacrificing internal consistency for calculated quirkiness. Influenced by the successful online hype of The Blair Witch Project (1999), other films have attempted to draw online cult fandom with the use of prefabricated cult appeal. Snakes on a Plane (2006) is an example that attracted massive attention from curious fans. Uniquely, its cult following preceded the film's release and included speculative parodies of what fans imagined the film might be. This reached the point of convergence culture when fan speculation began to impact on the film's production. Although it was proclaimed a cult film and major game-changer before it was released, it failed to win either mainstream audiences or maintain its cult following. In retrospect, critic Spencer Kornhaber would call it a serendipitous novelty and a footnote to a "more naive era of the Internet". However, it became influential in both marketing and titling. This trend of "instant cult classics" which are hailed yet fail to attain a lasting following is described by Matt Singer, who states that the phrase is an oxymoron. Cult films are often approached in terms of auteur theory, which states that the director's creative vision drives a film. This has fallen out of favor in academia, creating a disconnect between cult film fans and critics. Matt Hills states that auteur theory can help to create cult films; fans that see a film as continuing a director's creative vision are likely to accept it as cult. According to academic Greg Taylor, auteur theory also helped to popularize cult films when middlebrow audiences found an accessible way to approach avant-garde film criticism. Auteur theory provided an alternative culture for cult film fans while carrying the weight of scholarship. By requiring repeated viewings and extensive knowledge of details, auteur theory naturally appealed to cult film fans. Taylor further states that this was instrumental in allowing cult films to break through to the mainstream. Academic Joe Tompkins states that this auteurism is often highlighted when mainstream success occurs. This may take the place of – and even ignore – political readings of the director. Cult films and directors may be celebrated for their transgressive content, daring, and independence, but Tompkins argues that mainstream recognition requires they be palatable to corporate interests who stand to gain much from the mainstreaming of cult film culture. While critics may champion revolutionary aspects of filmmaking and political interpretation, Hollywood studios and other corporate interests will instead highlight only the aspects that they wish to legitimize in their own films, such as sensational exploitation. Someone like George Romero, whose films are both transgressive and subversive, will have the transgressive aspects highlighted while the subversive aspects are ignored. ## See also - Cult video game - List of cult films - Sleeper hit - Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema: Cult Movies - List of cult television shows
6,988,708	Coral catshark	1,154,320,383	Species of shark	[ "Atelomycterus", "Fish described in 1830", "Marine fauna of South Asia", "Marine fish of Southeast Asia" ]	The coral catshark (Atelomycterus marmoratus) is a species of catshark in the family Scyliorhinidae. It is common on shallow coral reefs across the Indo-West Pacific, from Pakistan to New Guinea. Reaching up to 70 cm (28 in) in length, the coral catshark has an extremely slender body, a short head and tail, and two dorsal fins that are angled backwards. It can be identified by the numerous black and white spots on its back, sides, and fins, which often merge to form horizontal bars. Furthermore, adult males have distinctively long and thin claspers. Reclusive and inactive during the day, at dusk and at night, the coral catshark actively forages for small, bottom-living invertebrates and bony fishes. Its slender form allows it to access tight spaces on the reef. It is oviparous; females lay purse-shaped egg capsules two at a time on the bottom, and the young hatch after 4–6 months. This small, harmless shark adapts well to captivity and has reproduced in the aquarium; it is regarded as one of the most suitable shark species for private aquarists. The coral catshark is a minor bycatch of reef fisheries, with minimal commercial value. Increasing fishing activity and extensive habitat degradation occur within its range, leading to concern over its population and its assessment as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. ## Taxonomy The coral catshark was first described by an anonymous author, usually thought to be English zoologist Edward Turner Bennett, in the 1830 Memoir of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. Its original name was Scyllium marmoratum, from the Latin marmoratus meaning "marbled". Hence, another common name for this species is marbled catshark. In 1913, Samuel Garman placed it in his newly created genus Atelomycterus. The type specimen was caught off Sumatra, and is thought to have been lost. ## Description The coral catshark has a very slender, cylindrical, firm body and a short, narrow head. The snout is short and slightly flattened, with a blunt tip. The eyes are horizontally oval and protected by rudimentary nictitating membranes; behind are spiracles of moderate size. The large nostrils are mostly covered by broad, triangular flaps of skin on their anterior margins, leaving small incurrent and excurrent openings. The nasal flaps reach the mouth, obscuring a pair of broad grooves connecting the excurrent openings and the mouth. The long, angular mouth has very long furrows at the corners extending onto both the upper and lower jaws. The small teeth have a narrow central cusp flanked by 1–2 cusplets on both sides. There are five pairs of gill slits. The pectoral fins are fairly large. The first dorsal fin is angled backwards and originates over the rear of the pelvic fin bases; the second dorsal fin is similarly shaped and slightly smaller than the first, and originates over the front quarter of the anal fin base. Adult males have thin, tapering claspers that extend about two-thirds of the distance between the pelvic and anal fins. The anal fin is much smaller than the dorsal fins. The caudal fin is relatively short and broad, with an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The skin is thick and covered by well-calcified dermal denticles. Extremely variable in coloration, the coral catshark lacks prominent saddle markings, but rather has many black and white spots on a grayish background. These spots often run together to form horizontal dashes, which include white tips on the dorsal fins and a white stripe through the gill slits. The underside is plain white. This species grows up to 70 cm (28 in) long. ## Distribution and habitat The most widely distributed member of its genus, the coral catshark can be found from Pakistan and India to Southeast Asia and Taiwan, including the Philippines and New Guinea. Its range extends as far north as the Ryukyu Islands. Early records from Australian waters are in fact of the related Australian marbled catshark (A. macleayi) and banded sand catshark (A. fasciatus). Common and bottom-dwelling in nature, the coral catshark inhabits inshore coral reefs at depths not exceeding 15 m (49 ft). ## Biology and ecology The elongated body of the coral catshark allows it to move into and through small spaces in the reef environment, though it does not "crawl" using its pectoral and pelvic fins like the epaulette shark (Hemiscyllium ocellatum). It is primarily crepuscular and nocturnal, with active foraging activity beginning in the afternoon and ending before sunrise. During the day, it generally hides under shelter such as reef overhangs or sunken logs, either singly or in groups. Individual sharks may return to the same hiding place on successive days. This species feeds on small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes; captive specimens have been observed lying still and lunging at prey that comes into range. The coral catshark is oviparous, with the female producing eggs two at a time. Each egg is enclosed in a purse-shaped capsule roughly 6–8 cm (2.4–3.1 in) long and 2 cm (0.79 in) wide, with two constricted "waists"; one end of the capsule is squared off, while the other bears two short "horns" that may terminate in short tendrils. The female deposits the eggs on the bottom, rather than attaching them to vertical structures. The capsule is light brown when freshly laid and darkens over time. The eggs hatch in 4–6 months at 26 °C (79 °F). Newly hatched sharks measure 10–13 cm (3.9–5.1 in) long and have a contrasting dorsal pattern of light and dark vertical bars, sometimes with black and white dots. At 3 months old, the young have grown by 4–5 cm (1.6–2.0 in) and their coloration has faded to match that of the adults. Males and females attain sexual maturity around 47–62 cm (19–24 in) and 49–57 cm (19–22 in), respectively. ## Human interactions Common in the aquarium trade, the coral catshark is regarded as well-suited to home aquaria because of its small size, hardiness, and attractive appearance. It requires a tank at least 300 centimetres (118 in) long, with sufficiently deep hiding places. This shark tends to be more aggressive than other small sharks, often attacking tankmates larger than it can consume. Captive individuals have been known to live up to 20 years, and the species has reproduced in the aquarium. Small numbers of coral catsharks are caught incidentally by artisanal reef fishers in eastern Indonesia and likely elsewhere; it may be sold for meat or processed for fishmeal and liver oil, but its size limits its economic importance. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as near threatened, and notes that with more data, it may meet the criteria for vulnerable. It is likely threatened by the rising fishing pressure throughout its range, and by widespread habitat degradation from blast fishing, pollution, and the mining of coral for use as building material.
18,514,175	Typhoon Soudelor (2003)	1,165,018,482	Pacific typhoon in 2003	[ "2003 Pacific typhoon season", "2003 disasters in Japan", "2003 disasters in South Korea", "2003 disasters in Taiwan", "2003 disasters in the Philippines", "2003 in Taiwan", "Tropical cyclones in 2003", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in Japan", "Typhoons in South Korea", "Typhoons in Taiwan", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Soudelor, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Egay, was a powerful typhoon that underwent rapid deepening east of Taiwan in the 2003 Pacific typhoon season. It was the sixth named storm by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) of the season, as well as the third typhoon. It formed on June 12 from a disturbance in the monsoon trough, located east of the Philippines. The system moved generally to the northwest after its genesis, gradually intensifying into a tropical storm. While offshore the Philippines, Soudelor dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding and left thousands homeless. The storm caused \$2.46 million in damage, and 12 deaths. After affecting the Philippines, Soudelor moved into an area of low wind shear and with favorable outflow. It became a typhoon on June 17, and quickly developed an eye while rapidly intensifying. The storm struck the Japanese island of Iriomote-jima, where wind gusts reached 204 km/h (127 mph). It also affected Taiwan, where floods covered highways and caused mudslides. Early on June 18, Soudelor reached peak 10-minute sustained winds of 150 km/h (90 mph). Subsequently, an increase in shear and the passage of a trough weakened the typhoon and caused it to turn to the northeast. Soudelor weakened to a tropical storm on June 19, and subsequently it passed between Japan and South Korea. It became an extratropical cyclone that day, dissipating on June 24. In Japan, the storm caused widespread power outages, although damage was minimal, and there were 21 injuries. In South Korea, there was \$12.1 million in damage and two deaths. ## Meteorological history The origins of Soudelor were from a tropical disturbance that persisted a short distance northwest of Pohnpei on June 7. By two days later, it had a large area of convection, and it moved generally westward. Late on June 9, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert (TCFA), although the system initially failed to develop due to wind shear in the region. The thunderstorms decreased over the increasingly exposed circulation. On June 11, the shear decreased, and convection became better organized. The JTWC initiated warnings on Tropical Depression 07W late that day, and at 0000 UTC on June 12, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) also remarked that a tropical depression had formed to the northeast of Palau. After forming, the depression tracked generally westward due to a subtropical ridge to the north. Around that time, it was still located within the monsoon trough, and it interacted with another circulation to its east-southeast, causing a motion to the west-northwest. As it moved away from the other circulation, the depression was able to intensify, and the wind shear decreased. On June 13 the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Soudelor to the east of Samar Island in the Philippines. That day, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration PAGASA initiated advisories and gave it the local name "Egay". Upon becoming a tropical storm, Soudelor developed rainbands to the north and south, although it could not intensify significantly due to a tropical upper tropospheric trough to the east. A mid-latitude trough to the north weakened the ridge, which allowed Soudelor to turn more to the northwest off the northeast coast of the Philippines. The circulation became exposed from the deepest convection, and around that time the storm was located about 160 km (100 mi) east of Samar Island. Thunderstorms gradually increased, and the outflow improved. Late on June 16, the JTWC upgraded Soudelor to a typhoon, and the next day the JMA followed suit when the storm was located southeast of Taiwan. Around the time that Soudelor became a typhoon, it began moving toward the north, influenced by an approaching trough, and it passed about 95 km (60 mi) northeast of Luzon. A ragged eye developed early on June 17, which quickly became better organized. With its outflow enhanced by the approaching trough, Soudelor rapidly intensified to the east of Taiwan. The typhoon struck the Japanese island of Iriomote-jima at around 2030 UTC on June 17. At 0600 UTC on June 18, the JTWC estimated peak 1‐minute winds of 215 km/h (135 mph). At the same time, JMA estimated peak 10‐minute winds of 150 km/h (90 mph) when it was located west of Okinawa. While at its maximum strength, Soudelor had a circular eye 33 km (21 mi) in diameter. It turned to the north-northeast, maintaining its peak winds for about 12 hours before increased shear from the westerlies caused weakening. The eye quickly dissipated, and the system began transitioning into an extratropical cyclone. Early on June 19, the JMA downgraded Soudelor below typhoon status, and the storm later crossed Tsushima Island into the Sea of Japan. At 1500 UTC that day, the JMA declared the storm as extratropical while it was near the Oki Islands; the JTWC followed suit three hours later. The extratropical remnants of Soudelor continued to the northeast, crossing northern Japan on June 20. The storm slowed and turned to the east, dissipating on June 24. ## Preparations By June 16, PAGASA raised storm signal number 3 for Batanes and the provinces of Cagayan and Isabela; storm signal number 2 for all or portions of nine provinces and for Polillo Island; and storm signal number 1 was raised for portions of four provinces. The signals refer to the potential for winds, from lowest to highest representing weakest to strongest winds; number 3 refers to the potential for winds of 100 to 185 km/h (62 to 115 mph) within 18 hours. On June 16, the Central Weather Bureau issued sea and land warnings in Taiwan as Soudelor was anticipated to produce torrential rains, gale-force winds, and rough seas. All fishermen in the area were urged to return to port before the onset of the typhoon. As the typhoon tracked near Taiwan, the Japan Meteorological Agency began advising residents in Okinawa to closely monitor the storm. One of the major airlines in Japan, All Nippon Airways, cancelled 66 domestic flights the same day, stranding an estimated 6,000 people. During the storm, 257 domestic flights were canceled, and train and ferry service was canceled. In Nagasaki Prefecture, 732 schools were closed during the storm. Hundreds of people voluntarily evacuated in Japan. On June 17, the Korean Meteorological Agency issued rain warnings for Jeju Island and coastal areas of South Korea. They also urged residents to take all precautions for the storm. The Korea Airports Corporation reported that 111 flights to southern areas of the country were cancelled due to the typhoon. ## Impact and aftermath While Soudelor was moving to the northwest off the east coast of the Philippines, it dropped heavy rainfall, including 300 mm (12 in) in 24 hours in Catarman, Northern Samar. Rainfall in six hours reached 118 mm (4.6 in) at Virac Airport. The rains caused flooding throughout the Philippines, which left thousands of people homeless. Throughout the country, the storm damaged 157 houses and destroyed 94. Soudelor also left crop damage. An estimated 45,400 people were affected by Soudelor. Overall damage was estimated at ₱131 million (2003 Philippine pesos, \$2.46 million 2003 USD). There were 12 deaths, with two missing, as well as two people injured. In Taiwan, Soudelor dropped heavy rainfall that resulted in flooding and landslides. One of the mudslides covered a 10 km (6.2 mi) section of the Yenhsi Highway between Hsitou and Luku. Road crews were quickly dispatched to the area but had to suspend cleanup efforts due to continuing impacts from Soudelor. Dozens of tour buses carrying tourists who were being evacuated from the mountains were blocked several times by mudslides covering roads. The Sungshan Airport in Taipei was shut down during the morning of June 19 due to unsettled weather produced by the typhoon. The Feitsui Dam increased by 2.5 m (8.2 ft) due to the storm's rainfall, raising it to near peak capacity. For eight hours, the Japanese island of Iriomote-jima reported gale-force winds, except for during the eye passage of Soudelor. The island reported sustained winds of 108 km/h (67 mph), with gusts to 204 km/h (127 mph). On Ishigaki Island, the storm caused ¥77.9 million (2003 JPY, \$655,000 2003 USD) in agriculture damage, mostly from high waves. Soudelor dropped heavy rainfall throughout Japan, peaking at 497 mm (19.6 in) in Kagoshima Prefecture; most of the precipitation fell in about 24 hours. A North Korean cargo ship was stranded off the northwest coast of Japan after being refused entry into the Japanese port of Toyama. During the storm, about 10,000 houses lost power, including 3,400 houses in Okinawa Prefecture. Damage was minor, with only 26 damaged houses, varying from blown off roof tiles to shattered windows. Soudelor injured 21 people in the country, mostly due to falling objects. There were at least 22 landslides nationwide. Four bridges along the Yoshino River were flooded during the storm. In South Korea, Soudelor dropped about 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall at Hallasan in Jeju Province in South Korea. The storm also caused 4 m (13 ft) seas. Typhoon Soudelor killed two people in South Korea and caused \$12.1 million in damages. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Soudelor - Other tropical cyclones named Egay
24,317,171	Hominid (novel)	1,033,734,509	Book by Klaus Ebner	[ "2008 novels", "21st-century Austrian novels", "Austrian novellas", "Austrian philosophical novels", "Austrian satirical novels", "Novels set in prehistory", "Prehistoric people in popular culture" ]	Hominid is a short novel by Austrian writer Klaus Ebner. Taking place millions of years ago, it is a fictional story of a band of extinct hominids who inhabit Central Africa. Referencing the seven days of biblical Creation, the novel takes place in seven days. As the protagonist Pitar leads his band to civilization, tension arises between the clan leader Costello and his rival Re. Over the course of the story, Pitar invents tools, discovers the use of fire, and falls in love with Maluma. The seventh day marks a turning point in the storyline, as the members of the band separate from one another. The characters' contemporary language and Pitar's thorough knowledge of modern-day history, philosophy and science add to the grotesque humor of the novel, while his two friends quote classical Roman literature and Chinese sayings. The book was published by Viennese publisher FZA Verlag in October 2008. Between 2008 and 2010, several Austrian and German critics and writers published reviews of the novel. ## Background Ebner first considered writing a novel in which prehistoric characters have present-day knowledge and a modern language in 2006. Believing that this topic would not suffice for a long novel, he initially did not pursue the idea. In February 2008 Ebner won the Wiener Werkstattpreis in the categories of short story and essay—in addition to the prize money the organizer of the award, the Viennese publishing house FZA, offers to the winner to publish a 100-page book. Hence Ebner wrote and finalized his narrative within four months. The book was published in the October of the same year with the German title Hominide. The publisher introduced the work to the public with a public reading in Vienna. The novel consists of seven chapters, "Day 1" to "Day 7", with the action of each chapter occurring on consecutive days. The chapters refer to the seven days of the biblical Creation. In comparison with other works of Ebner, Hominid is the first to be about a prehistoric subject. The author had already addressed topics of religious faith before, in the short stories “Der Schreiber von Aram (The Scribe of Aram)” and “Momentaufnahme (Snapshot)”, and frequently used a satirical style for his narratives. ## Plot synopsis Hominid takes place several million years ago in the Central African transitional region between rainforest and savanna. The main characters are Australopithecus afarenses, an extinct, mostly tree-dwelling hominid that existed before the use of tools and fire. The story is told through first-person narration by the protagonist, Pitar. In deliberating his social and natural environment, Pitar decides to lead his band to civilization: “Hence I decided to shed some light on the darkness, to light a candle following the motto Let there be light and so on.” His linguistic capacity, thoughts and speech correspond to those of modern man, and he also is knowledgeable about history, politics, philosophy and literature. Intermittent comments made by Pitar concerning a particular prospect or artifact that has not been invented or developed yet add to the humor of the grotesque scenario. Pitar's close friends are Carpediem, who enunciates Latin phrases and quotes the writers of Classical Antiquity, and Lao, who frequently refers to Chinese philosophy. Although it is difficult to convince his fellow Hominidae to follow him, Pitar manages to persuade the patriarchal leader of the clan, Costello, who has taken command from the recently deceased Thorn. The band builds windbreaks to help them descend more often from the trees, thus exposing them to a higher risk of being attacked by predators on the ground. A rivalry emerges between Costello and another band member, Re, who not only questions the leading abilities of the present alpha but also desires Costello's females. To alleviate the escalating debate of authority, Pitar tries to implement a parliament to settle disputes peacefully. Costello, however, considers the parliament to be a forum in which he can consolidate his power, citing famous speeches by Winston Churchill and Abraham Lincoln; the other members ruin this noble idea with their lack of discipline and ostentatious indifference. One of the subplots of the novel details the budding love between Pitar and Maluma, a female member of the band. Costello perceives the group of females as his personal harem, but when Maluma falls in love with Pitar she breaks off her relationship with him. On each day, the characters discover new insights and artefacts, but seek rest from their exhaustion by the seventh day. This repose, however, is disrupted by the attack of a saber-toothed cat. Several members of the band are killed, including Costello, thus enabling Re to assume power. Pitar and Maluma decide to leave the band, stating, "We should leave in time, leave Re and his new Reich, which, when I'm taking into account Thorn's previous reign, would be the Third over here." Pitar and Maluma head toward the savanna, an action which alludes to both the expulsion from paradise and the Out of Africa theory. Only odd-numbered chapters narrate the love story, which bookmarks the novel. Writer Karin Gayer mentions in her review that the love story of Pitar and Maluma, and its positioning within the text, offers "a second interpretation of the beginning and the end". ## Characters In a conversation with the Viennese regional leader of publisher Arovell, Ebner revealed the hidden meanings of his characters' names. - Akshaya: The name originates from Hindi (specifically Sanskrit) and signifies “the indomitable”. Akshaya is a female character with a firm personality, and belongs to the band although she often acts as an antepole in regard to Costello. In a certain sense she represents the matriarchal form of governance by daring to disagree with the alpha and making her own decisions. - Bongo: Originates from the African people and language and is also used for place names in several African countries, also alluding to Adriano Celentanos film Bingo Bongo and a kind of forest antelope. The novel presents Bongo as a clownish, male juvenile who teases the other members of the band but is protected from backlashes by his youth and humor. - Carpediem: Latin for "seize the day", literally meaning "pluck the day", which stems from a poem by Horace. Carpediem is Pitar's closest friend and uses Latin quotations and expressions. - Costello: English-Italian surname. Costello is the patriarch of the band. Keen on remaining in power, he recognizes that Pitar's ideas might help him prevail. For this reason he supports Pitar. - Djamila: A female character who belongs to Costello's harem. Her name stems from the Arabic language meaning "the pretty one". - Ischa: A female character who belongs to Costello's harem. Together with Djamila she woos the clan leader. Her name stems from the Semitic languages meaning "woman". - Konrad: Old High German for "bold or good adviser". Konrad is a follower of Re and acts as his speaker, also challenging and ridiculing Pitar's ideas. - Lao: Depending on the intonation, the word is Chinese for "firm, solid" or "old". It is also an allusion to either or both the philosopher Lao-Tzu, author of the Tao Te Ching, or the Lao people who live in Southeast Asia. The character Lao quotes Chinese philosophers and is a friend of Pitar. When he leaves the band after the attack of the sabre-tooth, he goes in the direction of East Africa and Asia. - Lucy: An allusion to Lucy, the skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia. Lucy is the mother of most children in the band. At the end of the book she leaves for East Africa with Lao and Maluma. - Maluma: Maluma is an artificial word from synesthesia, representing curvy and smooth shapes. She becomes the loving companion of Pitar. Through Maluma, Pitar discovers the power and the sweets of love. - Manisha: This name stems from the Hindi and Sanskrit languages, signifying "the wise". In Hinduism, Manisha is the goddess of the mind. Among the clan's women, Manisha has a similar role as Lao has among the men. She easily holds her own in discussions with the males, and her reasoning is witty and logical. - Pitar The protagonist's name stems from Sanskrit and means "father"; its intonation lies on the second syllable: "Pitár". Pitar narrates the story of which he is the main character. - Re: Italian for "king", also an allusion to the ancient Egyptian sun god Re or Ra. Re is Costello's opponent and antagonist. An aggressive character, he perceives Pitar as an enemy because of Pitar's perceived support for the band's leader. He repeatedly defies Costello but does not dare to start an open revolt. The attack of the sabre-toothed cat, which kills Costello and some other members of the band, enables Re to become the leader at the end of the novel. - Rhododendron: Greek for "rose tree", a genus of flowering plants in the family Ericaceae. The character Rhododendron is a male member of the band with an ecological attitude. Rhododendron is only a supporting actor in the story. - Ruth: Hebrew for "companion". Ruth is a female band member with a distinctive strength of character. When the band is constructing their first windshield, she pushes a fervent discussion about labor law and commences a strike. - Thorn: This name stems from the Germanic languages and is the denomination of the rune Thurisaz “Þ”, pronounced as “θ”. Thorn is the eldest of the clan and considered a sage. He appears only in the first two chapters, at the end of which he dies. From a dynastic point of view, he was Costello's predecessor. ## Major themes The novel addresses hominization from an ironic point of view. Mankind's evolution from the ape-like Australopithecus afarenses to modern society with history, technology and cultural expression is compressed into only seven days. The strong allusion to faith is contrasted by numerous references to scientific insights. With the evolution of mankind starting in Central Africa, Lucy is the name given to the first skeleton of an Australopitecus afarensis found. The characters mention that Homo erectus would be the hominid species to tame fire. Orrorin and Toumaï represent two of the oldest-known hominin ancestors, while Aegyptopithecus zeuxis is one of the earliest primates. Through scientific references and a distinct ironic tone, Ingrid Reichel makes it clear in her review that the book cannot be taken in by any religion or fundamentalism. While scholars know of patriarchal and matrifocal ancient societies, very little can be said about a society of a species, which is as remote as Australopithecus. On the basis of examples in today's chimpanzee and bonobo societies, Klaus Ebner introduced both patriarchal and matriarchal characters in the novel, Costello and Akshaya. Some of the female characters are very strong and self-conscious, such as Akshaya, who is so firm that even Costello retrocedes from her.[^1] While political power is controlled by the males, the social structure seems matrifocal and matrilineal, corresponding to the image of prehistoric societies exhibited by scholars. Another theme is the love story between Pitar and Maluma. While the society of the band is depicted as driven by sexual attraction in a male hierarchy, the relationship between Pitar and Maluma leads them to break away from traditional habitudes. Pitar is not the alpha male, but he starts a love relationship on his own, in which Maluma quits Costello's harem. The love story demonstrates love as a quite late cultural achievement of mankind. In addition, Karin Gayer emphasizes the significance of Pitar's and Maluma's love against the religious component in defining the love story and its positioning within the storyline as another concept "of the beginning and the end". ## Style Hominid is a short novel which contains one single and linear storyline. However, it is subdivided into seven chapters, each standing for a narrated day. The satirical character of the book stems from the underlying grotesque scenario, the speeches of Pitar and his fellow hominids, the mentioning of artifacts which have not yet been invented, and the numerous allusions to world history and literature. Steffen Roye from the German literary magazine Verstärker states in the title of his book review that Ebner has the characters of his story "talk as if they were modern-day juveniles". When it comes to allusions, a number of them consist of quotes, usually from classical Latin writers. Ebner's writing style is rich in detail, as Ingrid Reichel states, and she pinpoints the "artist of the word". Similar judgments have been made by other critics when they reviewed the preceding works by Ebner, such as Wolfgang Ratz about Auf der Kippe or Julia Rafael about Lose. ## Reception and criticism Heinz Gerstinger thinks the book is a "history of the awakening of the spirit of mankind". The author has the events glided "into the playful by his gently irony". Several reviewers underline the narrative's ironic and satirical aspect, including the names of the characters, Latin quotations and idioms as well as the parallelism between the seven days of Creation and scientific hominization. Ingrid Reichel points out the perfect publication date, just in time for the 150th anniversary of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Similarly to other reviewers who had written about Ebner's earlier books, she highlights the sophisticated use of a detail-rich language which is "steeped in subtle and sensitive humor". Despite many explicit allusions to several world religions, Ingrid Reichel states that the novel is a book for “readers with humor, for reasoners (...), for darwinists, on no account for creationists, to a lesser extent for people of faith, but rather for atheists, ... and fundamentalists drop out entirely”. Another aspect is identified by Karin Gayer when pinpointing the parallel evolution of the patriarchal hierarchy in the narrated society and the alluded social matriarchy, the first resembling chimpanzee communities and the second representing those of bonobos. In addition, she points out the strength of the women characters. She declares that at the time of the Australopithecus'', neither chimpanzees nor bonobos existed, but "the author is not interested in paleoanthropologic precisenesses—he is interested in mirroring our society, in exposing human behavior". She compares Costello with the alpha of a community of chimpanzees and a classical manager, and Akshaya with bonobo females and a modern-day career woman. With regard to these underlying comparisons, Gayer says, "On another level we are struck by the permanent notional commingling of the simian and the human, a composition which leaves us pensive and asks the legitimate question where we, who consider ourselves sapiens in a double sense, should finally classify man." The multitudinous allusions to well-known and lesser-known books, movies and sayings cause contradicting receptions. While Heinz Gerstinger and Ingrid Reichel explicitly highlight the comical effect of the insinuations, the German critic Steffen Roye regards them as sometimes "exaggerated" and says, "As the story develops, it becomes more and more like a revue." The numerous expressions in foreign languages, especially in Latin, remain untranslated in the first edition. In her review, Ingrid Reichel invites the publisher to add a glossary to a new edition. The author subsequently released such a glossary on his own website. [^1]: Hominide, p. 45.
19,304,805	Eat You Up (BoA song)	1,144,488,561	2008 single by BoA	[ "2008 singles", "2008 songs", "BoA songs", "Dance-pop songs", "Music videos directed by Diane Martel", "Song recordings produced by Henrik Jonback", "Songs written by Remee", "Songs written by Thomas Troelsen", "Synth-pop songs" ]	"Eat You Up" is a song recorded by South Korean recording artist BoA for her twelfth studio and debut English eponymous studio album (2009). It was released on October 16, 2008 in Japan as the lead single from the album. The song was written by Remee and Thomas Troelsen, while production was handled by Henrik Jonback. The song was BoA's first attempt into the Western market, particularly North America. Musically, the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of R&B. Upon its release, "Eat You Up" garnered positive reviews from music critics. Many critics commended the song's electronic and dance-infused composition, and praised the song's commercial appeals; they also felt it was a choice to release through Western markets, and felt BoA's English skills had improved. It was successful on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart, peaking at number eight and staying in the chart for 12 consecutive weeks. Two music videos were created for the single; the first had BoA dancing in ballet recital with back-up dancers, whilst the second has her dancing in a utopian-inspired planet. BoA performed the single during several of her concerts, including her Nowness and Who's Back? concert tours. Since its release, the song has received several recognitions and has been listed on several best lists by Eastern and Western publications. "Eat You Up" is one of the first songs by a Korean artist to be produced and written by Western producers, and is recognized as a key factor to the Korean Wave movement. ## Background and composition In January 2008, publications in South Korea reported that BoA was planning on her North American debut. However, the head of BoA's label SM Entertainment, Lee Soo Man, denied the claims, saying that BoA was continuing work in Asian markets. South Korean publications started to surface once again about her North American debut, after SM Entertainment announced their US subsidiary label. On September 2, 2008, SM Entertainment officially announced BoA's North American debut under their subsidiary label. Ten days later, a press conference was held at the Seoul Imperial Palace Hotel to further clarify her plans. During her press conference, SM Entertainment announced that a song entitled "Eat You Up" was chosen as her debut English single. "Eat You Up" was first released on Japanese radio stations Tokyo-FM and JFN 38 Station on October 16. It was originally set for release on October 14, 2008 in the US, but was then pushed back to October 21, 2008. "Eat You Up" was written by Remee and Thomas Troelsen, while production was handled by Henrik Jonback. It was programmed and contained background vocals by Troelsen, while mixing was handled by Anders Hvenare. Musically, the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of R&B and pop music. Victoria Goldenberg from Purple Sky Magazine noted the song's "combination of grimy rhythms and staccato singing with the most melodic development of any track on the album." The majority of the song's composition, including the use of synthesizers and keyboards, have been processed through a reverse filter. The use of drum machines was overlapped after the reverse filter was used on the demo version, and was mixed after its completion. ## Critical reception "Eat You Up" received positive reviews from most music critics. Patrick Sullivan from AllMusic was positive in his review, labelling it a "catchily electro" song; Sullivan highlighted the song as an album stand out track, while David Hickey from the same publication selected the song as one of BoA's best career moments. Staff members from Idolator listed the song's parent album on their "13 Great Pop Albums That Were Overlooked and Underrated In Their Time" list. Reviewing the album, Bradley Stern highlighted the song as one of the best tracks and stated that the material "deserves so, so much more than the dust it was dealt." Victoria Goldenberg from Purple Sky Magazine selected the song as the album's best track. A staff member from CD Journal was positive in their review; They commended the commercial appeal for its North American release, and praised the mixture of R&B and electronic music musical elements. A reviewer from Selective Hearing was positive in his review. They praised the production and BoA's English pronunciation, stating "The production as a whole has a bit of en edge to it which is a slight departure from the typical BoA song but it works... Her pronunciation is miles above the English in her older songs. Her vocals are as strong as ever and even when the vocal effects are laid on thick her voice doesn't get drowned in them. You can still hear her clearly." Overall, the reviewer felt it was a great debut track for the North American audience. Asian Junkie member Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog site, and his response was mixed. He felt the song was "boring" and "bog standard" upon its release. However, he stated, "But in comparison to the rest of the album, the song is actually rather decent and a highlight. A definite grower." ### Accolades "Eat You Up" was ranked at number six on Spin's "21 Greatest K-Pop Songs of All Time" list; they said, "Though "Eat You Up" didn't take upon arrival, it's hard to hear why a pop offering this muscular (it's got a chorus like a Clydesdale) couldn't put a dent on American charts right this second." The song was recognized by Michael Fuhr, who wrote the book Globalization and Popular Music in South Korea: Sounding Out K-Pop, as one of the first songs by a South Korean artist to be handled by Western and European artists. It was ranked at number 12 on Koreaboo's Introduction to K-Pop list. It was ranked at number six on BuzzFeed's 21 Greatest Korean Pop Songs Ever list. It was ranked at number two on Allkpop's seven greatest North American debuts. ## Commercial response Because of its digital release, it was ineligible to chart on Japan's Oricon Singles Chart, making it BoA's first single to not chart there since her 2005 single "Girls on Top". Despite its online success throughout several digital retailers in North America, it has failed to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 or the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, or the Canadian Hot 100. The single charted on US Dance Club Songs chart; it debuted at number 42 and peaked at number 27 for the week ending December 27, 2008. It was present for seven weeks, before it reached its peak position of eight on the week end of February 7. It fell to number 15 the following week end of February 14. It slipped outside the top 20 on the week end of February 21, and spent its final week at number 22 on the week end of February 28. The song was present for 12 weeks on the chart. It remains her only top ten single on the Dance Club Songs chart, her only top ten in any US Billboard chart, and her longest charting single. As of May 2009, Nielsen Soundscan confirmed that "Eat You Up" has sold over 28,000 units in the United States. ## Music videos Two music videos were filmed for the single; a North American version directed by American director Diane Martel, and an Asian video by Korean director Eun Taek Cha. Due to heavily speculation of its premiere, SM Entertainment revealed that they planned on using both music videos to promote the single under the titles Version A (North American video) and Version B (Asian video). They said they never intended to use the Version A for Asia and Version B for North America, as they only labelled the videos as Version A and B. The North American video premiered in Japan on Mega Hits on October 17, 2008. Both videos were choreographed by Misha Gabriel and Flii Stylz respectively. The background dancers for both music videos are Nick Bass, Kenny Wormald and Trent Dickens. The North American video starts with BoA standing in front of a window in a high-rise building, showing close-ups of her. The verse starts with her and backup dancers dancing on a deserted planet, with inter cut scenes of her singing in the high-rise building. The second verse shows her singing to the male lead interest, with inter cut scenes of her singing the second verse in a snow globe setting. She sings the bridge while dancing on the planet with her dancers with closeup scenes of her as well as a clip of the sun rising. The final chorus shows BoA dancing by herself with a wall of graffiti behind her as well as the deserted planet during the daytime as it is becoming more violent with winds blowing about. The video ends with her name BoA being displayed as well as the title of the song "Eat You Up". The Asian video starts with BoA turning on a radio which starts the song. BoA starts to sing the song whilst dancing in the hallway of a large house. At the start of the second verse, a girl is doing ballet dancing in front a group of judges. When the chorus starts again BoA and her dancers breaks down the door and proceeds to dance in front of the judges. Due to the intensity of their dancing, they make cracks in the floor and cause a picture to fall from where it once stood. During the bridge, BoA is dancing alone and then switches back and she is dancing by herself in the faces of the judges. During the second chorus, things start to explode such as a clock that was hanging from the wall, the male judge's glasses and books start to fall from a bookcase. As the chorus ends most of the remaining windows break, the chandelier falls and a fire starts, which turn on the sprinklers. The video ends with BoA and her dancers leaving, and the room is left in destruction. Both music videos received positive reviews from critics. Jun Eun-Young, writing in his book The Korean Wave, commended BoA's sexual image and felt its American appeal made it quite "infamous". A staff member from Rap Up was positive, commending BoA's "impressive moves". Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A. Lent, writing in their book Asian Popular Culture in Transition, commended BoA's dance moves and found that the directors "collaboration with various US-based artists clearly shows SM Entertainment's attempt to recreate an Americanized-localized BoA in the hope of accommodating her US pop customers tastes more easily." It was ranked at number seven on Eat Your Kim Chi's Seven Best SM Entertainment music videos. ## Promotion and legacy A remix of the single featured American rapper Flo Rida, which was slated for a November 2008 release. However, after the single was leaked online, the release was scrapped. BoA performed the song at YouTube's Tokyo Live concert, and performed in New York City on December 3, 2008, as well as the Jingle Ball at the Anaheim Honda Center on December 6, 2008. She headlined as a performer for the San Francisco Pride Festival on June 28, 2009 alongside Solange Knowles and The Cliks. She also performed the song, alongside "Energetic" and "I Did It for Love". from the self-titled studio album. BoA performed the song on her Best & USA concert tour. It was later included on the live DVD for her studio album Identity (2010). The song was performed on BoA's Identity tour in Asia, where it was included during the first segment. It included on the live album, released on August 18, 2010. The song was performed on Here I Am tour in South Korea, where it was included during the first segment. It was included on the live DVD, released on July 2, 2015. The song was performed on BoA's Who's Back concert tour in Japan, where it was included during the first segment. It included on the live album, released on February 25, 2015. The song was performed on BoA's Nowness concert tour in Japan, where it was included during the first segment. "Eat You Up" was included on BoA's double album Best & USA (2009). "Eat You Up", and BoA herself, have both been recognized by publications as a factor towards Korean Wave; a neologism that justifies an immigration of the culture of South Korea into Western market and society. But despite BoA's attempts to break into the Western market, particularly North America, such attempts did not succeed. Esther Oh, a freelance journalist writing for CNN, stated that BoA and another South Korean recording artist Se7en moved back to South Korea after their U.S. music careers struggled to gain traction. Oh labelled their attempts as "complete flops". ## Track listing - CD single 1. "Eat You Up" (DJ Escape & Johnny Vicious Main Mix) – 7:27 2. "Eat You Up" (DJ Escape & Johnny Vicious Instrumental) – 7:29 3. "Eat You Up" (DJ Escape & Johnny Vicious Dub) – 6:39 4. "Eat You Up" (DJ Escape & Johnny Vicious Radio Edit) – 3:38 5. "Eat You Up" (King Britt Main Mix) – 6:21 6. "Eat You Up" (King Britt Radio Mix) – 3:04 7. "Eat You Up" (King Britt Instrumental) – 6:23 8. "Eat You Up" (King Britt BG Vocal Mix) – 6:20 - Digital download 1. "Eat You Up" – 3:12 - Digital music video 1. "Eat You Up" (South Korean video) ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the promotional CD. - BoA – vocals - Remee – songwriting - Thomas Troelsen – songwriting - Henrik Jonback – producer - Diane Martel – director (North American video) - Eun Taek Cha – director (Asian video) - SM Entertainment – BoA's record label - SM Entertainment USA – BoA's record label ## Charts and sales ### Charts ### Sales
34,984,839	IPad (3rd generation)	1,169,463,442	Tablet computer made by Apple (2012)	[ "Discontinued Apple Inc. products", "IOS", "IPad", "Tablet computers", "Tablet computers introduced in 2012", "Touchscreen portable media players" ]	The iPad (3rd generation) (marketed as The new iPad, colloquially referred to as the iPad 3) is a tablet computer, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. The third device in the iPad line of tablets, it added a Retina Display, the new Apple A5X chip with a quad-core graphics processor, a 5-megapixel camera, HD 1080p video recording, voice dictation, and support for LTE networks in North America. It shipped with iOS 5, which also provides a platform for audio-visual media, including electronic books, periodicals, films, music, computer games, presentations and web browsing. Six variations of the third-generation iPad were offered, compared to nine in the United States and Canada, although some countries had only the Wi-Fi only model. Each variation was available with black or white front glass panels, with options for 16, 32, or 64 GB of storage. In North America, connectivity options were Wi-Fi only, Wi-Fi + 4G (LTE) on Verizon, AT&T, Telus, Rogers, or Bell. For the rest of the world outside North America, connectivity options are Wi-Fi only (on the Wi-Fi model) or Wi-Fi + 3G (on the Wi-Fi + Cellular model), with the latter unavailable in some countries, as 4G (LTE) connectivity for the device is not available outside North America. The Wi-Fi + Cellular model includes GPS capability. Initially, the cellular version was titled and marketed worldwide as the "Wi-Fi + 4G" model, but due to regional differences in classification of 4G (LTE) connectivity outside of North America, Apple later rebranded and altered their marketing to call this the "Wi-Fi + Cellular" model. The tablet was released in ten countries on March 16, 2012. It gained mostly positive reviews, earning praise for its Retina display, processor and 4G (LTE) capabilities. However, controversy arose when the LTE incompatibilities became known. Three million units were sold in the first three days. After only seven months (221 days) of official availability, the third-generation iPad was discontinued on October 23, 2012, following the announcement of the fourth-generation iPad. The third-generation iPad had the shortest lifespan of any iOS product. It is also the last iPad to support the original 30-pin dock connector, as the fourth-generation iPad and later use the all-digital Lightning connector. ## History Speculation about the product began shortly after Apple released the iPad 2, which featured front and back cameras as well as a dual-core Apple A5 processor. Speculation increased after news of a 2,048-by-1,536 pixel screen leaked. During this time, the tablet was called the "iPad 3", a colloquial name sometimes still used after the release. On February 9, 2012, John Paczkowski of All Things Digital stated that "Apple’s not holding an event in February—strange, unusual or otherwise. But it is holding one in March—to launch its next iPad." Another common rumor at the time was that the tablet would have an Apple A6 processor. On February 29, 2012, Apple announced a media event scheduled for March 7, 2012, at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts. The company did not predisclose the subject of the event, but analysts widely expected the event to announce a new version of the iPad. The announcement affected the tablet resale market positively. At the event, Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced iOS 5.1, a Japanese version of Siri, and the third-generation Apple TV before the third-generation iPad. Cook claimed that the new product would be one of the main contributors to the emerging "post-PC world"—a world in which digital life would not be tied to the PC. The March 16, 2012, release included ten countries including Australia, Canada, France, Japan, Singapore, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. The March 23, 2012, release included many European countries, Mexico and Macau. The April 20, 2012, release added a dozen countries including South Korea and Malaysia. The April 27, 2012, release added nine more countries, including India and South Africa. May 2012 releases added 31 countries, including Brazil and Turkey. On October 23, 2012, upon the announcement of the fourth-generation iPad, the third-generation iPad was discontinued. In response to criticism from its owners, the return policy of select Apple Stores was briefly extended to thirty days to allow customers to exchange the third-generation model for the fourth-generation model. ## Features ### Software The third-generation iPad shipped with iOS 5.1, which was released on March 7, 2012. It can act as a hotspot with some carriers, sharing its internet connection over Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or USB, providing that it is a Wi-Fi + Cellular model. It can also access the App Store, a digital application distribution platform for iOS developed and maintained by Apple. The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple. From the App Store, GarageBand, iMovie, iPhoto, and the iWork apps (Pages, Keynote, and Numbers) are available. The iPad comes with several pre-installed applications, including Safari, Mail, Photos, Videos, YouTube, Music, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Game Center, Photo Booth, and Contacts. Like all iOS devices, the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes, although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer. Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network, users can use a headset or the built-in speaker and microphone and place phone calls over Wi-Fi or cellular using a VoIP application, such as Skype. The device has dictation, using the same voice recognition technology as the iPhone 4S. The user speaks and the iPad types what they say on the screen provided that the iPad is connected to a Wi-Fi or cellular network. The third-generation device has an optional iBooks application, which displays books and other EPUB-format content downloaded from the iBookstore. Several major book publishers including Penguin Books, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device. Despite being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook, both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e-reader apps for the iPad. On September 19, 2012, iOS 6, which contains 200 new features, was released. The iOS 6 update includes new features such as Apple Maps, which replaced a mapping application operated by Google, Facebook integration and the ability to operate Siri on the third-generation iPad. The third-generation iPad is compatible with iOS 7, which was released in 2013. Although complete support, some newer features such as AirDrop that were released to newer models were not supported. This is the similar support that was also given on the iPhone 4S. iOS 8 is also supported by the third-generation iPad. However, some features have been stripped down. iOS 9 supports the third-generation iPad as well. It is the fifth major iOS release that this model supports. The iOS 9 public beta was also compatible with it. This model has been supported for more than 4 years. iOS 9.3.5 is the latest and final version to support the Wi-Fi only iPad 3rd generation model while the Wi-Fi + Cellular models run iOS 9.3.6. It is not compatible with iOS 10. #### 2019 GPS rollover update On July 22, 2019, Apple released iOS 9.3.6 for the WiFi + Cellular models of the third-generation iPad to fix issues caused by the GPS Week Number Rollover. The issues would impact accuracy of GPS location and set the device's date and time to an incorrect value, preventing connection to HTTPS servers and, consequently, Apple's servers for activation, iCloud and the iTunes and App stores. The WiFi model is not affected by the rollover as it lacks a GPS chipset. ### Jailbreaking Researchers demonstrated within hours of the product release that the third-generation iPad can be "jailbroken" to use applications and programs that are not authorized by Apple. The third-generation iPad can be jailbroken with Redsn0w 0.9.12 or Absinthe 2.0. Jailbreaking violates the factory warranty. One of the main reasons for jailbreaking is to expand the feature set limited by Apple and its App Store. Most jailbreaking tools automatically install Cydia, a native iOS APT client used for finding and installing software for jailbroken iOS devices. Many apps unapproved by Apple are extensions and customizations for iOS and other apps. Users install these programs to personalize and customize the interface, adding desired features and fixing annoyances, and simplify app development by providing access to the filesystem and command-line tools. ### Hardware The device has an Apple A5X SoC with a 1 GHz dual-core 32-bit Cortex-A9 CPU and a quad-core PowerVR SGX543MP4 GPU; 1 GB of RAM; a 5-megapixel, rear-facing camera capable of 1080p video recording; and a VGA front-facing videophone camera designed for FaceTime. The display resolution is 2,048 by 1,536 (QXGA) with 3.1 million pixels—four times more than the iPad 2—providing even scaling from the prior model. The new iPad is thicker than its predecessor by 0.6 mm and is heavier by 51 grams for the Wi-Fi model (652 grams). The Wi-Fi + Cellular models (both at 662 grams) are 49 grams heavier for the AT&T model and 55 grams heavier for the Verizon model compared to the respective iPad 2 3G models (AT&T 3G iPad 2 is 613 grams, and Verizon 3G iPad 2 is 607 grams). There are four physical switches on the third-generation iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the home screen, and three plastic switches on the sides: wake/sleep and volume up/down, plus a software-controlled switch whose function varies with software update. The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense orientation and to switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch's built-in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape-left and landscape-right), the iPad's built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside-down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic "native" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes. The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network; all models can connect to a wireless LAN. The third-generation iPad optionally has 16, 32, or 64 GB of internal flash memory, with no expansion option. Apple sells a "camera connection kit" with an SD card reader, but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos. The audio playback of the third-generation iPad has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Without third-party software it can play the following audio formats: HE-AAC, AAC, Protected AAC, MP3, MP3 VBR, Audible formats (2, 3, 4, AEA, AAX, and AAX+), ALAC, AIFF, and WAV. A preliminary tear-down of the third-generation iPad by IHS iSuppli showed the likely costs for a 16 GB Wi-Fi + Cellular model at \$358.30, 32 GB at \$375.10, and 64 GB at \$408.70 respectively. This iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) battery. The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology (60%) and Dynapack International Technology. The iPad is designed to be charged with a high current of 2 amps using the included 10 W USB power adapter and USB cord with a USB connector at one end and a 30-pin dock connector at the other end. While it can be charged by an older USB port from a computer, these are limited to 500 milliamps (0.5 amps). As a result, if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer, it may charge very slowly, or not at all. High-power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities. Apple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video, 140 hours of audio playback, or one month on standby; people say the battery lasts about 8 hours doing normal tasks. Like any rechargeable battery, the iPad's battery loses capacity over time. However, the iPad's battery is not user-replaceable. In a program similar to iPod and iPhone battery-replacement programs, Apple promised to replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished unit for a fee of US\$99 plus \$6.95 shipping. User data is not preserved/transferred. The refurbished unit comes with a new case. The warranty on the refurbished unit may vary between jurisdictions. ### Accessories The Smart Cover, introduced with the iPad 2, is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad. The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand, which is also held together by magnets. The Smart Cover can also assume other positions by folding it. While original iPad owners could purchase a black case that included a similarly folding cover, the Smart Cover is simpler, easily detachable, and protects only the screen. Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad, and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed. It comes in five colors of both polyurethane and the more expensive leather. Apple offers several other accessories, most of which are adapters for the proprietary 30-pin dock connector, the only port besides the headphone jack. A dock holds the iPad upright at an angle, and has a dock connector and audio line-out port. The iPad can use Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs. The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ("wall charger") compatible with iPods and iPhones, and a 10-watt charger is included. ## Critical reception The third-generation iPad received positive reviews, receiving praise for its Retina display, camera, processor and LTE capabilities. According to Walt Mossberg of All Things Digital, the new model "has the most spectacular display...seen in a mobile device" and holds the crown as "the best tablet on the planet." Jonathan Spira, writing in Frequent Business Traveler, claimed that it "seems to make everything sharper and clearer." ### Issues #### Cellular problems Criticism followed the news that in markets outside the US, the tablet cannot communicate with LTE due to its use of 700 MHz and 700/2,100 MHz frequencies, respectively, versus 800 MHz, 1.8 GHz and 2.6 GHz used elsewhere. Soon after the launch, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) took Apple to court for breaking four provisions of Australian consumer law. They alleged that Apple's promotion of the tablet in Australia as the 'iPad Wi-Fi + 4G' misled customers, as the name indicates that it would work on Australia's then-current 4G network. Apple responded to this by offering a full refund to all customers in Australia who purchased the Wi-Fi + Cellular model (when it was previously named "Wi-Fi + 4G") of the iPad. On April 20, 2012, Apple stated that HSPA+ networks in Australia are 4G, even though the speeds are slower than that of LTE. A month later, on June 21, 2012, Apple was sued for A\$2.25 million for false advertising in Australia. In its advertisements Apple claimed that the new iPad was 4G LTE compatible. However, it didn't work with the Telstra LTE mobile data network in Australia. Apple was fined A\$2.25 million and was ordered to pay A\$300,000 in costs. Apple agreed to remove all references to 4G (LTE) capability in its UK advertising but as of August had not done so. There was no widespread 4G (LTE) network in the UK at the time, and the third-generation iPad would also be incompatible with future 4G (LTE) networks when they did roll-out there. The Advertising Standards Authority received consumer complaints on the matter. Apple offered to refund customers who bought the device after being misled by the advertising. The result of numerous complaints and lawsuits against Apple regarding the use of the term 4G in their advertisements prompted Apple to rename its "4G" service to "Cellular", with this change appearing on Apple's website on May 13, 2012. #### Overheating Many users reported abnormally high temperatures on the casing of the unit, especially after running 3D games. If used while plugged in, the rear of the new iPad became as much as 12 °F (6.7 °C) hotter than an iPad 2. The difference unplugged was 13 °F (7.2 °C). Thermal imaging tests revealed that the iPad can reach 116 °F (47 °C). At this temperature it was warm to touch but not uncomfortable when held for a brief period. In a follow-up report, Consumer Reports said, they "don't believe the temperatures we recorded in our tests of the new iPad represent a safety concern." #### Performance The claimed superiority of the A5X over the Tegra 3 processor was questioned around launch time by competitor Nvidia; some benchmarks later confirmed the iPad's superiority in graphics performance, while other benchmarks show that the Tegra 3 has greater performance in some areas. ### Criticism Consumer Reports gave the third-generation iPad a top rating and recommendation, claiming that the tablet was "superb", "very good", and "very fast", and that the 4G network, the Retina display, and overall performance were positive attributes. They elaborated on the display quality, stating that the third-generation iPad was "the best we’ve seen." The iPad's new display was a large enough improvement to prompt Consumer Reports to rate it "excellent," and consequently downgraded the display of other tablets (including the iPad 2) from "excellent" to "very good." As with the preceding models (see the parent article on the iPad), iOS' closed and proprietary nature garnered criticism, particularly by digital rights advocates such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle, Internet-law specialist Jonathan Zittrain, and the Free Software Foundation who protested the iPad's introductory event and have targeted the iPad with their "Defective by Design" campaign. ### Commercial reception Pre-orders were so high for the third-generation iPad that later orders were quoted shipping times of "two to three weeks" after the order was placed. Apple said that "customer response to the new iPad has been off the charts and the quantity available for pre-order has been purchased." Despite the delayed shipping, many users chose to purchase the iPad online instead of waiting in line at the Apple Store. According to an Apple press release, three million units were sold in the first three days. The iPad was purchased mainly by a younger, male demographic. Most of the buyers were either "die-hard Apple fans" or had previously purchased an iPad. An Apple retailer in Dayton, Ohio, claimed that the demand for the tablet was "chaotic" and claimed that its launch was "drastically more significant than the iPad 2 launch." By Q2 of 2012, Apple would hit an all-time high, claiming 69.6 percent of the global tablet market. ## Timeline ## See also - List of iPad accessories - Comparison of tablet computers - E-reader
38,214,533	Siege of Mecca (683)	1,156,164,764	Part of the Second Fitna	[ "680s conflicts", "680s in the Umayyad Caliphate", "683", "Hejaz under the Umayyad Caliphate", "History of Mecca", "Second Fitna", "Sieges involving the Umayyad Caliphate", "Sieges of Mecca" ]	The siege of Mecca in September–November 683 was one of the early battles of the Second Fitna. The city of Mecca was a sanctuary for Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who was among the most prominent challengers to the dynastic succession to the Caliphate by the Umayyad Yazid I. After nearby Medina, the other holy city of Islam, also rebelled against Yazid, the Umayyad ruler sent an army to subdue Arabia. The Umayyad army defeated the Medinans and took the city, but Mecca held out in a month-long siege, during which the Kaaba was damaged by fire. The siege ended when news came of Yazid's sudden death. The Umayyad commander, Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni, after vainly trying to induce Ibn al-Zubayr to return with him to Syria and be recognized as Caliph, departed with his forces. Ibn al-Zubayr remained in Mecca throughout the civil war, but he was nevertheless soon acknowledged as Caliph across most of the Muslim world. It was not until 692, that the Umayyads were able to send another army which again besieged and captured Mecca, ending the civil war. ## Background At the death of the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680), in 680, the Muslim world was thrown into turmoil. Although Mu'awiya had named his son, Yazid I, as his heir, this choice was not universally recognized, especially by the old Medinan elites, who challenged the Umayyads' claim to the succession. Among them, the two chief candidates for the caliphate were the Alid Husayn ibn Ali (the grandson of Prophet Muhammad), and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (a grandson of the first caliph, Abu Bakr, and nephew of Muhammad's wife A'isha). To avoid being forced to acknowledge Yazid, on the latter's accession the two men fled from Medina to Mecca. Husayn made for Kufa, where his supporters awaited him to rise in revolt against the Umayyads, but his convoy was intercepted and he was killed at the Battle of Karbala in October 680, leaving Ibn al-Zubayr as the leading contender and rival for the Umayyads. As long as Yazid lived, Ibn al-Zubayr denounced his rule from the sanctuary of Mecca but did not openly claim the caliphate, instead calling himself "the fugitive at the sanctuary" (al-ʿaʾidh biʾl-bayt) and insisting that the caliph should be chosen in the traditional manner, by a tribal assembly (shūrā) from among all the Quraysh, not just the Umayyads. At first Yazid and his governors in Medina tried to negotiate with Ibn al-Zubayr, as well as the dissatisfied Ansar families. The Medinan aristocracy, however, who felt their position threatened by Mu'awiya's large-scale agricultural projects around their city, and regarded Yazid as unfit for the office of caliph due to his reputed dissolute lifestyle, led a public denunciation of their allegiance to Yazid, and expelled the Umayyad family members, some 1,000 in number (including the future caliph Marwan ibn al-Hakam and his sons), from their city. As a result, Yazid sent an army to subdue the province, and chose Muslim ibn Uqba al-Murri to lead it. Muslim's army of 12,000 Syrians indeed overcame the Medinans' resistance at the Battle of al-Harrah on 26 August 683 and proceeded to sack Medina—one of the impious acts for which the Umayyads are denounced in later Muslim tradition. For his sack of Medina, subsequent tradition remembers Muslim ibn Uqba as, in the words of Julius Wellhausen, the "heathen incarnate", although in the earlier sources he is represented as devout and reluctant to undertake the task assigned to him by the Caliph. ## Siege After taking Medina, Muslim set out for Mecca, but on the way he fell ill and died at Mushallal, and command passed to his lieutenant Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni. According to the account reported by al-Tabari, this was much against Uqba's will, but in accordance with the wishes of Yazid. Many of the Medinans had fled to Mecca, including the commander of the Qurayshites at the battle of al-Harra, Abd Allah ibn Muti, who played a leading role in Mecca's defense along with al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi. Ibn al-Zubayr was also joined by Kharijites from Yamama (central Arabia), under the leadership of Najda ibn Amir al-Hanafi. Husayn's army arrived before Mecca in September. In a first battle, Ibn al-Zubayr proved victorious, but the Umayyads persisted, and on 24 September placed the city under siege, employing catapults to bombard it with stones. Ibn al-Zubayr established his command post on the grounds of the Grand Mosque. On Sunday, 31 October, the Kaaba, over which a wooden structure covered with mattresses had been erected to protect it, caught fire and burned down, while the sacred Black Stone burst asunder. Many later sources ascribe the fault to the besiegers, with the result that "this siege and bombardment too figure prominently in the lists of Umayyad crimes" (G.R. Hawting), but more reliable accounts attribute the event to a torch borne by one of Ibn al-Zubayr's followers, which the wind wafted onto the building. The siege continued for 64 days until 26 November, when news of Yazid's death (11 November) reached the besiegers. Husayn now entered into negotiations with Ibn al-Zubayr. Although the Umayyad court at Damascus promptly declared Yazid's sickly young son, Mu'awiya II, as caliph, Umayyad authority practically collapsed in the provinces and proved shaky even in the Umayyads' home province of Syria. Husayn was therefore willing to acknowledge Ibn al-Zubayr as caliph, provided that he would issue a pardon and follow him to Syria. Ibn al-Zubayr refused the last demand, since this would place him under the control of the Syrian elites, and Husayn with his army departed for Syria. ## Aftermath The retreat of the Umayyad army left Ibn al-Zubayr in undisputed control of Mecca. With the collapse of Umayyad authority, he was soon acknowledged as the rightful caliph across most of the Muslim world, including northern Syria. His authority, however, remained mostly nominal. The Umayyads, under the leadership of Marwan ibn al-Hakam, managed to consolidate their position in Syria in the Battle of Marj Rahit, and even reclaimed Egypt, but an Umayyad attempt to recover control of Iraq was defeated by pro-Alid forces under Mukhtar al-Thaqafi near Mosul in August 686. Abd al-Malik, who had succeeded his father Marwan after the latter's death in April 685, thereafter restricted himself to securing his own position, while Ibn al-Zubayr's brother Mus'ab defeated Mukhtar at the Battle of Harura and gained control of all of Iraq in 687. In 691, Abd al-Malik managed to bring Zufar al-Kilabi's Qays back into the Umayyad fold, and advanced into the Iraq. Mus'ab was defeated and killed, and Umayyad authority re-established across the East. After another siege of Mecca which lasted from March–October 692, Ibn al-Zubayr was killed, and the civil war ended. ## Rebuilding of the Kaaba After the Umayyads' departure, Ibn al-Zubayr initiated the rebuilding of the Kaaba, but most of the people, led by Ibn Abbas, had abandoned the city fearing divine retribution; it was only when Ibn al-Zubayr himself began to demolish the remains of the old building, that they were encouraged to return and aid him. Ibn al-Zubayr's reconstruction changed the original plan, incorporating modifications that Muhammad himself is reported to have intended, but which had not been carried out during Muhammad's lifetime for fear of alienating the recently converted Meccans. The new Kaaba was built entirely of stone—the old one was of alternating layers of stone and wood—and had two doors, an entrance in the east and an exit in the west. In addition, he included the semi-circular hatīm wall into the building proper. The three fragments of the Black Stone were bound in a silver frame, and placed by Ibn al-Zubayr inside the new Kaaba. After the Umayyad reconquest of the city, the hatīm was separated again from the main building, and the western gate was walled up, reverting to the general outlines of the pre-Islamic, Abrahamic, plan. This is the form in which the Kaaba has survived to this day.
12,025,149	Voyage of the Damned (Doctor Who)	1,164,356,728	null	[ "2007 British television episodes", "2007 television specials", "Doctor Who Christmas specials", "Doctor Who stories set on Earth", "RMS Titanic in fiction", "Television controversies in the United Kingdom", "Television shows written by Russell T Davies", "Tenth Doctor episodes" ]	"Voyage of the Damned" is an episode of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who. First broadcast on BBC One on 25 December 2007, it is the third Doctor Who Christmas special since the show's revival in 2005. The episode was written by Russell T Davies and directed by James Strong. In the episode, the alien businessman Max Capricorn (George Costigan) seeks revenge on his company after it votes him out. He sets a starship replica of the RMS Titanic on a collision course with Earth to frame the board of directors for killing the humans on Earth. The episode features the only performance in Doctor Who by the Australian singer and actress Kylie Minogue, who plays the waitress Astrid Peth. Davies described her casting as a "very exceptional case", having written the part of Astrid specifically for Minogue. On its original airdate Christmas 2007, "Voyage of the Damned" was watched by 13.31 million viewers, the highest viewing figure for Doctor Who since the 1979 serial City of Death and still the highest viewership of any episode since the show's revival. It was the second most-watched programme of 2007, beaten only by the episode of EastEnders which aired immediately after it. Critical opinion about the episode was divided; the writing and Minogue's performance were both praised and criticised. ## Plot The TARDIS has collided with a ship called the Titanic. To investigate further, the Tenth Doctor runs the TARDIS's self-repair programme and boards the Titanic, which the Doctor discovers is an interstellar cruiser from the planet Sto. Modelled after the Earth ocean liner of the same name, the ship is orbiting present-day Earth to observe "primitive cultures"—specifically, Christmas. The Doctor decides to stow away, and joins a party of aliens including the waitress Astrid Peth on a brief excursion to London. However, the populace of London fled in fear because of extraterrestrial attacks over the previous two Christmases. After the party return from the excursion, the ship's captain, Hardaker, sabotages the ship by engineering its collision with three meteors. The resulting collision kills most of the passengers on board and draws the ship to an extinction level collision with Earth. The Doctor makes contact with Midshipman Frame, a crew member who survived the collision, to help him stabilise the ship. En route to the bridge, the Doctor's party are repeatedly attacked by the Host, androids resembling angels who were programmed to kill the survivors. The Doctor breaks from the party and attempts to reach the control point for the Host. He is taken to the Host's leader, former cruise line owner Max Capricorn, who is a head attached to a mobile life support unit. Capricorn was bitter about being forced out of his own company and plotted the Titanic's inevitable collision with Earth to bankrupt the company by framing the board of directors for murder; the terminally ill Captain Hardaker's part was secured by promising financial support for his family. To save the Doctor, Astrid rams Capricorn with a forklift, which sends both of them over a ledge to their deaths in the engine. The Doctor uses the Host to reach the bridge, where he uses the heat from entry into the Earth's atmosphere to restart the ship's engines. After stabilising the ship, the Doctor realises that the teleport bracelet Astrid was wearing backed up her molecular pattern. However, the damaged system can only partially regenerate Astrid. The Doctor reluctantly allows her to dissipate into atoms, so she can fulfil her dream of exploring the universe. ## Production ### Casting During the third series press launch in March 2007, the production team was approached by William Baker, Kylie Minogue's creative director, about her appearing in the show. Executive producer Julie Gardner replied that Minogue could guest star if her schedule was free. Minogue officially registered her interest on 26 March 2007 and was subsequently given a one-off role as the Doctor's companion. Minogue's appearance would allow the show to easily transfer the lead companion role from Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman) to "Penny"—the intended companion for the fourth series, eventually replaced by Catherine Tate as Donna Noble—and provide a "big name" star to appear in the Christmas special. Her casting was first reported in the News of the World in April 2007. Davies initially dismissed the story, but Baker and Minogue contemporaneously confirmed she would star in the show. Her role was officially confirmed on 3 July 2007. Both Minogue and Doctor Who had acknowledged each other before: "The Idiot's Lantern" mentions Minogue as a real person; and Baker, a fan of Doctor Who, included aspects of the classic series in Minogue's tours: the Raston Warriors (from The Five Doctors) in the Fever tour; and the Cybermen in the Showgirl tour. Clive Swift and Geoffrey Palmer have had previous roles in Doctor Who. Swift portrayed Jobel in Revelation of the Daleks (1985), while Palmer played Undersecretary Masters in Doctor Who and the Silurians (1970), and the Administrator in The Mutants (1972). Jessica Martin had played Mags in The Greatest Show in the Galaxy (1988–89). In addition, Bernard Cribbins played Tom Campbell in Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D., the second Doctor Who feature-film adaptation starring Peter Cushing as well as Arnold Korns in the audio play Horror of Glam Rock. Colin McFarlane, who provided the voices of the Heavenly Host for the episode, went on to play General Pierce in Torchwood: Children of Earth (2009), before later reappearing in Doctor Who as Moran in "Under the Lake". Jimmy Vee had previously played aliens in "The End of the World" and "Aliens of London" (2005), and would later play other aliens in "The End of Time" (2009–10) and "The Caretaker" (2014). Minogue met designer Louise Page four times during pre-production to discuss her costume. Page rejected a long dress because it was atypical to Minogue; she instead elected for a "cigarette girl" image, similar to a "1950s [...] cinema usherette". Five costumes were made for different scenes and Minogue's stunt doubles, and each part of each costume was made separately to keep Minogue's role secret. After filming, Minogue told Page that the costume was "the most comfortable [she] had worn in years". ### Writing The episode was primarily written by Russell T Davies after Minogue was cast. Davies described his pitch to Minogue as "busking". The character of Astrid Peth was written for Minogue. Davies later stated that Minogue was a "very exceptional case"; he considered writing a role specifically for one actor "dangerous territory" because the desired actor may be unavailable or decline the part. In early drafts of the episode, Astrid did not die. Davies decided Astrid's death was necessary to allow Minogue to focus on her musical career. Davies described the original nature of her death—falling over a precipice during a fight with Capricorn—as "fleeting". He intensified the scene by changing Max from mobile to cybernetic and Astrid's attack from an altercation to a fork-lift truck. Davies felt the revised scene was "such a beautiful image" and romanticised Astrid's "ultimate sacrifice". Davies based the episode on the traditional disaster film format. He was highly influenced by the 1972 film The Poseidon Adventure: he considered "[turning] the spaceship upside down" before cutting the concept for monetary constraints; and the character of Foon Van Hoff (Debbie Chazen) was heavily based on Belle Rosen (Shelley Winters). He diverged from the trope in its climax; the format of Doctor Who dictated the requirement of an antagonist: Max Capricorn, whose plan was to sabotage the ship as part of an insurance scam. Davies based the portrayal of Sto on Kansas in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The episode includes several external references: the episode is dedicated to Verity Lambert, Doctor Who's founding producer, who died on 22 November 2007, a day before the show's forty-fourth anniversary; and the malfunctioning Host stuttering over the name "Max" is a reference to 1980s virtual presenter Max Headroom; Davies inserted references to other Doctor Who episodes in the script: he emphasised society's increasing awareness of aliens and the tradition of London's consecutive Christmas attacks in the script, describing the latter as "becoming a bit of an in-joke"; the Doctor's use of the catchphrase "allons-y Alonso" in the episode when he helps Frame stabilise the ship continues a running gag originating in "Army of Ghosts"; and the Host continue the thematic motif of angels. Angels previously appeared in "Blink", where the antagonists of the episode were Weeping Angels, and in "The Sound of Drums" and "Last of the Time Lords", where the Master's communication network was called the "Archangel Network". Despite angels being the antagonist in two episodes that aired close to each other, which dismayed writer and executive producer Russell T Davies when he read Steven Moffat's script for "Blink", the Host are functionally different as subordinate "robot butlers". ### Filming Filming primarily took place between 9 July and 11 August 2007; the first scene filmed depicted the group being accosted by the Host while crossing over the engines. On 12 July, Tennant's mother, Helen McDonald, began to succumb to her cancer. Filming was rescheduled to allow Tennant to be present when she died and was buried—on 15 and 21 July, respectively. During Tennant's absence, scenes in the Titanic'''s reception area were filmed at the Exchange in Swansea and the Coal Exchange in Cardiff Bay. Tennant filmed his scenes in the area on 16 and 17 July. The last use of the Coal Exchange was on the 18th; scenes depicting the ship's collision with meteors were filmed on that day. One week of filming was conducted primarily at the old DuPont site in Pontypool which provided the sets for Deck 31—Capricorn's refuge and command centre, Much of the old extrusion machinery still in situ and their corresponding control "Thorn Drive" panels —and the various stairwells and corridors of the ship. Scenes on Deck 31 were filmed on 19 and 20 July. A double, Danielle de Costa, operated the fork-lift truck because Minogue didn't have the required license. Shooting was staggered as a result of Tennant's departure: 21 July focused on the supporting characters; and 23 July focused on Tennant. The aftermath of the meteor strike was filmed between 25 July and 27 July. Filming returned to the Exchange in Swansea to film two more scenes: the denouément of the episode was filmed on 28 July; and the pre-credits sequence on 30 July. The most important day of filming was on 31 July 2007: an evening location shoot of the party's arrival in London. Before filming commenced, Minogue covered her death scene above a chroma key mattress. The scene in London commenced filming at sunset in Cardiff city centre. For security concerns—specifically, protecting Minogue—the street was sealed off for the first time since the show's revival in 2005. Filming finished in the first two weeks of August 2007: the closing scene was filmed in Cardiff Docks on 1 August; Hardaker's death was filmed at Upper Boat on 2 August; scenes in the ship's kitchen were filmed on 3 August; and scenes on the bridge were filmed from 6-8 August. The last day of filming was on 21 August 2007; cameo scenes by BBC reporters Jason Mohammad and Nicholas Witchell were filmed at BBC's broadcasting houses in Llandaff and London. ### Music Composer Murray Gold, arranger Ben Foster, and singer Yamit Mamo make cameo appearances as part of the ship's band. Mamo, primarily a soul singer, was approached by Gold after his friends saw her performing, and she unconditionally accepted his offer. She performed the songs "My Angel Put the Devil in Me" and "The Stowaway" on the third series soundtrack. The latter was specifically composed for this episode and was recorded in September 2007 at AIR Studios in London. The song features everyone who was present in the studios during recording as backing vocals. "The Stowaway" continues the tradition of a Christmas song from "The Christmas Invasion" ("Song for Ten") and "The Runaway Bride" ("Love Don't Roam"). The song was influenced by Irish folk music, and contrasts the upbeat "under deck" feeling with melancholy lyrics about unrequited love. A ten-minute suite of the episode's musical score was included on the fourth series soundtrack. The episode also features a new version of the theme tune during its credits, comparable to Peter Howell's version from the 1980s, which contains a new bass line, drums, and piano. ## Broadcast and reception ### Broadcast Overnight figures estimated that the episode's Christmas Day broadcast was watched by 12.2 million viewers. The final viewing figures were 13.31 million viewers with a peak of 13.8 million, the second highest audience for any programme during 2007: the episode of BBC soap EastEnders which aired after "Voyage of the Damned" was watched by 13.9 million viewers. The viewing figure is the highest for the new series, exceeding the previous record set by "Rose". The figure is also the highest for Doctor Who overall since 1979, specifically, the final episode of "City of Death". The episode's Appreciation Index rating was 86 ("excellent"), above the average score of 77 for drama programmes, and was the highest Index rating for any programme shown on terrestrial television on Christmas Day. Although not filmed in HD, the BBC aired it on BBC One HD, Wednesday 29 December 2010, having up-scaled the programme to HD and also including Dolby Surround sound. This is the first Doctor Who episode, filmed in SD, to have been up-scaled to HD for broadcast on television, and the second episode, overall, to be up-scaled from SD to HD, the first being the 2008 Christmas Special, "The Next Doctor", for the Blu-ray release of the Complete Specials Boxset. This special first aired in Canada on Space in April 2010. ### Criticism and review The episode was criticised by Millvina Dean, the last survivor of the 1912 Titanic sinking, who said: "The Titanic was a tragedy which tore so many families apart. I lost my father and he lies on that wreck. I think it is disrespectful to make entertainment of such a tragedy." A spokeswoman for the show said: "No offence was intended. 'Voyage of the Damned' is set on a spaceship called The Titanic and not a boat." The organisation Christian Voice expressed offence at the religious imagery of a scene in which the Doctor is lifted through the ship by robot angels, believing the messianic portrayal of the Doctor as "inappropriate". Gareth McLean, who reviewed a preview screening for The Guardian's TV and radio weblog, appreciated the episode's use of "the disaster movie template" and came to a favourable overall conclusion: "For the most part, The Voyage of the Damned is absolutely smashing." Its main flaw, in his view, was the "blank and insipid" acting of Kylie Minogue. James Walton of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode a positive review, summarising it as "a winning mixture of wild imagination and careful writerly calculation". Alex Clark of The Observer commented that the death toll was rather high, but she still thought the episode was "an oasis of cheeky nonsense and careless invention". Harry Venning of The Stage concluded his positive review of the episode by stating it "was well up to Doctor Who's impeccably high standards". Doctor Who Magazine placed two of the deaths in the episode in its list of the top 100 deaths in the history of the show. Bannakaffalatta's death, a self-sacrifice to save the Doctor's party, was placed in the "top 20 tearjerkers" category. Astrid's death was given the title of "Doctor Who's all-time greatest death scene", commenting it "ticks boxes in all of our main categories [(gruesome, scary, self-sacrifice, tearjerking, surprising)]", and "her death would truly make a glass eye cry." Tim Teeman of The Times gave the episode a negative review, stating that "It was boring, despite the endless dashing about and CGI flimflam." The Daily Mirror commented the episode had "some brilliant psychedelic Pink Floyd-esque imagery", "great baddies", and "neat jokes", but lamented that "the plot was a mess, consisting mostly of one hi-tech chase scene after another, and it descended into noise and bluster." ### DVD release The episode was first released in the UK on DVD in March 2008. The ten Christmas specials between "The Christmas Invasion" and "Last Christmas" inclusive were later released in a boxset titled Doctor Who – The 10 Christmas Specials'' on 19 October 2015.
14,992,524	Ålgård Line	1,093,220,004	Railway line in Rogaland, Norway	[ "1924 establishments in Norway", "3 ft 6 in gauge railways in Norway", "Closed railway lines in Norway", "Gjesdal", "Railway lines closed in 2001", "Railway lines in Norway", "Railway lines in Rogaland", "Railway lines opened in 1924", "Sandnes", "Standard gauge railways in Norway", "Ålgård Line" ]	The Ålgård Line (Norwegian: Ålgårdbanen) is a closed, but not abandoned, railway line between Ganddal and Ålgård in Rogaland, Norway. The 12.24-kilometer (7.61 mi) line was built as a narrow gauge branch line of the Jæren Line by the Norwegian State Railways (NSB) and opened in 1924. It runs through the villages of Foss-Eikeland and Figgjo in Sandnes to Ålgård in Gjesdal. Several proposals were made for the Ålgård Line to become the first part of the main line from Stavanger to Oslo, but instead the Sørlandet Line was connected to the Jæren Line in 1944. At the same time, the Ålgård Line was upgraded to standard gauge. The line had up to ten daily round trips with diesel multiple units, until passenger traffic was terminated in 1955. Freight traffic remained until 1988, when most of the line was abandoned in 1988, although 3 kilometers (2 mi) was used until 2001. The line is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration. The station at Figgjo has been converted to a museum, and the 3-kilometer (2 mi) section from there to Ålgård is used for recreational draisines. There have been proposals to reopen the line either as part of the Jæren Commuter Rail or the planned light rail for Greater Stavanger. ## Route The Ålgård Line runs 12.24 kilometers (7.61 mi) from Ganddal to Ålgård. The whole line was built with NSB's standard for main lines, with a maximum gradient of 1.5 percent and minimum curve radius of 300 meters (980 ft). It branches off from the Sørlandet Line (previously the Jæren Line) north of Ganddal Station, 18 kilometers (11 mi) south of Stavanger. When the line opened, Ganddal Station was located south of the creek Stokkelandselven, but it was moved further north in 1935 to simplify operations. The line continues over Stokkelandsevlen on a 7.5-meter-long (25 ft) bridge, and follows the creek until it reaches Foss-Eikeland, 3.43 kilometers (2.13 mi) from Ganddal. Foss-Eikeland had a 91-meter-long (299 ft) passing loop and a 40-meter-long (130 ft) platform. The station building was built in wood, had a single story and was 57 square meters (610 sq ft). After Foss-Eikeland, the line crosses Figgjo River on a 30-meter-long (98 ft) truss bridge. It passes Bråstein Station and continues up the steepest gradient at 1.5 percent to Figgjo Station. It had a 69-meter (226 ft) passing loop and a 50-meter-long (160 ft) platform, and a 97-square-meter (1,040 sq ft) single-story station building in wood. Ålgård Station was the largest on the line, with two tracks and a 120-meter-long (390 ft) platform, a 12.3-meter-long (40 ft) turntable and a 66-square-meter (710 sq ft) depot. The station was built in wood in two stories, and included living quarters for the station master. The line is, along with the Namsos Line, the only railway line in Norway to holistically employ Neoclassical architecture. All the original stations were designed by R. Werenskiold, who used a simplistic, wooden interpretation of the 1920s Neoclassicism. The station buildings at Figgjo and Ålgård have been preserved by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage. The line eventually received additional stops, and in 1955, there were stations at Holane, Vagle, Foss-Eikeland, Kalberg, Bråstein, Figgjo Fajanse, Figgjo, Figgjo fabrikker and Ålgård. Some trains operated to Sandnes Station, whilst others continued all the way to Stavanger Station. As of 1994, the line was intact and operational from Ganddal to Foss-Eigeland and the cement factory there. Here, an internal crane track has been welded across the line. From Foss-Eigeland to Figgjo, the track is intact. At Figgjo, a bridge has been demolished, and it is not possible to traverse that section. Except for a number of level crossings where the tracks have been asphalted over, the line remains intact to Ålgård. At Ålgård Station the tracks have been removed, but the station building and depot remains. The station at Foss-Eigeland has been converted to a church, while the station at Figgjo had been taken over by a wholesaler. The line has officially been closed, but has not been abandoned. The Norwegian National Rail Administration retains ownership and can in the future renovate the line for operation. ## History The first plans to build a railway line along the route of the Ålgård Line was as part of the main route between Stavanger and Oslo. In 1873, County Engineer Th. Sejersted proposed a line running through Høgsfjord, Dirdal, Hunnedalen, Sirdal and Hylestad and onwards through Telemark to Kongsberg. Through Rogaland, it would run further east than the Jæren Line, which was under construction from Stavanger to Egersund. When the plans for a Sørlandet Line—which would connect Stavanger to Oslo via Kristiansand—started to be developed in 1892, some of Sjersted's plans were reconsidered. On 27 September 1894, a committee was established to plan a branch from the Jæren Line to Ålgård. The following year, the committee recommended that a line be built branching from Orstad in Klepp, which would cost 348,000 Norwegian krone (NOK). Gjesdal Municipality offered NOK 60,000 of the capital, on the condition that NSB would build and operate it. The state, on the other hand, wanted the line to be private. Private railways were often largely or entirely owned by municipalities, counties and the state, but would operate independently of NSB, and the municipalities would carry the risk for operating deficits. A new committee was established in 1910, led by Mayor Sven Nilssen of Gjesdal, who was also director at Ålgårds Ullvarefabrikker. His company paid for traffic counting along the route, and the committee concluded that there was sufficient traffic to build a line. Two routes were proposed: one branching from Sandnes Station and one from Ganddal Station. The Ganddal alternative had lower investment costs, but would give higher operating costs; in 1913, investments were stipulated at NOK 787,800. Although NSB's board supported the line, construction was placed on hold. In 1919, local politicians proposed that the line be built administratively as part of the Jæren Line, but this was rejected by the government. Instead, the ministry wanted to again consider the Ålgård Line as part of the Sørlandet Line, and proposed that the Ålgård Line be built with standard gauge—which would be used for the Sørlandet Line—instead of the narrow gauge used by the Jæren Line. However, there would be no need for standard gauge until the Sørlandet Line was extended to Rogaland, so the line was planned to be built with narrow gauge track, but all other installations would be prepared for standard gauge. Siting of the Ålgård Line from Ganddal to Ålgård started in 1920. The final cost estimate was NOK 2.82 million and the plan was passed by Parliament on 20 July 1921, with construction commencing on 21 December. The construction was organized by Just Broch and led by Olaf Bakke. Between 200 and 250 people worked on the line during construction. Because of the recession, the railway works were seen as way to create jobs. Most of the workers came from Stavanger and nearly all had families to support. The first train to operate on the line went from Stavanger on 20 December 1924, with the official opening by Minister of Labour Lars Oftedal taking place when it reached Ålgård. The line became the last state-owned railway in Norway to be opened with narrow gauge. At the start, there were one or two daily round trips with steam locomotive-hauled trains. In the first year of operation, the line transported 18,500 passengers. The initial ticket price from Sandnes to Ålgård was NOK 1.50, compared to NOK 1 for a bus ticket. This was in part because NSB operated with a standard price based on the length of the line, and the line was longer than the corresponding roads. After a while NSB's board accepted that tickets be priced as if they were the length of the road, and the price was reduced to NOK 1.10. Because of competition from truck drivers picking up random passengers for NOK 0.75, the price was then reduced to NOK 0.80 in 1927. The line made a profit during until the late 1940s, after which it started to operate with a deficit. In the financial year 1948–49, the line transported 79,700 passengers. In 1923, Parliament voted for a plan for the Sørlandet Line to run via Bjerkreim instead of the city of Egersund, and then onwards via Gjesdal. This plan meant that the section from Ganddal to Stavanger would have dual gauge. During further planning, it became clear that the Gjesdal alternative, although 15 kilometers (9 mi) shorter, had a greater elevation difference than that needed for connecting the Sørlandet Line to the Jæren Line. This changed the NSB board's and Rogaland County Council's opinion, and the Jæren alternative was chosen. The final decision to build via Jæren was made by parliament in 1937. An inter-municipal railway committee was established in 1941. Led by Sigval Bergesen, it considered the possibility of extending the Ålgård Line towards Hunnedalen via Setesdalsheiene to Lunde in Telemark. The line would be built with a higher standard than the Sørlandet Line and have a shorter route, allowing travel time from Stavanger to Oslo to be reduced to four to five hours. A detailed plan was made for the extension from Ålgård to the county border with Telemark. To consider the proposal, parliament established a committee in 1949 to look at the various proposals. After considering the impact and value of the various railways that had been proposed in the 1940s, it recommended not building the Inner Trunk Line, as the expansion had been christened. In 1930, an NSB Class Cmb1 diesel multiple unit was taken into use, and the number of daily trips increased to four. On days with heavy traffic, it hauled a trailer, which was normally stationed at Sandnes Station. On 10 November 1935, the new Ganddal Station opened, simplifying the stopping at the station. During World War II, the multiple units were disused, and instead the trains were hauled with steam locomotives. From 1 May 1944, the line was converted to standard gauge, and NSB Class 14 multiple units were taken into use, running on wood gas until the end of the war. In 1945, there were four daily round trips, but at the start of 1946, the number of daily round trips increased to six, and from mid-1946, to ten. From 1947 to 1953, there were eight or nine daily round trips, and from 1953 ten. Class 14 was eventually replaced with NSB Class 86 and NSB Class 87 in 1953. By then, the driving time from Ålgård to Sandnes had been reduced from 38 to 25 minutes. In the 1940s and 1950s, several companies started a competing bus service. There were accusations that the route was cross-subsidized and that price dumping was occurring along the route from Sandnes to Ålgård. In the early 1950s, discussion started about closing the line, and on 1 November 1955, all passenger transport was terminated, after a decision in parliament on 26 May 1955. This is the line with the most frequent passenger traffic in Norway to have been closed. After it was decided that passenger transport on the railway was to be terminated, both NSB's bus division and other private companies, particularly Sverre Hage, wanted to have the concession to operate the line. Both established a bus services with a frequency as if the other operator did not exist. At the peak of the conflict, NSB's operations were at one point stopped by the police, although in the end, the concession was granted to them. As a response, Haga applied for concession to operate passenger transport on the railway, but this was denied by the authorities. The transfer to bus operations increased the ticket prices and travel time. Freight trains to the various industrial companies along the line remained until the 1980s, when traffic sank drastically. From 1988, the line was closed from Foss-Eigeland, although the line from there to Ganddal was kept for use for a cement factory. Until 2001 only the three first kilometers (two first miles) of the line were used, for transport of concrete structures, but then the Norwegian National Rail Administration stopped all traffic on the line. ## Heritage The non-profit organization Friends of the Ålgård Line (Ålgårdbanens venner) have preserved 3 kilometers (2 mi) of the line and Figgjo Station. The station has been converted to a museum, while the railway between Figgjo and Ålgård is used for renting out draisines. At Figgjo, there is a railway car and a shunter on display. ## Future Several local politicians have proposed re-opening the line and either making it part of the Jæren Commuter Rail or part of the planned light rail in Greater Stavanger. Additionally, the Norwegian National Rail Administration has supported a future re-opening of the line. Estimates show that the line has a traffic potential for 600,000 passengers per year. In a proposal from the National Rail Administration, the Ålgård Line is seen as a possible branch of the commuter rail, with stations at Vagle, Figgjo, Kongeparken and Ålgård. Without making any investments to the Sørlandet Line, it would be possible to extend the two hourly services that terminate at Sandnes to Ålgård. Ålgård is also a good location for a park and ride for European Route E39. However, the Ålgård Line would need a full upgrade, including new tracks, electric system and signaling. This would give a travel time from Ganddal to Ålgård of 10 to 12 minutes. The estimated cost of re-opening the line is NOK 500 million. The Center Party has proposed converting the line to a bus lane. The borough council of Figgjo has voted to convert the line to a bicycle path, but this has been rejected by the National Rail Administration. ## See also - List of gauge conversions - Narrow gauge railways in Norway
5,408,058	Lebanon in the Eurovision Song Contest	1,171,480,996	Lebanon and the Eurovision Song Contest	[ "Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest", "Lebanese music" ]	Lebanon has never participated in the Eurovision Song Contest. The country's broadcasting organisation, Télé Liban, was set to make the country's debut at the Eurovision Song Contest 2005 with the song "Quand tout s'enfuit" performed by Aline Lahoud, but withdrew due to Lebanon's laws barring the broadcast of Israeli content. ## 2005 contest On 21 October 2004, Ibrahim El Khoury, President Director General of Télé Liban, stated that Lebanon intended to make its debut at the Eurovision Song Contest 2005 in Kyiv, Ukraine. On 3 November 2004, it was announced that Aline Lahoud was internally selected by the network to represent Lebanon. Her orient-occident song "Quand tout s'enfuit", sung in French and written by Jad Rahbani and Romeo Lahoud, was chosen in mid-February. Lahoud was scheduled to present her song in the semi-final held on 19 May 2005. On 15 December 2004, Télé Liban announced that financial constraints forced them to withdraw from the contest, and denied reports that it was due to political conflicts with Israel. However, five days later, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) reached an agreement with Télé Liban and Lebanon was put on the official list of participants. In early March 2005, the official Lebanese Eurovision Song Contest website did not list Israel as a participant. After the EBU asked Télé Liban to resolve the issue within 24 hours or face disqualification, the site removed the complete list of participants and replaced the page with a link to Eurovision.tv, the official Eurovision website. Later that month, the EBU asked Télé Liban to assure that they would broadcast the entire contest, including the Israeli entry, without interruption. Télé Liban could not guarantee that request, so on 18 March 2005, it once again announced its withdrawal from the contest. Lebanese legislation prohibited the broadcast of Israeli content on Lebanese television networks. Télé Liban wrote on its website that it "is not permitted to broadcast the performance of the Israeli participant, thereby breaching the rules of the Eurovision Song Contest 2005" and forcing its withdrawal. Since Télé Liban withdrew almost three months after the 15 December "no consequence" withdrawal deadline, the broadcaster was penalised, losing its participation fee and was served with a three-year ban. ## Subsequent events With the three-year ban, Télé Liban was not eligible to re-enter the Eurovision Song Contest until 2009. In 2007, Lebanon-born singer Mika stated that he was interested in entering the contest for Lebanon in 2008, but for one of the other Lebanese television stations that would not be impacted by the ban, such as the Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International or Future Television. Neither broadcaster was a member of the EBU, but was eligible to join the organisation. His plans never came to fruition, and the country has not made any other attempt to join the contest following the expiration of the ban imposed on Télé Liban. Mika himself, however, did eventually become involved in Eurovision, as he was one of the hosts of the 2022 contest in Turin. ## Participation overview
1,907,113	1912 Atlantic hurricane season	1,162,735,500	Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean	[ "1910s Atlantic hurricane seasons", "1912 meteorology", "1912 natural disasters", "Articles which contain graphical timelines" ]	The 1912 Atlantic hurricane season was an average hurricane season that featured the first recorded November major hurricane (Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale). There were eleven tropical cyclones, seven of which became tropical storms; four of those strengthened into hurricanes, and one reached major hurricane intensity. The season's first cyclone developed on April 4, while the final dissipated on November 21. The season's most intense and most devastating tropical cyclone was the final storm, known as the Jamaica hurricane. It produced heavy rainfall on Jamaica, leading to at least 100 fatalities and about \$1.5 million (1912 USD) in damage. The storm was also blamed for five deaths in Cuba. Other tropical cyclones that left notable impact include the fourth and sixth hurricanes. The former brought rough seas and storm surge to portions of the Gulf Coast of the United States, leaving locally severe damage, particularly in Mobile, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida, totaling about \$39,000. One fatality occurred after a barge capsized. The sixth hurricane brought rough seas and heavy precipitation to northeastern Mexico and south Texas, with flooding reported inland. The storm left 15 deaths and about \$28,000 in damage. Overall, the tropical cyclones of this season collectively caused at least 122 fatalities and just under \$1.6 million in damage. The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 57, near the 1911–1920 average of 58.7. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here. ## Timeline ## Systems ### Tropical Storm One On June 7, ships in the Gulf of Mexico reported a low pressure area with a closed circulation about 100 mi (160 km) southeast of Port Eads, Louisiana. Initially, the storm moved slowly southeastward, before turning west-southwestward late on June 8. Strengthening slightly, the cyclone turned to the northwest by June 11. Around 12:00 UTC on the following day, a ship observed a barometric pressure of 995 mbar (29.4 inHg), the lowest known in relation to the storm. Based on this, maximum sustained winds were estimated at 70 mph (110 km/h). Early on June 13, the storm curved northeastward and made landfall near Franklin, Louisiana, around 05:00 UTC. The system slowly weakened and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the Outer Banks of North Carolina, while still at tropical storm intensity. By 12:00 UTC on June 16, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression. About 24 hours later, the depression dissipated about 150 mi (240 km) north of Bermuda. In Louisiana, heavy rainfall resulted in some flooding in inland areas. Precipitation in Georgia and South Carolina caused rivers to approach or reach flood stage, necessitating a flood stage warning at Cheraw, South Carolina, along the Pee Dee River. There, the Pee Dee River crested at 27.5 ft (8.4 m), about 0.5 ft (0.15 m) above flood stage. Some locations in eastern North Carolina reported strong winds, particularly at Fayetteville, where there was a "severe local storm". ### Tropical Storm Two A ship initially encountered this storm about 65 mi (105 km) north-northeast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas on July 12. The storm initially moved northwestward and strengthened slowly. Early on July 14, the cyclone turned west-northwestward. Later that day, a ship recorded a barometric pressure of 1,011 mbar (29.9 inHg), which was the lowest pressure in relation to the cyclone. Around 12:00 UTC on July 15, the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h), based on an observation from Savannah, Georgia. About three hours later, the storm made landfall near Darien, Georgia. The cyclone slowly weakened inland and fell to tropical depression status by 12:00 UTC on July 16. About twenty four hours, it dissipated over Mississippi. Prior to the storm's landfall, northeast storm warnings were issued from Jacksonville, Florida, to Charleston, South Carolina. At Tybee Island in Georgia, strong winds and abnormally high tides were reported. In Savannah, a wind speed of 49 mph (79 km/h) was reported. The storm resulted in minimal damage. ### Tropical Storm Three A tropical depression formed about 140 mi (230 km) east-southeast of Ocean City, Maryland, early on September 2. The depression drifted southward and reached tropical storm intensity later that day. Based on observations from ships on September 3, the cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,007 mbar (29.7 inHg). The storm then began moving southwestward at a faster pace. Late on September 5, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression and curved west-southwestward. Shortly after 06:00 UTC on September 6, the system made landfall near Midway, Georgia, with winds of 35 mph (55 km/h). About 12 hours later, the depression dissipated over southwest Georgia. The strongest wind speed associated with the storm was 37 mph (60 km/h) in Charleston, South Carolina. ### Hurricane Four A trough of low pressure in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico developed into a tropical depression about 60 mi (100 km) west-southwest of Cedar Key, Florida, on September 10. Shortly thereafter, the depression intensified into a tropical storm. Moving generally westward, the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale early on September 12. The cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) at 00:00 UTC on September 13, observed by a ship. Around this time, the hurricane began to curve northwestward. While approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States, the system weakened. At 08:00 UTC on September 14, the hurricane made landfall near Pascagoula, Mississippi, with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). A barometric pressure of 986 mbar (29.1 inHg) was observed at landfall, the lowest known in relation to the cyclone. The system quickly weakened to a tropical storm just four hours after landfall. Early on September 15, the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated over Tennessee. In Florida, the precursor to the hurricane brought heavy rainfall to Tampa, with 13.19 in (335 mm) falling there between September 7 and September 10. Hundreds of homes and numerous acres of agricultural lands were flooded. Throughout the area, many streets were washed out, disrupting street car service and commuting. In Pensacola, abnormally high tides caused severe damage. Wharves and small buildings used for storing fishing equipment washed away. About 20 barges were beached, strewing timber across the beach. Service via the Louisville and Nashville Railroad was briefly interrupted due to timber on a railroad bridge. Wind damage was relatively minor. A dance pavilion on Santa Rosa Island was partially deroofed, as was a hotel. Damage in Pensacola reached approximately \$25,000 (1912 USD). In Alabama, the city of Mobile in particular suffered impact from the storm. Some ships and vessels capsized in the Mobile Bay and Mobile River, including a \$2,000 barge, drowning a watchman. Winds destroyed a church, though wind damage was otherwise limited to downed street signs and fences. Overall, the hurricane caused \$39,000 in damage. ### Hurricane Five In late September, a cold front moved into the Gulf of Mexico. By October 3, a low pressure associated with the front developed. Initially extratropical, the low moved east-northeastward and crossed Florida on October 4. After entering the Atlantic early on October 5, the low began strengthening and soon reached the equivalency in intensity to a tropical storm. Around 00:00 UTC on October 6, the system transitioned into a tropical cyclone while situated about 260 mi (420 km) southeast of Cape Fear in North Carolina. Already a strong tropical storm, the cyclone intensified into a hurricane about six hours later. Late on October 6, a vessel observed a barometric pressure of 996 mbar (29.4 inHg), the lowest in relation to the stop. Based on this, it is estimated that the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph (150 km/h). The storm then began to execute a small cyclonic loop, which continued until early on October 8. By then, the cyclone was moving eastward and weakened to a tropical storm around 00:00 UTC on October 9. About 24 hours later, the system weakened to a tropical depression. At 18:00 UTC on October 10, the depression dissipated about 280 mi (450 km) northeast of Bermuda. Despite remaining well offshore during its tropical cyclone stage, a wind speed of 46 mph (74 km/h) was observed at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. ### Hurricane Six Observations from ships first indicated the presence of a tropical storm to the southeast of the Cayman Islands on October 11. Moving west-northwestward, the storm strengthened steadily, reaching winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) before making landfall near Cancún, Quintana Roo, early on October 13. The system weakened slightly over land and while situated in the Gulf of Mexico just north of the Yucatán Peninsula, but began re-intensifying later that day. By 12:00 UTC on October 14, the cyclone deepened into a Category 1 hurricane and then a Category 2 hurricane about 24 hours later. The hurricane made landfall on central Padre Island between Corpus Christi and Port Mansfield in Texas late on October 16 with winds of 100 mph (155 km/h), estimated based on a storm surge of 6 ft (1.8 m). A barometric pressure of 970 mbar (29 inHg) was estimated using the pressure-wind relationship. The system quickly weakened to a tropical storm early on October 17, several hours before weakening to a tropical depression. The storm dissipated early on October 18. Offshore Padre Island, the Mexican streamer SS Nicaragua capsized with a crew of 27. Thirteen people, including the captain, were rescued by personnel from the United States Life-Saving Service station in Port Aransas, though six other crew members were lost. Storm surge and abnormally high tides resulted in severe damage along the coast. Brazos and Padre islands were inundated for several hours, with several buildings being swept away. Considerable damage also occurred in due to strong winds and tides in Brownsville and Port Isabel. At the former, a number of windmills, trees, and poorly constructed buildings suffered some degree of damage. Brownsville and Raymondville broke daily rainfall records, with 6.34 in (161 mm) and 4.9 in (120 mm) observed on October 17, respectively. Many buildings were destroyed and several boats sunk after tides rose 6 ft (1.8 m) in less than 4 hours. Fifteen people died and damage reached more than \$28,000 (1912 USD). ### Hurricane Seven The Jamaica Hurricane of 1912 A low pressure area in the southwestern Caribbean Sea developed into a tropical storm by 06:00 UTC on November 11. Initially, the storm moved slowly northwestward, before eventually curving north-northeastward. Late on November 13, the cyclone intensified into a hurricane, based on a ship report. Slow intensification took place after classification as a hurricane, though after recurving toward northeastward, the storm began to quicken in strengthening. Early on November 17, the hurricane reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 115 mph (185 km/h). It continued north-northeastward and made landfall near Negril, Jamaica, around 12:00 UTC. At South Negril Point, a barometric pressure of 965 mbar (28.5 inHg) was observed, the lowest known in relation to the storm. The storm weakened after landfall and the trend continued after reentry into the Caribbean Sea. On November 20, the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm north of Jamaica. The system then westward across the Caribbean, before dissipating on November 22 about 115 mi (185 km) southwest of Grand Cayman. Heavy rainfall was reported in Jamaica. Several bridges were severely damaged in the northern and eastern portions of the island. Strong winds generated by the storm destroyed approximately 25% of banana trees, while telegraph lines were downed in a number of places. Railway lines were also heavily damaged by the winds and rain. Rough seas also lashed the island, with Savanna-la-Mar suffering near complete destruction and 42 deaths in that city alone. Across western Jamaica, roughly a hundred homes were destroyed, while 5,000 buildings were damaged or demolished. About 100 fatalities and \$1.5 million in damage occurred in Jamaica. Extensive flooding and five fatalities occurred in Cuba in the Guantánamo Bay area. ### Other systems In addition to the seven tropical storms, four tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm intensity. The first formed from an extratropical cyclone well to the southwest of the Azores on April 4. The depression moved southwestward until being by a frontal boundary on April 6. By September 25, another tropical depression developed from a formerly extratropical cyclone about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores. However, on September 27, the depression lost tropical characteristics again. The next tropical depression formed on October 17 to the southeast of Bermuda. Moving generally northwestward, the depression transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by October 21. The final non-developing depression formed from an extratropical cyclone to the west of the Canary Islands on November 7. The depression tracked generally westward before being absorbed by a frontal system on November 11. ## See also - 1900–1940 South Pacific cyclone seasons - 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons - 1910s Australian region cyclone seasons
66,898,850	Tolkien's prose style	1,164,075,118	Literary style in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth fiction	[ "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Middle-earth themes" ]	The prose style of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth books, especially The Lord of the Rings, is remarkably varied. Commentators have noted that Tolkien selected linguistic registers to suit different peoples, such as simple and modern for Hobbits and more archaic for Dwarves, Elves, and Riders of Rohan. This allowed him to use the Hobbits to mediate between the modern reader and the heroic and archaic realm of fantasy. The Orcs, too, are depicted in different voices: the Orc-leader Grishnákh speaks in bullying tones, while the minor functionary Gorbag uses grumbling modern speech. Tolkien's prose style was attacked by scholars of literature such as Catharine R. Stimpson and Burton Raffel in the 20th century. It has more recently been analysed more favourably, both by other novelists such as Ursula Le Guin, and by scholars such as Brian Rosebury and Tom Shippey. Where Stimpson called Tolkien's diction needlessly complex, Rosebury argues that even in the example she chose, Tolkien was as plain and simple as Ernest Hemingway. He analyses a passage where Merry has just helped to kill the Witch-King. Tolkien begins this in plain language, modulating into a higher register to deal with the echoes of ancient and magical history. ## Syntax and diction ### Plain as Hemingway In his lifetime, J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy writing, especially The Lord of the Rings, became extremely popular with the public, but was rejected by literary critics, partly on stylistic grounds. For example, Catharine R. Stimpson, a scholar of English, wrote in 1969 that Tolkien not only "shun[s] ordinary diction, he also wrenches syntax". She supported her argument by inventing what she asserted were Tolkienistic sentences such as "To an eyot he came." On the other hand, Burton Raffel, a Beowulf translator, asserted in 1968 that Tolkien wrote so simply, without the sorts of effect to be expected in a novel, that it did not constitute proper literature, though it worked as adventure story. In 1978, Michael Moorcock, in his essay Epic Pooh, criticized Tolkien for utilizing a comforting and unchallenging writing style reflective of a "conservative misanthropism", and in 2001, The New York Times reviewer Judith Shulevitz criticized his style’s "pedantry", saying that he "formulated a high-minded belief in the importance of his mission as a literary preservationist, which turns out to be death to literature itself." The scholar of humanities Brian Rosebury systematically replies to each item in Stimpson's attack, showing that Tolkien mostly uses plain modern English. He locates the three places where Tolkien uses "eyot", arguing that "island" could not in these instances be used instead without loss of meaning. In "Still there are dangerous places even before we come there: rocks and stony eyots in the stream", "islands" is possible, he writes, but "'eyot' more firmly suggests something small enough to be overlooked until one runs aground". All three, Rosebury writes, are unexceptional in 20th century syntax: "Ernest Hemingway could have written them". ### Justified grandeur Rosebury studies several examples of Tolkien's diction in The Lord of the Rings at length, citing passages and analysing them in detail to show what they achieve. One is the moment when the Hobbit Merry has helped to kill the Witch-King, the leader of the Ringwraiths, and finds himself standing alone on the battlefield. Part of the quoted passage runs: > And still Meriadoc stood there blinking through his tears, and no one spoke to him, indeed none seemed to heed him... And behold! there lay his weapon, but the blade was smoking like a dry branch that has been thrust in a fire; and as he watched, it writhed and withered and was consumed. > > So passed the sword of the Barrow-Downs, work of Westernesse. But glad would he have been to know its fate who wrought it slowly long ago in the North-Kingdom when the Dunedain were young, and chief among their foes was the dread realm of Angmar and its sorcerer king. No other blade, not though mightier hands had wielded it, would have dealt that foe a wound so bitter, cleaving the undead flesh, breaking the spell that knit his unseen sinews to his will. Rosebury writes that this begins with "essentially plain syntax", as if Merry were speaking; but "woven into the clauses" are subtle clues in the syntax, like "heed" rather than "notice", and the Hobbit's full name Meriadoc to stay in touch with the un-Hobbitlike "heroic tonality" of the passage. The first sentence of the second paragraph, he notes, heralds a shift of mood, as does the following "But glad would he have been", with effective use of inversion. Rosebury shows how awkward the uninverted form would have been: "But he who wrought it long ago ... would have been glad to know its fate." The passage ends with a powerfully musical sentence with assonances between "blade", "wield", "dealt" and so on; alliteration with "wield", "wound", "will"; memorable phrases like "unseen sinews"; and the immediacy of the present participles "cleaving...breaking", the implied "and" importantly suppressed. Rosebury states that the wide range of styles could have become an untidy mess, but the narrative is big enough to allow Tolkien to modulate gracefully between low and high styles. ### Simple but varied In 2001, the fantasy novelist Ursula Le Guin wrote a sympathetic account of Tolkien's prose style, arguing as Michael Drout writes that "the craftsmanship of The Lord of the Rings is consistent at all levels of construction, from the individual sentence to the macro structure of the journey, a repeated stress and release pattern". Allan Turner called Le Guin's contribution an "insightful though rather impressionistic appraisal"; he demonstrated with examples that Tolkien's style is both generally simple, using parataxis – sentences without subordinate clauses or causal conjunctions – and varied, adapted to the race and standing of the speaker, and using special stylistic effects at key moments in the story. Turner describes how Tolkien varies his style for the second eucatastrophe in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. At the moment when the horsemen of Rohan are beginning to tire, and the battle is hanging in the balance, their leader, Éomer, realises that he is looking not at the disastrous arrival of an enemy fleet of the Corsairs of Umbar, but at the unlooked-for arrival of Aragorn and Men of southern Gondor in captured ships: > And then wonder took him, and a great joy, and he cast his sword up in the sunlight and sang as he caught it. And all eyes followed his gaze, and behold! upon the foremost ship a great standard broke, and the wind displayed it as she turned towards the Harlond. Turner notes that the paratactic style here, with the repeated use of "and" in the manner of the New Testament, is "stylistically marked", indicating something out of the ordinary. Shippey calls such deliberate use of the conjunction, avoiding explicit logical connection, "loose semantic fit". Turner writes that readers experience the shift in style as "an impression of exalted register" because of the biblical association, even though Tolkien uses few unusual or archaic words in the passage. ## Characterisation by style From the 1990s onwards, novelists and scholars began to adopt a more favourable view of Tolkien's place in literature. The 2014 A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien in particular marked Tolkien's acceptance in the literary canon, with essays by major Tolkien scholars on style and many other aspects of his writing. ### Hobbits as mediators with the heroic The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia states that The Lord of the Rings makes use of several styles of prose, with discrete linguistic registers for different characters, peoples, and cultures. In its view, Tolkien intentionally creates a contrast between the simple modern style of the Hobbits and more archaizing language for the Dwarves, Elves, and Riders of Rohan. Further, the genre of the work begins with novelistic realism in the Shire, where the down-to-earth Hobbits live, climbing to high romance for the defeat of the Dark Lord Sauron, and descending to realism again for the return to the Shire. Further, it states, Tolkien avoids the expression of modern concepts when describing pre-modern cultures. Tolkien stated that he intentionally changed the speaking style of certain individual characters to suit their interactions with other characters, mentioning that "the more learned and able among the Hobbits", including Frodo, were "quick to note and adopt the style of those whom they met". The philologist and Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey explains that the Hobbits serve as mediators between the ordinary modern world and the heroic and archaic fantasy realm, making The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings readily accessible. Such mediation is effected early in The Lord of the Rings by having the Hobbits effectively present the archaic characters in their own way, as when Pippin "attempts a formal register" with the words "O Wise People!" on meeting the High Elf Gildor in the woods of the Shire. ### Ancient clashing with modern Shippey analyses some of the cultures that clash in the Council of Elrond. The Wizard Gandalf reports on what he heard from Gaffer Gamgee, a simple old Hobbit in the Shire: "'I can't abide changes', said he, 'not at my time of life, and least of all changes for the worst'". Shippey writes that his proverb-rich language speaks of psychological unpreparedness, and a sort of baseline of normality. Gaffer Gamgee's son Sam speaks slightly better in Shippey's view, with his "A nice pickle we have landed ourselves in, Mr Frodo", as he is refusing to see Mordor as anything bigger than "a pickle", the "Anglo-hobbitic inability to know when they're beaten". Gandalf then introduces the traitorous Wizard Saruman, his slipperiness "conveyed by style and lexis": > we can bide our time, we can keep our thoughts in our hearts, deploring maybe evils done by the way, but approving the high and ultimate purpose: Knowledge, Rule, Order... There need not be, there would not be, any real change in our designs, only in our means". Shippey comments that no other character in the book uses words so empty of meaning as "real", "deploring", and "ultimate", and that Saruman's speech contains several modern evils – betraying allies, preferring ends to means, W. H. Auden's "conscious acceptance of guilt in the necessary murder". Rosebury comments that Saruman has a "convincingly" wide repertoire of speaking styles: "colloquial, diplomatic, intimidatory, vituperative". In his view, Gandalf has both a broad range of diction and powerful rhetoric; he is able to deploy warm humour as well as irony; and he narrates, explains, and argues effectively. Given "his nomadic life, linguistic skill and far-reaching intelligence", he can vary his speaking style as widely as Tolkien's narrative, from relaxed Hobbit conversation to "exalted narration". Rosebury cites Elizabeth Kirk's remark that Tolkien uses each style not mainly to "define the individuality of the given speaker or situation, but to enact the kind of consciousness he shares with others who have a comparable stance before experience", but he suggests instead that often there is simply a "Common Speech" shared by Men, Elves, and Dwarves with not much to differentiate them. In comparison to these modern voices, Tolkien makes the other Council members speak in an "archaic, blunt, clearsighted" way. The leading Elf, Elrond, uses antique words like "esquire", "shards" (of a sword), and "weregild", along with "old-fashioned inversions of syntax", remarking for instance "Now, therefore, things shall be openly spoken that have been hidden from all but a few until this day". Other voices too are distinctively old: the Dwarf Glóin strikes a "heroic note" with his report of the Dwarf-King Dáin's defiant response to Sauron's messenger, who asks for news of a lost ring, and says that if Dáin does not do as he asks > "Refuse, and things will not seem so well. Do you refuse?" > > At that his breath came like the hiss of snakes, and all who stood by shuddered, but Dáin said: "I say neither yea nor nay. I must consider this message and what it means under its fair cloak." > > "Consider well, but not too long", said he. > > "The time of my thought is my own to spend", answered Dáin. > > "For the present", said he, and rode into the darkness. Shippey notes that the messenger's polite "things will not seem so well" comes over as a dire threat, while Dáin's "fair cloak" evidently means "foul body". The effect is to convey the Dwarves' "unyielding scepticism" in the face of danger. He concludes that most of the information given in the chapter is carried not by narrative but by linguistic mode: "Language variation gives Tolkien a thorough and economical way of dramatising ethical debate." ### Varied dialogue types for the enemy Rosebury writes that whereas some critics have asserted that the monstrous Orcs are represented as "working class", Tolkien had in fact created at least three types of Orc-dialogue for different ranks and tribes within their "closed militarist culture of hatred and cruelty"; and none of these is working class. He describes the Mordor Orc-leader Grishnákh as "comparatively cerebral", speaking "like a melodrama villain, or a public-school bully". Merry and Pippin are told: > "My dear tender little fools", hissed Grishnákh, "everything you have, and everything you know, will be got out of you in due time: everything! You'll wish there was more that you could tell to satisfy the Questioner, indeed you will: quite soon. We shan't hurry the enquiry. Oh dear no! What do you think you've been kept alive for? My dear little fellows, please believe me when I say that it was not out of kindness: that's not even one of Uglúk's faults." Anna Vaninskaya writes that the most modern idiom in The Lord of the Rings is used by the Orcs overheard by Frodo and Sam in Mordor. Tolkien gives them the speech of the twentieth century, whether as soldiers, functionaries in party or government, or "minor officials in a murderous bureaucracy". Gorbag says: > "I'm not easy in my mind. As I said, the Big Bosses, ay", his voice sank almost to a whisper, "ay, even the Biggest, can make mistakes. Something nearly slipped you say. I say, something has slipped. And we've got to look out. Always the poor Uruks to put slips right, and small thanks. But don't forget: the enemies don't love us any more than they love Him, and if they get topsides on Him, we're done too." She writes that Tolkien captures, too, "the clipped language of army dispatches": > "A message came: Nazgûl uneasy. Spies feared on Stairs. Double vigilance. Patrol to head of Stairs. I came at once." Also quite modern, she writes, is frustration with whatever headquarters is up to: > "Bad business", said Gorbag. "See here - our Silent Watchers were uneasy more than two days ago, that I know. But my patrol wasn't ordered out for another day, nor any message sent to Lugbúrz either: owing to the Great Signal going up, and the High Nazgûl going off to the war, and all that. And then they couldn't get Lugbúrz to pay attention for a good while, I'm told." ### Distinctive individuality Rosebury however considers that Tolkien's "most memorable success" of voice is the monster Gollum's "extraordinary idiolect", with its obsessive repetition, its infantile whining, its minimal syntax and its unstable sense of being one or two people, hinting at mental illness; "Gollum's moral deformity is like that of an unregenerate child grown old, in whom the unattractive infant qualities of selfishness, cruelty and self-pitying dependency are monstrously preserved and isolated." ### Visual imagination Rosebury writes that the "distinctive best" style in The Lord of the Rings is seen neither in dialogue nor in moments of action, but in "narrative that is at once dynamic and sensuously alert". He selects a passage from The Two Towers, stating that Tolkien's visual imagination here is "at its sharpest", and that he characteristically takes a static vantage point (in Ithilien), building up a panorama from there: > To the right the Mountains of Gondor glowed, remote in the West, under a fire-flecked sky. To the left lay darkness: the towering walls of Mordor; and out of that darkness the long valley came, falling steeply in an ever-widening trough towards the Anduin. At its bottom ran a hurrying stream: Frodo could hear its stony voice coming up through the silence; and beside it on the hither side a road went winding down like a pale ribbon, down into chill grey mists that no gleam of sunset touched. There it seemed to Frodo that he descried far off, floating as it were on a shadowy sea, the high dim tops and broken pinnacles of old towers forlorn and dark. ## The Silmarillion The Silmarillion, by contrast, is written in a compressed style, in which events are briefly documented as if in annals recording history and legend, rather than described with much focus on persons or the niceties of conventional storytelling. Shippey states that The Silmarillion comes across to the reader as a more distant and mythic work than The Lord of the Rings; there was in his view no place for humorously earthy Hobbits in the "more rarefied air" of that work. Many chapters have little in the way of dialogue, though "Of Túrin Turambar" is an exception. The cheerful informality of the Hobbits is lacking, making the work feel more difficult. Tolkien wrote elements of his legendarium, The Silmarillion sensu lato, throughout his life, and they vary substantially in style. The journalist Nicholas Lezard comments, for instance, that The Children of Húrin's prose style "is far from that breezy, homely donnishness that characterises The Hobbit and the first book of The Lord of the Rings". In his view, it starts "almost impenetrably" with "'Hador Goldenhead was a lord of the Edain and well-beloved by the Eldar. He dwelt while his days lasted under the lordship of Fingolfin, who gave to him wide lands in that region of Hithlum which was called Dor-lómin.' To which the unfamiliar reader may well ask: who? The who? The who? Who? And where?" He grants, however, that the work "does have a strange atmosphere all of its own". ## Shakespearean influence Michael Drout argues that the section of The Return of the King in which war comes to the land of Gondor, and its kingship comes into question, has a series of literary connections with Shakespeare's King Lear. - First, the hobbit Merry and the noblewoman Éowyn fight the Lord of the Nazgûl. The Nazgûl says "Come not between the Nazgûl and his prey", as the mad Lear says "Come not between the dragon and his wrath". - Further, the Steward of Gondor, Denethor calls his servants to help him burn himself and his heir Faramir to death with the words "Come if you are not all recreant!", where Lear calls Kent "recreant" for criticising Lear's handling of Cordelia; Drout notes that Tolkien uses the word only this once. - Éomer, seeing Éowyn apparently lifeless on the ground, is enraged: "'Éowyn, Éowyn!' he cried at last: 'Éowyn, how come you here? What madness or devilry is this? Death, death, death! Death take us all!'" while Lear rages "And my poor fool is hanged! No, no, no life? / Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life, / And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more / Never, never, never, never, never!" Drout comments that the passages share similar repetitions to express similar situations: loss of a female relative and madness. - Then, Imrahil proves Éowyn is alive by holding "the bright-burnished vambrace that was upon his arm before her cold lips, and behold! a little mist was laid on it hardly to be seen", while Lear says "Lend me a looking glass; / If that her breath will mist or stain the stone, / Why, then she lives". - Finally, Lear's fool speaks of "seven stars"; Gandalf of "Seven stars and seven stones / And one white tree". Drout comments that while some of these comparisons are in themselves inconclusive, the overall pattern is strongly suggestive. He adds that Tolkien's professed dislike of Shakespeare is well-known, he was certainly influenced by Macbeth and A Midsummer Night's Dream, and his use of King Lear for "issues of kingship, madness, and succession" is hardly surprising.
43,472,403	Watermill at Opwetten	1,143,477,017	Watermill in Nuenen, Netherlands	[ "1764 establishments in the Dutch Republic", "18th-century architecture in the Netherlands", "Buildings and structures completed in the 11th century", "Industrial buildings completed in 1764", "Nuenen, Gerwen en Nederwetten", "Rijksmonuments in North Brabant", "Watermills in North Brabant", "Watermills in the Netherlands" ]	The Watermill at Opwetten (Dutch: Opwettense watermolen) is a watermill along the river Kleine Dommel, located on the Opwettenseweg 203 in Opwetten, Nuenen, Gerwen en Nederwetten, in the province of North Brabant, Netherlands. First mentioned in the 11th century, the watermill burned down and was rebuilt in 1764. There have been several buildings in the watermill complex. One building was a gristmill and sawmill, while another functioned as oil mill and fulling mill. The mill operated two undershot water wheels, including the largest water wheel in the Netherlands. The gristmill is still in functioning order and is used on a small scale, the building of the former oil and fulling mill now houses a restaurant. A tannery was located in a building in the back and up to 1910 an inn was located in the miller's house. Vincent van Gogh lived nearby and made several paintings while in the area, including a painting of the mill in 1884. The watermill was listed as a national monument in 1972. ## History The gristmill was built in the early 11th century along the river Kleine Dommel, by monks of a Benedictine monastery in Sint-Truiden, Belgium. In the 14th century the mill was owned by the lords and ladies of the heerlijkheid Cuijk and Mierlo, and was a banmolen (nl), meaning peasants in the locality were obligated to use this mill to grind their wheat. In 1664 the mill partially burned down. It was rebuilt and, in order to recover from the losses, the miller did not have to pay taxes for the next 15 years. In 1764 another fire destroyed the entire mill, according to an ordenance from the States General after the miller requested assistance. The mill was rebuilt with the addition of a second water wheel. The larger building was a gristmill and the smaller building an oil mill. In 1909 a sawmill was added to the larger building, and for a period the smaller building also acted as a fulling mill. A plaque placed on the miller's house in 1973 to celebrate the 100th birthday of miller Gerardus van Hoorn commemorates both fires. Van Hoorn had known the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh, who lived in nearby Nuenen from 1883 until 1885. Van Gogh painted several paintings around the mill, including an 1884 painting of the mill itself, Water Mill at Opwetten (F48). In a video interview in 1973, Van Hoorn said that he had seen Van Gogh paint and had supplied him with bird nests for his paintings. The mill has had several names and during the first centuries it was known as the Saint Anthony Mill (Dutch: St. Antoniusmolen), named after a nearby chapel dedicated to saint Anthony the Great. From 1726 until it came into the possession of Gerardus van Hoorn in 1916, the mill was known as Jan's Mill (Dutch: Jansmolen). ## Description The Watermill at Opwetten is situated along the river Kleine Dommel. Diverted river water flows along a channel with force to drive two wooden undershot water wheels, connected to two buildings on either side of the channel. The buildings are made of painted wood on a brick foundation, with tiled roofs, and an extruding hatch covering the main entrance of the higher building. The gristmill, originally used to grind spelt, later ground bread wheat, and then a sawmill was added. It has a water wheel of 9.30 metres (30 ft 6 in) in diameter, consisting of 44 paddles of 80 centimetres (2 ft 7 in) width, which makes it the largest water wheel in the Netherlands. The gristmill is still in functioning order, and uses a pair of Cullen millstones from Mayen ("Cullen" for "Cologne", where such millstones were marketed from), and a pair of cast millstones, both 17 hands in diameter or 1.50 metres (4 ft 11 in). Only some remainders are left of the sawmill, including one of only two watermill circular saws in the Netherlands. Inside the larger mill is a room for the assistants of the miller, where the names of millers and their assistants have been carved in the wood. The oil mill and fulling mill used a water wheel of 7.50 metres (24 ft 7 in) in diameter and used 30 paddles with a width of 30 centimetres (1 ft 0 in). The oil mill was used to crush and press oil-bearing seeds to extract vegetable oils, and the fullingmill kneaded wool for hours or days in order to make it thicker. Both structures are completely gone, and only two edge stones posted outside remind of its former function as oil mill. It currently houses a restaurant. ## Modern day The mill was listed as a national monument (nr 30830) on 14 June 1972. The grounds are freely accessible. The gristmill is operated and open to the public on Sunday afternoon, and the restaurant is open every day of the week except on Mondays. The mill is located on the Opwettenseweg 203 in Nuenen, Gerwen en Nederwetten, in the province of North Brabant, Netherlands. The next mill upstream is the Collse Watermolen on the Kleine Dommel. The next mill downstream is the Hooidonkse Watermolen on the Dommel. In 2011, a full-size replica of the mill was built at the Binjiang Park in Nanjing, China. Together with replicas of three other Dutch monuments, it is part of the 'Van Gogh Friendship Park', in honour of the relationships between the sister cities of Eindhoven and Nanjing, and the sister provinces of North Brabant and Jiangsu. The mayor of Nanjing, Ji Jianye, visited the Watermill at Opwetten in 2012, during his visit to Eindhoven. ## See also Other mills in North Brabant: - Aalstermolen, in Aalst, Waalre - Molen van Aerden, in Nispen, Roosendaal
2,204,630	Lemon of Troy	1,173,481,156	null	[ "1995 American television episodes", "Lemons", "The Simpsons (season 6) episodes" ]	"Lemon of Troy" is the twenty-fourth and penultimate episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14, 1995. In the episode, the children of Springfield try to retrieve their beloved lemon tree after it is stolen by the children of Shelbyville. The episode was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Jim Reardon. For this episode, the animators designed a non-polluted version of Springfield. It features cultural references to the 1984 song "When Doves Cry", the 1981 film Mad Max 2, and the 1968 song "What a Wonderful World". The episode's title is a play on the name Helen of Troy from Greek mythology. The episode acquired a Nielsen rating of 8.1. The episode has garnered universal acclaim and is regarded as a classic episode of the show. ## Plot Marge lectures Bart on the importance of town pride after he writes his name in wet cement. Soon he realizes the joys of living in Springfield and is upset by anti-Springfield taunts coming from neighboring Shelbyville. Grampa explains this rivalry can be traced to the establishment of the two towns: Jebediah Springfield wanted a town which promoted chastity and abstinence, but Shelbyville Manhattan, founder of Shelbyville, was a proponent of cousin marriage. The next day, Springfield's lemon tree is stolen by a gang of boys from Shelbyville. Bart leads Milhouse, Nelson, Martin, Todd and Database to Shelbyville to find the tree and return it to Springfield. Bart's posse locates the tree in an impound lot where the leader of the gang that stole the tree lives. Using Ned Flanders' RV, Homer leads the boys' fathers to their sons in Shelbyville. The fathers and sons demand their tree be returned, but the owner of the impound lot taunts them and refuses to surrender it. Using a Trojan Horse strategy, Bart parks the RV outside a hospital, where it is impounded to the lot. When night falls, the Springfield men and boys emerge from the RV and tie the lemon tree to its top. The lot owner catches them but they manage to escape and return the tree to Springfield. In the aftermath, the town elders of Springfield and Shelbyville provide their own endings to the tale. In Springfield, Grampa lauds the triumphant return of the tree by the "heroes of Springfield"; Bart and Milhouse celebrate with a glass of lemonade made from a few drops of lemon juice (and a large amount of sugar). In Shelbyville, an old man makes up a story about the tree being haunted to cover the embarrassment of losing to their rivals in Springfield. The Shelbyville kids drink turnip juice instead, much to their disgust. ## Production Brent Forrester wrote "Lemon of Troy", his second episode of The Simpsons. Jim Reardon directed it. Early on in the production stage, the writers decided that the leader of the Shelbyville children, Shelby, and his father should be modeled after Bart and Homer. Shelby's voice was provided by Tress MacNeille, and Shelby's father was voiced by Hank Azaria, who based his performance on Walter Matthau as Dan Castellaneta originally based his performance of Homer on Matthau. The writers wanted to have the Springfield children find an area of Springfield that was not decimated, and the animators designed a version of Springfield that was very idyllic. They drew several scenes of the children running through non-polluted streams and woodlands. The animators gave Shelbyville's nature a more dark feeling in comparison to Springfield. ## Cultural references In the episode, Milhouse recites a slightly paraphrased line from Prince's 1984 song "When Doves Cry". In a scene referencing "The Lady, or the Tiger?" Bart identifies the number seven in Roman numerals by referring to a nonexistent sequel of the Rocky film series, Rocky VII: Adrian's Revenge. The scene with Bart and his team sitting on a hill above the enemy camp and looking down at the captured tree being circled by children on bicycles bears a resemblance to an early scene in Mad Max 2. The overall plot structure of Springfield residents attacking their neighboring rivals after they steal their prize possession is a reference to the legend of the Trojan War, in which the incentive for the Greeks declaring war on their Trojan neighbors is the abduction of their most famous and beautiful female citizen, Helen. The title of the episode is a play on her name. The method of recovery of the tree is an echo of the Trojan Horse. Homer complains that "Nobody cared when Bogart defaced that sidewalk in Hollywood", referring to when Humphrey Bogart was honored in a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theater to record his hand and footprints in cement in 1946. The scene where Milhouse envisions using his camouflage clothing to taunt the Shelbyville kids and all one can see is his smile and glasses is a reference The Cheshire Cat from Alice In Wonderland. ## Reception ### Critical reception Since airing, it has received universal acclaim from fans and television critics. Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons, called the episode a "classic" and said it is one of his favorites from the show. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said there was "some nice ideas in this episode—Bart and his chums all have near-doubles in Shelbyville—but this is a strangely pedestrian outing, and seems hidden away—wisely—at this point in the season." In a DVD review of the sixth season, DVD Verdict's Ryan Keefer said the episode "easily [is] one of the best of the season" and that it has "gotten more enjoyable since it first aired". He added that the episode is "full of everything that makes the show successful" and gave it an A rating. Entertainment.ie named it among the 10 greatest Simpsons episodes of all time. Nashville Scene named it the "perfect episode." ### Ratings and legacy In its original broadcast, "Lemon of Troy" finished 55th in the ratings for the week of May 11 to May 17, 1995, with a Nielsen rating of 8.1. The episode was the sixth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. In The A.V. Club, David Sims writes that "The 'rival opposite town' is a TV trope that feels very standard at this point, so it’s hard to remember that The Simpsons pretty much invented it. Obviously rival towns had existed before, in literature as well as TV, but Shelbyville is the beginning of an unforgettable comedy concept." The image of Shelby gloatingly eating the lemon, making his eyes water and lips pucker, has become a meme.
25,296,581	I Got You (Leona Lewis song)	1,148,247,635	null	[ "2000s ballads", "2009 songs", "2010 singles", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "J Records singles", "Leona Lewis songs", "Music videos directed by Dave Meyers (director)", "Pop ballads", "Songs written by Arnthor Birgisson", "Songs written by Max Martin", "Songs written by Savan Kotecha", "Syco Music singles" ]	"I Got You" is a song recorded by English singer Leona Lewis for her second studio album Echo (2009). It was written by Arnthor Birgisson, Max Martin and Savan Kotecha, with production helmed by Birgisson. The song is a pop and R&B ballad, whose instrumentation consists of guitars and synthesizers. It was released as the second and final single from Echo on 1 November 2009, by Syco Music and J Records. "I Got You" garnered mixed reviews from music critics; some praised Lewis' vocal performance and likened it to the structure of her cover of Snow Patrol's "Run", while others criticized it for not being memorable. A moderate commercial success, it peaked at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart, peaking within the top 40 in Austria, New Zealand, Slovakia and South Korea. An accompanying music video for "I Got You" was filmed at Venice Beach in Los Angeles and directed by Dave Meyers. The video revolves around couples who try to resolve their differences and arguments. In the video, scenes of Lewis performing in front of a heart engulfed in flames and sitting on an apartment floor barefoot are intercut. In the United States, Lewis performed the song live on the Late Show with David Letterman, whilst in the United Kingdom, she performed on multiple television shows, including So You Think You Can Dance, The Alan Titchmarsh Show and The National Lottery Draws. It was included on the set list of her debut tour The Labyrinth (2010). ## Recording, production and release "I Got You" was written by Arnthor Birgisson, Max Martin and Savan Kotecha for Lewis' second studio album, Echo (2009). Production of the song was helmed by Birgisson. It was recorded by Birgisson at Westlake Recording Studios, Los Angeles, California and The Vault, Stockholm, Sweden. Birgisson and Lewis both handled the vocal production. It was mixed by Phil Tan at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, and Damien Lewis served as the assistant engineer. Background vocals were sung by Vicky Sandström and guitar was provided by Esbjörn Öhrwall. "Heartbeat" was co-written by Lewis, Birgisson and Ina Wroldsen, with production of the song once again helmed by Birgisson. It was recorded by Chris Kasych at Chalice Studios, Los Angeles, California, and The Vault in Stockholm, Sweden. It was mixed by Manny Marroquin, Christian Plata and Erik Madrid at Larrabee Studios, Universal City, California. Strings were provided by Janson & Janson and the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, which were recorded by Marcus Bergqvist. Guitar was provided by Esbjörn Öhrwall. In the United States, "I Got You" was released to contemporary hit radio on 8 December 2009. In Europe, "I Got You" was released as an A-side and B-side, with "I Got You" as the A-side single, and "Heartbeat", a song which does not appear on any edition of Echo, as the B-side. It was released in Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom, for digital download on 19 February 2010. ## Composition "I Got You" is a pop and R&B ballad, which lasts for a duration of 3 minutes, 49 seconds. The song was composed in the key of G major using common time with a tempo at 104 beats per minute. Lewis' vocal range spans over two octaves, from the low note of G<sub>3</sub> to the high note of A<sub>5</sub>, on the song. It incorporates elements of adult contemporary music and contemporary R&B genres. Instrumentation consists of guitars and synthesizers. Fraser McAlpine for the BBC compared "I Got Yous structure to her cover of Snow Patrol's "Run". McAlpine noted that it follows the same four chord progression as "Run", and also is instrumentally complete with guitars. He also noted that Lewis performs the verses of "I Got You" quietly, and belts the chorus, like on "Run". ## Critical reception "I Got You" garnered mixed reviews from music critics. Peter Robinson for The Guardian wrote that "I Got You" "is an impressive distant relative of Bleeding Love". Leah Greenblatt for Entertainment Weekly praised "I Got You", along with "Happy", as they allowed Echo to redeem itself from the "soppy balladry and standard-issue dancery" present on the rest of the album. Greenblatt's only criticism was that "it can be difficult to connect with the woman who wields it." Mayer Nissim for Digital Spy awarded the song three stars out of a possible five; Nissim was complimentary of Lewis' vocal performance, which he described as "effortless" in the verses and that she belts out the chorus with "gusto." However, Nissim was critical of the song's production, writing that although Lewis sings with conviction, it is not as memorable as other ballads. He continued to write that her voice will allow the song to chart fairly well, and that she should collaborate with other producers to make more memorable songs. Fraser McAline for the BBC awarded the song three stars out of a possible five; McAlpine noted that although Lewis is able to provide "some kind of musical movement, by wandering off the path set down by the song," he was critical of the song's structure, and labeled it "lazy." ## Chart performance "I Got You" failed to achieve commercial success, and managed to peak inside the top 50 singles charts in most regions. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 127 on the UK Singles Chart on 6 February 2010, two weeks before its release as single. It debuted inside the official top 40 at number 40 on 27 February 2010, and leaped to its peak position of number 14 the following week. It managed to attain more success on the UK R&B Chart; it debuted inside to top 40 R&B singles at number 40 on 6 February 2010, and reached its peak of number three on 6 March 2010. In Ireland, "I Got You" debuted at number 47 on 25 February 2010, and reached a peak of number 43 the following week. Elsewhere, "I Got You" peaked at number 30 in Austria, number 20 in the Flanders region of Belgium, number 13 on the singles chart and number 30 on the airplay chart in the Wallonia region of Belgium, number 43 in Germany, number 29 in New Zealand, and number 57 in Switzerland. In South Korea, "I Got You" peaked at number 15 on the international chart, placing at number 138 on the 2010 year-end Download chart, with 92,744 units sold. ## Music video The song's accompanying music video was directed by Dave Meyers, and shot at Venice Beach, California on 21 December 2009. The content of the video revolves around "several couples as they deal with the ups and downs of relationships." Prior to the release of the video, Lewis tweeted "It's a strong, cool performance, lots of actors with a movie feel to it. I'm so proud of it and hope you love it – enjoy!" The video was released on 12 February 2010. In the video, scenes of Lewis performing in front of a heart engulfed in flames, as well as sitting on an apartment floor barefoot, are intercut throughout the video amongst the narrative of the video. The video shows several couples ending their relationships, showing many of them are who angry and cannot cope with the heartbreak, but progresses to show how they manage to rebuild their relationships with one another, ending with images suggesting healing, happiness and new relationships. ## Live performances Lewis performed "I Got You" for the first time at a one-off private concert at the Hackney Empire in London, United Kingdom, on 2 November 2009, which served as a taster show to Lewis' The Labyrinth (2010). On 2 December 2009, the singer performed the song on The National Lottery Draws. The following day on 3 December 2009, Lewis on the BBC Radio 2 show Live Sessions with Ken Bruce, as part of a set list which included "Bleeding Love", "Better in Time", "Happy" and her own cover of Oasis's "Stop Crying Your Heart Out". On 15 December 2009, to coincide with the song's radio release in the United States, Lewis performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman. On 21 January 2010, Lewis appeared on BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge where she performed "I Got You" as well as covering Oasis' "Stop Crying Your Heart Out" for a second time, and also gave an interview as to why she decided to cover that song. On 6 February 2010, Lewis performed "I Got You" on the semi-final of So You Think You Can Dance on 6 February 2010. Lewis also performed the song to coincide with the official release in the UK on GMTV on 22 February 2010, Promotion of the song ended with a performance and interview The Alan Titchmarsh Show on 26 February 2010. In late May 2010, the song was included in the setlist for Lewis' first concert tour, The Labyrinth. ## Track listing Digital Download 1. "I Got You" – 3:46 2. "Heartbeat" – 3:51 ## Credits and personnel ### "I Got You" Recording - Recorded at Westlake Recording Studios, Los Angeles, CA; The Vault, Stockholm, Sweden. - Mixed at Soapbox Studios, Atlanta, GA. Personnel - Production – Arnthor Birgisson - Vocal recording – Arnthor Birgisson - Vocal production – Arnthor Birgisson, Leona Lewis - Mixing – Phil Tan - Additional engineering – Damien Lewis - Background vocals – Vicky Sandström - Guitar – Esbjörn Öhrwall ### "Heartbeat" Recording - Recorded at Chalice Studios, Los Angeles, CA; The Vault, Stockholm, Sweden. - Mixed at Larrabee Studios, Universal City, CA. Personnel - Production – Arnthor Birgisson - Vocal recording – Chris Kasych - Mixing – Manny Marroquin, Christian Plata, Erik Madrid - Strings – Janson & Janson, Czech National Symphony Orchestra - String recording – Marcus Bergqvist - Guitar – Esbjörn Öhrwall "Heartbeat" credits adapted from "I Got You" CD single, and "I Got You" credits adapted from the liner notes of Echo, Syco Music, J Records, Sony Music. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history
1,673,939	Prince of Wales (1786 ship)	1,167,034,535	Transport ship in the First fleet	[ "1779 ships", "Age of Sail merchant ships", "Barques of Australia", "Captured ships", "Liverpool slave ships", "Merchant ships of the United Kingdom", "Privateer ships of Great Britain", "Ships built in Rotherhithe", "Ships of the British East India Company", "Ships of the First Fleet", "Whaling ships" ]	Prince of Wales was a transport ship in the First Fleet, assigned to transport convicts for the European colonisation of Australia. Accounts differ regarding her origins; she may have been built and launched in 1779 at Sidmouth, or in 1786 on the River Thames. Her First Fleet voyage commenced in 1787, with 47 female convicts aboard, and she arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788. On a difficult return voyage in 1788–1789 she became separated from her convoy and was found drifting helplessly off Rio de Janeiro with her crew incapacitated by scurvy. After Prince of Wales' return to Britain her owners deployed her as a whaler in the South Seas fisheries. She was later used as a privateer under a letter of marque, before performing a voyage as a slave ship. After a period under French control, she returned to Britain and was used to carry trade goods between London, the West Indies and the Mediterranean. The last records of her existence date to 1810; her fate thereafter is unknown. ## Origins Prince of Wales was a square-sterned barque measuring between 300 and 350 tons burthen, being 103 feet (31 m) long and 31 feet (9.4 m) wide and with a height between decks of 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m) amidships and 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) fore and aft. Sources vary as to her origins. By one account, she was built in 1779 at Sidmouth, as a West Indiaman under the command of ship's master James Johnston. By another account, she was built on the River Thames in 1786, by the firm Christopher Watson and Company of Rotherhithe, which had also built HMS Sirius. Both accounts give her initial owner as Cornhill merchant John Mather, who had previously purchased and disposed of Captain Cook's Endeavour after that vessel had returned from Botany Bay. A Lloyd's Register entry from 1787 also records that Mather owned a vessel named Hannibal, which had been renamed from Prince of Wales. ## Voyage to Australia The South London shipbroker William Richards contracted Prince of Wales in 1787 for the First Fleet voyage. Richards selected her after consultation with Royal Marine officers Watkin Tench and David Collins. Both officers would sail with the Fleet to Australia, Tench as a captain of marines, and Collins as judge-advocate for the new colony. She was the second-smallest of the First Fleet transports after Friendship, and the last to be contracted to join the voyage. The Navy Board assigned Prince of Wales to the First Fleet on 2 March 1787 under the immediate command of ship's master John Mason, and the overall command of naval officer and future Governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip aboard Sirius. She was the last transport added to the Fleet before it sailed. She left Portsmouth on 13 May 1787 with a crew of around 25. She was in company with the other vessels of the Fleet: five transports, three storeships, and two Royal Navy vessels. The 24-gun post ship HMS Hyaena accompanied the Fleet through the Channel as fleet escort, departing when the ships reached Atlantic waters. Prince of Wales arrived in Tenerife on 5 June, where she was resupplied. A second resupply took place in August in the Portuguese port of Rio de Janeiro, including the delivery aboard Prince of Wales of quantities of fresh fruit and vegetables, seeds, and some rum for the marines. Prince of Wales then turned southeast with the Fleet, reaching Cape Town in October and entering the Great Southern Ocean on 13 November for the last leg of the voyage to Australia. The first death among the crew occurred on the night of 24 November when a seaman fell overboard from the topsail yard and could not be rescued. A week later a second seaman, Yorgan Younginson, drowned after being washed overboard in heavy seas. By mid-December the ship's supply of flour and butter for the voyage had been exhausted and Philip authorised Mason to broach the stores set aside for the future colony in order to continue to feed the convicts. A month later, on 20 January 1788, Prince of Wales reached Australia's Botany Bay. Six days later she sailed for Sydney Cove as part of the relocation of the convict settlement to Port Jackson. Leaving Botany Bay she collided with Friendship, losing her mainmast staysail and topsail, but the damage was swiftly repaired and she was able to enter Port Jackson in line with her fellow transports. There she landed 49 convicts, 31 marines and 23 civilians. ### Convicts Prince of Wales carried 49 female convicts on departure from Portsmouth. After five days at sea, 2 males were also brought across from Scarborough via Sirius, ringleaders of a failed mutiny. They remained aboard Prince of Wales for the remainder of the voyage to Australia. Convict health was comparatively good during the voyage, with a report by Governor Philip showing only nine cases of illness aboard Prince of Wales by the time she reached Tenerife, the least for any First Fleet transport. Indeed, Phillip wrote to Admiralty advising that "the convicts are not so sickly as when we sailed," though the women aboard Prince of Wales had no new clothing and were still in the ragged apparel they had worn in prison. There was no ship's surgeon aboard but Chief Surgeon John White, periodically came on board from Sirius when weather and sailing conditions permitted. As the Fleet headed toward Rio in July, humid conditions and heavy rains generated a "plague of bugs" below decks with more than a hundred insects found in one small sleeping area alone. There were also reports of rats, fleas and lice, and an outbreak of scurvy in late December. Despite this, serious illness remained rare and the first convict death was from accidental causes rather than disease. On 24 July the ship's longboat fell from a boom and struck 22-year-old Jane Bonner in the head; she died from her injuries six days later. A second convict, John Hartley, died of unknown causes on 5 August. The fact that Hartley was flogged, as punishment for the alleged planned mutiny, may have contributed to his poor health and subsequent death. These two deaths compared favourably with those on other transports, particularly Alexander; Alexander recorded 30 deaths, a consequence of overcrowding and an overflowing bilge. Convict discipline was also well maintained, except for prostitution between the female convicts and the crew, which was rampant on Prince of Wales, Friendship and Lady Penrhyn. The first recorded punishment of a convict aboard Prince of Wales was in October 1787, nearly nine months after she had sailed; six lashes for a woman caught stealing from her fellows while they were "at prayer." ### Marines The ship also carried a contingent of 31 marines of the New South Wales Marine Corps, comprising lieutenants Thomas Davey and Thomas Timins, five non-commissioned officers, and 24 privates. Sixteen of the marines embarked with their wives, and there were six children. Discipline was poor. In June 1787 two marines were court-martialed for disobeying orders; one received 300 lashes. Later in the voyage, two sergeants refused to share a mess after one insulted the other's wife. Drunkenness was also common. In June one drunken marine sergeant fell through an open hatchway and injured the pregnant wife of another marine, for which offence he was placed in legcuffs for two weeks and then transferred to Alexander. Then in late October, First Lieutenant James Maxwell, who had recently transferred aboard from Charlotte, was found incoherently drunk on duty and promptly returned to Charlotte. Two more children were born to the wives of marines during the voyage. In October 1787 the wife of marine drummer Benjamin Cook died from an unspecified illness and was buried at sea after a brief ceremony. James Scott, a Sergeant of Marines, wrote an account of the voyage in his journals, now held at the State Library of New South Wales ### Return to England Prince of Wales remained anchored in Sydney Cove for five months after her voyage, while her stores were unloaded. A shipboard inspection during this time found her hull was rotten with shipworm and on 23 May 1788 she was careened on the beach for repairs. In July she was released from government service and set sail for England on the 14th of that month, in convoy with her First Fleet sister ships Alexander, Borrowdale and Friendship, and under the overall command of Lieutenant John Shortland in Alexander. The plan was that the convoy sail north to rendezvous at Lord Howe Island, then set a course broadly parallel to the Great Barrier Reef with the aim of reaching the Dutch port of Batavia. From there the convoy would sail west through the Sunda Straits to the Cape of Good Hope, then north through the Atlantic to England. This route was comparatively well mapped – the first part largely mirroring that of James Cook in his first voyage in the Pacific from 1768 to 1771, and the remainder from Batavia being the traditional route of Dutch East Indiamen returning to Europe. Shortland estimated the voyage would take the convoy between six and ten months. This navigation plan was abandoned when both Prince of Wales and Borrowdale lost sight of Alexander and Friendship during a severe storm in late July, and found themselves alone and off course by the time the weather cleared. The two lost ships anchored while their masters, John Mason in Prince of Wales and Hobson Reed in Borrowdale, consulted. Neither considered it likely they could reach the Lord Howe Island rendezvous. They were also reluctant to hazard the voyage to Batavia through the Great Barrier Reef without Alexander in the lead. Instead, they agreed to turn their ships southeast into the open ocean and to return to England by sailing the other way around the world, via Cape Horn and Rio de Janeiro and then northeast across the Atlantic to Europe. The Pacific weather proved favourable but by August the two ships had lost sight of each other and continued their voyage separately. On 23 August Prince of Wales rounded Cape Horn alone and headed northeast and north on a path to Rio. Throughout the voyage her crew had been heavily reliant on a diet of salted meat and by early September scurvy had incapacitated the majority. Mason died from the condition on 9 October, and another 13 men were too ill to leave their bunks. When Rio was finally sighted on 13 October the crew were too sick to bring the ship to port. She drifted helplessly in the outer harbor until Rio's harbourmaster sighted her the following morning and had additional seamen rowed out to assist. Twelve of Prince of Wales' sickest crew members were hospitalised in Rio while the remainder recovered on board. A resupplied Prince of Wales set sail from Rio on Christmas Day 1788, completing an uneventful final leg to reach Falmouth in England on 25 March 1789. Despite the delays of disease, weather and an unfamiliar route, she was the first of the Fleet to return home, two months ahead of Alexander which did not reach England until 28 May. ## Whaler Between 1790 and into 1793-4 Mather & Co. employed Prince of Wales as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries, under the command of Captain F. Bolton. In 1790 she left for the Brazil Banks and Africa Grounds, but returned in November. By 10 August 1791 she was "All well" at Walwich (Walvis) Bay. In April 1792 Prince of Wales returned to England; she sailed again in July. She sailed around Cape Horn to Peru, but returned to England by late in 1793. ## Privateer Mather & Co. sold Prince of Wales to Clayton Tarleton in 1793. Tarleton armed her with twenty 6-pounder guns and placed her under the command of William Scales. Scales received a letter of marque on 1 March 1793. The letter indicated that Prince of Wales had a crew of 100 men, many more than she needed to sail her, suggesting that Tarleton intended her to sail as a privateer. Prince of Wales departed on a cruise and on 7 April she captured the French merchant vessel "Le Federatis", which was sailing from Cap-François to Bordeaux with a cargo valued at £40,000, or £32,000. Prince of Wales brought her prize into Hoylake a week later. Plans changed, and Tarleton appointed Captain James Thomson (or Thompson) to command of Prince of Wales, with the intent of sailing her on the Liverpool-Africa trade, i.e., as a slaver. James Thomson received a letter of marque on 4 September 1793. His letter indicated that he would have a crew of 40 men. In late 1793, Thompson sailed from Viana (probably Viana do Castello, Portugal), for Dartmouth, in company with Somme. On 8 October he captured Maryland, which was sailing from Baltimore to Bordeaux with a cargo of coffee, sugar, and barrel staves. He sent her into "Montserrat". In December he recaptured Best, which had been sailing from Lancaster to the West Indies when a French man-of-war had captured her. Thompson brought Best into the Mersey. On 1 January 1794, Thomson spoke with a ship that was sailing for Botany Bay. The ship had encountered a French privateer, of 14 guns, which the British ship managed to drive off after an engagement that lasted almost two hours. Reportedly, Prince of Wales went on to recapture a British brig that a French 74-gun ship of the line had captured. Prince of Wales sent the brig into Oporto. However, this may have been Best. Lastly, in early 1974, Prince of Wales captured and brought in Flugen, of Malmö, which had been carrying wine, brandy, and bale goods from Bordeaux to Saint-Domingue. ## Slaver and capture Later in 1794 a new captain replaced Thomson. Radcliffe Shimmin received a letter of marque on 11 June 1794. A database of slave voyages by Liverpool-registered ships also names Shimmin as master of Prince of Wales. He sailed from Liverpool on 7 July 1794. Shimmin's voyage was ill-fated. Lloyd's List reported that as Prince of Wales was approaching Barbados, having sailed from West Africa for the West Indies, she encountered a French privateer. The privateer, possibly fitted out in Baltimore, was armed with 28 guns and carried a crew of 300 men. She captured Prince of Wales and took her into Saint Thomas, then a Danish colony, and hence neutral. Shimmins had embarked 359 slaves and Prince of Wales landed 328 at St Croix, for a loss rate of 8.6%. The capture took place in late 1794 or early 1795. Unsurprisingly, there is no listing for Prince of Wales in Lloyd's Register in 1796. ## British merchantman What is perhaps more surprising is that Prince of Wales returned to British ownership. Her master is Andrews, her owner Bartly, and her trade London-Martinique. The process by which she returned to British ownership is currently obscure, but one suspects that the Royal Navy recaptured her in the West Indies, but so far evidence for the conjecture is lacking. Barclay and Co. sailed Prince of Wales between the West Indies and London, and particularly Martinique and London, from 1797 to 1800.Lloyd's Register for (1800) shows that she underwent repairs in 1798 and a good repair and damages repaired in 1800. Her master changed from Andrews to Fairbridge, and her trade changed from London transport to London–Grenada. In 1801 Lloyd's Register recorded her owner as Fairbridge & Co., and her trade became London–Mediterranean. Fairbridge also upgraded her armament to six 6-pounder guns. Lloyd's Register for 1805 recorded her master as Stoker and her trade as London–St Vincent. Prince of Wales also received a large repair and new deck and sides in 1804. She was still listed as sailing in 1810. The Register of Shipping for 1810 gives the name of her master as Mathewson, her owner "M-rdeau", and her trade as London–Memel. She had undergone a thorough repair in 1808. Both Registers give her launch year as 1779, at Sidmouth. Confusion about her origins continues in 1815. The Register of Shipping gives a launch year of 1799 at Sidmouth, but with her having been rebuilt in 1786. Her master is S. Robson, her owner is Fenwick, and her trade is London–Quebec. Lloyd's Register gives her place of launch as the Thames River and has no launch date. It gives her master as S. Robson, her owner as Fenwick, and her trade as London transport. ## Lloyd's Register Lloyd's Register is only as accurate as the information owners gave it, and there are discrepancies between the entries for vessels and information from other sources. That said, there is generally a strong correspondence between the information in Lloyd's Register, and other sources, at least with respect to Prince of Wales. ## See also - Journals of the First Fleet - List of convicts on the First Fleet
6,096,324	A Tale of Two Cities (Lost)	1,169,650,601	null	[ "2006 American television episodes", "Lost (season 3) episodes", "Television episodes directed by Jack Bender", "Television episodes written by Damon Lindelof", "Television episodes written by J. J. Abrams" ]	"A Tale of Two Cities" is the third season premiere, and 50th episode overall, of the American Broadcasting Company (ABC)'s serial drama television series Lost. The episode was written by co-creators/executive producers J. J. Abrams and Damon Lindelof, based on a story by Lindelof and directed by executive producer Jack Bender. The episode begins with the introduction of Juliet Burke (Elizabeth Mitchell) and The Barracks. The character of Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox) is featured in the episode's flashbacks. This is the only episode of the series other than the pilot to have been co-written by J. J. Abrams. When the episode first aired on October 4, 2006, in the United States, it was watched by an average of 19 million American viewers, making it the fourth most watched episode of the week. It premiered to generally positive reviews, with many praising Mitchell's new character. ## Plot ### Flashbacks In Jack's flashbacks, Jack is going through a divorce from his wife Sarah (Julie Bowen). He demands to know who she has been dating, but she refuses to tell him, so he spies on her and steals her cell phone. He proceeds to call every number in her phone, and his father Christian Shephard's (John Terry) cell phone rings. After following Christian to an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting, Jack accuses him of sleeping with his wife and physically attacks him. After Jack is arrested, Sarah pays his bail. She tells him she only spoke to Christian to get help for Jack, and also tells Jack that he now [he has] something to fix." She then leaves with an unidentified man, revealing Christian was never the other man. ### On the Island New character Juliet Burke (Elizabeth Mitchell) prepares for a book club meeting in a modern suburban home. The club is in a heated discussion of Stephen King's Carrie, when they are interrupted by what sounds like an earthquake. The group leaves Juliet's house and Ben Linus (Michael Emerson), previously known as "Henry Gale" to the survivors, appears along with Ethan Rom (William Mapother), looking up to watch Oceanic Flight 815 break apart in mid-air. Ben quickly orders Goodwin (Brett Cullen) and Ethan to join the survivors, stay undercover, and provide "lists in three days." The camera zooms out to reveal that the suburb is actually on the Island and is inhabited by The Others, while in the background the smoke trail of the midsection and tail section of Flight 815 can be seen. Back in the present, Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) wakes up on the floor of a locker room. Tom (M. C. Gainey) allows her to have a shower and afterwards, forces her to change into a dress, after which she is led to an elegant breakfast on the beach with Ben, who tells her to put on handcuffs before she can eat. She asks him why he is doing this, and he tells her that he wanted to give her something pleasant to remember, as the next two weeks will be "very unpleasant". James "Sawyer" Ford (Josh Holloway) wakes up in a cage in the jungle. A teenager, Karl (Blake Bashoff), in a nearby cage initially ignores Sawyer but then later expresses interest in Sawyer's camp and unlocks his cage then Sawyer's. However, they are both caught and Tom makes Karl, who is now beaten and bloody, apologize to Sawyer before taking the teen away. Sawyer figures out the mechanical puzzle in his cage, though Tom says it "only took the bears two hours." Kate is then put in Karl's (now empty) cage. Jack wakes up in a cell in the Hydra Station, where Juliet gently interrogates him. At one point Jack attacks her and attempts to escape, holding an improvised weapon at her throat. He orders her to open a door, but she refuses to comply, claiming that doing so would kill them both. Ben appears and agrees that opening the door will kill them all. Jack throws Juliet away, and then opens the door. As Ben dashes back through the door he came in, water starts rushing into the hallway. Juliet helps Jack struggle into an adjoining room, tells him to push a button which she had previously mentioned was for emergencies. He does so and she knocks him unconscious. When he awakes, she shows Jack a file which she says contains documents about his entire life. Juliet asks Jack if he has any questions about Sarah. After a pause, he asks, "Is she happy?" Juliet replies yes, and walks outside, and Ben congratulates her on a job well done. ## Production ### Casting "A Tale of Two Cities" was the first episode to introduce the character of Juliet. The actress who plays her, Elizabeth Mitchell, was cast in late July 2006 as a new series regular, who was meant to be a possible love interest for Jack. Mitchell has commented her first or second day of shooting was the opening sequence, when the Others watched Oceanic 815 fall out of the sky. When she first met actor Matthew Fox they briefly introduced themselves, but most of their initial conversation was in regard to the script and their characters. Mitchell found this helpful while shooting the premiere's scenes, since then they knew the other as their characters, and not as Matthew and Elizabeth. The scene in which Jack yells at Juliet, and she responds "No Jack, I think you're stubborn", was used as her audition scene. One of the Others, Amelia, was played by the elderly Julie Adams, who was the protagonist in Creature from the Black Lagoon. Previous guest actors William Mapother, Julie Bowen, M. C. Gainey, Brett Cullen, and John Terry made brief appearances in the episode. The premiere marked the first appearances of recurring guest actors Blake Bashoff and Stephen Semel. In addition to Mitchell's new billing, only four other characters of star billing appeared in the episode: Michael Emerson, depicting Ben Linus, was promoted to a main character for the third season; the other three were Matthew Fox playing Jack Shephard, Evangeline Lilly as Kate Austen and Josh Holloway as Sawyer. Henry Ian Cusick was also promoted to a main character as Desmond Hume, along with new characters Nikki and Paulo, played by Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro respectively. Malcolm David Kelley (Walt Lloyd), Harold Perrineau (Michael Dawson), Michelle Rodriguez (Ana Lucia Cortez), and Cynthia Watros (Libby) were no longer credited as main characters after each of their characters were written out at the end of the previous season. ### Writing Co-creators and executive producers Damon Lindelof and J. J. Abrams wrote the premiere's teleplay based upon a story by Lindelof. The episode was Abrams' first Lost writing credit since the pilot. They laid out the third season with the idea of "us versus them"; Carlton Cuse, a showrunner, explained, "And who is us? And who is them? I mean I think we all tend to objectify people who we don't know much about and I think that's the audience's view of The Others right now -- they are bad, they are the malevolent force on the island. But over the course of the stories we're going to be telling this season on the show we expect the audience's view of The Others to change a lot." The opening sequence of the episode was meant to replicate the same idea of season 2's premiere "Man of Science, Man of Faith", where what seems to be a flashback is instead set on a new part of the island. Director Jack Bender questioned what Jack's goal was when he pulled on the chain, but Lindelof told him not to worry, because "Fox will sell it, and he did". Lindelof described when Jack attacks his father at the AA meeting as "pot-committed... it basically means you put so much money on the bluff, you can't fold your cards". The scene with Kate in a dress was inspired by Raiders of the Lost Ark, where Belloq gives a dress for Marion Ravenwood to wear, and was intended to make "tom-boyish" Kate feel vulnerable. The title, inspired by Charles Dickens' eponymous novel, refers to the reveal of another "city" on the island with the place where the Others live, in addition to the castaways' beach camp. The episode has only three characters of the second season's main cast, Jack, Kate and Sawyer. Lindelof later described this limited scope as "a mistake, when the audience is away from the show for that long, they want to see everybody", causing the following season openers to have scenes with most of the main characters. In the episode, Tom tells Kate that she is not his type. This comment resulted in online discussion in regard to Tom's sexual orientation, and Lindelof and Cuse hinted that a Lost character would later be outed. Gainey joked, "if [Kate's] not your type, you're gay", and began playing the character as such. After the broadcast of "Meet Kevin Johnson", Lindelof and Cuse confirmed that the line from the third-season premiere is an allusion to Tom's sexuality, but felt that it needed to be explicitly confirmed in the show, although Lindelof noted that the confirmation scene in "Meet Kevin Johnson" "was not subtle, to say the least". The beginning of the episode featured a scene where Juliet and Amelia discuss Ben's feelings for Juliet, which was shot but deleted. This scene was later made into the twelfth "Lost: Missing Pieces" mobisode, "The Envelope". ### Filming The exterior of the Hydra was shot in an abandoned theme park, which art director Andrew Murdock thought it fit as a location for the "kind of blocky, 80's-style architecture", where everything was "aged, industrial, and a little bit larger, and a little bit unusual". The opening sequence features Petula Clark's "Downtown", a song that would later be used in another third-season episode featuring Juliet. Another song heard in the premiere, "Moonlight Serenade by Glenn Miller, was first used in the season two episode "The Long Con". Lindelof has stated the songs they choose for Lost were often inspired from his childhood, when his mother would vacuum to music on Sundays. ## Reception On its original broadcast in the United States on ABC, the premiere was watched by an estimated 18.82 million viewers, making it the most watched episode of the night and the fourth most watched of the week. "A Tale of Two Cities" had four million less viewers than the previous season premiere. In Canada, the episode was watched by 1.972 million viewers on CTV, easily winning its timeslot. In the United Kingdom, "A Tale of Two Cities" was broadcast on November 22 along with follow-up "The Glass Ballerina" in Lost's first broadcast after changing to Sky1. With 1.549 million viewers, it was most watched program of the week on the non-terrestrial channels. IGN's Chris Carabott rated the premiere 9/10, calling the "peek into the life of The Others... exceptionally done" and the non-appearance of the other survivors "a smart move". Carabott also praised Jack's flashbacks, writing "Previously, Jack has been written as the white knight and reluctant hero who everyone looked to in their time of need. The more chinks they show in Jack's armor, the better - the more human he becomes." He called "Juliet... a promising new character who will hopefully add a new dimension to The Others this season" and concluded his review by calling the episode "a solid season opener". Robert Bianco from USA Today praised the opening scene and called the episode "a fine start for a great series" but with reservations. Bianco wished Jack would "win one again for the team", and was fearful that Lost could eventually become like Alias, "a series that became so entranced by its puzzle and its villains that it let the main characters vanish behind them". On a list of Lost episodes, the Los Angeles Times ranked "A Tale of Two Cities" number 66 out of 113 episodes, explaining it was "Not bad. The introduction of Juliet is a killer, and Jack raging against the Others is fun. But many of the big revelations -- Ben's name, for example -- aren't very well handled." On a similar list, IGN ranked the episode at number 38; they called the opening "one of the show's characteristic fake-outs", and Jack's flashbacks "not nearly as interesting as his first encounters with Juliet". Matthew Fox submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards.
22,480,389	La Llamada	1,158,549,489	null	[ "1993 singles", "1993 songs", "EMI Latin singles", "Selena songs", "Song recordings produced by A. B. Quintanilla", "Song recordings produced by Bebu Silvetti", "Songs written by A. B. Quintanilla", "Songs written by Pete Astudillo", "Spanish-language songs" ]	"La Llamada" (English: "The Phone Call") is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her first live album Live! (1993). It was composed by Selena y Los Dinos backup singer Pete Astudillo and Selena's brother and principal record producer A.B. Quintanilla III and produced by Quintanilla III and Argentine music producer Bebu Silvetti. "La Llamada" was released as the second single from Live!. "La Llamada" is an uptempo Mexican cumbia song centering on female empowerment. Lyrically, the song sees Selena break up with her cheating boyfriend over the phone. The song received generally positive reviews from music critics. It peaked at number 5 on the US Hot Latin Tracks on the week ending 23 October 1993. On the week ending 9 April 2011, "La Llamada" entered the Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart. A music video was released and features Selena dancing in a crowd at a beach house in Malibu, California. There have been many cover versions of "La Llamada" ranging from Mexican to Dominican artists. ## Background and composition "La Llamada" was one of three studio tracks recorded for Live! (1993). It was written by Selena y Los Dinos backup singer Pete Astudillo and Selena's brother, principal record producer and songwriter A. B. Quintanilla III. It was produced by Quintanilla III and Argentine music producer Bebu Silvetti. The song was intended to be one of three studio tracks for Selena's Live! album. Astudillo and Quintanilla III had spent an hour writing a song together. They wanted to write a song on a topic that many women face with their boyfriends. Quintanilla III had wanted to empower women, letting them know that they should hold their heads up and remember that life goes on. Selena favored the lyrical content and central theme, a common one in her songs. "La Llamada" was recorded in Corpus Christi, Texas, at Selena's father and manager Abraham Quintanilla, Jr.'s recording studio Q-Productions. Before Live! was released, the song was mixed by Brian "Red" Moore, a family friend. Because Selena favored the song, the band released a music video. It was filmed in a beach house in Malibu, California. The video features Selena dancing with guys on one side and woman on the other. In other scenes, Selena is belting the lyrics behind blue curtains. "La Llamada" is an uptempo Mexican cumbia song. Written in the key of A minor, the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 90 beats per minute. "La Llamada" describes a woman telling her boyfriend over the phone that she saw him kissing another girl, while her boyfriend tries to persuade to her that it was not him. The central theme explored on "La Llamada" suggests female empowerment. ## Critical reception and covers Howard Blumenthal wrote in his book The World Music CD Listener's Guide that "La Llamada" is an "energetic" song. An editor from the Fort Worth Star-Telegram compared "La Llamada" and another Live! single "No Debes Jugar". The editor expressed the similarities the songs shared in both its lyrical content and the instruments used in the songs. Sue Anne Pressley of the Chicago Sun-Times believed that "La Llamada" is a "fan favorite", calling it "a danceable pop number". A Philadelphia Daily News editor called "La Llamada" a "catchy tune", though commented that it is the least memorable song on Live!. Mexican band Banda El Grullo recorded the song on their tribute album Lo Mejor De Selena Con Banda. Mexican singer Dalila also recorded the song for her album Dalila en Vivo. Dominican bachata singer Kiko Rodriguez recorded the song on his album Otra Vez Con Amor. ## Charts ## Certifications ## Personnel All credits were taken from the Live! album notes. - Selena – vocals - Ricky Vela – keyboardist - Joe Ojeda – keyboards - Chris Pérez – guitar - Pete Astudillo - writer - A.B. Quintanilla III – co-writer, producer, arranger - Brian "Red" Moore – audio mixer - Bebu Silvetti – producer
243,329	Accessory nerve	1,161,208,408	Cranial nerve XI, for head and shoulder movements	[ "Accessory nerve", "Cranial nerves", "Good articles missing image alternative text" ]	The accessory nerve, also known as the eleventh cranial nerve, cranial nerve XI, or simply CN XI, is a cranial nerve that supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. It is classified as the eleventh of twelve pairs of cranial nerves because part of it was formerly believed to originate in the brain. The sternocleidomastoid muscle tilts and rotates the head, whereas the trapezius muscle, connecting to the scapula, acts to shrug the shoulder. Traditional descriptions of the accessory nerve divide it into a spinal part and a cranial part. The cranial component rapidly joins the vagus nerve, and there is ongoing debate about whether the cranial part should be considered part of the accessory nerve proper. Consequently, the term "accessory nerve" usually refers only to nerve supplying the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, also called the spinal accessory nerve. Strength testing of these muscles can be measured during a neurological examination to assess function of the spinal accessory nerve. Poor strength or limited movement are suggestive of damage, which can result from a variety of causes. Injury to the spinal accessory nerve is most commonly caused by medical procedures that involve the head and neck. Injury can cause wasting of the shoulder muscles, winging of the scapula, and weakness of shoulder abduction and external rotation. The accessory nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic spinal segments C1–C6. ## Structure The fibres of the spinal accessory nerve originate solely in neurons situated in the upper spinal cord, from where the spinal cord begins at the junction with the medulla oblongata, to the level of about C6. These fibres join together to form rootlets, roots, and finally the spinal accessory nerve itself. The formed nerve enters the skull through the foramen magnum, the large opening at the skull's base. The nerve travels along the inner wall of the skull towards the jugular foramen. Leaving the skull, the nerve travels through the jugular foramen with the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. The spinal accessory nerve is notable for being the only cranial nerve to both enter and exit the skull. This is due to it being unique among the cranial nerves in having neurons in the spinal cord. After leaving the skull, the cranial component detaches from the spinal component. The spinal accessory nerve continues alone and heads backwards and downwards. In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle. As it courses downwards, the nerve pierces through the sternocleidomastoid muscle while sending it motor branches, then continues down until it reaches the trapezius muscle to provide motor innervation to its upper part. ### Nucleus The fibres that form the spinal accessory nerve are formed by lower motor neurons located in the upper segments of the spinal cord. This cluster of neurons, called the spinal accessory nucleus, is located in the lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and stretches from where the spinal cord begins (at the junction with the medulla) through to the level of about C6. The lateral horn of high cervical segments appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla oblongata, from which the cranial component of the accessory nerve is derived. ### Variation In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle, in front of the vein in about 80% of people, and behind it in about 20%, and in one reported case, piercing the vein. Traditionally, the accessory nerve is described as having a small cranial component that descends from the medulla and briefly connects with the spinal accessory component before branching off of the nerve to join the vagus nerve. A study, published in 2007, of twelve subjects suggests that in the majority of individuals, this cranial component does not make any distinct connection to the spinal component; the roots of these distinct components were separated by a fibrous sheath in all but one subject. ### Development The accessory nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic spinal segments C1–C6. ## Function The spinal component of the accessory nerve provides motor control of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. The trapezius muscle controls the action of shrugging the shoulders, and the sternocleidomastoid the action of turning the head. Like most muscles, control of the trapezius muscle arises from the opposite side of the brain. Contraction of the upper part of the trapezius muscle elevates the scapula. The nerve fibres supplying sternocleidomastoid, however, are thought to change sides (Latin: decussate) twice. This means that the sternocleidomastoid is controlled by the brain on the same side of the body. Contraction of the stenocleidomastoid fibres turns the head to the opposite side, the net effect meaning that the head is turned to the side of the brain receiving visual information from that area. The cranial component of the accessory nerve, on the other hand, provides motor control to the muscles of the soft palate, larynx and pharynx. ### Classification Among researchers there is disagreement regarding the terminology used to describe the type of information carried by the accessory nerve. As the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles are derived from the pharyngeal arches, some researchers believe the spinal accessory nerve that innervates them must carry specific special visceral efferent (SVE) information. This is in line with the observation that the spinal accessory nucleus appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla. Others consider the spinal accessory nerve to carry general somatic efferent (GSE) information. Still others believe it is reasonable to conclude that the spinal accessory nerve contains both SVE and GSE components. ## Clinical significance ### Examination The accessory nerve is tested by evaluating the function of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The trapezius muscle is tested by asking the patient to shrug their shoulders with and without resistance. The sternocleidomastoid muscle is tested by asking the patient to turn their head to the left or right against resistance. One-sided weakness of the trapezius may indicate injury to the nerve on the same side of an injury to the spinal accessory nerve on the same side (Latin: ipsilateral) of the body being assessed. Weakness in head-turning suggests injury to the contralateral spinal accessory nerve: a weak leftward turn is indicative of a weak right sternocleidomastoid muscle (and thus right spinal accessory nerve injury), while a weak rightward turn is indicative of a weak left sternocleidomastoid muscle (and thus left spinal accessory nerve). Hence, weakness of shrug on one side and head-turning on the other side may indicate damage to the accessory nerve on the side of the shrug weakness, or damage along the nerve pathway at the other side of the brain. Causes of damage may include trauma, surgery, tumours, and compression at the jugular foramen. Weakness in both muscles may point to a more general disease process such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome or poliomyelitis. ### Injury Injury to the spinal accessory nerve commonly occurs during neck surgery, including neck dissection and lymph node excision. It can also occur as a result of blunt or penetrating trauma, and in some causes spontaneously. Damage at any point along the nerve's course will affect the function of the nerve. The nerve is intentionally removed in "radical" neck dissections, which are attempts at exploring the neck surgically for the presence and extent of cancer. Attempts are made to spare it in other forms of less aggressive dissection. Injury to the accessory nerve can result in neck pain and weakness of the trapezius muscle. Symptoms will depend on at what point along its length the nerve was severed. Injury to the nerve can result in shoulder girdle depression, atrophy, abnormal movement, a protruding scapula, and weakened abduction. Weakness of the shoulder girdle can lead to traction injury of the brachial plexus. Because diagnosis is difficult, electromyogram or nerve conduction studies may be needed to confirm a suspected injury. Outcomes with surgical treatment appear to be better than conservative management, which entails physiotherapy and pain relief. Surgical management includes neurolysis, nerve end-to-end suturing, and surgical replacement of affected trapezius muscle segments with other muscle groups, such as the Eden-Lange procedure. Damage to the nerve can cause torticollis. ## History English anatomist Thomas Willis in 1664 first described the accessory nerve, choosing to use "accessory" (described in Latin as nervus accessorius) meaning in association with the vagus nerve. In 1848, Jones Quain described the nerve as the "spinal nerve accessory to the vagus", recognizing that while a minor component of the nerve joins with the larger vagus nerve, the majority of accessory nerve fibres originate in the spinal cord. In 1893 it was recognised that the heretofore named nerve fibres "accessory" to the vagus originated from the same nucleus in the medulla oblongata, and it came to pass that these fibres were increasingly viewed as part of the vagus nerve itself. Consequently, the term "accessory nerve" was and is increasingly used to denote only fibres from the spinal cord; the fact that only the spinal portion could be tested clinically lent weight to this opinion. ## See also - List of anatomy mnemonics#Cranial nerves ## Additional images
68,424,235	2021 Munster abuse case	1,159,553,613	Criminal case in Ireland in 2021	[ "2020s trials", "2021 in Ireland", "Child abuse in the Republic of Ireland", "Child abuse incidents and cases", "Child sexual abuse", "Child sexual abuse in the Republic of Ireland" ]	The 2021 Munster abuse case, contemporaneously reported in the media as the Munster abuse trial, refers to a criminal trial that took place in Ireland between 2021 and 2022, pertaining to five adults who were found guilty of a plethora of offenses committed against five of the children of two of the accused, between 18 August 2014 and 28 April 2016, in several different counties in the province of Munster, Ireland. On 6 August 2021, five out of seven accused—all of whom are from Munster—were found guilty of raping, sexually abusing, sexually exploiting, abusing, and wilfully neglecting five children: four boys and one girl. In total, the five were found guilty on 77 counts, including 18 counts of rape and 24 counts of sexual assault, all of which took place between 2014 and 2016. They were sentenced to a cumulative 57 years in prison. At the time of being removed from their parents' care in 2016, the boys were aged nine, six, four, and three, and the girl was aged seven. The parents of the children both have intellectual impairments, with the mother's deficit reported as being more severe. The condition of the house the family lived in amounted to squalor, and both of the parents, as well as the children, were repeatedly noted for being extremely dirty. The seven who were accused are all relatives of the five children, and cannot be named due to Irish law surrounding the identification of minors involved in criminal proceedings. Extensive reporting restrictions have been enacted around the case, and as a result, the exact detail of the abuse the children suffered cannot be reported on in order to protect the welfare of the children. ## Background All of the family members who were accused of the crimes are from various undisclosed locations in Munster. ### Parents The parents of the children both have undisclosed intellectual impairments, with the mother's deficit being severe enough to be classed as a disability. She further has a notably low intelligence quotient (IQ). During the trial, these factors were dismissed by the prosecution as unrelated to the abusive treatment of the children by their parents, and claimed that relating the two would be "an insult to people with intellectual disabilities to say they would leave their children in that condition." Bernard Condon, for the prosecution, accused the father of the children of neglecting his children by choice, rather than by incapacity. A social worker appointed to work with the family in 2014 said that she thought that the parents understood what they were being told at case meetings concerning the care of the children. ### Initial engagement with social services Engagement with social services began in 2011, after two of the children, the girl and one of the boys, accompanied their mother to a neonatal appointment. Medics grew concerned for the children as they were dirty, overdressed for the hot weather, and, as was later discovered, were suffering from third-degree burns. A family support worker was assigned to the family during this period, but had died by the time of the trial. In 2014, a new social worker, who proved central to the case, moved to the area. She revealed to the trial that her previous colleagues had been concerned about the amount of "dirt, flies and nappies" in the house. At the time, there was only one case open on the family, pertaining to the eldest boy. The boy had run away from school, and after the principal of his school had followed him home, she was "so concerned at the state of the house"—which she described as "horrific"—that she immediately contacted Tusla (the organization responsible for child welfare and protection in Ireland). Several teachers had also contacted Tusla on multiple occasions, out of concern for the hygiene and well-being—both mental and physical—of the children. Members of An Garda Síochána had also contacted Tusla after finding the boy alone and soiled in a local park. The social worker met with the boy's parents whom she described as being "filthy. Filthy dirty". She described them both as emanating a strong body odour, and that the mother's hair was matted to her head. This meeting alarmed the social worker to such an extent that she opened a professional assessment of all five of the couple's children, who at the time were aged between one and six years old. In December 2014, Tusla called a case conference, where a number of professionals such as teachers and medical practitioners assessed the needs of the children. By the end of the conference, the professionals were unanimous that the children were at risk of neglect. In January 2016, the father of the children admitted to the social worker that he gave his children—in particular, his daughter—melatonin medication in order to make them "settle" at night. At this point, the decision was made to remove the children from the parents' care. ## Mistreatment of the children The press have been banned from reporting the full nature of the "harrowing" abuse suffered by the children in this case. While it is customary not to name minors or those connected to them in criminal trials in Ireland, in the interest of protecting the children's welfare, further restrictions were applied to the reporting of the abuse they suffered, though the press have been able to report on certain aspects of the case. The eldest boy's school principal described the house as "filthy", with "a really strong, disgusting odour coming from the house". She described the carpet as being heavily stained, with "patches of dirt and grime everywhere". She said the walls were greasy and spattered with dirt. She further described the kitchen as being in a "dreadful condition", with used crockery and pieces of food "thrown around" the room. In October 2014, a month after meeting with the parents, the social worker visited their home for the first time. The entire house was filthy, and filled with an "unbearable" stench. Before even entering the domicile, she noticed rubbish, debris, and pieces of broken toys scattered all over the garden. After entering the house, the mother locked the front door behind them. Though the social worker protested, citing fire safety concerns, the door was locked after entry every time the social worker visited over the following 18 months. Though the floor had been swept, there remained "sticky, gunky filth" in the corners of the room. Just inside the front door, there was a "fossilized" slice of pizza on the floor. In response to suggestions that she throw the slice of pizza in the bin for fear of attracting rodents, the mother of the children responded that she needed to buy a new door in order to prevent rodents entering. There were piles of clothes all over the house, and a pot of mouldy food on the counter. Thick, smelly, hairy blankets covered almost every surface in the house, and upon pulling one back, the social worker discovered a child—18 months old at the time—tightly strapped in a buggy. The child was "pale and grey" and when spoken to was "blank and unresponsive". In the bathroom, there was no toilet paper, shampoo, shower gels, toothpaste, or toothbrushes. There was one bar of soap in the bathroom, which was described as the "only cleaning item of any kind in the entire house". There were deep crevices in the soap, as it had dried out due to the amount of time which had passed since its last use. ### Neighbour's diaries A neighbour of the family gave evidence at the trial, in which she described the constant "screaming, roaring, and crying" coming from the children, saying that the "kids cried more than they talked in that house". The neighbour had contacted the Gardaí out of concern for the children on numerous occasions. The neighbour kept diaries, recording information on the children to provide it to authorities. The diaries detail numerous examples of the children being in dangerous situations. Once, she recorded seeing one of the boys being dangled by the waist of his trousers from an upstairs window. She said that the children were permitted to play on the road at any time of day, without any supervision. She described an incident at nighttime where there was continuous banging on the walls of the house, for up to six hours. One entry noted how on Christmas Day, the boys were playing on the road without wearing shoes, while the girl spent the day crying, as she did not get a toy she wanted. In that particular instance, all of the children were wearing their pyjamas, something which was typical, as the diaries noted that the children "lived" in their pyjamas. The neighbour recorded in her diary that the children's father would whistle at the children, after which they would line up outside the house, and he would medicate them with a syringe. The neighbour also noted that the 49-year-old uncle had more control over the household than the parents, and when he came over, there could be "dead silence" following his arrival. ### Health issues On the day of his annual school tour, the eldest boy was sent home with his father, as he was badly sunburnt. While the father insisted that the boy had refused to allow him to apply sun cream on him that morning, teachers who applied sun cream to the boy after he had been burnt said that he made no complaint about it. Eighteen months after the children were taken into care, a pediatrician examined all five. She noted some injuries consistent with accidental injury, along with some unexplained scarring and scarring from burn wounds. A general practitioner gave evidence at trial saying that the youngest of the children, who was 18 months old at the time of examination, was in the 0.4th percentile of weight for a child of his age. ### Foster homes Further evidence of the past mistreatment of the children emerged when they entered foster care. The children were separated when they entered the foster system, with the eldest boy going to one home, the girl and second oldest boy going to another, and the two youngest boys going to a third home. All of the children were placed in the care of experienced foster parents, several of whom later told the jury that they had never before seen neglect of the magnitude present in this case. Upon arriving at their foster homes, the children had faeces caked to their bodies. According to the foster parents, the older children were unable to use cutlery, a toothbrush, or toilet roll, and did not know how to shower or bathe. The eldest boy and the second youngest boy were described as having almost no teeth. All had dirty skin, hair, and nails, and those who were not missing teeth had dental issues. Upon entering foster care, the children arrived with just the clothes on their back. For the three eldest children, this amounted to dirty school uniforms. The eldest boy was reportedly fascinated by the amount of food in his foster parents' house. His foster mother took him to a shopping centre to purchase new clothes, where they ran into two of his younger siblings. The boy expressed that he hoped his younger siblings would also have clothes bought for them. The girl and the second oldest boy were sent to the same foster home. Their foster mother reported that the boy was badly scarred, and that the girl had next to no hair. According to their foster mother, the siblings had a "disturbing" relationship with food: they would never go looking for snacks or take food from the fridge, always awaited permission before eating food she set in front of them, and initially she had to chop their food in advance, as they were unable to properly chew it. The second youngest boy was briefly in a foster home without any of his siblings, though he was later moved into the same house as the youngest sibling. His initial foster mother described how when he cried he would do so in total silence, making no noise as tears streamed down his face. The boy would not speak for the first few days in his foster home, and would not allow his foster parents to bathe him for the first three days. The foster mother of the youngest child stated that she had never seen a child so afraid of being washed, that the child was unresponsive when hugged, and that the boy would not call out during the night, even in cases where he had vomited on himself. She later took in the second youngest boy as well. After entering foster care, several of the foster parents became concerned about the sexual behaviour being exhibited, and obscene language being used by the children. Gardaí visited the elder three children, which is when they first made allegations of abuse. ## Trial The primary portion of the trial lasted 10 weeks, and was heard at the level of the Central Criminal Court. Due to social distancing measures in place as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland, the trial was held in a conference room in Croke Park. Each of the accused had their own defense counsel, and all were relatives of the five children. An enlarged jury of 15 were sworn in for the trial on 27 May 2021 by the presiding judge, Mr Justice Paul McDermott. They went out on 29 July, returning on 6 August after almost 19 hours of deliberations, returning 41 of the 78 charges, 40 of which were guilty. After asking the judge for guidance on the definition of wilful neglect, the jury returned to their deliberations, and after just over an hour returned the final 37 verdicts, all of which were guilty. ### Children's testimony During the trial, the three eldest children gave evidence via videolink. The content of the interviews of the girl and younger boy have been excluded from most reports of the trial, which discuss only the behaviour of the children during the interview process, the manner in which they were dealt with by the courts, and the fact that they claimed to have been abused, sexually abused, and exploited. Their evidence was given via recordings; the day after their respective evidence was heard, they were cross-examined. The Limerick Leader reported that the younger boy said in a Garda interview that his father and mother had touched his genitals with their hands, and that his mother also touched them with a stick. He further described feeling "bad" and "uncomfortable" after his maternal aunt touched his genitals with her hand, and her husband, the older uncle, touched them with a spoon. He said that he had been anally raped by his father, and both of his uncles. He said that his two older siblings had asked him if he wanted to "do sex" with them. He went on to say that photographs were taken of him when he was naked and "doing sex", and that those photos had been posted on Facebook. The eldest child delivered his evidence live. He delivered similar testimony to his siblings, stating that they had been abused, while also detailing how prior to being taken into foster care, the children lacked access to clean clothes, were not provided with enough to eat, and were not "cleaned right". Though he admitted that his memory of the events was now hazy, he repeatedly denied accusations from the defence that he was misremembering, or that he was making up his testimony. ### Garda interviews with the accused During interviews with Gardaí, the mother of the children confessed to some of the accusations relating to the sexual abuse of the children, which she later recanted. She recounted several instances of abuse, including one which incriminated her husband and the children's 49-year-old uncle. She described the abuse as having happened "maybe once or twice a week". Having initially denied the allegations, part way through her fifth interview she began to tell Gardaí that she had witnessed her own mother, the children's grandmother, sexually assaulting the girl. She further described how she herself had abused the three eldest children. She further provided the Gardaí with a list of names of people who had abused the children. During the trial, she did not stand by these admissions. The mother's sister, who was later found guilty of sexually assaulting the girl, likewise initially denied the allegations, before later saying that what the children were reporting was correct. After conferring with her solicitor, however, she said that she had been lying, and that she had neither done anything to the children nor witnessed anything untoward happening to them in her home. She is considered a minor party to the crimes. In the absence of the jury, the court was told that the grandmother of the children confessed to Gardaí about having sexually assaulted her granddaughter, saying "I only did it the once [...] I think you know, there's no point in lying." These interviews with Gardaí, however, were considered inadmissible as evidence for several reasons. At one stage the woman asked for a solicitor, and was not provided with one. She had an intellectual disability, and appeared not to understand some of the words the Gardaí were saying. The presiding judge further found that "verbal aggression and foul language" were used by Garda interviewers. Due to these mitigating factors, her interviews were not played for the jury, and her charges were eventually withdrawn. ### Role of the uncles The children's 49-year-old uncle, who is married to their maternal aunt, was found to have played a central role in the abuse of the children. According to Bernard Condon, for the prosecution, he was a "recurring feature [...] in all of the children's allegations". Mr Condon alleged that the uncle played a particular role in the abuse of the eldest boy, whom he instructed not to tell anyone about the abuse. According to Mr Condon, this uncle did nothing to stop the abuse "because he was right in the middle of doing it". The uncle had a high level of control over the family. The younger uncle of the children was the only member of the accused to take the stand. Like the other members of the accused, he denied all wrongdoing. Having only been mentioned in the children's second Garda interviews, Mr Condon urged the jury not to treat him as an "afterthought" in this case, as the young girl in particular had described "in great detail" what this uncle had done to her. ### Charges All of the accused denied all of the charges they were accused of. The father of the five children, aged 56, was charged with 34 different counts, including rape, anal rape, sexual assault, sexual exploitation and permitting other people to engage in sexual activity with a child, wilful neglect, and mistreating his children by medicating them. He was found guilty of 31 counts: six counts of rape, six counts of sexual assault, three counts of permitting other people to engage in sexual activity with a child, three counts of sexually exploiting two of them, 10 counts of wilfully neglecting five of his children, and three counts of mistreating three of his children by giving them medication. An additional three counts against him were withdrawn during the trial by direction of the judge. The mother of the children, aged 34, was charged with 25 counts, including sexual assault, sexual exploitation, permitting other people to engage in sexual activity with a child and wilful neglect. She was found guilty of all 25 counts: 10 counts of wilful neglect, 10 counts of sexual assault, three counts of permitting other people to engage in sexual activity with a child, and two counts of sexually exploiting her oldest son. The aunt of the children, aged 35, was charged with 3 counts of sexual assault. She was found guilty of all counts: two counts of sexually assaulting the girl and one count of sexually assaulting the second oldest boy. Her husband, aged 49, was charged with 12 counts including rape, sexual assault and sexual exploitation. He was found guilty of 10 counts: five counts of sexual assault, three counts of sexual exploitation and two counts of rape. Two additional counts were withdrawn during the trial. The uncle of the children, aged 27, was charged with 10 counts including rape, sexual assault and sexual exploitation. He was found guilty of 8 charges: six counts of rape and two counts of sexual exploitation. He was found not guilty of one count of sexually exploiting the girl. One count was withdrawn during the trial by direction of the judge. His partner, aged 32, was charged with four counts including sexual assault and sexual exploitation. All charges against her were withdrawn. The grandmother of the children, aged 57, was charged with three counts of sexually assaulting her granddaughter. All charges against her were withdrawn. All of the alleged offences took place between 18 August 2014 and 28 April 2016. Out of 91 total charges leveled against the group of seven, 13 were withdrawn. Of the five who were found guilty, 78 charges in total had been leveled against them, and they were found guilty of all but one charge. ### Juror's letter On 4 October 2021, it emerged that after the trial concluded in August one of the jurors wrote a letter to the judge. Though the contents of the letter cannot be published by the media due to the reporting restrictions enacted surrounding this case, it is understood that the letter detailed the juror's "views of the jury system". Mr Justice McDermott made the letter available to all of the barristers involved in the case on 4 October 2021, and though he felt that the contents of the letter would not prevent him from sentencing those found guilty, he gave the defence counsel leave to return to court to raise any potential concerns they may have arising from the letter. On 17 December, defence counsel for both the 27-year-old uncle and the 49-year-old-uncle moved to have the guilty verdicts set aside in wake of the contents of the letter. Conor Devally, senior counsel representing the 27-year-old uncle, expressed the possibility that a number of the verdicts may be "unfair or tainted". He further referred to cases heard before the European Court of Human Rights, in which verdicts given under similar circumstances have been set aside. He submitted that in this area, Irish law is outdated. Andrew Sexton, senior counsel for the 49-year-old uncle, supported Devally's motion. Senior counsel for the children's father submitted that while the letter had caused his client "disquiet and concern", and that they would support an inquiry into the situation surrounding the letter; they also submitted that such action would have to take place in a different forum. This was supported by respective counsel for both the children's mother and their aunt. Bernard Condon stated that it was the Director of Public Prosecutions'(DPP) view that the trial judge had no jurisdiction to set aside verdicts in the case, nor any authority to contact and question jurors; that any objections would have to be heard before the Court of Appeal. On 21 December, Mr Justice McDermott stated that he was satisfied the letter from the juror did not contain evidence which would suggest that impropriety had taken place and could not be used by him, as trial judge, as a basis for any inquiry, agreeing with the DPP that it was the business of the Court of Appeal. ### Sentencing The court reconvened on 4 October 2021, and set a date for sentencing on 10 January 2022. All of those found guilty were remanded in custody from 6 August 2021 and remained in custody until they again appeared before the courts for sentencing. Some of them had packed their belongings in advance of the guilty verdict. #### Victim impact statements Victim impact statements were made by each set of foster parents on behalf of the children, as well as by the eldest three children in the family. The boy, who was not present in the court, stated in a written statement that what his family had done to him had "changed [his] whole life", and that he thought that "[his] old family should go to jail for a long time for what they put [him] and [his] brothers and sister through." He further stated that he didn't believe his family should ever be permitted to be near children again. His siblings' statements, also written, were both two sentences long: the girl saying that her parents had "ruined [her] childhood and didn't even care about [her]. I wasn't loved when I was younger." The younger boy said that he didn't "feel safe about them not being in prison. I had no happy childhood." The impact of the abuse on the development and welfare of the children was further revealed by the victim impact statements issued by their foster parents. The foster mother of the eldest boy revealed in her statement that the boy "couldn't believe" that his bedroom was clean, and that the bed-sheets were changed regularly. She described him as being so thin upon arrival that "you could nearly see through his skin". She soon brought the boy to see a doctor and barber—the boy, nine years old at the time, had never been to a barber before. The boy reportedly couldn't understand that the kitchen was so full of food, and would "proudly show off the contents off the fridge" to any visitors to the house. She described what the children had endured as "unthinkable" and "inexcusable". The foster parents of the girl and second eldest boy gave details about the amount of support the children needed after entering foster care: they were brought to a speech and language therapist, a physiotherapist, an occupational therapist, a dietitian, an eye specialist, a dentist and orthodontist, a psychotherapist, a play therapist, and a specialist that helps children learn how to build attachments with others. A burns specialist plastic surgeon was also required, to treat burns sustained in 2011—the children entered foster care in 2016. The foster parents stated that it seemed as though the kids had never been toilet trained, and that they had massive issues with food—seemingly, the children could not identify when they were hungry, or control the amount that they ate. The pair would hide food around the house, and would even steal food from the lunchboxes of other children at their school. The parents theorized that hunger was so prevalent in their lives that they were unable to properly recognise their hunger need. For the first few weeks of their time in foster care, the children often tried to hide in various locations, such as under the stairs, beneath tables, and in the hot press. The children were not accustomed to wearing clean clothes every day. The children were afraid of falling asleep, and as result, every light in the house was kept on during the night. The children were also deeply uncomfortable with physical contact or proximity to other people for their first two years in foster care. Their foster parents were quoted as saying "We don't think they knew what their needs were and they certainly didn't know what feelings were." The foster parents of the youngest two boys, who initially only had the youngest boy, said that when the youngest boy entered foster care, at the age of three, the boy would sit extremely still, and would seemingly be scanning the facial expressions of the adults around him. He walked around the house on the tips of his toes, and would peek around corners before moving beyond them. When the second youngest entered their care, he was unable to relax for a long time. He would pretend to sleep when put to bed, and was focused on telling adults whatever he thought they wanted to hear. Like the other children, an extensive range of specialists were secured for the boys, including doctors, therapists, play therapists, paediatricians and dietitians. #### Sentences delivered The sentences were delivered on 18 January 2022. When delivering the sentences, Mr Justice McDermott stated that children's parents had made "the most profound breach of trust a human being can commit against their children". The five who were found guilty were sentenced to a cumulative 57 years in prison: the father and both uncles were sentenced to 15 years each, the mother to nine years, and the aunt to three years. The sentences were backdated to 6 August 2021, when the five first entered into custody. ## Aftermath ### Second trial A second trial, concerning the abuse of another child who was related to the five siblings, terminated in March 2022 when all charges against the accused were dropped. ### Victims After their five children had been taken into care, their mother had a sixth child: the couple's second daughter. The pregnancy had been kept a secret, with the mother not receiving any medical care until six weeks before the baby was born. The 49-year-old uncle assisted in the baby's delivery. The father reportedly could not remember the name of this daughter. She was also put into foster care. The children, having entered foster care in 2016, are now reportedly doing well, with only hazy memories of their life in their original home. The eldest three children found the trial, "difficult and traumatising", according to their foster parents. Since the end of the trial, the eldest boy is reportedly much happier, and is described as a polite boy whose teachers often praise him. During the trial, the girl and second eldest boy suffered the reemergence of sleeping and eating issues. Described as "kind, caring children" by their foster mother, they reportedly feel "much safer" since the conclusion of the trial. They reportedly struggle, however, to understand why they were abused in the manner that they were, and "are often very sad". Both have social anxiety, and are averse to change. Of the two youngest boys, their foster parents said that they "want to say that these children have a lot of potential, but because of their early life experiences, we worry as to what the future holds for them." In 2018, a review of the actions taken by Tusla and An Garda Síochána in respect to this case was proposed by Katherine Zappone, then the Minister for Children. Though it underwent several months of preparation, the review was eventually cancelled, due to concerns from the Attorney General that it may have jeopardized the trial. ## See also - Turpin case
8,191,702	Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves	1,102,370,108	null	[ "2007 American television episodes", "Veronica Mars (season 3) episodes" ]	"Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves" is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars, and the fifty-fifth episode overall. Written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer, the episode premiered on The CW on January 30, 2007. The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars (Kristen Bell) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective. In this episode, Veronica is hired by Max (Adam Rose) a student who is looking for his beloved, Chelsea, but Veronica learns that Chelsea is actually a prostitute hired to make Max lose his virginity. Meanwhile, Keith finds the official police report of Dean O'Dell's death. In addition, Veronica asks Logan about his past, eventually finding out that he had sex with Madison Sinclair (Amanda Noret) when they were broken up. Adam Rose makes his second appearance in "Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves", while the episode was one of Thomas's favorites of the season, particularly enjoying scenes between Logan and Veronica, Veronica and Keith, and Chelsea and Max. In its initial broadcast, the episode received 2.69 million viewers and mixed reviews from television critics, with critics being divided over the case of the week and the development of Veronica and Logan's romance. Eric Goldman of IGN thought that the episode was "extremely witty and fast-paced", while Rowan Kaiser, writing for The A.V. Club, believed that the episode suffered from a "lack of development for Max's character." ## Background Veronica Mars is a student who progresses from high school to college while moonlighting as a private investigator under the tutelage of her detective father. In each episode, Veronica solves a different stand-alone case while working to solve a more complex mystery. In addition, there is usually a major mystery throughout episodes that takes Veronica longer to solve. In the case of the third season, there are two standalone cases with nine and six episodes, respectively, followed by five episodes without a major story arc. "Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves" is the second episode to solely focus on the mystery of Dean O'Dell's (Ed Begley, Jr.) death, with the previous one being "Show Me the Monkey"; the previous story arc, a serial rape, was solved in "Spit & Eggs". ## Plot synopsis After a lunch with Logan, Veronica notices that the Hearst Lampoon’s offices were egged. Weevil tells her the Dean's office was egged the same night, which Veronica relays to her father. Keith receives the police report of Dean O’Dell’s death, but he doesn’t find anything useful in it. Keith interrogates the Lilith house girls, who admit to egging his office, but seem to have alibis for the Dean’s death. However, Keith later informs Veronica that Nish’s alibi doesn’t check out for the Dean’s car but that it was likely true for Mindy’s car, putting her under suspicion. While Keith is investigating the Dean's murder, Veronica takes on her own case. Veronica is approached by Max, the student who helped Wallace cheat on his exam first semester. Max hires her to find his beloved, Chelsea, who is engaged to be married in a week. Max says that they spent one magical night together talking. He tells her that she sent him a text message about her impending wedding. Veronica quickly finds out that Max’s friends hired Chelsea, a prostitute, in order to make him be more confident with girls. His roommate sent him a text message in order to help him get over her. Veronica hires the two prostitutes who might be Chelsea, and one of them is Chelsea. Chelsea is incredibly happy to see Max, surprising both Veronica and Logan. As Max and Chelsea (whose real name is Wendy) make out on the couch, Madison (Amanda Noret) appears, looking for Dick. The next day, Wendy and Max plan their lives together, asking Veronica to help them make Wendy "disappear" from her former life. A battered prostitute appears at Logan’s door and takes Wendy away, citing problems with their pimp, leaving Max heartbroken. Veronica finds a stain of purple makeup on a towel, and she immediately deduces that Wendy conned Max out of \$1,000. Veronica blackmails a judge in order to secure the \$1,000 back. Veronica and Logan ask each other personal questions in an attempt to become more intimate, but it fails. At the bus locker at which Veronica instructed the judge to leave the money, she instead finds a note that tells Veronica and Max to get in a limo. In the limo, they find Wendy’s pimp, who is actually a woman. She tells them that she actually did fall in love with Max, but that she needed money for other reasons. Max immediately pays \$10,000 in order for Wendy to be forgiven, under the condition that he doesn’t tell anyone about the judge. Unexpectedly, Wendy shows up at Max’s door. Max and Wendy’s relationship becomes difficult, and she leaves the following morning, claiming that he has acted differently towards her after he found out her occupation. Max pays back Veronica in \$1 bills he received from Wendy, indicating that she had returned to stripping. Madison tells Veronica that she and Logan had sex when he and Veronica were broken up. ## Production The episode was written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer, marking Ruggiero's sixteenth and penultimate writing credit and Kretchmer's twelfth directing credit. One scene in the episode depicts Veronica and Max sitting in the backseat of a vehicle with Chelsea's pimp (a woman) and several bodyguards. Kretchmer decided to place one of the physically domineering bodyguards between Max and Veronica for comedic effect. In addition, Thomas noted that the actress of the pimp, Jackie Debatin, appeared in a similar role in an episode of The Office several weeks after the episode aired. The scene in which Keith, in a Sheriff's uniform, spots Don Lamb in his car was difficult to edit because although there was initially no radio music playing, Michael Muhney, the actor of Lamb, was moving his mouth as if singing lyrics. Thomas reported difficulty in finding a song that would match the movements. Adam Rose makes his second appearance in "Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves", after being a suspect in "Hi, Infidelity". From the very beginning of his appearances, Rose's character, Max, was planned to begin a romantic relationship with Mac. When Rose received the call that he would be appearing in more episodes for a romantic storyline with Mac, Rose, who was roommates with the actor of Bronson, another Mac love interest, stated, "But I thought that's what my roommate was doing." Thomas called the scene in which Chelsea paints Max's toenails one of his favorite scenes involving no series regulars, noting that it was nearly a three-minute scene. Thomas enjoyed Brianne Davis's, the actress of Chelsea, performance so much that he called her and complimented her after filming ended, while Peter Roth expressed interest in giving her a job on another show. The episode was scored by Mark Lanegan, with whom Thomas had gone to elementary school. Thomas was favorable towards the scene in which Veronica and Logan discuss his past, stating that the scene could have dragged due to its length but that it did not. When scripting the scene, there was a discussion in the writers' room regarding what the extent of Veronica's jealousy could be, with Thomas and Ruggiero, who Thomas described as "naturally jealous people", winning out and making Veronica more envious rather than less. For the scene in which Veronica asks Keith about the report on Dean O'Dell's suicide by humorously requiring him to sing what he has found, Colantoni gave nine different musical impressions of his dialogue, "I finally got the police report on the Dean's suicide!" ## Reception ### Ratings In its original broadcast in the United States, "Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves" was viewed by 2.69 million viewers, ranking 92nd of 100 in the weekly rankings. ### Reviews "Poughkeepsie, Tramps and Thieves" received mixed reviews from television critics. Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode an 8.2 out of 10, indicating that it was "great". He was positive towards many aspects of the episode, particularly the first half, while he was more mixed or negative towards the conclusion of the main storyline as well as the romantic development. He wrote that "The first half of this episode was extremely witty and fast-paced." However, he thought that the Max-Chelsea storyline should have ended earlier in the episode, and that "love sick, mopey Logan has gotten very old." However, he was complimentary towards Keith's plotline. Rowan Kaiser, writing for The A.V. Club, had mixed feelings towards the episode, being critical of the case of the week while enjoying some of the secondary storylines. While stating that the episode suffered from "the lack of exploration of Max's character" and Wendy being underdeveloped, she elaborated that "those are generally minor quibbles with a decent standalone episode, however." She went on to praise the Logan-Veronica dynamic and Keith's investigation into the Dean's death. Alan Sepinwall, on his blog What's Alan Watching?, was mostly positive towards the episode, praising the crew's decision to focus on the mysteries of the week, stating that "if the last couple of episodes are an indication, maybe done-in-one is in the right direction." He found that he was invested in the case-of-the-week, while he felt as though the Dean O'Dell plotline was not advancing quickly enough. Keith McDuffee of AOL TV was critical of nearly all aspects of the episode, stating that he was missing the longer story arcs and that once the mystery of Dean O'Dell's murder ended, the show would be relatively aimless. In addition, he decried Mac, Wallace, Piz, and Parker's absences, saying, "I miss the 'gang'." Television Without Pity gave the episode a "B−".
20,559,068	Self Made Man (Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles)	1,117,230,283	null	[ "2008 American television episodes", "Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles episodes" ]	"Self Made Man" is the 20th episode (11th of the second season) of the United States television series Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (T:TSCC). Aired on December 1, 2008 (2008-12-01), "Self Made Man" explores Cameron's nighttime activities of enlisting help to research a Terminator's presence in the past, as well as John Connor's continuing relationship with Riley Dawson. ## Plot The plot of "Self Made Man" consists of two separate storylines. While the Connors sleep, Cameron (Summer Glau) secretly visits the library and her friend, bone cancer survivor and nighttime library attendant, Eric (Billy Lush); it's revealed that Cameron has been doing this regularly to improve her human disguise and infiltration capabilities. After discovering the 1920 photograph of a T-888 model Terminator (Todd Stashwick), Cameron uses the library's resources to deduce that it time travelled to the wrong date. The T-888, having accidentally killed the architect of a downtown landmark (Pico Tower) crucial to its original mission of assassinating the governor of California in 2010, it invented a new identity: 1920s Los Angeles realty magnate, Myron Stark. As Stark, the T-888 funded and designed the building itself before ensconcing itself inside a wall to wait for New Year's Eve 2010. Returning to the library after finding and tending to Stark, Cameron damages her relationship with Eric by revealing to him that his cancer has returned; the following night however, Eric is missing, but Cameron is unconcerned and succeeds in wooing the new attendant with the doughnuts she had brought for Eric. Simultaneously with Cameron's escapades, John (Thomas Dekker) also sneaks out of the house, responding to a phone call from Riley Dawson (Leven Rambin). Meeting her at a house party in Van Nuys, they leave after John beats up the host (Oren Dayan) for accosting Riley—who stole his lighter. Driving to a vista overlooking Los Angeles, John and Riley discuss their relationship and supposed foster family backgrounds. The official T:TSCC blog revealed that John Connor's fight was written knowing that he's still dealing with posttraumatic stress disorder and having killed Margos Sarkissian earlier in the season. ## Production "Self Made Man" was written by Toni Graphia, and was director Holly Dale's first foray into the Terminator franchise. Graphia vetted the episode's historical information alongside T:TSCC department heads, and History for Hire, a prop house specializing in period pieces. All of the 1920s scenes were shot on the Warner Bros. backlot, which itself was inaugurated during the same era. "Myron Stark's" meeting Rudolph Valentino (Branden R. Morgan) at the premiere of The Sheik is the first occasion of the series referencing a real-life person. The fictional Pico Tower was written at the intersection of Pico Boulevard and 3rd Street, despite the two roadways running parallel in real life. Costume designer Amanda Friedland created the flapper-themed wardrobe for "Self Made Man". Production wrapped on "Self Made Man" on October 15, 2008. ## Reception Reviewing the episode for IGN, Travis Fickett extolled Summer Glau's performance, and held it up as an example of her acting ability keeping the whole series from failing. Fickett also explained that "Self Made Man" received better ratings than the preceding episodes of the series' second season. At the website Television Without Pity (TWoP), the staff review rated the episode a "C", and specifically took issue with the suspension of disbelief required for Cameron's ability to find anything and everything about the Myron Stark storyline in a closed public library; as of January 2010, 757 of their readers awarded it an average grade of "B+". Though the series never specifically explains the three dots written on the Connors' basement wall in "Automatic for the People", reviewers (including IGN, TWoP, and Total Sci-Fi's Owen Van Spall) attributed them to this episode's revelation of the Terminators' temporal triangulation ability. Van Spall and TWoP also noted the plot point of the T-888's mission to kill the governor of California. Stark's assassination mission was to take place on New Year's Eve 2010, at which time Arnold Schwarzenegger would still be the Californian governor (leaving office in January 2011); Schwarzenegger is the star of the first three Terminator films in the franchise, having premiered the role in 1984.
52,488,712	William Pūnohu White	1,152,502,337	Hawaiian lawyer, sheriff, politician and newspaper editor	[ "1851 births", "1925 deaths", "19th-century American lawyers", "20th-century American politicians", "Editors of Hawaii newspapers", "Hawaii Democrats", "Hawaii lawyers", "Hawaii sheriffs", "Hawaiian Kingdom people of English descent", "Hawaiian Kingdom politicians", "Hawaiian insurgents and supporters", "Home Rule Party of Hawaii politicians", "Members of the Hawaii Territorial Legislature", "Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Representatives", "National Liberal Party (Hawaii) politicians", "National Party (Hawaii) politicians", "National Reform Party (Hawaii) politicians", "Native Hawaiian politicians", "People from Hilo, Hawaii", "People from Lahaina, Hawaii", "Reform Party (Hawaii) politicians", "ʻIolani School alumni" ]	William Pūnohuʻāweoweoʻulaokalani White (; August 6, 1851 – November 2, 1925) was a Hawaiian lawyer, sheriff, politician, and newspaper editor. He became a political statesman and orator during the final years of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the beginnings of the Territory of Hawaii. Despite being a leading Native Hawaiian politician in this era, his legacy has been largely forgotten or portrayed in a negative light, mainly because of a reliance on English-language sources to write Hawaiian history. He was known by the nickname of "Pila Aila" or "Bila Aila" (translated as Oily Bill) for his oratory skills. Born in Lahaina, Maui, of mixed Native Hawaiian and English descent, White was descended from Kaiakea, a legendary orator for King Kamehameha I. Representing Lahaina in the legislative assemblies of 1890 and 1892, he became a political leader for the Liberal faction in the government and established himself as a leader in the opposition to the unpopular Bayonet Constitution of 1887. Throughout the terms of both legislatures, White led attempts to pass bills calling for a constitutional convention. He was criticized by the missionary Reform party for his support of the controversial lottery and opium bills. He and Joseph Nāwahī co-authored the proposed 1893 Constitution with Queen Liliʻuokalani. They were decorated Knight Commanders of the Royal Order of Kalākaua for their service and contribution to the monarchy. When an attempt by the queen to promulgate this constitution failed on January 14, 1893, White's opponents falsely alleged he had tried to incite the people to storm ʻIolani Palace and harm the queen and her ministers. White denied these charges and threatened to sue the newspapers. Three days after the attempted promulgation, the queen was deposed in a coup during the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893. During the Provisional Government of Hawaii and the Republic of Hawaii that followed it, he remained loyal to the monarchy. Returning to Lahaina, he helped organize native resistance on Maui and was arrested for running out a pro-annexationist pastor at Waineʻe Church. He was elected in 1896 as honorary president of the Hui Aloha ʻĀina (Hawaiian Patriotic League), a patriotic organization established after the overthrow to oppose annexation. In 1897 he became an editor of the short-lived anti-annexationist newspaper Ke Ahailono o Hawaii (translated as The Hawaiian Herald) run by members of the Hui Kālaiʻāina (Hawaiian Political Association). Following the annexation of Hawaii to the United States, he was elected as a senator of the first Hawaiian Territorial legislature of 1901 for the Home Rule Party. Afterward, his political fortune declined with the party and his many attempts to win re-elections from 1902 to 1914 ended in defeats, although he was elected the first sheriff of Maui County for a brief period before his election was declared void due to inconsistencies in the 1903 County Act. ## Early life and family White was born on August 6, 1851, at Lahaina, on the island of Maui, to John Kahue White, Jr. and his wife Kahalelana. His paternal grandparents were John White, Sr. and Keawe. He was of Native Hawaiian and English descent, thus known as a hapa-haole in Hawaiian and as a "half-caste" in the English press. His paternal grandfather John White, Sr. was regarded as one of the oldest foreign-born residents in Hawaii at the time of his death. Known as "Jack" White, he was an Englishman originally from Plymouth, Devon. During the French Revolutionary Wars, he served on the frigate HMS Amelia. Sometime in 1796 or 1797, he arrived in Lahaina and later settled as a permanent resident in 1802. During the final years of the conquest and unification of the Kingdom of Hawaii, he served as a foreign advisor in the court retinue of King Kamehameha I. He received lands on Maui in the Great Mahele in 1848. After residing in the Hawaiian Islands for more than sixty years, he died on August 9, 1857. He was living with his son-in-law, Maui sugar planter Linton L. Torbert (William's uncle), around the time of his death. From his paternal grandmother Keawe, he was descended from Kaiʻākea, his great-grandfather and an aliʻi (high chief) of Molokaʻi, who served as a political counselor, orator and many other different positions during the reign of the first Hawaiian king Kamehameha I. In 1902, the Ka Nupepa Kuokoa printed a brief biography, noting: "... Kaiʻākea was a wise counsellor in ancient times in his occupation taught by his grandfathers from Kapouhiwaokalani to the sons, Mahinuiakalani and Kauauanuiamahi and Kuikai, on down to Kukalanihoouluae, the own father of Kaiʻākea. From these comes Kaiʻākea's political knowledge, that as an architect, an orator, a composer of the historical and genealogical chants, an important genealogical source for these islands and the one who by himself and with his chiefly children arranged the genealogy of the major chiefs of Hawaii, Maui, and Molokai from the high chiefly ranks to the low chiefly ranks." During the 1860s, White was educated at the Luaʻehu School, the Anglican mission boarding institution run by Archdeacon George Mason in Lahaina. Founded by Anglican Rev. William R. Scott in 1863, this institution was a precursor of the present-day ʻIolani School in Honolulu. White was educated with Curtis P. Iaukea, Samuel Nowlein, Robert Hoapili Baker, and other future Hawaiian leaders. White married the Chinese-Hawaiian Esther or Ester Apuna Akina (1855–1943), sister of fellow statesman Joseph Apukai Akina. They had four known children including Ellen Kananihemolele White (1875–1942), wife of politician David Kalei Kahāʻulelio, and Samuel Tensung Leialoha White (1886–1962), who became an assistant city engineer for Honolulu. ## Political career during the monarchy During the early 1880s, White worked as a police officer in Kohala, on the island of Hawaii. According to later opinions, he "made the reputation of being a good officer". It was in this capacity that he first came into the political arena. In the general election of 1884 he was nominated as one of the many National (Governmental) Party members and ran for a seat in the Hawaiian legislative session of 1884, as a representative from Kohala. He received no votes in this election. Godfrey Brown (an Independent) defeated National Party member George Panila Kāmauʻoha, a colleague of White's in the Kohala police force at the time and also later a member of the 1892 legislature. In April 1884, Kāmauʻoha was removed from his position for malfeasance and White was appointed his successor as deputy sheriff of North Kohala. Prior to this, the police department of Kohala had gained a reputation for corruption. After his appointment, the new deputy sheriff became popular in the community for his competency, "strict attention to his duties, as well as his thorough integrity". During his tenure, news reports claimed "he is acknowledged by all law-loving residents to be by far the best one we have had for many year, He is not to be bought, and is no respecter of persons or position, especially when the interest of the public are concerned. However, he did not hold this position for long and was succeeded by J. W. Moanauli. By 1885, White had moved to Hilo where he had begun practicing law. He became an agent to take acknowledgements to instruments on September 12, 1884. On January 1, 1886, he was listed as one of the speakers at a political rally at Halawa. He later became a member of the Hui Kālaiʻāina (Hawaiian Political Association), a political group founded in 1888 to oppose the Bayonet Constitution and promote Native Hawaiian leadership in the government. After the adoption of the constitution, White gave a speech in Hilo speaking out against it. He criticized the exclusion of the Chinese and Japanese from the vote, especially focusing on the latter group because of Hawaii's treaty with the Empire of Japan. By 1890, he had returned to his native island of Maui. As a political leader, White received strong support in the Native Hawaiian community. During his terms in the legislature, he became known by the nickname of "Pila Aila" or "Bila Aila" (Oily Bill) for his ability to speak to and humorously charm large crowds. He embraced this moniker although his opponents used it negatively to denigrate him as a slick, smooth-talking demagogue who negatively influenced his constituents. In the Hawaiian tradition, his skills as an orator were attributed to the kuleana (responsibility) of his family as descendants of Kaiakea. ### Legislature of 1890 From 1890 to 1893 White served two terms as a member of the House of Representatives, the lower house of the Hawaiian legislature, for the district of Lahaina on the island of Maui. In his first term, he initially ran as a member of the Reform Party against the National Reform Party candidate J. Nazareta. In 1887, the Reform Party (consisting of many descendants of American missionaries and Hawaiian conservatives) had become the established governmental party following King Kalākaua's coerced signing of the Bayonet Constitution. White was opposed to the constitution, and may have switched allegiance at a later point to the National Reform Party, which was established in opposition to the Reform Party in this session. In a mass meeting at Palace Square on September 9, 1890, he allied with many other leading National Reform politicians in calling for a constitutional convention to draft a replacement for the constitution. Speeches were made by legislators Joseph Nāwahī of Hilo, John E. Bush, Robert William Wilcox and John K. Kaunamano of Oahu, and Luther W. P Kanealii of Maui, among other speakers. Reportedly, Representative Wilcox told the crowd that "any National Reform Party member of the legislature who voted against the convention bill 'ought to be torn limb from limb'". At the end of the meeting, White gave the final speech, which "made all who understood Hawaiian, laugh". However, when the constitution convention bill went up for the vote of the legislature on October 1, it was defeated by a vote of 24 to 16. White and Bush proposed a bill to the legislature to amend the 1887 constitution to give women the right to vote during this session. The bill did not pass. Had it been made into law, Hawaii would have preceded New Zealand as the first nation to allow women to vote. In 1892, Nāwahī would attempt to pass another bill supporting women's suffrage but it also failed. The 1890 biannual session commenced on November 14. A few months later, in January 1891, King Kalakaua died while in San Francisco and was succeeded by his sister Queen Liliʻuokalani. White and his wife Ester marched alongside other legislators and their spouses in the funeral procession of the deceased king. ### Legislature of 1892–93 In 1891 White changed his party allegiance, joining the National Liberal Party. He and Wilcox were chosen as the stump orators to travel around the other islands and canvass for the new party. The Liberal Party wanted increased Native Hawaiian participation in the government, as well as a constitutional convention to draft a new constitution to replace the unpopular Bayonet Constitution. However, the party soon became divided between radicals and more conciliatory groups. Joseph Nāwahī and White became the leaders of the factions of the Liberals loyal to the queen against the more radical members such as John E. Bush and Robert William Wilcox, who were advocating for drastic changes such as increased power for the people and a republican form of government. Newspaper accounts noted that, during a meeting of Hui Kālaiʻāina on December 4, 1892, White reportedly said that he had "always abhorred the idea of a republic". In the February 1892 election, White ran on the National Liberal ticket and defeated Reform candidate John W. Kalua for the seat of Lahaina in the House of Representatives. From May 28, 1892, to January 14, 1893, the legislature of the Kingdom convened for an unprecedented 171 days, which later historian Albertine Loomis dubbed the "Longest Legislature". This session was characterized by a series of resolutions of no confidence, resulting in the ousting of a number of Queen Liliʻuokalani's appointed cabinet ministers, and debates over the passage of the controversial lottery and opium bills. During this session, White presented petitions for a new constitution from his constituents and introduced a bill on June 29 to convene a constitutional convention that was referred to a select committee. He supported the lottery bill and the opium bill, which were intended to alleviate the economic depression in the islands' sugar industry caused by the passage of the McKinley Tariff. The bills were controversial, dividing the legislators. He was one of three members to introduce an opium licensing bill (July 9) for legislative debate although the final bill adopted was another version written by Clarence W. Ashford. On August 30, he introduced the lottery bill, aimed at creating a national lottery system for raising governmental revenue, which was supported by the queen. According to Liliʻuokalani, White "watched his opportunity and railroaded the last two bills through the house". Both these bills passed the legislature after contentious debates. Along with his political ally Nāwahī, White was decorated with the honor of Knight Commander of the Royal Order of Kalākaua at a ceremony in the Blue Room of ʻIolani Palace on the morning of January 14, for his work and patriotism during the legislative session. The legislative assembly was prorogued on the same day, two hours later, at a noon ceremony officiated by the queen at Aliʻiōlani Hale, which stood across the street from the palace. The Daily Bulletin newspaper noted: "All of the Hawaiian members of the Legislature were present, and one of them, Rep. White, displayed a star of the Order of Kalakaua". ## Overthrow As a strong proponent for a new constitution, White helped Queen Liliʻuokalani draft the 1893 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Nāwahī was the other principal author, and Samuel Nowlein, captain of the Household Guard, was another contributor. These three had been meeting with the queen in secret since August 1892 after attempts to abrogate the Bayonet Constitution by legislative decision through a constitutional convention had proved largely unsuccessful. The proposed constitution would increase the power of the monarchy, restore voting rights to economically disenfranchised Native Hawaiians and Asians, and remove the property qualification for suffrage imposed by the Bayonet Constitution, among other changes. On the afternoon of January 14, after the knighting ceremony of White and Nāwahī and the prorogation of the legislature, members of Hui Kālaiʻāina and a delegation of native leaders marched to ʻIolani Palace with a sealed package containing the constitution. According to William DeWitt Alexander, this was pre-planned by the queen to take place while she met with her newly appointed cabinet ministers in the Blue Room of the palace. She was attempting to promulgate the constitution during the recess of the legislative assembly. However, these ministers, including Samuel Parker, William H. Cornwell, John F. Colburn, and Arthur P. Peterson, were either opposed to or reluctant to support the new constitution. Crowds of citizens had gathered outside the steps and gates of ʻIolani Palace expecting the announcement of a new constitution. Among them were White and members of Hui Kālaiʻāina who had presented a sealed package containing the constitution. After the ministers' refusal to sign the new constitution, the queen stepped out onto the balcony and asked the assembled people to return home, declaring "their wishes for a new constitution could not be granted just then, but will be some future day". Representative White also gave a speech to this crowd on the palace steps although the exact nature of what he said is disputed. Opponents of the monarchy, especially the conservatives in the Reform Party, later claimed he gave an inflammatory and violent speech inciting the crowd to storm the palace and "go in and kill and bury" either the queen or her cabinet ministers. The speech may have been in Hawaiian and was only paraphrased in the English press. On January 16, The Pacific Commercial Advertiser, an English newspaper in Honolulu, sympathetic to the Reform Party, reported: > Rep. White then proceeded to the steps of the Palace and began an address. He told the crowd that the Queen and the Cabinet had betrayed them, and that instead of going home peaceably they should go into the Palace and kill and bury her. Attempts were made to stop him which he resisted, saying that he would never close his mouth until the new Constitution was granted. Finally he yielded to the expostulations of Col. Boyd and others, threw up his hands and declared that he was pau, for the present. After this the audience assembled dispersed. The political fallout of the queen's actions led to citywide political rallies and meetings in Honolulu. Anti-monarchists, annexationists, and leading Reformist politicians including Lorrin A. Thurston formed the Committee of Safety in protest of the "revolutionary" action of the queen and conspired to depose her. In response, royalists and loyalists formed the Committee of Law and Order and met at the palace square on January 16. White, Nāwahī, Bush, Wilcox, and Antone Rosa and other pro-monarchist leaders gave speeches in support for the queen and the government. However, in their attempts to be cautious and not provoke the opposition, they adopted a resolution stating that "the Government does not and will not seek any modification of the Constitution by any other means than those provided in the organic law". In this mass meeting, White also gave a speech denying the violent charges printed in the press against him, claiming that "the other fellows, meaning the Reformers, are crying out before they are hurt" (another paraphrasing published in The Daily Bulletin). Minister Cornwell (one of the individuals the papers claimed he intended to harm) later stated in his testimony in the Blount Report: > A few remarks were made by the Hon. William White, the representative for Lahaina, to the effect that, while the people regretted the Queen's inability to grant the wishes of the people, they accept the assurances of the Queen and await the proper time, which, if they were successful at the next election to be held, would be at the meeting of the Legislature in 1894. The insurgents have falsely reported the remarks of Mr. White, and in their press and otherwise represented him as making an incendiary and threatening speech. The falsehood of such statement, well known to us who were witnesses at the scene, will shortly be proven in the courts of justice, as Mr. White has retained counsel for the purpose of bringing a damage suit for malicious libel against the Pacific Commercial Advertiser, the principal organ of the reform party. ## Opposition to the overthrow and annexation These actions and the radicalized political climate eventually led to the overthrow of the monarchy, on January 17, 1893, by the Committee of Safety, with the covert support of United States Minister John L. Stevens and the landing of American forces from the USS Boston. After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894, with Sanford B. Dole as president. During this period, the de facto government, which was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, sought to annex the islands to the United States against the wishes of the Native Hawaiians who wanted to remain an independent nation ruled by the monarchy. ### Resistance on Maui Residents of Maui began circulating petitions protesting the establishment of the Provisional Government in the districts of Wailuku and Makawao. White was still in Honolulu during the events of the coup d'état, and The Hawaiian Gazette reported rumors that he was one of the candidates for a Hawaiian embassy to Washington, DC, to ask for the restoration of the monarchy under the queen's niece Princess Kaʻiulani. Departing Honolulu on February 7, he returned to Lahaina on the inter-island steamer Waialeale. White remained a royalist and an agent of the deposed monarch on Maui and wrote "to the Queen and others about covert issues surrounding her possible re-instatement". In May 1893 he helped organized the native community of Lahaina in removing the pro-annexationist Reverend Adam Pali of Waineʻe Church. Angered by the political stance of their pastor, the native congregation and the trustees of the church voted to remove Pali and asked him to vacate the residence owned by the church by July 8. However, these efforts were later undone by the central authority in Honolulu and the Maui Presbytery. During their meeting in June, the Hawaiian Evangelical Association (HEA) ruled against the vote of the native congregation. In July the Maui Presbytery reinstated Pali and excommunicated the members of the congregation, including White, who had voted to remove him. The English press in Honolulu cast White in a negative light, claiming he had proved to be a "negative influence over the simple people of the parish". On July 8 a confrontation took place between the leaders of the congregation, in physical control of the church, and supporters of Pali, which included Lahaina Circuit Judge Daniel Kahāʻulelio. Using his official position, Kahāʻulelio ordered the arrest of White and the four other leaders of the congregation on charges of "riot and unlawful assembly". They were imprisoned in the local jail to await trial. Represented by John Richardson, the personal attorney of the queen, their trial lasted three days, from August 2 to August 5, 1893. Judge William Henry Daniels, of the Wailuku Circuit Court, found no evidence that the defendants had organized or provoked a confrontation and acquitted them of the charges. Consequently, after Pali's reinstatement, church attendance at Waineʻe plummeted from seventy-five to thirteen members. The excommunicated members continued their resistance and worshipped at the nearby Hale Aloha Church instead. Waineʻe Church was burned down on June 28, 1894, after sparks from a rubbish fire ignited the wooden belfry of the church. Although the fire was accidental, annexationist Sereno Edwards Bishop, writing in 1897, blamed the Hawaiian royalists and those who had opposed Pali for the burning of the building. He stated: "The excellent pastor of this church, Reverend A. Pali, had become obnoxious to a majority of his people on account of politics. He had favored the abolition of monarchy, having become, like a majority of his colleagues in the pastorate, exceedingly disgusted with the increasing heathenish tendencies of the court. The dissension arising from Pali's attitude had led to the burning of the fine old stone church by partisans of the Royalist side, and the people were too weak to rebuild." This biased, false report has been repeated in the conventional history of Hawaii written with the use of English language sources. The church was later rebuilt and destroyed multiple times and was renamed Waiola Church in 1953. ### Return to Honolulu White became a member of Hui Aloha ʻĀina o Na Kane (Hawaiian Patriotic League for Men), a patriotic group founded shortly after the overthrow of the monarchy to oppose annexation and support the deposed queen. A corresponding female league was also founded. The ranks of the men's group were largely composed of the leading native politicians of the former monarchy, including Nāwahī, who served as its president. A delegation (not including White) was elected by its members to represent the case of the monarchy and the Hawaiian people to the United States Commissioner James Henderson Blount sent by President Grover Cleveland to investigate the overthrow. During this politically uncertain time, White traveled to Honolulu at the end of 1893 on the steamer W. G. Hall upon hearing rumors of the monarchy's restoration and returned to Lahaina in January when he discovered the reports were false. The native resistance, the results of the Blount Report, and President Cleveland's refusal to annex the island stopped the annexationist scheme and prompted the Provisional Government to establish an oligarchical government, styling itself the Republic of Hawaii, until a more favorable political climate emerged in Washington. In April 1894 White and John Richardson gave a speech at Lahaina opposing the new regime and asking the people not to participate in the election of delegates to the constitutional convention in Honolulu. Members of Hui Aloha ʻĀina gave speeches and held meetings across much of the island, and it was reported that foreigners and natives alike in Maui (with the exception of the residents of Hana) were strongly against the attempts to establish a republic. At the beginning of January 1895, Robert William Wilcox launched a counter-revolution against the forces of the Republic. Its ultimate failure led to the arrest of many sympathizers of Wilcox and the militant efforts to restore the queen, including Liliʻuokalani and Nāwahī, who were arrested for misprision of treason. Nāwahī died in 1896 from tuberculosis complications contracted during his imprisonment. After Nāwahī's death, White and other Hui Aloha ʻĀina delegates from the different island branches congregated in Honolulu for the election of a new leadership council on November 28, 1896, coinciding with Lā Kūʻokoʻa (Hawaiian Independence Day). In this meeting in which White presided as chairman, James Keauiluna Kaulia was elected as the new president. Two days later, White was chosen as the honorary president of Hui Aloha ʻĀina, over Edward Kamakau Lilikalani, by a majority of the assembled members. The Hawaiian Star reported, "In accepting the position Mr. White thanked the members for the honor and pledged himself to labor for the best interests of the society. He called upon the delegates to inform their constituents of his election and ask them to give him their cordial aid in his work." In 1897 White became the editor of Ke Ahailono o Hawaii (translated as The Hawaiian Herald), a Hawaiian-language newspaper founded by Hui Kālaiʻāina. After the overthrow, this Hawaiian political group switched its political agenda toward opposing annexation to the United States and restoring Liliʻuokalani. White co-owned the paper with David Keku and John Kahahawai. The assistant editor was Samuel K. Pua, a colleague of White's in the 1892–93 legislature from Oahu, although Pua would resign in October of the same year. At the conception of Ke Ahailono o Hawaii, the English newspaper The Independent noted that "The New venture under the control of Messrs. White and Pua, should indeed be a White Flower of journalism, although the genial 'Sam' could change the euphony by adding another terminal vowel to his name." The paper was published at Honolulu's Makaainana Printing House, owned by F. J. Testa. Weekly issues were published from June 4 to October 29, 1897. In May 1899 Testa sued White and the four other proprietors of the newspaper including David Kalauokalani (president of Hui Kālaiʻāina) for unpaid printing costs of the short-lived paper. The court ruled in favor of Testa awarding him the amount of \$743,40, although White was only required to pay one-fifth of \$447.50 because he left the venture when the "troubles" started. The decision was reversed on appeal. After assuming office in 1897, United States President William McKinley signed the treaty of annexation for the Republic of Hawaii, but it failed to pass in the United States Senate after the Kūʻē Petitions were submitted by Kaulia, Kalauokalani, John Richardson and William Auld as evidence of the strong resistance of the Native Hawaiian community to annexation. Members of Hui Aloha ʻĀina collected over 21,000 signatures opposing an annexation treaty. Another 17,000 signatures were collected by members of Hui Kālaiʻāina but not submitted to the Senate because they were asking for the restoration of the queen and the delegates. The petitions were used as evidence of the strong resistance of the Hawaiian community to annexation and the treaty was defeated in the Senate. After the failure of the treaty, Hawaii was instead annexed by means of a joint resolution called the Newlands Resolution, in July 1898, shortly after the outbreak of the Spanish–American War. In September 1898 White took an oath of allegiance to the United States and the Republic of Hawaii in order to renew his license to practice law in the inferior courts of the Hawaiian Islands. A few days later on September 12, David Kalauokalani, Robert William Wilcox and other members of Hui Kālaiʻāina held a meeting at the Palace Square. White was slated as a possible speaker at the meeting, in the newspaper The Hawaiian Star printed the morning of September 12, although it is not certain if he attended the meeting later in the evening. Many Hawaiians had accepted annexation was to stay. Despite divided opinions among the Hawaiian leaders, they sent a memorial requesting the restoration of the monarchy and "the old order" to the board of commissioners established to finalize the laws and annexation of the islands to the United States. ## Territorial government Following the establishment of the Territory of Hawaii in 1900, White became a member of the Home Rule Party, which was formed by the former leaders of Hui Aloha ʻĀina and Hui Kālaiʻāina. The party consisted of Native Hawaiians who had been leaders during the monarchy and other former royalists and loyalists such as Robert William Wilcox, who was elected the first congressional delegate from Hawaii under the Home Rule ticket. During this period, the party would share the political stage and contend with the Republicans and Democrats. ### 1901 legislature There had been speculation since May 1899 that he would be a candidate for office in the new territorial government. In November 1900 election White was elected to the inaugural Territorial legislature, established under the Hawaiian Organic Act, as a senator from the Second District (corresponding to Maui, Molokaʻi. Lānaʻi, and Kahoʻolawe). During this term, his brother-in-law, Joseph Apukai Akina, would serve as Speaker of the House of Representatives while his son-in-law David Kalei Kahaulelio served as sergeant-at-arm of the Senate. During this session, the Native Hawaiian legislators attempted to pass new laws in the interest of the local people, who included Hawaiian taro farmers, patients of the Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement and victims of the 1900 Chinatown fire, among others. In total, fifty-one bills were introduced in the Senate and one hundred and twenty-six in the House, although only nineteen bills were submitted by both houses for ratification. They proposed creating a governmentally funded education program for poor Hawaiian students similar to the Education of Hawaiian Youths Abroad program initiated during the reign of King Kalākaua. A pension for the deposed Queen Liliʻuokalani and appropriation to repair the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii were also proposed. They promoted the use and study of the Hawaiian language, especially in the government and courts. Ignoring the Organic Act which mandated the sole use of English in the legislature, this session was conducted in both Hawaiian and English with the aid of an interpreter. Many of the territorial legislators in this session did not speak English. They also created the first county bill, which would have created five counties named after former Hawaiian aliʻi. However, their agenda was obstructed by the Republicans and the appointed members of territorial government, especially Governor Sanford B. Dole, the former president of the Republic. In this session, the Home Rulers attempted to decentralize control away from the governor and empower local government by passing a bill creating the first counties in Hawaii. This county bill was defeated by Dole through a pocket veto after the prorogation of the regular session. The legislative assembly was later mockingly dubbed the "Lady Dog Legislature" because of extensive debate on House Bill No. 15, which pertained to the repealing of an 1898 tax on ownership of female dogs. This nickname was used by opponents of the Home Rulers to denigrate the group and the difficulties of the 1901 legislature would later be used as evidence of the incompetence of Native Hawaiian political leadership. Historian Ronald William, Jr., noted: > Hawaiʻi's first territorial legislature has been disparaged in modern published sources with its native leadership characterized as incompetent, ineffective, and shallow. In contrast, the primary-source record of that body reveals a competent, prepared, and engaged native leadership addressing foundational concerns of their constituents through the drafting and support of numerous legislative bills. It conveys a story of legislative leaders hamstrung by a territorial system in which two of the three governmental branches, the judiciary and executive, were appointed. A bitter struggle between these appointed and elected factions resulted in the neutering of much of the agenda of the native-led legislature. The discrepancy between the narratives speaks volumes about the larger elision of Hawaiian voice and action in published histories of Hawai‘i.... Native leaders of the 1901 legislature were neither incompetent nor intimidated. These men, chosen to represent the people of Hawai‘i, had supported their nation in significant ways prior to getting the call to serve in this capacity. In the lead up to the opening of the legislature in which they would serve, they had prepared diligently and during this brief law-making session they had worked determinedly to fulfill the kuleana [responsibility] bestowed upon them by their constituents. These native leaders of the first territorial legislature had continued a dedicated and determined legacy of service to their people. ### Declining political career In the next election, for the 1903 legislature, White ran again for senator on the Home Rule ticket. Despite expecting an easy victory, he was defeated by Republican candidate Charles H. Dickey. White accepted the defeat graciously. Many Home Rule members of the previous legislature also lost, including his brother-in-law Speaker Akina. Referring to these defeated politicians as the "Lady Dog Members", The Hawaiian Star reported "all went down to defeat on their Lady-Dog record". During this same election, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, who bolted from the Home Rule Party with many of his followers to join the Republicans, defeated Wilcox for the position of Hawaii's delegate to Congress, resulting in the decline of the Home Rule Party and allowing the Republicans to gain the upper hand. A second county bill was passed by the 1903 legislature and approved by Governor Dole, forming Maui County and four other counties on the main Hawaiian Islands. The first local territorial elections for the county boards of Maui and the other counties were held on November 3. In this election, White ran as the Home Rule candidate for Sheriff of Maui County and defeated the Republican candidate Lincoln M. Baldwin, who had held the previously appointed position of sheriff. The Home Rule Party ended up dominating in the local elections on Maui. Shortly after his election, White and David Haili Kahaulelio, the elected county clerk for Maui, wrote to Dole's successor, Governor George R. Carter, asking him to assemble a conference where the newly elected county officials across the territory could discuss how the county governments should be conducted. The county act came into effect on January 4. However, it was soon placed on hold by the Hawaii Supreme Court, awaiting a ruling on its constitutionality. Acting under the instruction of the governor, High Sheriff Arthur M. Brown ordered the former appointed sheriffs to resume their posts from the elected officials. Brown sent a telegraph, on January 14, to Sheriff Baldwin ordering him to resume his former position and asking White to vacate his office. They expected some amount of difficulty from White, and Brown considered sending a force from Honolulu under Deputy High Sheriff Charles F. Chillingsworth to quell any possible insurrection. Baldwin assembled men from his former police force and retook the sheriff's office, but White refused to relinquish his position, insisting that he wanted "further advice from the Attorney General as to what he should do". The board of supervisors met and decided that White should hold office until there was an official notification from Honolulu on the matter. Both Baldwin and White agreed to wait. On January 16, 1904, the Hawaii Supreme Court ruled the second county bill as unconstitutional because it ran counter to the Organic Act, effectively voiding the previous local elections. When the official decision was received, White resigned as sheriff. Permanent county governments were finally established by an act of the following legislature of 1905. Opting to run for the lesser position Deputy Sheriff of Lahaina, White lost the county election of June 1905, to the Republican Charles R. Lindsay, Jr. by a margin of 112 to 212. Republican William E. Saffery was elected as the sheriff of Maui County. The election resulted in overwhelming Republican victory with only two Home Rule victories in Wailuku for county supervisor and deputy sheriff. The rest of White's political career was marked by a successive period of electoral defeats caused by his continued adherence to the declining Home Rule Party. In November 1904 he ran for the territorial senate for a third time, on a dual Home Rule and Democratic ticket. However, since 1903 the Home Rulers had been steadily losing power to the Republicans, and White was defeated by Republican candidate Samuel E. Kalama by a margin of 810 to 1311. In 1906 he ran for the territorial senate for a fourth time, as a Home Ruler. His supporters described him as "Safe, sane, and conservative" in their petition letters nominating him for the election. However, he was defeated again by the Republican candidate William J. Coelho by a narrow margin of 1225 to 1281. After relocating to Oahu in 1907, he returned briefly to Maui to run as a Democrat in the 1908 election for the senate seat from Maui, but was defeated by a margin of 1152 to 1158. In Honolulu, he ran in the general elections of 1910 and 1912, as a senator for the fourth and fifth district of Oahu, on the Home Rule ticket, but he performed poorly in both elections. The Home Rule Party formally disbanded in 1912 although a few candidates, including White, unsuccessfully ran in the primary elections of 1914. ## Election records Following is the election records from 1884 to 1914 based on the results published by English language newspaper in Hawaii. ## Death and legacy From 1901 to 1903 White was the proprietor of the Ka Lei Nani Saloon in Lahaina, which was advertised in The Maui News. In later life, he moved from Lahaina to Honolulu in 1907. After an illness of eight months, he died on November 2, 1925, at his home at 604 Kalihi near North Queen, in Honolulu. He was buried in an unmarked grave at the Kaʻahumanu Society Cemetery, next to where his widow (a lifelong member of the society) would later be laid to rest. In 2017, historian Ronald William, Jr. raised the funds for a marker for White's grave through a GoFundMe campaign. The grave marker was unveiled on August 6, the anniversary of White's birth. Despite his popularity in the native community, White was portrayed negatively in the English-language press in his lifetime and in the published histories after his death. As a consequence of his opposition to the powers that overthrew the monarchy and later annexed the islands to the United States, White remains obscure in Hawaiian history. Recent research efforts in Hawaiian academia using Hawaiian language sources have shed more light on White and many other early Native Hawaiian resistant leaders like him. In Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen, Liliʻuokalani praised the work of Nāwahī and White: > The behavior of these two patriots during the trying scenes of this session, in such marked contrast to that of many others, won them profound respect. They could never be induced to compromise principles, nor did they for one moment falter or hesitate in advocating boldly a new constitution which should accord equal rights to the Hawaiians, as well as protect the interests of the foreigners. The true patriotism and love of country of these men had been recognized by me, and I had decorated them with the order of Knight Commander of Kalakaua. ## Honors - Knight Commander of the Royal Order of Kalākaua.
1,389,427	Foundation for Economic Education	1,159,660,609	Libertarian education organization	[ "1946 establishments in the United States", "Charities based in Georgia (U.S. state)", "Classical liberalism", "Foundation for Economic Education", "Libertarian organizations based in the United States", "Libertarian think tanks", "Organizations established in 1946", "Political and economic think tanks in the United States" ]	The Foundation for Economic Education (FEE) is an American conservative, libertarian economic think tank. Founded in 1946 in New York City, FEE is now headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. It is a member of the State Policy Network. FEE offers publications, lectures, and student workshops promoting free market principles. ## Views FEE states that its mission is to promote principles of "individual liberty, free-market economics, entrepreneurship, private property, high moral character, and limited government." Friedrich Hayek described FEE's goal as "nothing more nor less than the defense of our civilization against intellectual error." ## History FEE, founded in 1946, is considered the oldest free-market think tank in the United States. An early aim was to roll back policies of the New Deal. FEE opposed the Marshall Plan, Social Security, and minimum wages, among other American social and economic policies. Its founding by Leonard E. Read, Henry Hazlitt, David Goodrich, Donaldson Brown, Leo Wolman, Fred Rogers Fairchild, Claude E. Robinson, and Jasper Crane followed a capital campaign started in 1945 by Crane, who was a DuPont executive, and Alfred Kohlberg. Early contributors included J. Howard Pew, Inland Steel, Quaker Oats, and Sears. As an "intellectual lighthouse", in Read's words, FEE distinguished itself from other business-supported groups by building up the intellectual framework for laissez-faire capitalism as an ideology. Read served as president from 1946 until his death in 1983. Perry E. Gresham was an interim president in 1983. The presidency of FEE from 1983 to 1984 was held by John Sparks Sr., from 1984 to 1985 by Bob Love, from 1985 to 1988 by a series of acting presidents, then from 1988 to 1992 by Bruce Evans. After retiring from Grove City College where he taught economics, Hans Sennholz served as president from 1992 to 1997. Donald J. Boudreaux served as president from 1997 to 2001, before moving on to chair the Department of Economics at George Mason University. Economist Mark Skousen served as president from 2001 to 2002. Author and professor Richard Ebeling served as president from 2003 to 2008. From 2008 to 2019, FEE's president was economist, author, and professor Lawrence W. Reed. ### Location FEE first occupied two rooms in New York City's Equitable Building in 1946. Soon after, the organization moved to a residential property in Irvington, New York, purchased in 1946 and which served as its headquarters for the next 68 years. The Foundation sold the Irvington headquarters after the transfer of its operations to Atlanta, Georgia. ### Impact Murray Rothbard was influenced by FEE economist Baldy Harper and credited FEE with creating a "crucial open center" for a libertarian movement. Friedrich Hayek saw FEE as part of the inspiration for the formation of the Mont Pelerin Society in 1947, and FEE also provided a financial subsidy to the society. Hayek encouraged Antony Fisher to found the Institute of Economic Affairs after visiting FEE in 1952. Ludwig von Mises had a "long-term association with the Foundation for Economic Education." According to the 2020 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report (Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program, University of Pennsylvania), FEE is number 55 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States" (Table 7 – out of 110). ## Leadership Since 2019, Zilvinas Silenas has served as the president of FEE. He is one of the "most quoted opinion leader[s]" in Lithuania, previously serving as president of the Lithuanian Free Market Institute and expanding its teachings within Lithuanian high schools. The textbook Economics In 31 Hours, co-authored by Silenas, is now read by 80 percent of high school students in Lithuania. Lawrence W. Reed serves as FEE's President Emeritus. He is the author of Was Jesus a Socialist?. Jon Miltimore is the managing editor at FEE. Kerry McDonald, an education policy writer, serves as a FEE senior fellow. ## Programs FEE offers a variety of programs for high school students, undergraduates, and graduate students. It is known for free summer seminars. Since 1946, FEE has sponsored public lectures by figures including Ludwig von Mises, F.A. Hayek, Henry Hazlitt, Milton Friedman, James M. Buchanan, Vernon Smith, Walter Williams, F.A. "Baldy" Harper, and William F. Buckley Jr. The Leonard E. Read Distinguished Alumni Award recognizes FEE alumni whom the alumni board considers to have demonstrated "an exceptional dedication to liberty." Notable recipients have included: - Matt Kibbe (2018), founder of Free the People, a non-profit organization promoting libertarian ideals - Edwin Feulner, founder and former president of The Heritage Foundation - Venkatesh Geriti, social entrepreneur - Jack Kemp, former vice presidential candidate - Charles Koch, chairman of Koch Industries - Ron Paul, author, physician, and former Congressman - Roger Ream, president of The Fund for American Studies - Robert Sirico, founder of Acton Institute ## Publications FEE published The Freeman magazine from 1954 to 2016. FEE was the original publisher of the essay "I, Pencil", which explored how markets coordinate the disparate activities necessary for economic cooperation. FEE publishes books, articles, and pamphlets both on paper and digitally that the foundation considers classic works on liberty. These include I, Pencil: My Family Tree by Read, The Law by Bastiat, Anything That's Peaceful by Read, Planned Chaos by Mises, Industry-Wide Bargaining by Wolman, Up from Poverty: Reflections on the Ills of Public Assistance by Sennholz, and The Virtue of Liberty by Machan. ## Gallery ## Assets As of 2018, the Foundation for Economic Education had assets of \$8,186,066. ### Funding details Funding details as of 2018:
191,393	HMS Good Hope (1901)	1,160,785,736	Drake-class armored cruiser	[ "1901 ships", "Drake-class cruisers", "Maritime incidents in November 1914", "Naval magazine explosions", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "Shipwrecks in the Chilean Sea", "Warships lost in combat with all hands", "World War I cruisers of the United Kingdom", "World War I shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean" ]	HMS Good Hope was one of four Drake-class armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy around 1900; she was originally named Africa, but was renamed before she was launched. She became flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet in 1906, and was the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron in 1908. She was reduced to reserve in 1913, but was recommissioned in mid-1914. When war was declared in August 1914, Good Hope was ordered to reinforce the 4th Cruiser Squadron and became the flagship of Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock. Cradock moved the available ships of his squadron later that month to the coast of South America to search for German commerce raiders. He was then ordered further south to the Strait of Magellan to block any attempt of the German East Asia Squadron to penetrate into the South Atlantic. He found the German squadron on 1 November off the coast of Chile. The German squadron outnumbered Cradock's force and were individually more powerful; they sank Cradock's two armoured cruisers in the Battle of Coronel. Good Hope was lost with all hands. ## Design and description Good Hope was designed to displace 14,150 long tons (14,380 t). The ship had an overall length of 553 feet 6 inches (168.7 m), a beam of 71 feet 4 inches (21.7 m) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches (8.2 m). She was powered by two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one shaft, which produced a total of 30,000 indicated horsepower (22,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). The engines were powered by 43 Belleville boilers. She carried a maximum of 2,500 long tons (2,500 t) of coal and her complement consisted of 900 officers and ratings. Her main armament consisted of two breech-loading (BL) 9.2-inch (234 mm) Mk X guns in single gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. Her secondary armament of sixteen BL 6-inch Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships. Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather. A dozen quick-firing (QF) 12-pounder 12 cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats. Two additional 12-pounder 8 cwt guns could be dismounted for service ashore. Good Hope also carried three 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns and two submerged 17.72-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes. The ship's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches (152 mm) and was closed off by 5-inch (127 mm) transverse bulkheads. The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while the casemate armour was 5 inches thick. The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1–2.5 inches (25–64 mm) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches (305 mm) of armour. ## Service Good Hope, named after the British colony on the Cape of Good Hope, was laid down on 11 September 1899 with the name of Africa by Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering at their Govan shipyard. She was renamed Good Hope on 2 October and launched on 21 February 1901, when she was formally named by Mrs. (Ethel) Elgar, wife of Francis Elgar, manager of the shipbuilding company. She arrived in Portsmouth to be completed and armed in late December 1901. Captain Charles Edward Madden was appointed in command for her first commission on 8 November 1902. She was to be commissioned as flagship of Rear-Admiral Wilmot Fawkes as he succeeded as commander of the Cruiser Squadron in the Home Fleet, but was ordered first to convey Joseph Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to South Africa in late 1902. Fawkes hoisted his flag on 23 November, and the ship left Portsmouth with Chamberlain and his wife on board two days later. During the outward voyage, the Good Hope docked at Port Said, Suez, Aden, Mombasa, and Zanzibar, before landing Chamberlain at Durban in late December. After staying through Christmas at Port Elizabeth, she visited Simon's Town before returning home along the West Coast of Africa. In 1906 she became the flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron, Atlantic Fleet and was the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron when she visited South Africa two years later. Good Hope was placed in reserve in 1913. Good Hope was re-commissioned in mid-1914 with a crew composed mainly of naval reservists and was briefly assigned to the 6th Cruiser Squadron in August, before being transferring the 4th Cruiser Squadron. She rendezvoused at the old Royal Naval Dockyard (which had closed in 1905 and transferred to the Dominion government to become Her Majesty's Canadian Dockyard) in the former Imperial fortress of Halifax, Nova Scotia (which had replaced the Bermuda-based squadron of the North America and West Indies Station in 1907), with HMS Suffolk, the flagship of Rear-Admiral Sir Christopher Cradock. Cradock transferred his flag to Good Hope because she was faster than his previous flagship. In Halifax, the crew of Good Hope was joined by four young Canadian midshipmen to assist Cradock with his command. They would become the first Royal Canadian Navy casualties of the First World War. Cradock's command was despatched to the coast of South America later that month at his own suggestion to better hunt for the German ships preying upon British merchant ships. Good Hope was coaled at the Royal Naval Dockyard in the North Atlantic Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda (by Bermuda Militia Artillery gunners assisting with coaling). On the way south, Good Hope's crew was strengthened by the recruitment of 26 stokers in the West Indies, probably in St. Lucia. His ships were generally unsuccessful in this and he moved his squadron further south in late September to search for the East Asia Squadron, under the command of Vice Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee, in the vicinity of Cape Horn and the Strait of Magellan in accordance to his orders from the Admiralty. At the end of September, Cradock made his first fruitless search of the Tierra del Fuego area and later detached three of his ships to search up the Chilean coast, reaching Valparaíso on 15 October, while Good Hope returned to Port Stanley, in the Falkland Islands, to recoal and to reestablish communications with the Admiralty. He received word on 7 October that Spee's ships were definitely bound for the Cape Horn region and waited for the elderly predreadnought battleship Canopus to reinforce his squadron. She was in poor mechanical condition when she arrived at Port Stanley and required time to make repairs. Good Hope sailed on 22 October without her, going around Cape Horn, while Canopus and three colliers departed the following day, taking the shorter route through the Strait of Magellan. ### Battle of Coronel Good Hope rendezvoused with the rest of the squadron at Vallenar Roads in the remote Chonos Archipelago of Chile on 27 October to recoal. They departed two days later, just as Canopus arrived, Cradock ordering the battleship to follow as soon as possible. He sent the light cruiser Glasgow to scout ahead and to enter Coronel, Chile, to pick up any messages from the Admiralty and acquire intelligence regarding German activities. The cruiser began to pick up German radio signals from the light cruiser SMS Leipzig on the afternoon of 29 October, and delayed entering Coronel for two days with Cradock's permission to avoid being trapped by the fast German ships. A German supply ship was already there and radioed Spee that Glasgow had entered the harbour around twilight. The cruiser departed on the morning of 1 November, but Spee had already made plans to catch her when informed of her presence the previous evening. Glasgow departed Coronel at 09:15 after having picked up the squadron's mail and rendezvoused with the rest of the squadron four hours later. Cradock ordered his ships to form line abreast with an interval of 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) between ships to maximise visibility at 13:50, and steered north at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). At 16:17 Leipzig spotted Glasgow, the easternmost British ship, to its west and she spotted Leipzig's funnel smoke three minutes later. At 17:10 Cradock ordered his ships to head for Glasgow, the closest ship to the Germans. Once gathered together, he formed them into line astern, with Good Hope in the lead, steering southeasterly at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) at 18:18. As the sixteen 21-centimetre (8.3 in) guns aboard the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were only matched by the two 9.2-inch guns on his flagship, he needed to close the range to bring his more numerous 6-inch guns to bear. The Force 7 winds and high seas, however, prevented the use of half of those guns as they were too close to the water. He also wanted to use the setting sun to his advantage so that its light would blind the German gunners. Spee was well aware of the British advantages and refused to allow Cradock to close the range. His ships were faster than the British, slowed by the 16-knot maximum speed of the armed merchant cruiser Otranto, and he opened up the range to 18,000 yards (16,000 m) until conditions changed to suit him. The sun set at 18:50, which silhouetted the British ships against the light sky while the German ships became indistinguishable from the shoreline behind them. Spee immediately turned to close and signalled his ships to open fire at 19:04 when the range closed to 12,300 yards (11,200 m). Spee's flagship, Scharnhorst, engaged Good Hope while Gneisenau fired at Monmouth. Cradock's flagship was hit on the Scharnhorst's third salvo, when shells knocked out her forward 9.2-inch turret and set her forecastle on fire. Cradock, knowing his only chance was to close the range, continued to do so despite the battering that Spee's ships inflicted. By 19:23 the range was almost half of that when the battle began and the British ships bore onwards. Spee tried to open the range, fearing a torpedo attack, but the British were only 5,500 yards (5,000 m) away at 19:35. Seven minutes later, Good Hope charged directly at the German ships, although they dodged out of her way. Spee ordered his armoured cruisers to concentrate their fire on the British flagship and she soon drifted to a halt with her topsides all aflame. At 19:50 her forward magazine exploded, severing the bow from the rest of the ship, and she later sank in the darkness. Spee estimated that his flagship had made 35 hits on Good Hope, suffering only two hits in return that did no significant damage and failed even to wound one crewman. Good Hope was sunk with all hands, a total of 926 officers and ratings. Four of the midshipmen aboard the ship were the first casualties of the newly formed Royal Canadian Navy. ## Notable commanding officers - Charles Douglas Carpendale, 1911–1912
42,543,540	Yugoslav submarine Smeli	1,135,237,182	Yugoslav Osvetnik-class diesel-electric submarine	[ "1928 ships", "Maritime incidents in September 1943", "Naval ships of Yugoslavia captured by Italy during World War II", "Osvetnik-class submarine", "Scuttled vessels", "Ships built in France", "Submarines of the Royal Yugoslav Navy", "World War II submarines of Italy", "World War II submarines of Yugoslavia" ]	Smeli (Daring) was the second of the Osvetnik-class diesel-electric submarines built by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire, Nantes, France for the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). She was launched in 1928, and was built to a partial double hull Simonot design similar to the French Circé-class submarines. She was armed with six 550 mm (22-inch) torpedo tubes, one 100 mm (3.9 in) gun, and one 40 mm (1.6 in) anti-aircraft gun, and could dive to 80 metres (260 ft). Prior to World War II she participated in several cruises to Mediterranean ports. During the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, she was captured by Italian forces at the Bay of Kotor. Initially designated N2, her armament was changed and her conning tower modified. Due to her age and shallow diving depth, when she was commissioned into the Regia Marina as Antonio Bajamonti; her service was limited to training and experimentation. She was scuttled at La Spezia in Liguria by the Italians in September 1943 the day after the Italian surrender. ## Description and construction Yugoslav naval policy in the interwar period lacked direction until the mid-1920s, although it was generally accepted that the Adriatic coastline was effectively a sea frontier that the naval arm was responsible for securing with the limited resources made available to it. In 1926, a modest ten-year construction program was initiated to build up a force of submarines, coastal torpedo boats, torpedo bombers and conventional bomber aircraft to perform this role. The Osvetnik-class submarines were intended to meet part of this challenge. Smeli was built for the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) by the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire company (ACL) at Nantes, France. Her partial double hull design was based on plans by ACL's chief engineer, G. Simonot, and was similar to the French Circé-class submarines. Her Serbo-Croatian name translates as "Daring". Along with her sister submarine of the class, Osvetnik, she had an overall length of 66.5 m (218 ft 2 in), a beam of 5.4 m (17 ft 9 in), and a surfaced draught of 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in). Her surfaced displacement was 630 long tons (640 t) or 809 long tons (822 t) submerged, and her crew consisted of 43 officers and enlisted men. She had an operational depth of 80 metres (260 ft). For surface running, the Osvetnik-class boats were powered by two MAN (Maschinenfabrik) diesel engines which were rated at 1,480 brake horsepower (1,100 kW) that drove two propeller shafts. When submerged, the propellers were driven by two Nancy electric motors generating 1,000 shaft horsepower (750 kW). They could reach a top speed of 14.5 knots (26.9 km/h) on the surface, and 9.2 knots (17.0 km/h) on their electric motors when submerged. They were armed with six 550 mm (22 in) torpedo tubes (four bow-mounted, two stern-mounted), one 100 mm (3.9 in) gun, and one 40 mm (1.6 in) anti-aircraft gun. On the surface, the boats had a range of 3,500 nautical miles (6,500 km) at 9 knots (17 km/h), and 75 nautical miles (139 km) at 5 knots (9.3 km/h) submerged. ## Service history Smeli was the second of her class, and the fourth submarine of the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Royal Yugoslav Navy). She was launched on 1 December 1928. She and Osvetnik arrived in the Bay of Kotor on 9 December 1929. In 1932, the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in few exercises, manoeuvres or gunnery training due to reduced budgets. In October 1934, Smeli visited Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia, and the Kelibia Roads off the coast of Tunisia. In August and September 1937, Smeli, along with the British-made submarine Hrabri and the depot ship Zmaj, visited Greece, including the port of Piraeus, and the islands of Crete and Corfu. When the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941, she was in the Bay of Kotor on the southern Adriatic coast along with the three other submarines of the Submarine Division. On 17 April she was captured by the Italian XVII Corps at the Bay of Kotor. Still in good condition, she was taken as war booty, and initially designated N2. She was refitted and modernised at Pola in the upper Adriatic, which involved the replacement of some of her armament and modifications to her conning tower. Her new displacement was 665 long tons (676 t) (822 long tons (835 t) submerged). She was commissioned by the Italians as the Bajamonti-class Antonio Bajamonti, named after the 19th-century politician and mayor of the Dalmatian port of Split. Despite her stability when submerged and good diving rate, her age and shallow diving depth limited her uses to training and experimentation. She was scuttled by the Italians at La Spezia in Liguria on 9 September 1943, the day after the Italian surrender. ## See also - List of ships of the Royal Yugoslav Navy
59,715,347	King of the Four Corners	1,162,758,121	Prestigious title from ancient Mesopotamia	[ "Akkadian Empire", "Ancient Mesopotamia", "Babylon", "Cyrus the Great", "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "Sumer", "Ur" ]	King of the Four Corners of the World (Sumerian: lugal-an-ub-da-limmu-ba, Akkadian: šarru kibrat 'arbaim, šar kibrāti arba'i, or šar kibrāt erbetti), alternatively translated as King of the Four Quarters of the World, King of the Heaven's Four Corners or King of the Four Corners of the Universe and often shortened to simply King of the Four Corners, was a title of great prestige claimed by powerful monarchs in ancient Mesopotamia. Though the term "four corners of the world" does refer to specific geographical places within and near Mesopotamia itself, these places were (at the time the title was first used) thought to represent locations near the actual edges of the world and as such, the title should be interpreted as something equivalent to "King of all the known world", a claim to universal rule over the entire world and everything within it. The title was first used by Naram-Sin of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC and was later used by the rulers of the Neo-Sumerian Empire, after which it fell into disuse. It was revived as a title by a number of Assyrian rulers, becoming especially prominent during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The final ruler to claim the title was the first Persian Achaemenid king, Cyrus the Great, after his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. It is possible, at least among Assyrian rulers, that the title of King of the Four Corners was not inherited through normal means. As the title is not attested for all Neo-Assyrian kings and for some only attested several years into their reign it is possible that it might have had to be earned by each king individually, possibly through completing successful military campaigns in all four points of the compass. The similar title of šar kiššatim ("King of Everything" or "King of the Universe"), also with Akkadian origins and attested for some of the Neo-Assyrian kings, may have required seven successful military campaigns. The difference between the exact meaning of the two titles may have been that "King of the Universe" laid claim to the cosmological realm whereas "King of the Four Corners of the World" laid claim to the terrestrial. ## Meaning of "Four Corners of the World" The term "four corners of the world" appears in several ancient mythologies and cosmologies, wherein it roughly corresponds the four points of the compass. In most of these representations, four principal rivers run to these four corners, their water irrigating the four quadrants (or quarters) of the world. In the view of the Mesopotamian Akkadians, the term referred to four regions on the edge of the then known world; Subartu (probably corresponding to the region of Assyria) in the north, Martu (roughly corresponding to modern Syria) in the west, Elam in the east and Sumer in the south. To Naram-Sin of Akkad (r. 2254–2218 BC), the creator of the title, it probably, in geographical terms, expressed his dominion over the regions Elam, Subartu, Amurru and Akkad (representing east, north, west and south respectively). The term thus covers a somewhat clear geographical region, corresponding to Mesopotamia and its surroundings, but should be understood as referring to the entire known world. At the point in time when the title was first used, the 2200s BC, the Mesopotamians would have equated all of Mesopotamia to the entire world; the region was highly productive, densely populated and was bordered on all sides by seemingly empty and uninhabited lands. A title the like of King of the Four Corners of the World should be taken as meaning that its holder was the ruler of the entire Earth and everything within it. The title can be interpreted as being equivalent to calling oneself "King of all the known world". Thus, the title is an example of merism, combining contrasting concepts to refer to an entirety (the four corners being on the edges of the world and the title referring to them and everything in between). ## History ### Background (2900–2334 BC) During the Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia (c. 2900–2350 BC), the rulers of the various city-states in the region would often launch invasions into regions and cities far from their own, at most times with negligible consequences for themselves, in order to establish temporary and small empires to either gain of keep a superior position relative to the other city-states. This early empire-building was encouraged as the most powerful monarchs were often rewarded with the most prestigious titles, such as the title of lugal (literally "big man" but often interpreted as "king", probably with military connotations). Most of these early rulers had probably acquired these titles rather than inherited them. Eventually this quest to be more prestigious and powerful than the other city-states resulted in a general ambition for universal rule. Since Mesopotamia was equated to correspond to the entire world and Sumerian cities had been built far and wide (cities the like of Susa, Mari and Assur were located near the perceived corners of the world) it seemed possible to reach the edges of the world (at this time thought to be the lower sea, the Persian gulf, and the upper sea, the Mediterranean). Rulers attempting to reach a position of universal rule became more common during the Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2450–2350 BC) during which two prominent examples are attested. The first, Lugalannemundu, king of Adab, is claimed by the Sumerian King List (though this is a much later inscription, making the extensive rule of Lugalennemundu somewhat doubtful) to have created a great empire covering the entirety of Mesopotamia, reaching from modern Syria to Iran, saying that he "subjugated the Four Corners". The second, Lugalzaggesi, king of Uruk, conquered the entirety of Lower Mesopotamia and claimed (despite this not being the case) that his domain extended from the upper to the lower sea. Lugalzaggesi was originally titled as simply "King of Uruk" and adopted the title "King of the Land" (Sumerian: lugal-kalam-ma) to lay claim to universal rule. This title had also been employed by some earlier Sumerian kings claiming control over all of Sumer, such as Enshakushanna of Uruk. ### Sumerian Kings of the Four Corners (2334–2004 BC) Sargon, king of Akkad, unified Lower and Upper Mesopotamia, creating the first true Mesopotamian empire. Though Sargon most commonly used the title "King of Akkad" (šar māt Akkadi), he also introduced the more boastful title of šar kiššatim ("King of Everything" or "King of the Universe"), used prominently by his successors. The title of "King of the Four Corners of the World" is first attested to have been used by the Akkadian king Naram-Sin, the grandson of Sargon of Akkad and the fourth ruler of the Akkadian Empire. Naram-Sin also proclaimed himself to be a living god (the first Mesopotamian king to do so), making his capital of Akkad not only the political but also the religious center of the empire. It is possible that Naram-Sin might have been inspired to claim the title following his conquest of the city Ebla, in which quadripartite divisions of the world and the universe were prominent parts of the city's ideology and beliefs. The title of King of the Four Corners suggests that Naram-Sin viewed himself not merely as a Mesopotamian ruler but as a universal ruler who happened to conform to the usual Mesopotamian royal traditions, the monarch of a new empire that not only incorporated the city-states of Mesopotamia but the lands beyond as well. In particular, art made during the period starts to incorporate previously unseen objects such as highland plants and animals and mountains, previously seen as highly foreign objects. Their increasing appearance in art suggests that they were seen as belonging to the empire of Akkad as much as everything else did. It is possible that šar kiššatim referred to the authority to govern the cosmological realm whilst "King of the Four Corners" referred to the authority to govern the terrestrial. Eitherway, the implication of these titles was that the Mesopotamian king was the king of the entire world. The title doesn't appear to have been used by any of Naram-Sin's direct successors of the Akkadian Empire, which began to collapse during the reign of Naram-Sin's son Shar-Kali-Sharri. In the 2100s BC, the Gutians attacked the Akkadian Empire and supplanted the ruling "Sargonic" dynasty, destroying the city of Akkad and establishing an empire of their own. By 2112 BC, the Gutians had been driven out and the city of Ur had become the center of a new Sumerian civilization, referred to as the Third Dynasty of Ur or the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The rulers of this empire emulated the previous monarchs from Akkad, referring to themselves as "Kings of Sumer and Akkad" and all of them—with the exception of the founder of the dynasty, Ur-Nammu—used the title of "King of the Four Corners of the World". Some ancient sources confer the title onto Ur-Nammu as well, referring to him as "King in Heaven and the Four Corners of the World", but these inscriptions date to centuries after his reign. ### Assyrian Kings of the Four Corners (1366–627 BC) With the collapse of the Neo-Sumerian Empire in c. 2004 BC, the title fell into disuse once more. Except for the Babylonian king Hammurabi who claimed to be "the king who made the four corners of the Earth obedient" in 1776 BC, the title was not used until occasionally by Assyrian kings of the Middle-Assyrian Empire, often as "King of All the Four Corners of the World" (šar kullat kibrāt erbetti). The first king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Adad-nirari II (r. 911–891 BC), used the title of "King of the Four Corners". The concept of a king governing the four corners of the world was well-established by the reign of the second king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Tukulti-Ninurta II (r. 891–884 BC), who claimed to have been "he whose honoured name he has pronounced forever for the four corners" (ana mu urut kibrāt erbetti ana dāriš išquru) and "governor of the four corners" (muma'er kibrāt erbetti). In Assyria, the deity Ashur was referred to as "[the one] who makes the king's kingship surpass the kings of the four quarters" (mušarbû šarrūtija eli šarrāni ša kibrāt erbetti). Tukulti-Ninurta II's son and successor, Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883–859 BC) is in different inscriptions twice referred to as “King of the Totality of the Four Corners including all their rulers” (šar kiššat kibrāte ša napḫar malkī kalîšunu). The title is also attested for his son and successor, Shalmaneser III (r. 859–824 BC) and is the only title applied to this king by his successors. The Kition stele, a large basalt stele discovered on Cyprus and the westernmost ancient Assyrian artifact known, identifies the king Sargon II, (r. 722–705 BC) with many titles, including "King of the Universe", "King of Assyria", "King of Sumer and Akkad", "Governor of Babylon" and "King of the Four Corners of the World". Sargon II's son and heir Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC) did not immediately inherit the title, referring to himself simply as the "unrivaled king" at the beginning of his reign. Sennacherib conducted several military campaigns during his reign, after which he routinely added titles to his titulary. After his third campaign he added "king of the world" and after conquests in the Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf in 694 BC he added the title "King from the Upper Sea of the Setting Sun to the Lower Sea of the Rising Sun". It was only after Sennacherib had conducted campaigns to the south, east, west and north during his fifth campaign that he replaced the title of "unrivaled king" with "King of the Four Corners of the World". Sennacherib's son and heir, Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) also used the title of "King of the Four Corners of the World" alongside that of "King of the Universe". Unlike the apparent dynastic inheritance of the title during the Neo-Sumerian Empire, it is possible that the title of King of the Four Corners had to be earned by each Assyrian king individually, thus explaining why the title is not attested for every Neo-Assyrian king and why Sennacherib first used it several years into his reign. British historian Stephanie Dalley, specializing in the Ancient Near East proposed in 1998 that the title may have had to be earned through the king successfully campaigning in all four points of the compass. Dalley also proposed that the similar title of "King of the Universe", with a virtually identical meaning, would have been earned through seven (which would have been connected to totality in the eyes of the Assyrians) successful campaigns. It would thus not have been possible for the king to claim either title before the required military campaigns. Periods during which the title was not used, such as the \~80-year gap between Shalmaneser III and Tiglath-Pileser III, probably reflect periods during which the military activity of the country and its kings declined. ### Cyrus the Great (539 BC) After the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 609 BC, the principal power in Mesopotamia was the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The founder of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabopolassar, wished to associate himself with the previous Assyrian rulers to establish continuity and assumed many of the same titles such as šarru dannu ("mighty king") and the much older Sumerian "King of Sumer and Akkad" (which had been used by the Neo-Assyrian rulers as well) but do not appear to have assumed the title of King of the Four Corners. Unlike previous ruling dynasties in Mesopotamia, the Neo-Babylonians usually only employed one royal title on any one occasion. Only rarely are examples with more than one royal title in use found from the Neo-Babylonian period, which might explain the absence of "King of the Four Corners..." since this was an additional prestigious title rather than a primary royal title. Nabopolassar's successors abandoned most of the old Assyrian titles, even abandoning the "mighty king" used by Nabopolassar. The only Neo-Babylonian king to assume the title of "King of the Four Corners" was Nabonidus, who in other aspects also tried to emulate the Assyrian kings. The Neo-Babylonian Empire ended with the conquest of Babylon by the Persian king Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, in 539 BC. The Cyrus Cylinder is an ancient clay cylinder written in Akkadian cuneiform script in the name of Cyrus, made to be used as a foundation deposit and buried in the walls of Babylon. In the text of the cylinder, Cyrus assumes several traditional Mesopotamian titles including those of "King of Babylon", "King of Sumer and Akkad" and "King of the Four Corners of the World". The title was not used after the reign of Cyrus but his successors did adopt similar titles. The popular regnal title "King of Kings", used by monarchs of Iran until the modern age, was originally a title introduced by the Assyrian Tukulti-Ninurta I in the 13th century BC (rendered šar šarrāni in Akkadian). The title of "King of Lands", also used by Assyrian monarchs since at least Shalmaneser III, was also adopted by Cyrus the Great and his successors. Titles such as "King of Kings" and "Great-King" (šarru rabu), ancient titles with the connotation of holding supreme power in the lands surrounding Babylon, would remain in use up until the Sassanid dynasty in Persia of the 3rd to 7th centuries. ## Examples of rulers who used the title Kings of the Four Corners in the Akkadian Empire: - Naram-Sin (r. 2254–2218 BC) Kings of the Four Corners of the Gutian dynasty of Sumer: - Erridupizir Kings of the Four Corners in the Neo-Sumerian Empire: - Utu-hengal - Shulgi (r. 2094–2047 BC) - Amar-Sin (r. 2046–2038 BC) - Shu-Sin (r. 2037–2029 BC) - Ibbi-Sin (r. 2028–2004 BC) Kings of the Four Corners in Babylonia: - Hammurabi (r. 1810–1750 BC) – referred to as the "king who made the four corners of the Earth obedient" in 1776 BC. - Marduk-nadin-ahhe (r. 1099–1082 BC) - Marduk-shapik-zeri (r. 1082–1069 BC) Kings of the Four Corners in the Middle Assyrian Empire: - Tukulti-Ninurta I (r. 1233–1197 BC) - Tiglath-Pileser I (r. 1114–1076 BC) - Ashur-bel-kala (r. 1074–1056 BC) Kings of the Four Corners in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: - Adad-nirari II (r. 911–891 BC) - Tukulti-Ninurta II (r. 891–884 BC) - Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883–859 BC) - Shalmaneser III (r. 859–824 BC) - Shamshi-Adad V (r. 824–811 BC) - Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 745–727 BC) - Shalmaneser V (r. 727–722 BC) - Sargon II (r. 722–705 BC) - Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC) – claimed the title from 697 BC. - Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) - Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC) - Shamash-shum-ukin (Neo-Assyrian king of Babylon, r. 667–648 BC) - Ashur-etil-ilani (r. 631–627 BC) Kings of the Four Corners in the Neo-Babylonian Empire: - Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) Kings of the Four Corners in the Achaemenid Empire: - Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BC) – claimed the title from 539 BC.
10,809,258	Nartanasala (1963 film)	1,168,158,104	1962 film by Kamalakara Kameshwara Rao	[ "1960s Telugu-language films", "1960s historical musical films", "1962 films", "Films based on the Mahabharata", "Films directed by Kamalakara Kameswara Rao", "Films scored by Susarla Dakshinamurthi", "Hindu mythological films", "Indian dance films", "Indian epic films", "Indian historical musical films", "Indian nonlinear narrative films", "Second Best Feature Film National Film Award winners" ]	Nartanasala () is a 1963 Indian Telugu-language Hindu mythological film directed by Kamalakara Kameswara Rao and written by Samudrala Sr. It stars N. T. Rama Rao, Savitri, S. V. Ranga Rao, and Relangi while Mukkamala, Mikkilineni and Dandamudi Rajagopal play supporting roles among others. Susarla Dakshinamurthi composed the film's soundtrack and background score. M. A. Rahman and S. P. S. Veerappa served as the cinematographer and editor respectively. T. V. S. Sarma was the film's art director. The film was produced by actress C. Lakshmi Rajyam and her husband C. Sridhar Rao under the Rajyam Pictures banner. Based on the Virata Parva of the Indian epic Mahabharata, Nartanasala focused on the trials of the Pandavas in the last year of their exile. The Pandavas assumed different identities and lived incognito in Virata's Matsya Kingdom. The Kauravas wished to reveal the Pandavas' real identities so that they would repeat another exile of 13 years in a cyclic fashion. The issues faced by the Pandavas and their wife Draupadi at Matsya due to various factors, notably Virata's brother-in-law Kichaka form the rest of the story. The majority of Nartanasala's portions were filmed in the sets erected at Vauhini and Bharani studios in Madras (now Chennai). Produced with a budget of ₹4,00,000, Nartanasala was released on 11 October 1963 in 26 centers. The film was a commercial success, completing a 100-day run in 19 centers and a 200-day run in two centers. It was also dubbed into Bengali and Odia languages. Nartanasala won the National Film Award for Second Best Feature Film and the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Telugu. At the third Afro-Asian Film Festival held at Jakarta in 1964, Nartanasala received two awards: Best Male Actor (Ranga Rao) and Best Art Director (T. V. S. Sarma). For the April 2013 centennial of Indian cinema, News18 included Nartanasala in its list of "The 100 greatest Indian films of all time". ## Plot The Pandavas complete 12 years of forest life as a part of their 13-year exile stipulation of a rigged dice game they were defeated in by the Kauravas. As per the rule, in the 13th year, the Pandavas and their wife Draupadi have to assume different identities and live incognito until the upcoming Vijayadasami. In case their real identity is unveiled, they have to repeat their 13-year exile. That would give a chance to the Kauravas to stop the Pandavas from attacking and gaining the reigns of the Kuru Kingdom for a longer period, and possibly forever. The Pandavas choose the Matsya Kingdom ruled by Virata, a kind-hearted but weak-spirited king. They hope to find employment in the king's palace. Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, recollects a curse that could help him stay incognito for one year. In the past, Arjuna was felicitated by Indra, the king of deities for gaining the divine weapon, Pasupatastra, from Lord Siva through dedicated devotion. The celestial dancer Urvasi falls in love with Arjuna, but he rejects her advances as he considered her a motherly figure. Feeling insulted, Urvasi cursed him to lose his masculinity and turn into a eunuch. Indra arrived and asked Arjuna to treat this curse as a blessing in disguise as the 13th year is arriving. Taking this into account, Arjuna turns into a transgender dance teacher Brihannala. The remaining Pandavas assume different identities based on their strengths — Dharma Raju (Yudhishthira) as the advisor and dice player Kankubhattu, Bhima as the cook Valabha, Nakula as horse groomsman Damagranthi, Sahadeva as cowherd Tantripala. Draupadi meets Virata's wife Sudeshna at a temple. She introduces herself as Sairandhri, an ill-fated woman married to five Gandharvas, and requests a job in her palace. Sudeshna agrees and promises that Sairandhri would never be used to perform unethical tasks and jobs. The Pandavas too join Virata's palace in these disguised forms and perform various duties. The Kauravas are in search of the Pandavas and their cousin Krishna learns about this. Arjuna's son Abhimanyu wishes to convey the same to the Pandavas and Krishna reluctantly agrees. Before sending him to Matsya, Krishna warns Abhimanyu not to reveal his real identity. Abhimanyu falls in love with Virata's daughter Uttara but does not reveal any details of his. Bruhannala, who teaches dance to Uttara, learns this and is happy. Uttara's brother Uttara Kumara too, wishes to see their alliance turn into a reality and waits for the opportunity. Sudeshna's brother and Matsya's chief army commander Kichaka returns victorious from a conquest. Kichaka sees Sairandhri and is mesmerized by her beauty. He warns Sudeshna of dire consequences if Sairandhri does not willingly submit herself for unison. As Kichaka is the supreme power of Matsya, Virata and Sudeshna do not dare to oppose him. Sairandhri warns and pleads to Kichaka several times, which bear no result. One night, Valala disguises himself as a woman and waits in the dance hall. Believing the woman to be Sairandhri, Kichaka enters the hall and is killed by Valala. Valala also kills Kichaka's hundred brothers who attempt to kill Sairandhri by making her perform Sati with Kichaka's corpse. The Kauravas learn about Kichaka's death due to a woman married to five Gandharvas in mysterious circumstances. They suspect that the Pandavas are hidden in Matsya and launch an attack on the kingdom's cattle. With all the soldiers engaged in war with Kauravas' allies, Virata's palace is almost empty. When Kauravas attack the remaining cattle, Uttara Kumara swears to fight against them. However, after watching their military troops, Uttara Kumara loses his confidence. Bruhannala, who is his charioteer, volunteers to fight if Uttara Kumara handles the chariot, to which Uttara Kumara agrees. Before the war, Bruhannala asks the chariot to be directed to a Shami tree (prosopis cineraria) where the Pandavas' divine weapons are hidden. The 13th year ends on that day and Bruhannala regains his form of Arjuna. On realizing who Bruhannala is, Uttara Kumara is happy to serve him. Arjuna then uses the Sammohanastra weapon, which puts the Kaurava army to sleep. The cattle are rescued and the Pandavas declare that their 13-year exile has been completed. Krishna visits Matsya and the marriage of Uttaraa with Abhimanyu is finalized. ## Cast - N. T. Rama Rao as Arjuna and Bruhannala - Savitri as Draupadi and Sairandhri - S. V. Ranga Rao as Kichaka - Relangi as Uttara Kumara - Dandamudi Rajagopal as Bhima and Valabha - Mukkamala as Virata - Mikkilineni as Dharma Raju and Kankubhattu - Sobhan Babu as Abhimanyu - Dhulipala as Duryodhana - Prabhakar Reddy as Karna - Satyanarayana as Dusaasana - Allu Ramalingaiah as Vaalatulya - Vangara as Assistant Cook - Boddapati as Assistant Cook - Balakrishna as Assistant Cook - Ramakoti as Assistant Cook - L. Vijayalakshmi as Uttaraa - Sandhya as Sudeshna - Padmini Priyadarshini as Urvasi Cameo appearances - Kanchanamala - Suryakantham - Kanta Rao as Krishna - C. Lakshmi Rajyam as Subhadra - Nellore Kantharao as Jeemutha Mallu ## Production ### Development Nartanasala was produced by an actress C. Lakshmi Rajyam and her husband C. Sridhar Rao under the banner Rajyam Pictures. The film's story was based on Virata Parva, one of the eighteen books of the Indian epic Mahabharata. Rajyam and Rao felt that barring Keechaka Vadham (1916—1918) and Vijayadasami (1937), no other Indian film dared to explore Virata Parva and found it a unique premise. Also, the belief that reading Virata Parva in Telugu-speaking lands would result in heavy rainfalls made the subject a culturally significant one. Samudrala Raghavacharya, better known as Samudrala Sr., wrote Nartanasala's script and Kamalakara Kameswara Rao was chosen to direct the film. Nartanasala was Kameswara Rao's first mythological film. Susarla Dakshinamurthi composed the film's music; M. A. Rahman and S. P. S. Veerappa served as the cinematographer and editor, respectively. T. V. S. Sarma was the film's art director. Raavi Kondala Rao, one of the assistant directors, wrote the dialogue for the comedy portions on Kameswara Rao's insistence. He also added the character of Vaalatulya (played by Allu Ramalingaiah), which was absent in the original script. Though Kameswara Rao offered to credit Kondala Rao as the first assistant director, the makers altogether left his name out later. ### Casting Rajyam and Rao approached N. T. Rama Rao to play Arjuna's role in the film. Rama Rao was happy to play Arjuna, but was hesitant to take up Bruhannala's part; he felt that even a slight misstep would result in rejection by the audience. Rajyam assured that Sarma's sketches would help Rama Rao look authentic. Sarma designed the look based on eunuch statues in major temples and opted for Keralite hairstyles. Bengali makeup artist Haripada Chandra was signed to work on Rama Rao's work. After getting approval from his mentor K. V. Reddy on Bruhannala's look, Rama Rao agreed to be a part of the film's cast. Savitri and S. V. Ranga Rao was signed to play the other key roles of Draupadi and Kichaka respectively. Mikkilineni, Dhulipala Seetarama Sastry, Mukkamala and Relangi played supporting roles. Wrestlers Dandamudi Rajagopal and Nellore Kantharao were signed to play Bhima and Jeemutha Mallu respectively. Kanta Rao made a brief appearance as Krishna and Rajyam played his sister Subhadra. Sobhan Babu and L. Vijayalakshmi were paired to play the couple Abhimanyu and Uttaraa. This was Sobhan Babu's first of two films where he portrayed the character of Abhimanyu, the other being Veerabhimanyu (1965). On Rajyam's insistence, actress Kanchanamala made a cameo appearance. She shared the screen with Suryakantham in the film. It was Kanchanamala's last on-screen appearance. ### Filming The majority of Nartanasala's portions were filmed in the sets erected at Vauhini and Bharani studios in Madras (now Chennai). All the musical instruments used in the film were borrowed from the Madras Sangeetha Vidyalaya. The war sequences in the climax portion were filmed at Gudur, a town in Andhra Pradesh; two cameras were simultaneously used to film the scenes. For the Gograhana (retrieving the kidnapped cows) episode, five thousand animals were brought with the help of Gogineni Venkateswara Rao. Nartanasala was produced on a budget of ₹4,00,000 with a runtime of 174 minutes. When Raghavacharya fell ill, his son Samudrala Ramanujacharya (better known as Samudrala Jr.), wrote the monologue "Sandhaana Samayamidi Inkanu Sairandhri Raalede ..." (It is time for unison and Sairandhri hasn't turned up yet ...) for Ranga Rao. Since Bruhannala was a dance teacher and Vijayalakshmi, who played Uttaraa, was a trained classical dancer, Rama Rao took two-hour long daily lessons from the film's choreographer Vempati Pedha Satyam for a month. Satyam also held three-day rehearsals for Sobhan Babu with Vijayalakshmi to help him overcome his nervousness. For the scene where Sairandhri was tied to a pole and dragged on a cart, Kameswara Rao employed a body double. When the intended artist did not turn up, another was employed and the scene was filmed. This made Kameswara Rao remark, "so now we have a dupe for a dupe [sic]". ## Music Susarla Dakshinamurthi composed the film's soundtrack and background score. Nartanasala's soundtrack, marketed by Saregama, consists of 21 tracks including songs, poems, and collection of selected dialogue from the film. Out of 21 songs produced, only nine are used in the film. Raghavacharya and Sri Sri penned the lyrics for the songs. P. V. Koteswara Rao of Bharani Studios worked on the re-recording and songs. RCA and Western Electric sound systems were used for the same. The song "Salalitha Raaga Sudharasa" is based on the Kalyani raga of the carnatic music. The makers were initially reluctant with the song's classic nature and insisted to change it. When Dakshinamurthi and Raghavacharya completed work on a new version, Kondala Rao and Satyam requested the makers to retain the previous version. Dakshinamurthi chose musician M. Balamuralikrishna and Bangalore Latha to provide the vocals. The song "Jaya Gana Nayaka" is a ragamalika composition and is based on three ragas—Gambhiranata, Todi, and Punnagavarali. Nartanasala is one of Dakshinamurthi's critically acclaimed works in Telugu cinema. M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu noted that Dakshinamurthi's "melodious" background score contributed largely to the film's success. "Salalitha Raaga Sudharasa" gained the status of a chartbuster, while "Janani Siva Kamini" gained recognition as a prayer song. Other successful songs of Nartanasala were "Dariki Raboku", "Sakhiya Vivarinchave", "Evarikosam Ee Mandahasam", and "Naravara O Kuruvara". ## Release and reception Nartanasala was released on 11 October 1963 in 26 centres. Navayuga Films acquired the film's distribution rights. Katragadda Narsaiah of Navayuga worked on the film's posters and publicity. The film was commercially successful, managing to have a theatrical run of 100 days in 19 centres and 200 days in Hyderabad and Vijayawada. According to The Hindu, Nartanasala's complete theatrical run lasted for 25 weeks. The film's Bengali and Odia dubbed versions were commercially successful on par with the original. Nartanasala was adjudged the second best feature film at the 11th National Film Awards. It won the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Telugu. At the 3rd Afro-Asian Film Festival held at Jakarta in 1964, Nartanasala received two awards: best male actor (Ranga Rao) and best art director (Sarma). In its 87th volume released in 1966, the now-defunct magazine The Illustrated Weekly of India noted Kanchanamala's cameo appearance, stating, "her delivery was as flawless as in bygone days and the years had not robbed her of charm". Reviewing Nartanasala, the University of Iowa stated that the film "unfolds in a near-operatic style reminiscent of many genres of Indian folk theatre". Rama Rao's performance as Bruhannala was praised: "Rao manages the transition well, swishing about in glittery drag and affecting exaggeratedly feminine mannerisms". The reviewer also found Kanta Rao's portrayal of Krishna "suitably charming, with an enigmatic style". M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu noted that the film provided one of the most fulfilling performances for Savitri as Sairandhri. On its 45th anniversary, Telugu newspaper Sakshi praised the performances of Rama Rao and Ranga Rao as Bruhannala and Keechaka respectively; the newspaper termed the former a "strange adventure" considering the actor's stardom. ## Legacy Nartanasala's success inspired filmmakers to explore the theme of a protagonist with a dark past living with a different identity in a place alien to him. The film's success also earned recognition to Padmini Priyadarshini (who played Urvashi in the film) as a dancer in South Indian cinema. In May 2012, Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com mentioned Nartanasala for the letter N in her list, "The A to Z of Telugu Cinema". In November 2012, The Times of India listed Nartanasala along with other unrelated films such as Missamma (1955), Mayabazar (1957), Gundamma Katha (1962), and Bommarillu (2006) in the list "Telugu classics to watch along with family this Deepavali". The commentator for The Times praised the songs, the overall treatment and Ranga Rao's portrayal of Kichaka. For the April 2013 centennial of Indian cinema, News18 included Nartanasala in its list of "The 100 greatest Indian films of all time". In the Telugu film Bhale Manchi Roju (2015), the old theatre from where the villain (played by P. Sai Kumar) operates is named Nartanasala after this film. ## Cancelled remake Rama Rao's son and actor Nandamuri Balakrishna announced Nartanasala's remake in 2004. Apart from directing the remake, Balakrishna played a dual role in the remake—those of Arjuna and Kichaka. Soundarya was signed to play Draupadi with Srihari, Sarath Babu, Uday Kiran and Asin cast in supporting roles. The remake's principal photography commenced on 1 March 2004. The remake was shelved later due to the death of Soundarya in an accident. In an interview with The Times of India in August 2014, Balakrishna said that he could not imagine anyone other than Soundarya for the character and after her death, he called off the film with no intention to revive it.
34,396,117	Sofia the First	1,171,657,218	American animated television series	[ "2010s American animated television series", "2010s preschool education television series", "2012 American television series debuts", "2018 American television series endings", "American children's animated adventure television series", "American children's animated comedy television series", "American children's animated fantasy television series", "American children's animated musical television series", "American preschool education television series", "Animated preschool education television series", "Animated television series about children", "Annie Award-winning television shows", "Crossover animated television series", "Disney Junior original programming", "English-language television shows", "Sofia the First", "Television about magic", "Television series about princesses", "Television series by Disney Television Animation", "Television series set in fictional countries", "Witchcraft in television" ]	Sofia the First is an American animated fantasy children's television series created by Craig Gerber. The series follows a young peasant girl named Sofia, voiced by Ariel Winter, who becomes a princess after her mother marries the king of Enchancia. Episodes focus on her adventures and bonds with others, including her animal friends, with whom she communicates through an amulet that blesses and curses her based upon the goodness of her actions. The series aimed to employ relatable situations in a fantasy world; according to Gerber, Sofia's position as a child of a single mother allowed the team to explore themes of adaptation and connect to modern children. The series pilot premiered on November 18, 2012, on Disney Channel. The series itself premiered on January 11, 2013, on Disney Junior, aired for four seasons, and concluded on September 8, 2018. Sofia the First was praised for its music, animation, characters, and messages. It received some of the highest viewership for a preschool cable television series; at one point, it became the category's most-watched program, with a variety of merchandise being influenced by the series, such as theme park rides and books. Sofia the First was nominated for 11 Daytime Emmy Awards, including two wins, and received the 2014 Annie Award for Best General Audience Animated TV/Broadcast Production for Preschool Children. However, the series received criticism for identifying its titular character as Latina; the controversy ultimately led to the creation of the spin-off Elena of Avalor. ## Plot A young girl named Sofia and her widowed mother, Miranda, have lived a peasant life in the kingdom of Enchancia. One day, the widowed King Roland of Enchancia and Miranda fall in love and get married. As she eases into her new role as a princess, Sofia goes on numerous adventures. She also bonds with her new family, including her step-siblings Amber and James, and settles into her new royal school, where Flora, Fauna and Merryweather from Sleeping Beauty are headmistresses. Roland gives Sofia a powerful artifact called the Amulet of Avalor, which blesses her for good deeds and curses her for wrongdoings. She becomes friends with rabbit Clover and birds Mia and Robin after the amulet gives her the ability to communicate with animals. The amulet also links "all the princesses there ever were", calling them to help each other when one is in need. Cedric, the royal sorcerer, regularly attempts to steal Sofia's amulet, knowing of its abilities. Cedric plans to use the power of the amulet to overthrow the royal family and take over the kingdom of Enchancia. As he grows closer to Sofia, however, he becomes doubtful about stealing the amulet, and eventually reveals his intentions and apologizes for his actions. In the third season, Sofia's Aunt Tilly gives her a special book that guides her to a secret library hidden in the castle. The library is filled with hundreds of unfinished books; Sofia is responsible for giving each story a happy ending. In the fourth season, a book leads her to the Mystic Isles, a land above the clouds where all magic originates. She saves the Isles from the evil crystal master Prisma and begins training to become the Protector of the Ever Realm. Prisma discovers evil sorceress Vor and frees her using the "Wicked Nine", in spite of Sofia and the other protectors' efforts to stop her. In the series finale, Sofia defeats Vor and officially becomes the Protector of the Ever Realm. ## Cast and characters - Ariel Winter as Sofia Cordova - Wayne Brady as Clover - Darcy Rose Byrnes as Princess Amber - Zach Callison (Upon a Princess Pilot/Season 1-2), Tyler Merna (Season 2-3/Elena of Avalor Pilot) and Nicolas Cantu (Season 3-4) as Prince James - Sara Ramirez as Miranda Cordova - Travis Willingham as King Roland II - Tim Gunn as Baileywick - Jess Harnell as Cedric the Sorcerer ## Production For five years, Disney writers, child-development and early-education experts and storytelling consultants worked to create a television show that would bypass stereotypes of evil stepmothers and girls requiring princes to save them. Disney also wanted it to spawn various merchandise. Craig Gerber, who was writing for the company's Tinker Bell film series, was approached by Disney Junior's Nancy Kanter to create a television series about princesses aimed at children aged two to seven. Though excited to conceive a fantasy world and Princess fairy tale, Gerber wanted the show to be both entertaining and educational, teaching children how to be better people and solutions to social problems. His son often emulated a variety of fantasy characters with whom he had little in common. In the hopes the show could be a "magic mirror" for his son, Gerber employed relatable situations into the fantasy world, which became the genesis for Princess Sofia. As a child, Gerber lived with his single mother, and her boyfriend and his daughter, whom Gerber considered to be a de facto stepsister. As an adult, he learnt that when step-siblings and parents were involved, ordinary childhood concerns were typically amplified. Decades later, while attempting to lend a contemporary viewpoint to a fairy tale world, he had an epiphany: He considered the possibilities if Sofia was not born a princess and instead married into a royal family. Step-sisters are a common theme in fairy tales. However, having a mixed royal family that included both a father and a mother appeared to be a prime opportunity to convey stories to which modern children could connect. According to Gerber, Sofia being the child of a single mother provided to a simple method to explore themes of adaptation. He hoped for Sofia to serve as a good role model in a society where many young girls desire to be princesses, demonstrating attributes and learning skills that young girls (and boys) could remember long after. Gerber planned to reference multicultural family dynamics as well. The editor of Tangled (2010) recommended Kevin Kliesch, who helped orchestrate the film, to Disney Channel as a composer for Sofia the First. The network was positive towards his background, and he booked the job. Kliesch was usually given one to two weeks to write the music, meaning he had to compose for at least three minutes a day to meet this deadline. The score draws upon the sounds of previous Disney films, since the producers hoped to avoid "typical cartoon music". Similarly, in the original songs, Gerber and the composer included aspects of Motown, jazz, and hip-hop music, rather than "cloying kiddie sounds". ## Episodes ## Distribution ### Broadcast The series pilot—the television film Once Upon a Princess—premiered on Disney Channel on November 18, 2012. The series itself premiered on January 11, 2013; the show aired on Disney Channel during its Disney Junior block, in addition to the 24-hour channel Disney Junior. Sofia the First was renewed for a second season two months later. In November, the series aired the special "The Floating Palace". Its first season concluded on February 14, 2014. A month earlier, the series had been renewed for a third season. The second season premiered on March 7, 2014, and concluded on August 12, 2015, with a primetime special, titled "The Curse of Princess Ivy", airing on November 23, 2014. On April 14, 2015, the series was renewed for a fourth and final season by Disney Junior, which began its broadcast on April 28, 2017. The extended series finale special "Forever Royal" was aired on September 8, 2018. ### Home media and streaming The series premiere episode, titled "Just One of the Princes", was made available on several platforms, including Disney Channel SVOD and iTunes, on January 4, 2013, a week before its airdate. Sofia the First was streamable on Netflix; its second and fourth seasons were made available in January 2016 and October 2018, respectively. The show was moved to Disney+ after its Netflix contract expired. In October 2022, the series was released on Disney+ in the United States. Disney has also released several episodes on DVD, including "The Floating Palace", "The Curse of Princess Ivy", and the television film Once Upon a Princess. ## Reception ### Critical reception Sofia the First has received generally positive reviews. In May 2020, Time Out named it one of the 30 best children's cartoons. The show's animation and music received praise. IndieWire's Greg Ehrbar commended the fluidity in the cinematography and computer animation; Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media said the "crisp animation ... brings ... Sofia and a well-rounded supporting cast [to life]". The two praised the music as "lively" and "tuneful", respectively, with Ehrbar comparing the "lavishly orchestrated" score to that of a Disney animated feature. Critics lauded the characters. Ashby referred to Sofia as a "[s]punky, well-rounded princess", praising her influence on other characters and requests for advice when needed. She also thought the supporting cast displayed positive traits, such as loyalty, honesty, and friendship. Matt Villano, who writes for Today, enjoyed the titular character's villager friends, whom he believe emulate real-life modern teenagers. Ashby and Villano were positive towards Sofia the First's themes. According to the latter, the series does not emphasize the characters' socioeconomic backgrounds and genders, as they can achieve anything they would like with enough determination. He and his wife often attempt to teach their children the morals communicated on the show and feel that "[i]t's nice to know that someone over at Disney finally has our backs". ### U.S. television ratings According to Dade Hayes, the executive editor of trade publication Broadcasting & Cable, the show was deemed "risky", as it mostly aims to entertain rather than educate. Sofia the First: Once Upon a Princess premiered on Disney Channel on November 18, 2012, garnering 8.17 million viewers (when the Live+7 ratings were tabulated), which made it the number one cable TV telecast of all time for kids 2–5 and girls 2–5. It also set a record for the number one preschool cable TV telecast ever in total viewers and for adults 18–49. The January 2013 series premiere was watched by 2.7 million people, making it the second highest-rated weekday preschool cable debut since August 2000. It also became the highest-rated preschool show premiere categories of kids aged 2–5, girls aged 2–5, adults aged 18–49, and women aged 18–49. By March 2013, Sofia the First was cable television's most-viewed preschool program; The New York Times described the show as "a monster-size new hit". In 2014, "The Curse of Princess Ivy" became the series second highest-rated telecast, garnering an average of approximately 4.7 million viewers. Across all television, it was the number one telecast for children and girls aged 2–5 at the time of broadcast. ### Awards and nominations ### Controversy During a press tour in October 2012, a producer identified Sofia as a Latina. The announcement drew both praise and criticism from media outlets. Latinos and fans saw it as a new milestone for Disney and lauded the choice of a light skin tone for a Latina character. Others were critical that she did not have any cultural signifiers or ethnic identity and believed a darker skin tone would better represent the Latina community. A Disney Junior general manager later clarified: "Sofia is a fairytale girl who lives in a fairytale world. All our characters come from fantasy lands that may reflect elements of various cultures and ethnicities but none are meant to specifically represent those real world cultures". According to a Disney spokeswoman, Sofia has a mixed fairy-tale heritage; her mother and father are from Galdiz (which is based on Spain) and Freezenburg (which is based on Scandinavia), respectively. ## Other media ### Spin-off Following the controversy regarding Sofia's ethnicity, Gerber noticed the demand for a Latina princess; the idea "bubbled in [his] mind" and partially inspired the creation of spin-off series Elena of Avalor, which stars a Latina princess as its titular character. She is introduced in Sofia the First special episode Elena and the Secret of Avalor, in which Sofia discovers that Elena has been trapped inside her amulet for decades because of an invasion of Avalor by the evil sorceress Shuriki. Sofia and her family travel to Avalor to free Elena and restore the kingdom. In November 2022, Gerber reportedly expanded his deal with Disney. He began developing a Sofia the First spin-off that is set in the same world. ### Merchandising In January 2013, Disney Junior published a hardcover picture book based on the series, which entered The New York Times Best Seller list, with approximately 450,000 copies sold. Most mainstream merchandise was first released from March to June of that year; the products immediately became best-sellers. At Toys "R" Us, the show's merchandise proved to be some of the most popular toys from June to September. In 2013, merchandise related to Sofia the First and two other Disney Junior shows—Jake and the Neverland Pirates and Doc McStuffins—generated retails sales of \$1.8 billion globally. The series was part of the Disney Junior – Live on Stage! at Disney's Hollywood Studios as well as Disney California Adventure. Disney Junior Dance Party on Tour, a tour featuring a 90-minute concert, also includes Sofia the First. ## See also - Disney Princess
4,365,920	The Moth (Lost)	1,161,300,677	null	[ "2004 American television episodes", "Lost (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes directed by Jack Bender" ]	"The Moth" is the seventh episode of the first season of Lost. The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Jennifer Johnson and Paul Dini. It first aired on November 3, 2004, on ABC. The character of Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) is featured in the episode's flashbacks. Charlie begins experiencing the effects of heroin withdrawal, while Jack becomes trapped in a cave. Meanwhile, Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews), Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) and Boone Carlyle (Ian Somerhalder) attempt to triangulate the signal of the French woman's broadcast. Charlie's involvement in his band Drive Shaft is featured in the episode's flashbacks. "The Moth" was watched by 18.73 million people live, almost two million more than the previous episode. This episode marks the first time "You All Everybody" by Drive Shaft was sung in its entirety, as it had not been written yet in previous episodes. The episode received mixed-to-positive reviews, with some reviewers commenting that the episode was not of the same caliber as previous episodes. ## Plot ### Flashbacks Charlie (Dominic Monaghan) tells a priest that he is going to quit his band because it has a bad influence on him. Soon after, his brother, Liam Pace (Neil Hopkins), tells Charlie that Drive Shaft has gotten a recording contract. Charlie doesn't want to sign the contract because he has qualms about the sex and drugs the band engages in. Liam talks him into signing, promising that Charlie can quit any time he's had enough. One evening at a show, Liam, to Charlie's frustration, starts singing the chorus to "You All Everybody", which is supposed to be sung by Charlie. Liam assures Charlie it won't happen again. Later, Charlie finds Liam high on heroin with groupies. Charlie kicks the groupies out, and tells Liam that he's done with the band. Liam says to Charlie that he, Liam, is Drive Shaft, and that nobody knows who the bass player (Charlie) is. He goes on to tell Charlie that without the band, Charlie is nothing, which spurs Charlie to use heroin for the first time. Years later, Charlie visits Liam's house in Australia and wants Liam to rejoin Drive Shaft for a comeback tour. Liam declines, but the band can't do the tour without him. He criticizes Charlie for still using drugs, and Charlie blames Liam for getting him started with drugs. Liam asks Charlie to stay with him for a few weeks, saying that Sydney has some good rehab programs and that he can get Charlie help. Charlie angrily leaves, saying he has a plane to catch. ### On the Island It is Day 8, September 29, 2004, and Charlie is suffering from heroin withdrawal since he voluntarily gave his heroin to John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) in the previous episode. After finding him, Charlie asks Locke for the heroin back, and Locke says that he'll give Charlie the drugs the third time he asks, because he wants Charlie to have the choice to quit. Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews), Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) and Boone Carlyle (Ian Somerhalder) attempt to find where the French transmission is coming from, so they make a plan to turn on antennas at different points on the island in an attempt to triangulate the signal. At the caves, Charlie searches through Jack Shephard's (Matthew Fox) medicine supply for something to ease his heroin withdrawal. When Jack catches him with diazepam, Charlie claims he has a headache and was looking for aspirin. When Jack upsets Charlie by telling him to move his guitar, Charlie angrily shouts at him, causing the entrance of the cave they are in to collapse. Charlie manages to escape, but Jack is trapped inside. Using his construction experience, Michael Dawson (Harold Perrineau) leads the rescue attempt with Steve Jenkins (Christian Bowman) and Scott Jackson (Dustin Watchman). In the jungle, James "Sawyer" Ford (Josh Holloway) goes to tell Kate (who is traveling to set up her antenna for the triangulation attempt) about Jack's predicament, but decides against it because he doesn't like Kate's hostile attitude. Charlie tells Locke about Jack's situation, but reveals the real reason for his going to Locke is to ask for his drugs a second time. Locke shows Charlie a moth cocoon, and explains that he could help the moth by slitting the cocoon and letting the moth free, but it would not survive because it would be too weak. Instead, the moth needs to struggle to break free. Nature and struggle make people stronger, Locke says, indicating to Charlie that he needs to fight through his suffering. Kate and Sawyer stay at the second triangulation point, while Sayid goes to the third. After learning of Jack's situation from Sawyer, Kate goes to help, leaving the job of turning on the signal to Sawyer. Charlie squeezes through an opening at the cave and finds Jack, but while doing so, the opening collapses and traps Charlie and Jack inside. Charlie hesitantly pops Jack's shoulder back into place at Jack's request. Jack correctly guesses that Charlie is suffering from withdrawal, and Charlie assures Jack he's okay. Kate desperately tries to dig them out along with the other castaways, while the two worry about losing oxygen. Charlie sees a moth which leads him to an opening and the pair dig out of the cave. Sayid sets off his bottle rocket to signal the antenna power up process. Shannon Rutherford (Maggie Grace) sets off Boone's rocket from the beach, as Boone had gone to help rescue Jack, as does Sawyer from his location. Sayid turns on the transceiver, but before he is able to triangulate the signal, an unseen person knocks Sayid unconscious with a stick. Later Hurley brings Jack and Charlie water, he notes Charlie doesn't look well but Jack covers for him saying that he has the flu. Hurley tells him to get better and Charlie looks thankful to Jack. He sees Locke and asks him for his heroin and Locke gives it back. Charlie looks at it for a moment before tossing it into the fire, smiling. Locke tells Charlie he's proud of him and that he always knew he could do it. Charlie and Locke see a moth flying away. ## Production "The Moth" aired on November 3, 2004. The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Jennifer Johnson and Paul Dini. The church scene with Charlie and Liam at the church in Manchester was actually filmed on Honolulu, where the scenes on the Island are filmed. Monaghan says that he feels Charlie's black hoodie is a sort of "security blanket" that he hides underneath and uses it when he feels "lost." The "heroin" that Charlie is supposedly snorting is actually brown sugar. Monaghan revealed this in an interview with Stuff magazine in October 2005, saying, "[The heroin is] brown sugar. You get some really sweet boogers. You have to be careful not to snort too much of it, but it's happened a few times. You just find dessert up your nose couple of hours later." According to Monaghan, Drive Shaft is similar to Oasis, in that "[Charlie's] first album was kind of like Oasis's first album: critically acclaimed, didn't sell big numbers, but in the industry, people gave it respect." J. J. Abrams and Damon Lindelof told Monaghan that if he wanted to write the song that would be Charlie's "one hit wonder", they would consider using it in the show. Monaghan wrote a song called "Photos and Plans" with a friend; Abrams and Lindelof liked the song, but it did not make it into Lost. The lyrics were inspired by an incident on The Phil Donahue Show, where Matt Reeves, who was close friends with producers Bryan Burk and Damon Lindelof, saw a female audience member yell out, "You all everybody, acting like it's the stupid people wearing expensive clothes." The producers had an inside joke where they would say this quotation to each other. According to Burk, "At one point, in a delirious stupor, we realized we had said it so many times that that had to be the song." In the Pilot, Monaghan's voice when he sang "You All Everybody" was based on "when Prince puts on his female voice", since the song had not been composed yet. For "The Moth" the producers contacted Los Angeles-based singer Jude to write a full version. The song is sung by Chris Seefried, former lead singer of Gods Child and Joe 90. ## Reception "The Moth" first aired in the United States on November 3, 2004. 18.73 million people in America watched the episode live. The episode received generally mixed-to-positive reviews. Ryan McGee of Zap2it wrote that "this episode wasn't a stinker by any measure, but after the run of early episodes, this is the first that really didn't hold its own when compared to the others", adding that "The moth imagery/metaphor just beats you down by episode's end, making you long for the more subtle writing the show has produced up until this point." The TV Critic gave the episode a 68/100, writing that it falls between being "obvious and cheesy" and "beautifully paced and structured". Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B, and shared his opinion that it is "one of the more intensely metaphorical—and thus writerly—episodes of the series. The eponymous metaphor—delivered by Locke—is one of the series’ most blatant, and the moth’s consistent reappearance in the episode calls a lot of attention to the construction of the narrative." IGN staff rated "The Moth" as the 36th best episode in all of Lost, explaining, "The moth of the episode's title appears both as a metaphorical and physical symbol of the struggle to find strength within yourself, as Locke explains to Charlie, and to take charge of your own life without relying on anyone else to do it for you." In a review focusing solely on "The Moth", Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a 9/10, writing that the episode "does a great job of utilizing screen time for most the major characters on the show", and that "Locke's analogy of 'The Moth' in comparison to Charlie's situation perfectly encapsulates what many of the characters are going through on the island." In a ranking of all of Lost's episodes, Emily VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times placed "The Moth" at number 102, complimenting Monaghan and O'Quinn's acting, but criticizing the storyline for containing "nonsensical drug abuse storytelling." "The Moth", along with "Pilot" and "House of the Rising Sun", won a PRISM Award for Charlie's drug storyline.
40,171,928	Into the Woods (film)	1,171,438,983	2014 film produced by Walt Disney Pictures	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s musical drama films", "2010s musical fantasy films", "2014 drama films", "2014 films", "Adultery in films", "American dark fantasy films", "American fantasy drama films", "American musical drama films", "American musical fantasy films", "Films about babies", "Films about children", "Films about curses", "Films about death", "Films about families", "Films about giants", "Films about orphans", "Films about royalty", "Films about shapeshifting", "Films about wish fulfillment", "Films about witchcraft", "Films based on Cinderella", "Films based on Grimms' Fairy Tales", "Films based on Jack and the Beanstalk", "Films based on Little Red Riding Hood", "Films based on Rapunzel", "Films based on musicals", "Films based on works by Stephen Sondheim", "Films directed by Rob Marshall", "Films produced by John DeLuca", "Films produced by Marc E. Platt", "Films produced by Rob Marshall", "Films set in Buckinghamshire", "Films set in England", "Films set in Kent", "Films set in London", "Films set in Surrey", "Films set in forests", "Films shot at Shepperton Studios", "Films shot in Buckinghamshire", "Films shot in England", "Films shot in Kent", "Films shot in London", "Films shot in Surrey", "Films using motion capture", "Walt Disney Pictures films" ]	Into the Woods is a 2014 American musical fantasy film directed by Rob Marshall, and adapted to the screen by James Lapine from his and Stephen Sondheim's 1987 Broadway musical of the same name. Produced by Walt Disney Pictures, it features an ensemble cast that includes Meryl Streep, Emily Blunt, James Corden, Anna Kendrick, Chris Pine, Tracey Ullman, Christine Baranski, Lilla Crawford, Daniel Huttlestone, MacKenzie Mauzy, Billy Magnussen, and Johnny Depp. Inspired by the Grimm Brothers' fairy tales of "Little Red Riding Hood", the Charles Perrault fairy tale "Cinderella", "Jack and the Beanstalk", and "Rapunzel", the film is centered on a childless couple who set out to end a curse placed on them by a vengeful witch. Ultimately, the characters are forced to experience the unintended consequences of their actions. After several unsuccessful attempts by other studios and producers to adapt the musical to film, Disney announced in 2012 that it was producing an adaptation, with Marshall directing and John DeLuca serving as producer. Principal photography commenced in September 2013, and took place entirely in the United Kingdom, including at Shepperton Studios in London. Into the Woods had its world premiere at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 8, 2014, and was released theatrically in the United States on December 25, 2014. It was commercially successful and received generally positive reviews, receiving praise for its acting performances (particularly Streep's), visual style, production merits, and musical numbers, and criticism for its lighter tone compared to the source material, and the changes made for the film adaptation. It grossed \$213 million worldwide. Into the Woods was named one of the top 11 best films of 2014 by the American Film Institute; the film received three Academy Award nominations, including a Best Supporting Actress nomination for Streep, and three Golden Globe Award nominations, including Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. ## Plot A Baker and his wife wish for a child but suffer under a curse laid upon their family by a Witch. The Witch had found the baker's father robbing her garden when the baker's mother was pregnant, and demanded their baby in return. Because the Baker's father also stole some magic beans, the Witch's own mother punished her with the curse of age and ugliness. The Witch is able to lift the curse and allow the Baker and his wife to have a child only if they obtain four items for a potion to break her curse: a cow as white as milk, a cape as red as blood, hair as yellow as corn, and a slipper as pure as gold—none of which she is allowed to touch. The Witch's demands bring the Baker and his wife into contact with Jack, who is selling his beloved cow, Milky-White, and to whom the Baker offers the magic beans his father left him, which Jack's mother accidentally grows into a large beanstalk; with Red Riding Hood, whose red cape the couple noticed when she stopped by the bakery earlier to buy and steal bread and sweets on her way to her grandmother's house; with the blonde Rapunzel (the Witch's adopted daughter and Baker's biological sister), whose tower the Baker's wife finds in the woods; and with Cinderella, who runs into the Baker's wife while fleeing the Prince and whose ball outfit includes gold slippers. After a series of failed attempts and misadventures, the Baker and his wife are finally able to gather the necessary items. After the Witch regains her youth and beauty after drinking the potion, each of the characters receives a "happy ending". The Baker and his wife have a son; Cinderella marries the Prince; Rapunzel is freed from the Witch by the Prince's brother, whom she marries; Jack provides for his mother by stealing riches from the Giant in the sky, courtesy of the beanstalk, and kills the pursuing Giant by cutting down the beanstalk; and Red Riding Hood and her grandmother are saved from the Big Bad Wolf. However, each of the characters learn that their endings don't remain happy: the Baker is worried that he is a poor father to his newborn baby; the Baker's wife lets the Prince temporarily seduce her; Cinderella is disenchanted by her cheating Prince; and the Witch learns that she has lost her powers in exchange for her youth and beauty, after being rejected by Rapunzel, who then runs off with her Prince. The growth of a second beanstalk from the last remaining magic bean allows the Giant's widow to climb down and threaten the kingdom if no one delivers Jack in retribution for killing her husband. The characters attempt to find and protect Jack. In the process, Red Riding Hood's mother and grandmother, Jack's mother and the Baker's wife are killed. The Baker, Cinderella, Jack and Red Riding Hood all blame each other for their individual actions that led to the tragedy, ultimately blaming the Witch for growing the beans in the first place. She curses them all for their inability to accept any responsibility, as well as their refusal to do the "right thing" (handing Jack over). Casting all the remaining beans away, the Witch begs her mother to punish her again, and she abandons the group by melting into a large pit of boiling tar. The remaining characters resolve to kill the threatening Giant's widow, though they discuss the complicated morality of retribution and revenge in the process. They lure the Giant's widow into stepping in the tar pit, where she trips and falls with a tree crushing her. With the Giant's widow dead, the characters move forward with their lives. The Baker, thinking of his wife, is determined to be a good father. Cinderella decides to leave her Prince and help the Baker with Jack and Red Riding Hood, as they are now orphans, and will be moving into the bakery. The Baker comforts his son by telling the story of the film as the movie ends with the Witch's moral ("Children will Listen"), which means children can change due to their parents' actions and behaviors. ## Cast - Meryl Streep as the Witch - Emily Blunt as the Baker's Wife - James Corden as the Baker - Anna Kendrick as Cinderella - Chris Pine as Cinderella's Prince - Johnny Depp as the Big Bad Wolf - Lilla Crawford as Little Red Riding Hood - Daniel Huttlestone as Jack - Billy Magnussen as Rapunzel's Prince - MacKenzie Mauzy as Rapunzel - Tracey Ullman as Jack's Mother - Christine Baranski as Cinderella's Stepmother - Tammy Blanchard as Florinda - Lucy Punch as Lucinda - Richard Glover as the Steward - Joanna Riding as Cinderella's Mother - Annette Crosbie as Little Red Riding Hood's Granny - Frances de la Tour as the Giant's Wife - Simon Russell Beale as the Baker's Father - Molly as Milky-White ## Stage-to-screen changes While it was initially reported that Disney had decided to make some major plot changes for the film version, Stephen Sondheim revealed that this was not the case and that any changes in the film version had been approved by him and James Lapine. The film does differ from the stage production. The songs "I Guess This Is Goodbye", "Maybe They're Magic", "First Midnight" and "Second Midnight" interludes, "Ever After" (Act I finale of the original play), "So Happy", "Into the Woods" Reprise, "Agony" Reprise and "No More" (performed by the Baker) were cut from the film, although both "Ever After" and "No More" are used as instrumentals in the film. Meanwhile, many of the songs in the film have slightly different lyrics than their stage counterparts due to the tweaking of story lines. Other changes include a major reduction of the significant role of the "mysterious man", who manipulates much of the action in the first act and is eventually revealed to be the Baker's father. Additionally, the character of the narrator was cut, and the film is instead narrated by the Baker. The minor role of Cinderella's father was cut; he is instead mentioned as deceased. Due to the film's compressed story line, Rapunzel's pregnancy is eliminated, as is the subplot where the two princes have affairs with Snow White and Sleeping Beauty. In the film, the Giant's wife first attacks during the marriages of Cinderella and Rapunzel to their respective princes; in the stage show, the Giant's wife first attacks the Witch's garden. Rapunzel's ultimate fate is also changed: rather than being killed by the Giant, she refuses to cooperate with the Witch and flees with her prince. ## Production ### Early development Early attempts to adapt Into the Woods to film occurred in the early 1990s, with a script by Lowell Ganz and Babaloo Mandel. A reading was held with a cast that included Robin Williams as the Baker, Goldie Hawn as the Baker's Wife, Cher as the Witch, Danny DeVito as the Giant, Steve Martin as the Wolf, and Roseanne as Jack's Mother. By 1991, Columbia Pictures and Jim Henson Productions were also developing a film adaptation with Craig Zadan as producer and Rob Minkoff as director. In 1997, Columbia put the film into turnaround, with Minkoff still attached as director, and Billy Crystal, Meg Ryan, and Susan Sarandon reportedly in talks to star. After the report by Variety, a film adaptation of Into the Woods remained inactive for 15 years. ### Disney development After the critical and commercial success of Chicago in 2002, director Rob Marshall approached Sondheim with a proposal to adapt one of his musicals. Marshall was initially interested in adapting Follies and Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, Sondheim suggested Into the Woods instead. Marshall concurred, but the project was postponed while he focused on directing Memoirs of a Geisha and Nine. In 2011, Marshall's interest in the project was rekindled when he heard a speech by President Barack Obama on the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks to the families of the victims, which seemed to evoke the same message as the musical's most important song, "No One Is Alone". Marshall firmly believed that Into the Woods was “a fairy tale for the post-9/11 generation". In January 2012, he approached Walt Disney Pictures—for which he had just directed Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides—and pitched the idea to the studio, with Lapine writing the script and Sondheim "expected" to write new songs. Academy Award-winner Dion Beebe, who previously collaborated with Marshall on Chicago, Memoirs of a Geisha, and Nine, served as cinematographer. Sondheim confirmed that a new song had been written for the film in an April 2013 interview with The Independent. With Disney's backing, a three-day reading of the entire updated screenplay took place in New York in October 2012 under Marshall's direction, with Nina Arianda as the Baker's Wife, Victoria Clark as Cinderella's Mother/Granny/Giant, James Corden as the Baker, Donna Murphy as the Witch, Christine Baranski as Cinderella's Stepmother, Tammy Blanchard as Florinda, Ivan Hernandez as the Wolf, Megan Hilty as Lucinda, Cheyenne Jackson as Rapunzel's Prince, Allison Janney as Jack's Mother, Anna Kendrick as Cinderella, Michael McGrath as Steward/Mysterious Man, Laura Osnes as Rapunzel, Taylor Trensch as Jack, Casey Whyland as Little Red Riding Hood, and Patrick Wilson as Cinderella's Prince. This reading convinced Walt Disney Studios president Sean Bailey to green-light the film despite ongoing concerns about the original musical's dark nature (which Disney executives had begun to understand since Marshall's original pitch). Disney (which self-finances all its films) provided only a relatively small production budget of \$50 million (relative to other feature-length fantasy films on its development slate), in turn forcing both cast and crew to accept pay cuts to work on the film. Reports surfaced in January 2013 that Meryl Streep had been cast as the Witch. Streep had instituted a personal "no witch" rule after she turned 40 and was offered three witch roles, but ultimately broke the rule to do a Sondheim role again; she had been in the original production of Sondheim's The Frogs as a student at Yale University. During the same month, it was reported that Janney had been confirmed to join the film, but five months later, Tracey Ullman was cast as Jack's Mother instead. In April 2013, Johnny Depp was in final negotiations to join the film. The Hollywood Reporter reported that to help make the film on such a tight budget, Depp agreed as a favor to Disney and to Marshall to a "boarding" arrangement, in which he would appear in a minor role for a fee of \$1 million, instead of his typical fee of \$20 million for a starring role. In May, Corden, who took part in the reading of the screenplay, was in talks to play the role of the Baker. On May 10, 2013, Disney confirmed the casting of Streep, Depp, and Corden as the Witch, the Big Bad Wolf, and the Baker, respectively. That same month, Emily Blunt and Christine Baranski were cast, respectively, as the Baker's Wife and Cinderella's Stepmother. Marshall later confirmed that Blunt was selected for her "warm[th]" and likeability to ensure the emotional impact of the sudden death of the Baker's Wife: "[T]hat's very important for that character because it's the heart of the piece and you really have to love her so when she's gone it should feel like a kick in the gut." After she was cast, Blunt discovered she was pregnant; her costume and choreography had to be adjusted accordingly. Her appearance during production seemed to befit the Baker's Wife; as she explained, "I feel like she would have eaten a lot of carbs working in the bakery." Also in May, Jake Gyllenhaal and Chris Pine entered negotiations to play the Princes. Gyllenhaal dropped out due to scheduling conflicts with another film, Nightcrawler, and was replaced by Billy Magnussen. One month later, Anna Kendrick began talks to play Cinderella. In June 2013, Walt Disney Studios publicly announced that the film had been greenlighted, and scheduled a release date for Christmas Day 2014. In July, MacKenzie Mauzy, Tammy Blanchard, Lucy Punch and Daniel Huttlestone joined the cast. Mauzy later said she had auditioned for Cinderella but did not get the part. Marshall saw her audition tape and brought her back in for Rapunzel, after recognizing "the 'vulnerability' and 'emotion' Mauzy could bring to Rapunzel after she read just one line", as he recalled. In early August, Sophia Grace Brownlee's representatives announced that she had been cast as Little Red Riding Hood. The announcement of Brownlee's casting, which was widely reported but never confirmed by Disney, was criticized as "a stunt" and was met with concern due to her age and the sexual undertones between Little Red and the Wolf. The film's synopsis and the official casting of Streep, Depp, Kendrick, Pine, and Blunt were revealed at the D23 Expo on August 10, 2013. On September 16, 2013, Lilla Crawford was confirmed as playing the character of Little Red Riding Hood, despite previous reports suggesting Brownlee. Crawford auditioned for Marshall via Skype, who offered her the role within two hours. Crawford was on a flight to London the next day as a result. Later on, Dominic Brownlee spoke about the withdrawal of his daughter Sophia Grace from the movie: "After careful consideration, we, the parents of Sophia Grace, felt that as rehearsals progressed that she was too young for this part. It was a joint decision between us and the director and producer of Into the Woods to withdraw Sophia Grace from the film." The casting of Richard Glover, Frances de la Tour, Simon Russell Beale, Joanna Riding, and Annette Crosbie in other roles was separately announced later on September 16. ### Filming In July 2013, before filming began, Marshall put the cast through six weeks of rehearsal on a soundstage and blocked their scenes. In August, the cast visited Angel Recording Studios to record their parts in Sondheim's presence. Over 90% of the vocal tracks in the film are from the recording studio sessions; the rest were recorded on location or on set. The advantage of blocking and rehearsing all scenes first was that the cast members could then precisely calibrate their voices in the recording studio to the planned appearance of each scene when it was filmed, thereby minimizing the disconnection between vocals and choreography typical of music videos. Principal photography took place at London's Shepperton Studios in September 2013, with additional filming at Dover Castle, Hambleden, Waverley Abbey, and Richmond Park. A forest of ancient pine trees in Windsor Great Park was used for many of the scenes in the woods. Marshall struggled with how to stage the melodramatic duet "Agony" in the forest until discovering online that Windsor had an artificial waterfall at Virginia Water Lake, which turned out to be the perfect setting. The production was shot digitally, using Arri Alexa cameras configured in a two-camera setup, and footage was edited together in Avid Media Composer. The exterior of Byfleet Manor in Surrey served as Cinderella's home. The filmmakers spent a whole day shooting scenes involving Rapunzel's hair being climbed. Mauzy said the filmmakers wanted to take advantage of her blonde hair, and that the top of Rapunzel's hair was her real hair; makeup artists only braided it into the extension. This hair extension was engineered by hair designer Peter King. After testing loose, flowing hair that King found "uncontrollable", he decided to have 27 wefts of real hair woven into a 30-foot braid, a design inspired by an Arthur Rackham illustration of Rapunzel. To bring in enough real Russian hair strands for the extension, King and his team worked with several distributors from Germany and England. The hair-braiding process required three people, each holding a separate strand and weaving in and out. King also dyed the wefts to match Mauzy's hair color, and blended together six different shades from ash and strawberry to create realistic gradations and highlights. Between scenes, Mauzy had to "wrap [the hair] around her arm like huge rolls of wool", King recalled. A stuntman was used to shoot the hair-climbing scenes, with thin rope and metal rings the only tools concealed in the braid to hold a climbing person's weight. The film's final shot, which essentially merges into and links back to its first shot, actually transitions digitally between three shots: a Technocrane on location lifting as high as possible into the sky, an aerial drone flying down a valley in Wales, and a shot of an overcast sky in Manhattan, New York City. Filming concluded on November 27, 2013. On July 14, 2014, Steve Baldwin posted on a social networking site that reshoots were made during all of July. The next month, however, Marshall denied the film went through reshoots. Instead, they spent three days shooting new material that had been cut and readded to the script after Disney screened the movie. For his role as the Wolf, Depp worked closely with the film's costume designer, Colleen Atwood, to create a Tex Avery-inspired costume, complete with zoot suit and fedora. ### Music As noted above, the majority of the songs were pre-recorded by the cast. Music producer Mike Higham, who had worked with Sondheim on Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, recorded the film's score with the London Symphony Orchestra and London Philharmonic. Music supervisor and conductor Paul Gemignani instructed the actors how to sing, including singing live to a camera on set, to prerecorded music in studio, and with a live studio orchestra. Jonathan Tunick reorchestrated Sondheim's music. The key of the song, "Hello, Little Girl," was altered to suit Depp's lower vocal range. Of the song's musical arrangement, Higham said, "we emphasized the woodwinds to make it feel a little lighter, especially the flutes. And we just made it a little jazzier — played more on the walking bass line. Inherently, when it has a jazz feel, it just feels lighter." The soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2014. It was initially reported that the film would feature two new songs: a duet for the Baker and his Wife, "Rainbows"—originally written for a 1992 film adaptation that was never made—and a new song for the Witch, "She'll Be Back". But neither song appears in the film: "Rainbows" was cut before shooting began and "She'll Be Back", though filmed, was cut on the grounds that it slowed the story down. "She'll Be Back" was included as a bonus feature on the film's home media release. ## Release The first official company presentation took place at the 2013 Disney D23 expo. The official teaser trailer debuted on July 31, 2014. A featurette was released showing behind-the-scenes clips and the vocals of Streep, Kendrick, Blunt and others. A second trailer was released on November 6, 2014. The film held its world premiere at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 8, 2014. It was released theatrically in the United States on December 25, 2014. ### Home media Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray, DVD, and digital download in North America on March 24, 2015. The film debuted in second place on the home media charts behind The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies. The home media version includes Sondheim and Lapine's original song "She'll Be Back". A sing-along version of the film was released on Disney+ on October 14, 2022. ## Reception ### Box office Into the Woods grossed \$128 million in North America and \$85.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of \$213.1 million, against a budget of \$50 million. Into the Woods began playing across North American theaters on December 24, 2014, and earned \$1.1 million from late-night Christmas Eve showings and \$15.08 million on opening day (including previews) from 2,440 theaters. Its opening-day gross was the fourth-biggest Christmas Day debut and the sixth-biggest Christmas Day gross ever. The film was one of four films put into wide release on December 25, 2014, the other three being Universal Pictures' Unbroken (3,131 theaters), Paramount Pictures' The Gambler (2,478 theaters), and TWC's Big Eyes (1,307 theaters). It earned \$31.1 million in its traditional three-day opening (\$46.1 million including its Christmas Day gross), debuting at \#2 at the box office behind The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies and achieving the highest opening weekend for a film based on a Broadway musical (previously held by Mamma Mia!). The film's \$3.5 million debut in Japan marked the largest opening for a 21st-century live-action musical film. ### Critical response The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 71% based on 225 reviews, with an average rating of 6.60/10. The site's consensus reads: "On the whole, this Disney adaptation of the Sondheim classic sits comfortably at the corner of Hollywood and Broadway—even if it darkens to its detriment in the final act." Another review aggregator, Metacritic, calculate a weighted average score of 69 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Streep was immensely applauded for her performance as the Witch, with many critics and audiences believing she was the film's heart. Lou Lumenick of the New York Post called her and Blunt's portrayals "two of the greatest female performances of the year". Susan Wloszczyna for RogerEbert.com praised Streep's performances of the songs "Stay with Me" and "Last Midnight", and summed her performance up as leaving "practically everyone else in the dust and by design." The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film "benefits from respect for the source material, enticing production values and a populous gallery of sharp character portraits from a delightful cast". Stephen Holden of The New York Times lauded the film, writing; "Into the Woods, the splendid Disney screen adaptation of the Stephen Sondheim-James Lapine musical, infuses new vitality into the tired marketing concept of entertainment for 'children of all ages'". Leonard Maltin called the movie "one of the year's best films". Similarly, Pete Hammond of Deadline praised the film as "the most dazzling movie musical since Marshall's own Chicago." and praised the performance of the cast, particularly Streep. Lou Lumerick of the New York Post called the film "this century's best musical" and lauded the performances of Streep and Blunt as the best female performances of the year. Scott Mendelson of Forbes gave a positive review declaring the film "Rob Marshall's best movie ever" and praised it for its genuine entertainment and strong cast performances. Richard Corliss of Time gave a positive review, stating that the film was a "smart, appealing, upside-down children's story for adults of all ages". Gregory Ellwood of HitFix tapped Streep as an Academy Award contender in the Best Supporting Actress category, and also praised the performance of Chris Pine. Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair, Karen D'Souza of the San Jose Mercury News, and Dana Stevens of Slate all published critical reviews of the film. All three found much to like in the acting (especially Blunt and Pine's performances), but also concluded that after the various cuts and changes, the film had failed to adequately preserve the power of the dark existentialist message at the heart of the original musical's second act. Stevens characterized the result as a "generic dystopian bummer," while Lawson criticized the film as a "dutiful but perfunctory adaptation" that lacked "genuine heart". Paul Katz of The Huffington Post felt the change in tone between the last two acts was too abrupt, and also criticized the film's faithfulness to the stage musical. Conversely, Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post disliked the performances by Streep and Depp, while simultaneously calling the film's first two acts a "surprising delight". ### Accolades
18,961,820	Tualatin station	1,156,541,709	Train station in Tualatin, Oregon, US	[ "2009 establishments in Oregon", "Bus stations in Oregon", "Railway stations in Oregon", "Railway stations in Washington County, Oregon", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2009", "Transportation buildings and structures in Washington County, Oregon", "Tualatin, Oregon", "WES Commuter Rail" ]	Tualatin is a train station in Tualatin, Oregon, United States, served by TriMet as part of WES Commuter Rail. Situated next to Hedges Green Shopping Center on Southwest Boones Ferry Road, it is the fourth station southbound on the commuter rail line, which operates between Beaverton and Wilsonville in the Portland metropolitan area's Washington County. The station was approved in 2004 as part of the Washington County Commuter Rail Project, but construction was delayed following a dispute with its location and the amount of available parking. A compromise was eventually reached, and it was completed in time for the line's opening in 2009. The station includes a 129-space park and ride and connections to the Tualatin Shuttle and TriMet bus routes 76–Hall/Greenburg and 97–Tualatin–Sherwood Rd. WES connects with the Blue and Red lines of MAX Light Rail at Beaverton Transit Center. ## History In 1908, the Oregon Electric Railway (OE) established an interurban line between Portland and Salem, which at its peak extended as far south as Eugene. OE built a depot in Tualatin that is believed to have stood on the site of the present-day WES station. When automobiles began to dominate in the 1920s, ridership on the interurban failed to grow as projected, and OE ended passenger rail service in May 1933. Diesel freight trains continued to utilize the route into the 1990s. Washington County officials started planning for a commuter rail line between Beaverton and Wilsonville in 1996. In 2001, local governments approved the Washington County Commuter Rail Project, which included plans for a station in Tualatin along Boones Ferry Road, in consideration of the city's transportation plan. The Federal Transit Administration authorized funding for the project in 2004, and construction began in October 2006. After construction of the line had started, nearby grocery retailer Haggen Food & Pharmacy tried to have the station in Tualatin moved; Haggen argued that the station did not have enough parking and that it would worsen traffic around the area. Haggen's protest led to a delay in the station's construction, which had been scheduled to begin in July 2007. The city and Portland's regional transit agency, TriMet, countered that the location was selected in 2001 and was re-affirmed in 2005 with no objections from Haggen; TriMet further threatened to forgo building the station. In August, Haggen and TriMet compromised; the station's location remained as planned but with additional parking. The station's construction commenced on January 9, 2008, with a groundbreaking ceremony attended by local dignitaries. The public artwork was installed that September. Tualatin station was completed in time for the opening of the line, by then named "Westside Express Service" (WES), on February 2, 2009. ## Station details Tualatin station is situated on the east end of Hedges Green Shopping Center near the intersection of Southwest Boones Ferry Road and Seneca Street in downtown Tualatin. It is one of five WES stops along the 14.7-mile (23.7 km) rail segment owned by Portland and Western Railroad. The station has 129 park-and-ride spaces, 24 covered bike racks, and six bike lockers. The side platform measures 146 feet (45 m) in length and 15 feet (4.6 m) in width, covers about 2,000 square feet (190 m<sup>2</sup>), and sits four feet (1.2 m) above the ground. It features card-only ticket vending machines and a digital information display that shows WES and bus arrival information. The platform shelter exhibits enhancements to TriMet's standard design practices; it includes a clock tower and red brick columns intended to blend in with the neighborhood's existing architectural styles. The Tualatin Development Commission contributed \$491,000 for the enhancements. Tualatin station's public art consists of an interactive sculpture created by Frank Boyden and Brad Rude entitled The Interactivator. It features bronze heads and a vehicle designed to represent the train and the variety of people who ride the line. The vehicle moves along a track and has an animal figure displayed in a scene atop the piece. The shelter's glass windbreak is etched with a willow pattern. ### Services Tualatin is the fourth of five stations southbound on WES, between Tigard Transit Center and the line's southern terminus, Wilsonville station. WES provides a connection to the Blue and Red lines of MAX Light Rail at its northern terminus, Beaverton Transit Center. Service operates only on weekdays during the morning and evening commutes and trains arrive at the station every thirty minutes per direction. A bus stop near Tualatin station connects to TriMet bus routes 76–Hall/Greenburg and 97–Tualatin–Sherwood Rd. Additionally, a fixed-route bus service operated by Ride Connection called the Tualatin Shuttle connects riders between Tualatin station and local employers. As of 2019, the Tualatin Shuttle operates two routes within Tualatin; it coordinates with WES train arrivals and is free to use.
40,467,550	2013 Mudsummer Classic	1,162,453,710	Auto race held in 2013	[ "2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series", "2013 in sports in Ohio", "NASCAR races at Eldora Speedway" ]	The 2013 Mudsummer Classic (formally the CarCash Mudsummer Classic presented by CNBC Prime's The Profit) was a NASCAR Camping World Truck Series stock car race held on July 24, 2013, at Eldora Speedway in New Weston, Ohio. The race was the first dirt track race held by a NASCAR national touring series (Cup, Xfinity, Trucks) since 1970. Contested over 150 laps, the race was the tenth of the 2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series season. Ken Schrader of self-owned Ken Schrader Racing won the pole position, and became the oldest pole sitter in NASCAR history at 58 years of age. Austin Dillon of Richard Childress Racing won the race, while Kyle Larson and Ryan Newman finished second and third, respectively. The qualifying procedure was unique for the race; drivers' qualifying times set the starting grids for five heat races to determine the feature race's starting lineup, while the top five of a last chance qualifier (LCQ) advance to the feature. Schrader, Jared Landers, Timothy Peters, Kenny Wallace and Jeb Burton won the heat races, while Brennan Newberry won the LCQ. The feature's format was also distinctive compared to other NASCAR events, as it was divided into three segments, lasting 60, 50 and 40 laps. In the feature, Larson took the lead from Peters on lap 39, and later battled with Dillon for the win, and Dillon claimed the victory after he retained the lead on the green–white–checker finish for his fifth career Truck Series win. ## Background The last race run on dirt in a NASCAR national touring series occurred on September 30, 1970, at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh in a Grand National Series race, which was won by Richard Petty. Afterwards, NASCAR sanctioned the Busch All-Star Tour, a dirt late model series, which lasted from 1985 to 2002. Eldora Speedway, which opened in 1954, is a 0.5 mile (0.80 km) oval with turns at a 24 degree banking, while the straightaways are 8 degrees. The track's grandstands can fit 17,782 spectators, and the hillside seating can fit an unlimited number of fans. On October 15, 2012, track owner Tony Stewart and Austin Dillon held a private test at the track, driving trucks. On November 28, NASCAR announced that Eldora Speedway would be on the schedule as the first of two Wednesday Truck races, along with the UNOH 200 at Bristol Motor Speedway for 2013. Although the track does not have any SAFER barriers, Tom Gideon, NASCAR Director of Safety, stated the track meets NASCAR regulations. By January 29, 2013, the 17,782 grandstand seats had been sold out, with purchasers from 48 states and six countries. > "We've been looking at getting the trucks back to short tracks – to the roots of racing including the dirt – and we’re excited to announce our 2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series will race at Eldora Speedway in July. The door-to-door racing that our truck series is known for plus Eldora's popularity and [Tony Stewart]'s dedication to putting on great shows for the fans is a perfect fit. We'll have a maximum starting field of 30 trucks at Eldora. More details on the race format are still being developed." Various non-Truck regulars entered the race for reasons such as to help a team in the owners' championship, with teams hiring drivers who are familiar with dirt racing to assist them in the championship. Examples include dirt track specialists Scott Bloomquist, who won The Dream and the World 100 at the track six times and three times, respectively; Tracy Hines, who had 85 career wins, including six at Eldora, and 52 starts in the Truck Series; Jared Landers, who won 100 features in his career; J. R. Heffner, who won the big-block modified championship at Lebanon Valley Speedway twice; Jeff Babcock, who won an American Late Model Series race at the track during 2013; and Joe Cobb, a dirt modified racer and the father of Truck Series regular Jennifer Jo Cobb. Cup Series drivers Dave Blaney, Ken Schrader and Ryan Newman, along with Nationwide Series drivers Austin Dillon, Kenny Wallace and Kyle Larson also ran in the event. Babcock, Blaney, Bloomquist, Hines, Schrader and Wallace had all won races at Eldora in various disciplines. Jason Bowles was later announced as the driver of the No. 5 for Wauters Motorsports, while Chris Jones was originally listed as the driver of the No. 93 for RSS Racing, but eventually withdrew. In preparation for the race, tire provider Goodyear created new tires, branded "Wrangler", based on a previous dirt tire that the company made. To give the trucks more grip, the tires were widened by one inch to eleven. The bias-ply tires (instead of radial tires) also had treads to remove dirt quicker, in a block pattern, along with being softer. The left-side tires were staggered three inches shorter to 85.5 inches than the right tires (88.5) to assist in handling. Meanwhile, the trucks had mesh shields and hood deflector screens attached to prevent debris from the dirt from entering the radiators and damaging the vehicles. The trucks also had the front spoilers and splitters removed, the grille closed, and the rear spoilers raised and enlarged by 40 square inches to generate more downforce. The trucks' windshields remained, meaning the track crew had to keep the track dry, to prevent mud from making them unable to be cleared. On the hoods, bug deflectors, which were 8 by 12 inches, were installed to prevent stones from hitting the windshield. Teams added under panels to the trucks' chassis to prevent dirt from increasing the trucks' weight. Entering the race, Matt Crafton led the points standings with 357 points, followed by Jeb Burton and James Buescher, both with 319 and 317 points, respectively. Ty Dillon and Johnny Sauter finished the top five with 309 and 305 points, respectively. Ryan Blaney had 290 points, and behind him were Miguel Paludo (285), Timothy Peters (281), Brendan Gaughan (280) and Darrell Wallace Jr. (272). ## Practice and qualifying ### Practice Two-hour practice sessions were held on July 23 from 4:30 to 6:30 P.M. EST, followed by another from 7:00 to 9:00 P.M, the latter being televised on Speed. Another practice was held the following day from 11:30 A.M. to 1:30 P.M. Kyle Larson held the fastest lap time in the first practice session with a time of 19.645 seconds and speed of 91.626 mph (147.458 km/h), followed by father/son pair Dave (19.856 seconds, 91.653 mph (147.501 km/h)) and Ryan Blaney (19.918 seconds, 90.371 mph (145.438 km/h)) and brothers Austin (19.982 seconds, 90.081 mph (144.971 km/h)) and Ty Dillon (20.205 seconds, 89.087 mph (143.372 km/h)). The top five featured three Chevrolets and two Fords; the fastest Toyota driver was John Wes Townley (20.483 seconds, 87.878 mph (141.426 km/h)), who was seventh-fastest. In the second session, the top five consisted of three Chevrolets in the top three positions and Toyotas in fourth and fifth: Austin (21.644 seconds, 83.164 mph (133.839 km/h)) and Ty Dillon (21.703 seconds, 82.938 mph (133.476 km/h)), Larson (21.719 seconds, 82.877 mph (133.378 km/h)), Ken Schrader (21.748 seconds, 82.766 mph (133.199 km/h)) and Tracy Hines (21.753 seconds, 82.747 mph (133.168 km/h)). The fastest Ford truck was Dave Blaney, with a lap time and speed of 21.872 seconds and 82.297 mph (132.444 km/h), respectively. In the final practice, Toyotas dominated the top five, with Darrell Wallace Jr. leading the session with a time of 20.040 seconds and speed of 89.820 mph (144.551 km/h), followed by Hines (20.182 seconds, 89.188 mph (143.534 km/h)), Townley (20.303 seconds, 88.657 mph (142.680 km/h)) and Germán Quiroga (20.307 seconds, 88.639 mph (142.651 km/h)) comprising the top four; Chevy driver James Buescher (20.528 seconds, 87.685 mph (141.115 km/h)) was fifth. ### Qualifying The field for the main event consisted only of 30 trucks instead of the usual 36, with the top 20 trucks in the owner's points standings guaranteed a spot. To determine the field, two-lap qualifying runs were held, which determined the starting grids for five heat races of eight laps each. The top five fastest qualifiers started on the pole for the heats, and the highest non-locked-in truck were transferred in to the main event until there were 25 trucks in the field. For drivers that did not qualify via the heats, the top four in a last-chance qualifier advance, with the final spot reserved for the most recent series champion, and if that spot is vacant, the fifth-place finisher in the LCQ would qualify for the main event. Qualifying was held at 5:05 P.M. Ken Schrader won the pole with a lap time of 19.709 seconds and a speed of 91.329 mph (146.980 km/h) for his first Truck Series pole since 2004, and became the oldest pole-sitter in NASCAR history at 58 years of age, passing Dick Trickle, who won the pole at Dover International Speedway in the Busch Series' MBNA Platinum 200 in 1999. The heat races began at 7:00 P.M., with each heat race occurring after 15 minutes of the previous heat's start. The last chance qualifier was held at 8:45 P.M. Schrader eventually won his heat race after leading all 8 laps. In Heat 2, the first caution flag of the day was flown for Darrell Wallace Jr.'s spin with three laps remaining, and Jared Landers prevented a comeback by Matt Crafton to win. The next heat was dominated by Timothy Peters, who led all eight laps; Heats 4 and 5 were won by Kenny Wallace and Jeb Burton, respectively, the two drivers leading every lap. In the last chance qualifier, J. R. Heffner, who started first in the race, failed to finish the race after completing one lap. Ultimately, Brennan Newberry led all fifteen laps to win, followed by Jeff Babcock, Jason Bowles and Justin Jennings. Norm Benning clinched the fifth and final transfer spot after holding off Clay Greenfield, who nearly wrecked him three times; in response, Benning gave Greenfield the finger after the race concluded. Because they did not finish in the top five, Greenfield, Jimmy Weller, Bryan Silas, Joe Cobb and Heffner did not qualify for the event. When asked about the duel with Greenfield, Benning stated Tony Stewart told him that he "singlehandedly made the show a success". #### Qualifying results ##### Heat races ###### Heat Race \#1 ###### Heat Race \#2 ###### Heat Race \#3 ###### Heat Race \#4 ###### Heat Race \#5 #### Last Chance Qualifier ## Race The race started at 9:35 P.M. EST and televised live on Speed, while being broadcast on radio by Motor Racing Network. Krista Voda hosted Speed's prerace show, while Rick Allen, Phil Parsons and Michael Waltrip called the race from the booth; the network's pit reporters for the event were Ray Dunlap, Hermie Sadler and Bob Dillner. 1.4 million people viewed the race on television, the tenth-most viewed Truck race in series history, and the highest-watched event of the day; the race also had a Nielsen rating of 1.20. The weather for the race was mostly clear with a temperature of 68 °F (20 °C). The St. Henry High School band performed the national anthem, while the parade lap featured a four-wide salute by the trucks to the fans. Due to the lack of a pit road, the race was split into three segments of 60, 50 and 40 laps so teams can make pit stops and adjustments between each segment, and there would be no positions gained nor lost during stops. In segment 1, Timothy Peters took the lead from pole-sitter Ken Schrader on lap 15, and led for 23 laps until Kyle Larson took the lead on lap 39, who led for the remainder of the segment. In the final five laps of the segment, the first caution of the race flew for debris, and the beneficiary was Max Gresham, who was the first driver at least a lap down, which allowed him to regain a lap. In the second segment, Larson continued to lead for a total of 50 laps until Austin Dillon passed him on lap 89 after the former collided with Germán Quiroga. One lap later, another caution was flown for debris, and Gresham was again the beneficiary. On lap 116, Jared Landers' truck became loose in turn 2, collected Ty Dillon and made contact with Johnny Sauter. Quiroga was the beneficiary on the resulting caution. Larson and Austin Dillon dueled for the remainder of the race, with Dillon allowing Larson to pass on lap 122, but Dillon managed to get past Larson on the following lap. Two more cautions for debris (first on the front stretch, the second in turn 4) were eventually flown, and a green–white–checker finish was initiated due to debris in turn 4 on lap 149. Dillon retained the lead on the GWC to win, beating Larson by 1.197 seconds. Behind Dillon and Larson, Ryan Newman finished third, followed by Joey Coulter, Brendan Gaughan, Timothy Peters, Darrell Wallace Jr., Matt Crafton, Dave Blaney and Max Gresham. Sauter (accident) and Jeff Babcock (engine) failed to finish the race. The race concluded with four different leaders, eight lead changes, and six cautions. Dillon led the most laps with 64, followed by Larson (51), Peters (23) and Schrader (15). Despite winning the race, Dillon, along with six other drivers, did not receive Truck Series points due to a rule that allowed drivers to compete in only one series' drivers championship. The win was Dillon's first of 2013 and fifth Truck Series victory in 53 starts. It was also the 29th Truck Series win for owner Richard Childress and Richard Childress Racing's second Truck win of 2013. In August, Dillon's truck, his winner's trophy and a jar of dirt he shoveled at the start/finish line were placed on display in the NASCAR Hall of Fame. ## Results ### Standings after the race
52,497	Nobel Prize in Physics	1,172,250,238	One of the five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Alfred Nobel	[ "Awards of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences", "Nobel Prize", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "Physics awards" ]	The Nobel Prize in Physics (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysik) is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions for humankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901, the others being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Physics is traditionally the first award presented in the Nobel Prize ceremony. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the extraordinary services he rendered by the discovery of X-rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and is widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics. It is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. As of 2022 a total of 221 individuals have been awarded the prize. ## Background Alfred Nobel, in his last will and testament, stated that his wealth should be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in the fields of physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor (\$2.9 million USD, or €2.7 million in 2023), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Owing to the level of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting (Norwegian Parliament). The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organise the prizes. The members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The other prize-awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation then established guidelines for awarding the prizes. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. According to Nobel's will, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences would award the Prize in Physics. ## Nomination and selection A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics. Compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics. The Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. During the first stage that begins in September, a group of about 3,000 selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry, and others are sent confidential nomination forms. The completed forms must arrive at the Nobel Committee by 31 January of the following year. The nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts and are narrowed to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the final candidates to the Academy, where, in the Physics Class, it is further discussed. The Academy then makes the final selection of the Laureates in Physics by a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years. While posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the committee (typically in October) and the ceremony in December. Prior to 1974, posthumous awards were permitted if the candidate had died after being nominated. The rules for the Nobel Prize in Physics require that the significance of achievements being recognized has been "tested by time". In practice, that means that the lag between the discovery and the award is typically on the order of 20 years and can be much longer. For example, half of the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar for his work on stellar structure and evolution that was done during the 1930s. As a downside of this tested-by-time rule, not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. Some important scientific discoveries are never considered for a prize, as the discoverers die by the time the impact of their work is appreciated. ## Prizes A Physics Nobel Prize laureate is awarded a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money. ### Medals The medal for the Nobel Prize in Physics is identical in design to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry medal. The reverse of the physics and chemistry medals depict the Goddess of Nature in the form of Isis as she emerges from clouds holding a cornucopia. The Genius of Science holds the veil which covers Nature's 'cold and austere face'. It was designed by Erik Lindberg and is manufactured by Svenska Medalj in Eskilstuna. It is inscribed "Inventas vitam iuvat excoluisse per artes" ("It is beneficial to have improved (human) life through discovered arts") an adaptation of "inventas aut qui vitam excoluere per artes" from line 663 from book 6 of the Aeneid by the Roman poet Virgil. A plate below the figures is inscribed with the name of the recipient. The text "REG. ACAD. SCIENT. SUEC." denoting the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences is inscribed on the reverse. ### Diplomas Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate who receives it. The diploma contains a picture with the name of the laureate and a citation explaining their accomplishments. ### Award money At the awards ceremony, the laureate is given a document indicating the award sum. The amount of the cash award may differ from year to year, based on the funding available from the Nobel Foundation. For example, in 2009 the total cash awarded was 10 million SEK (US\$1.4 million), but in 2012 following the Great Recession, the amount was 8 million Swedish Kronor, or US\$1.1 million. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients, but if there are three, the awarding committee may opt to divide the grant equally, or award half to one recipient and a quarter to each of the two others. ### Ceremony The committee and institution serving as the selection board for the prize typically announce the names of the laureates during the first week of October. The prize is then awarded at formal ceremonies held annually in Stockholm Concert Hall on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The laureates receive a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount. ## See also - List of Nobel laureates in Physics - Fundamental Physics Prize - List of physics awards - Sakurai Prize, presented by the American Physical Society - Wolf Prize in Physics
9,923,295	Ontario Highway 107	1,088,261,627	Former Ontario provincial highway	[ "County roads in Essex County, Ontario", "Former Ontario provincial highways" ]	King's Highway 107, commonly referred to as Highway 107, was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario situated midway between the towns of Kingsville and Leamington. The route was one of the shortest highways to exist in the province, at a length of 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi). It has been through several re-numberings throughout its history but is now known as Essex County Road 45 or Union Avenue. The route began at Highway 18 and travelled north to Highway 3 at Ruthven. Highway 107 was known as Highway 18B from 1937 until 1952. It was decommissioned in 1970, but was later briefly assigned as the eastern leg of Highway 18 in 1997. The highway was once again decommissioned in 1998. Since then, as well as between 1970 and 1997, the route has been known as Essex County Road 45. ## Route description Highway 107 was a short highway that provided a connection between Highway 18 and Highway 3, southeast of Windsor. At 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi), it was one of the shortest signed provincial highways to exist in Ontario. Both termini are visible from any point on the route. Today, the former highway is known as Union Avenue or Essex County Road 45. It begins in the community of Union, progressing north from Essex County Road 20, formerly Highway 18. The road travels into the village of Ruthven, ending at Essex County Road 34, the former routing of Highway 3. The entire route lies west of Leamington within the town of Kingsville in Essex County. The southern terminus of the route is within a kilometre of the Lake Erie shoreline. Despite having a rural cross-section, the entire length of the former highway is fronted by residential properties. ## History The route of Highway 107 was initially numbered in 1937 as Highway 18B, serving to connect Highway 18 with Highway 3 west of Leamington. While initially gravel-surfaced, the highway was paved some time in the mid-1940s. Highway 18B was renumbered as Highway 107 in 1952, and remained unchanged until it was decommissioned as a provincial highway and transferred to Gosfield South Township on June 1, 1970. The township promptly handed responsibility for the road to Essex County. Between 1970 and 1997, the former highway was known as Essex County Road 45. Highway 18 was briefly signed along the route in 1997 following the transfer of a portion of it between County Road 45 and Leamington on April 1. It was rerouted along County Road 45 to end at Highway 3 for the remainder of the year. However, the entirety of Highway 18 was transferred to Essex County on January 1, 1998, resulting in the route once again becoming Essex County Road 45, which it is known as today. ## Major intersections
1,533,847	In Cold Blood (video game)	1,152,074,103	2000 video game	[ "2000 video games", "Adventure games", "DreamCatcher Interactive games", "PlayStation (console) games", "Revolution Software games", "Single-player video games", "Sony Interactive Entertainment games", "Spy video games", "Ubisoft games", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Windows games" ]	In Cold Blood is an adventure game developed by Revolution Software for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows in 2000 in Europe and in 2001 in North America. The player assumes the role of John Cord—an MI6 agent who is captured while on assignment and tries to figure out who betrayed him through a series of flashbacks. After the success of the first two Broken Sword games on the PlayStation, Sony contacted Revolution Software to develop a game to be released initially on the console. Revolution wanted to move away from the style of its previous projects, making a game with a secret agent theme and set in an action environment. Director Charles Cecil stated that the game was inspired by crime films such as Pulp Fiction and The Usual Suspects. The game engine was written specifically for the title. It was released to average reviews from critics, who praised the game's story, puzzles and graphics, but criticized its controls, action scenes and animation. ## Gameplay In Cold Blood is a 3D adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player guides John Cord's movements with a keyboard or gamepad. Cord must collect objects that can be used with other collectible objects, parts of the scenery, or other people in the game world to solve puzzles and progress in the game. Cord can engage in dialogue with other characters through conversation trees to gain hints of what needs to be done to solve the puzzles or to progress the plot. Action scenes are also included. ## Plot ### Background In Cold Blood is situated in Volgia, a fictional state on the east coast of the former USSR. After the Soviet Union collapsed, Dmitri Nagarov, chief of intelligence and security, took the opportunity to overthrow existing powers and declared independence. After his coup, Volgia started to invade its neighbors. The Volgian Freedom Fighters (VFF) is a resistance movement that is run by Gregor Kostov. The VFF has learned that the Volgians have acquired some special technology and has informed the Americans. They sent a spy named Kiefer to investigate, but communications were lost while he was investigating a uranium mine. The British were asked for help, and Alpha, the boss of MI6, sends agent John Cord, a long-time friend of Kiefer, to investigate. After the introduction which shows parts of Cord's missions, the game starts with a scene in which Cord is interrogated by now premier Dmitri Nagarov, while he is being tortured by his assistant Lukyan. After the torture, Cord is fighting for his sanity, and all he knows for sure is that he was betrayed. He tries to piece together the fragments of his memory, and the player must reconstruct the events that led to his capture. The game includes nine missions that Cord has to complete. Almost every mission ends with a transitional cut scene, showing how Cord is interrogated and tortured. These scenes include other characters like Alpha or Kostov, who will give information about the next missions. ### Story Cord goes to the uranium mine to locate Kiefer, but finds him dead. While there, he overhears a conversation between Chi-Ling Cheung (a secret agent of the People's Republic of China) and Byrdoy Tolstov (a professor in applied physics and chemistry). Tolstov reveals that they are not mining for uranium, but that they are experimenting with a special compound called tri-nepheline. Tolstov's daughter Alexandria is being held hostage at Security Headquarters (HQ), and Cord rescues her with the help of Chi, who is suspected of being a spy. Afterwards, Cord plants a bug on a secure server and removes a hard drive containing information relating to the VFF. Cord goes to the Containment Facility to apprehend Nagarov. On the Kappa level, Cord destroys a gigantic robot called Spectre, and on the Omega level, he finds "specimens" held in pods in a laboratory. Cord raises the pod with Yerik Dimittrivich Oliakov, a former University Lecturer, who informs Cord about a place "where ships go to die." Nagarov arrives with Alexandria in front of him. Nagarov claims that he has hacked the computers of the Americans and Chinese, to simulate that each of them is preparing for war, so he can go on with his plans for Volgia. Cord later enters a room where Professor Tolstov is working, who tells him that the place "where ships go to die" is Vostograd, an abandoned naval base, where Nagarov will launch his missile. A mini-robot kills Tolstov, but Cord uses his ID card to gain access to the refinery's particle bombardment machine called Baby Blue, which he destroys with a bomb. Having met up with Kostov again, they leave to discover a truck with the dead bodies of Kostov's men. Kostov suspects Chi is a traitor. Cord and Chi infiltrate Nagarov's base to destroy the Super Computer. On the roof of a large tower, Cord destroys a building with a surface-to-air missile launcher to create a diversion. When he meets with Chi again, she is being threatened by Kostov, who thinks she has betrayed his men. Chi kills Kostov before he can pull the trigger. With Chi's help, Cord uses an elevator to go to the top of the tower and he activates a cable car leading to an island. Cord explores the docking area, and he finds Alexandria in a cell on the security level. Cord uses the main elevator in the complex to access the other levels. Cord creates a diversion and enters level 1, where he inserts the explosive charge into the Super Computer. A cut scene is shown that reveals that Alpha has betrayed him. In a transmission, she tells that premier Nagarov had to be certain that Cord was not acting on her orders when he attacked the refinery. She assured Nagarov that Cord had not entered the facility, but Nagarov had a recording of Cord in the refinery. It resulted in a simple policy shift and the British are now working with the Volgians. As the reactor becomes critical, Nagarov and Lukyan leave the room. Until this moment, the game has taken place in Cord's memory, as he was interrogated by Nagarov after being captured, but from this point on it takes place in real time. When Cord wakes up, he finds Chi who was instructed to kill him, but she decides to free him after a conversation. Cord and Chi head for the quayside at level 1 and manage to lower a bridge leading to a helicopter. After they free Alexandria, they fly away as the base is destroyed. After they spot Nagarov's nuclear submarine, they land on it. Cord and Chi explore the submarine to prevent the missile from being launched. They take care of the guards, and hear messages about problems with the reactor. After they split up, Lukyan knocks Chi down and takes her to a lower level. Lukyan later ambushes Cord, but he manages to kill him by pushing him into a turbine. In the bridge room, Nagarov enters armed with a gun, and after their conversation, Cord hits Nagarov with a ladder. Cord uses two keys he found to abort the missile launch. After releasing Chi, a message is heard that there is only one minute left to a critical reactor failure. They return to the deck and are picked up by Alexandria in the helicopter just before the submarine explodes. In the end sequence, Cord phones Alpha and tells her that he has dumped his information about her deal with Nagarov on the Chinese and American intelligence nets. The game ends showing Cord, Chi, and Alexandria approaching a beach where the sun sets. ## Development After the unexpected success of the first two Broken Sword games on the PlayStation, Sony contacted Revolution Software to develop a game to be released initially on the console. Revolution wanted to move away from the style of its previous projects, making a game with a secret agent theme and set in an action environment. According to executive producer Charles Cecil, the game was inspired by crime films Pulp Fiction and The Usual Suspects. The game engine was written specifically for the title. In Cold Blood was released on 14 July and 10 October 2000 in Europe, and on 25 March and 30 May 2001 in North America for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows. While the PlayStation version is no longer available for purchase, the PC version can be purchased at GOG.com. ## Reception The PC version of In Cold Blood received "average" reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. Gustavo Calvo-Simmons of Adventure Classic Gaming stated that, though the game has some "annoying flaws," it "can be quite charming to play if you seek to experience the thrill of being a high-tech spy infiltrating an enemy stronghold in a foreign land," and that it "offers up a decent story and interesting characters set in an alternate reality of cold war espionage." Ron Dulin of GameSpot praised the game's story and said that the voice acting and music is "great" and that the game can "also be funny," but stated that the game is "quite thin in both action and adventure" and also criticised certain elements of the gameplay. "Those who want action instead of fiction will find the game somewhat dull, but those who appreciate an original story and great atmosphere will find In Cold Blood to be a satisfying blend of espionage and science fiction." Pseudo Nim of Game Over Online criticised the game's gameplay, but praised its "solid story which actually makes sense" and its "very good graphics." Carla Harker of NextGen said of the game, "The worst thing about In Cold Blood is that the story is pretty interesting and you want to like it, but the rest is so bad you just can't." Shane Wodele of GameVortex ranked the game as the "Top Pick," and praised its graphics, sound, story and puzzles. He both praised and criticised certain elements of the gameplay, and said: "The game's overall feel and playability is outstanding." Shawn Sanders of GameRevolution praised the game's "solid story, decent backgrounds and cool gadgets," but criticised its "lame animation, awful control and bland action." Vincent Lopez of IGN praised the game's presentation, sound and graphics, but criticised its gameplay, saying: "As an adventure fan, you may enjoy the cool spy storyline, and some of [the] more interesting stealth elements of the game, but action gamers will find themselves in a world of intrigue, but a world without challenge." According to Tony Warriner of Revolution Software, the game was a commercial success. The company reported above 220,000 sales of its PlayStation edition in Europe alone during "the first few months" of its release. In January 2001, Warriner noted that its PlayStation version "really did well", and that its computer SKU had sold acceptably. That March, GameSpy's Mark Asher wrote that the game was also "selling well in the U.S. (doing about 100,000 copies) and doing better in Europe." PC Data recorded 28,159 North American retail sales for the PC version during 2001, and 5,825 during the first six months of 2002. The staff of Computer Games Magazine nominated the game as the best adventure game of 2001, but ultimately gave the award to Myst III: Exile.
1,710,548	Singapore Portrait Series currency notes	1,152,670,715	4th design of Singapore currency notes	[ "1999 establishments in Singapore", "Banknotes of Singapore" ]	The Portrait Series of currency notes is the fourth and current set of notes to be issued for circulation in Singapore. It was first introduced on 9 September 1999 by the Board of Commissioners of Currency Singapore (BCCS), whose role was since taken over by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) post-merger. This series features the portrait of Yusof bin Ishak, the first president of Singapore. The design has been simplified and new security features were introduced. Polymer versions of this series were released for general circulation by MAS as of 4 May 2004. ## History The Portrait Series was first released by the Board of Commissioners of Currency Singapore (BCCS) on 9 September 1999 to welcome the new millennium, designed by local artist Eng Siak Loy. The series has a total of seven denominations in general circulation; the denominations \$1 and \$500 were not carried forward from the previous Ship Series. The colour for denominations up to \$50 have been retained, a tradition kept since the era of the Malaya and British Borneo dollar. A more standardised approach is adopted across all banknote denominations, with features noticeably differing from all previous series. For example, the watermark no longer features the lion head symbol. Due to design considerations, the dollar sign was considered redundant and is no longer included in this series. In addition, the note printing company no longer appears on any part of the portrait note. On 31 March 2003, the BCCS merged with the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), which took over the responsibility of banknote issuance. On 4 May 2004, the MAS started issuing polymer versions of the note for general circulation; polymer versions of the and notes were subsequently released. Higher denomination banknotes (, , & ) are still printed on paper. The paper version of the lower denomination banknotes remain in active circulation alongside the polymer version, though the number of and paper notes have dwindled significantly since the introduction of polymer notes. On 2 July 2014, the Monetary Authority of Singapore announced that it would stop printing notes starting from 1 October 2014, to reduce the risk of money laundering. MAS would also stop producing the banknote as well from 1 January 2021 onwards, which has the same reason of withdrawing notes and because the demand of these notes is low except for bank account maintenance (currently the notes that are in high demand are and notes). The MAS has said that the higher denomination notes (beyond \$100) will continue to remain legal tender. ## Security features Previous security features in the Ship Series were carried over to the Portrait Series, and new ones incorporated into the banknote. The two most prominent security features are the engraved portrait of Yusof bin Ishak (which contains fine lines that are difficult for counterfeiters to mimic) and the Kinegram (a printed security hologram); MAS states that banknotes with missing or mutilated portrait or/and Kinegram command no value. Paper versions issued by BCCS features its logo and the face value, while those issued by the MAS features its logo with the Merlion (a mythical creature and national symbol) and the face value. Polymer versions of the banknote have the Kinegram replaced by an image of the Singapore lion symbol with the face value, showing the coat of arms of Singapore when tilted at varying degrees. Other security features include lithographic print (the resulting background hinders camera counterfeiting), anti-copying line structures, perfect registration, microprinting, asymmetrical serial numbers and windowed security threads (thin ribbons woven into the paper). Polymer versions of the banknote include two clear windows and other security features that substitute its paper version. Several features that are invisible to the naked eye appear when both versions of the banknote are exposed under UV light. ## Banknotes in general circulation The banknote's obverse features the portrait of the first president of Singapore, Yusof bin Ishak, and the reverse contain secondary themes that are linked to his life. The background on the obverse of the Portrait Series feature a different cowrie (sea snail whose shell was often used as currency) for each denomination. Signatories include BCCS chairman (and former Finance Minister) Richard Hu, Prime Minister (and former Finance Minister) Lee Hsien Loong, former Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong and Deputy Prime Minister and MAS chairman (also current Finance Minister) Tharman Shanmugaratnam. ### \$2 banknote The money cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$2 banknote. Its reverse carries the theme of education and features three buildings, the Victoria Bridge School (now known as Victoria School), Old Raffles Institution Building at Bras Basah Road, and College of Medicine Building. Yusof received his primary education in 1923 at Victoria Bridge School, and his secondary education in Raffles Institution; His father, Ishak bin Ahmad insisted that his children be English-educated. He was also the Chancellor of the National University of Singapore between 1965 and 1970. ### \$5 banknote The gold-ringed cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$5 banknote. Its reverse carries the theme of Garden City and features the 200-year-old tembusu tree at Singapore Botanic Gardens, as well as Singapore's national flower Vanda Miss Joaquim. Yusof was a keen-gardener who once made a living growing Orchids in Gombak, Kuala Lumpur before his appointment as president. ### \$10 banknote The wandering cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$10 banknote, the most-commonly found cowrie in Singapore. Its reverse carries the theme of sports and features sportsmen playing badminton, soccer, sailing, jogging and swimming. Yusof was an active sportsman in his secondary school days, and won the national boxing title and the lightweight weightlifting championship. The \$10 banknote was the first denomination in the series printed in polymer. 10 million bills were first released to the general public as a trial, and were the first in Singapore to be successfully dispensed from Automated teller machines (ATMs) and be used in payment involving machines. With the successful trial, MAS decided to release polymer versions of the \$2, \$5 and \$10 for circulation. ### \$50 banknote The cylindrical cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$50 banknote. Its reverse carries the theme of Arts and features two paintings and four musical instruments. The pipa, kompang, veena and violin represent the musical instruments for different cultures in Singapore. Cheong Soo Pieng (creator of Drying Salted Fish) and Chen Wen Hsi (creator of Gibbons Fetching the Moon from the Water) are two artists who created a new type of fine arts in Singapore that influenced other local artists, in which their two paintings are featured. ### \$100 banknote The swallow cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$100 banknote. Its reverse carries the theme of youth and features a National Service officer with his ceremonial sword standing against the tower of the SAFTI Military Institute, uniformed youths representing Singapore Red Cross, St John's Ambulance Brigade, Singapore Scout Association and the National Police Cadet Corps. ### \$1,000 banknote The beautiful cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$1,000 banknote. Its reverse carries the theme of government featuring the buildings of the three branches of government: The Parliament House, Old Supreme Court Building and Istana, representing the Legislative, Judiciary and Executive powers respectively. The Istana is the president's official residence, built in 1869 which first housed the colonial governor. The entire national anthem's lyrics are included as microprint, which is a unique feature to the \$1,000 banknote. ### \$10,000 banknote The onyx cowrie is featured on the obverse background of the \$10,000 banknote. Its reverse carries the theme of economy featuring Singapore as a knowledge-based economy – biotechnology, R&D and silicon wafer. Yusof was a businessman who started the first Malay newspaper for the masses, Utusan Melayu. It was one of the highest-value banknote in the world in terms of absolute value (worth approximately US\$7,250 as of July 2022) that was in public circulation. ## Commemorative banknotes ### Millennium \$2 banknote In celebration of the Millennium 2000, five million \$2 bills were printed with the Millennium 2000 logo replacing the prefix of the serial number normally found in other notes under general circulation. ### Overprinted banknotes Three commemorative limited issues have been made for the Portrait Series (including the \$20 issue below). 10,000 sets of the \$10 polymer was issued with the overprint 'Commemorative First Issue by MAS' with the prefix MAS. 5,000 sets of \$50 banknotes signed by PM Lee Hsien Loong have been stamped with overprint commemorating the merger of the BCCS and MAS. ### \$20 banknote On 27 June 2007, the governments of Singapore and Brunei celebrated the 40th anniversary of the Currency Interchangeability Agreement (an agreement allowing citizens of both countries to use currency from either nation interchangeably) by issuing commemorative \$20 notes, that are yellow, 149 × 72 mm in size, and made of polymer. The obverse of the Singaporean version is similar to the current Portrait Series, whereas the obverse of the Brunei version is similar to the \$50 and \$100 of the 2004 series. The reverses are almost identical except that the Brunei version has their state title in Jawi script, while the Singaporean version has the state title of Brunei in Latin script. A limited edition set was offered for sale, which consisted of both versions in a folder, with matching serial numbers. The notes have "40th Anniversary Currency Interchangeability Agreement" overprinted on the obverse side. In addition, the Singaporean version has the two countries' state crests above the commemorative text. Only 12,000 sets were available, 10,000 from the Monetary Authority of Singapore, and 2,000 from the Brunei Currency and Monetary Board. The circulation version was made available from 16 July 2007. ### SG50 banknotes Five \$10 and one \$50 polymer commemorative banknotes were made available from 20 August 2015. They are part of Singapore's Golden Jubilee (SG50) celebrations. 20 million pieces were printed for the \$50 commemorative SG50 banknote, while 15 million pieces of each \$10 commemorative SG50 design banknote were printed. There was an oversupply of these SG50 banknotes; by February 2016 only about less than half of them were actually issued. ## Specifications
6,211,125	How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?	1,169,450,159	British television series	[ "2006 British television series debuts", "2006 British television series endings", "BBC Television shows", "British reality television series", "International Emmy Award for Best Non-Scripted Entertainment winners", "Singing talent shows", "The Sound of Music" ]	How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria? was a British reality television talent show that documented the search for an undiscovered musical theatre performer to play the role of Maria von Trapp in the 2006 Andrew Lloyd Webber and David Ian stage production of The Sound of Music. The series was originally devised by the then in-house development team at BBC Entertainment Events and was announced by the BBC in April 2006. BBC One broadcast the programme, which was hosted by Graham Norton, on Saturday evenings from 29 July through 16 September 2006. The title derives from the refrain of "Maria", a song from the first act of The Sound of Music. ## Format ### Creation The lead role of Maria von Trapp in the new West End production of The Sound of Music, to be staged by Andrew Lloyd Webber and David Ian, was to be played by American actress Scarlett Johansson. Negotiations fell through, and after a four-year search for an actress to fill the role, it was revealed in November 2005 that Lloyd Webber had approached the BBC to allow the public to cast the role through a Popstars-style talent search, the first time that such a format had been used. This was the first programme to allow the public to cast a leading role in a West End show, and it was initially criticised. However, it won International Emmy and Royal Television Society awards and became the first of a series of collaborations between the BBC and Lloyd Webber, including Any Dream Will Do, I'd Do Anything, and Over the Rainbow. The series also led to versions and similar series abroad. ### Expert panel To assess and train the potential Marias and judge them during the live shows, an expert panel was chosen. The panel comprised: - Andrew Lloyd Webber – musical theatre composer and producer, co-producer of the new stage production - David Ian – theatre producer, co-producer of the new stage production - John Barrowman – musical performer, dancer, singer and actor - Zoe Tyler – voice coach, singer and performer, vocal coach to the finalists Lloyd Webber also asked Denise van Outen to participate in the series, but she turned him down, saying that she "felt uncomfortable about being on the panel and giving my criticism". She later became a judge on follow-up series, Any Dream Will Do. ### Auditions Open auditions were held around the UK in April and May 2006, open to both professionals and amateurs over the age of 17. The top 200 made it through to the London callbacks where they performed for Ian, Barrowman and Tyler to secure one of 50 places at Lloyd Webber's "Maria School", where over four days they would receive vocal and drama training from the expert panel. Several additional performers were selected over this fifty contestant limit; one being Briony, who had been rejected initially due to nerves hampering her performance, but who returned for a second chance and was allowed in by Ian. A further four, whom the panel had rejected, were contacted by Lloyd Webber himself as he personally believed them to be potential Marias. During "Maria School", contestants were eliminated to leave twenty, who were then taken to Lloyd Webber's house, where they performed for fifty people from the entertainment business. Ten finalists were then chosen by the panel and taken through to the live studio finals. The series started on Saturday 29 July 2006, and the first two programmes followed the audition stages of the competition before revealing the final ten at the end of the second programme. ### Live finals The final ten contestants then competed in the live studio finals held on Saturday nights over six weeks. Each week the contestants sang and performed during the live show, receiving comments from the judges following their performance. The public then got a chance to vote for their favourite Maria, and the two contestants with the fewest votes performed a sing-off in front of Lloyd Webber, who then decided which Maria to keep in the contest. This was repeated with the top ten, the top nine and the top eight. With the top seven and top five, two were voted off in the program, and there were two different sing-offs. Lloyd Webber had no say in the final casting decision, when in the concluding edition of the series it was left to the public to choose who should play Maria out of the final two contenders, Connie Fisher and Helena Blackman. After more than 2 million votes were cast, the winning entrant was revealed as Fisher, who won a six-month contract to play Maria in the West End production, performing six out of the eight weekly shows. The profits from the telephone votes went to a bursary for young performers. Lloyd Webber also donated his fee to the bursary. ## Finalists Ten potential Marias were selected as finalists who would appear on the live shows. Abi Finley and Aoife Mulholland auditioned together having known each other from college, and both made it to the finals. One of the original 10 finalists, Emilie Alford, withdrew from the competition after deciding it was not for her. She was replaced by Siobhan Dillon, who lost a place in the final ten following a sing-off against Alford and Laura Sicurello in front of Lloyd Webber. This earned her the nickname "Second Chance Maria". \*As of start of series ### Results summary Colour key ## Live shows The live shows saw the finalists eliminated one by one following both individual and group performances. Once eliminated, the leaving contestant ended the programme by leading a performance of "So Long, Farewell" from The Sound of Music with the remaining contestants. ### Week 1 Following the first week of competition. The show performances were: - Group performances: - "How Do You Solve A Problem Like Maria?" (from The Sound of Music) - "I Have Confidence" (from The Sound of Music) - Guest performance: "Iris" (Ronan Keating) - Panel's verdict on who was Maria - John Barrowman: Connie - Zoe Tyler: Leanne - David Ian: Connie Sing-Off - Notes - It was revealed during the results show that Connie received the highest number of votes ### Week 2 As the mission for this week, the potential Marias performed a scene from the musical with an actor as Captain Von Trapp. The show performances were: - Group performances: - "My Favorite Things" (from The Sound of Music) - "Don't Rain on My Parade" (Barbra Streisand from Funny Girl) - Guest performance: "You Can't Stop a River" (Duncan James) Sing-Off ### Week 3 During the week, David Ian talked to the girls about fitness and stamina, and Claire Sweeney advised the singers on looking after themselves and their voices. The mission was a fitness test, with Olympic athlete Iwan Thomas, requiring the Marias to complete an assault course. The Marias also attended the première of the film You, Me and Dupree in Leicester Square. The show performances were: - Group performances: - "The Lonely Goatherd" (from The Sound of Music) - "Don't Stop Me Now" (Queen) - Guest performance: "Something About You" (Jamelia) - Panel's verdict on who was Maria - John Barrowman: Aoife - Zoe Tyler: Abi - David Ian: Abi Sing-Off ### Week 4 Ahead of Saturday night, Lloyd Webber made a surprise visit to the contestants and worked with each to improve their performance. Lloyd Webber also watched them on how well they interact with kids. The show performances were: - Group performances: - "Do-Re-Mi" (from The Sound of Music) - Guest performance: "It's Not That Easy" (Lemar) - Panel's verdict on who was Maria - John Barrowman: Helena - Zoe Tyler: Siobhan - David Ian: Siobhan First sing-off: - Performance with children: Siobhan: "Truly Scrumptious" from Chitty Chitty Bang Bang Second sing-off: ### Week 5 This week, the mission was a chemistry test with John Barrowman, which involved his giving the Marias a surprise kiss. The show performances were: - Group performances: - "I Have Confidence" (from The Sound of Music) - With John Barrowman: "Have You Met Miss Jones?" (from I'd Rather Be Right) - Guest performance: "Oh What a Girl" (Simply Red) - Panel's verdict on who was Maria - John Barrowman: Connie - Zoe Tyler: Helena - David Ian: Connie First sing-off: Second sing Off ### Week 6 In the run-up to the final, the three finalists and Lloyd Webber visited Salzburg to visit some of the locations made famous by The Sound of Music, including Leopoldskron Palace and Nonnberg Abbey, to give the finalists a chance to understand the real Maria von Trapp. - Group performance: - Finalists and former Marias: "How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?" (from The Sound of Music) - Connie and Helena: "The Sound of Music" (from The Sound of Music) - Former Marias: "Edelweiss" (from The Sound of Music) - Panel's verdict on who was Maria - John Barrowman: Connie - Zoe Tyler: Helena - David Ian: Connie - Andrew Lloyd Webber: Connie - After being announced as the series winner, Connie concluded the series with a performance of "The Sound of Music". ## Winner Following a public telephone vote, 23-year-old Connie Fisher was chosen as Maria and performed the role in the West End from November 2006 to February 2008. The series also helped the careers of the other finalists, some of whom later took leading roles in West End shows. Semi-finalist Aoife Mulholland also took up the role of Maria in April 2007 for two shows a week, after Fisher was advised to reduce her performances to six per week. ## After the series Following the final, Lloyd Webber was criticised after it was revealed that actress Emma Williams had been hired to perform the two performances per week that Fisher would not. Prior to The Sound of Music opening Williams "withdrew her services", reportedly because her role had been downgraded from four shows per week to two, leaving Fisher to perform all eight shows unless indisposed. The £4 million production opened at the London Palladium on 15 November 2006 to positive reviews, leading to a £1.1 million increase in ticket sales in one day. In January 2007, Fisher was chosen by the London Critics' Circle to win their award for best newcomer, sharing the prize with Andrew Garfield. Reducing her performances to six per week in March 2007 following an order to rest her voice, her run in the show was extended until 23 February 2008, when actress Summer Strallen took over the role following a tie-in with the Channel 4 soap Hollyoaks. Fisher has also made numerous appearances on stage and on television, released two albums, and performed the lead role in the ITV1 drama Caught in a Trap on 26 December 2008. She reprised her role as Maria in a UK tour of the production in July 2009. Several of the other final ten contestants have taken on leading roles in musicals following the series. Aoife Mulholland was cast in December 2006 as Roxie Hart in the West End musical Chicago, and took on the role of Maria in the West End production for two shows per week in April 2007 after Fisher's reduction in performances. In July 2007 Siobhan Dillon started in the role of Patty Simcox in the musical Grease and later went on to play the lead role of Sandy in January 2010. Fellow finalist Helena Blackman played Nellie Forbush in a UK tour of South Pacific. Mulholland originated the role of Brooke Wyndham in the West End production of Legally Blonde, and Dillon took over the role of Vivienne Kensington in October 2010. In June 2008, Leanne Dobinson took over in the role of Cosette in the West End cast of Les Misérables at the Queens Theatre. A follow-up programme How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria? – Connie's Story aired on 27 December 2006 and followed Fisher during rehearsals for her new role up to and including the opening night. Fisher and several other finalists appeared in a special programme on 24 December 2007 with the winner and finalists from Any Dream Will Do titled When Joseph Met Maria. ## Reception Lloyd Webber and the BBC were criticised by the actors union Equity. They stated that they believed their members would find the series "demeaning to their profession" and that it was not a "proper way" to choose a performer. The series opened to mostly negative reviews from the press. In response to the criticism, Lloyd Webber told The Times: > This programme is providing a platform for musical theatre that it has never had before. The only people upset with Maria are a few precious luvvies who think things should be done a certain way. Lloyd Webber and the BBC were also criticised for giving the production "11 hours of free publicity on prime-time television" and that the series could be "considered commercial advertising". The BBC Trust's Editorial Standards Committee disagreed, saying that the corporation retained "editorial control of the programme" and avoided "disproportionate prominence for Lloyd Webber and the production". The first programme attracted 5.1 million viewers with a 32% audience share, with 4.9 million viewers (30% share) watching the first of the live finals, and 4.7 million (23% share) viewing the results programme. The series dropped to a low of 4.4 million viewers (24% share) against the third series of The X Factor on ITV1, which started the week before. The X Factor continued to gain higher viewing figures as the weeks progressed, with the final of Maria? attracting 5.5 million viewers (28% share) for the main show and 7.7 million (35% share) for the results show. Following the conclusion of the series on a ratings high and positive reviews for Fisher following her opening night, the series was followed by a number of similar series from both the BBC and other broadcasters in the UK and abroad. It was credited with helping London theatres reach record ticket sales and attendances in 2007 and, according to The Independent, for "persuading a new, younger audience to see the shows in the flesh". The series was shown on BBC America in the United States from June 2009. It was described as being "refreshing in its simplicity" in a "landscape that lately seems dominated by audition-heavy musical competitions" by Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara, but Brian Lowry of Variety did not feel that it would be successful in the U.S. ### Awards The series won three awards, and received nominations for another two: - 2007 International Emmy Awards: winner – non-scripted entertainment - 2006 Royal Television Society Awards: winner – best entertainment programme - 2007 Broadcast Awards: winner – best entertainment programme - 2007 British Academy Television Awards: nominated – best entertainment programme - 2007 Broadcasting Press Guild Awards: nominated – best comedy/entertainment ## Ratings ## Follow-up and international series The success of the series led to its becoming the first in a series of West End themed talent contests produced by the BBC in collaboration with Lloyd Webber. 2007 saw Any Dream Will Do search for a new male lead to play Joseph for a production of Lloyd Webber's and Tim Rice's Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. This was followed in 2008 by I'd Do Anything, which sought a lead to play Nancy and three young performers to play the lead in a production of the musical Oliver!. In 2010, Over the Rainbow cast Dorothy and a dog to play Toto in the forthcoming stage production of the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The BBC also collaborated with Lloyd Webber to find a performer for Britain's entry into the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 through Eurovision: Your Country Needs You. On 20 August 2006, it was reported that Lloyd Webber had taken legal action against David Ian. Lloyd Webber reportedly wanted to take the format to the United States to cast a Broadway theatre production of Grease. Lloyd Webber discovered that Ian had already brought the idea to NBC, who announced they will look for unknowns to play Sandy Dumbrowski and Danny Zuko, via reality TV show Grease: You're the One that I Want! with Ian and BBC Worldwide, leaving Lloyd Webber furious. Ian said "I don't understand the problem. Andrew has no connection with the stage show Grease, which I have successfully produced in the UK. There is a new production of Grease on Broadway in the spring of 2007, that's why I've been asked to judge on You're The One That We Want." This was followed in the UK with the ITV1 series Grease Is the Word, with Ian as a judge. It aired against Any Dream Will Do in 2007. Op zoek naar Evita (Looking for Evita) was produced in The Netherlands in 2007, followed by Op zoek naar Joseph (Looking for Joseph) in 2008, Op zoek naar Mary Poppins (Looking for Mary Poppins) in 2009, Op zoek naar Zorro (Looking for Zorro) in 2011, Op zoek naar Annie (Looking for Annie) in 2012 and most recently Op zoek naar Maria (Looking for Maria) in 2021 and Op zoek naar Danny & Sandy (Looking for Danny & Sandy) in 2022. In 2008 a Canadian version of the show with the same title, searched for a Maria for an upcoming Toronto production of The Sound of Music; this show was initiated by Lloyd Webber, and was aired on CBC Television. John Barrowman was part of the judging panel along with Simon Lee and Canadian vocal coach Elaine Overholt. Lloyd Webber filled in for Lee in the final weeks of the series. This was followed by Over the Rainbow in 2012, with Lloyd Webber serving as a judge. In 2009 Vtm aired a Flemish version titled Op zoek naar Maria (Looking for Maria). A Dutch version of Op zoek naar Maria came out in 2021.
6,384,327	95th Civil Affairs Brigade	1,145,955,340	null	[ "Civil Affairs brigades of the United States Army", "Military units and formations established in 2006", "Military units and formations in North Carolina" ]	The 95th Civil Affairs Brigade (Special Operations) (Airborne) is a Special Operations civil affairs brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The concept for a civil affairs brigade had been under consideration for years, but was finally approved as a result of the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review. The 95th Civil Affairs Brigade makes up a significant portion of the four percent of civil affairs soldiers in the active component. Tracing its lineage to a military government group that was active after World War II, the 95th Civil Affairs Brigade was not officially activated until 2006, and remained a provisional unit until 2007. Its creation was part of a U.S. Army plan to increase civil affairs units overall. ## Organization The brigade commands five subordinate battalions all headquartered at Fort Bragg along with the brigade's headquarters: - Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company - 91st Civil Affairs Battalion aligned with United States Africa Command - 92nd Civil Affairs Battalion aligned with United States European Command - 96th Civil Affairs Battalion aligned with United States Central Command - 97th Civil Affairs Battalion aligned with United States Indo-Pacific Command - 98th Civil Affairs Battalion aligned with United States Southern Command. ## History ### Origins The brigade traces its lineage back to the 95th Military Government Group, activated 25 August 1945. The group was assigned to Japan to provide provisional government duties during the post-World War II occupation of Japan. Following its brief assignment, the group was inactivated on 30 June 1946. The group was reactivated again just prior to the Korean War, on 29 October 1948 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. It was dispatched to the Korean peninsula where it remained during three campaigns of the war, receiving three campaign streamers. However, as the war became a long, drawn out stalemate and with no need for the military government group, it was deactivated in Korea on 28 October 1951 in the middle of the war. The group was again activated on 9 February 1955 at Camp Gordon, Georgia and reorganized into a civil affairs unit. It was formally redesignated the 95th Civil Affairs Group on 25 June 1959. It received a distinctive unit insignia on 27 March 1969. After almost 20 years of active service, the group had seen no deployments to any conflicts or contingencies with the US Army, including never seeing deployment to the Vietnam War. Thus, the group was inactivated on 21 December 1974 at Fort Bragg. ### Activation The US Department of Defense issued its Quadrennial Defense Review on 6 February 2006. In this report, the department announced that Special Operations Forces would increase in all areas across all branches of the US military. To support this, the department announced that psychological operations and civil affairs units would be increased by 3,700 soldiers to support units throughout the Army. This would include a large increase of the active component civil affairs, which at the time consisted of only the 96th Civil Affairs Battalion, commanding six company sized units assigned to the major regional commands of the US Army. The decision was made to form a brigade-sized civil affairs unit to act as a command element for the only four active duty battalion sized civil affairs units operating for the active duty US Army. This move would allow the brigade to more quickly prepare its subordinate units for rapid deployment in support of Army contingencies in order to provide tactical support to other Army units. It was decided shortly thereafter that the 95th Civil Affairs Group would be reactivated. In March 2006, the unit was re-designated as a brigade and Lieutenant General Robert Wagner, the commanding general of the United States Army Special Operations Command authorized it to operate in a provisional status. By May, the brigade had 420 staff, with 20 assigned to its Headquarters and Headquarters Company and the remaining 400 assigned to the 96th CA Battalion. In March 2007, the 95th was removed from provisional status and fully activated. At the same time the Civil Affairs Branch of the US Army was established. ### Deployment The brigade headquarters itself has not seen a deployment, even though all subordinate units have been deployed for several support missions. The 96th CA Battalion deployed units in support of the Iraq War in mid-2007. The brigade also had troops deployed in support of special operations units in Operation Enduring Freedom, Afghanistan. The brigade suffered several casualties in Iraq, including two soldiers killed by improvised explosive devices. One of these soldiers, a Major, prompted the State of California to fly its flags at half staff. It also suffered several casualties which were rehabilitated through the new Wounded Warrior Project. The 98th Civil Affairs Battalion also had soldiers deployed to Iraq before its activation in 2008. Soldiers of this battalion also saw deployments to Africa as well as other areas in support of the Global War on Terrorism. ## Honors ### Unit decorations United States Army Superior Unit Award. ### Campaign streamers
23,285,571	Tropical Depression One-E (2009)	1,171,669,543	Pacific tropical depression in 2009	[ "2009 Pacific hurricane season", "Eastern Pacific tropical depressions", "Hurricanes in Jalisco", "Hurricanes in Nayarit", "Hurricanes in Sinaloa", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 2009" ]	Tropical Depression One-E was the earliest tropical cyclone in the calendar year to impact the Mexican state of Sinaloa ever recorded. The first system of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season, One-E formed out of an area of disturbed weather on June 18, 2009, and initially tracked slowly northwards. Throughout the day, convection developed around the center of circulation and the system was anticipated to become a tropical storm. Late on June 18, the National Hurricane Center noted that the system was on the verge of becoming a tropical storm; it would have been named Andres had this occurred. However, the following day, strong wind shear caused the depression to rapidly degenerate into a trough of low pressure before dissipating off the coast of Sinaloa. Although no longer a tropical cyclone, the remnants of the depression brought moderate rainfall to parts of Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco. High winds accompanied the rainfall and left about 50,000 residences without power. Several trees were downed and some structures sustained damage from fresh water flooding. Landslides occurred along major highways and significant structural damage was reported around Mazatlán. However, there was no loss of life or reports of injuries. ## Meteorological history Tropical Depression One-E originated from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on May 29. Little convective activity was associated with the system as it traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea. On June 10, the wave crossed Central America and entered the northeastern Pacific basin. Over the following few days, the system gradually became better organized and on June 15, an area of low pressure developed from the wave. The system continued to organize, and on June 17 the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted the likelihood for tropical cyclogenesis; although, at the time, the circulation was not well-defined. It organized further, and on June 18, the NHC initiated advisories on the first tropical depression of the 2009 season about 350 miles (565 km) south-southwest of Mazatlán, Sinaloa. Deep convection persisted near the southern portion of the depression; however, the northern portion of the depression was partially devoid of convective activity. The depression traveled northward along the periphery of a mid-level ridge over Mexico and an unusually strong mid to upper-level trough situated over the Baja California Peninsula. Later on June 18, forecast models indicated that the system might rapidly degenerate prior to landfall. However, the NHC continued to forecast that the depression would attain tropical storm-status before landfall. Shortly after, the depression became increasingly disorganized as convection separated from the center of circulation due to increasing wind shear. Stable air ahead of the system inhibited the possibility of rapid development as warm waters supported intensification. By the morning of June 19, the center of circulation was situated along the southern edge of deep convection, indicating that the depression was beginning to degenerate. Despite this, the NHC continued to anticipate intensification prior to landfall. Embedded within an easterly flow ahead of a mid-level trough, the storm turned towards the north-northeast and accelerated slightly. At 11:00 am PDT (1800 UTC), the depression reached its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph (55 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar (hPa; 29.62 inHg). Operationally, the depression was considered to be slightly stronger, having a minimum pressure of 1001 mbar (hPa; 29.56 inHg). Later that day, the depression began to degenerate into an open trough as it was situated underneath cirrus clouds instead of cumulonimbus clouds. Visible satellite imagery showed that the depression became increasingly ill-defined and the NHC estimated that the depression degenerated into a trough of low pressure near the Islas Marías during the afternoon of June 19. The remnants of the depression were monitored by the United States Naval Research Laboratory for several more hours until the system moved inland over Sinaloa. ## Preparations and impact When the storm was declared a depression on June 18, a tropical storm watch was declared by the Mexican Government for the Islas Marías, as well as for areas between Topolobampo and El Roblito in Sinaloa. The captain of the Mazatlán port advised ships to remain at port due to rough seas. A blue alert was declared for Sinaloa due to the possibility of deadly mudslides. Crews throughout the state quickly cleared debris from streams and streets to allow for better drainage. Shelters were prepped for possible evacuees but never opened. Late on June 18, a tropical storm warning was declared for the Islas Marías and the watch along Sinaloa was extended southward to Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco. The following day, the Government of Mexico discontinued the warning for the Islas Marías and the watch for areas south of El Roblito was also discontinued. Upon the storm's sudden dissipation later that day, the remaining watch areas were discontinued. On June 19, 2.44 in (62 mm) of rain fell in Mazatlán, near where the remnants of the depression moved ashore. Rainfall rates in the region exceeded 1 in/h (25 mm/h) at times. High winds in Mazatlán knocked down several trees, cutting power to local residents. Heavy rains also triggered street flooding throughout the city. Several hours after the storm, electric companies reported than an estimated 50,000 residences were without power. Following an assessment of damage to the power grid, 20 power poles were found to have been damaged, 15 circuit breakers were damaged and 15 sections of power lines were downed. Numerous villages were flooded, some requiring the evacuation of residents. Around 11:00 am PDT (1800 UTC) six people were stranded offshore Sinaloa. High winds caused significant structural damage throughout Mazatlán. Traffic lights were downed by high winds, causing numerous traffic delays. Landslides along major roadways caused several accidents, one involving a bus that was damaged by rocks. One business was significantly damaged, with at least one main wall collapsing. To speed up the removal of debris, members of the Mexican army were deployed throughout Sinaloa. According to officials in Mexico, Tropical Depression One-E was the first known tropical cyclone to impact the state of Sinaloa during the month of June on record. With the system impacting land on June 19, it marked the earliest date that a tropical cyclone had impacted the state, with the average date of first impact being August 15. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in 2009 - Timeline of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season
1,897,988	M-115 (Michigan highway)	1,167,311,264	State highway in Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Benzie County, Michigan", "Transportation in Clare County, Michigan", "Transportation in Manistee County, Michigan", "Transportation in Osceola County, Michigan", "Transportation in Wexford County, Michigan" ]	M-115 is a state trunkline highway in the northwestern part of the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan. The highway takes a generally southeast-to-northwest direction between Frankfort on Lake Michigan and Clare in the central part of the state. The northwestern end is at M-22 next to Betsie Lake; the southeastern end in downtown Clare is at an intersection with Business US Highway 127 (Bus. US 127) and Bus. US 10. In between, the trunkline runs about 96+1⁄2 miles (155.3 km) through woodlands, including areas that are a part of either the Manistee National Forest or the Pere Marquette State Forest. The highway also passes agricultural areas, several lakes in the region and a state park near Cadillac. M-115 was first designated in the 1920s on the northwestern end near Frankfort. Additional, disconnected sections were designed as part of the trunkline in the 1930s near Cadillac, Farwell and Mesick. All but one of these gaps (Cadillac–Mesick) was eliminated by the end of that decade. The remaining segment was built in the 1950s to unite M-115 into a single highway. The last change came in 1989 when the highway was extended into Clare to its current southern terminus. ## Route description M-115 starts in downtown Clare at a four-way intersection with the two business loops, Bus. US 127 and Bus. US 10, in town. From this junction, M-115 runs west following the former routing of US 10 along Ludington Drive to Farwell. In the middle of town, M-115 turns northwesterly to meet the end of the US 10 freeway near Surrey Lake. The highway continues northwest through forest lands and lake country. The trunkline passes into northern Osceola County near its crossing of the Muskegon River. There are intersections with both M-66 and M-61 south of Marion near rural farms. The roadway subsequently crosses into southern Wexford County. Near Stone Lake south of Cadillac, M-115 meets US 131 and M-55. M-55 leaves the US 131 freeway and joins M-115, and the two run concurrently along the western end of Lake Cadillac. They separate near Lake Mitchell, and M-115 turns northwesterly between the two lakes passing Mitchell State Park and the eastern shore of the latter lake. Past the Cadillac area, M-115 runs through the northeastern corner of the Manistee National Forest. The highway continues through woodlands, passing several small lakes in the area as it approaches the community of Mesick. There it turns due west and joins M-37 through town. After M-37 separates to the south, M-115 crosses the Manistee River and continues its northwestern course. The highway crosses the northeastern corner of Manistee County and runs through the community of Copemish on the way to Benzonia. The landscape here turns more agricultural as the highway skirts southwest of Thompsonville crossing the Betsie River. After the river crossing, the highway enters Benzie County and runs through the Pere Marquette State Forest. South of Benzonia, M-115 runs concurrently with US 31 into town. The highways separate in the center of town where M-115 turns westward to run along the south shore of Crystal Lake past Frankfort Dow Memorial Field, the local airport near Frankfort. M-115 follows Forest Avenue, and the highway designation ends at the intersection in town with M-22 near Betsie Lake. The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) maintains M-115 like all other trunkline highways in the state under its jurisdiction. As a part of these responsibilities, the department tracks traffic volumes along its roadways until a metric called average annual daily traffic (AADT). This number is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year. In 2009, MDOT determined that the highest traffic levels along M-115 were the 12,079 vehicles daily along the section of highway near lakes Mitchell and Cadillac. The lowest AADT was the 2,236 vehicles near Copemish. The trunkline between the US 10 and M-37 junctions has been listed on the National Highway System. a network of roads important to the country's defense, economy and mobility. ## History In 1929, the first stretch of M-115 was designated from Frankfort to Benzonia. Beginning in the mid-1930s, construction of M-115 began from central to northwestern Lower Michigan. In 1936, an earthen highway was opened between the south side of Cadillac to M-66, with additional sections west of Mesick and northwest of US 10. By the end of the year, the state was paving the earthen section, completed a gravel highway near Mesick and opened an earthen section in Clare County. The section from Copemish to northwest of Mesick was opened as an earthen highway the next year. Construction started in early 1938 to connect Benzonia to Copemish, and before the year was out, the Michigan State Highway Department started work to fill in the gap between M-66 and the highway north of US 10 in Clare County. These two sections were completed as earth-graded highway in 1939. Both discontinuous sections were fully paved by 1945. In 1953, a county road was built along the path of the future M-115 between Mesick and Cadillac. This road was designated as a state highway by 1957, with a connection along Boon Road north of Cadillac and a concurrency along US 131 to close the gap in 1957. The Boon Road segment was removed the next year when the routing near Lake Mitchell opened. The southern end of M-115 was truncated slightly when the US 10 freeway bypass of Clare was opened in 1975. M-115 has since been rerouted in 1989 along the two-lane Old US 10 from its original southeastern ending point near the US 10 overpass through Farwell to Clare. A roundabout was built for the intersection with northbound M-37 east of Mesick and was opened in September 2013. ## Major intersections ## See also
51,838,558	Iga Świątek	1,173,904,033	Polish tennis player (born 2001)	[ "2001 births", "French Open champions", "French Open junior champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' doubles", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles", "ITF World Champions", "Iga Świątek", "Living people", "Olympic tennis players for Poland", "Polish female tennis players", "Tennis players at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics", "Tennis players at the 2020 Summer Olympics", "Tennis players from Warsaw", "US Open (tennis) champions", "WTA number 1 ranked singles tennis players", "Wimbledon junior champions", "Youth Olympic gold medalists for Poland" ]	Iga Natalia Świątek (; born 31 May 2001) is a Polish professional tennis player. She is ranked as the world No. 1 in women's singles by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA). Świątek is a four-time major singles champion, having won the French Open in 2020, 2022, and 2023 and the US Open in 2022. She is the first player representing Poland to win a major singles title. She has won a total of 15 WTA Tour–level titles. Świątek's father, Tomasz, is a retired Olympic rower. As a junior, Świątek was the 2018 French Open girls' doubles champion alongside Caty McNally and the 2018 Wimbledon girls' singles champion. Świątek began playing regularly on the WTA Tour in 2019, and entered the top 50 at 18 years old after her first Tour final and a fourth-round appearance at the 2019 French Open. During her French Open title run in 2020, Świątek did not lose more than five games in any singles match. She entered the top ten of the WTA rankings for the first time in May 2021 after winning the Italian Open. Following back-to-back WTA 1000 titles in 2022 at Qatar and Indian Wells, Świątek reached a career-high ranking of No. 2. After the retirement of world No. 1 Ashleigh Barty, she became the first Polish player, male or female, to reach the top ranking in singles, on 4 April 2022. She also won another WTA 1000 title in Miami, becoming the fourth woman to win the Sunshine Double. During this time, Świątek accumulated a 37-match winning streak, the longest on the WTA Tour in the 21st century. Świątek has an all-court playing style. She won the WTA Fan Favorite Shot of the Year in 2019 with a drop shot from the baseline, and was voted WTA Fan Favorite Singles Player of the Year in 2020. In 2023, she was named the L'Équipe Champion of Champions and Polish Sports Personality of the Year and included on Time's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. ## Early life and background Iga Świątek was born on 31 May 2001 in Warsaw to Dorota and Tomasz Świątek. Her father is a former rower who competed in the men's quadruple sculls event at the 1988 Seoul Olympics. Her mother is an orthodontist. She has a sister, Agata, who is about three years older and is a dentist. Świątek's father wanted his daughters to become competitive athletes and preferred they take up an individual sport rather than a team sport to have better control of their chances of success. Agata initially started out as a swimmer but switched to tennis after she had issues with swimming. Iga followed her sister into tennis because she wanted to beat her and also because she wanted to be more like her. Agata briefly competed on the ITF Junior Circuit in 2013 at about 15 years old, but stopped playing due to injury troubles. Iga trained at Mera Warsaw as a 14-year-old before later moving to Legia Warsaw. ## Junior career Świątek reached a career-high ranking of No. 5 as a junior. She began competing in ITF Junior Circuit events in 2015 and won back-to-back low-level Grade 4 titles in April and May at age 13. Before the end of the year, she moved up to Grade 2 events and finished runner-up in both singles and doubles at the Czech Junior Open. Świątek made her junior Grand Slam debut in 2016 at the French Open, reaching the quarterfinals in both singles and doubles. She followed this up with her best junior title to date at the Grade 1 Canadian Open Junior Championships, defeating Olga Danilović in the final. Świątek had a strong first half of 2017. She won both the singles and doubles titles at the Grade 1 Traralgon Junior International. Although she lost her opening round match at the Australian Open, she partnered with compatriot Maja Chwalińska to make her first final in a Grand Slam event, finishing runner-up in doubles to the North American team of Bianca Andreescu and Carson Branstine. She then reached her first Grade A singles final at the Trofeo Bonfiglio, losing to Elena Rybakina. Her season came to an end after another quarterfinal at the French Open, after which she had right ankle surgery that kept her out for seven months. Despite only competing in two Grand Slam tournaments in 2018 and three singles events in total, Świątek finished her junior career with her best season. She returned to the junior tour at the French Open after a one-year absence and reached the semifinals in singles, losing to Caty McNally. She fared better in doubles, partnering with McNally to win her first junior Grand Slam title. They defeated the Japanese team of Yuki Naito and Naho Sato in the final. Świątek played only singles at Wimbledon. As an unseeded player due to her absence, she was drawn against top seed Whitney Osuigwe in the first round. After winning that match in three sets, she did not drop another set during the rest of the tournament and won the championship for her only junior Grand Slam singles title. She defeated Leonie Küng in the final. Świątek then teamed up with the Slovenian Kaja Juvan to compete in the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics. They reached the final and defeated the Japanese team of Yuki Naito and Naho Sato. She then finished her junior career. ## Professional career ### 2016–18: Undefeated in seven ITF finals Świątek began competing on the ITF Women's Circuit in 2016 and played on the circuit through the end of 2018. She won all seven ITF singles finals she reached, ranging from the first four at the \$10K to \$15K level to one at the \$25k level followed up by two at the \$60K level. Her first three titles came at 15 years old. The fourth was in February 2018 in her first tournament back from a seven-month layoff due to injury. After a \$25k title in April, Świątek moved up to higher-level ITF events later that month. Following her junior Wimbledon title in July, she skipped the junior US Open to stay in Europe. During the two weeks of the US Open, she won back-to-back \$60k titles at the NEK Ladies Open in Hungary and the Montreux Ladies Open in Switzerland. During the second event, she defeated top seed and world No. 120 Mariana Duque-Mariño. These were Świątek's last two ITF tournaments of the year. With these two titles, Świątek entered the top 200 for the first time at the age of 17, rising from No. 298 to No. 180 in those two weeks. ### 2019: First WTA final, top 50 debut Despite never playing on the WTA Tour before 2019, Świątek was able to compete in only tour-level events throughout the year. After failing to qualify at the Auckland Open, she qualified for her first major main draw at the Australian Open. She then defeated No. 82 Ana Bogdan, in three sets, in her debut match to reach the second round. At her next three tournaments, she also qualified at the Hungarian Ladies Open, but not either of the Premier Mandatory events in March. Świątek made her first WTA breakthrough at the Ladies Open Lugano in April. With her first direct acceptance into a main draw, she made her first WTA final. During the event, she upset No. 3 seed Viktória Kužmová in the second round for her first top 50 victory. She ultimately finished runner-up to Polona Hercog in three sets. Moreover, a precise cross-court forehand drop shot she hit against Kristýna Plíšková in the semifinal was voted the 2019 WTA Shot of the Year. With the runner-up, she also made her debut in the top 100 while still 17 years old. Świątek closed out her clay court season with a fourth round appearance at the French Open in her second major. She upset No. 16 Wang Qiang in the second round for her first top 20 victory before losing to defending champion Simona Halep. Świątek could not repeat her French Open success at the remaining Grand Slam events of the year, losing her opening match at Wimbledon and in the second round at the US Open. Her best result in the second half of the season was a third round appearance at the Canadian Open. During the event, she upset No. 18, Caroline Wozniacki, before losing to No. 2, Naomi Osaka. With this result, she entered the top 50 for the first time a week later. She missed the rest of the season after the US Open to undergo foot surgery and finished the year at No. 61 in the world. ### 2020: First French Open title, top 20 debut Świątek made her return to the WTA Tour at the Australian Open. She matched her best result at a Grand Slam tournament with another fourth-round appearance, this time highlighted by a victory over No. 20, Donna Vekić. She defeated Vekić again at the Qatar Open, her last match win before the WTA Tour was shut down for six months due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Świątek continued her Grand Slam success once the tour resumed. She reached the third round at the US Open, losing to eventual runner-up Victoria Azarenka. Entering the rescheduled French Open in September, Świątek was ranked No. 54 in the world. Nonetheless, she won the singles event for her maiden WTA title. During the tournament, she defeated 2019 runner-up and world No. 19, Markéta Vondroušová, in the opening round. Her biggest upset was a victory in the fourth round over top seed and world No. 2, Simona Halep, who was on a 17-match win streak and was also the heavy favourite to win the title. She only lost three games against Halep after winning just one game against her in the same round of the French Open the previous year. Świątek defeated world No. 6, Sofia Kenin, in the final to become the first Polish player to win a Grand Slam singles title and the lowest-ranked French Open champion in the history of the WTA rankings. She also became the youngest singles champion at the tournament since Rafael Nadal in 2005 and the youngest women's singles winner since Monica Seles in 1992. She won the title without dropping a set or more than five games to any opponent, and the 28 games she lost in total were tied for the second-fewest among French Open singles champions in the Open Era behind only the 20 games Steffi Graf lost in 1988. With the title, Świątek rose to No. 17 in the world. She also played the doubles event, partnering with Nicole Melichar for the first time. The pair reached the semifinals, and also did not drop a set until their last match. ### 2021: WTA 1000 title, French Open doubles final, top 10 debut At the Australian Open, Świątek was seeded 15th and recorded wins over Arantxa Rus, Camila Giorgi and Fiona Ferro. She reached the fourth round where she lost to Simona Halep, in three sets. At Adelaide, she won her first WTA Tour title without dropping a set in the whole tournament. She defeated Belinda Bencic in the final, in straight sets. As a result, she entered the top 15 for the first time in her career, in March 2021. Seeded 15th, Świątek won her first career WTA 1000-title at the Italian Open, defeating former champion Karolína Plíšková in just 46 minutes without the loss of a single game. She advanced to the final after defeating two-time champion and world No. 5, Elina Svitolina, and the second best-ranked teenager Coco Gauff on the same day, as well as saving match points in her third-round match against Barbora Krejčíková. Świątek became the third player to win a title after saving match point en route in 2021, alongside Naomi Osaka at the Australian Open and Ashleigh Barty in Miami. She also became the fourth teenager to win a WTA 1000 event. This successful run to her third career title moved her into the top 10 in the singles rankings on 17 May 2021, as world No. 9. At the French Open, Świątek was seeded at No. 8. She opened her title defense winning against Kaja Juvan in the first round, and then defeated Rebecca Peterson, Anett Kontaveit and Marta Kostyuk. She won 22 straight sets at the French Open but then lost in the quarterfinals to Maria Sakkari. In doubles, seeded 14th with Bethanie Mattek-Sands as a pair, playing just their third event together, they reached the final where they were defeated by Barbora Krejčíková and Kateřina Siniaková in straight sets. As a result, Świątek reached the top 50 at a career-high ranking of No. 42 in doubles for the first time in her career. She started her grass-court season at the Eastbourne International where she was seeded at No. 4. After defeating Heather Watson, she lost to Daria Kasatkina in the second round. As the seventh seed at Wimbledon, Świątek defeated Hsieh Su-wei, Vera Zvonareva, and Irina-Camelia Begu, all in straight sets. In the fourth round, she lost to Ons Jabeur, in three sets. With her win over Anett Kontaveit in the third round of the US Open, she became the only player to have reached the second week of all four Grand Slam championships in the 2021 season. She qualified for the WTA Finals for the first time in her career. ### 2022: World No. 1 ranking, two major titles, 37-match winning streak Świątek started her season by reaching the semifinals at the Adelaide International. She then reached another semi-finals at the Australian Open. Following a second-round match loss against Jeļena Ostapenko, Świątek won the next six tournaments she entered — Qatar Open, Indian Wells Open, Miami Open, Stuttgart Open, Italian Open and, for her second Major title, French Open — before losing to Alizé Cornet at Wimbledon in the third round. Świątek reached the world No. 1 singles ranking, and became the fourth as well as the youngest woman (11th player overall) to complete the Sunshine Double in the process. She also accumulated a 37-match win streak, the longest in the 21st century. Świątek had a lacklustre performance throughout the summer. She lost to Caroline Garcia in the quarterfinals in Warsaw, Beatriz Haddad Maia in the third round in Toronto and Madison Keys in the third round in Cincinnati. However, she returned on form at the US Open, winning her third major by defeating Ons Jabeur in the final. Świątek reached the final at the Ostrava Open, but she lost to Barbora Krejčíková in a three-set match that lasted 3 hours and 16 minutes, the longest match of her career so far. She subsequently played at the San Diego Open, winning her eighth title by defeating Donna Vekić in three sets. At the 2022 WTA Finals held in Fort Worth, Texas, Świątek won the group stage without dropping a set, defeating Daria Kasatkina, Caroline Garcia and Coco Gauff respectively. However, she was upset by Aryna Sabalenka in the semifinals in three sets. Nevertheless, she finished the season as year-end no.1 and posted a record win-loss 67–9 in 2022, the most wins in a single season since Serena Williams in 2013. She also became the first player since Serena Williams in 2013 to collect over 11,000 ranking points in a single season. ### 2023: Third French Open title, first Wimbledon quarterfinal Świątek started 2023 as only the fourth woman in WTA history to be ranked world No. 1 for 40 or more consecutive weeks in their first stint as the top-ranked player. In her first tournament of the year representing Poland at the United Cup in Brisbane, Świątek defeated Yulia Putintseva, Belinda Bencic and Martina Trevisan on the way to the semifinals where she lost to Jessica Pegula in straight sets. At the 2023 Australian Open, the top seeded Świątek reached the fourth round after winning against Jule Niemeier, Camila Osorio and Cristina Bucșa. In the fourth round she was defeated by reigning Wimbledon champion Elena Rybakina in straight sets. In February 2023, Świątek successfully defended her title at the WTA 500 Qatar Open. She defeated Jessica Pegula in the final in straight sets. This was her first title of the year and the twelfth of her career. She did not drop a set throughout the tournament and only lost five games. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, she defeated Leylah Fernandez, 14th seed Liudmila Samsonova, Karolina Pliskova (by walkover) and fifth seed Coco Gauff, all matches in straight sets with only nine games lost, to reach the final. She lost to Barbora Krejčíková in straight sets, ending her six match winning streak. On 13 March she reached her 50th consecutive week at world No. 1. At the Indian Wells Open she defeated Bianca Andreescu and Emma Raducanu in rounds three and four, both in straight sets. However, she lost once again to Elena Rybakina in the semifinals, preventing Świątek from defending her Indian Wells title. Due to a rib injury suffered during the Indian Wells event, Świątek withdrew from the 2023 Miami Open, which also prevented her from defending her Miami Open title. At the Stuttgart Open in April, Świątek entered the tournament as the defending champion. She reached her third WTA final of the season by defeating Zheng Qinwen, Karolína Plíšková and Ons Jabeur (retired). In the final, she defeated world No. 2 Aryna Sabalenka in straight sets in claiming her 13th career singles title. At the 2023 Mutua Madrid Open she reached the quarterfinals for the first time at this tournament defeating 16th seed Ekaterina Alexandrova. In the finals, she lost to Aryna Sabalenka in a rematch of the 2023 Stuttgart Open. In May, Świątek entered the Italian Open as the defending champion. In the second round, she doubled-bageled Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova before defeating Lesia Tsurenko and Donna Vekić in the following rounds. In the quarterfinals, she faced Elena Rybakina and was forced to retire in the third set after sustaining a right thigh injury. At the French Open, Świątek reached her fourth Major final without dropping a set. She won her third French Open and fourth Major title overall, defeating Karolína Muchová in three sets in the final. She also became the first woman to defend the title since Justine Henin in 2007. At the Wimbledon, Świątek reached her first ever quarterfinal at the tournament after eliminating Zhu Lin, Sara Sorribes Tormo, Petra Martić and Belinda Bencic. In the quarterfinal, she lost to Elina Svitolina in three sets, which ended her 14-match win streak. In July, Swiatek competed in the 2023 WTA Poland Open and reached the final after achieving victories over Nigina Abduraimova, Claire Liu, Linda Nosková and Yanina Wickmayer. In the final, she defeated Laura Siegemund claiming her first WTA 250 title and 15th overall. In preparation for the National Bank Open, Świątek was seen practicing with her mouth taped shut. She explained that this was a breathing exercise she did to improve endurance. She reached the semifinals at the event losing to Jessica Pegula in three sets. At the Western & Southern Open, Świątek defeated Danielle Collins, Zheng Qinwen, and the reigning Wimbledon champion Markéta Vondroušová before being upset for the first time by Coco Gauff in the semifinals. At the US Open, Świątek began her title defense with convincing victories in the first three rounds. However, in the fourth round she was upset by 20th seed Jeļena Ostapenko in three sets, and consequently ceded the world No. 1 ranking to Aryna Sabalenka, ending her 75-week streak in the top position. ## National representation ### Junior competitions Świątek represented Poland at the ITF World Junior Tennis Finals for 14-and-under girls twice in 2014 and 2015. She won all of her matches in 2014 to lead Poland to a ninth-place finish out of 16 teams. The following year, she helped Poland go undefeated in the round robin stage to reach the semifinals. Świątek moved up to the 16-and-under Junior Fed Cup in 2016, where she played alongside Maja Chwalińska and Stefania Rogozińska-Dzik. Poland won the title, defeating the United States 2–1 in the final. Świątek won both of her rubbers in the final tie, defeating Amanda Anisimova in singles before partnering with Chwalińska to defeat Caty McNally and Claire Liu in the decisive doubles rubber. The last event of Świątek's junior career was the 2018 Summer Youth Olympic Games. Although she lost in the quarterfinals in singles to Clara Burel, she partnered with Slovenian Kaja Juvan to win the gold medal in doubles. In the final they defeated Naito and Sato, who were also Świątek's opponents in the French Open doubles final earlier in the year. ### Billie Jean King Cup Świątek made her senior Billie Jean King Cup debut in 2018 when Poland was in Europe/Africa Zone Group I. To advance out of this group, Poland needed to win their round-robin group, a play-off tie against one of the other round robin group winners, and then another play-off tie as part of the separate World Group II Play-off round. They did not win their round-robin group in 2018 or 2019. Świątek won her only singles match in 2018. While she only won one of her three singles matches in 2019, she won both of her doubles rubbers while partnering with Alicja Rosolska. The following year, the format was changed so that Poland only needed to finish in the top two out of three teams in their round-robin group to reach the promotional play-off. Nonetheless, they won their group and defeated Sweden 2–0 in the play-off to advance to the separate Play-off round. Świątek won all three of her singles matches in the 2020 Europe/Africa Zone Group I round, before skipping the Play-offs themselves. The following edition in 2022 had Poland facing Romania in the qualifying round, with Świątek winning her two games to help the team move on to the Finals. However, she did not attend the finals because the decisive round started very soon after the 2022 WTA Finals. The rib injury Świątek encountered shortly after exiting the 2023 Indian Wells Open also caused her to miss Poland's 2023 Billie Jean King cup qualifier against Kazakhstan in Astana. Overall, Świątek has a 9–3 record at the Fed Cup, comprising 7–2 in singles and 2–1 in doubles. ## Rivalries ### Świątek vs. Sabalenka As of June 2023, Świątek and Aryna Sabalenka have met 8 times with Świątek leading the head-to-head 5–3. Świątek leads 3-1 on clay, with 2-2 tie on hard courts. ### Świątek vs. Gauff As of August 2023, Świątek and Coco Gauff have met 8 times with Świątek leading the head-to-head 7-1. In the quarterfinal of the 2023 French Open Świątek defeated Gauff in straight sets. ### Świątek vs. Rybakina As of June 2023, Świątek trails 1-3 in the head-to-head against Elena Rybakina. ### Świątek vs. Ostapenko As of September 2023, Świątek and Jelena Ostapenko have met 4 times with Ostapenko leading the head-to-head 4-0. As the defending champion at the 2023 US Open (tennis) Świątek was defeated by Ostapenko in the fourth round, ending her reign of 75 consecutive weeks as the number 1 ranked player. ## Playing style Świątek has an aggressive, all-court style of play and incorporates a lot of variety into her game. Because her game style is focused on offence, she typically generates high amounts of both winners and unforced errors. She has described her style of play on clay as "a big serve, topspin, and backhand down the line". Despite her aggressive style of play, she plays with margin, and constructs points carefully until she creates an opportunity to hit a winner, and in all seven of her matches played at the 2020 French Open, she hit more winners than unforced errors. In total at the French Open that year, she hit 175 winners to 127 unforced errors. The basis of Świątek's game was described by tennis journalist Christopher Clarey for The New York Times as: her sliding ability, allowing her to defend from the corners à la Kim Clijsters and Novak Djokovic, a "sprinter's speed" when moving forward to the net, power and topspin akin to her idol Rafael Nadal, and mental strength forged through sports psychology. Her forehand and backhand are fast and powerful, with her forehand being hit with significant topspin due to her employing an extreme western grip; on her run to the title at the French Open in 2020, Świątek's average forehand speed was 73 mph (117 km/h), only 4 km/h below that of the average male forehand speed. She even hit some forehands up to 79 mph (127 km/h), the fastest of any female player in the draw and exceeded only by Jannik Sinner on the men's side. Her forehand topspin reached 3,453 rpm at the French Open, comparable with her idol Rafael Nadal. Świątek's backhand speed peaked at 76 mph (122 km/h) at the French Open, the fastest of any female player in the draw, and equal to Dominic Thiem's backhand speed, the fastest of any male player at the French Open. Świątek aims to come to the net, and has good volleying skills due to her doubles experience. Świątek possesses an accurate first serve, peaking at 114 mph (183 km/h), and averaging at 103 mph (166 km/h), allowing her to serve aces, dictate play from the first stroke, and win a majority of first-serve points. She possesses an effective kick serve, and an effective slice serve, which are deployed as second serves, preventing opponents from scoring free points. She also regularly uses the drop shot, and won the 2019 WTA Shot of the Year with a cross-court drop shot from the baseline that landed on the sideline well inside the service box. Świątek aims to gain the advantage in a point by hitting the ball early on the rise. Further strengths include her exceptional speed, movement, and court coverage, detailed and intricate footwork, and intelligent point construction. Her favourite surface is clay, having grown up playing on that surface, although she has had success on all surfaces. Her clay court success is enhanced by her ability to slide on the surface; as her career has progressed, she has also developed the ability to slide on hard and grass courts, too. Świątek is a very popular player on the WTA Tour. She finished runner-up to Simona Halep in the voting for the WTA Fan Favorite Singles Player of the Year award in 2019. In 2020, she was voted the WTA Fan Favorite Singles Player of the Year. ## Coaching team Świątek's primary coach in her early junior years was Michał Kaznowski, who she worked with up to the 2016 French Open. Jolanta Rusin-Krzepota was her physical preparation trainer for almost four years through the end of the 2019 US Open. Świątek was coached by Piotr Sierzputowski beginning in 2016. While Sierzputowski was her coach, British former professional tennis player and former Polish Davis Cup coach Nick Brown also served as a main consultant on occasion. Świątek also works with sports psychologist Daria Abramowicz and fitness trainer/physiologist Maciej Ryszczuk. In December 2021, Świątek announced that she was splitting from Sierzputowski after nearly six years working together. She wrote, "This change is really challenging for me, and this decision wasn't easy, either". Świątek had hired Sierzputowski when she was 15 and still playing in junior tournaments. Her current coach is Tomasz Wiktorowski, who previously coached Agnieszka Radwańska. ## Endorsements Świątek is now sponsored by the Roger Federer-backed Swiss company On for clothing and shoes, as of March 20, 2023, and became the first female tennis player to be sponsored by On. She had been sponsored by Asics for clothing and shoes since the start of 2020. She was previously sponsored by Nike. Świątek was also previously endorsed by the Red Bull energy drink company, the Chinese tech giant Xiaomi and the Lexus division of the Toyota automaker company, the latter of which have also sponsored fellow Polish tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska. In 2021, Świątek signed an endorsement deal with Tecnifibre for racquets; she previously used a Prince Textreme 100 Tour racquet, although she was not under contract with the company. To celebrate the victory at the 2022 French Open with a Tecnifibre racquet and to recognise the female athlete, the company changed its marketing name to Swiateknifibre and its trademark to the colours white and red for seven days. It was the first women's Grand Slam title for this manufacturer. Świątek's father also confirmed that she had also signed a contract with Rolex in 2021. Since February 2021, her main partner is Poland's biggest insurance company PZU. After winning her third Grand Slam title at the 2022 US Open, Świątek parted ways with her long-term manager, and began to be represented by IMG. In 2023, Świątek announced that she has become a global ambassador for the Polish sports drink Oshee. She will also release collaboration line with the brand, including her own drink flavour and bottle design. On 26th of June 2023, Swiatek has announced her partnership with Porsche. In August, Swiatek has been announced as a global ambassador of VISA. On 25th of August, Infosys has announced Swiatek as their global brand ambassador alongside Rafael Nadal. ## Charity work and philanthropy Since 2021 Świątek has been involved with The Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity. She has put up her winning racket from the final of her first French Open, the racket ended up getting sold with the price of 131,300 zł, which outpriced the signed Champions League winning kit of Robert Lewandowski, money helped to fund new equipment for pediatric ENT, otolaryngology and head diagnostics. In 2022, while playing at the Australian Open, she put up another racket, this time from final of Italian Open, but this time the offer also included training with the buyer. Besides the racket Świątek also put her signed Tokyo Olympics 2020 kit, her signature cap and multiple tennis balls with autographs up for auction. Offer yet again was met with a lot of interest and in the end was sold for 189,100 zł, which was the second best seller. Money would help to fund equipment for pediatric ophthalmology. In 2023, Świątek has put up her winning racket with which she won both US Open and French Open in 2022, besides the racket she also included double invitation to her first round match in Roland Garros 2023 and an opportunity to meet her in person behind the scenes after the match. The pass would also allow the winners of the auction to watch all matches on the said day for free. All proceeds would go to funding the medication for sepsis. Świątek's offer was auctioned for 300,300 zł, making it the most expensive auction. Świątek and her team have also been taking part in the Noble Gift project since 2020. It helps to provide families, which have found themselves in difficult financial circumstances for reasons beyond their control during the Christmas period. Świątek also took part in auction for SOS Children's Villages- Poland, putting up her autographed cap from Miami Open. In one of interviews the teacher from Świątek's elementary school in Raszyn revealed that after winning her second French Open title, she pledged to help upgrade the school's sports facilities, among which was a single tennis court. She also donated the shirt she wore in the final, tennis balls and her cap to the school, all signed for auction to raise money for one of the students who needed urgent and expensive medical treatment. In November 2021, Świątek was announced in line-up for Africa Cares Tennis Challenge tennis exhibition in Johannesburg, which was aimed to not only promote tennis in South Africa but was to be used as a vehicle in the fight against Gender-Based Violence through campaigns and activations leading up to the main event. Other players in the line-up included Simona Halep, Venus Williams, Sloane Stephens and Martina Hingis. On 30 November it was announced event was cancelled due to concerns regarding growing amount of cases of Covid-19 infections. ### Advocating for mental health awareness On 10 October 2021, Świątek donated \$50,000 of her prize money in support of World Mental Health Day, after progressing to the last 16 of the BNP Paribas Open at Indian Wells. "I would say in sports, for me, it was always important to use that kind of help because I always thought that in my mental toughness there is some strength that I can use on court and I can also develop in that manner," she said. After winning in at the French Open in 2020, Świątek revealed that using her sports psychologist, Daria Abramowicz, had helped her get over the line. "It's just good to stay open-minded. If you need that kind of help, then go for it. If you're up to it and if you're open-minded, I think it helps a lot," Świątek added. In her runner-up speech after losing the final to Barbora Krejčíková on AGEL's Ostrava Open on 9 October 2022, Świątek announced she will donate all of her prize money (€58,032) won in the tournament to Polish non-profit organizations and foundations to celebrate World Mental Health Day. "This is the most difficult moment of this tournament for me. I do not know what to say. Thank you so much. Whether I win or not, I am fulfilling my dreams, and you with me. I wish I won cause I would be able to donate more but I would like to announce that I will donate my prize money to non-profit organisations in Poland on Monday, which is World Mental Health Day. I hope this money can help a lot of people and make some change". ### Support of Ukraine Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Świątek has often worn ribbons or other accessories in Ukrainian colors, and on several occasions has publicly declared her support for Ukraine in her winner speeches. On 23 July 2022, Świątek hosted a charity tennis event in Kraków, Poland to raise funds for children and teenagers impacted by the war in Ukraine. The one-day event featured a mixed doubles exhibition match and a set of singles between Świątek and Agnieszka Radwańska. Ukraine football great Andriy Shevchenko was a special guest. Elina Svitolina of Ukraine served as umpire for the event. Świątek stated, "I hope that we can see each other in large numbers in TAURON Arena Krakow and in front of the television to show the strength of sport when it unites us in helping and gives us at least a little joy." Świątek later announced on Twitter that the event has raised over 2,5 mln złoty (over €500,000), which would be spread between United 24, Elina Svitolina Foundation and UNICEF Poland. On 10 August, Świątek has been announced as the part of line up for "Tennis Plays for Peace" exhibition, which took place on 24 August with other numerous current and former tennis stars like Rafael Nadal, Carlos Alcaraz, Coco Gauff, John McEnroe, Stefanos Tsitsipas, Matteo Berrettini, Maria Sakkari and many others, 100% of the proceeds going to GlobalGiving, the international non-profit identified by Tennis Plays for Peace. On 9 January 2023, Świątek took to Twitter and Instagram to announce that her 'Iga & Friends' and '1ga' T-shirts will be available for sale at Allegro Charity, where she and UNICEF Poland have once again joined forces to raise funds for children in war-torn Ukraine. On 11 January, Świątek once again announced on her social media platforms that she will be auctioning off her US Open winning gear and French Open shoes, among others all proceeds would also be going straight to UNICEF. ## Personal life Świątek is a cat lover and owns a black female cat named Grappa. She enjoys reading novels and listening to music. Before her matches, she listens to rock music, especially Pearl Jam, Pink Floyd, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and AC/DC. In her spare time, she listens to alternative music, jazz, soul and pop. She is also a fan of Taylor Swift. In an interview with Tennis Channel, she described Mikaela Shiffrin as a good role model and said she "really respects" her. She also mentioned being a fan of actress Sandra Bullock and her films. Besides being a successful sportswoman, Świątek was always known as an excellent and diligent student in primary and high-school. Despite her tour schedules she always studied during the tournaments before coming back to school in person to pass the tests. Świątek before her success at the French Open in 2020 had finished her high school with excellent results in her high-school leaving examination, better known as Egzamin Maturalny, with 83% for Polish at basic level, 100% for English at basic level, 96% for Advanced English and 100% for Mathematics. She also admitted that she would like to go to university and study something related to mathematics later in life. Świątek is a known book lover on the WTA tour, and brings books to each tournament. For example, she read Murder on the Orient Express at the 2022 French Open and Gone with the Wind at the 2021 US Open. She openly admits that books help her concentrate on tournaments and help her to not use her phone "for longer than needed". ## Career statistics and records ### Grand Slam tournament performance timelines #### Singles #### Doubles ### Grand Slam tournament finals #### Singles: 4 (4 titles) #### Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up) ### Records - Only played three matches. ## Awards 2019 - WTA Fan Favorite Shot of the Year 2020 - WTA Most Improved Player - WTA Fan Favorite Singles Player - Gold Cross of Merit - European Sportswoman of the Year – Evgen Bergant Trophy 2022 - Chris Evert WTA World No.1 Trophy - WTA Player of the Year - ITF World Champion - WTA Fan Favourite Shot of the Year - European Sportsperson of the Year 2023 - Polish Sports Personality of the Year - L'Équipe Champion of Champions ### Mentions
8,051,732	New York State Route 144	1,134,870,832	State highway in New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Albany County, New York", "Transportation in Greene County, New York" ]	New York State Route 144 (NY 144) is a state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States. The highway runs for 14.74 miles (23.72 km) as a two-lane road from an intersection with U.S. Route 9W (US 9W) in the Greene County town of New Baltimore to a junction with NY 32 in the town of Bethlehem just south of the Albany city limits. NY 144 closely parallels the New York State Thruway (Interstate 87 or I-87) and the west bank of the Hudson River as it heads across Albany County. The Thruway and NY 144 connect at exit 22 about 6 miles (9.7 km) south of Albany in Bethlehem. NY 144 was originally designated as part of NY 10 in the mid-1920s and as part of US 9W from the late 1920s to the mid-1930s. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, NY 144 was assigned to what is now US 9W between New Baltimore and Albany. The alignments of US 9W and NY 144 were flipped in the mid-1930s, placing the latter on a routing that extended north from Bethlehem to downtown Albany. NY 144 was truncated to its present length in the late 1960s. ## Route description NY 144 begins at an intersection with US 9W in the town of New Baltimore, just north of US 9W's junction with County Route 51 (CR 51). The route heads northeastward through New Baltimore as a two-lane rural roadway, crossing CSX Transportation's West Shore Line before intersecting with a service road that connects to the New Baltimore Travel Plaza on the New York State Thruway (I-87). Not far from the junction, NY 144 passes by a stretch of homes alongside the Thruway and crosses over the toll road, at which point the road enters a residential but wooded area of the town. This stretch leads to the hamlet of New Baltimore, located on the west bank of the Hudson River. In the residential center of the community, NY 144 intersects with the northern terminus of CR 61 (River Road). At this junction, NY 144 makes a turn northward, following the riverbank out of the hamlet. Continuing northward, NY 144 heads through gradually less developed areas as it crosses the Greene–Albany county line and enters the town of Coeymans. It crosses Hannacrois Creek just north of the county line on its way into the nearby hamlet of Coeymans, where the route becomes known as Main Street. NY 144 runs north–south through the small residential community, intersecting with the eastern terminus of NY 143 (Church Street) and passing over Coeymans Creek before exiting the area and becoming River Road. Outside of Coeymans, NY 144 heads northward along a strip of land bounded by Coeymans Creek to the west and the Hudson River to the east. It serves a large industrial complex and passes under a long pipeline connection in an otherwise undeveloped and wooded area before trending to the northwest toward the nearby New York State Thruway. NY 144 comes within 50 feet (15 m) of the Thruway's northbound lanes before turning back to the northeast. The two highways remain close for the next 3.5 miles (5.6 km), with both roads continuing to traverse wooded areas of the town of Coeymans. NY 144 serves a handful of isolated housing tracts before passing over a railroad line and under the Berkshire Connector of the Thruway, which terminates just west of the overpass at Thruway exit 21A. Past the connector, the amount of development along NY 144 slowly increases as the highway crosses into the town of Bethlehem. Here, the route intersects the eastern terminus of NY 396 (Maple Avenue) just east of Selkirk and finally connects to the Thruway at the toll road's exit 22, located just north of the NY 396 junction. After the Thruway exit, the freeway heads off to the north while NY 144 takes a slightly northeasterly track toward Cedar Hill and Wemple, two small riverside hamlets about 2 miles (3.2 km) apart on opposite sides of Vioman Kill. North of Wemple, the sporadic residences along the highway are replaced by a string of tank farms serving barges on the Hudson River. The industrial surroundings follow NY 144 into the hamlet of Glenmont, centered on the route's junction with Glenmont Road. Here, NY 144 crosses over another set of railroad tracks before heading northeastward from the community toward Normans Kill. The route runs alongside the Hudson River tributary and another set of tank farms to an intersection with NY 32 (Corning Hill Road) near the Port of Albany–Rensselaer, where the NY 144 designation terminates. NY 32 continues northward from this point on NY 144's right-of-way, becoming South Pearl Street and immediately crossing Normans Kill to enter the city of Albany. ## History The first piece of NY 144 brought into the state highway system began with the portion of NY 144 between Selkirk and Greene County line as SH 508. A 4.77 miles (7.68 km) long stretch of highway, SH 508 was to cost \$41,000 (1907 USD) to reconstruct to state standards. The contract was let on September 5, 1907 to the Elmore and Hamilton Contracting Company to put new limestone on the top course of the new roadway and approved stones for the bottom. Work commenced in June 1908 and was completed three months later. Most of modern NY 144 was originally designated as part of NY 10 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924. NY 10 joined what is now NY 144 at Coeymans and followed it north through Bethlehem to Albany, where NY 10 continued into the city on modern NY 32. When U.S. Highways were first posted in New York in 1927, all of NY 10 south of Albany became part of US 9W. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, US 9W was realigned through the towns of New Baltimore and Coeymans to use modern NY 144 instead. At the same time, the portion of what is now US 9W from New Baltimore to Albany was designated as NY 144. The alignments of US 9W and NY 144 north of New Baltimore were flipped in April 1935. Initially, NY 144 entered Albany, overlapping with NY 32 along South Pearl Street to US 20 in the downtown district. It was truncated to its current northern terminus south of Albany in the late 1960s. ## Major intersections ## See also
21,055,029	Rachel Homan	1,172,532,805	Canadian curler	[ "1989 births", "Canada Cup (curling) participants", "Canadian schoolteachers", "Canadian women curlers", "Canadian women's curling champions", "Continental Cup of Curling participants", "Curlers at the 2018 Winter Olympics", "Curlers at the 2022 Winter Olympics", "Curlers from Ottawa", "Living people", "Olympic curlers for Canada", "People from Edmonton Metropolitan Region", "People from the County of St. Paul No. 19", "University of Alberta alumni", "University of Ottawa alumni", "World curling champions" ]	Rachel Catherine Homan (born April 5, 1989) is a Canadian international curler. Homan is a former Canadian junior champion, a three-time Canadian national champion, and the 2017 world champion, all as a skip. She was also the skip of the Canadian women's curling team at the 2018 Winter Olympics. During her junior career, Homan competed in two Canadian Junior Curling Championships, placing second in 2009 and winning the championship in 2010. She also won a silver medal at the 2010 World Junior Curling Championships. Throughout her women's career, Homan has medalled at the Scotties Tournament of Hearts, the Canadian women's national curling championships, seven times, winning gold three times (2013, 2014, and 2017), silver three times (2019, 2020, and 2021), and bronze once (2015). She has competed in three World Women's Curling Championships, winning gold in 2017, silver in 2014, and bronze in 2013. She has also competed in two Canadian Olympic Curling Trials, finishing in third place in 2013 and winning in 2017. At the 2018 Winter Olympics, her team finished in sixth place. In 2019, Homan was named the fourth-greatest Canadian female curler in history by The Sports Network (TSN). ## Career ### Bantam and junior (2003–2010) Homan began curling at the age of five, playing in the Little Rock program at the Rideau Curling Club in Ottawa. While bantam-aged (under 16), she won four straight provincial championships from 2003 to 2006, while no other curler had won even twice. In 2006, she won the Optimist International Under-18 Curling Tournament, beating Casey Scheidegger in the final. Her team qualified for the 2007 Canada Winter Games in Whitehorse, Yukon, where Homan skipped Team Ontario to a gold medal. During her first two years at the junior level, Homan did not win a provincial championship. In 2007, her team lost the provincial semifinal to Hollie Nicol's rink. In 2008, her team lost in the final to Danielle Inglis. These losses were allayed by a provincial junior championship in 2009, earning her team a berth at the 2009 Canadian Junior Curling Championships. At the Canadian Juniors, she skipped the Ontario team to a 10–2 record after the round robin, giving her rink a bye to the final, where she lost to the defending champion, Kaitlyn Lawes from Manitoba. Homan won the 2010 provincial championship and represented Ontario at the 2010 Canadian Junior Curling Championships. At the 2010 Canadian Junior Curling Championships, Homan, with Emma Miskew, Laura Crocker, and Lynn Kreviazuk, won the junior national title with an undefeated record of 13 wins and 0 losses – only the fourth women's team to do so. The team represented Canada at the 2010 World Junior Curling Championships in Flims, Switzerland. The team lost just one round robin game and lost in the final to Sweden's team, skipped by Anna Hasselborg. Prior to graduating from juniors in 2010, Homan's junior team was too young to participate in Scotties Tournament of Hearts playdowns (as juniors were ineligible to enter provincial playdowns until 2016), but this did not stop her from participating in Women's World Curling Tour events. Homan's top accomplishments on the tour while she was junior-aged included winning two straight Southwestern Ontario Women's Charity Cashspiels. In 2007, she defeated then-World Champion Jennifer Jones in the semifinal and Ève Bélisle in the final, and in 2008 she won in the final against the Chinese national team, skipped by Wang Bingyu. Her team earned \$11,000 for each win. In 2009, she won the AMJ Campbell Shorty Jenkins Classic, winning \$5,500 for her team. Later that year, her team participated in the Canadian Olympic Curling Pre-Trials, where her team finished with a 3–3 record, and therefore did not qualify for the "Roar of the Rings", Canada's Olympic Trials. In 2009, Homan's rink was named the World Curling Tour's "rookie team of the year." ### Early women's (2010–2012) In her first year of eligibility, Homan qualified for and won the 2011 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts. At the 2011 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, Homan skipped the Ontario team, finishing the round robin in third place and beating Nova Scotia's Heather Smith-Dacey in the 3 vs. 4 game, before losing in the semi-final to Saskatchewan's Amber Holland, thus eliminating her from the final. She then lost in the bronze medal game to Smith-Dacey. In April 2011, Homan played third for her brother Mark, and won the 2012 Ontario Mixed Championship. The team, which also included Brian Fleischhaker and teammate in women's play Alison Kreviazuk, represented Ontario at the 2012 Canadian Mixed Curling Championship in November 2011. The team finished with an 8–5 record and out of the playoffs. That same month, Homan's women's team made it to her first career Grand Slam final, when she lost to Jennifer Jones in the final of the 2011 Players' Championship. Later in 2011, she played in her first Canada Cup where her team finished with a 2–4 record. Homan once again qualified for the provincial Scotties Tournament of Hearts in 2012. Her team went undefeated throughout the round robin. However, they lost in the final to Tracy Horgan's rink from Sudbury. Homan, who was up by one point with the hammer, missed a draw to the button to clinch the victory on her final rock. Instead, she gave up three points and lost. ### Scotties champions and world bronze medallists (2012–2013) In her first Grand Slam event of the 2012–13 curling season, the 2012 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic, Homan's team lost to Sherry Middaugh in the final. In the second Grand Slam event of the season, the 2012 Manitoba Lotteries Women's Curling Classic, Homan's rink once again lost in the final, this time to Stefanie Lawton. Homan lost in the semi-final of the third Slam of the season, the 2012 Colonial Square Ladies Classic, but followed it up with her first-ever Grand Slam victory at the 2012 Masters of Curling, where she beat Chelsea Carey in the final. Outside of the Grand Slams, Homan won her 2nd Royal LePage OVCA Women's Fall Classic in 2012. Later in the season, Homan qualified for her second Scotties Tournament of Hearts by going undefeated at the 2013 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts. Homan began the 2013 Scotties Tournament of Hearts in Kingston, Ontario, by winning the Ford Hot Shots skills competition. At the Scotties, the team lost just one game in the round robin, to Manitoba's Jennifer Jones. This gave the rink a 10–1 record, second behind Manitoba, who went undefeated. However, in their first playoff game, the Homan rink defeated Jones 8–5. This put the Homan team in the final, where they faced Jones once again, and won 9–6. With the victory, the Homan rink became the first Ottawa-based team to win the Canadian women's curling championship. The win earned Homan and her team the right to represent Canada at the 2013 World Women's Curling Championship in Riga, Latvia. At the World championships, the Homan rink led Canada to an 8–3 round robin finish, which put them in third place. In the playoffs, they beat the United States (skipped by Erika Brown) in the 3 vs. 4 game, then lost to Scotland (skipped by Eve Muirhead) in the semi-final, after Homan missed her last shot of the game, jamming a double takeout. After the loss, Homan defeated the Americans again, this time in the bronze medal game. The Homan rink finished the season by losing in the quarter-final of the 2013 Players' Championship. ### Scotties repeat champions and world silver medallists (2013–2014) Starting the 2013–14 curling season, Homan's team played in four events on the World Curling Tour before winning the 2013 Masters, beating Eve Muirhead in the final. They had previously beaten Homan in the semi-finals of the 2013 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic. Homan's team had made the playoffs in every Grand Slam event in the previous season; however, they failed to make the playoffs at the 2013 Colonial Square Ladies Classic. Homan's success over the previous three seasons qualified her team for an automatic entry at the 2013 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials. There, the team qualified for playoffs with a 4–3 round robin record, in second place. They lost to Sherry Middaugh in the semi-final, ending the team's 2014 Olympic hopes. As defending Scotties champions from 2013, the Homan rink represented Team Canada at the 2014 Scotties Tournament of Hearts in Montreal. The event was notable for the absence of Jennifer Jones, who was competing at the Olympics. The Homan team went through the entire tournament undefeated without ever having to throw their last rock and defeated Alberta's Val Sweeting in the final. Homan became the youngest skip ever to win back-to-back Scotties. Homan was awarded the Sandra Schmirler Most Valuable Player Award, and ended the event with a 90% shooting percentage based on overall shot successes throughout the event, the highest of any skip in the tournament. Homan's 2014 Scotties win earned her team a berth at the 2014 World Women's Curling Championship in Saint John, New Brunswick. The team had a better event than the previous year, as they only lost one round robin game to finish first place heading into the playoffs. The team defeated Switzerland's Binia Feltscher in the 1 vs. 2 page playoff game, but lost in a rematch in the final. Homan and her Canadian team thus settled for a silver medal. The Homan rink ended the season with a loss in the final of the 2014 Players' Championship against the Olympic gold medallist Jennifer Jones. The match marked the last game on the team for second Alison Kreviazuk, as she moved to Sweden to be with her boyfriend Fredrik Lindberg, who played for Niklas Edin. Kreviazuk, who had played for Homan since they were bantam-aged, was replaced by Joanne Courtney from Edmonton. ### Joanne Courtney joins the team (2014–2017) The Homan rink found less success in the 2014–15 curling season after adding new second Joanne Courtney to the team. The team did not win any Slam events, losing in the finals of the 2014 Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic (against Jennifer Jones) and the 2014 Canadian Open of Curling (against Eve Muirhead). The team also lost in the final of the 2014 Canada Cup of Curling against Val Sweeting. As defending champions, the team represented Team Canada at the 2015 Scotties Tournament of Hearts. The team finished the round robin in 4th place with a 7–4 record. In the playoffs, they lost to Saskatchewan's Stefanie Lawton in the 3 vs. 4 game, but rebounded in the bronze medal game in a re-match against the Lawton rink, beating them 7–5. That season, the team won one World Curling Tour event, the Pomeroy Inn & Suites Prairie Showdown held in March. The team also won the inaugural 2015 Pinty's All-Star Curling Skins Game, earning them \$52,000. The team found more success at the start of the 2015–16 curling season. They began the season with a win in the Stu Sells Oakville Tankard, followed by a loss in the final of the first Slam, the 2015 GSOC Tour Challenge, against Switzerland's Silvana Tirinzoni. The team then won six World Curling Tour events in a row, the Stockholm Ladies Cup, the Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic, the 2015 Masters of Curling, the 2015 National, the 2015 Canada Cup of Curling and the 2015 Canadian Open of Curling, amassing a huge lead in both the World Curling Tour Order of Merit and Money standings in the process. After this impressive run, they were upset in the finals of the 2016 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts against their club mates, the Jenn Hanna team, meaning the World number one-ranked Homan team would not be able to play in the national championships that year. The team was invited to play in the 2016 Elite 10 men's Grand Slam event, making history as the first women's team to compete in a men's Grand Slam event. The team won one game in the event against Charley Thomas. The team ended the season losing against Jennifer Jones in the final of the 2016 Humpty's Champions Cup. The Homan rink's success over the course of the season meant the team finished the season ranked first in the world in both the women's money list and order of merit standings. Homan's team began the 2016–17 season by winning their first event, the 2016 AMJ Campbell Shorty Jenkins Classic. They then won the 2016 Canad Inns Women's Classic the following month. A week later, the team lost in the final of the 2016 Masters of Curling against the Allison Flaxey rink. A month later, they lost to Jennifer Jones in the final of the 2016 Canada Cup of Curling. The rink lost 2 games in the round robin of the 2017 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts, finishing second in the round robin behind Jacqueline Harrison. They won both their playoff matches, including defeating Harrison in the final, qualifying the team to represent Ontario at the 2017 Scotties Tournament of Hearts. In the final, Team Homan defeated Manitoba's Michelle Englot to win the Scotties, her third Scotties title in four years. Both teams went 10–1 in the round robin, with Homan's lone loss against Englot. Englot beat Homan once again in the 1 vs. 2 game, then Homan beat Northern Ontario's (Krista McCarville) in the semi-final to force the re-match against Englot in the final. At the 2017 world championship in Beijing, Homan's rink became the third team in tournament history to go unbeaten in round-robin play, joining fellow Canadian Colleen Jones from 2003 and Sweden's Anette Norberg from 2005. She went unbeaten right to the end, the first team to do so, winning the gold medal by beating Anna Sidorova (for the 3rd consecutive time, with wins in the round robin, 1 vs. 2 playoff game, and final) 8–3 for the gold medal, her first world title and completing her medal set at worlds. The Homan rink finished the season by winning the 2017 Humpty's Champions Cup. In mixed doubles, Homan and partner John Morris were runners-up at the 2017 Canadian Mixed Doubles Curling Championship, losing to Joanne Courtney and Reid Carruthers in the final. ### Olympic run (2017–2018) Homan began the 2017–18 curling season by winning the 2017 Prestige Hotels & Resorts Curling Classic and then the Curlers Corner Autumn Gold Curling Classic the following week. Homan and her team won the 2017 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials in her hometown of Ottawa, defeating previously unbeaten Chelsea Carey in the final. The Homan rink lost just one game in the tournament, against Carey in the round robin. In her first event since winning the trials, Homan curled just 64% at the 2018 Continental Cup of Curling as a member of Team North America. Her team's record at the event was 0–3–1, and she also lost in her mixed doubles match with Brett Gallant. Despite this, Team North America won the event on a draw to the button by Brad Gushue, breaking a 30–30 tie. The team then played at the 2018 Winter Olympics, where they started with 3 consecutive losses. Losing to the team from Denmark meant that Canada was 0–3 for the first time ever at an Olympics. The game against Denmark was marked with controversy when Denmark burned a rock as it was coming to a rest, when a sweeper touched the rock with their broom. Rather than letting the rock be adjusted, Homan removed the stone. Joan McCusker, commentating for CBC at the Olympics, said of Homan's move that "I think that was a rash move to take it off. They should have left it in play. It doesn't look good on you." Homan and team won their next three games to stay in playoff contention but lost their next two, with their fifth loss against Eve Muirhead officially eliminating them from medal contention. This made Homan's team the first Canadian Olympic curlers to not play for or win a medal. The team went winless at the 2018 Players' Championship in April, but they won the final event of the year, the 2018 Humpty's Champions Cup, defeating Kerri Einarson in the final. ### Post-Olympics (2018–2020) Team Homan began the 2018–19 curling season by winning the first leg of the Curling World Cup, defeating Sweden's Anna Hasselborg in the final. The following month, Hasselborg defeated Homan in the final of the 2018 Masters. Homan won the next Grand Slam event, the 2018 Tour Challenge, defeating Tracy Fleury in the final. At the 2018 Canada Cup, the Homan rink went 5–2 in the round robin and lost in the semifinal to Jennifer Jones. A week later, the team won the 2018 National, beating Kerri Einarson in the final. The next month, Homan won her third Grand Slam of the season, the 2019 Meridian Canadian Open, defeating Silvana Tirinzoni in the final. A week later, she participated in the 2019 Continental Cup on Team North America, losing to Team World. She won one game in the event, in the mixed team scramble. Homan and her rink played in the 2019 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts, having missed the previous year's event due to the Olympics and having won the 2017 Scotties. At the event, the team lost just one game and won their fourth provincial title. The event was marked by an incident of bullying aimed at Homan. A "number of curlers" at the event voted for her to win the tournament's sportsmanship award to protest the fact that the team had two members (Homan and Courtney) living in Alberta. Teams were only allowed one out-of-province "import" player; however, Homan maintained a residence in Ontario and was exempted from requirements as she was a full-time student in Edmonton. At the 2019 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, her team finished the round robin at 5–2, moving on to the championship pool, where they finished at 8–3, in third place. The team qualified for the final, beating Northern Ontario's Krista McCarville in the 3 vs. 4 game and Saskatchewan's Robyn Silvernagle in the semi-final. They lost the final to Alberta's Chelsea Carey in an extra end, despite leading 5–1 in the fourth end. At the 2019 Players' Championship, the team missed the playoffs after posting a 2–3 round robin record and losing a tie-breaker to Satsuki Fujisawa. They finished the season with a semi-final finish at the 2019 Champions Cup. In 2019, Homan was named the fourth-greatest Canadian female curler in history by The Sports Network (TSN), the main television broadcaster of major curling events, following a poll of broadcasters, reporters and top curlers. In their first event of the 2019–20 season, Team Homan made the semi-finals of the 2019 AMJ Campbell Shorty Jenkins Classic. They then won the 2019 Colonial Square Ladies Classic. In mid-October, the team made the final of the 2019 Canad Inns Women's Classic, losing to Elena Stern. They missed the playoffs at all four Slams of the season as both the Players' Championship and the Champions Cup were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Team Homan won the first spot in the 2021 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials by defeating Tracy Fleury in the final of the 2019 Canada Cup. The team went undefeated at the 2020 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts, defeating Hollie Duncan in the final. At the 2020 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, they won their second straight silver medal, losing the final to Manitoba's Kerri Einarson. ### Sarah Wilkes joins the team (2020–2022) Team Homan announced on March 12, 2020, that the team was parting ways with longtime lead Lisa Weagle. On March 17, 2020, the team announced they would be adding Sarah Wilkes as their new second, with Joanne Courtney moving to lead. The 2021 Ontario provincial playdowns were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario. As the 2020 provincial champions, Homan's team was chosen to represent Ontario at the 2021 Scotties Tournament of Hearts in Calgary. Up to that point, Homan had only played in one tour game the entire season in the Okotoks Ladies Classic in November, before that event was cancelled due to a province-wide shutdown in Alberta. Three months later, Homan entered the 2021 Scotties at eight months pregnant. She had a successful round robin, with a 7–1 record, including a win against defending champion Kerri Einarson. She entered the championship pool as the first seed, where she won three games and lost one to Manitoba's Jennifer Jones. Because of their earlier win against Einarson, Homan's team received a bye to the final. There, they lost 9–7 to Einarson after Homan missed a freeze in the last end, resulting in Einarson not needing to throw her last rock. Homan was named Second Team All-Star skip for the tournament. A month after the Scotties, Homan gave birth to her second child, Bowyn of March 25, and missed the 2021 Canadian Mixed Doubles Curling Championship in the process (she had qualified with John Morris). Having just given birth three weeks prior, she had originally planned on not playing in the two Slams scheduled for the end of the season, but later decided she was physically able to do so. At the first of Slam, the 2021 Champions Cup, she had no problem claiming her 11th career Slam title, defeating Silvana Tirinzoni in the final. A week later she played in the 2021 Players' Championship, the last event for Team Homan of the season. At the Players', she led her team all the way to the final, before losing to Einarson in a re-match of the Scotties final. Team Homan made it to the quarterfinals of their first slam of the year, the 2021 Masters, where they were beaten by Alina Kovaleva. Two weeks later, they played in the 2021 National, where they were eliminated in the quarters again, this time by Anna Hasselborg. Next for Team Homan was the 2021 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials where they attempted to qualify for the Olympics again. The team, however, did not have a successful week, finishing with a 2–6 record. Team Homan's record over the season was not good enough to give them an automatic qualifying spot at the 2022 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts, forcing them to play in an open qualifier. The team did qualify at the Open Qualifier, but the Ontario Scotties were postponed due to new COVID-19 regulations put into place by the province, shutting down sports event. The spread of COVID-19's omicron variant also cancelled the 2022 Canadian Mixed Doubles Curling Olympic Trials which Homan was set to participate in with John Morris. With the postponement of the Ontario Scotties, CurlON announced that they would be selecting Team Hollie Duncan over Team Homan to represent Ontario if Homan was selected to represent Canada in the mixed doubles event at the 2022 Olympics (as the Trials had been cancelled). However, if Homan wasn't selected, then CurlON would select Team Homan to play in the Scotties instead. This plan of action was considered confusion and disappointing to the teams involved. Homan would end up being selected to represent Canada at the Olympics, giving Team Duncan the right to represent Ontario at the 2022 Scotties. However, Team Homan (sans Homan) qualified for the Scotties as Team Wild Card \#3. For the Tournament of Hearts, Homan's teammates Emma Miskew, Sarah Wilkes and Joanne Courtney added Allison Flaxey to their lineup. At the championship, the team finished with a 4–4 record, not advancing to the playoff round. At the mixed doubles event at the Olympics, Homan and Morris struggled, finishing with a 5–4 record. Their record was tied for fourth with Sweden's Almida de Val and Oskar Eriksson, however, due to their head-to-head loss against the Swedish pair, they missed the playoffs. The pair missed their chance at a spot by mere millimetres, as their final shot in their last game against Italy went too far, thus losing the game. Team Homan had to wait until April 2022 to play in the postponed Ontario Hearts, which they ended up winning, beating Carly Howard in the final. The team wrapped up their season with the two final slams, making it to the semifinals at the 2022 Players' Championship where they lost to Anna Hasselborg, and the quarters of the 2022 Champions Cup, where they lost to Kerri Einarson. In March 2022, after Joanne Courtney announced she would be stepping back from competitive curling, it was announced that Tracy Fleury would be joining the team for the 2022–23 season. They did not announce whether Homan or Fleury would skip the new lineup. ### Tracy Fleury joins as skip (2022–present) In August 2022, it was announced that Tracy Fleury would be skipping Team Homan, with Homan herself continuing to throw last rocks on the team. With the addition of Fleury, Emma Miskew was moved to the second position for the first time since joining forces with Homan as a teenager. The new lineup made their debut at the 2022 Saville Shoot-Out, making it to the final before losing to Jennifer Jones and her new team. Later on in the month, Team Homan played in the inaugural PointsBet Invitational tournament organized by Curling Canada. The team made it to the quarterfinals, where they lost to Team Scheidegger, which was skipped by Kristie Moore in a draw-to-the button to break a 6–6 tie. The next month in October, the team played in the first Slam of the season, the 2022 National. There, the team made it to the quarterfinals before losing out to another new-look team skipped by Kaitlyn Lawes. Later that month, the team played in the next Slam, the 2022 Tour Challenge. The team won the event, defeating Kerri Einarson 8–4 in the final, to pick up Homan's 12th career Slam, and the first for her new team. In November, the team won their second Tour event of the season at the Red Deer Curling Classic, defeating Casey Scheidegger in the final. In December, the team played in their third Slam of the season, the 2022 Masters. The team made it to the final against Team Einarson again, but this time Einarson had the best of her, beating Homan 6–5 in an extra end. In January, the team played in the 2023 Canadian Open, making it as far as the quarterfinals this time before matching up against Einarson. Team Homan couldn't get past Einarson again, and were eliminated after a 7–2 decision. Later in the month, the team won the 2023 Ontario Scotties Tournament of Hearts, Homan's seventh career provincial championship. They defeated Hollie Duncan in the final. The team represented Ontario at the 2023 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, going 6–2 in pool play. This put the team into the Championship round, where they were eliminated after a loss to Nova Scotia, skipped by Christina Black. In March, Homan paired up with British Columbia's Tyler Tardi at the 2023 Canadian Mixed Doubles Curling Championship. The pair went 6–1 in pool play, but were eliminated by the eventual winners of Jennifer Jones and Brent Laing in the playoffs. In April, Team Homan played in the 2023 Players' Championship, missing the playoffs, but rebounded to win the 2023 Champions Cup to cap off the season. The team beat their rivals in the Kerri Einarson rink in the final, coming back from a 4–0 deficit to win the championship 6–5, giving Homan her 13th Grand Slam title. Homan took over as skip at the event, as it was announced she was pregnant. ## Personal life Homan was born at the Ottawa Civic Hospital in Ottawa to parents Cathy and Craig Homan. She has an older brother, Mark, who is also a curler. Growing up in the Ottawa suburb of Orleans, Homan attended Cairine Wilson Secondary School and graduated from the University of Ottawa with a degree in Human Kinetics in 2011. She graduated from the University of Alberta with a bachelor's degree in education in 2020. She married Shawn Germain, a former professional hockey player from Edmonton, in September 2016. They live in Beaumont, Alberta, and used to live in St. Paul, Alberta. Homan gave birth to a son, Ryatt Mitch Germain, in June 2019, and a daughter, Bowyn, in March 2021. She is a fan of the Ottawa Senators NHL team. ## Year-by-year statistics ### Team events ### Mixed doubles ## Teams ## Grand Slam record ### Former events
13,409,651	Number 13-class battleship	1,135,108,336	Japanese planned class of battleships	[ "Battleship classes", "Battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy", "Proposed ships" ]	The Number 13-class battleship was a planned class of four fast battleships to be built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the 1920s. The ships never received any names, being known only as Numbers 13–16. They were intended to reinforce Japan's "eight-eight fleet" of eight battleships and eight battlecruisers after the United States announced a major naval construction program in 1919. The Number 13 class was designed to be superior to all other existing battleships, planned or building. After the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922, they were cancelled in November 1923 before construction could begin. ## Design and background By 1918, the Navy had gained approval for an "eight-six" fleet, all ships under eight years old. However, having four large battleships and four battlecruisers on order put an enormous financial strain on Japan, which was spending about a third of its national budget on the Navy. Despite this, the IJN gained approval of the "eight-eight-eight" plan in 1920 after American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans in 1919 to re-initiate the 1916 plan for ten additional battleships and six battlecruisers. The Japanese response required the construction of eight additional fast battleships in the Kii and the Number 13 classes. When designing the latter class, the Japanese followed the doctrine that they had used since the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 of compensating for quantitative inferiority with qualitative superiority. In the words of naval historian Siegfried Breyer, "had [the ships] been completed, they would have been the world's largest and most powerful battleships. Their gun calibre alone would have caused a new and more intensive naval arms race. From an engineering aspect they were more than ten years ahead of their time because they anticipated the characteristics of the fully developed, fast battleship." Naval architects William Garzke and Robert Dulin concur saying, "These ships would have completely outclassed any European battleship". The Number 13 class was designed by Captain Yuzuru Hiraga, the naval architect responsible for most of the previous Japanese capital ships. The ships were based on his previous Kii-class battleship and Amagi-class battlecruiser designs, enlarged to take 457-millimeter (18 in) guns. ### Description The ships had a length of 259.1 meters (850 ft 1 in) between perpendiculars and 274.4 meters (900 ft 3 in) overall. They had a beam of 30.8 meters (101 ft 1 in) and a draft of 9.8 meters (32 ft 2 in). The normal displacement of the battleships was 47,500 metric tons (46,700 long tons). The class was intended to be equipped with four Gijutsu-Hombu geared steam turbines, each of which drove one propeller shaft. The turbines were designed to produce a total of 150,000 shaft horsepower (110,000 kW), using steam provided by 22 Kampon oil-fired water-tube boilers, to reach a maximum speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph). The primary armament of the Number 13 class was eight 50-caliber 460-millimeter guns in four twin-gun turrets, two each superfiring fore and aft of the superstructure. No examples of this gun were ever built, but it was planned to fire a 1,550-kilogram (3,420 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second (2,600 ft/s). The secondary battery consisted of 16 single 50-caliber 14-centimetre (5.5 in) guns mounted in casemates in the superstructure. The manually operated guns had a maximum range of 19,750 meters (21,600 yd) at an elevation of +35° and fired at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute. The ships' anti-aircraft defenses consisted of either four or eight single 45-caliber 12-centimetre (4.7 in) 10th Year Type anti-aircraft guns mounted around the single funnel. Each of these guns had a maximum elevation of +75° and a maximum rate of fire of 10–11 rounds per minute. They could fire a 20.41-kilogram (45.0 lb) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 825–830 m/s (2,710–2,720 ft/s) to a maximum height of 10,000 meters (32,808 ft). The Number 13 class was also designed with eight 61-centimeter (24 in) above-water torpedo tubes, four on each broadside. The waterline armor belt was intended have a maximum thickness of 330 millimeters (13 in) and, like the Kii class, it was angled 15° outwards at the top to increase its ability to resist penetration at short range. The deck armor would have had a total thickness of 127 millimeters (5 in). ## Construction After the end of World War I, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Empire of Japan all announced large capital ship building programs, incorporating design lessons from the war. These ships would have been much larger and more expensive than earlier vessels and President Warren G. Harding called a conference at Washington, D. C. in late 1921 to forestall a very expensive arms race. The attendees at the conference agreed to limit capital ship construction for the next decade and scrapped large numbers of existing ships as well as many ships still under construction. Japan suspended the Number 13 class while the conference was in progress before any ship was laid down and formally cancelled them on 19 November 1923. As construction of the ships was scheduled to begin in 1922, and completed by 1927, they were already allocated to specific shipyards:
44,284,331	Sofia Kenin	1,173,361,241	American tennis player (born 1998)	[ "1998 births", "21st-century American women", "American female tennis players", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles", "Living people", "Russian emigrants to the United States", "Sportspeople from Pembroke Pines, Florida", "Tennis players at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics", "Tennis players from Moscow", "World number 1 ranked female tennis players" ]	Sofia Anna "Sonya" Kenin (born November 14, 1998) is an American professional tennis player. She has a career-high ranking by the WTA of No. 4 in the world, which she achieved on March 9, 2020. She was the 2020 WTA Player of the Year, an award she earned by winning the 2020 Australian Open and finishing runner-up at the 2020 French Open. Kenin has won another four singles and two doubles titles on the WTA Tour, including the 2019 China Open at the Premier Mandatory-level with Bethanie Mattek-Sands. When Kenin was a child, she drew the attention of veteran coach Rick Macci at the age of five and became a celebrity in the tennis community soon after. Coached primarily by her father, Kenin developed into a promising junior player, reaching No. 2 in the world after winning the Orange Bowl at the age of 16 and finishing runner-up in the 2015 US Open girls' singles event the following year. She also won the USTA Girls 18s National Championship during that summer. On the professional tour, Kenin made her debut in the top 100 of the WTA rankings in 2018 as a teenager. She won her first three titles in 2019 and finished the year just outside the top 10. With her title at the 2020 Australian Open, Kenin became the youngest American to win a major women's singles title since Serena Williams in 1999. At the end of the 2019 season, she followed up her Most Improved Player of the Year award by being named the WTA Player of the Year of 2020. ## Early life and background Sofia Kenin was born in Moscow to Alexander and Svetlana Kenin. Her family moved to the United States a few months after she was born. They had previously left the Soviet Union to live in New York City in 1987 but returned to Russia for Kenin's birth so that other family members could help raise her initially. Her mother had worked as a nurse in the Soviet Union, and her parents had only \$286 when they first moved to the United States. Kenin began playing tennis at the age of five, drawing inspiration from her father who had played recreationally. Her parents recognized her potential and arranged for her to begin training with Rick Macci in Broward County, Florida. Macci coached Kenin for seven years until she was 12. He remarked: "Back then [when Kenin was five], I came right out and said Sofia was the scariest little creature I’d ever seen. It was unique: the hand-eye coordination and her ability to take the ball immediately right after the bounce. I have a lot of kids do that, but it was almost like it was baked in already, even though she was little and the racket was actually bigger than her. The only player I’ve seen like that is [former world No. 1] Martina Hingis." Kenin has also worked with Nick Bollettieri. Her primary coach had always been her father until May 2021. Kenin had success in tennis at a young age, which garnered widespread attention in the tennis community and helped put her on the covers of tennis magazines. Kenin began playing in United States Tennis Association (USTA) girls' 10-and-under tournaments at the age of seven, and became the top-ranked player in Florida in that division. She later was ranked No. 1 in the USTA national rankings for each of the 12, 14, 16, and 18-and-under divisions. Kenin had the opportunity to interact with ATP and WTA professional tennis players as a young child, including hitting with Anna Kournikova at age seven, partnering with Jim Courier against Venus Williams and Todd Martin as part of an exhibition event, and receiving a tour of the Miami Open from Kim Clijsters. ## Junior career Kenin reached a career-high of No. 2 in the ITF junior rankings. She began playing in low-level Grade-4 events on the ITF Junior Circuit in 2012 at the age of 13. After winning her first titles in both singles and doubles in 2013, she progressed to the Grade 1 level. Towards the end of the year, she made her Grade-A debut at the Orange Bowl, reaching the semifinals in singles and finishing runner-up in doubles with Kaitlyn McCarthy to Tornado Alicia Black and Naiktha Bains. Kenin made her junior Grand Slam debut in 2014, but only recorded one match win in singles while playing in the latter three events of the year. Following the US Open, Kenin represented the United States at the Junior Fed Cup along with CiCi Bellis and Black. The team won the tournament, sweeping Slovakia 3–0 in the final. Kenin went undefeated in her five matches, all in doubles. Her next breakthrough came toward the end of the year when she won the Orange Bowl, defeating Bellis and Ingrid Neel in the last two rounds. Kenin built on that success in 2015 by winning the USTA International Spring Championships, a Grade-1 tournament. During the summer, she won the USTA Girls 18s National Championship as the No. 3 seed, defeating the No. 1 seed Black in the final. With the title, she earned a wildcard into the main draw of the 2015 US Open. Kenin also participated in the junior event at the US Open and finished runner-up to Dalma Gálfi, her best performance at a junior Grand Slam event. This result helped her rise to No. 2 in the world by the end of the year. Kenin continued to play on the junior tour in 2016 while primarily playing in professional events on the ITF Women's Circuit. At the US Open, she again produced one of her best results of the year, losing in the semifinals to Viktória Kužmová, after upsetting the No. 1 seed Anastasia Potapova in the previous round. ## Professional career ### 2013–17: US Open debut, three ITF Circuit titles Kenin began playing low-level tournaments on the ITF Women's Circuit in 2013 and won her first two professional matches at the age of 14. With her wildcard from winning the USTA Junior National Championship, she made her Grand Slam debut at the 2015 US Open, losing her opening match to Mariana Duque-Mariño. The following year, Kenin won her first two ITF titles, the first at a \$25k event in Wesley Chapel in Florida and the second at a \$50k Sacramento Challenger in California. The latter title helped her win the US Open Wild Card Challenge to earn a wildcard into the main draw of the US Open for the second time. At the US Open, she lost her first-round match to Karolína Plíšková, her only WTA Tour-level match of the year. After beginning the 2017 season ranked outside the top 200, Kenin steadily rose up the WTA rankings throughout the year while playing exclusively on the professional circuit. She progressed into the top 150 in August after a string of good results during the summer, including winning the \$60k Stockton Challenger and finishing runner-up at the \$60k Lexington Challenger. These ITF performances helped her win the US Open Wild Card Challenge for the second straight year. At the 2017 US Open, Kenin advanced beyond the first round of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time, defeating compatriots Lauren Davis and Sachia Vickery, before losing to the 2006 champion Maria Sharapova in the third round. These were also her first two match wins on the WTA Tour. Kenin's success at the US Open helped convince her to turn professional in September, foregoing a scholarship to attend the University of Miami. She finished the year ranked No. 108 in the world. ### 2018: Top 50, first top-10 victory With her improved ranking, Kenin was able to play primarily on the WTA Tour in 2018. She began the year by reaching her first WTA quarterfinal at the Auckland Open. After losing her first-round match at the Australian Open, Kenin produced good results at both Premier Mandatory events in March. She entered the top 100 by reaching the second round of the Indian Wells Open as a qualifier. She then qualified for the Miami Open, where she upset No. 11 Daria Kasatkina and reached the third round. After losing all five of her WTA Tour matches on clay across main draws and qualifying, Kenin reached her first WTA semifinal at the Mallorca Open on grass. She defeated top seed and world No. 6, Caroline Garcia, for her first career top-ten victory before losing to Tatjana Maria. Kenin closed out the grass-court season with a second-round appearance at Wimbledon, winning her debut at the event against Maria Sakkari. Back in the United States, Kenin won another \$60k title at the Berkeley Club Challenge. She reached the third round of the US Open for the second consecutive year, losing to Plíšková at the event for the second time. Kenin's best performance during the rest of the season came at the Tournoi de Québec, where she reached another semifinal. She defeated world No. 10, Julia Görges, at the Wuhan Open for her second top-ten victory of the year. So she advanced into the top 50 for the first time. ### 2019: Three WTA Tour titles, world No. 12 Kenin greatly improved in 2019, rising from outside the top 50 at the start of the year to just outside the top ten by the end of the season. She began her year by winning her first WTA doubles title at the Auckland Open with Eugenie Bouchard. The following week, she won her first WTA singles title at the Hobart International without dropping a set during the event. She upset the top seed and No. 19 Caroline Garcia in the first round, before defeating Anna Karolína Schmiedlová in the final. With this success, Kenin rose to what was at the time a career-best ranking of No. 37. At the Australian Open, she pushed world No. 1 Simona Halep to three sets in the second round, ultimately losing in a long two-hour-and-thirty-minute match. The following month, Kenin reached another WTA final at the Mexican Open, finishing runner-up to Wang Yafan despite being up a set and a break. During the clay-court season, Kenin improved on her results from the previous year. She reached the third round at the Italian Open, defeating compatriot Madison Keys before losing to Plíšková. Her best result on clay came at the French Open, where she reached the fourth round. During the event, she upset world No. 10, Serena Williams, in the third round before losing to eventual champion Ashleigh Barty. In the grass-court season, Kenin won her second WTA singles title of the year at the Mallorca Open. She defeated three top-25 players in the final three rounds, all in three sets. She saved three championship points in the second set of the final against No. 13 Belinda Bencic, before coming from behind to win the match. Although she was seeded for the first time at a major at No. 27, she lost in the second round of Wimbledon to Dayana Yastremska. Kenin's best results of the US Open Series came at the two Premier 5 tournaments, where she reached the semifinals at both the Canadian Open and the Cincinnati Open, losing to the eventual champions at each but defeating the current world No. 1 players, Ashleigh Barty and Naomi Osaka, at each event, her first two victories over top-ranked players. She also became the first player to defeat the world No. 1 in back-to-back weeks since Lindsay Davenport had done so in 2001. Following these tournaments, Kenin again lost to Keys in the third round of the US Open. During the Asian hardcourt swing, Kenin won one additional title in both singles and doubles. She won her third singles title of the year at the Guangzhou International Open, defeating Samantha Stosur in the final. Two weeks later, she partnered with Bethanie Mattek-Sands to win her second doubles title of the year at the China Open, a Premier Mandatory event. There, the pair defeated the team of Aryna Sabalenka and Elise Mertens, who were ranked No. 2 and No. 3 in the world, respectively, at the time. This title brought her to No. 43 in the doubles rankings. At the end of the season, Kenin qualified for the WTA Elite Trophy as the second seed, ranked No. 12 in the world. She won her opening match against compatriot Alison Riske, but lost to Karolína Muchová and did not advance out of her round-robin group. Kenin was also named the second alternate at the WTA Finals, behind Kiki Bertens. After Naomi Osaka and Bianca Andreescu both withdrew, she had the opportunity to play one match, losing to defending champion Elina Svitolina. She finished the year ranked No. 14 in singles and No. 39 in doubles. Kenin also received the WTA award Most Improved Player of the Year for her breakthrough season, becoming the first American player to win the award since Serena Williams in 1999. ### 2020: Australian Open champion, world No. 4 Kenin carried her success at the lower-level tournaments in 2019 to the Grand Slam tournaments in 2020. Despite two second-round losses to start the year, Kenin won the Australian Open for her first Grand Slam singles title. She only dropped one set before the final – in the fourth round against compatriot Coco Gauff. In the semifinal, she upset world No. 1 and home favorite Ash Barty. She then defeated Garbiñe Muguruza in the final, coming from a set down. With the victory at just 21 years old, she became the youngest American woman to win a major singles title since Serena Williams won Wimbledon in 2002. Serena won the US Open in 1999 at 17 years old. She also became the youngest American to make her top-ten debut in the WTA rankings since Williams in 1999, rising to No. 7 in the world. Kenin won another title at the inaugural Lyon Open, where she saved a match point in the second round and overcame a set and 5–2 deficit in the following round as part of a stretch of four consecutive three-set matches. She defeated Anna-Lena Friedsam in the final. This was Kenin's last event before the WTA Tour shut down for six months because of the COVID-19 pandemic. At this point, she was No. 4 in the world, her career-best ranking at the time. When the tour resumed, Kenin was seeded second at the US Open as Barty and Halep had withdrawn because of the pandemic. Although she lost in the fourth round to Elise Mertens, this was her best result at the event to date. Following the tournament, Kenin traveled to Europe for the rescheduled clay-court season. Although she lost her only tune-up match to US Open runner-up Victoria Azarenka without winning a game, Kenin continued her Grand Slam tournament success at the French Open. She won four three-set matches during the first five rounds before defeating No. 11, Petra Kvitová, in the semifinals. She lost the final in straight sets to Iga Świątek. At the end of the season, Kenin was awarded the WTA Player of the Year. Outside of the WTA Tour, Kenin has participated in World TeamTennis. She led the Philadelphia Freedoms to a first-place regular-season finish in 2020 with a 10–4 record in singles. Although she defeated CoCo Vandeweghe in the semifinals, her team lost to the eventual champion New York Empire. ### 2021: Struggles with form Kenin's first tournament of the year was at Abu Dhabi, where she was the top seed. She defeated Yang Zhaoxuan in the first round, and was the beneficiary of a retirement by Kirsten Flipkens in the second round. In the third round, Kenin saved a match point against Yulia Putintseva to progress to the quarterfinals, where she faced Maria Sakkari. After winning the first set 6–2, and with the score in the second set 2–2, Kenin lost ten games in a row, ending her run at Abu Dhabi. Her next tournament was the Yarra Valley Classic in Melbourne, where she defeated Camila Giorgi and Jessica Pegula to reach the quarterfinals. She met Garbiñe Muguruza in a rematch of the Australian Open final, but Kenin won just four games. At the Australian Open, Kenin was the defending champion and fourth seed. She defeated Australian wildcard player Maddison Inglis in the first round but was upset by the unseeded Kaia Kanepi in the second, in straight sets. Kenin's loss was the earliest for a defending champion at the Australian Open since Jennifer Capriati lost in the first round in 2003. After the match, Kenin tearfully admitted that the pressure of defending her title was overwhelming, saying: "I feel like everyone was always asking me: 'Would you want to? Do you see yourself getting [to Melbourne] and winning again?' Obviously I said yes. With the way I’m playing, no." She then received a wildcard for the Phillip Island Trophy, a tournament for players who suffered an early exit at the Australian Open, where she was the top seed and in receipt of a first-round bye. In the second round, Kenin was upset by the unranked Australian wildcard Olivia Gadecki in three sets. Losing to Gadecki, whose career-high ranking was No. 988, marked Kenin's worst defeat by ranking on the WTA Tour. With her disappointing results throughout the Australian summer, her ranking would have fallen to No. 13 in the world, but because of changes to the system introduced as a result of the pandemic, this did not occur. Withdrawing from numerous tournaments after suffering from appendicitis, Kenin made her return at Miami, where, with a first-round bye, she defeated Andrea Petkovic before falling to Ons Jabeur in three sets. At Charleston, she lost in her first match against Lauren Davis. She suffered a second-round defeat at Stuttgart to Anett Kontaveit, and lost her first match at Rome to Barbora Krejčíková. At the French Open, she reached the fourth round, defeating Jeļena Ostapenko, Hailey Baptiste and Jessica Pegula, before falling to Maria Sakkari. In May 2021, Kenin announced that she was parting ways with her father as coach. Because of an injury, she did not participate in any warmup events before Wimbledon. At Wimbledon, she defeated Wang Xinyu in the first round before losing to Madison Brengle in the second round. In the loss, Kenin set a new Wimbledon record by committing 41 unforced errors in just 45 minutes. On 9 November 2021, Kenin announced that her father had returned to her coaching team as she prepared for the 2022 Australian Open. She finished the year ranked No. 12 in singles. ### 2022: Injury and hiatus, out of top 200 Seeded 11th at the Australian Open, Kenin faced and lost to Madison Keys, in straight sets in the first round. Because she was defending the maximum points she earned from winning the tournament in 2020 rather than the 70 points she earned from losing in the second round in 2021 (due to the WTA rankings freeze along with the COVID-19 pandemic), her world ranking plummeted to No. 95 when updated following the conclusion of the tournament on 31 January 2022. Kenin made her way to the quarterfinals of Adelaide 1 where she lost to the top-seeded Ashleigh Barty in straight sets, marking her first quarterfinal appearance since Melbourne 2021. Despite her run in Adelaide, Kenin lost five consecutive first-round matches with four of those five losses coming in straight sets. She injured herself and pulled out of all the major tournaments in March, April and May after the Indian Wells Open including the French Open and Wimbledon. As a result, her ranking dropped outside the top 300. She finished the year ranked No. 235. ### 2023: Two WTA 1000 third rounds, top-5 win, back to top 125 Kenin began her season at the Auckland Open, beating Wang Xinyu in the first round before losing to top seed and eventual champion Coco Gauff. She next reached her first tour-level semifinal since the 2020 French Open at the Hobart International. She lost to Elisabetta Cocciaretto in three sets. At the Australian Open, she lost in the first round to Victoria Azarenka in a match lasting more than two hours. She also lost in the first round of the 2023 Linz Open to Jule Niemeier. She recorded her first top-20 win, again since the 2020 French Open, by defeating world No. 15 Liudmila Samsonova at the Qatar Ladies Open, in straight sets. She then lost to Veronika Kudermetova in the second round. She lost in the first round of Dubai to Marie Bouzková. She reached the second round at Indian Wells where she defeated Sloane Stephens in the first round before losing to eventual champion Elena Rybakina in two close sets. At the Miami Open she went one step further, defeating Storm Hunter and 28th seed Anhelina Kalinina to reach the third round; she then lost to Bianca Andreescu. As a result, she moved back into the top 150. Kenin defeated Aliaksandra Sasnovich in Charleston to open her clay season, before losing to Irina-Camelia Begu. She was defeated by Maryna Zanevska in the first round of the Madrid Open. At the Italian Open, Kenin defeated Cristina Bucșa in the opening round. She then recorded one of the biggest wins of her career by defeating world No. 2 and reigning Madrid champion, Aryna Sabalenka, in straight sets in the second round. This was her first top-5 win since defeating world No. 1, Ashleigh Barty, at the 2020 Australian Open during her run to the title. She went through three qualifying rounds to make the main draw at the Wimbledon Championships. In the first round, she defeated seventh seed Coco Gauff. She lost in the third round to eventual semifinalist Elina Svitolina. ## National representation After winning the Junior Fed Cup in 2014, Kenin was nominated for her first senior Fed Cup tie in the 2018 final against the Czech Republic. Both teams were missing their best players, with the Williams sisters, Sloane Stephens, and Madison Keys for the United States, as well as Plíšková and Petra Kvitová for the Czech Republic all unavailable. Kenin and Alison Riske were selected to play singles against Barbora Strýcová and Kateřina Siniaková. Kenin lost both of her singles matches in three sets, as the Czech Republic swept the tie 3–0 to win the Fed Cup. The decisive third rubber between Kenin and Siniaková was particularly close. The match lasted 3 hours and 45 minutes, and ended with Siniaková needing to save two match points on Kenin's serve in the third set before coming from behind to win. Kenin represented the United States again in 2019. In the first round against Australia, she lost her only match to Ashleigh Barty who won both of her singles rubbers as well as the decisive doubles rubber to lead Australia to a 3–2 victory. The United States' next tie was against Switzerland as part of the World Group play-offs. After Keys lost the first match and Stephens won both of her singles rubbers, Kenin was selected to play the last singles rubber against Timea Bacsinszky. Kenin defeated Bacsinszky to win the tie 3–1 and keep the United States in the World Group for 2020. With a new format in 2020 and the name of the Fed Cup competition changing to the Billie Jean King Cup mid-season, Kenin played in the Qualifying round in a tie against Latvia a week after winning the 2020 Australian Open. After defeating Anastasija Sevastova and losing to Jeļena Ostapenko, Kenin partnered with Bethanie Mattek-Sands to defeat the two of them in the decisive doubles rubber. The United States advanced to the Billie Jean King Cup Finals where they were drawn in a round-robin group with Spain and Slovakia. ## Playing style Kenin has an aggressive style of play that is built around incorporating a variety of shots into her game rather than just power. She plays primarily from the baseline and can hit winners with both her forehand and backhand. She excels at disguising whether her backhand is going cross-court or down the line. Two of Kenin's best shots are her backhand down the line and her inside-in forehand. Kenin can strategically add slice to her backhand, which she may use to hit well-disguised drop shot winners. On occasion, she can also hit slice forehands, a rare shot in modern tennis. On the defensive side, Kenin is capable of hitting her forehand even as high as shoulder height. Petra Kvitová noticed Kenin's aggressive and determined style of play in early 2018, a trait that Kenin's father said that she had developed in 2017, her first full year on the professional tour. She had previously been described by Maria Sharapova as more of a "grinder," that is, a counter-puncher who has good movement and gets a lot of balls back in play without trying to end points. One of the keys to Kenin's style of play is consistency, in particular with redirecting shots. Her childhood coach Rick Macci has praised her determination. He has called her "the mosquito," saying, "She’s just there the whole time, bothering you. She’s had this innate mental strength since she was a little kid. It was already baked in there." Macci also stated: "Her timing of the ball is better than anybody I ever taught. You’ll notice she’s not out of balance that much, and she can take the ball right off the bounce like a wizard. Everyone can hit deep, but the angles she gets, even while taking the ball early, are so acute that she gets you off the court, and then she goes for the jugular." Kenin has an unusual service motion in that she looks downward initially during her ball toss. ## Endorsements Between 2018 and 2022, Kenin was endorsed by Fila for her clothing and shoes, having previously been sponsored by Nike. Since 2022, Kenin has been sponsored by the American athletics company Free People Movement. Kenin's racket sponsor is Babolat, and she uses the Pure Drive model. In January 2021, Kenin signed an endorsement deal with American consumer electronics and telecommunications company Motorola. ## Personal life Kenin has a younger sister. Her childhood tennis idols were Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova. Kenin particularly has praised Sharapova's fierce competitiveness. ## Career statistics ### Grand Slam tournament performance timelines #### Singles #### Doubles ### Grand Slam tournament finals #### Singles: 2 (1 title, 1 runner-up)
451,047	Portishead, Somerset	1,172,120,148	Town in Somerset, England	[ "Civil parishes in Somerset", "Populated coastal places in Somerset", "Portishead, Somerset", "Ports and harbours of Somerset", "Ports and harbours of the Bristol Channel", "Towns in North Somerset" ]	Portishead (/pɔːrtɪshɛd/; UK: /'pɔ:tɪshed/) is a town and civil parish in the North Somerset unitary authority area, in the county of Somerset, England. The town had a population of 25,000 and is located next to the Severn Estuary opposite Cardiff and Newport in Wales. The town is 8 miles (13 km) to the west of Bristol and 18 miles northeast of Weston-super-Mare. Portishead has a long history as a fishing port. As a Royal Manor it expanded rapidly during the early 19th century around the docks, with supporting transport infrastructure. A power station and chemical works were added in the 20th century, but the dock and industrial facilities have since closed and been redeveloped into a marina and residential areas. Portishead was also the telephone control centre used by British Telecom (BT) for non-direct dialled calls to maritime vessels, a service known as Portishead Radio. The headquarters of both Avon and Somerset Constabulary and Avon Fire and Rescue Service are in Portishead. Portishead Lifeboat Station is situated close to the marina. Run solely by local Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) volunteers, it serves the waters of the Severn estuary and inland waterways into the city of Bristol ## History The name Portishead derives from the "port at the head of the river". It has been called Portshead and Portschute at times in its history and Portesheve in the Domesday Book, and was locally known as Posset. The town's recorded history dates back to Roman times, although there is also evidence of prehistoric settlement, including polished flint axe heads. There were also Iron Age settlements in the area, of which Cadbury Camp was the largest. Other sites that have been identified include a 1,200 by 600 feet (370 by 180 m) site that was successively occupied by the Romans, Britons and Danes. There is some evidence that it may have been the western end of the Wansdyke, an early medieval or possibly Roman boundary with a series of defensive linear earthworks extending to the Savernake Forest near Marlborough in Wiltshire. After the Norman conquest the manor was held by the Bishop of Coutances and later reverted to the Crown, after which William II gave it to a merchant from Bristol known as Harding and then to his son Robert Fitzharding, who became Lord of Berkeley. The Berkeley family held it for generations until it passed by marriage to the Cokes of Holkham in Norfolk. In the 14th century it belonged to Everard le Frenshe. In 1621 the Bristol Corporation purchased large portions of land in Portishead and revived the Manor Court. The rights of the corporation over the manor were disputed, but they held it until 1836, when they sold it for £8,050. The parish of Portishead was part of the Portbury Hundred. The town was built at the mouth of a small tributary of the Severn Estuary near the mouth of the River Avon. The old pill or jetty provided protection for craft against the Bristol Channel's large tidal range, and iron rings can be seen in the high street at which fishing boats used to moor. Its position meant Portishead was used to guard the "King Road", as the waters around the headland are called. In 1497 it was the departure point for John Cabot on the Matthew. A fort was built on Battery Point, and was used during the English Civil War when the town supported the Royalists, but surrendered to Fairfax in 1645. Guns were also placed at Battery Point during World War II. The King Road was the site of a naval action in 1758 when HMS Antelope captured Belliqueux, one of a French squadron returning from Quebec. A mill was built on Welhay stream but this was replaced by tidal mills. In the 17th century the City of Bristol bought the manors of North Weston and Portishead for access to the channel and as a place to stay outside of the city and, in the 19th century, as a seaside resort. An outer sea wall was built, allowing the local marshes to be drained and increasing the land available for farming. The dominant architecture is early Victorian, with some buildings maintaining their original features. The expansion in residential property coincided with the construction of the dock, pier and the rail link to Bristol. The Royal Hotel by the pier was built in a Tudor Gothic style in 1830, to provide accommodation and catering for travellers on the steamers from Bristol, Wales and Ireland. ### Portishead dock The Act of Parliament governing the enclosure of Portishead was passed in 1814, and stipulated the right to a public wharf, although there is historical evidence of nautical connections dating back to the Patent Rolls of 1331. Around the 1860s, at the height of the iron and steel era, a pier and a deep-water dock were built by the Bristol & Portishead Pier and Railway to accommodate the large ships that had difficulty in reaching Bristol Harbour. They brought valuable cargoes from across the globe and exported local products overseas. Ships carrying coal were commonplace in Portishead Docks. In the 1880s Portishead Dock was acquired by Bristol Corporation, and was subsequently managed as part of the Port of Bristol until its closure. ### Portishead power stations The Portishead power stations were coal-fed power stations built next to the dock. Construction work started on Portishead "A" power station in 1926. It began generating electricity in 1929 for the Bristol Corporation's Electricity Department. In 1937 its original six short chimney stacks were replaced by a 350 ft (110 m) high stack. A second 350 ft (110 m) stack was added when the power station was expanded in 1948. Construction of Portishead "B" power station began in 1949; it became operational in 1955. The power stations became part of the nationalised electricity industry after 1949, and were operated in turn by the British Electricity Authority, the Central Electricity Authority and the CEGB. They used some local coal produced in the Somerset coalfield, which was delivered by train along the Portishead branch of the Great Western Railway (GWR). The line had opened on 12 April 1867 as the Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway Company; it opened to the dock on 5 July 1879. The main supply of coal was imported by boat from Newport and Ely in South Wales; it was carried by Osborn & Wallis of Bristol. ### Railways Portishead had two passenger stations on the GWR's Portishead branch line. The main station was near the centre of the village of Portishead, as it was then; the other was at the pier. The construction of Portishead "B" power station caused the original railway station to be demolished and a replacement station was opened in the High Street on 2 January 1954. The new station closed on 7 September 1964. The majority of the line was reopened in 2002, to transport goods from the Royal Portbury Dock. A new junction was created, 3 miles (5 km) from Portishead station, and a new goods line built from there to the Royal Portbury Dock. There is a campaign group aimed at reopening the station and the short stretch of unopened line. In 2009 a report by the Association of Train Operating Companies stated that the Portishead branch was a special case for future consideration for reopening due to the large projected increase in population and congestion in the area. Portishead also had a second, short-lived, railway line: the Weston, Clevedon and Portishead Railway. It ran between Weston-super-Mare and Clevedon as a standard railway line, and between Clevedon and Portishead as a light railway. The Clevedon to Portishead extension opened on 7 August 1907. The line closed on 19 May 1940 and was then dismantled by the GWR. ### Albright and Wilson In 1951, Albright and Wilson built a chemical works on the opposite side of the dock from the power stations. The chemical works produced white phosphorus from phosphate rock imported, through the docks, into the UK. Phosphate rock was stored in concrete silos on the dockside until it was required. Electricity provided by the local power stations was used to run six 7.5 megawatt electric arc furnaces (45 MW total) that reduced the phosphate rock. The phosphorus was then moved in sealed railway tanks to Oldbury and to Kirkby. After the closure of the factory the decontamination included the removal of yellow (spontaneously combustible) and red allotropes of phosphorus. The site is now home to Portishead volunteer coastguard. ### Closure of the dock and associated facilities The onset of new generating capacity at Pembroke (oil-fired) and Didcot (coal-fired) in the mid-1970s brought about the closure of the older, less efficient "A" Station. One generator (500 MW) of four at each of the new power stations had almost the same output of both Portishead Stations combined ("A" Station 200 MW, "B" Station 360 MW). The newer of the two power stations ("B" Station) was converted to burn oil when the Somerset coalfields closed. The two Radstock pits ceased production in September 1973 and the last train load of coal departed on 16 November 1973. The price of oil rose steeply in the 1970s (see 1973 oil crisis and 1979 oil crisis) and the two power stations were little used after these events. Portishead "A" power station was closed in 1976; and the first of its two chimney stacks, a landmark, was demolished in September 1981, followed by the second in August 1982. Portishead "B" power station closed in 1982 and both of its 383 feet (117 m) stacks were demolished in October 1992. Industrial activities ceased at the dock with the closure of the power stations. The Port of Bristol Authority finally closed the dock in 1992. ### Modern marina development Much of the growth of Portishead's population can be attributed to the development of the former docks. The former deep-water dock, used to supply coal and goods to the power stations, has been fully redeveloped into a modern marina with 250 pontoon berths. The areas on each side of the marina, formerly occupied by the two power stations and chemical plant, have been redeveloped to provide a wide range of housing, from town houses to social housing to exclusive flats. Development has also completed on the Portbury Ashlands to the east of the harbour (so-called because they were the dumping ground for power station waste) extending the area of the town further towards Portbury. Next to the Ashlands development lies Portbury Ashlands Nature Reserve. This waterfront development is known as Port Marine. The area has varied styles of houses and apartments, including an area built in the style of a fishing village, which is modelled on the Cornish seaside town of Polperro with narrow streets and multi-coloured properties. New waterside bars and restaurants, including Hall & Woodhouse, Aqua, Bottelinos, Costa Coffee have opened around the marina as well as a nearby Wetherspoons. At the top of the marina sits a new RNLI lifeboat station, opened in 2015 and run by around 40 local volunteer crew. An RNLI shop, open daily, is attached to the lifeboat station. ### Portishead Radio Portishead was previously the telephone control centre used by British Telecom (BT) for non-direct dialled calls to maritime vessels, a service known as "Portishead Radio". This has now been largely replaced by INMARSAT, which permits directly dialled calls made from any BT landline in the UK. The radio station had separate transmitting and receiving stations. They were constructed by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company and operated by the General Post Office (GPO). By 1936, the station had a staff of 60 radio officers who handled over 3 million words of radio traffic per year. Following the privatisation of the GPO's telephone network in 1981, the station was operated by British Telecommunications PLC (now known as BT Group PLC). The main transmitting station, which was remotely operated, originally consisted of a large array of radio masts at nearby Portishead Downs but was replaced by a single radio mast at Clevedon. It was used until the 1970s. The receiving station's control centre and radio masts were located at Highbridge, near Burnham-on-Sea. The radio station played a vital role during the Second World War in maintaining communications with the British merchant navy and with patrol aircraft in the North Atlantic. During the war, all communications with ships were one-way in order to avoid revealing the ships' locations to the enemy. The station was short-staffed because many were on secondments to various government services, such as operating other radio stations and training new radio officers to work in naval convoys. In 1943, the workload was so great that a Royal Navy officer and 18 telegraphists were brought in from HMS Flowerdown, a Naval Shore Wireless Service station near Winchester. By the end of the 1980s, satellite communications had started to take an increasing share of the station's business, and a programme of severe rationalisation began, leading to the closure of two transmitting sites at Leafield and Ongar. In the radio station's penultimate year to March 1999, there were on average, per month, 571 radio telegrams, 533 radio telephone calls and 4,001 radio telex calls. In 1998, British Telecom Maritime Radio Services announced its planned closure of Portishead Radio. The long-range services (HF bands 3–30 MHz) ceased at midnight on 31 August 1999. The short-range VHF maritime band services (156–174 MHz) closed at 12:00 on Sunday 30 April 2000, and the medium-range services (MF maritime band 1.6–3.0 MHz) at 12:00 on Friday 30 June. The station closed in April 2000. The Highbridge station has been demolished. Sedgemoor District Council adopted a local development plan in September 2004 that included the site of the receiving station for future housing development. Planning permission was granted in October 2007 for a development of 190 houses and flats on the site and shortly afterwards the old radio station buildings were demolished. ## Governance The town is the larger area served by the town council of Portishead. The council is made up of 18 councillors representing six wards: Portishead Central, Portishead Coast, Portishead East, Portishead South & North Weston, Portishead Redcliffe Bay, and Portishead West. It has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The town council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The town council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, such as the village hall or community centre, playing fields and playgrounds, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also of interest to the council. The town falls within the unitary authority of North Somerset, although the area below high-water mark, including the pier, is within Bristol. Before 1974, the parish was part of the Long Ashton Rural District. The police service is provided by Avon and Somerset Constabulary. Avon Fire and Rescue Service has a fire station in Portishead staffed by retained firefighters, equipped with two water tenders each holding 1,800 litres. The South Western Ambulance Service has responsibility for the area. The parish is part of the North Somerset county constituency of the House of Commons. It has been represented since 1992 by Liam Fox, a member of the Conservative Party, who was Secretary of State for Defence and Secretary of State for International Trade. Six electoral wards exist in Portishead. Their areas and total populations are the same as quoted above. Prior to Brexit in 2020, it was in the South West England constituency of the European Parliament. ## Geography ### Physical geography Portishead is a coastal town on the Severn Estuary. It lies north east of Clevedon and immediately south west of Avonmouth just across the River Avon, which forms the boundary between Somerset and Bristol. The city of Bristol is 6 miles (9.7 km) to the east and Portishead is approximately 110 miles (180 km) west of London. On clear days, Wales can be seen across the Severn Estuary from the town. The Eastwood area has been designated as a local nature reserve. It consists broadleaf woodland on a coastal limestone ridge which leads to Battery Point which had a defensive gun position and Portishead Point Lighthouse is on the promontory. There is also geological interest in the fossils, folds and faults found in the area. The area immediately inland includes the Gordano Valley, which has been designated as a national nature reserve. The valley runs roughly north-east to south-west, between Carboniferous limestone ridges extending along the coastline between Clevedon and Portishead, and another ridge extending between Clevedon and Easton in Gordano. The area includes the villages of Clapton in Gordano, Weston in Gordano, Easton in Gordano, Walton in Gordano, Portbury and Sheepway. The M5 motorway runs along the south side of the valley, splitting briefly into two levels – the south-west-bound level running above the north-east-bound carriageway. The Gordano motorway service station is at the eastern end of the valley, near the Royal Portbury Dock and the Avonmouth Bridge. There is no river Gordano – much of the valley is reclaimed land barely above sea level, drained by ditches (known locally as "rhynes"). The rhynes previously managed by the now amalgamated Gordano Valley Internal Drainage Board are now the responsibility of the North Somerset Internal Drainage Board. An area comprising a total of 400 acres (160 ha) has been designated as a biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest, for ornithological, entomological and stratigraphic interest, notification originally having taken place in 1971. Several sites in the valley are managed by the Avon Wildlife Trust as nature reserves. These include Weston Big Wood, Clapton Moor, Weston Moor and Walton Common. The name Gordano comes from Old English and is descriptive of the triangular shape of the whole valley from Clevedon to Portishead, being the ablative singular of the Latinised form of Gorden meaning muddy valley. Denny Island is a small rocky island of 0.6 acres (0.2 ha), with scrub vegetation, approximately three miles north of Portishead. Its rocky southern foreshore marks the boundary between England and Wales, but the island itself is reckoned administratively to Monmouthshire, Wales. The tidal rise and fall in the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel can be as great as 49 ft (15 m), second only to Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada. There has been concern about pollution levels from industrial areas in Wales and at the eastern end of the Bristol Channel; however, this tends to be diluted by the Atlantic waters. There are measurable levels of chemical pollutants, but little is known about their effects. Of particular concern are the levels of cadmium and to a lesser degree residual pesticides and hydrocarbons. Portishead Pier to Black Nore SSSI is a 177-acre (72 ha) geological Site of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1952. The Portishead Pier Section is made up of alluvial sandstones, the best exposure of Upper Carboniferous rocks in the Avonmouth Coalfield. The cliff and foreshore exposures around Portishead Point provide important exposures of geological structures formed during the Variscan mountain building episode in the Carboniferous Period of geological history. Also included are important exposures of the Devonian sequence that yield several species of fossil fish. Holoptychius scales are the most abundant fossils, but teeth scales of other species are also relatively common. Notably amongst the collection from this bed are plates of arthrodires, including Groenlandaspis. Eastwood and Battery Point Local Nature Reserve is a 9 hectares (22 acres) woodland containing Yew, Maple, Dogs mercury and beech. The Lake Grounds area, built in the early 20th century around an artificial lake, is the town's main park. Adjacent to the beach and esplanade is a 100-year-old artificial lake, and a cricket pitch surrounded by sloping lawns interspersed with specimen trees. One of the UK's few surviving outdoor swimming pools is situated on the shore next to the lake grounds and is open during the summer months. In 2009, the outdoor pool was renovated by a team filming for the American TV programme Ty's Great British Adventure. Above the lake grounds is Battery Point, where a gun battery was sited to protect the Severn Estuary from invasion. ### Climate Along with the rest of South West England, Portishead has a temperate climate generally wetter and milder than the rest of England. The annual mean temperature is about 10 °C (50 °F) with seasonal and diurnal variations, but the modifying effect of the sea restricts the range to less than that in most other parts of the United Kingdom. January is the coldest month, with mean minimum temperatures between 1 °C (34 °F) and 2 °C (36 °F). July and August are the warmest, with mean daily maxima around 21 °C (70 °F). In general, December is the dullest month and June the sunniest. The south-west of England enjoys a favoured location, particularly in summer, when the Azores High extends its influence north-eastwards towards the UK. Cloud often forms inland, especially near hills, and reduces exposure to sunshine. The average annual sunshine is about 1,600 hours. Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. In summer, convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year. Average rainfall is around 800–900 mm (31–35 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, with June to August having the lightest; the prevailing wind direction is from the south-west. ## Demography Portishead had a population of 22,000 in 2016, an increase of over 3,000 since the figure of 17,130 recorded in the 2001 census, with a growth rate of 40 per cent; which is considerably in excess of surrounding towns. As the result of a house-building programme, a further 8,000 people are expected to settle in the area by 2026, making Portishead one of the largest towns in North Somerset. ## Economy Local employers include the Avon and Somerset Constabulary (which has its headquarters on the western edge of the town), Gordano School, and numerous care homes for the elderly, as well as a retail complex. The Victorian High Street has retained a number of local shops, such as Morgan-Westley, The Outlet, Careys DIY and Zebra; despite some larger DIY chains and supermarkets being built—Homebase, Argos, Waitrose, New Look, Peacocks and Pets at Home. In January 2010, Sainsbury's applied for planning permission to build a new store, soon followed by Lidl, Travelodge and Subway. All of these new stores have now been built. More retailers moved into the area in 2015, such as Wetherspoons, Costa Coffee, Aldi (to occupy the former Co-op premises), Majestic Wine and Home Bargains. ## Landmarks Court House Farmhouse dates from the medieval period but was remodelled in the 17th and 19th centuries. The Grade II\* listed building is owned by Bristol City Council and in 2010 protests from local residents attempted to stop its sale. The red brick National Nautical School was built by Edward Gabriel in 1905, at a cost of £30,000. Previously it had been based on the training ship HMS Formidable and operated until 1983. It is now part of a private gated community known as Fedden Village. The remains of a former windmill, built in 1832 but disused since 1846, were rebuilt into a two-storey house and then, in 1908, incorporated into a golf club house. The building has since been converted into a pub. A small, disused, black village pump remains in Portishead with a strapped down handle. The 9-metre (30 ft) high Portishead Point Lighthouse was built at Battery Point in March 1931 by the Chance Brothers of Smethwick. The lighthouse is currently maintained by the Bristol Port Company. Black Nore Lighthouse was built in 1894, and was electrified in World War II. In October 2011, after it was no longer needed for navigational purposes, it was sold to a trust for preservation at a cost of £1. The Royal Hotel in the area of Woodhill was designed and built to serve Brunel's railway line which finished a few steps away from the Hotel. The original building survives as The Royal Inn pub. It was built in 1830 by the Corporation of Bristol (now known as Bristol City Council) in order to provide a hotel supporting the development of the seaside resort. It is thought to be the only seaside hotel to be built by a public authority during the nineteenth century. It is a Grade II listed building. The Royal closed during the latter half of 2022 for upgrades and building works. It is set to reopen in the summer of 2023 as a hotel once more. ## Transport Transport links to Bristol and beyond have been a concern for some residents of the town and a group has been set up to campaign for the reopening of the Portishead to Bristol railway line. The cost has been estimated at £28 million, and feasibility plans are being considered. The main A369 road — known after the historical name for the area as "The Portbury Hundred", which links the town to the nearby M5 motorway — is prone to congestion, especially during rush hours. Major traffic-flow modifications have caused much controversy because they are widely seen as having caused queuing where none existed before. More than 4,000 residents signed a petition to North Somerset Council expressing concern at the development. In September 2009 a trial was undertaken to turn off traffic lights in Portishead. It was conducted in association with North Somerset Council, Martin Cassini and Colin Buchanan. The change was made permanent after some journey times reportedly fell by over 50% with no measured reduction in pedestrian safety, despite greater numbers now using the route (over 2,000 vehicles and 300 pedestrians an hour). Portishead is served by bus routes, including a half-hourly service to Bristol; as well as local buses to Nailsea and Weston-super-Mare. The WESTlink on-demand bus serves the town. A lifeboat service has been operated by the Portishead Lifeboat Trust since 1996, but in 2015 this transferred to a new RNLI lifeboat station adjacent to the pier. ## Education The Unitary Authority of North Somerset provides support for 78 schools, delivering education to approximately 28,000 pupils. Infant and primary schools in Portishead include: High Down Infant and Junior, Portishead Primary, St. Joseph's Catholic Primary, St. Peter's C of E Primary and Trinity Anglican Methodist Primary School. Secondary education is provided by Gordano School. In 1999, the school was awarded Specialist Schools Technology College status (see awards). Gordano School enrolls approximately 1,800 students annually, ages 11–19. The official opening took place on 12 July 1957. The school had cost £146,000 and still needed work to the playing fields. By September of that year, pupil numbers had increased to 500 and councillors were demanding more classrooms. The increase was attributed to the "post-war bulge". In September 1975, £209,000 was allocated for new buildings. Gordano was named the "Big Experiment" as it became Somerset's first comprehensive school, with 900 students and 30 teachers. The education department forecast the school numbers would treble by 1975. In 1994, an astroturf sports playing surface was laid at a cost of £260,000. Numbers had grown to 1,589 students and 88 teachers. In 2009 the school was awarded academy status. Much redevelopment of the site has since occurred - these include a new specialised sixth-form center, an English block, a new maths building as well as extensions to the Science, Creative Arts and Design and Technology Buildings. Most recently there has been a new sports hall opened this includes a new gym and indoor sports facilities. As of 1 September 2016 High Down Infant and Junior Schools, Gordano School, Portishead Primary School and St. Peter's C of E Primary School in the town, and St. Mary's in nearby Portbury formed a Multi Academy Trust (MAT) called The Lighthouse Partnership. Trinity Anglican Methodist School has become part of the Bath & Wells Multi Academy Trust. ## Religious sites The Norman Church of St Peter (shown right) was built in 1320 and rebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries in the Perpendicular Gothic style. In 1952 it was made a Grade I listed building. The four-stage tower is a prominent landmark, with set back buttresses and a pierced parapet. The church was altered in 1978–1979 and has a new garden developed for the Millennium. The Chapel of Portishead National Nautical School (now The Fedden Village) on Nore Road dates back to 1911. It is dedicated to St. Nicholas and is also a listed building. There is also a thriving URC church which dates from 6 March 1840. One of the early benefactors was Henry Overton Wills of the Wills tobacco family, who were staunch Congregationalists. ## Sport Portishead has a sports and leisure complex, which was partly funded by the National Lottery as well as by funds from the Town Council and North Somerset Council. It houses a large swimming pool, leisure and play pools, indoor bowls, six badminton courts, a gymnasium, a fun room for toddlers, a cafeteria and a licensed bar. Other sporting facilities in the town include open-air tennis courts, a large outdoor swimming-pool opened in 1962 (and renovated in 2009), a boating lake, cricket ground, football and hockey pitches as well as many cycle lanes. The cricket club dates back to the 19th century. Portishead Town F.C. played in small regional leagues for years until joining the Somerset County League in 1975. They won the Premier Division title four times in five years between 1993–94 and 1997–98. After their fourth successive runner-up campaign in the 2004–05 season, Portishead successfully applied for promotion to the Western League. In Portishead's first season of Western League football they finished in the top half of the table only to better their performance the following season. In 2006–07 Portishead achieved their highest ever finish in the history of the club, finishing runners-up to Truro City. ## Culture The Bristol-based trip hop group Portishead took their name from the town, despite describing it as their "dreary home-town". Chaos UK is a punk band that was formed in Portishead in 1979. The town was also the birthplace of leading Scrumpy and Western singer Adge Cutler. There are various groups and societies in the town, including the Gordano society that is involved in history, conservation, environment, planning and wildlife issues; a horticultural society; and the Portishead Railway Group that is campaigning for the Portishead to Bristol railway line to be re-opened. There are also church and youth organisations such as the Portishead Youth Club - a choral society, which was formed in 1955 - and an annual carnival. A public art programme started in 1999 from the marina development, as part of a planning agreement between the developers (Crest Nicholson and Persimmon Homes) and North Somerset Council. An art trail takes in 28 public art works around the marina and Ashlands development. ## Twinned towns In 1989 the town twinned with Den Dungen, a small town of approximately 6,000 inhabitants about 3 miles (4.8 km) from the city of 's-Hertogenbosch, capital of the Province of North Brabant in the Netherlands. Den Dungen was a separate municipality until 1996, when it was merged with Sint-Michielsgestel. In 1992 a further twinning arrangement was made with Schweich, the principal town in a municipality of some 20,000 people, 6 miles (9.7 km) from the Roman city of Trier. This municipality is in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the river Moselle, about 6 miles (9.7 km) northeast of Trier. Schweich is the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde ("collective municipality") Schweich an der Römischen Weinstraße. ## Notable people - Johnny Briggs, actor - George Wightwick, architect - Adge Cutler, popular singer - Eddie Large, comedian - Carol Vorderman, TV presenter - Chris Harris, pantomime dame, director and writer - Frederick Weatherly, song lyricist who wrote the words to "Danny Boy" and "Roses of Picardy" - Imogen Cairns, Olympic Gymnast - Geoff Barrow, member of the band Portishead, moved to the town with his mother when his parents separated.
2,224,059	Battle of Longue-Pointe	1,153,162,251	Battle of the American Revolutionary War	[ "1775 in the Province of Quebec (1763–1791)", "Battles involving Canada", "Battles involving Great Britain", "Battles involving the United States", "Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Canada", "Battles of the Canadian campaign", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in Quebec", "History of Montreal" ]	The Battle of Longue-Pointe (French: Bataille de Longue-Pointe) was an attempt by Ethan Allen and a small force of American and Quebec militia to capture Montreal from British forces on September 25, 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War. Allen, who had been instructed only to raise militia forces among the local inhabitants, had long had thoughts of taking the lightly defended city. When he reached the southern shore of the St. Lawrence River with about 110 men, he seized the opportunity to try. Major John Brown, whom Allen claimed was supposed to provide additional forces, did not appear as they had planned, isolating Allen and his men on the north side of the river. British General Guy Carleton sent a force composed mostly of Quebec militia in response to news of Allen's crossing of the St. Lawrence. This force cut off Allen's escape route, and eventually surrounded and captured Allen and a number of his men. Carleton eventually abandoned Montreal, which fell without battle to Continental Army forces on November 13. Allen was sent first to England and then New York City as a prisoner, and was eventually exchanged in 1778. ## Background In the 18th century, the city of Montreal occupied only a small portion of the island of Montreal, centered on what is now called Old Montreal. The eastern tip of the island was called Longue-Pointe, and there was at one time a fortification called Fort Longue Pointe on the island, across the river from Longueuil. This area, annexed to Montreal in 1910, and now the Mercier-Est neighborhood of Mercier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, a borough of the city, is near where the action described here took place. With the American Revolutionary War beginning, many thought it would be easy to spread the rebellion to the Province of Quebec, which had only been conquered by the British in 1759, and whose population was seen as resentful of British rule. The American invasion of Quebec began with the arrival at Île aux Noix of the Continental Army under the command of General Philip Schuyler on September 4, 1775. Schuyler, who was ill at the time, eventually turned command of the army over to General Richard Montgomery, who ordered the army to besiege Fort Saint-Jean, which they did on September 18. At this fort, south of Montreal on the Richelieu River, General Guy Carleton had concentrated the few British regulars at his disposal following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May. ### American situation Before turning command over to Montgomery, Schuyler drafted a proclamation addressed to the people of Quebec, encouraging them to oppose the British and assist the American cause. On September 8 Ethan Allen and Major John Brown went into the countryside between Saint-Jean and Montreal with a small detachment of Americans to circulate this proclamation, meeting with James Livingston, a Patriot sympathizer at Chambly as well as with the local Caughnawaga Mohawk. Livingston eventually raised about 300 local militia, which he encamped at Pointe-Olivier, below Fort Chambly. Allen and Brown returned to Île aux Noix following this tour. Allen had long harboured the goal of taking Montreal. After he and Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, he had taken a few hundred men north from Ticonderoga to Saint-Jean with the idea of capturing the fort there by surprise, and then taking Montreal. This effort was frustrated by the timely arrival of British troops at Saint-Jean; the exploit made Allen a well-known figure in Montreal and the Richelieu valley. ### Montreal situation Following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, General Carleton, with only 800 regular troops available to defend the entire province, had concentrated those troops at Fort Saint-Jean, placing about 500 troops, along with about 250 militia and natives, at the fort. The remaining forces were distributed among the frontier forts along the Great Lakes, with relatively small garrisons at Montreal, Trois-Rivières, and Quebec City. During the summer of 1775 he attempted to raise substantial additional militia forces from the population. These attempts met with limited success, in part because of successful American propaganda and agitation by Patriot sympathizers, especially Thomas Walker, James Price, and James Livingston. By July, Carleton was apparently satisfied with the level of militia support near Montreal, but he did little to stop the activities of the agitators, who also sent reports detailing British military preparations to the Americans. ## Prelude When Montgomery finally began the siege of Fort Saint-Jean, he ordered Allen and about 30 Americans to join with Livingston's Canadians to secure the south bank of the St. Lawrence River against attempts by Carleton in Montreal to relieve the siege. He also ordered a larger force under Brown's command to secure the area north of the fort, and to cover the road between Saint-Jean and Montreal. Allen traveled along the southeastern banks of the Richelieu River, up to Sorel, where he crossed that river and continued up the southern shore of the St. Lawrence to Longueuil. According to Allen's account, he met Brown there, and the two of them then hatched a plan to attack Montreal. Brown would cross the river with 200 men at La Prairie, upriver from Montreal, and Allen, with his Americans and 80 Canadians under the command of Loiseau and Duggan, two of Livingston's captains, would cross the river at Longueuil, below the city, and the two forces would, after a prearranged signal, converge on the city itself. ## Action Allen and his men crossed the St. Lawrence on the night of the 24th, landing at Longue-Pointe. The inhabitants he met there were friendly, but he posted guards on the road to Montreal to prevent news of their crossing from reaching the city. However, one man they detained managed to escape to the city and inform Carleton of Allen's presence on the island. Brown did not cross the river. While no sources indicate why Brown failed to act, historian Justin Smith suggests that Allen in fact acted alone, and only later sought to blame Brown for the endeavour's failure. This left Allen's force alone and vulnerable, as it had taken three round trips with the available boats to ferry his men across the river. Realizing he would not be able ferry everyone back across the river before troops arrived from the city, Allen chose a wooded area near the Ruisseau-des-Sœurs (labelled on the map above as Ruisseau de la G<sup>de</sup> Prairie), between Longue-Pointe and Montreal, to make a stand. He also sent word to Thomas Walker, a British merchant and known Patriot sympathizer with a house in nearby L'Assomption, for assistance. Walker was able to muster some men, but Allen was captured before they could lend any assistance. When General Carleton received word that the notorious Ethan Allen was at the gates of the city, he raised the alarm. As the news spread, large numbers of people turned out. Captain John Campbell assembled a force of 34 regulars from the 26th Foot (the entire garrison in Montreal), 120 Canadien and 80 English militia, 20 British Indian agents, and a few Indians, and led them out to face Allen's force. As Campbell's force approached, Allen instructed 10 Canadians to cover his left flank, while Duggan and another 50 Canadians were placed on the right flank. Both of these detachments fled instead of holding their positions, leaving Allen with about 50 men. Over the course of the next 90 minutes, fire was exchanged between the forces. Allen's remaining forces were eventually broken, and, after trying to outrun the enemy, he surrendered. ## Aftermath The abortive attack on Montreal led to the full mobilization of local militia in Montreal, raising nearly 1,000 men, but they soon began to drift away. Carleton refused to organize an expedition in relief of Fort Saint-Jean, and the militia members from rural parishes eventually disbanded to attend to their harvests and the defense of their own homes. In November, the besieged fort's commander capitulated, opening the Americans' way to Montreal. Carleton fled the city, making his way to Quebec City, and Montgomery occupied Montreal without firing a shot on November 13. Allen and the other captives were brought to the city. Allen, in his account of the encounter, claims that Colonel Richard Prescott was intent on killing the captured Canadiens, but Allen interceded on their behalf, saying "I am the sole cause of their taking up arms." Allen was imprisoned in a ship's hold, and eventually sent to England. He spent about a year, mostly on prison ships, before he was released on parole in British-occupied New York City in November 1776, as the British authorities feared hanging him would create a martyr. He was eventually exchanged in May 1778 for Archibald Campbell, a British officer, and resumed military and political service for the nascent Republic of Vermont in 1778. Thomas Walker, the merchant to whom Allen had applied for assistance, was arrested in early October 1775 when twenty regulars and a dozen militia came from Montreal to his house in L'Assomption. Walker's house was destroyed, and he was imprisoned with the intent of sending him to England for trial. Walker was eventually freed when the Americans captured Montreal and most of the British fleet trying to escape the city. ## Legacy Ethan Allen wrote a memoir recounting his version of the circumstances of his capture, and the time of his imprisonment. This work, along with Allen's other memoirs, were quite popular in the 19th century, going through numerous printings. A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, where the action took place, is called Parc de la Capture-d'Ethan-Allen.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.